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THE PHILIPPINE 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 


EDITED BY 


PYNOIL, (Ch IRIDNOIS, Wil, IDS Ietat, 1D): 


WITH THE COOPERATION OF 
DEAN ©. WORCESTER, A. B.; MERTON L. MILLER, Pu. D. 
LAWRENCE FE. GRIFFIN, Pu. D.; CHARLES S. BANKS, M. S. 


_ ALVIN SEALE, A. B.; RICHARD C. McGREGOR, A. B. 
NELLIE LOUISE COOK, B. L., M. A. 


PUBLISHED BY 


THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE 


OF THE 


GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


D. GENERAL BIOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY AND 
ANTHROPOLOGY 


VOLUME VI 
1911 


WITH 85 PLATES AND 27 TEXT FIGURES 


MANILA 
BUREAU OF PRINTING 
1911 


2Z210Q4 


~ 


a Addie ap 


ss 
Ey 


CONTENTS. 


No. 1, February, 1911. 


Page. 
I. Miller, Merton L. The Burial Mounds of Camiguin Island............ oi 
Plates I to V. 
ll. Bean, Robert Bennett, and Planta, Federico S. The Men of Cainta.. 7 
Plate I. 
III. Strohmeyer, H. Borkenkiifer der Philippinen.................2.002220-..-.... 17 
Tafel I. Textfiguren 1 bis 8. 
TY. Curl, Holton C. Notes on the Digestive System of Hydrocorax........ 31 


Plates IT and Il. Text figure 1. 
V. McGregor, Richard C. Notes on a Collection of Birds from North- 
Gi INEEIOES! deo: ceneeeeeoatenlsteeseceretcen scar epee ewer heer nee -eneee see cace: aes. se Severecet 39 
VI. Scheerer, Otto. On a Quinary Notation among the Ilongots of 
TS (©THE GHEY DUELS a a se SecA REE ROR Se Be oe 4 
WALES “TRENT ARE oc peer Bee See re eee pf cig sae deacoacocmneaoee HaSGOne RLENRCSNELSEREE 51 


No. 2, April, 1911. 


VIII. Douvillé, Henri. Les Foraminiféres dans le Tertiaire des Philip- 
OPUS cel ee rn oe 53 
Planches A aD. Figures dans le texte 1 a 9. 
IX. Barton, Roy Franklin. The Harvest Feast of the Kiangan Ifugao. 81 
Plates I to VIII. 
X. Bean, Robert Bennett. Filipino Ears: III. Negrito.. 107 
Plates A and I to XVII. 


No. 3, June, 1911. 


XI. Cole, Fay Cooper. The Bagobos of Davao Gulf... 127 
Plates I to IV. 


XII. Shufeldt, R. W. The Skeleton in the Flying Lemurs, Galeopteride.. 139 
Plates A and I and II. 


No. 4, August, 1911. 


XIII. Worcester, Dean C. Newly Discovered Breeding Places of Philip- 


ime Seay Bird Shes ce ee a accel cat sa teesteeee Rotate rattan te 167 
Plates I to VIII. i 
SV. Worcester, Dean C. Hybridism among Boobies...................-------------- 179 
Plate I. 
XV. McGregor, Richard C. Record of a Pufiinus New to Philippine 
Waters and Description of a New Species of Micranous...............-..- 183 


XVI. Shufeldt, R. W. The Skeleton in the Flying Lemurs, Galeopteride.. 185 
Plates III to V. 
XVII. Pearse, A. S. On the Habits of Thalassina anomala (Herbst)... 213 
Plate I. Text figures 1 and 2. 
XVIII. Pearse, A. S. Concerning the Development of Frog Tadpoles in Sea 
Water 
XIX. Reviews 


IV 


XXI. 


XXID- 


XXIII. 


XXIV. 


XXV. 


XXVI. 
XXVII. 


CONTENTS. 


No. 5, November, 1911. 


. Beyer, H. Otley, and Barton, Roy Franklin. An Ifugao Burial 


Gerri niyo 22 ck are eee ees eae aaa ca asm aoe 
Plates I to X. 


Griffin, Lawrence Edmonds. ‘ A Check-List and Key of Philippine 


Snakes —........... aN E SPe ec 3c SPR...) 3s Le eat te ee 
Text figures 1 and 2. ; 
TRGVil GW aeeers eres tS 7 ee ee enc = Seve 


No. 6, December, 1911. 


Seale, Alvin. The Fishery Resources of the Philippine Islands, 
Part IV, Miscellaneous Marine Products..............-....2.-2.2----2------2-0--- 
Plates I to XII. 
Miller, Merton L. The Non-Christian People of Ambos Camarines.. 
Plates I to IV. 
Griffin, Lawrence E. The Structure of the Pallial Tentacles of 
Lima Species Ee eS 
Text figures 1 to 4. 


Moser, J. Beitrag zur Coleopteren Fauna der Philippinen............ 
U6 (Sy: Pine eee ee ae eee ee eae or ee MES 2 2 


‘Vou. VI FEBRUARY, 1911 No. 1 


THE PHILIPPINE 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 


EDITED BY 
PAUL C. FREER, M. D., Pu. D. 
WITH THE COOPERATION OF | 


DEAN C. WORCESTER, A. B.; MERTON L. MILLER, Pu. D. 
LAWRENCE E. GRIFFIN, Pu. D.; CHARLES S. BANKS, M. S: 
ALVIN SEALE, A. B.; RICHARD C. McGREGOR, A. B.. 
“NELLIE LOUISE COOK, B. L., M. A. 


PUBLISHED BY 
THE BUREAU OF SCIENCE 
OF THE 


GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


D. GENERAL BIOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY AND 
ANTHROPOLOGY 


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JUN 14 Yona 


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1911 


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“order No, 405, Mi 


STUDIES IN MORO HISTORY, aa AND RELIGION. 


By Nasees M. Sata 
107 pages. 16 illustrations. 5 diagrams. 


A treatise on ine history and customs of the Moro People. 
Price $0.25, United States currency, postpaid. 


ae Order: No, 406, 
THE HISTORY OF SULU. , tf 


By NaAgEEB M. SALEERY. 


A complete History of the Moro People in Sulu, with maps and many 


translations from the original documents. 


Price $0.75, United States currency, postpaid. 


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This, together with the History of Sulu and the Studies in Moro 
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ME FEBRUARY, 1911 No. 1 
THE BURIAL MOUNDS OF CAMIGUIN ISLAND. 


By Merton L. Mixxer. 
_ (From the Division of Ethnology, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. T.) 


Island of Camiguin lies north of the northern end of Luzon, about 
meters distant from Aparri. It is approximately 20 kilometers in 
e length and 12 kilometers in extreme width. 

the time of my arrival on the island, April 17, 1910, there was a 
ulation of 90 souls. During my stay of six weeks 30 people arrived 
from Dalupiri and other neighboring islands with the intention of remain- 
ing on Camiguin. Tradition says that there was formerly on the island 
a population of several thousand, but that the greater part of the people 
d of cholera between twenty and thirty years ago. 
Camiguin is almost entirely covered with forests. If there formerly 
a numerous population on it, the clearings which would have been 
de have hecome reforested, unless there is some open country of which 


ivee individuals who have come from the Batanes Islands. Some 
ocanos were born on Camiguin and some came from the [locos 
from the Cagayan Valley. I can not say what the pro- 
f native born to immigrants. All the people live within a 


9 MILLER. 


valley to the south of Cadadalman, but the majority are at Malatubat, a 
comparatively large valley which opens out on the other side of a rocky 
point, north of Cadadalman. 

The extinct voleano, known to the natives as Dakelabalai, rises at the 
extreme southeastern point of Camiguin. There are several places with 
an area of from 10 to 20 hectares on the southwestern slope of this moun- 
tain where there is no vegetation and where there are many openings in 
the ground which emit sulphurous fumes. On these bare places and on 
grassy spots just beyond them are numerous artificial heaps of ‘stones. 
Captain Mitchell, of the Signal Corps of the United States Army, was 
on Camiguin in the latter part of 1909. He was much interested in 
these stone piles and opened two or three of them. In the center of each 
he found a large earthenware jar. 

My visit to Camiguin was for the purpose of discovering some clue to 
the people who buried these jars. The stone piles were found to be’ from 
15 to 3 meters in diameter and were made up of stones ranging in size 
from a few centimeters to 50 centimeters in diameter. The mounds 
rose from 50 to 80 centimeters above the general surface of the ground. 

The stones in some cases covered a mound of loose, brown earth mixed 
with loose stones, in others, a mixture of sulphur and clay, either in the 
form of a powder, or consolidated into rock, probably by the deposition of 
sulphur. In the center of each was an earthenware jar. The greater 
number of these jars were broken, usually so badly that they could not 
be taken out. The earth im which many of them were embedded was 
moist and the jars, which appeared to have been poorly baked, were in 
consequence easily destroyed. ‘They hardened on drying in the air. 
Those which were embedded im the hardened sulphurous mass in some 
cases were broken, in others they could not be removed without breaking, 
while in a few instances it was possible to get them out. A few jars had 
an inner coating of very delicate crystals of sulphur. 

The vessels varied in size from 20 to 60 centimeters in diameter, and 
in height from 20 to 80 centimeters. Some of them had mouths but 
little narrower than the greatest width of the jar, while others had small 
openings, not more than 15 centimeters in diameter. All had originally 
a ‘cover of some kind over the opening, either an inverted jar or a true 
cover. Only in the case of one small vessel did I find the cover unbroken, 
so that I could determine its form. This cover was of almost the same 
shape as the jar below. ‘The fragments which I found led me to infer that 
some of the covers had extended about halfway down the side of the body 
of the jar, being in reality inverted jars; others seemed to have covered 
the opening of the vessel and to haye extended but a short distance beyond 
the edges. 

-There can be no doubt that these jars were used for containing the 
bones of the dead. The merest fragments of bones were found in two 


BURIAL MOUNDS OF CAMIGUIN ISLAND. 3 


of them, but they were too small to determine what bones they were; a 
third jar contained a small piece of one of the bones of the skull. In one 
of the jars were found a few common, pale blue, glass beads together 
with a piece of dark brown, loosely woven, coarse fabric, which fell to 
pieces at a touch of the hand. In another jar a few more blue beads of 
the same kind were seen together with a black, sticky mass which had a 
yery unpleasant odor. 

I found it almost impossible to secure any information on the island 
about the customs of former times, because the people native to Camiguin 
had all died and the few old people still living had come over from Luzon 
or from other islands in recent years. he only statement as to the use 
of these jars which I could secure was from a young man who told me 
that he had heard an old man say that they formerly buried the dead in 
earthenware vessels, cutting the legs of the corpse at the kmees so as to 
make it possible, by doubling the legs, to put the entire body into a jar. 
While this may have been one practice followed, it could not have been the 
only method of burial, because many of the jars had openings too small to 
admit the body even of a young child. Of course, it is possible that two 
methods of burial might have been followed at the same time, one, that 
of putting the dead body in a jar, and the other, that of placing the bones 
only in the vessel after the flesh had either been removed or allowed to 
decay. The presence of the black, sticky mass and the beads in one jar 
and of the piece of fabric and beads in another would seem to argue for 
the first method, and the small openings in many of the jars are certainly 
an argument for the second method. 

I made inquiries of many people as to the existence of similar heaps of 
stones in other parts of the island, but I could learn of none excepting a 
few on the other side—northeast—of the volcano from those already de- 
scribed. These I visited and examined. They were found to be of the 

- same general style as those to the southwest of the volcano. I was told 
that at the extreme northern end of the island similar mounds were to be 
found. However, when I arrived there the guide pointed out certain 
heaps of stones which on examination proved to be natural outcrops of 
rock. I believe from what I learned after leaving Camiguin that possibly 
there are other burial mounds on the island besides those which I saw. 

J do not see that there is any reason for concluding that these burials 
were made by any other people than Filipinos who formerly inhabited 
Camiguin. Cave burials have been found on at least one island off the 
northeast coast of Surigao, and others have recently been reported from 
the Island of Bohol. Burial jars containing bones have also been found 
in the vicinity of Dapitan, Mindanao. 

However, perhaps the most interesting fact in this connection is that 
I was told that jars similar to these on Camiguin are to be found on 
Calayan, an island northwest of Camiguin. An old woman who has 


4 : MILLER. 


lived on Camiguin for the past five years told me that formerly she lived 
on Calayan and that jars like those found on Camiguin were also found 
buried on the latter island, but she did not know what purpose they had 
served nor why they had been buried. 

Tt is to be hoped that some day evidence will be found which will give 
a clue to the time when the dead in the Philippines were buried in jars 
and in caves. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Prare J. Dakelabalai Mountain with burial sites in the foreground. 
IJ. Burial mounds near sulphur fumaroles. 
III. Burial mound. 
TV. Burial mound. 
V. Fig. 1. Partly excavated jar buried in a mixture of clay and sulphur. 
2. Partly excavated jar buried in a mixture of clay and sulphur. 
5 


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MILLER: BURIAL MOUNDS OF CAMIGUIN ISLAND.] [PHIL. JOURN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 1. 


PLATE v. 


THe PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No, 1, February, 1911. 


THE MEN OF CAINTA. 


By Roserr Bennerr Bean and Freperico 8. PLANnra. 


(Prom the Anatomical Laboratory, Philippine Medical School, Manila, P. I.) 


The town of Cainta, a stone’s throw from Taytay near the Lake of 
Bay (Laguna de Bay), is of considerable historic interest because of the 
many bloody battles fought in its vicinity between the Spaniards and 
the natives, the Chinese and the natives, and the Spaniards and. the 
Chinese. It is of great interest to the anthropologist because it presents 
a body of people different from. the surrounding population. 


Cainta was founded before the Spaniards came to the Islands, according to a 
statement in a history of the Philippines by Jose Montero y Vidal, who, in the 
first volume, page 41, affirms that Capitan Juan Salcedo, one of the first 
Spanish conquerors who came to the Philippines, having in 1571 subdued the 
natives of Cainta and Taytay first, went to the Lake (La Laguna), pacifying 
many towns. 

There seem to be no data concerning the origin of the inhabitants of Cainta, 
but one of two suppositions is plausible. Hither they are derived from settlers 
of East Indian origin who arrived before the Spaniards, or else they represent 
the descendants of a British regiment of Hast Indian troops who remained 
when the British evacuated the Philippines in 1763. The history of P. Murillo, 
written in 1752, volume 7, page 33, speaks of some of the inhabitants of the 
Philippines, when the Spaniards arrived, as black people, called for politeness’ 
sake Creoles (Qriollas or Morenos), who were characterized as very active 
politically. Murillo believed that these people came from Malabar or Coro- 
mandel, belonging to the British, and they were probably of East Indian origin. 

P. Juan de Salcedo, in his history, page 264, speaking of those Morenos or 
Criollas, says that they have long, straight hair, long noses, and wide open eyes. 
He speaks further of some similar people from Malabar that he had known in 
Manila, who married and settled nearby in Santo Tomas and at times came to 
Manila on business. He also says that if they were not known as natives of 
the Philippines they might be regarded as Huropeans, except for their dark 
skins. . 

P. Martinez asserts in his Estadimos de Filipinas, page 264, that at the 
beginning of the conquest of the Philippine Islands by the Spaniards there 
came Moors from Hindustan trading with the natives. 


From these statements one may infer that the people of Cainta are 
of East Indian origin and occupied the town before the arrival of the 
Spaniards. Current opinion among Filipinos differs in regard to this, 


although many reliable Filipinos inform me that tradition states their 
7 


5 BEAN AND PLANTA, 


origin in a different way. A company of Hast Indian soldiers, stationed 
at Cainta during the British occupation of Manila, was overlooked when 
the British embarked and they settled and remained there. 

It seems to me that both suppositions may be true. The town of 
Cainta was originally settled by East Indians, and a few men from 
among the British troops of East Indian origin remained when the 
British evacuated Manila. 

The inhabitants of Cainta impressed me as being tall, black-skinned, 
long-nosed, and open-eyed in contrast with the inhabitants of Taytay 
who are small, brown-skinned, short-nosed, and not open-eyed. Some of 
the men I saw in Cainta were more than 180 centimeters in height, 
and the skin of many was of so dark a brown as to appear black. The 
face is large and long and the nose is notably high and long, the eyes 
large, with wide open lids that give the peculiarly attractive expression 
to the countenance which is often seen among Hast Indians. Whatever 
may have been the proximate origin of the people, I believe there can be 
no doubt as to their Indian origin ultimately. 

In any event, they probably settled in Cainta and married Filipinos. 
Their descendants then Tesemble both Indians and Filipinos, with 
probably a preponderance of the former; at least such is the appearance 
by casual observation, and such is the actual condition as determined by 
measurements. 

The measurements of 38 men of Cainta give average dimensions that 
are in almost every part slightly different from similar dimensions of 
the men of Taytay, and the differences are invariably in the direction of 
the Huropean. The average differences are slight, as may be seen by the 
accompanying list, but they are significant because they are averages and 
because all the differences simulate the European. 


TABLE I.—Average dimensions—physical characters of adult males at Cainta, 
greater or less than men of Taytay. 


¥ l | 
Character. eee Character. | een | 
| apr pees ee : 
| Body: | Head: 
Statnre wesce bond Seela i neele ee 1.43 || Maximum length____ +0. 10 | 
Sith Sebel shi ee nee —0.39 Maximum breadth _________-_____ —0. 26 
Pupicheisht ee see eae —2. 32 Maximum height.-_______________ +0.13 
Umbilical height —----_. -----_-- = —1.1d Minimal frontal breadth _________ —0.04 — 
Sternslybeis hte ee —1.82 Bizygomatic breadth _____________ | =o!37 | 
Chinvheight === =e ene —1.33 Bimastoid breadth________________ Soil | 
Warhei gh teense -aee ee eee —1.00 Bigoniac breadth _________________ —0.19 
Amide whei shtassse ses a se ene —0.18 Naso-buccal distance -____________ | —0.05 
Knee height_____ ee ee a ste —0. 89 Naso-alveolar distance +0. 03 
Trochanter height a — 2.42 Nose height (base) - +0.04 | 
Fingertip height____--_-__--_-___ —0. 26 NOSE IbTes Cb hice es teens —0.10 
“Wristpheizht=2====- = hese 3s —0. 65 Nose length____________ | +0.09 
bo wale) gies —1.71 Chin nasion distance __ +0.30 | 
Acromion height _---------_-_-_- | —2.51 Nasion hair line distanee_________ —0.36 | 


THE MEN OF CAINTA, 9 


Taste 1—Average dimensions—physical characters of adult males at Cainta, 
greater or less than men of T'aytay—Continued. 


| Character. | Gen | Character. cent | 
Head—Continued. || Head—Continued. \ 

Mouth breadth (lips) ~------..---- +0.15 | Eye length (transverse) -___---__- 0.07 
Mouth lex tho 25 soo ee eet +-0.10 | Frontal cireumference____________ | 
) OF 0) 5206 Us —0. 01 Parietal circumference | 
Ear length —0. 05 Forehead circumference | 
Ear cartilage length | +0.14 | Occipital cireumference__.__----_| —0.38 
Interocular distance---..--------.| —0.08 | 


It is to be reckoned that the indices and relative factors will also 
differ between the two groups of men because the actual measurements 
are different, and such is the case, as may be seen by the following list, 
all pointing to the European origin of the Cainta Indians. 


TABLE 11.—WMen of Cainta, indices, and relative factors, greater or less than men 
of Taytay. 


Factors. | a | Factors. | ent | 

j Sn #: jes =| 2 | | 

| Indices: | Relative lengths: | 
—2. 75 \ Lower lege-22=20-— =-Ae See ees } 0.23 
—2. 40 | Upperleg seo 2 ee aaa hae +0. 60 
COED NO 2. = ee ee et a —1.39 || a 0 eee ee | +0.05 
Physiognomie ___-_______-__.___- —0.20 Worearm’ = 230222 Sehr eee | +0.65 

1 Morpholopie == == == 5-8 422 24) | +-4.40 H Upper arn eee | ==01s01,|| 

Wmmbeeractiaiees. A280 oe es | +3.80 | | 


In only one index, the brachial, does the Cainta Indian resemble 
other people than the European, and this index is like that of the Negro. 
It is also the most distinctive characteristic of the body parts of the 
Negro. There is then evidence of Negro mixture in the Cainta Indians, 
more than in the Filipinos of Taytay. 

The individuals, more than the average, show distinctive European 
markings. One indication of European extraction for the Cainta men is 
the presence of a relatively large number of Iberians, more than one- 
third of the total number measured. The Iberians of Cainta also appear 
to be purer than the Iberians of other parts of the Philippines. Take 
for instance No. 15 with a stature of 163.6 centimeters, nasal index 77.7, 
cephalic index 75.9, and omphalic index 35.9, almost a typical Iberian. 
The face is long and narrow, the body is short, and the legs are long, 
all Iberian characteristics. Notice may also be taken of the three men 
in the plate accompanying this article. who represent Iberians of type 
B in figure 1, type A in figure 2, and type C in figure 3. Front and 


10 


BEAN AND PLANTA. 


Tasre I1I.—Afen 


Type of 


individual. } 


be eee 
Alpine 


Australoid== = esl 
fiers eed 


TRUS, — 2-2 sees | 
200 eS 


Australoid-=== => Ss) 
ibeian et 
Blend bse Se a 
Se = 
Ausiaoids= = 


Australoid__ 
Bic eee 
Bsiend 
Blend == 
Australoid- 2 == 
Blend ee 
(AUSiTal oid == 
Bie eet 
Blend = SSS ed 


ites —— ee 
ipenaD =e 
-S e—eE—E———eee 
AD 6 eee 
Tbetian 2 


General average ___________ 


3 
= 
E 
a 
a 
= 
2 
g 
1 
2 
| 3| 371 | 176.3 | $9.2 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
u 
2 
13 


SOERSERESBERES 


bh 
or SI 


Body. 


| Clinical number, 
Sitting height. 


Stature 


Pubie height, 
Umbilical height, 
Sternal height. 
Chin height. 


Trochanter height. 
Pinger tip. 


Ankle height, 
Knee height, 


Har height. 
Wrist height. 


Elbow height. 


Acromial height. 


| 


159.0 } $5.3 
150.5 | 81.4 


479 | 157.3 | 84.3 
____-| 148.1 | 80.9 
{eae 161.0 | 84.7 
|__| 161.5 | 83.0 | 
| 161.0 | $0.0 | 
| 160.0 | 86.0 
| aren | 166.0 | $4.5 
169.4 | $5.0 
|_____| 154.0 | 82.0 


| 87.4 


| 164.0 | 86.5 


14 |_____| 169.0 84.3 | 


| 15 |---| 163.6 | 81.0 
| 16 |__| 166.0 | 86.6 | 


| 167.0 | $5.0 | 
161.2 | 76.3 | 
157.0 | 81.6 | 
| 158.5 | $3.2 | 
(162.5 | 76.0 
158.0 | 84.0 | 
155.5 | 83.0) 
157.0 | $3.0) 
25 |_____| 160.0 | $3.0 
(2) | 83.0} 
161.0| $1.0 
| 155.0 | $4.0) 
| 159.0 | 84.0 
166.5 | 87.5 | 
| 151.6 | $2.0 
162.0 | 86.5 | 
| 163.5 | $5.5 
34 |__| 164.8 | 86.0 
35 |__| 169.0 | 85.5 | 
Ay Lo 161.5 | 84.8 | 


37 |---| 159.0 | 82.7 | 
38 |__| 160.0 | 86.8} 


ab) oa 160.9 | 83.6 | 


| 
| 
| 


80.0 
76.5 
5.2 
80.6 
74.0 
82.6 
§3.6| 98.5 
87.5 | 105.0 
81.0| 97.0 
101.3 


143.3 
124.8 | 133.0 
86.3 | 119.0 | 123.5 


131.0 | 137.0 
133.0 | 138.0 
130.3 | 134.5 
134.0 142.0 
91.0 | 104.0 139.0 | 145.5 
95.0) 93.0 | 126.0 | 131.0 
$4.5 StA8 THAAD 141.0 
89.0 104.0 | 140.0 | 148.0 
87.0| 99.7 | 135.0 | 141.6 
$5.0 | 100.0 | 137.0 | 144.5 
$8.0 | 102.5 | 137.0 | 143.3 
85.0} 99.5 130.3 | 139.0 
/ 
$0.8} 92.5 | 128.2 | 134.3 
78.5 | 93.3 | 128.6 | 135.7 
81.0) 92.6 | 123.0 | 198.5 
79.0 | 93.0 | 128.0 | 132.0 
$1.5| 92.0 | 124.5 | 134.0 
$2.0 95.0 | 126.0 | 135.0 
84.0| 97.0 | 129.0 133.0 
77.0| 94.5 126.0 | 133.0 
$4.0} 96.0 | 133.0 | 137.0 
79.0 | 92.0 125.5 | 132.0 
81.0) 958 127.0 | 188.7 
$9.0 | 104.0 135.6 | 142.3 
79.0 | 89.0 | 124.0 | 128.0 
$2.5] 95.0 | 131.0 | 141.0 
$6.6 | 99.5 133.0 | 140.6 
$6.0 | 100.0 | 135.0 | 142-0 
91.0 | 101.0 | 139.5 | 144.0 
$2.6 | 97.4 | 131.5 | 136.8 
$6.2| 96.0 129.0 | 135.5 
$9.5 | 104.0 | 138.0 | 145.5 


$4.1) 


(E82 bg | 137.6 


| 


91.0 | 129.8 | 137.8 
86.7 | 118.5 | 126.7 | 
149.7 | 


136.6 | 7.7 | 42.0 | 74.5 | 56.3 


96.3 | 130.3 } 138.7 


159.0 | 7.3 


| 
73.7 


72.5 


146.8 | 7.8 


| 43.5 | 81.6 | 57.5 


160.1 | 7.4 | 50.2 | 96.4 | 59.8 
142.8 | 5.8 | 41.0) 81.6 | 54.4 
134.5 | 6.0 | 39.2 | 73.0 | 58.0 
148.9 | 7.0 | 45.2 | 84.1 | 56.0 


145.0 | 7.0 | 45.5} 


| 
157.0 | 7.1 | 48.7 
139.0 | 6.3 | 42.5 | $0.0 | 58.0 | 76.0 
152.0 | 7.8 | 43.7 | 85.4 | 59.0 | 75.5 | 
156.0 | 6.8 | 47.5 | 91.0 | 60.0 | 79.0) 
151.5 | 7.1 | 44.3 | 91.0 | 59.0 
152.8 | 7.2 | 44.0 | 87.3 | 58.8 
158.6 | 7.5 | 45.0 | 93.0 | 61.0 | 79.5 
149.0 | 5.6 | 45.2 | $6.0 | 56.6 74.0) 
145.2|6 59.0 76.0 
145.5 | 6.4 | 45.1| 88.7) 54.5 | 72.2 
136.5 | 6.2 | 42.5 | $2.0 | 49.5 
144.0 | 6.2 | 42.0 | $3.0 | 55.0 | 73.0 
142.0 | 6.0 | 43.0 80.5 | 51.5 | 68.8) 
144.0 | 4.8 | 44.0 | 82.0 | 53.0/ 73.0 | 
145.0 | 6.8 | 46.0 | 87.0 | 62.0 | 79.0 
142.0 | 5.8 | 40.0 | 80.5 | 56.0 | 74.0 
147.0 | 6.0 | 43.0 | 86.5 | 59.4 | 7.2 | 
142.0 | 5.8 | 44.0 | $2.0 | 55.0 | 73.0 
145.5 | 6.8 | 45.0 | $1.2 
152.6 | 6.8 | 46.5 | 90.0 | 58.0 
140.0 | 8.7 | 42.0) 82.0 
149.3 | 6.2 | 43.6 | 36.0 | 
151.6 | 7.2 | 47.0 | $7.6 
152.5 | 7.1 | 47.0 | 89.0 
155.8.| 8.3 | 48.5 | 94.0 
147.0 | 6.5 | 42.4 
146.0/ 6.8 48.5 87.0 


90.8 | 60.6 | 79.7 


gt 
Oo 


or or 
SI SI 
or 


oS & 


& 

o 
3233 2 2 
Soko um 


93.7 | 123.5 
79.8 | 106.8 | 142.8 | 
72.0) 95.6 | 128.2) 
69.8 89.5 
73.3: 97.6 
147.7 | 6.5 | 44.5 | 85.0 | 56.5 | 75.0/ 100.0 132.5) 
148.0 | 6.4 | 47.0 | 88.0 | 59.8 | 77.0 102.0 
84.5 | 55.0 73.0) 99.0 
152.0 | 6.8 | 46.6 | 89.0 | 58.0 | 77.0 | 104.0 


131.0 | 


99.0 | 135.0 


103.0 | 135.2 
| 136.6 


92.0 | 124.5). 
96.0 | 129.5 
92.0 | 124.0 
96.0 | 128.8 
102.0 | 130.0 
97.5 | 129.0 


75.0 | 99.0 
76.0 | 103.5 
72.7| 95.0 
5.0| 99.0 131.0 
7.0 | 102.0 | 135.5 
9.0 | 104.0 | 138.0 
$1.0 | 106.5 | 140.0 
78.6 | 102.0 | 133.2 
75.0 | 101.3 | 132.0 
| 78.1 | 105.0 | 140.6 | 


147.1 | 6.7 | 44.7 | 85.5 | 57.3 
t u i 1 


120.6 


135.0, 
130.0 | 
135.4 | 
140.6 
127.0 


139.9 


139.4 
131.8 
131.0 
131.0 


133.0 
323.8 
129.5 
138.2 
124.5 


753 | 99.4 | 132.1 | 
he 


THE MEN OF CAINTA. 11 


of Cainta, Rizal. 


= —' oe ny 
Head. 5 | 
9 | ¥ Py alse ieee | 
aHBE EL EEE LE | 
elel|2|s ls Sole ae I SEE BEI 
Bes} a lets |. tied) eed eb dee ese eel al eal he S8lsslos/35s| & 
Meese sls leislsl2islflelslBleleleiSls] Sis is8|_2]s8la3| 3 
5 |} 3 Siseis)|/4)4 al/e/8)/F lala | M/S] Bl Slay sls?) S 
MHI SIS IS ale le lalFl2lslFlFlslalale/8l3)sisia 12 18 le | 8! 
BERGeeees bein he lS|si(elel ae iele/slelrlelSisiele le le ls |e | 
Pee Sais (Milind | as iio lal a jo lo} of oO) a | Sie Sle ia |e |e 1s 8 
VS (S/S )/8/S |B 1B lala l42)4)o/4)|4/ 4 Ala l|al|al ae lala je ja jo Q 
| Ta aa = a a eesasl pease (i 3 
148.0 | 14.2 | 12.5} 10.7] 18.0 | 12.5 | 10.6 | 7.0 | 6.3 | 3.0/ 6.3 | 11.5 | 3.6} 4.7] 2.2 | 5.1) 8.4| 5.6) 3.0] 6.2 | 1.5 | 30.0] 35.0 | 26.0| 29.6 | 4.5 
17.5 | 14.8 | 12.0 | 10.4 | 18.6 | 12.3 | 10.9| 6.9 | 6.7 | 2.7| 6.4 | 11.5] 3.7) 5.1] 1.8 | 4.9|3.8|5.6| 3.4) 5.7 | 2.5] 31.8] 84.2] 27.7] 27.6) 4.5 
148.4} 14.7 | 13.2 | 20.2 | 18.6 | 13,5 | 11.0] 7.4] 6.5) 3.2| 7.0| 12.2| 4.2/5.0] 2.6 |4.3|3.8|6.4| 3.4] 6.8 | 8.0/ 32.3] 36.2] 27.0| 29.5 5.4 
18.3 | 14.9] 12.2} 9.9] 14.3 | 13.0 | 11.4] 7.7] 6.3 | 3.1] 7.5| 10.7] 3.7) 4.8] 1.7 | 4.7/3.6 | 6.4| 3.1] 5.9 | 2.0| 30.4] 34.8 | 27.8 28.0 5.5 
1} 18.1 | 15.0} 12.8 | 10.8 | 14.2 | 18.1] 11.0] 7.6 | 6.5 | 3.2 | 8.5) 11.7 | 4.5] 5.0| 1.0 | 5.0] 4.0/ 7.8|3.3] 6.4 |3.0| 80.6 | 35.8 | 28.0) 28.7| 5.9 
18.5 | 14.6 | 12.8 | 10.8 | 18.8 | 13.3 | 10.8| 7.4] 7.0} 2.7| 6.8 | 11.8] 4.1/4.8] 1.5 | 5.1/3.5] 6.0| 3.6] 6.5 | 3.0| 28.8 | 35.3 | 27.8 | 28.2) 4.6 
+} 18.2 | 15.4} 13.3 | 10.0 | 12.8 | 12.6 | 10.4] 7.4| 7.2) 3.5/6.0 | 12.0/3.5) 5.3] 2.5 | 4.8|3.7| 5.9/3.1] 6.2 | 5.0] 31.0! 36.5 27.0 | 27.0) 5.3 
418.0 | 15.2 | 11.8 | 11.5 | 14.0 | 12.8 | 11.3] 7.2] 6.4 | 3.0} 7.2] 21.2] 4.0/4.6] 2.1 | 4.6/3.7) 6.9] 3.6| 6.4 | 2.0| 30.8 | 35.3] 28.4 | 27.5) 5.3 
1} 17.8 | 14.9 } 18.0 | 10.0 | 13.0 | 12.8 | 10.2 | 7.3| 6.8 | 2.9| 6.0|12.0}4.2 | 5.1| 2.3 | 5.0/3.6 | 6.3] 3.0] 6.0 | 3.0] 31.0 | 37.0} 26.5! 26.5 | 5.4 
19.3 | 15.0 | 12.9 | 10.7 | 14.5 | 13.0 11.0] 6.8 | 6.6 | 3.0| 7.0 | 11.2) 4.8) 4.7| 2.5 | 5.4) 8.7) 6.7/3.7] 6.4 | 4.0| 31.7 | 36.0 | 28.8 | 28.8) 5.4 
| 18.6 | 14.5 | 11.7 | 10.1| 18.6 | 13.0 | 11.3] 6.8 | 6.5 | 3.3 | 8.0| 11.8/4.0| 4.9) 2.1 | 5.2 3.8 | 6.2| 3.2] 6.5 | 5.0| 29.0| 33.0] 26.0} 28.5 | 5.2 | 
1} 77.6 | 14.2}12.2} 9.6] 12.2| 12.0] 10.5| 6.5] 5.7} 2.2| 5.8 | 10.5 | 3.8) 4.2} 2.1 | 4.8/3.5] 6.2] 3.3| 5.9 | 3.0| 30.0] 34.8 | 26.2 | 27.0| 5.2 
1) 18.2 | 14.6 | 12.5 | 10.4 | 13.2 | 12.6 | 10.5 | 6.6} 6.1| 3.2| 6.0} 11.3| 3.8/4.7) 2.3 | 5.0} 3.3/5.6) 3.1| 5.9 | 1.0| 30.5 | 35.8 | 28.3 | 26.4) 4.8 
17.6 | 15.4] 12.0) 9.7} 12.9} 18.4 | 10.1| 7.2 | 6.6 | 3.1] 7.0} 11.0] 4.2/5.0] 2.7 |5.3| 3.4] 5.6] 3.0] 6.0 | 3.0|____|-____ [eae ieee ea te 
48.7 | 14.2 | 12.0| 10.2/12.7/12.2| 9.7/7.1) 6.6/2.8] 7.3) 11.5|3.5/4.5| 1.9|4.5|/3.9/ 6.0/3.2] 5.7 | 3.5| 28.5) 35.4 25.7] 29.6| 5.4 | 
18.7 | 14.1| 12.3 / 10.7 | 18.9 | 12.5| 10.2] 6.6 | 6.1| 2.8) 7.7|11.3|8.8| 4.4] 1.8 | 4.3) 3.9|6.5| 3.5] 6.1 | 1.0} 29.9 | 32.5 | 28 0) 27.8 | 5.5 
18.8 | 15,1| 18.5 | 11.1) 14.1] 12.6 | 10.1] 6.7 | 5.8 | 3.5 | 6.4 11.0/ 4.0 4.5) 2.0 | 5.1/8.1) 6.0/8.7) 6.1 | 3.5 | 82.5) 87.0) 28.5 | 25.7 | 5.1 
48.3 | 13.5 | 12.5 | 10.2 | 12.8 | 12.3 | 10.4| 7.2 | 6.3 | .1| 7.7] 11.6 | 4.4 | 4.7] 1.6 | 4.8 | 4.0/6.9] 3.2] 6.1 | 3.0 | 30.8 | 34.2 | 27.0} 26.4 | Fi | 
18.7 | 14.4 | 12.4 | 10.0 | 13.2 | 13.3 | 10.2 | 7.9 | 7.0 | 3.6 | 7.4 | 12.1 | 4.0) 5.4| 1.6 | 5.5 | 3.9| 6.6 | 2.7| 5.9 | 3.0 28.6 | 35.0) 26.2 28.0 | 5.6 
48.5 | 15.0 | 13.4 | 10.4| 14.0 |__| 10.4] 6.9| 6.2 | 3.0| 6.5 | 12.0] 4.0] 5.1] 1.8 | 4.7/3.3] 5.5] 3.6] 6.1 | 1.0] 31.0] 35.0} 28.5 | 28.5 | 4.6 
18.2 | 14.5 | 12.6 | 10.4 | 13.1| 13.0| 10.3] 7.0| 6.4|2.7|7.2|10.6|3.8| 4.3] 2.5 |4.5/3.5|6.6| 3.3] 5.8 | 3.5] 29.0) 36.4 | 26.3 | 29.0 5.0 
90.0 | 15.0 | 13.1 | 11.3 | 14.4 | 18.1) 11.1] 7.4| 6.8 | 3.1 | 7.4| 12.1} 4.1/4.5] 3.0 | 5.4] 3.6| 6.0] 3.4] 6.7 |---| 88.0] 37.5 | 29.5 | 29.5 | 4.6 
17.8 | 14.8| 12.5 | 10.6 | 13.1 | 12.3 10.3] 6.6 | 6.1| 3.0) 7.1) 10.8 | 4.1/4.4) 2.0 | 4.7/3.4) 5.7} 8.6) 5.4 | 1.0 | 30.6 | 35.5) 27.3 27.3 | 5.1 
15.1 | 12.8 | 10.5 | 14.0 | 15.6 | 10.5| 7.1 6.4] 3.0| 7.4) 10.7] 3.7) 4.0| 1.6 |5.2|3.8| 6.6 | 8.4] 5.7 | 3.5 | 31.0 | 36.6 | 27.6 | 28.7 | 5.2 
15.4 | 13.0} 10.8 | 14.2 | 13.0 | 11.0) 8.3 | 7.6 | 3.1 9.0 13.2| 4.3/5.6] 1.3 |4.8|3.7|6.5|3.5| 6.2 | 4.0) 32.0 36.6 | 29.5 | 28.0 5.3 
14.4| 12.3 | 10.5) 12.9 | 12.4| 10.0| 7.1 6.5| 3.2 | 6.3 | 11.6 | 3.5/4.9| 1.8 | 42|3.3| 5.5/3.0) 6.3 | 2.0) 28.8] 36.6 | 26.0/ 29.0) 4.4 
14.4/12.5/10.3|12.5|12.0| 9.8/6.8) 6.2| 2.7/6.8] 10.6 | 4.0/4.8] 1.8 |4.5 | 3.2| 6.0 3.6 | 5.7 | 3.0 | 29.0 | 35.6 | 27.0 27.8 | 4.8 
14.8 | 13.0] 10.7/ 13.8 | 13.0 | 10.3| 6.6| 6.5| 2.7] 7.8| 10.0 | 4.1} 4.4| 2.5 /4.1/ 34 6.2|3.4] 6.3 34.8 | 
16.0 | 12.5 | 10.5 | 13.6 | 12.7 | 10.3] 7.0| 6.4| 2.6 | 6.6| 11.1/ 3.7] 4.5] 2.0 | 5.1/3.4] 5.4/3.1] 6.1 
15.0 | 12.6 | 10.8 | 13.8 | 13.7 | 11.2 | 6.7 | 6.3 | 2.7/5.7] 11.6 | 4.1 | 4.0} 2.3 |5.2|3.1|6.4|3.8| 6.0 : | 29.6 | 
15.1] 12.7 | 11.2|14.0| 12.4] 11.0| 7.2) 6.0| 2.7] 7.3 | 11.7 | 4.2 | 5.0] 2.2 | 5.2/3.8] 6.2) 8.5] 5.0 |__| 32.0] 35.0 | 28.2 | 30.0 | 5.0 | 
15.5 | 12.7) 10.7 | 14.4| 14.0| 11.0] 7.7| 7.1/3.2 | 8.1| 18.0/3.8 | 5.1] 2.1 | 5.0) 3.1/5.8] 3.2) 6.5 |__| 31.0 | 36,0| 29.0/ 31.0) 4.8 | 
14.7| 12.5 | 10.4 | 18.6 | 12.3 | 11.0| 7.6 | 6.9] 3.0| 6.3 | 12.0 | 4.0 | 5.0) 2.7 | 5.4| 3.8) 5.8/3.4) 6.3 |__| 30.2) 31.8 | 28.2) 26.2) 5.1 
14.7 | 12.5 | 10.2| 13.1] 12.8 | 10.0 G8) (8) 6.2| 12.0) 8.5/5.3) 1.4) 5.2/3.7) 6.7) 3.2] 6.4 |__| 31.0} 34.8 | 23.6) 29.6 | 5.6 
14.7 | 12.6 | 10.2| 13.4] 12.7 | 10.7] 8.4} 7.2) 8.8] 7.5] 12.3 / 4.2) 5.4/2.4) 5.2/3.7) 6.4/3.4] 6.3 |__| 30.4 | 84.3 | 28.0 / 28.2) 5.3 | 
- 15.0 | 13.6 | 10.5 | 13.6| 12.5| 10.0] 7.2| 6.6 3.1/6.8| 11.6 | 4.0} 4.7) 2.5 |5.0|4.0/6.3)3.3) 6.4 |} | eee eas 5.0 
if 15.5|12.3| 9.6|13.0|12.4| 10.5| 7.4|6.5| 2.5/5.4) 12.0) 3.8) 5.3] 1.7 |4.7| 3.5] 5.6/3.3) 5.7 |r Se ea |e | 5.7 
‘- 14.3| 12.8 | 10.3 12.7|13.0| 10.0] 7.5|6.7|3.0| 7.0] 11.9|3.8|5.1| 2.0 | 4.8|3.6|6.0|3,6| 6.4 |_| ||| 5.2 
) ii.4 | 147/126 | 10.4/18.4 42.8110.5|71165| 2.9/6.9) 11.5| 3.9|4.8| 2.05|4.9|3.5|6.1|3.3| 6.09|___-|30.5| 95.4| 27.6 | 28.1] 5.1 
l" if 
} 


BEAN AND PLANTA, 


| 
| 


TabLteE 1V.—Men of Cainta, 


=I i= be be Cay Col ee 4 Et ae 

be | 82 | 82 | Ba |2.|2,| 28/2 24] BS 

ee sl | Sy PE) | 2 | Ses) See a ree EP ee 

Species, | 8/52 | £8 | 52 | 25 | 82) fe) eo) e2 | 22) es 

a| | ee | s¥)2p|e2|2- | 38/32/88) Es 

5 Qa a fa! O74] 9a Gy Qn OS )/oc ! Oa 

Z| % 4 re a te fa ie ia ie 

{iberian@=s=ees 1 37.7 | 28.7 36.1 | 22.7 | 16.2 | 10.1 | 25.1 | 15.7 | 29.7 | 18.6 

Tberian_________- 2) 34.3} 22.7] 32.5} 21.5] 16.2 | 40.7] 21.2] 14.0] 29.8) 198 

3] 42.8) 242] 46.2 | 26.2 | 20,0] 11.3] 27.0} 15.3] 36.0] 20.4 

4| 35.2] 22.3] 40.6] 25.8] 17.6] 11.1/ 23.6] 15.0] 32.6 | 90.7 

5 | 33.2) 22.4) 35.8 | 24.1 | 16.8} 11.3] 19.7 | 13.3] 31.1] 20.9 

6| 38.2) 23.7) 38.9} 24.1) 17.3) 10.7] 24.3) 15.0| 33.4! 20.7 

7| 38.0) 23.5 | 40.5 | 25.0] 18.5 | 11.4 | 25.0) 15.4] 32.5! 201 

8| 40.6] 25.2] 41.0} 25.4} 17.2 | 10.6} 25.0] 15.5 | 33.0! 90.4 

Blend ___ 9} 382] 23.8) 39.3} 24.5] 18.0] 11.2} 26.0] 16.2) 31.0! 193 

Australoid_______ 10| 39.8] 93.9] 42.4] 25.5] 19.0| 11.4 27.0| 16.2| 31.4| 18.9 

41.6] 24.5] 42.1 | 24.8) 19.1 | 11.2} 27.8} 16.4] 331) 19.5 

36.2} 23.5] 937.5| 24.3) 18.0] 11.6| 22.0} 14.2} 29.0] 18.8 

35.9] 21,8] 41.7 | 25.4] 16.5] 10.0] 23.5] 14.3) 36.0) 921.9 

40.7| 24.0} 43.5 | 25.7} 19.0] 11.5} 28.0) 16.5 | 32.9) 19.4 

37.2| 22.7] 46.7 | 28.5} 20.0] 12.2} 24.0] 14.6 | 32.2| 19.6 

36.8| 22.1] 48.3] 26.0] 16.5 | 9.9) 25.7| 15.4] 35.6) 214 

37.5 | 22.4] 48.0} 28.7] 18.5 | 11.0] 26.5} 15.8] 33.4! 20.0 

39.6 | 24.5] 40.8| 25.3] 17.4 | 10.7 | 24.2] 15.0| 33.6! 20.8 

pense 19 37.1 23.6 40.0 | 25.4 | 17.0] 10.8 | 22.6} 14.3 | 32.4 20.6 

Iberian___------- 20] 38.7) 24.4) 938.6] 24.3] 17.7] 11.1] 22.5) 14.1 | 36.3) 220 

Blend ___.-------| 21] 36.3] 23,8) 389.5] 25.8| 19.0} 12.4] 93.5) 15.4| 32.5/| 213 

Australoid | 35.8| 22.6] 41.0] 25.9] 18.0] 11.3] 23.0| 14.5] 33.5! 21.2 

Elend eee 37.0 | 23.7] 37.5 | 24.1) 16.5] 10.6 | 24.0] 15.4] 32.0} 20.5 

Australoid 39.2} 24.9] 38.0} 24.2 | 20.0] 12.7] 23.0] 14.6] 32.8] 20.8 

Blend =e 39.2 | 245] 41.0| 25.6 | 17.0} 10.6 | 23.0] 14.3] 28.0) 17.5 
Blends BELO) |e 40.5 )------ 18.0 |___-_- 93.0 |------ 3210) eee 

Blend __- 37.0| 22.9] 43.5] 27.0] 17.8] 11.0] 241] 14.9] 31.7] 19.6 

Australoid 38.2 | 24.6) 38.0] 24.5] 18.0] 11.6 | 22.0] 141] 288] 18.5 

Blend ___ 38.2 | 24.0] 36.2 | 22.7] 17.0] 10.6 | 24.0] 15.0] 30.5] 19.1 

Australoid_------| 30} 39.7] 23.8 | 43.5 | 26.1] 18.0] 10.8 | 27.5 | 16.5] 34.74 20.8 

Blend ___ 33.3 | 21.9| 40.0] 26.3] 17.7] 11.6] 22.3) 14.6] 29.5| 19.4 

Iberian _--------- 37.4| 23.0] 42.4 | 26.1 |-17.5 | 10.8} 24.0] 14.8] 32.0| 19.7 

Iberian _--------- 39.8| 24.3 40.6 | 24.8] 19.2] 11.7] 25.0] 15.2] 33.5] 20.5 

Tberian ---------- 39.9 | 24.2 | 42.0] 25.4] 18.0] 10.9] 25.0] 15.1] 34.0] 20.6 

Tberian ---------- 40.2| 23.7| 45.5 | 26.9} 19.5] 11.5) 25.5 | 15.0] 33.5] 19.8 

Australoid 35.9 | 22.2| 42.6} 26.3] 18.6 | 11.5] 23.4 | 14.4] 312] 19.3 

Aipine eee 41.7| 26.2 | 38.5 | 24.2] 18.6) 11.7] 26.3] 16.5] 30.7] 19.3 

Tberian_____---_- 40.7| 24.0| 45.0 | 26.6} 19.1] 11.3] 26.9] 15.9] 35.6] 21.0 
General average--| 37.9 | 23.6 | 40.78 | 25.2 | 18.0] 11.1} 24.3] 15.1) 32.4] 20.0+ 


Pubis to umbi- 
licus. 


a 
Sale 
N 


THE 


indices and relative factors. 


i 
| 
| 


Seemroute atl 
leflo.jadi"3| 2 | 8 
\se(ae|_2/.2| 2 | 2 
BS |a>i(ssl|aa| 2 | ¢ 
He lg ilo |e S Z 
lp |6 Je |S 3 | z 
| 38.8! 283] 212| 9.7] 738] 76.6 
31.8 | 32.0 23.8] 123] 84.6] 72.6 
34.5 | 39.4| 26.6 | 14.4] 79.9]. 84.0 
32.2 | 37.2] 24.3 | 13.6] 814] 77.1 
92.7 | 37.6] 246 | 12.9/ 82,9] 90.0 
| 34.0 | 40,3] 22.3 10.5| 78.9 | 85.4 
| 32.5] 45.8] 24.5) 12.5] 84.6] 66.0 
28.0 | 62.5 | 23.0| 11.8] 844] 96.9 
38.3 | 48.4 | 25.5 | 13.5| 83.7| 81.9 
32.7 | 42.5 | 24.0| 12.8) 77.7} 102.1 
35.0 | 37.1 | 23.9| 12.1) 77.9] 81.6 
33.0 |------ 23,0 | 12.5} 80.6] 90.4 
36.4 | 35.9] 23.0| 11.7/ 80.2] 80.8 
36.0 | 41.6} 21.0] 10.0] 87.5] 84.0 
35.8 | 35.9 | 22.0] 10.5] 75.9] 77.7 
37.0} 40.5} 21.5] 102! 75.4] 863 
34.5 | 42.0| 23.7| 12.7] 80.3] 88.8 
30.8 | 47.0 | 222] 10.6] 73.8| 93.6 
35,7 | 32.7| 22.7| 106) 77.0! 74.6 
35.3 | 41.9] 22.8] 10.8] 81.0] 78.4 
30.4| 381] 24.0] 13.4] 79.7| 88.4 
35.0 | 40.0 26.0] 13.9) 75.0) 911 
32.5 | 32.3| 21.5] 10.7| si4} 93.2 
31.0| 41.9| 22.0] 11.3] 80.7] 95.2 
32.0 | 40.6 | 27.0| 13.8| 81.1) 76.7 
Blau spas feee ee 80.0} 714 
37.0 | 32.4 | 24.0] 13.4] 79.1) 983.3 
33.5 | 38.8} 23.0] 13.0] 80.9| 93.2 
31.7 | 45.1 | 22.3] 11.2] 87.4| 82.2 
31.6| 47.4 | 13.9] (2) | 80.2! 102.5 
35.0 | 28.5 | 23.6] 11.9] 81.6] 84.0 
36.0| 34.7| 21.0] 8.0] 81.2) 74.5 
33,5 | 38.5 | 23.0| 11.5] 82.6] 80.0 
35.0 | 40.0| 22.8] 10.8! 75.0| 66.0 
38.5 | 25.9) 25.0| 12.7] 79.0] 77.7 
341 | 43.4] 24.7] 181) 75.0] 85.1 
38.6 | 29.1| 23.5} 115] 90.1 | 71.7 
34.0] 42.6| 23.5] 11.6] 78.6] 74.5 
33.8 | 39.5| 23.4| 11.8] 80.4| 828 


MEN OF CAINTA. 


13 


Ear type. 


| Morphologie 


berian) Cand) Dasa psaea eee -— 
B. B. B. Iberian C 
Iberian A and D 
Iberian A __- 
Mixed Primitive 


Iberian B Primitive 
PIUMitl vies 2s ee eee 
Iberian D, Mixed Alpine Primitive_____ 
Iberian A Primitive___________ Gee ee 
Terrien 6 hess: See oo ees 


Mberian iy Mixed sene eee 
Mixed Iberian D subnorthern -_________ 


Tiberian’ D Bs bs ieee ee 
Mixed Primitive, Iberian ___-----_-_---- 
Mixed Primitive subnorthern___________ 
Mixed Alpine Primitive --__---_-___-____ 
Odd type, Alpine, Primitive -______-____ 


Mixed subnorthern_ 
Mixed B. B. B., Primitive Iberian _____. 
beniansD Sm ix ed aeeee  e 
Mberian’D ian Ci Cea ee ee eee 


TherianyAy and i) Sse sae ees 
MixediBiB 9s) sPrimitives =a 
Iberian, mixed 
Iberian A, B, D 


Wirb-qotal as} 15} 1}, Leta OR | 
IVGIX COR ee Ban Sees ook aa 


face index, 


Physiognomic 
face index. 


14 BEAN AND PLANTA. 


side bust views of these men have been published already with the men 
of Taytay* to illustrate the Iberian type. 

Absence of the Primitive is noteworthy at Cainta, and there is no 
modified Primitive or any form resembling them except the Blend. A 
few Australoid and Alpine types are seen and these with the Blends 
indicate to some extent the Filipino mixture. 

Enough has been given to demonstrate the similarity of the Cainta 
men to the European, and to the Hast Indian. Their presence proves 
that such people came to the Philippines, and the presence of similar 
types throughout the Islands indicates an Indian influence. This has 
been no inconsiderable factor in the peopling of the Philippines and 
explains the great prevalence of the Iberian throughout the archipelago. 
In support of this view, the recent work of Saleeby* concerning the 
Hindu influence previous to the more recent Spanish occupation and 


before the Moro or Mohammedan invasion of the Islands, is worth noting. 


*This Journal, Sec. A. (1909), 4, 359. ; 
* Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion. Ethnolog. Surv. Pub. Manila 
(1905), 4, Part I. 


BEAN AND PLANTA: THE MEN OF CAINTA,.] [Patn. Journ. Sct, Vou. VI, No. 1. 


iG. 3 (No. 18), 


Fic. 1 'No. 38). Fic. 2 (No. 19). Fi 


PLATE 1. 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 1, February, 1911. 


BORKENKAFER DER PHILIPPINEN. 


Von H. STROHMEYER. 


(Minster Ober-E lsass, Germany.) 


ERSTE SERIE. 


Uber die Borkenkifer-Fauna der Philippinen ist bisher sehr wenig 
bekannt geworden. WHichhoff beschreibt in seiner Monographie zwei 
dortige Arten respective eine davon Varietat: Xyleborus kraatzti var. 
philippinensis,+ und Coccotrypes pygmaeus? Wichh. Hine weitere yon 
den Philippinen bekannte Art ist: Xyleborus capito Schauf.2 Hagedorn 
erwihnt das Vorkommen yon Hurydactylus sexspinosus Motsch. auf 
Iuzon.* Fast ebenso unbedeutend wie die Zahl der von den Philippinen 
bekannten Ipiden (Scolytiden) ist diejenige der Platypodiden. Chapuis 
nennt nur vier Arten:’ Crossotarsus lecontei Chap., Platypus setaceus 
Chap., Pl. turbatus Chap. und Pl. lepidus Chap. Hine fiinfte Art: Pl. 
philippinensis © fiigte spiter Blandford hinzu. 

Auf Grund des Studiums der Borkenkéfer aus der staatlichen 
Sammlung in Manila bin ich in der Lage weitere Beitrage zur Kenntnis 
dieser forst- und landwirtschaftlich schidlichen Insekten zu liefern und 
zwar nicht nur auf rei systematischem, sondern auch auf biologischem 
Gebiete. 

Unter den nachfolgend aufgeftihrten zwolf Borkenkiferarten sind 
zehn neu fiir diese Inselgruppe, fiinf hiervon waren bisher tberhaupt 
noch nicht beschrieben. 


1 Hichhoff, Ratio, descriptio, emendatio Tomicinorum (1878), 374. 
2 Loe. cit. (1879), 310. 
® Schaufuss, Tijdschr. voor Ent. (1897), 40, 215. 
“Deutsche Ent. Ztschr. (1908), 377. 
* Chapuis, Monographie des Platypides (1868). 
°‘Trans. Hnt. Soc. London (1896), 193. 
101096——2 17 


18 STROHMEYER. 
IPID (Scolytidee). 
I. Prnipentat Zz.’ 


PHL@OTRUPIN A. 


DACTYLIPALPUS Chapuis. 
Dactylipalpus transversus Chapuis. 


Dactylipalpus quadratocollis Chapuis, Synops. des Scolyt., Mem. Soc. Roy. 
Sci. Liége (1869), 12; Strohmeyer, Entomol. Blatter (1909), Heft. 12. 


Minporo, Rio Baco, P. I. (3388, 8. C. McGregor). 

Diese Art war bisher nur bekannt yon Malacca, Ternate, Celebes und 
Sumatra. D. quadratocollis Chap. ziehe ich als Synonym zu D. trans- 
versus nachdem ich durch Untersuchung der Geschlechtsorgane auch 
bei afrikanischen Dactylipalpus-Arten festgestellt habe, das der Querein- 
druck auf dem Halsschilde ein s. g. sekundirer Geschlechtscharakter des 
Weibchens und kein Artkennzeichen ist. Die weiteren yon Chapuis bei 
quadratocollis genannten Unterscheidungsmerkmale; geringere Grdsse 
und mehr quadratisches Halsschild sind nur Higentiimlichkeiten der 
schmileren und meist kleineren Mannchen.*® 


Il. SprintpentTat az.’ 


HYLESINID. 


SPHAZROTRYPES Blandford. 
Sphzerotrypes philippinensis sp. nov. 


Brevissime ovatus, piceus vel nigropiceus, antennis tarsisque dilu- 
tioribus rufescentibus; capite nigropiceo, vertice in fundo subtilissime 
reticulato haud dense sed fortiter punctato ; fronte plana rugose punctata, 
squamulis flavis ac pilis parvis sat dense adspersa, supra cs plerunque 
carinula longitudinali brevi laevi; prothorace sat nitido valde transverso, 
anterius fortiter angustato, basi postice acutius producta, ad latera 
eyidenter marginato, post apicem constricto, in fundo subtilissime 
reticulato haud dense punctato punctis magnis squamiferis irregulariter 
dispositis, praesertim antice brevissime tomentoso et pilis singulis flavis 
adsperso, linea mediana plus minusve obsoleta; elytris prothorace latio- 


*Haged., Ent. Blitter (1909), 5, 163. 

*Zu vergl. meine Arbeit in den Entomologischen Blaittern, Jahrg. 1909, Heft 
12: “Beschreibung zweier neuer Phlcwoborus-Arten und Erginzung der Diagnosen 
einiger bekannter Phleotrupiden) unter Beriicksichtigung der sekundiiren Ge- 
schlechtscharaktere.” 


BORKENKAFER DER PHILIPPINEN. 19 


tibus, striato-punctatis, punctis rotundis distantibus, striis basin versus 
angustatis et ante marginem anteriorem abbreviatis, interstitiis striis 
multo latioribus elevatis, ante marginem basalem valde dilatatis, et 
transverse rugosis, fortiter et irregulariter punctatis punctis squamiferis, 
praesertim in disco tuberculis majoribus uniseriatim dispositis et antice 
in carinulam plus minusye confluentibus; abdomine subtus fortiter ac 
dense punctato. 

Longitudo 3.2-3.5 mm.; latitudo prothoracis 1.9-2.1 mm.; latitudo 
elytrorum 2.1—2.3 mm. 

Mrnpanao, Zamboanga, P. I. (W. I. Hutchinson legit). 

Futterpflanze: Yacal (Hopea). 

1 Type No. 8849 in der Entomologischen Sammlung des Bureau of 
Science, Manila, P. I. 

1 Paratype in meiner Sammlung. 

Kurz eiformig, heller oder dunkler pechbraun mit etwas helleren mehr 
rotlich-braunen Antennen und Tarsen; Kopf dunkel pechfarben, Scheitel 
auf chagriniertem Grunde kraftig aber nicht sehr dicht punktiert; Stirn 
flach, grob punktiert, ziemlich dicht mit gelblichen Schuppen und kleinen 
Haaren besetzt, tiber den Mundteilen mit einem zuweilen fehlenden 
kurzen und glattem Lingskiele; Prothorax missig glinzend, breiter als 
lang, nach vorn stark verschmilert und vor der Spitze eingeschniirt, an 
der Basis hinten in der Mitte mit vorgezogener Spitze, an den Seiten deut- 
lich gerandet auf fein chagriniertem Grunde ungleich und missig dicht 
_punktiert, die schuppentragenden Punkte gross und nur flach einge- 
driickt, besonders der vordere Teil des Halsschildes oben kurz und dicht 
behaart mit einzelnen zwischenstehenden lingeren Borsten, die Mittelli- 
nie ziemlich undeutlich und bei den einzelnen Hxemplaren ungleich 
ausgebildet; Fliigeldecken etwas breiter als das Halsschild, in deutlich 
ausgeprigten Streifen punktiert, die Punktstreifen vor der etwas wul- 
stigen Basis sehr verschmilert und abgekiirzt, die Zwischenraume zwischen 
den Streifen breiter als die Punktstreifen, vor der Basis mehr oder weni- 
ger miteinander verschmelzend, gewolbt und unregelmassig punktiert 
mit schuppentragenden Punkten, hauptsiichlich auf der Scheibe mit je 
einer Reihe weitliufig gestellter Tuberkeln welche nach der Basis hin 
mehr oder weniger zu einer Leiste zusammenfliessen, die verbreiterten 
Teile der Zwischenriume an der Basis quer gerunzelt; Abdomen auf der 
Unterseite stark und dicht punktiert. 

In Fig. 1 und 2 sind Mentum und Maxillen abgebildet. 

Von Spherotrypes siwalikensis Stebbing unterscheidet sich diesse Art 
unter Anderem durch das Fehlen des hinteren Quereindruckes auf dem 
Halsschilde, von Sph. coimbatorensis Stebbing durch die Sculptur des 
Prothorax und yon Sph. pila und globulus Blandford durch die Beschaf- 
fenheit der Fliigeldecken. Das glattere und nur massig dicht punktierte 


20 : STROHMEYER. 


Halsschild schliesst auch eine Verwechslung dieser Art mit Spherotrypes 
tanganus Schautfuss, blandfordi Schaufuss und barbatus Hagedorn aus. 


Fig. 1. é Fig. 2. 


Fies. 1 und 2.—Spherotrypes philippinensis Strohmeyer. 
Mentum, palpi labiales et maxilla. 80 X* vergrossert. 


Gefangen wurden die mir vorliegenden Hxemplare von Sphwrotrypes 
philippinensis m. an Yakal, emem Hartholze der Gattung Hopea. 

Die Frassfigur (Tafel 1) besteht aus einem einarmigen Lotgange ohne 
~Rammelkammer (nuptial chamber) und zahlreichen sich nicht kreuzen- 
den Larvengingen. Der Muttergang, welcher meist oben an der Spitze 
mehr oder weniger nach einer Seite gekriimmt ist, hat eime Linge yon 
3.5 bis 4.5 em. Die Higruben, in welche die Hier einzeln abgeleg werden, 
sind ausserst dicht aneinander gereiht. Die verhaltnismassig kurzen und 
breiten Larvenginge fallen dadurch auf, dass sie sehr frth an Breite 
zunehmen, eine T'atsache, die auf ein sehr rasches Wachstum deutet. Die 
Puppenwiegen liegen am Hnde der Larvenginge, welche in Splint und 
Rinde ungefahr gleich tief emschneiden. 

Nach Stebbings Abbildung zu urteilen sind die Mutterginge von Sphe- 
rotrypes suwalikensis Stebbing *° kirzer und die Higruben weniger dicht 
aneinander gedraingt. Letztgenannter Kifer lebt an Shorea robusta. 


CRYPHALIN 2. 
CRYPHALUS Erichson. 
Cryphalus squamulosus sp. nov. 

Blongatus, fere cylindricus, pallide flavescens, prothorace anteriori 
et capite rufescentibus; oculis reniformibus antice emarginatis; vertice 
subtilissime rugoso fere laevi; fronte subplana dense rugoso-punctata ; 
prothorace semi-elliptico latitudine vix breviore, lateribus a basi’ ad me- 
diam partem rectis parallelis, dein ad apicem fortiter rotundatis, angulis 
posticis subrotundatis, supra medio subgibbo, margine anteriori unise- 


® Nach den mir vorliegenden 4 Frassfiguren. 
1 Departamental Notes on Insects that affect Forestry, EH. P. Stebbing, Calcutta 
(1902), pl. XXIII. 


BORKENKAFER DER PHILIPPINEN. 21 


riatim tuberculato, disco antice tuberculis transversis compressis valde 
infuscatis subconcentrice ordinatis, ad basim et latera subgranulate punc- 
tato, antice pilis, postice squamulis albidis adsperso ; elytris subeylindricis, 
latitudine multo longioribus, striato-punctatis, punctis magnis, striis 
haud impressis, interstitiis planis, vix perspicue uniseriatim punctatis, 
punctis minimis, multo magis distantibus quam in striis, squamulis ac 
pilis albidis uniseriatim dispositis. 

Long. 1.36 mm., lat. 0.53 mm.; prothoracis longitudo: 0.50 mim. ; 
prothoracis latitudo: 0.53 mm.; elytrorum longitudo: 0.86 mm.; elytro- 
rum latitudo: 0.53 mm. 

Minvoro, Calapan, P. I. (J. L. Webb legit). 

Type No. 1420 in der Entomologischen Sammlung des Bureau of 
Science, Manila, P. I. 

1 Cotype in meiner Sammlung. 

Lang gestreckt, fast cylinderformig, blass gelb, Kopf und yorderer 
Teil des Prothorax rothchgelb; Augen vorn ausgerandet; Scheitel dus- 
serst fein gerunzelt, fast glatt; Stirn wenig gewolbt, fast flach, dicht und 
erob punktiert; Halsschild etwas kiirzer als breit, die Seiten von der 
Basis bis tiber die Mitte hinaus gerade und parallel, hierauf bis zur Spitze 
stark gerundet, die Hinterecken nur wenig abgerun- 
det, oben in der Mitte stark erhoéht, am Vorderrande 
mit einer Reihe von Tuberkeln, vorn auf der Scheibe 
mit zahlreichen quergestellten schmalen Hoéckerchen, 
welche fast in concentrischen Kreisen angeordnet 
sind, nach der Basis hin und auf den Seiten kornig 
punktiert, yorne mit Haaren, nach hinten mit ein- 
zelnen bless-gelben Schuppen bedeckt. Die Fliigel- 
decken fast cylinderformig, viel langer als breit, in 
Reihen gross punktiert, die Zwischenriume flach und 
jiusserst fein einreihig punktiert, die Punkte viel Sate een 
weiter auseinanderstehend als in den Punktstreifen,  strohmeyer. An- 
zwischen den Streifen abwechselnd Reihen yon enna. 12 x ver- 
Schuppen und Haaren. oon 

-Auffallend gross ist bei diesem Cryphalus das erste Glied der Fihler- 
geisel, (funiculus) (Fig. 3). Wegen der ausgerandeten Augen gehort 
der Kifer in die erste der von Hichhoff gebildeten Cryphalus-Gruppen. 


IPIN 4. 
COCCOTRYPES Hichhoff. 
Coccotrypes graniceps Hichhoff. 5 


Coccotrypes graniceps Hichhoff, Ratio, descriptio, emendatio Tomicinorum 
(1878), 314. 


Necros, Maao, P. I. (1400, Charles S. Banks). 
Futterpflanze: Cacao (Theobroma cacao Linn.) 
Hin Exemplar in meiner Sammlung. 


DO -  STROHMEYER. 


Hichhoff’s Beschreibung passt sehr gut auf beide Exemplare nur fehlt 
den mir vorliegenden die kleine Stirnleiste. Dieses Merkmal ist aber bei 
vielen Borkenkaferarten sehr wenig constant, manchmal auch nur Ge- 
schlechtskennzeichen, jedenfalls gentigt es nicht um diese Exemplare als 
eime andere Art anzusehen. 

Bisher war dieser Kafer nur in Japan gefunden worden. 


OZOPEMON Hagedorn. 
Ozopemon laevis sp. nov. , 


Femina: oblonga, cylindrica, nitida, parce pilosa, flava, prothorace 
anteriore et capite flavo-ferruginea, elytris antice flavis, postice flavo- 
ferrugineis, irregulariter infuscatis; yertice tenuissime strigoso-punctato, 
linea mediana, valde infuscata; fronte antice leviter impressa, fortiter 
punctata, punctis magnis, linea mediana elevata, angusta non infuscata, 
prothorace fere globoso, latitudine yix breviore, lateribus leviter apice 
fortiter rotundato, angulis porticis rotundatis, dorso convexo subgibbo, 
anterius et in lateribus tuberculis vel rugis transversis infuscatis, subcon- 
centrice ordinatis scabrato, postice in disco evidenter sat dense punctato ; 
elytris cylindricis, prothorace vix latioribus et illo prope duplo longiori- 
bus, humeris rotundatis, lateribus longe ultra medium parallelis, dein 
fortiter conjunctim rotundatis, striato-punctatis, punctis sat magnis et 
confertis, striis antice haud postice obsolete impressis, interstitiis fere 
planis, laevibus, uniseriatim punctatis punctis minoribus quam in striis et 
magnis distantibus, apice retuso plano, interstitiis uniseriatim tubercu- 
latis, tuberculis piliferis; abdomine subtus punctato et sparsim aequaliter 
pilosa. 

Long. 4.1 mm., latitudo maxima 1.7 mm.; prothoracis longitudo 1.4 
mm., latitudo 1.6 mm.; elytrorum longitudo 2.7 mm., latitudo 1.7 mm. 

Minporo, Calapan, P. I. (J. L. Webb legit). 

Type 2 No. 1421 in der Entomologischen Sammlung des Bureau of 
Science, Manila, P. I. 

_ Paratype, 2, im meiner Sammlung. 

Weibchen. lLanglich, cylindrisch, glanzend, diinn behaart, gelb, vor- 
derer Teil des Halsschildes und Kopf rotlichgelb, Fliigeldecken an der 
Basis gelb, nach hinten rotlichgelb mit unregelmassig verteilten dunkleren 
Triibungen, Scheitel sehr fein gestichelt punktiert, mit brauner Mittel- 
linie; Stirn vorn leicht eingedriickt, stark punktiert, mit sehr schmaler 
etwas erhohter Mittellinie; Halsschild fast kugelig, etwas breiter als lang, 
an den Seiten leicht, an der Spitze stark gerundet, nach vorn etwas ver- 
schmalert, Hinterecken stark gerundet, oben stark convex, vorn und auf 
den Seiten mit dunkleren quergestellten schmalen Kornchen, die fast in 
concentrischen Kreisen angeordnet sind, hinten auf der Scheibe deutlich 
und ziemlich dicht punktiert; Fliigeldecken cylindrisch, wenig breiter 


“ Deutsche Ent. Ztschr. (1908), 382, und dieselbe Ztschr. (1910), 1, 2 und 3; 
Fig. 43a, 1. m. 


BORKENKAFER DER PHILIPPINEN. 23 


als das Halsschild und fast doppelt so lang als dieses, Schultern gerundet, 
Seiten weit tiber die Mitte parallel, dann 

nach hinten stark gerundet, in Streifen 

punktiert, die Punkte ziemlich gross und 

dicht aneinandergereiht, die Streifen nur 

nach hinten leicht vertieft, die Zwischen- ic. 4—ozopemon laevis Stroh- 
riume fast eben und je mit einer Punktreihe Pek ee (scapus et 
versehen, die Punkte kleiner und weitliu- , 

figer als in den Streifen. Absturz abgeflacht, die Zwischenriiume hier 
je mit einer haartragenden Kérnchenreihe ; Abdomen unterseits punktiert 
und diinn gleichmissig behaart. 

Dieser Kafer gehort einer fiusserst interessanten Gattung 
an, tiber deren Lebenweise noch gar nichts bekannt ist. 
Die Maxillarbewaffung (s. Abb.) welche aus breiten siche!- 
formigen Dornen besteht, deutet jedoch darauf hin, dass 
wit es mit einem Basthbewohner und keinem technisch 
schiidlichen Holz-Insekte zu tun haben, trotzdem die iius- 
sere Form sehr an Xyleborus-Arten erinnert, zumal das 
Halsschild ziemlich deutlich gebucicelt ist. 


Fie. 5.—Ozope- 
mon laevis 
Strohmeyer. 

Oblongus, cylindricus, nitidus, parce pilosus, nigropi- Mentum 


ceus, prothorace, capite, antennis pedibusque rufescentibus ; ees. 
fronte nitida, obsolete punctata, antice leviter impressa; 
prothorace latitudine vix breviore, lateribus, fere rectis, apice fortiter, 
rotundato, angulis posticis subrectis vix rotundatis, dorso convexo sub- 
gibbo, anterius et in lateribus tuberculis vel rugis 
transyersis subconcentrice ordinatis scabrato, 
postice subtilissime parce punctato, nitido; elytris 
eylindricis, prothorace vix latrioribus et illo prope 
duplo longioribus, humeris rotundatis, lateribus 
fere usque ad apicem parallelis, dein fortiter con- 
junctim rotundatis, striato-punctatis, punctis 
parvis non confertis, striis haud impressis, inter- HS recone eae 
stitiis latis planis laevibus alternatim irregulariter 
uni- vel biseriatim parcius punctatis, punctis minoribus et multo magis 
quam in striis distantibus; declivitate postica subtruncatoretusa, con- 
vexiuscula, ambitu postice acutius marginato, interstitiis uniseriatim 
tuberculatis, tuberculis aureo setosis. 

Longitudo 6.0 mm. ; longitudo thoracis 2.1 mm. 

Luzon, Bataan, Limay, P. I. (R. J. Alvarez legit). 

Type No. 12007 in der Entomologischen Sammlung des Bureau of 
Science, Manila, P. I. 

Paratype in meiner Sammlung. 

Langgestreckt, cylinderformig, glinzend, wenig behaart, dunkel pech- 
farben; Halsschild, Kopf, Antennen und Beine rotlich-braun. Stirn 


Ozopemon major sp. nov. 


24 STROHMEYER. 


glinzend undeutlich punktiert mit emmem wenig vertieften Liangsein- 
drucke in der Mitte; Halsschild kaum kiivzer als lang, Seiten fast gerade, 
vorn stark gerundet, Hinterecken fast rechtwinkelig, wenig abgerundet, 
oben stark conyex, in der Mitte etwas gebukelt, auf der vorderen Hilfte 
und auf den Seiten quergerunzelt, die Erhéhungen beinahe in concentri- 
schen Kreisen angeordnet, hinten glatt sehr sparsam und fein punktiert, 
glinzend ; Fliigeldecken cylinderformig, kaum breiter als das Halsschild 
aber fast doppelt so lang, die Schultern gerundet, die Seiten weit iiber 
die Mitte parallel, alsdann gemeinsam gerundet, in Streifen punktiert, die 
Punkte klein und nicht sehr dicht gestellt die Streifen nicht vertieft, die 

Zwischenriume breit, eben, glatt, abwechselnd unregelmissig ein- und 
- gweireihig punktiert mit dusserst feinen weit getrennt stehenden Punk- 
ten; Fliigeldecken-Absturz ziemlich abschtissig, wenig gewolbt, nach 
hinten ziemlich scharf gerandet, die Zwischenraéume hier mit je einer 
Reihe goldgelbe Haare tragenden K6rnchen. 

Diese Ozopemon-Art ist die grosste under allen bisher beschriebenen 
und ahnelt bei oberflichlicher Betrachtung in der Form sehr einem Bos- 
trychiden aus der Gattung Sinoxylon. 

Bisher sind nur die folgenden Arten dieser Gattung bekannt geworden: 
Ozopemon rugatus Blandford (Sarawak, Borneo). 

Ozopemon sumatranus Blandford (Sumatra, Mt. Singalang). 
Ozopemon gravidus Blandford (Sarawak, Borneo). 
Ozopemon regius Hagedorn (Sumatra). 
Ozopemon theklae Hagedorn (Sumatra). 

yar. sirambeanus Hagedorn (Si-Rambé, Sumatra). 

var. singalangicus Hagedorn (Mt. Singalang, Sumatra). 
Ozopemon. obanus Hagedorn (Mentawei Inseln). 
Ozopemon fuscicolus Hagedorn (Jaya u. Sumatra). 
Ozopemon laevis Strohmeyer (Mindoro, Philippines). 
Ozopemon major Strohmeyer (Luzon, Philippines). 


Ot He Oo Ww t+ 


OW AH 


Ill. Smrrpentata.” 


XYLEBORIN~. 
XYLEBORUS Bichhoff. 


Xyleborus perforans Wollaston. 
Tomicus perforans Woll., Cat. Col. Mad. (1854), 96; Col. Hesperid. (1867), 
113. 
Xyleborus kraatzii Hichh., Berl. Ent. Ztschr. (1868), 152; Ratio Tomici- 
norum (1878), 374; Blandford, W. F. H., Report on the destruction of 
bear casks in India, London, 1893. 


Nzcros, Maao, P. I. (416 Charles S. Banks). 
Ein @ in meiner Sammlung. 


Beide Exemplare gohéren der kleinen Horm des X. perforans an, 


2 Haged. Ent. Blatter (1909), 5, 163. 


BORKENKAFER DER PHILIPPINEN. 25 


t 


welche Hichhoff noch von der grésseren Form affinis trennte. Als 
Fundorte dieser Varietiit waren bicher bekannt: Madeira, Indien, Ceylon, 
Andamanen, Tonkin, Siam, Malayische Region, Jamaika, Amazonas, 
Sechellen, Madagaskar, Ost-Africa und die Insel Principe. In meiner 
Sammlung befinden sich ausserdem Exemplare yon den Cap Verde 
Inseln, Upolu (Samoa Ins.) sowie den Aroe- und Key-Inseln. 


Xyleborus perforans var. philippinensis Hichh. 

Ayleborus kraatzti var. philippinensis Hichhoff, Ratio Tomicinorum (1879), 
343. 

Xyleborus perforans var. philippinensis Hichhoff; Blandford, Report on the 
destruction of beer casks in India by the attacks of a boring beetle 
(Xyleborus perforans Woll.) London (1893), 12 u. 46 (Appendix). 

Luzon, Laguna, Magdalena, P. I. (No. 410 W. Schultze) 1 2 in 
meiner Sammlung. 

Futterpflanze: Cocosnuss (Cocos nucifera Linn.) 

Diese Kafer unterscheiden sich von den typischen XY. perforans Woll. 
(X. kraatzvi Bichh.) durch ihre bedeutendere Grosse, dunklere, briiunliche, 
Farbung und die aufallend groben Punktstreifen auf den Fliigeldecken. 
Auch sind die Streifen neben der Naht sehr deutlich vertieft. Ich halte 
es noch fiir sehr zweifelhaft ob dieser Kifer nur eine Varietat des 
perforans ist, die Entscheidung dieser Frage bei eimem Vertreter dieser 
fusserst schwer zu bestimmenden Xyleborus-Gruppe muss verschoben 
werden his mehr Material vorliegt. 

Sobald mehr Exemplare dieser Art besonders auch Miannchen, vorliegen, 
wird sich feststellen lassen, ob wir nur eine Varietiit des perforans oder 
eine gute Art vor uns haben. 


Subgenus Eurydactylus Hagedorn. 


Eurydactylus sexspinosus Motschulsky. 

Becoptopterus sexspinosus Motsch., Bull. Mosecou (1863), 36, 515. 

Xyleborus abnormis Hichhoff, Berl. Ent. Ztschr. (1868), 282. 

Ayleborus abnormis Hichhoff, Ratio Tomicinorum (1879), 343. 

Piatydactylus abnormis Hichhoff, Notes Leyd. Mus. (1898), 8, p. 25. 

Platydactylus sexspinosus Motsch., Blandford Indian Mus. Notes (1893), 3, 
§5. 

Burydactylus sexspinosus Motsch., Hagedorn, Deutsche Ent. Ztschr. (1909), 
733. 

Neeros, Mailum, P. I. (6498, Charles S. Banks). 

Ein Exemplar in meimer Sammlung. 

Als Fundorte waren bisher bekannt: Ceylon, Indien, Jaya, Sumatra, 
Philippinen (Luzon), fiir die Varietét H. multispinosus Hagedorn: 
Kamerun.*® In meiner Sammlung habe ich ein Exemplar von sez- 
spinosus aus Deutsch-Ost-Afrika; Hagedorn sah diesen Kifer auch in 
Zanzibar-Kopal. Als Nihrpflanzen sind bis jetzt bekannt: Reis, Kakao 
und Kaffeebaum. 


8 Deutsche Ent. Ztschr. (1908), 377. 


26 STROHMEYER. 


PLATYPODID. 
CROSSOTARSUS Chapuis. 


Gruppe: CROSSOTARSI GENUINI Chapuis. 
Crossotarsus comatus Chapuis. 


Crossotarsus comatus Chapuis, Monographie des Platypides (1865), 59, fig. 5. 


Nueros, Maao, P. I. (417 Charles 8. Banks). 
Ein @ in meimer Sammlung. 
Diese Art war bisher nur aus Celebes bekannt (Chapuis). 


PLATYPUS Herbst. 


Gruppe: PLATYPI suLcATI Chapuis. 


Platypus jansoni Chapuis. 
Platypus jansoni Chapuis, Monographie des Platypides (1865), 244, fig. 146. 


Nezeros, Maao, P. I. (413 Charles S. Banks). 

Kin ¢ in meiner Sammlung. 

Hichhoff kannte diese Art von Neu-Guinea, den Molukken und von 
Celebes. 

Gruppe: PLATYPI CUPULATI Chapuis. 


‘Phatypus schultzei sp. nov. 


Mas: elongatus angustus, ferrugineo testaceus elytris apice infuscatis ; 
vertice fortiter punctato punctis majoribus, linea mediana levi infuscata ; 
fronte rugose punctata, stria mediana parva impressa; prothorace nitido 
sparsim irregulariter punctato, lea mediana in postica parte, congeriebus 
punctorum duabus minimis ad latera lineae medianae; elytris evidenter 
striato-punctatis, stria suturali sulcata, interstitiis laevibus uniseriatim 
irregulariter punctatis punctis multo minoribus quam in striis, depres- 
sione postica circulari, inferne emarginata, emarginationis margine dente 
obtuso armato, angulo suturali obtuso. 

Longitudo: 4.0 mm. 

Fem: flavescens, fronte rugose punctata, linea mediana parva; pro- 
thorace sat dense punctulata, in postica parte congeriebus punctorum 
duabus magnis semi-ovalibus ad latera lineae medianae; elytris striato- 
punctatis, punctis parvis obsolete impressis, stria suturae proxima im- 
pressa, interstitiis sparsim uniseriatim punctulatis punctis minimis. 

Longitudo: 4.4 mm. 

Neeros, Maao, P. I. (Charles S. Banks legit). 

Typen 1 ¢ u.1 2 No. 1594 in der Hntomologischen Sammlung des 
Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. 


-“Bekanntlich hat Chapuis die g g u. 9 9 der Platypodiden durchgingig 
verwechselt; fig. 5 stellt deshalb nicht wie angegeben das 9 sondern das ¢ dar. 


BORKENKAFER DER PHILIPPINEN. iil 


Paratypen 1 6 u.1 2 in meiner Sammlung. 
Minnchen. Langgestreckt, schmal, rétlichgelb, die Fliigeldecken nach 
hinten dunkler; Scheitel stark und grob punktiert 
mit glatter dunkler Mittellinie; Stim grob punk- 
tiert, mit kurzem strichformigem Hindruck in der 
Mitte; Halsschild glinzend unregelmiissig sparsam 
punktiert, hinten mit glatter Mittellinie, an den 


Seiten dieser Linie je ein kleiner aus wenigen (circa Fic. 7.—Platypus 

3 : : Z Cass oo schultzet Stroh- 
8-10) deutlichen Punkten gebildeter Flecken ; Flii- Oren, ene 
geldecken mit deutlichen Punkstreifen, die beiden et marginatio pos- 


tica, 15 X ver- 


neben der Naht liegenden Streifen vertieft, die eruegert: 


Zwischenriume glatt unregelmiissig einreihig punk- 
tiert, die Punkte viel kleiner als diejenigen in den Streifen; der tiefe 
Bindruck am Fliigeldecken-Absturz kreisf6rmig, innen ausgeschnitten 
und am Rande mit stumpfen Zahne jederseits versehen, 
Suturalecken der Fliigeldecken stumpfwinkelig. 
Weibchen. Blass gelblich; die Stirn grob punktiert, 
die Mittellinie kurz; Halsschild ziemlich dicht fein 
punktiert, hinten neben der Mittellinie je ein grosser 
halbovaler Punktflecken, bestehend aus sehr zahlreichen yg. Platypus 


ausserst kleinen Punkten; die Fliigeldecken mit Punkt- TEIOCHEES Sore Be 
. . : . . puis. epres- 
streifen, die Punkte kleiner als beim ¢ und wenig ver- ain @ mens 


tieft, die Suturalstreifen vertieft, die Zwischenriume WO mestien. ik 
2 ae9 : 2 xX  vergrossert. 
sparsam einreihig fein punktiert. 

Diese Art gehort in die Niihe von Platypus lepidus Chapuis und Pl. 
caliculus Chap. ; unterscheidet sich jedoch von beiden Arten leicht durch 
die Form des Ausschnittes am Fliigeldecken-Absturze (Fig. 7 u. 8). 

In meiner Sammlung befinden sich genau gleiche Exemplare von der 
Insel Sumatra. 


ILLUSTRATIONEN. 


TAarer I. 


Yakal-Rinde mit Frassfigur von Spherotrypes philippinensis Strohmeyer. 


TEXTFIGUREN. 


Fic. 1 und 2. Spherotrypes philippinensis Strohmeyer. Mentum, palpi labiales et 


3. 


maxillae. 80X vergréssert. 
Cryphalus squamulosus Strohmeyer. Antenna. 125 vergréssert. 


4-6. Ozopemon laevis Strohmeyer. 


4. Antenna (scapus et funiculus). 

5. Mentum (palpi labiales et ligula). 

6. 

7. Platypus schultzei Strohmeyer. Depressio et marginatio postica. 15X 


Maxilla. 


vergrossert. 


. Platypus lepidus Chapuis. Depressio et marginatio postica. 15x ver- 


grossert. 
29 


pe shea 
nr | 


STROHMEYE 


BORENKAFER DER PHILIPPINEN. | [Pnim. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 1: 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 1, February, 1911. 


NOTES ON THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF HYDROCORAX. 


By Hotton C. Curt. 
(Surgeon, United States Navy.) 


Because of their peculiar appearance and strange habits, the hornbills 
have always been of popular and scientific interest, and a very large 
number of articles have been written about them. 

Their method of nesting, mode of flight, and gross anatomy have been 
abundantly described, while some fairly good accounts of their habits 
have been given.* 

In order to try to learn something regarding the periodical casting-off 
of the lining of the stomach, as described first by Bartlett,? I have recently 
made a series of histological sections of the various parts of the gastro- 
intestinal tract of Hydrocorax hydrocorax (Linneus), and find facts of 
sufficient interest to record. 

The best results are obtained by taking small portions of tissue from 
a recently collected bird and placing them in a 10 per cent aquous 
formalin solution for eighteen hours; from this, the tissue is transferred 
to 70 per cent alcohol, where it is kept until ready to use. 

Within a few days one may embed the tissues in parafine, cut 
moderately thin sections, and stain by the Van Gieson or by the hema- 
toxylin and eosin method. The Van Gieson stain has the very desirable 
quality of giving a perfect differentiation. Muscle stains yellow, con- 
nective tissue stains red, and colloid tissue stains orange. 

By this stam, the muscular coat can readily be separated from the 
mucous and serous coats, while by its nuclear staiming the cells are well- 
defined and add to the clearness of the picture. 

Before giving a description of the sections, I wish to call attention to 
several statements, found in standard books, regarding hornbills and 
which I do not find to correspond with my examinations and observations 
of Hydrocoraa hydrocorar. For example, Newton * says that the “horn- 


* Newton, Dictionary of Birds, London (1893), 432-437. 
2 Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1869), 142-146. 


5 Loc. cit. 
31 


32 : CURL. 


bill, at least in captivity, never has any fat about him.” The species 
mentioned is often found to be extremely fat and it takes a long time 
to remove the thick layer from the skin, while the abdomen contains fat 
in quantities. In other specimens collected under similar conditions, 
very little fat is present. Again, the statement that the large hornbills 
make so much noise when flying that they “can be heard a mile,” does 
not apply to the bird mentioned. 

The most important thing which my findings tend to show to be in 
error, is regarding the muscular layers of the intestine. Authorities 
make the general statement that the circular layer of the intestine is 
found eaternal to the longitudinal layer, as in the cesophagus. This is 
true in some birds, but in many it is by no means so. In Hydrocoraz, 
in @Mtheopsar, in Anas, and in Bubulcus, the Van Gieson stain shows 
clearly that the intestine has an outer longitudinal layer of muscle in 
contact with the peritoneum; next, internal to this, a circular layer 
and still more internally, a thinner longitudinal layer, with some oblique 
fibers and intimately blended with the submucosa. This last layer of 
muscle corresponds very closely to the muscularis mucose In mammals 
and is sometimes so developed as to become a fairly thick longitudinal 
layer. These layers are shown very clearly in the photomicrograph of 
the intestine of Hydrocorax hydrocorar. Anyone familiar with histo- 
logical technique can verify the above in the genera mentioned, and I 
dare say in many others by using a two-thirds inch objective for routine 
and one-sixth inch for occasional differentiating. 

In the following descriptions of the parts of the alimentary tract, 
the measurements given are from alcoholic specimens, previously run 
through the 10 per cent formalin and are slightly less than those from 
fresh material. The cesophagus, proventriculus, stomach, and intestine 
are described and photomicrographs given to show the histology. 

The cesophagus is 200 millimeters in length and will admit the thumb 
when fully dilated; at the lower end it becomes funnel-shaped and 
increases in size as it reaches the proventriculus. The mucous mem- 
brane is thrown into longitudinal corrugations which run unbroken for 
almost the entire length; these corrugations project further into the 
lumen in front than behind throughout the upper three-fourths; in the 
lower fourth, they are of about equal size on all sides. Dilatation of 
the cesophagus does not obliterate them and the best-developed ones 
measure 2 millimeters in height. 

A cross section shows microscopically that there is an external, circular, 
muscular layer; next, an internal, longitudinal layer intimately connected 
with the mucosa, in fact projecting inward into the bases of the ruge. 

The mucous membrane being thrown into longitudinal corrugations, 
a cross section gives a circle of inward projections with connective tissue 
frame work, the usual blood vessels, and covered with epithelium. A 
layer of globular cells lies beneath the epithelium and each opens by a 


DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF HYDROCORAX, 33 


short duct on the free surface of the membrane. The deeper cells of 
the epithelium show round nuclei; these become flatter toward the free 
inner surface, and at the surface they are almost as flat as those seen in 
the skin. Apparently only simple mucus for lubrication is secreted by 
the lining of the esophagus. The photomicrograph shows the structures 
quite well. 

The proventriculus is 30 millimeters in length and the wall is 8 
millimeters thick in the thickest part, just above the sphincter muscle 
which lies between it and the stomach. 'The inner surface is thickly set 
with the mouths of glands and when examined in a recently collected 
bird, is covered with a thick coat of sticky, mucoid material. On section, 
an outer fibrous coat is seen; next a strong, circular, muscular layer; 
then a longitudinal, muscular layer on which rests a layer of glands 
beneath the mucosa. The glands of this layer are large, each is inclosed 
in a connective tissue capsule and, somewhat like a salivary gland, 
presents a radiating, tubular structure with a central space in which there 
are very few cells and which is filled with mucoid material. Hach gland 
(or at least those of the inner layers), opens on the free surface of the 
mucous membrane by a wide mouth, which passes through the mucosa 
proper. They resemble “Brunner’s” glands in that they lie below the 
muscularis mucose. Internal to this glandular layer is the mucosa 
proper, of ordinary type, with villi projecting from the surface and with 
a network of muscle fibers, forming a true, reticulate muscularis maucose. 

It is evident that the glandular layer of the proventriculus is a highly 
specialized structure, undoubtedly supplying the essential digestive fluid 
for this part of the tract. his is the more certain when we remember 
that the tough, deciduous membrane of the stomach, about to be described, 
would effectively prevent any digestive fluid which might be secreted by 
the glands of the stomach from coming in contact with the food. 

The stomach of this large hornbill when empty, is oval with flattened 
sides and varies in thickness from 2 millimeters on the membranous 
sides, to 11 millimeters where the muscle is thickest. The muscle fibers 
eross in a radiating manner from one tendinous disk to the similar disk 
on the other side, and are reinforced by numerous other fibers arising 
from the membranous, internal muscle-sheath. There is the usual 
modification of fibers at the cardiac and pyloric openings and at the 
cardiac opening a round, cord-like, circular muscle, 5 millimeters in 
diameter, acts as a strong sphincter between the proventriculus and 
stomach. At the pyloric opening the sphincter is less well-marked. 

The entire lining of the stomach is corrugated and presents a brownish, 
irregular surface. On section this is seen to be due to the deciduous” 
membrane which, depending on its stage of development, is’ more or 
less loosely attached to the stomach proper. The cardiac and pyloric 
openings are but 15 millimeters apart. As the entire organ when empty 

1010963 


34 CURL. 


is 50 millimeters in diameter, and when filled with food twice as 
large, it can readily be seen that when the lining membrane is cast off 
entire, it forms a sac with 
the two openings close to- 
gether at the top. 

In a stomach where the 
sac-like lining is about to be 
cast off, it separates from 
the entire surface of the 
stomach before its upper, 
neck-like portion separates 
finally around the pyloric 
opening, at which point it 
thins down rapidly and dis- 
appears just above the 
sphincter muscle. On the 
other hand, in a specimen 
where the lining membrane 


Fic. 1.—Stomach of Hydrocorax hydrocoraxz show- 
ing: A, deciduous membrane almost 
ready to be cast off (note its separa- is im an earlier stage of for- 


tion) ; B, stomach before the prepara- 


tory separation has taken place. mation (a. €., Soon after the 


last one has been cast off), 
no macroscopical separation can be demonstrated, although microscop- 
ically the line of future separation is well seen. 

On section the stomach is found to have an external serous coat, a 
thick muscular coat, and a mucous lining. There is nothing peculiar 
about the serous and muscular layers. The mucous membrane shows 
closely studded, long, finger-like villi which have tubular glands at their 
bases and are covered by a single layer of cells with large nuclei. 

When the deciduous membrane is just beginning to form, the spaces 
between the villi are filled with colloid-appearing material which stains 
a bright orange-yellow by the Van Gieson method. A little later this 
layer becomes thicker and lies as a continuous coat over the entire inside 
of the stomach. Before it is ready to be thrown off, it becomes in fact, 
thicker than the mucosa itself. The deciduous membrane is of homo- 
geneous structure, is quite tough, and on its mucous-membrane side is 
an accurate cast of the ruge of the stomach. It seems certain that this 
layer, which is so peculiarly cast off, is formed by secretion from the 
glands of the stomach and after reaching its full thickness, separates 
spontaneously, leaving the glands to begin at once the formation of a 
new sac. 

The intestine is from 920 to 950 millimeters in length and, having 
no cecum, is not clearly divisible into large and small portions except 
possibly by its structure when examined from within. The mucous 


DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF HYDROCORAX. 35 


membrane of the upper three-fourths has a velvet-like feel and shows 
long villi lying close together. At a point about 250 millimeters from 
the rectum and about where one would expect to find the cea, if such 
did exist, there is a short section of the gut which is dilated, has thin 
walls, and an entirely different type of villi. his section is about 70 
millimeters in length, and below it one again finds villi of the same 
type as occur in the upper intestine. 

The intestine differs from the cesophagus in the position of the mus- 
cular layers. A section shows externally the serous coat, made up of 
connective tissue; next to this a well-developed longitudinal muscular 
coat ; next, internal to this, the circular muscular layer. The muscularis 
mucose lies internal to this circular layer and then comes the mucosa 
with its epithelial lining. This is shown perfectly in the cross-section 
of the gut where the outer longitudinal fibers are seen cut across and 
the circular fibers are seen in their circular plane. Simple alveolar 
glands lie at the base of the villi. 

After this brief description of the digestive tract, the following points 
appear worth considering: I have collected three large hornbills at 
practically the same time, months after the breeding season was over, and 
found the deciduous membrane in three different stages of development ; 
one was separated entirely from the stomach except for a narrow zone 
around the cardiac opening, one was just beginning to form, and the 
third was in an intermediate stage. At other seasons the same has been 
found and in some, the sac, ready to be cast off, was packed full of 
indigestible parts of the fruit on which the birds were feeding. It seems 
reasonable to suppose that, at least when the breeding season is past, 
the food, mixed with, and acted upon by, the secretion of the pro- 
ventricular glands, passes into the deciduous sac lining the stomach ; here 
muscular action completes the mixing, triturates the food, and prepares 
the digestible parts to pass over into the duodenum. ‘The refuse is then 
periodically ejected in the membranous sac. Whether this routine is 
changed at the breeding season, I can not say. 

Another point of interest is the abrupt change in the character of the 
mucous membrane in the short section of the gut at about the point one 
would expect to find ceca; this, together with the dilitation and thinning 
of the intestinal wall at this point may suggest the explanation of the 
absence of ceca in certain species where the diet is similar to that of 
others in which these organs are present. Is it not possible that the 
mucous membrane of the gut itself takes on, in these specialized areas, 
the functions performed by the ceca in other birds? In Bubulcus for 
example, where the bud-like, single cecum is very short, the mucous 
membrane of the adjacent gut contains numerous masses of lymphoid 
tissue, from 90 to 250 millimeters in diameter, not found in other parts 


36 CURL. 


of the intestine, but found in the cecal bud itself. As we know, in many 
animals where there is no appendix, the head of the cecum contains a 
great increase of lymphoid tissue. 

Numerous interesting superstitions and beliefs concerning the calao, 
or great Philippine hornbill, are found among the natives and are worth 
collecting, while a systematic and accurate study of the bird’s habits 
would well repay the observer. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Prate I. 


Fic. 1. Cross section of esophagus of Hydrocorax hydrocoracz. 

2. Longitudinal section of proventriculus of Hydrocorax hydrocorax: A, 
Mucous membrane; B, muscularis mucosae; C, specialized glands; D, 
muscular coats. 

PuatTe II. 


Fic. 3. Section of stomach of Hydrocorax hydrocorax: A, Deciduous membrane; 
B, mucosa; C, muscular coats; D, peritoneum. 
4. Cross section of intestine of Hydrocorax hydrocorax: A, Peritoneum; B, 
longitudinal layer of muscle; C. circular layer of muscle; D, muscularis 
mucose beneath the mucosa. 


TEXT FIGURE. 


Fig. 1. Stomach of Hydrocorax hydrocoraz showing: A, deciduous membrane 
almost ready to be cast off (note its separation); B, stomach before 
the preparatory separation has taken place. 

37 


CurL: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF THYDROCORAN, | {Piis. Journ. Ser, Vou. VI, No. 1, 


ah) . 


CURL: 


DIGESTIVE SYSTHPM OF HYDROCORAX. | 


Fic. 3. 


(Putt. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 1. 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIPNCE, 
D. Generai Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. V1, No. 1, February, 1911. 


NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM NORTHERN 
NEGROS. 


By Ricuarp C. McGrecor, 


(From the Ornithological Section, Biological Laboratory, Bureaw of Science, 
Manila, P. I.) 


The earliest paper on the birds of Negros that I have seen is one by 
Walden and Layard? on a collection made in the southern part of the 
island by Mr. L. C. Layard. Of the seventeen species there recorded 
three are described as new. In 1875 Walden published his monograph, 
“A List of the Birds Known to Inhabit the Philippine Archipelago,” 
including therein some species obtained in Negros by the German col- 
lector Meyer, and giving the total number of species known from the 
island as thirty-eight. Two years later, Mr. A. H. Everett began his 
explorations in the Philippine Islands which resulted in the discovery 
of the many new species of Philippine birds described and figured by 
Tweeddale in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 
1877-1879. LEverett* collected at Valencia and Dumaguete in the 
southern part of the island and secured specimens of fifty-six species; 
twenty-four of these had not previously been recorded from Negros and 
six of them had not been known from the Philippines. Dasycrotapha 
speciosa, the most remarkable of the three new species discovered by 
Hyverett, was described and figured in a separate paper.* 

In 1874 Steere began his work in the Philippine Islands, visiting 
Negros during the next year, where he obtained specimens of thirty-eight 
species of birds, among them being the following new species which were 
described by Sharpe.° 

Oriolus steert, Diceum hematostictum, Mthopyga magnifica, Anth- 
reptes chlorigaster, and Phapitreron nigrorum. 

As a result of the collections made by the Steere Expedition,® eighty- 
one species were recorded from Negros. Two species, Cryptolopha 


1[bis (1872), 93-107, pls. 4-6. 

2?Trams. Zool. Soc. London (1875), 9, 125-252, 23-34. 

3 Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1878), 280-288. 

* Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1878), 114, pl. 9. 

5 Nature (1876), 14, 297, 298; Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 2d. ser. Zool. (1877), 
307-355, pls. 46-54. 

*A list of the birds and mammals collected by the Steere Expedition to the 


Philippines, Ann Arbor, 1890. 
; 39 


40 : M’GREGOR. 


nigrorum and Abrornis olivacea, collected by the Steere Expedition were 
described and figured by Moseley.” 

Bourns and Worcester * added twenty-four species to the Negros list 
and described the following as new: Phapitreron maculipectus, Batra- 
chostomus menagei, Ceya nigrirostris, Oriolus nigrostriatus (= steeri), 
Aithopyga bomta, Hyloterpe winchelli, and Rhinomyias albigularis. 

Grant’s ° report on Whitehead’s collection includes notes on eighty-six 
species, three being described as new: Turdus nigrorum, Brachypteryx 
brunneiceps, and Cittocincla nigrorwm. 

In 1894 Clarke began a series of papers based upon birds collected in 
Negros by W. A. Keay.t° In these papers eighty-six species are recorded 
and one new species, Phloganas keayi, is described and figured. 

In February and March, 1909, Mr. Andres Celestino made collections 
in the vicinity of Cadiz, northern Negros, and the species obtained by 
him are listed in the present paper. The following species are believed 
to be here recorded from this island for the first time: Astur trivirgatus, 
Tachorms pallidior, Cyanomyias celestis, and Aithopyga bonita. 


LIST OF SPECIES. 
TRERONIDAZ. 
Osmotreron axillaris (Bonaparte) . 
One female. 
Phapitreron maculipectus Bourns and Worcester. 


The collection contains nine specimens of this rare dove. The collector 
gives the length as 280 to 292 millimeters; eyes brown; bill black; feet 
red ; nails brown. 


Measurements of Phapitreron maculipectus. 


Culmen 
Sex. Wing. | Tail. | from | Tarsus. 
base. 

mm. mm. mm. mm. 

145 118 24 21 

143 120 23 20 

145 118 24.5 20 

141 114 27 18 

DOs 2 see ee ee ee eee 147 120 24 19 
149 119 23 19 

140 112 23 18 

145 118 22 18 

137 102 22 19 


® This specimen is in poor plumage. 


TIbis (1891), 46, 47, pl. 2. 

5 Minnesota Acad. Nat. Sci. Occ. Papers (1894), 1, 1-64. 

°Tbis (1896), 325-565. 

This (1894), 532-535; Second Contribution, bid. (1895), 473-479; Part Ill, 
Tbid. (1898), 119-124; Part IV, Ibid. (1900), 351-361, pl. 8. 


BIRDS FROM NORTHERN NEGROS.-— - 41 


Phapitreron nigrorum Sharpe. 


Three males and one female. 


Leucotreron occipitalis (Bonaparte) . 

Two males in fine, adult plumage. This yellow-breasted fruit pigeon 
was taken in Negros by Whitehead also. 
Muscadivores chalybura (Bonaparte). 


One specimen. 


Zonophaps poliocephala (Hartlaub). 
One pair in fine adult plumage. 


COLUMBIDA. 
Columba griseogularis (Walden and Layard). 


Two females. Some individuals of this species from Batan, Batanes, 
have the bills considerably longer than the Negros examples, but the 
difference is not constant. 

ARDEIDA. 


Bubulcus coromandus (Boddaert) . 


One female in winter plumage. 


FALCONIDA. 
Astur trivirgatus (Temminck). 
One specimen, an immature male. This species has not, so far, been 
recorded from Negros. 
Spilornis panayensis Steere. 


One adult male in good plumage. 


PSITTACIDA. 
Prioniturus discurus (Vieillot). 
A pair, taken February 24, and a female, taken March 10, are in fine 
plumage. 
Tanygnathus lucionensis (Linnus). 
Two adult males; in one specimen the blue of the crown and nape 
is unusually dark. 
Loriculus regulus Souancé. 
One male and three females of the central island colasisi were collected ; 
the male is in immature plumage. 
ALCEDINIDA. ® 
Ceyx bournsi Steere. 


The only specimen, a female, of Bourns’s kingfisher in this collection 
has a considerable quantity of black mixed with the deep blue of the upper 
surface. 


4? M’GREGOR. 


Halcyon moseleyi (Steere). 


One female specimen of this very rare kingfisher was collected on 
February 19. Wing, 108 millimiters; tail, 86; culmen from base, 46; 
tarsus, 15. Length, taken by the collector, 265 millimeters. 


BUCEROTIDAZ. 


Penelopides panini (Boddaert). 
One pair of the Panay tarictic. 


Craniorrhinus waldeni Sharpe. 
Three males and two females of Walden’s hornbill, all in good plumage. 


HEMIPROCNIIDA. 
Hemiprocne major (Hartert). 
One male specimen ; wing, 141 millimeters. 
MICROPODIDZ. 


Tachornis pallidior McGregor. 

One specimen, without sex mark, was collected on March 10. This 

is the first record of the species. 
CUCULIDA. 
Surniculus velutinus Sharpe. 

In an adult female from Cadiz most of the rectrices are conspicuously 
bordered with white and several of the longer upper tail-coverts are 
faintly tipped with the same color. This species was taken in Negros 
by Whitehead also. 


Hierococcyx sparverioides (Vigors). 
> 


Two males in adult plumage. 


Cacomantis merulinus (Scopoli). 
One male specimen. 
CAPITONIDA. 
Xantholama roseum (Dumont). 
Two specimens, male and female. 


PICIDA. 
Yungipicus maculatus (Scopoli). 


‘ 


Four males and one female were taken in February. 


Chrysocolaptes xanthocephalus Walden and Layard. 
One male and one female in good plumage. 


Thriponax hargitti sifarpe. 
Thriponaz hargitti Clarke, Ibis (1895), 475-477; McGregor, Man. Phil. Bds. 
(1909), 1, 409. 
This collection contains three males and four females of Hargiti’s 
black woodpecker ; all of them are in good plumage and well prepared. 


BIRDS FROM NORTHERN NEGROS. 43 


In five specimens there is a wide, buffy white band across the rump, in 
one male the white band in narrow, and in one female most of the back 
and uropygium are bare. ‘The lower mandible in all these Negros speci- 
mens is whitish. The Masbate and Negros birds appear to be of the 
same species and they must be called 7’. hargitti unless Steere’s 7. philip- 
pinensis can be shown to be distinct from the Thriponax of Palawan. 


PITTIDA. 
Pitta erythrogastra Temminck. 


One female. 

HIRUNDINIDA. 
Hirundo rustica Linnzus. 

One female swallow, taken March 17, differs from the other specimens 
from Negros in haying the pectoral band continuous across the fore breast 
and in haying the white of the under surface distinctly washed with 
pale ochreous-pink. 

Hirundo gutturalis Scopoli. 

One female and two male swallows, March 17, are of the eastern 
species. 

MUSCICAPIDA.. 
Cyanomyias ccelestis (Tweeddale) . 

The celestial-blue flycatcher is represented in the present collection 
by an adult female. ‘There appears to be no previous record of this 
species for Negros. 

Rhipidura albiventris (Sharpe). 

Three specimens of the white-bellied fantail. 
Xeocephus rufus (Gray). 

Two males and one female. 

Cryptolopha olivacea (Moseley). 
Two specimens of the olivaceous flycatcher warbler. 


CAMPOPHAGID~-. 


Artamides panayensis Steere. 

Two males and one female. 
Edolisoma panayense Steere. 

This very distinct and handsome cuckoo shrike is represented in the 
present collection by eight males and six females. 

PYCNONOTIDA. 

lole guimarasensis Steere. 

Two males and one female. 


—— ESS ES 


44 M’GREGOR. 


TIMELIIDA. 


> 


Dasycrotapha speciosa Tweeddale. 


The type of this curious species was collected by A. H. Everett at 
Valencia in southern Negros and was described and figured by Tweeddale 
in the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London for 1878. Other 
specimens were secured in Negros by the Steere Expedition and by the 
Menage Expedition. The collection now under consideration contains 
a series of seven males and one female. The sexes appear to be similar 
in color. The structure of the feathers is very similar to that found in 
the various species of Mixornis and Macronous, but the feathers of the 
lower back are not noticeably lengthened, while the orange-colored 
feathers above and behind the eyes are stiff and harsh. The length of 
specimens in the flesh, as given by the collector, is from 145 to 150 milli- 
meters. 

Measurements of four males and one female are given herewith. 


Measurements of Dasycrotapha speciosa. 


Culmen| Bill 
Sex. Wing. | Tail. | from | from | Tarsus. 
base. | nostril. 

mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. 

Malew. 2 a ee 67 56 16 10.5} 18.5 
Do S22 2-2 ss ee Ee 70 58.5 17 11 19 
DO jose ee 68 56 17 11 18 
DO jsa8 22k sate cat ee eee 68 59 16 11 17 
Kemales =~ = See 65 53 15 10 18 

TURDIDA. 


Kittacincla superciliaris Bourns and Worcester. 
Cittocincla nigrorum Grant, Ibis (1896), 547. 


Upon comparison of an adult male shama from Negros with adult 
males from Ticao and Masbate, the characters given for Cvttocincla 
nigrorum do not appear to be valid. In the first place the superciliary 
stripe in all three species is practically of the same width. In K. luzon- 
iensis alone the stripes are connected across the forehead. This species 
is also distinguished by the rusty brown rump, large white spots on 
rectrices, and other characters. In K. swperciliaris the spots on the 
rectrices are much reduced or may be altogether obliterated. The length 
of tarsus in the original description of K. swperciliaris is clearly a 
mistake. : 

A specimen from Cadiz, Negros, marked female, differs from the 
male as follows: The superciliary stripes are continued forward above 
the lores to the base of bill; the upper parts are less glossy;the chin and 
throat are white and there is a narrow band of black across-the.chest. 


EE a | 


BIRDS FROM NORTHERN NEGROS. 45 


Measurements of Kittacinela. 


Cul- 
Species. Sex. Wing. | Tail. | pe Tarsus. 
| 

base. 


mm, mm. mm. mm, 


TAZ ONVENSES = on on ea en 82 82 18 26 
80 73 19 26 
83 74 19.5 | 27 
79 66) 18 25 
78 fil) ilz/ 27 
DO eee ee ea ne Female___ 74 67 17.5] 26.5 


Pratincola caprata (Linneus). 


One male and one female. 
SYLVIIDA. 


Megalurus tweeddalei McGregor. 
One specimen. 
LANIIDA:. 
Hyloterpe winchelli TRONS and Worcester. 
Three males and two females. 


PARIDA. 
Pardaliparus elegans (Lesson). 


One male, March 19, and one female, January 29, from Cadiz, do not 
differ from specimens taken in Bataan Province, Luzon. 


SITTIDA. 
Callisitta cenochlamys (Sharpe). 
One male and two females. 
CERTHIIDA. 
Rhabdornis mystacalis (Temminck). 

A male, the only specimen of Rhabdornis in the present collection, 
differs from specimens taken in Luzon in haying the bill conspicuously 
longer, the feet larger, and the color of the back and rump darker. If 
additional specimens from Negros shovy, that these characters are constant, 
the species may be known as Rhabdornis longirostris. 

ZOSTEROPIDA. 
Zosterops nigrorum Tweeddale. 

Two specimens; one of these is slightly albinistic, having five rectrices 
white, washed with pale yellowish green. 

I have long suspected that a series of birds of this genus, collected 
by me on the little island of Cresta de Gallo, represented a distinct 
species. With topotypes of Zosterops ngrorum at hand I still hesitate 
to separate the Cresta de Gallo individuals as a species, although in the 
latter the wing, tail, and bill average longer and the color of the upper 
parts is more uniform and more yellowish. 


46 M’GREGOR. 


Measurements of Zosterops nigrorum. 


Cul- 
Locality. Wing. | Tail. fon ‘Tarsus. 
base. 
mm. mm. mm. mm. 
Negros=22-) 3 eee 54 42 12.5.) 15 
Dom | 55 38 12 16 
Masbate’ 214 2S - a eae ee eee 52 36.5 13 15.5 
Micsor==_ =f —s =e 806 38 13 16 
Cresta de Gallo__ wae lee DS 44 14 17 
Doles ee 58 44 14 18 
DO: oa set se Se eee 57.5 43 13.5 | 17 
DO w22 Sa fees k aan ss ee 56.5 43 14.5 | 16 


DICAEIDA. 

Diczeum hzematostictum Sharpe. 

Three males and two females. 
Diczeum dorsale Sharpe. 

Four males and one female in fresh plumage. 

NECTARINIIDA. 

AEthopyga magnifica Sharpe. 

One adult male; the types of this species were collected in Negros. 
A=thopyga bonita Bourns and Worcester. 

Two full-plumaged males from Negros differ in no way from a male 


from Ticao and a male from Cebu. This appears to be the first record 
of the Visayan sunbird from the Island of Negros. 


Cinnyris guimarasensis Steere. 


One male and two females of this species were taken in March. 


MOTACILIIDA. 
Anthus rufulus (Vieillot). 


One specimen, January 29. 
PLOCEIDA. 
Munia jagori Martens. 
Two specimens. 
Uroloncha everetti (Tweeddale). 
One specimen, February 4. 


ORIOLIDA= 
Oriolus steeri Sharpe. 


Thirteen males and six females. 
DICRURIDA. 
Dicrurus mirabilis Walden and Layard. 


Two males. 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 1, February, 1911. 


ON A QUINARY NOTATION AMONG THE ILONGOTS OF 
NORTHERN LUZON. 


By Orro ScneeReR. 


Within the area of Austronesian languages there are represented, in 
a pure or in a modified form, all those systems of numeration which are 
designated as quinary, decimal, or vigesimal notations, according as 
they are based upon the counting of tke digits of only one hand, of both 
hands, or of both hands and feet. 

From the Philippines in particular none but decimal systems have 
hitherto been recorded, not excepting such tribes as the Negritos, 
Tagbanwas and similar people of low culture.* 

In view of this general use of decimal series of numerals in the Phil- 
ippines it will be of interest here to make known a case of quinary 
notation in northern Luzon as found by me some time ago in an old 
Kgongot (i. e., Llongot) catechism dating from 1792, and declared by its 
authors, three Spanish missionaries, to be a revision of a still older text.? 

As is to be supposed, the catechism does not give the Egongot numerals 
by way of demonstration. They occur in the text mostly im the form 
of ordinals in such places as “The ten commandments,” “The articles of 
faith,” and the like. Collecting these ordinals I obtain the following list: 


Ta onbucoug the first - Ta catambiang no siyet the sixth 
Ta cadua the second Ta catambiang no dua the seventh 
Ta catgo the third Ta catambiang notgo the eighth 
Ta caapat the fourth Ta catambiang no apat the ninth 
Ta catambiang the fifth Ta catampopoo the tenth 


1 For a full treatise on the numerals of these systems see the praiseworthy 
paper of Professor Frank R. Blake in Journ. Am. Or. Soc. (1907), 28: Contribu- 
tions to Comparative Philippine Grammar, Part II. 

2“Catecismo de doctrina cristiana en Egongot, escrito por el M. R. P. Fray 
Franciseo de la Zarza, O. S. F. Dado 4 luz por Fernando Blumentritt, ... y 
aumentado por el mismo editor con equivalencias del texto egongot 6 ilongote 
en castellano, tagalog y moro de Maguindanao.” (Vienna, 1893). As will 
be shown, the form “Egongot” for “Ilongot” represents an idiomatic pronunciation 
of this word among at least that section of the Ilongots whose dialect is used 
in this catechism. For this reason it is employed by me in this paper as a term 
distinctive for that dialect. 

47 


48 SCHEERER. 


Ta, appearing before each of these numerals, is an Egongot demon- 
strative particle acting as article. 

Onbucoug is the equivalent, not of “one,” but of “first.’? The word 
occurs, in this or related forms, in several other passages. There is 
evidently a typographical confusion between “w” and “n.” - Compare— 


Na mucong toi Dios Ama, ta Dios Anac, at ta Spiritu Santo? 
Is first (superior) the God Father to God Son and to Ghost Holy? 


Auan-a namucoug, auan-a naonod de, ten sisiet ta enca Dios de. 
There is not being first, there is not following behind among them, for only one 
the Godship their.* 


Ca in cadua, catgo, etc., is a prefix making ordinals from cardinals, not 
only in Egongot but in several other dialects of Luzon. 

Eliminating these three factors from the above list, and observing the 
composition of the numerals from “six” to “ten,” we have all the necessary 
material for establishing the following list of Egongot cardinals: 


wee Egongot. Pangasinan. pee Egongot. Pangasinan. 
one siyet (sitet) isa six tambiang no siyet | anem 

two dua dua seven | tambiang no dua | pito 

three | tego talo eight | tambiang notgo ualo 

four apat apat nine tambiang no apat | stam 

five tambiang lima ten tampo (tampoo) sampolo (samplo) 


The cardinals tego, tambiang, and tampo (tampoo) occur as such re- 
peatedly in the text; siet was quoted above in its restrictive form sistet. 
For comparison with a series of typical Philippine numerals the cor- 
responding Pangasinan cardinals have been added. 

“One” is expressed in Hgongot by a word, sitet or siyet, which, compared 
with Pangasinan as well as with any other Philippine dialect, shows 
hardly any affinity, at least not prima facte. 

From “two” to “four” Egongot uses numerals which, though varying in 
form, are the common property of all these dialects. The characteristic 
variation in the case of the numeral “three” in Hgongot is the change 
from general Philippine / or d to g. ‘The same change, typical for Hgon- 
got, is seen in such other words as gema, “hand” (Tagalog lima), gake, 
“male” (Tag. lalaki), uge, “again,” “anew” (Tag. ult), etc. It is this 
sound-change which accounts also for the form “Egongot” instead of 
“Tlongot,” the change from 7 to e being the ordinary fluctuation of these 
vowels. 

“Five” is expressed, not by Jima, in which all Philippine dialects agree, 
and which, as we have just seen, would be here gema, but by the idiomatic 
term tambiang, formed of a prefix tam (cf. tampo) before a stem, biang. 


* Op. cit., p. 19. 


QUINARY NOTATION AMONG THE ILONGOTS. 49 


From “six” to “nine” the Egongot numerals are clearly seen to express 
“five and one,” “five and two,” “five and three,’ and “five and four,” 
which shows that, once “five” is reached by counting the fingers of one 
hand, the count is begun anew. That the particle no is the equivalent 
of “and,” is proved by a phrase of the text: dit bucolot no nauguin 
binimiaguen, “the pagans and bad Christians.” 4 

The numeral for “ten” is tampo, evidently with long o (compare 
the variant tampoo). It consists of the prefix tang, which also appears in 
tambiang, changed to tam- by the influence of the labial that follows, and 
stem po or poo, which is the common Philippine polo or pulo with elision 
of 1. 

For the two numerals “one” and “five,” in Egongot we find no imme- 
diate correspondent among the forms of the equivalent numerals in the 
generality of the other dialects. But apart from these two words we have 
as characteristic of this series of Hgongot numerals that it is based on 
a clearly quinary plan, and that the words used are for the greater part 
the common property of a family of languages which, as far as it is 
represented in the Philippines, uses none but decimal systems. Similar 
cases of quinary series we find in Formosa.® 

It remains to be pointed out that, although the Hgongot plan is 
quinary, as far as I have been able to illustrate it above, it is only im- 
perfectly so. Ifit were purely quinary the numeral for “ten,” instead of 
being expressed by a distinct word, would be given by such a term as 
“five-five” or “two-fives.” Again, beyond “ten,” the advance would be 
by fives, not by tens. But this is a question not to be decided from the 
text before me, which lacks examples of higher numerals. I may, how- 
ever, add that there exists a variant of the Egongot speech here illustrated, 
the speakers of which use a purely decimal series from “one” to “ten,” 
and it may be believed that this will ultimately supersede the quinary 
series. or the present it must suffice that evidence has been given here 
of the existence in the Philippines of a representative of the quinary nota- 
tion which is generally assumed to be a more primitive form of counting 
than the decimal system. 


“Op. cit., p. 27. 

° Cf. the numerals given under ‘Pep. Paz.’ and ‘Shek. T.’ in Table I of The 
Batan Dialect as a Member of the Philippine Group of Languages. Division of 
Ethnology Publications, Manila (1908), 5, pt. I. 

101096 4 


y 


ie pipe sie 
wich eae od = 
- ‘ag ee 9 er ce 
> teased ta eat ganget rb Ss 
i ‘es Bi er wv) geet: Sasi = 
fo: ESE ii ‘aki Gai | ty 
_ py 
- Bask 
f z 


REVIEW. 


The Provinces of China, Together with a History of the First Year of H. I. M. 
Hsuan Tung, and an Account of the Government of China. Reprinted from 
“The National Review” (China) as “The National Review Annual,” 1910. 
Pp. 188. Cloth. Shanghai: “The National Review” Office, 1910. 


Those among the millions of otherwise well-informed dwellers in 
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to this work, would indeed seem to have reason to be grateful to the 
publishers for their effort to dispel a part, at least, of that ignorance by 
offering here a fairly concise survey of the essentials and potentials of 
each of the provinces of China. 

After an introductory chapter on the extension, the population and the 
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to each of the eighteen provinces and four dependencies (Tibet, Sinkiang, 
Mongolia, Manchuria), discussing them fairly uniformly along the follow- 
ing general lines: position, area, density of population, topography, 
climate, natural resources, communications, cities and chief towns, and 
illustrating the text by sketch-maps of each province. The concluding 
chapters, “The first year of Hsuan Tung” and “the Government of 
China,” give a cursory review of the main political events during the year 
1910, respectively of the different departments and boards entrusted with 
the administration of national affairs. Three different indexes facilitate a 
rapid reference to particular points (places, productions, etc.) on which 
information is sought. 

The work is in the main a compilation of data collected from the best 
available sources; i. e., partly from official publications, such as the 
Customs Reports, and partly from works like those of Richthofen, Little, 
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Tn any case, the reader, before opening the book, will do well to make 
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against every once in a while there being flung into his face, between the 
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Orro SCHEERER. 
51 


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Vou. VI APRIL, 1911 No. 2 


LES FORAMINIFERES DANS LE TERTIAIRE DES PHILIPPINES. 


Par le Professeur Henri DovuviLyis. 


(Scole Nationale Supérieure des Mines, Paris.) 


SOMMATRE. 
I. AVANT-PROPOS. 
II. DESCRIPTION DES ESPECES: 
Alveolinella Cycloclypeus communis 
Orbitolites martini Rotalia 
Opereulina costata Polystomella 
Heterostegina Nummulites subniasi sp. nov. 


LepipocycLina (Revision de ce genre. Sections Hulepidina et Nephrolepidina: 


1. L, sumatrensis 13. L. martini Schlumb, 

2. L. carteri 14. L. formosa 

3. L. gigantea 15. L, angularis 

4. L. radiata 16. L. joffrei 

5. L. multipartita 17. L. gallienii 

6. L. verbeeki 18. L. richthofeni 

7. L. neodispansa 19. L. martini Smith 

8. L. insule-natalis 20. L. provalei 

9. L. ephippioides 21, L. ferreroi 

10. L. murrayana 22. L. tournoueri var. angulosa 
11. L. andrewsiana 23. L. tournoueri var. inflata 
12. L, ngembaki 24. L. tournoueri var, borneénsis) 


DESCRIPTION DES ESPEcES: 


_ L. insule-natalis L. inflata 
L. richthofeni L. ef. marginata 
L. formosa Miogypsina irregularis 
L. inermis sp. nov. Amphistegina niasi 
L. smithi sp. nov. A. ef, mamillata 
L. verbeeki 


III. R&sumé Er ConcLusions. 
101776 53 


54 DOUVILLE. 


AVANT-PROPOS. 


Les explorations géologiques des Philippines et en particulier les 
récents travaux de M. Warren D. Smith publiés dans “The Philippine 
Journal of Science” ont montré que le Tertiaire de cet archipel était 
constitué: 1° 4 la base par un systéme inférieur avec couches de Charbon 
exploitées, qui a été attribué a l’Hocene, et 2° par un systeme supérieur 
miocéne caractérisé par des calcaires 4 Orbitoides. 

L’étude des Foraminiféres qui.m’ont été communiqués par le géologue 
précité, permet de préciser cette classification: on peut en effet subdiviser 
le systeme supérieur et distinguer 3 séries de couches. 

I. Le systéme inférieur lignitifere caractérisé par association des 
Nummutlites et des Lépidocyclines. 

II. Le systeme moyen caractérisé par V’abondance des grandes Lépido- 
cyclines, et la présence des Alvéolines. 

III. Le systéme supérieur ot abondent les petites Lépidocyclines et 
les Miogypsina. 

Cette succession est la méme que celle que l’on observe dans toute 
P’Indonésie et en particulier 4 Bornéo,’ ot ces trois divisions corres- 
pondent aux couches que j’ai distinguées par les lettres D,—H, F, G,—H. 
Elles peuvent étre facilement parallélisées avec les couches de ! Aquitaine. 

I. Le systeme inférieur D, partout caractérisé par Vassociation des 
Nummulites et des Lépidocyclines, représente le stampren ou Oligocéne 
supérieur.” 

II. Le systéme moyen H, F, G représente alors les couches de Peyrére 
et de St-Géours, c’est-a-dire  AQUITANIEN. 

III. Le systéme supérieur Hi se rattache complétement par sa faune 
aux couches de St-Htienne d’Orthe et surtout 4 celles de St-Paul prés 
Dax (Abesse, Mandillot), gisement type du BURDIGALIEN. 

Je vais passer en revue les différentes formes que j’ai pu examiner et 
je reviendrai en terminant sur les caractéres comparatifs de ces faunes 
avec celles des autres parties de l’Indonésie, et celles de l’Hurope. 


DESCRIPTION DES ESPECES. 
1° FORAMINIFERES IMPERFORES. 
ALVEOLINELLA. PI. A, fig. 1. 


Ce genre est représenté par une série de moules médiocrement conservés 
dans une roche trés tendre, jaunatre, recueillie 4 Sibud Gulch, Old Alpaco 
Mines, Cebu, et portant le numéro 273. Cette roche est qualifiée de 
marne, mais c’est plutdt un grés tendre avec ciment calcaire peu abondant. 


1 Douvillé, H. Les Foraminiféres dans le Tertiaire de Bornéo. Bull. Soc. géol. 
France, (1905), VI, 5, 435. 

2 Conformément aux travaux les plus récents, la limite entre l’Oligocéne et 
le Miocéne, ou entre l’Eogéne et le Néogéne est placée entre le Stampien et 
PAquitanien proprement dit. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 55 


Elle renferme un grand nombre d’empreintes de Foraminiféres parmi 
lesquelles quelques unes sont fusiformes allongées, ayant environ 5 milli- 
métres de longueur sur 1 millimétre de diamétre. Elles se rapportent 
incontestablement 4 des Alvéolinidés. Sur quelques échantillons il m’a 
semblé distinguer sur l’empreinte de la cloison terminale plusieurs ran- 
gées Vouvertures. Ces fossiles appartiendraient done au groupe de VAlv. 
quoyt, pour lequel j’ai proposé le genre Alveolinella. A ce sujet je ne 
puis mieux faire que de citer observation trés intéressante faite par M. 
Verbeek: * aprés avoir décrit plusieurs A/veolina des couches 4 Num- 
mulites présentant tous wne seule rangée douvertures, il dit quelques 
mots de formes rares trouyées dans l’étage inférieur du terrain miocéne, 
et il constate qu’elles présentent 3 et méme 4 rangées d’ouvertures les 
unes au dessus des autres, “circonstance qui jusqu’a présent n’a jamais 
été observée, dit-il, chez des Alvéolines fossiles, mais seulement chez les 
espéces vivantes (Alv. Quoyi). Par la, les Alvéolines miocénes se dis- 
tinguent nettement des espéces éocenes et oligocénes.” Ces Alveolinella 
de Java sont indiquées comme associées 4 de nombreuses Orbitolites dans 
un caleaire grisdtre d’4ge miocéne ancien un peu au dessus des grés 
quartzeux éocenes. Elles sont un peu plus petites que l’espéce de Cebit, 
leur longueur maximum étant de 3.5 millimétres sur une épaisseur de 
0.75 millimetre, mais il ne faut pas oublier qu’elles ont été seulement 
observées en coupe sur des plaques minces. 

Gisement.—Dans les Philippines cette forme est accompagnée par des 
Orbitolites, des Operculines et des Polystomelles; les couches qui renfer- 
ment cette faune sont riches en Mollusques, parmi lesquels on signale 
Dolium costatum. Martin* a eu Voccasion d@étudier un échantillon 
d'une marne terreuse tendre provenant de la mine méme d’Alpaco 
et riche en coquilles de Lamellibranches et de Gastropodes. C’est 
yraisemblablement la méme couche, la différence de couleur prove- 
nant de la différence de gisement, les roches jaunes en affleurements 
devenant habituellement bleues en profondeur; il signale dans cet 
échantillon un fragment de grande Lépidocycline, et en outre Vicarya 
callosa. De ces rapprochements il semble qu’on peut conclure que 
ces couches sont a la base du systeme moyen et representent l Aquitanien 
inférieur, comme A Bornéo et vraisemblablement aussi 4 Java. 


Orbitolites martini? Verbeek. Pl. A, fig. 2. 

La méme roche jaunatre de Old Alpaco Mine, renferme d’assez nom- 
breux moules d’une Orbitolite mince ayant de 5 a 6 millimetres de 
diamétre. Sur les empreintes on distingue un grand nombre d’anneaux 
concentriques étroits ayant au pourtour environ 0.05 millimétre de lar- 
geur, constitués par des moules de logettes ayant 4 peu pres la méme 
distance d’axe en axe. C’est exactement la disposition figurée par M. 


* Verbeek et Fennema, Description géologique de Java et Madoura (1896), 1141. 
* Centralbl. f. Mineral., Geol. wu. Paldon. (1901), 326. 


56 DOUVILLE. 


Verbeek (Pl. IX, fig. 135). Malheureusement la disposition des loges 
en coupe verticale reste bien obscure: la figure 134 de cet auteur indique 
pour la forme type 2 rangées d’ouvertures, ce qui placerait cette forme 
dans les Sorites; mais c’est seulement un dessin et d’aprés le texte les 
coupes ne donnent pas de caractéres précis. Dans les spécimens des 
Philippines l’impression du pourtour de la coquille semble indiquer des 
ouvertures en rangées plus nombreuses, tandis que les moules de logettes 
conservées sur les bases correspondraient peut-étre a une couche super- 
ficielle rappelant celle des Marginopora. 

Les deux formes sont done incomplétement connues, et leur rappro- 
chement n’est que probable. 

Gisement.—Dans les Philippines cette forme accompagne les Alveo- 
linella, dans des couches qui sont indiquées comme inférieures au Cal- 
caire 4 Orbitoides; Aquitanien inferieur. 


2° FORAMINIFERES PERFORES. 
OPERCULINA. 


Les couches du Miocéne des Philippines renferment de nombreuses 
Operculines qui paraissent se rapporter 4 2 types un peu différents. 


Operculina costata d’Orb. PI. A, fig. 3. 
Operculina costata d’Orbigny, Prodrome, étage 26, Falunien B, (1852), n° 
2881, 155. 

C’est une forme trés voisine de l’Op. complanata et qui s’en distingue 
par ce que la surface est ornée de cétes correspondant aux cloisons. 

J’en rapproche une forme abondante dans des calcaires tendres jauna- 
tres de Minanga river (Cebu, n° 277) ou elle est associée 4 de nombreux 
Cyclocypeus communis; elle atteint 7 a 8 millimétres dans son plus grand 
diametre et se rattache nettement au groupe de Op. complanata par sa 
taille, la largeur du dernier tour et ses cloisons fortement et reguliérement 
arquées. Certains échantillons sont presque aussi lisses quwOp. compla- 
nata, mais le plus grand nombre est fortement costulé et les costules se 
décomposent en granulations plus ou moins nombreuses; elles sont tou- 
jours plus accentuées dans le jeune. 

Gisement.—D’aprés Vabondance du Cycl. communis dans ces couches, 
je les considére comme un peu plus récentes que les calcaires 4 grandes 
Lépidocyclines et représentant /’Aquitanien supérieur. 

Operculina costata, var. tuberculata. Pl. A, fig. 4. 

Je distingue sous ce nom des individus plus petits que les précédents, 
attelgnant seulement 4 a 4.5 millimetres; ils sont plus renflés, de section 
lenticulaire et présentent de forts tubercules sur les cétes. Ils paraissent 
difficiles 4 distinguer des jeunes de l’espéce précédente; peut-étre en re- 
présentent-ils seulement la forme A. Ils se distinguent de l’Op. gav- 
mardi d’Orbigny, des mers actuelles par leur taille plus grande et leur 
forme plus renflée. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 57 


Ils se recontrent presque 4 tous les niveaux, mais ils sont surtout 
abondants dans les grés tendres de Old Alpaco Mine, ot ils se présentent 
a Pétat de moule (éch. n° 273). 


HETEROSTEGINA. PI. A, fig. 5. 


Les Heterostegina de grande taille ne sont ordinairement pas rares 
dans les couches 4 Orbitoides. 

J’en ai observé un bel échantillon de 5 millimétres de diamétre fixé 
sur une Lepidocyclina insule-natalis du Barrio de Mesaba. 


Cycloclypeus communis Martin. Pl. A, fig. 6. 
Cycloclypeus communis IX. Martin, Untersuchungen tiber die Organisation von 
Cycloclypeus und Orbitoides. Niederland. Arch. f. Zodl. (1880), 5, Pls. 
13 et 14. 

Carpenter a montré dés 1856 (Pll. Trans. Roy. Soc. London (1856), 
146, 547) la constitution de ce genre curieux. C’est en réalité une 
Heterostegina dont le développement est devenu annulaire (cyclostégue) 
et qui épaissit son test comme Orbitoides, mais sans former de logettes 
latérales ; il existe donc comme dans ce dernier genre une couche équato- 
riale de logettes, mais elles sont rectangulaires comme dans Heterostegina. 
Les couches latérales sont compactes et plus épaisses au centre, ce qui 
donne aux échantillons une forme lenticulaire ordinairement trés aplatie. 

L’ornementation dans Cycl. communis est formée par une série de 
granules disposés suivant les anneaux d’accroissement, et correspondant 
a des piliers analogues a ceux des Orbitoides. 

Cette espéce est trés abondante dans les couches supérieures de Vile 
de Batan (éch. n° 8) ow elle accompagne les Myogipsina et dans les cal- 
caires tendres jaundtres du Barrio de Mesaba (Cebu, n° 273), ot elle 
est associée 4 Operculina costata. J’ai déja montré précédemment que 
le premier niveau appartenait au Burdigalien, tandis que le second parait 
devoir se placer au sommet de l’Aquitanien. Cette espéce dans les Phil- 
ippines se montrerait ainsi a la base de H et dans G, 4 peu prés au 
méme niveau qu’a Bornéo; il est méme possible que les calcaires tendres 
jaunatres du Barrio de Mesaba représentent exactement les couches a silex 


du groupe F de Bornéo.* 
ROTALIA. 


J’ai pu extraire de la roche tendre de Old Alpaco Mines (éch. n° 273) 
de petits échantillons qui ressemblent beaucoup a Rotalia schroteriana 
Parker et Jones, avec ses lignes d’enfoncements le long des cloisons, 
mais qui en différent par une forme moins dissymétrique. I] semble 
que Carpenter a eu sous les yeux une forme bien voisine quand il dit:° 
“dans une remarquable variété des iles Fidji la spire est plus symétrique 
5 Spore de sorte que la coquille a presque la méme forme que Polys- 


* Bull. Soc. géol. France (1905), IV, 5, 445. * Introduction, 213. 


58 DOUVILLE. 


tomella craticulata; elle se rapproche du reste beaucoup de ce type 
par la disposition du dépét exogéne et par la maniere dont les passages 
interseptaux s’ouvrent extérieurement le long du bord des cloisons.” 
A la page suivante il revient sur ces analogies avec Polystomella, qui 
montrent que ces deux types sont extrémement voisins l’un de l’autre. 
Tl est curieux de retrouver aux Philippines ces deux formes associées dans 
le méme gisement. 
POLYSTOMELLA. 


Forme voisine de P. craticulata, mais a callosité ombilicale un peu 
moins large et moins développée; on sait que ce genre est abondant a 
partir du Tertiaire moyen. Cette forme est associée a la précédente 
dans le grés tendre de la vieille mine d’Alpaco (éch. n° 273). 

Une forme trés yoisine est indiquée par des sections dans les caleaires 
oligocénes 4 petites Nummulites de Caracaran de Vile de Batan (éch. 
n° 2). Une coupe axiale passant par le centre montre que c’est bien 
un Polystomella et non un Rotaha. Ce type aurait done apparu dés 
la fin de l’Oligocene. 


Nummulites subniasi sp. nov. 
Nummulina variolaria Brady, On Some Fossil Foraminifera from the West 
Coast District of Sumatra. Geol. Mag. (1875), Il, 2, 552. 

Les calcaires subordonnés aux couches de charbon de Vile de Batan 
renferment de nombreuses petites Nummulites qu’il ne semble pas 
possible de distinguer de celles que M. Verbeek a recueillies autrefois 
dans Vile de Nias et qui ont été décrites et figurées par Brady sous 
le nom de NV. variolaria; cet auteur donne comme dimension maxmium 
2 millimetres et ses figures indiquent bien des individus mégaspheriques. 
Les échantillons des Philippines sont légérement plus grands, 2.7 milli- 
metres, et sont également mégasphériques comme l’indique la coupe ci- 
jointe. 

La forme de la spire, la direction et la courbure des cloisons concordent 
parfaitement. — 

En 1896, M. Verbeek a repris l’étude de cette espéce et a figuré a 
“nouveau sous le nom de Nummulites niasi II, une forme un peu plus 
grande, ayant un diamétre de 4 millimétres mais 
certainement microsphérique comme le montre le 
diamétre de la loge initiale pour lequel M. Verbeek 
donne la dimension de 0.02 millimétre. Comme le 
Nummulites niasi 1 Verbeek est incontestablement 
une Amphistégine, on pourra réserver a la NV. aast 
Fic. 1—Nummulites II microsphérique le nom spécifique de niasi Ver- 

la Ce age beek, et donner a notre forme mégasphérique le nom 


bonneuse de l’ile de d Brains’ 
Batan, gr. 10 fois. e swoniast. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 59 


LEPIDOCYCLINA. 


Dans un mémoire précédent et & exemple de MM. Verbeek et Fen- 
nema, j’ai divisé ce genre en deux sections, pour lesquelles j’ai proposé 
les noms suivants: 

1° Les Hulepidina généralement de grande taille, caractérisées par 
leurs loges équatoriales en spatule ou en hexagone subrégulier et par 
leur nucleus du type embrassant. 

2° Les Nephrolepidina, presque toujours petites, 4 loges équatoriales 
ogivales, en losange ou en hexagone allongé et 4 nucleus du type réni- 
forme. 

Je vais examiner séparément chacun de ces groupes. 


1° Section des Eulepidina. 


Dans les Philippines ces grandes formes paraissent cantonnées dans 
les Caleaires 4 Orbitoides inférieurs et dans les marnes subordonnées; 
le Tertiaire de cet archipel présente de telles analogies avec celui des 
Archipels voisins, qwil n’est pas possible de séparer V’étude de leurs 
fossiles. Je passerai done tout d’abord rapidement en revue les espéces 
qui ont été proposées dans cette région. Elles sont malheureusement le 
plus souvent trés incomplétement définies et il ne sera pas toujours 
possible de les caractériser d’une maniére certaine. 

L’étude approfondie que j’ai pu faire des différentes espéces de Lepi- 
docyclina mn’a montré que les caractéres les plus précis sont fournis par 
la disposition des piliers et des logettes laterales; ces caractéres ne sont 
que tres rarement indiqués, les espéces 
étant principalement établies sur de sim- 
ples sections. 

C’est Brady qui en 18757 a décrit et 
figuré les premiéres espéeces d’apres des 
échantillons recueillis par M. Verbeek et 
envoyés par ce géologue a Rupert Jones; Be 2 sing He oe ABAD 
ils provenaient en particulier de l’ile de 9 Brady: 

Nias. La plupart des formes ont été attribuées a tort a des espéces déja 
connues, Nummulina variolaria, N. ramondi, Orbitoides papyracea, O. 
dispansa; une seule espéce nouvelle est proposée: 

(1) Orbitoides sumatrensis, trés bien figurée 
(loc. cit. Pl. XIV, fig. 3, ab.) ; c’est une forme 
globuleuse, presque sphérique, ayant environ 3 


millimétres de diamétre, sur une épaisseur de 
2.5 environ. Elle présente a ’équateur une mince Fie. 2>!s—Section d'un 


x , : , échantillon de l'ile de 
eollerette trés étroite, dont le contour présente Nias, gr. 10 fois. 


*Geol. Mag. (1875), 2, 532. On Some Fossils Foraminifera from the West 
Coast District of Sumatra. 


60 DOUVILLE. 


des parties saillantes dessinant une sorte d’étoile; la premiére loge parait 
trés petite. : 

Blle a été recueillie dans Vile de Nias. M. le D™ Verbeek a bien voulu 
me communiquer plusieurs échantillons provenant de la localité type. 
J’ai pu m/’assurer ainsi qu’elle appartenait a la section des Nephrolepi- 
dina. Hlle différe trés notablement des formes de l’Aquitaine qui en 
ont été rapprochées. 

Quelques-années aprés, en 1880, le professeur K. Martin ® a fait con- 
naitre de nouvelles espéces qu’il range avec 
raison dans les Lepidocyclina. 

(2) Orbitoides carteri (loc. cit., p. 11, Pl. 
XIV, fig. 2, 2a, 2b, 2c) ; elle est lenticulaire 
et légerement renflée au centre, elle atteint 

Fic. 3.—lLepidocyclina car- un diamétre de 26 millimétres avec une 


teri. Martin, disposition » ; Riera 
des piliers prés de la sur.  ¢Paisseur maximum de 2 millimétres. La 
Teco met pz0 ols. surface ne montre d’aprés l’auteur aucune 


ornementation ; toutefois la fig. 2a montre des piliers inégaux, penta- 
gonaux, quadrangulaires, ou triangulaires dont l’épaisseur est indiquée 
comme étant de 0.05 a 0.12 millimétre. Sur une des préparations qui 
m’a été communiquée par le professeur R. Martin, on distingue des piliers 
peu développés se présentant comme des épaississements des points de 
rencontre des cloisons, peu nombreux et irréguliérement distribués; ils 
sont triangulaires, quadrangulaires et trés exceptionnellement pentago- 
naux. Mais la préparation est trés voisine de la couche équatoriale et il 
est possible que les piliers se développent davantage dans les couches plus 
extérieures et dans la partie centrale qui est un peu renflée; et en effect, 
les coupes axiales montrent de gros piliers qui sont probablement des 
pustules et qui atteignent la dimension indiquée de 12 millimétres. Les 
logettes latérales ont de 0.08 a 0.11 millimétre de diamétre et leurs parois 
0.03 a 0.035 d’épaisseur. Elles forment des couches trés nombreuses, 30 
environ ati centre. la figure 26 montre les perforations du toit de cer- 
taines logettes sous la forme de fins canaux paralléles. 

La gangue est un tuf grossier renfermant des fragments de roche 
éruptive et de nombreux Cycloclypeus communis. 

La localité originaire est au Nord de Sindangabaran? (Java). D’apreés 
la forme des logettes équatoriales cette espéce appartient bien certaine- 
ment a la section des Eulepidina. 

(3) Orbitoides gigantea (loc. cit., p. 20, Pl. XIV, fig. 3, 3a, 3b, 3¢, 
3d) différe de la précédente par sa taille plus grande, presque double, 
50 millimétres; la forme générale est la méme. Une section tangentielle 


8 Untersuchungen iiber die Organisation von Cycloclypeus und Orbitoides. 
Niederl. Arch. f. Zoél. (1880), 5. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 61 


communiquée par le professeur K. Martin, montre une série de piliers 
assez gros atteignant 0.15 millimétre et entourés de 6 4 7 logettes; ils 
constituent done de véritables pustules, assez souvent 
séparées par deux ranqées de logettes; celles-ci sont 
de forme assez irréguliére et leur plus grande dimen- 
sion varie de 0.1 4 0.2 millimétre. 

D’aprés Vauteur cette espéce se distingue aussi de 
la precedente par ses logettes latérales plus hautes et 
formant des couches moins nombreuses. 

L’espece est fondée sur un seul échantillon incom- 
plet provenant de Tjidamar (Java). 

(4) Orbitoides radiata (loc. cit., p. 22, Pl. XIV, 
fig. 4) presente sur sa surface un bouton central d’?ot Fie. 4—Zepidocy- 


4 O 5 . cling gigantea 
partent 9 rayons saillants qui n’atteignent pas le Martin. Atecdsltion 

y H Eee : A ay SUE ? des piliers prés de 
bord. Elle provient de la méme localité que 0. la surface, gr. 20 
cartert. L’auteur ’a Vabord rangéé dans les Acti- — *4s. 


nocyclina, mais il a reconnu plus tard® que c’était une véritable Lepi- 
docyclina. 

Le méme auteur avait décrit *° en 1891 une cinquiéme espéce: 

(5) Lepidocyclina multipartita, petite forme de 6 4 7 millimétres de 
diameétre, trés renflée au milieu et présentant quelques grosses pustules ; 
la couche équatoriale se renfle beaucoup 4 la périphérie et elle se subdivise 
alors dans la hauteur d’une maniére irréguliére. Elle appartient vrai- 
semblablement 4 la section des Nephrolepidina. Elle provient des cou- 
ches a Cycl. annulatus. 

En 1896, MM. Verbeek et Fennema* publiaient leur grand ouvrage 
sur Vile de Java et donnaient d’excellentes figures d’un grand nombre 
de Foraminiféres, Alveolina, Nummulites, Operculina, Orbitoides, ete. 
Ils indiquent pour la premiére fois que les Orbitoides a loges équatoriales 
rectangulaires (distinguées en 1868 par Gumbel sous les noms de Dis- 
cocyclina, Rhipidocyclina, Aktinocyclina, et Asterocyclina, réunies plus 
tard en 1891 par Munier-Chalmas sous celui d’Orthophragmina), se 
recontrent exclusivement dans le tertiaire ancien ayec les Nwmmulites, 
tandis que les Lepidocyclina caractérisent le Miocene. 

Ces auteurs distinguent dans ce dernier genre 6 espéces réparties en 
3 couples, mais sans leur donner de noms: le premier avec des logettes 
équatoriales en losange appartient a la section des Nephrolepidina,; il 
comprend les formes microsphériques I A (a, d, h, 1) et mégasphériques 
IB, (9, i). les deux autres ont des logettes équatoriales en spatule et 
font partie de la section pour laquelle j’ai proposé le nom de Hulepidina; 


°In Schlumberger, 1900. 
1 Samml. Geol. Mus. Leiden (1881), Neue Folge, 1, Heft I, 7, Pl. 1. fig. 7-10. 
" Description géologique de Java et Madura. 


62 DOUVILLE. 


elles sont petites, 5 a 6 millimétres, Il C (f) et IL D (e), ou grandes, 
atteignant jusqu’a 70 millimetres, III E (b, m, n) et Ill F (¢, ¢, p). 
Ils considérent les O. carteri et O. gigantea comme se rapportant proba- 
blement a l’espéce III E, et ils ajoutent que “certaimes espéces se recon- 
trant dans 2 ou méme 3 étages, il ne semble pas qu’elles puissent convenir 
pour établir des subdivisions dans les couches néogenes.” 

En 1899, Newton et Holland,’* reprennent l’étude des principales 
formes décrites par Brady: cest ainsi qwils donnent le nom de (6) 
Lepidocyclina verbeecki a VOrb. papyracea de Brady a laquelle ils réunis- 
sent les formes g et k de Verbeek et Fennema. Or, ces différentes formes 
sont mégasphériques et ’O. papyracea, de méme que la forme k, provien- 
nent de Padang; le nom de Lep. verbeeki doit done strictement étre 
réservé pour les formes mégasphériques de Padang. J’en ai sous les 
yeux un grand nombre d’échantillons communiquées par M. Verbeek et 
provenant de la localité type; ils ont de 5 a 7 millimétres de diamétre ; 
ils sont amincis sur les bords et assez fortement renflés au centre; quand 
la surface est bien conseryée elle est lisse mais on y distingue néanmoins 
une vingtaine de petites pustules subégales ayant de 0.15 a 0.2 milli- 
métre; cette disposition est assez bien indiquée sur une coupe tangen- 
tielle figurée par Newton et Holland (loc. cit., Pl. IX, fig. 10) dans 
laquelle cependant les pustules sont plus petites et paraissent indiquer 
un individu jeune. ‘ 

Vers 1900, Rupert Jones et Chapman ont décrit et figuré ** un grand 
nombre d’Orbitoides provenant de Vile Christmas; malheureusement les 
échantillons n’ont pas été isolés et les espéces ne sont établies que sur 
des sections effectuées dans la roche qui les contient et, par suite, d’une 
orientation incertaine: aussi la plupart d’entre elles doivent étre con- 
sidérées comme insuffisamment définies. 

Ainsi (7) L. meodispansa, rapprochée de la forme d de Verbeek et 
Fennema est une Nephrolepidina de 5 millimétres de diamétre qui re- 
semble beaucoup a Lep. verbeeki; cependant les pustules paraissent plus 
grosses et moins nombreuses. Le caractére distinctif, mdiqué par les 
auteurs et fondé sur le renflement plus brusque de la partie centrale, 
nest guére applicable. En outre, il ne semble pas d’aprés les sections 
figurées que Vespéce soit microsphérique comme d de Verbeek et Fen- 
nema. 

(8) L. insule-natalis est exceptionellement susceptible d’une defini- 
tion plus précise. Sa grande taille, 12.5 a 19 millimétres, la range 


“On some tertiary Foraminifera from Borneo and their comparison with 
similar forms from Sumatra. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1901), VII, 7, 215. 

** On the Foraminifera of the Orbitoidal limestones and reef rocks of Christmas 
island. Ce mémoire fait partie d’une monographie de ces iles; le tirage 4 part 
ne porte ni titre général, ni date, ni indication d’éditeur. On sait que Jile 
Christmas est située A environ 3 degrés 1/2 de latitude au Sud de la pointe 
occidentale de Java. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 63 


dans les Hulepidina; la figure type (loc. cit., Pl. XX, fig. 5) est une 
section oblique et ne passant pas par le centre, comme le montre l’inéga- 
lité des deux moitiés. Il en résulte que la moitié la plus grande re- 
présente une coupe en partie perpendiculaire au rayon, e’est 4 dire 
tangentielle. Elle montre bien la disposition des piliers, qui, comme 
Vindique expressément Vauteur, “entourent les logettes polygonales.” 
Cette disposition est bien indiquée sur la figure ci-jointe qui représente 
un grossissement de la figure type; elle est tout 
a fait caractéristique du groupe du Lepidocy- 
clina dilatata. 

C’est done a tort que Schlumberger a at- & 
tribué a cette espéce un échantillon de Java | 
dont la surface présente de nombreuses pustules 
entourées par les logettes. Cette disposition est 
inverse de la précédente et il faudra conserver aap teh ao laepantie cata 
pour Vespéce de ce dernier auteur le nom qu’il © 412, fgure type de MM. 


; : ? : Rupert Jones et Chapman, 
avait tout d’abord choisi L. ngembakt. HO ROSATO GO) alae 


(9) L. ephippioides est rapproché a la fois aiqué oa tal has 
de Vespéce précédente qui est un Hulepidina 
et de L. verbeeki qui est un Nephrolepidina; c’est dire combien elle est 
yaguement définie. L’épaisseur des cloisons pourrait faire penser 4 une 
forme du groupe de L. formosa Schlumb. 

(10) ZL. murrayana a 4 rayons n’est probablement pas une forme 
étoilée comme Vont pensé les auteurs, mais simplement une forme en 
selle; les caractéres donnés sont dés lors tout a fait insuffisants. 

(11) L. andrewsiana; le seul caractére indiqué est le fort renflement 
central avec large collerette, il est également insuffisant. 

En 1900, Schlumberger ** décrit deux nouvelles espéces de Lépidocy- 
clines : 

(12) L. ngembaki, qu'il attribue 4 tort 4 L. imsule-natalis J. et Ch. 
comme je viens de le montrer. Dans cette derniere espéce les piliers 
restent polygonaux, se rejoignent en grossissant et entourent les logettes, 
tandis que dans la nouvelle espéce les piliers restent isolés et se trans- 
forment en pustules entourées chacune par une rosette de logettes. 
Cette disposition est trés nettement indiquée par l’auteur (loc. cit., 
Pl. VI, fig. 4) sur une coupe tangentielle grossie 20 fois. Il faut done 
reprendre le nom que l’auteur avait adopté tout d’abord, avant d’avoir 
recu le mémoire de Rup. Jones et Chapman (loe. cit., p. 130). 

Les piliers sont trés petits et ne dépassent pas 0.1 millimétre, tandis 
que les logettes qui les séparent ont au centre seulement 0.06 de largeur. 

L’échantillon type avait été recueilli a Ngembak (Java) par M. Ver- 
beek. 


“Notice sur deux espéces de Lépidocyclines des Indes néerlandaises. Samm. 
d. geol. r. Museums in Leiden (1900) I, 6, fase. 3, 128. 


64 DOUVILLE. 


(13) L. martini (loe. cit., p. 131, Pl. VI, fig. 5 et 8) est une forme 
étoilee de Batoe Koetjing (residence de Madoera) qui a été rencontrée 
dans les Caleaires a Cycloclypeus. : 

Le méme auteur publiait un peu plus tard 1° en 1902 une troisiéme 
espéce de Lépidocycline: (14) ZL. formosa qui mérite de nous arréter 
un instant. Hlle n’est connue que par des coupes; or l’une Welles (loc 
cit., Pl. VII, fig. 2) montre une partie centrale quadrangulaire pro- 
longée aux 4 sommets par des branches étroites. L’auteur a pensé qwil 
sagissait dune forme rayonnée: en réalité c’est simplement une forme 
discoide recourbée en selle: on sait que dans ce cas la couche équatoriale 
se rapproche d’un hyperboloide dont les sections dans le voisinage du 
plan tangent au centre sont constituées par deux hyperboles; de 1a les 
4 branches de la figure précitée. 

Au centre cette coupe montre un nucleus du type embrassant. Grace 
a Vobligeance de M. le Professeur Haug j’ai pu retrouver dans la collec- 
tion Schlumberger, conservée 4 la Sorbonne, une 
moitié de Véchantillon dont il vient d’étre ques- 
tion; une préparation tangentielle a montré la 
disposition des logettes latérales séparées par des 
cloisons épaisses et paraissant dépourvues de 

Fie. 6.—Lepidocyclina piliers. Sur un autre échantillon de la méme 
formosa, disposition : ten aie 
des logettes sur une P!OVenance, les logettes atteignent 0.2 millimétre 
fon tepe de lessees, de diamétre et les cloisons qui les séparent ont 

i 2D Hors: en moyenne 0.1 millimetre d’épaisseur. 

L’échantillon lui-méme présente une partie centrale globuleuse at- 
teignant 6 millimétre de diamétre avec une épaisseur de 4.2 milli- 
metres (et non de 2 millimétres comme l’auteur l’indique par erreur) ; 
tout autour s’étend une collerette mince de 6 millimetres environ de 
largeur et de moins de 1 millimétre d’épaisseur. 

Cette espéce provient de Teweh (Bornéo). 

Newton et Holland avaient déja publié en 1900 7° quelques notes sur 
des Foraminiféres de Formose; ils reviennent sur le méme sujet en 
1902 ** et signalent dans ces calcaires une série de petites Lépidocyclines 
L. sumatrensis, L. verbeeki et une espéce nouvelle (15) L. angularis 
présentant un renflement central orné de grosses pustules et légérement 
déprimé au centre, ce que indique l’existence d’une couronne de pustules 
plus développées que les pustules du centre; c’est une disposition qui 


Q 


rappelle celle de certaines L. morgan. Le diamétre est de 3 millimetres 


* Sur un Lepidoeyelina nouveau de Bornéo. Ibid. (1902), 6, 251. 

**Notes on Microscopie Sections of Limestones from Formosa, Collected by 
Dt Koto of Japan. Journ. Geol. Soc. Tokyo (1900), 7, 1-4. 

* On Some Fossils from the Islands of Formosa and Riu-Kiu (=Loo Choo). 
Journ. Coll. Sc. Imp. Univ. Tokyo (1902), 17, article 6. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 65 


ayec 1 millimétre d’épaisseur; les auteurs indiquent la coexistence de 
formes micro-et mégasphériques. 

Dans leur mémoire sur le genre Lepidocyclina, MM. Paul Lemoine 
et Robert Douvillé 1 ont décrit quelques formes provenant de Madagascar 
et de lAfrique orientale allemande; ces gisements se rattachent étroite- 
ment 4 ceux des iles de la Sonde et font certainement partie du méme 
bassin. Je laisse de cété parmi les espéces citées, LZ. mantelli, dont 
Vattribution principalement fondée sur des coupes axiales semble bien 
douteuse; L. raulint insuffisamment caractérisée et L. morgani; deux 
espéces nouvelles doivent étre examinées de plus prés: (16) Lepidocy- 
clina joffret est représentée par une coupe équatoriale et une coupe axiale 
et caractérisée surtout par la grandeur du nucleus qui atteint 2 milli- 
métres ; elle est considerée par les auteurs comme une simple race de la 
L. dilatata,; les cavactéres des logettes latérales et des piliers ne sont pas 
indiqués; d’aprés les auteurs la surface serait lisse. Cette espéce aurait 
besoin d’étre étudiée 4 nouveau. 

La deuxiéme forme (17) ZL. gallieni ressemble beaucoup a L. dila- 
tata, mais, disent les auteurs, les coupes montrent’ des loges environ deux 
fois plus petites linéairement, et séparées par de petits piliers fins (ce 
qui est parfaitement exact) mais un peu plus gros que ceux de L. dila- 
tata (ce qui n’est vrai que pour les piliers que l’on observe sur les bords 
dans cette derniére espéce, ceux du milieu étant au contraire beaucoup 
plus gros.) Néanmoins les auteurs ont parfaitement saisi le caractére 
principal de cette espéce, caractére du reste commun avec presque toutes 
les formes de l’Extréme Orient d’avoir les logettes 
bien plus petites que les espéces de la région médi- 
terranéenne. 

Jai sous les yeux le type de V’espéce: la surface 
extérieure polie montre des logettes trés arrondies 


qallienti de Mada- ayant en moyenne 0.1 millimetre de diametre sépa- 


gasecar; coupe prés 
de la surface mon- 


aa piliers me 99 Piliers aux points de croisement de ces cloisons, 
HOS: quadrangulaires, pentagonaux ou hexagonaux ayant 
a peu pres la méme largeur que les cloisons. Ces piliers couvrent a peu 
pres toute la surface de la coquille 4 ’exception de la zone marginale. 
On voit que cette forme est trés voisine de (2) L. carteri; les dimen- 
sions des logettes sont analogues, mais dans cette derniére espéce les 
piliers paraissent moins développés. 
Plus récemment M. Warren D. Smith a publié une série de travaux 
trés importants sur la géologie des Philippines: il a décrit et figuré 
plusiers espéces de Lépidocyclines. 


rées par des cloisons épaisses avec de nombreux 


#8 Uém. Soc. géol. de France, Paléontologie, (1904), 12, n° 32. 


66 DOUVILLE. 


En 1906 il a étudé les Orbitoides de Binangonan.® Cette localité 
avait été signalée par Richthofen,*® qui disait y avoir recueilli une 
grande quantité de Nummulites de diverses grosseurs et appartenant a 
plusieurs espéces. M. Warren D. Smith n’y a trouvé que des Lépido- 
eyclines: il déerit et figure sous le nom de (18) Orbitoides richthofeni 
(loc. cit., Pl. I, fig. 1) une espéce de grande taille qui devait attemdre 
36 millimétres de diamétre avec une épaisseur maxima de 8 millime- 
tres. L’auteur a bien youlu me communiquer la preparation figurée: 
e’est une section oblique et ne passant pas par le centre, comme le montre 
Vinégalité des deux moitiés, de part et d’autre du plan équatorial. Au 
milieu du cdté le plus large on distingue un élément de coupe tangen- 
tielle (c’est a dire perpendiculaire au rayon) dans laquelle on voit que 
les logettes sont séparées par des cloisons trés épaisses; c’est un carac- 
tére que Von ne retrouve que dans le groupe de la Lep. formosa. D’un 
autre cété Véchantillon est partiellement dissous dans la region péri- 
phérique, les piliers plus résistants devraient ¢tre conservés; or il font 
défaut, ce qui indique quil n’en existait probablement pas. On peut 
chercher 4 se rendre compte de l’épaisseur des cloisons par leur largeur 
minima dans la coupe, elle est environ la moitié de celle des logettes. 
Ces caractéres Indiquent bien une espéce du groupe de L. formosa, mais 
la forme générale parait assez différente, ’échantillon étant beaucoup 
moins globuleux. I] serait done nécessaire d’examiner d’autres échan- 
tillons pour préciser les caractéres de l’espéce. 

La figure 2 de la méme planche reproduit la section d’un autre échan- 
tillon bien plus voisin par sa forme et Vensemble de ses caractéres de 
L. formosa. 

Peu aprés le méme auteur ** publiait la description d’une série de 
fossiles provenant également de Vile de Luzon, mais au Sud de Manille. 
Dans cette région le Miocene a Vicarya callosa repose directement sur 
des roches éruptives; il signale dans ces couches et décrit sous le nom 
de (19) Orbitoides martim une Lépidocycline (loc. cit., p. 628, Pl. IV, 
fig. 6, 7, 8) de forme lenticulaire dont le diamétre varie de 15 4 50 milli- 
metres. J’ai entre les mains la coupe axiale (fig. 8), elle ne montre 
pas de piliers nets, mais seulement des parois de loges un peu épaissies. 

L’auteur dit que des formes analogues sont abondantes dans les cal- 
caires de Cebit; je serai en effect porté a en rapprocher les échantillons 
de la vallée de Cumajumayan (éch. n° 285). Mais comme le nom de 
L. martina a déja été employé en 1900 par Schlumberger, il ne peut 
étre conserve. 


” This Journal (1906), 1, 203. 

* Ueber das workommen von Nummulitenformation auf Japan und den Phil- 
ippinen. Ztsch. deutch. Geol. Ges., (1862), 14, 357. 

* Preliminary Geological Reconnaissance of the Loboo mountains of Batangas 
Province. Jbid (1906), 1, 617. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 67 


Tout récemment des travaux importants ont été publiés en Italie sur 
des Foraminiféres recueillis par le D™ Bonarelli dans les iles de la Sonde. 

C’est d’abord un mémoire de M®*® Giuseppina Osimo * sur des Fora- 
miniféres de Dongola, sur la cdte occidentale de Celebes, 4 Ventrée de 
la baie de Palos. Parmi les formes figurées et décrites par Vauteur je 
signalerai une série de petites ou tres petites Nummulites a filets rayon- 
nants parmi lesquelles NV. elegans, Vaprés laquelle Vauteur attribue ce 
niveau au Bartonien; Amphistegina niasi et deux Lépidocyclines: L. 
tournowen et une forme nouvelle (20) Lepidocyclina provalei, repré- 
sentée par un seul exemplaire de 7 a 8 millimétres de diamétre et une 
épaisseur d’environ 5 millimetres. Toute la surface est couverte de 
granulations saillantes de grosseur croissante de la périphérie vers le 
centre, ot elles atteignent 0.2 millimetre; elles sont séparées d’apres 
Vauteur par une seule rangée de logettes. Cette disposition rappelle 
tout 4 fait celle de L. ngembaki, mais ici les piliers sont moins uniformes 
et atteignent au centre une grosseur presque double. 

Immédiatement aprés, le méme recueil a publié deux mémoires de 
M'e Irvéne Provale** sur des Foraminiféres de Bornéo recueillis égale- 
ment par le D™ Bonarelli. Ils proviennent de différentes localités, et 
Vauteur distingue plusiers niveaux différents: un niveau inférieur a 
petites Nummulites et a Orthophragmina attribué a l’Wocéne supérieur, 
un niveau moyen a Lépidocyclina schlumbergeri, raulini, tournoueri et 
a Nummulites fichteli représentant !’Oligocéne et un niveau supérieur 
miocéne a petites Lépidocyclines. I] est peu probable que les Lépido- 
eyclines du niveau moyen soient identiques aux especes de France dont 
Vauteur les rapproche; en particulier les figures données de L. raulini 
indiquent une forme a logettes bien plus petites, mais les descriptions 
sont insuffisantes pour déterminer leurs affinités réelles. 

Dans la deuxiéme partie V’auteur figure une Lep. formosa certaine- 
ment analogue au type, mais en différant par sa forme bien moins globu- 
leuse, et une L. insule-natalis, espéce 4 laquelle il rapporte le L. ngem- 
baki de Schlumberger et L. provalei de M"* Osimo. 

Ces deux derniéres especes sont en effet trés voisines comme je viens 
de Vindiquer, mais elles sont trés différentes du L. insule-natalis (8) 
comme je l’ai fait voir précédemment. Du reste l’échantillon figuré sous 
ce nom (PI. III, fig. 4, 5, 6) est extrémement globuleux et rappellerait 
plutét L. swmatrensis. 

Une curieuse espéce nouvelle est (21) L. ferreroi qui avait été recuei- 
llie il y a déja longtemps 4 Sumatra par M. Verbeek et & Madagascar 

#Di aleuni Foraminiferi dell’eocene superiore di Celebes. Rivista italiana 
di Paleontologia, Anno XIV (1908), 28-54, Pl. I-III. 

Di aleune Nummulitine e Orbitoidina dell’ isola di Borneo, deux parties. 
Rivista italiana di Paleontologia, Anno XIV (1908), 55-80, Pl. IV-VI et Anno 
XV (1909), 65, Pl. II, III. 


68 -  DOUVILLE. 


par M. Lemoine. Hlle est caractérisée par 3, 4 ou 5 grosses pustules 
saillantes placées a une certaine distance du centre. 

Il faut signaler encore plusieurs variétiés de Lep. towrnowert a rap- 
porter probablement a Lep. verbeeki: 

1. Var. angulosa (22) (loc. cit., Pl. Il, fig. 18, 14, 15), caractérisee 
par 5 grosses pustules disposées en couronne autour du centre: parait 
voisine de L. angularis (15) de Newton et Holland. 

2. Var. mflata (23) (loc. cit., Pl. III, fig. 14, 15) avec wne grosse 
pustule au centre. ; 

3. Var. borneénsis (24) (loc. cit., fig. 16-19) avec les granules unifor- 
mément répartis sur la surface et un nucleus souvent irrégulier et pluri- 
loculaire. 

Résumé.—Il resulte de cette longue révision qu’un assez grand nombre 
W@espéces de Lépidocyclines provenant des Indes Orientales** ont deja 
été décrites par les différents auteurs; certaines formes ont été rappro- 
chées des espéces d’Hurope, tandis que d’autres ont été considérées comme 
spéciales. Une étude attentive montre presque toujours que les espéces 
indiennes sont différentes des formes européennes ; en particulier le réseau 
est ordinairement 4 mailles notablement plus petites; ce caractére signalé 
par MM. Lemoine et R. Douvillé pour des formes de Madagascar parait 
se retrouver dans toutes les espéces des Indes orientales. Il semble done 
préférable d’étre trés réservé dams ces assimilations. Mais si ces deux 
groupes de formes sont différents, elles forment en réalité deux séries 
paralléles et constituées par des espéces correspondantes, c’est a dire pré- 
sentant le méme degré d’évolution. 

J’ai précédemment groupé les espéces de Lépidocyclines en deux sec- 
tions: Hulepidina et Nephrolepidina fondées sur la forme des loges 
équatoriales (en spatule ou en ogiye) et sur la disposition du nucleus 
(deuxiéme loge embrassante ou réniforme) ; je vais examiner successive- 
ment les espéces qui ont été distinguées dans chacun de ces groupes. 

Dans les Hulepidina les caractéres les plus précis sont donnés par la 
disposition des piliers; il est facile de se rendre compte que ces derniers 
prennent naissance aux points de rencontre des cloisons des logettes 
équatoriales; les premiéres couches des logettes latérales correspondent 
aux logettes équatoriales et sont par suite 4 peu prés hexagonales; on 
distinguerait alors sur leur pourtour 6 ébauches de piliers; chacun d’eux 
ayant une section triangulaire. Mais les piliers se développent mégale- 
ment tandis que les logettes se déforment plus ou moins rapidement. 
Dans les formes les moins évoluées les piliers restent polygonaux a 3.4 
ou 5 cétés; ils forment une ceinture discontinue autour de chaque logette, 


*t Je comprends sous cette denomination l’ensemble des iles en bordure du 
continent depuis Madagascar jusqu’au Japon et les portions du rivage qui s’y 
rattachent au point de vue géologique. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 69 


cest le stade n° 1. Presque toujours les piliers se développent davantage 
dans la partie médiane ordinairement renflée, mamillée, ils se rejoignent 
alors assez souvent et entourent plus ou moins complétement les logettes, 
cest le stade n° 2. 

Dans un troisiéme cas les piliers qui se développent sont moins nom- 
breux et restent isolés tout en étant encore polygonaux A 3.4 ou 5 cétés 
(stade n° 3). 

Enfin ils peuvent prendre une importance plus grande et autour de 
chacun d’eux on distingue une sorte de rosette formée de nombreuses 
logettes; on dit alors que les piliers sont devenus des pustules (stade 
n° 4). Cette disposition peut se développer seulement dans le mamelon 
central ou envahir une partie plus ou moins grande de la surface de la 
coquille. 

D’une maniére générale une méme section tangentielle oblique pourra 
montrer en se dirigeant de la couche équatoriale vers le centre les diffé- 
rents stades de développement des piliers, et c’est d’ordinaire au centre 
que ceux-ci seront le plus spécialisés. 

Une disposition toute différente se rencontre dans certaines espéces 
ou toutes les cloisons s’épaississent sans former de piliers proprement 
dits (stade n° 5). 

Exceptionnellement les piliers peuvent ne pas se développer et man- 
quer completement. Nous distinguerons cette disposition comme stade 
mou: 

D’aprés ces considérations on peut distinguer parmi les espéces déja 
connues : 

1° Lepidocyclina carteri Martin (2.1880) caractérisé par le stade n° 1, 
nombreux petits piliers a 3, 4, ou 5 cétés. La coquille est mince, 4 peine 
renflée au centre ot les piliers ne présentent pas de développement spé- 
cial. On sait que les couches latérales sont minces et trés nombreuses. 

2° Lepidocyclina gallienti Lemoine et R. Douyillé (17.1904) présente 
comme l’espéce précédente de trés nombreux piliers 4 3.4 ou 5 cétés. Ls 
sont un peu plus développés, les cloisons sont plus épaisses et les logettes 
latérales plus arrondies ; mais ces différences ne sont guére que des diffé- 
rences de races. Hn outre il n’était pas possible de s’en rendre compte 
au moment ou l’espéce de Madagascar a été établie, le L. cartert étant 
trés incomplétement défini. 

3° Lepidocyclina insule-natalis J. et Ch. (8.1900) ; les piliers sont 
plus développés et viennent se rejoindre partiellement en formant autour 
des logettes une ceinture plus ou moins discontinue (stade n° 2) ; c’est 
au centre qwils atteignent leur développement maximum. 

Les trois espéces qui précédent et en particulier la derniére corres- 
pondent par la forme et le développement de leurs piliers a L. dilatata, 

‘  101776——2 


70 DOUVILLE. 


Mich. d’Europe; elles n’en différent guére que par la plus grande finesse 
du réseau. 

4° Lepidocyclina gigantea Martin (3.1880); les piliers sont moins 
nombreux, isolés les uns des autres et forment presque des pustules, 
séparés souvent par plusieurs rangées de logettes (stade n° 3); Cest 
une disposition qui rappelle celle de L. elephantina Mun. Chalm. 

5° Lepidocyclina provalei Osimo (20.1908) ; les pustules sont ici net- 
tement caractérisées et elles sont séparées par une seule rangée de loget- 
tes; leur grosseur augmente progressivement quand on se rapproche du 
milieu de la coquille. 

6° Lepidocyclina ngembaki Schlumberger (12.1900) présente également 
des pustules bien caractérisées quoique tres petites; elles sont séparées 
au moins au centre par une seule rangée de logettes, et elles sont de 
grosseur uniforme, ce qui distingue cette espéce de la précédente. 

7° Lepidocyclina formosa Schlumberger (14.1902) se distingue de 
toutes les formes précédentes par l’épaisseur de ses cloisons, et absence 
de véritables piliers. 

Dans les Nephrolepidina les pustules existent presque toujours, mais 
leur disposition fournit de bons caractéres. 

8° Lepidocyclina verbeeki N. et H. (6.1899), est la forme fondamen- 
tale correspondant a L. towrnoueri Lem. et R. D., d@Hurope. Cvest 
comme cette derniére une forme mégasphérique et elle s’en distingue par 
son réseau beaucoup plus fin; il suffit pour s’en rendre compte de com- 
parer les figures 8 de Newton et Holland ?° et 1 de Lemoine et Rob. 
Douyillé,?® qui représentent les coupes équatoriales de ces deux espéces 
a un grossissement analogue, 20 et 18 fois. 

Cette espéce présente de nombreuses pustules dont la grosseur ya en _ 
croissant de la périphérie au centre. 

On pourrait distinguer par des noms spéciaux les formes suiyantes: 

9° Lepidocyclina inflata Provale (23.1909) caractérisée par une tres 
grosse pustule médiane. : 

10° Lepidocychina angularis Newton et Holland (15.1902) présente 
une couronne de grosses pustules plus développées que les pustules 
médianes. Hlle correspond a peu prés au Lep. morgam d Hurope. 

11° Enfin une forme trés particuliére est Lep. ferreroi Provale (21. 
1908) dont la surface présente seulement 3 4 5 gros boutons saillants 
disposés en étoile autour du centre qui est déprimé. 

Nous pouvons maintenant aborder l’examen des échantillons des Phil- 
ippines, il sera facile de distinguer les formes suivantes: 


= Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1899), VII, 3, pl. 9. 
7° Mem. Soc. géol. Fr., Paléontologie (1904), 12, Pl. III. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 71 


A. Section des Eulepidina. 


1° Formes grandes, minces ou lenticulaires, avec mamelon central plus 
ou moins développé. 


Lepidocyclina insulz-natalis, J. et (ne TAG 13 siKEB aE PA, 8}: 
Orbitoides (Lepidocyclina) insule-natalis R. Jones et Chapman, in Andrew’s 
Christmas Island (1900), 242, Pl. XX, fig. 5, non Schlumberger. 


Orbitoides de grande taille, atteienant 32 millimétres de diamétre, 
minces, 2 peine mamillés au centre. la surface est couverte de petites 
granulations ayant de 0.15 4 0.20 millimétre de diamétre, quadrangu- 
laires ou pentagonales. Dans la partie centrale, elles arrivent souvent 
4 se toucher et elles entourent alors les logettes. C’est bien 1a le carac- 
tére de cette espéce comme il a été indiqué précédemment. 

Localités. Cette espéce a éte recueillie au Barrio de Mesaba (Cebt, 
n° 272) (figs. 1, 2), ume variété (fig. 3) provient de Guila-Guila (Cebu, 
n° 278) ot elle est associée aux espéces suivantes; une coupe mince de 
cette derniére forme communiquée par M. Warren D. Smith a été repro- 
duite Pl. A, fig. 7, avec un grossissement de 10 fois. 


Lepidocyclina richthofeni Warren D. Smith. PI. C, figs. 1, 2, 3. 
Lepidocyclina richthofeni Warren D. Smith, Philip. Journ. Sci. (1906) 1, 
203. 

J’ai indiqué plus haut les caractéres assez peu précis de cette espéce: 
forme lenticulaire, logettes latérales séparées par des cloisons épaisses 
et absence de piliers ou piliers peu développés. Je réserverai cette déno- 
mination pour les formes voisines de l’espéce précédente, mais avec peu 
ou point de piliers. 

On retrouve ces caractéres dans les échantillons de la vallée de Cuma- 
jumayan (Pl. C, fig. 3) (Cebu, n° 285); ils sont lenticulaires, mais 
moins gros que le type, qui est du reste indiqué comme le plus grand 
échantillon trouvé 4 Binangonan; leur diamétre ne parait pas dépasser 
25 millimétres avec une épaisseur de 6 millimetres. Les piliers sont 
peu développés et seulement dans la partie moyenne; vers le centre on 
mobserve guére que des cloisons épaissies rappellant celles de L. formosa. 
Seulement le réseau est bien plus serré et les logettes sont bien plus 
petites ; elles se rapprochent beaucoup par leurs dimensions de celles des 
especes précédentes. 

Des échantillons trés analogues ont été recueillis pres de la mine de 
Compostela (Cebu, n° 289). 

A Guila-Guila (Cebu, n° 278) les Lépidocyclines sont de forme un 
peu différente; elles sont généralement minces et assez fortement mamil- 
lées: les unes (Pl. C, fig. 2) ont seulement 20 4 22 millimétres de dia- 
métre et présentent autour du mamelon central assez large un disque 


42 DOUVILLE. 


épaissi de 18 millimetres de diamétre, au dela duquel la coquille s’amin- 
cit brusquement comme dans certains Orthophragmina (O. bartolomei 
Schlm.). Le réseau superficiel est trés fin, les piliers sont 4 peine mar- 
qués et les cloisons séparatives sont épaissies. 

D’autres échantillons, et ce sont les plus nombreux (Pl. C, fig. 1, 1b), 
sont plus grands et plus minces; ils atteignent 38 millimétres de dia- 
métre, sont mamillés au centre ot leur épaisseur est de 3.5 millimetres. 
La partie moyenne présente quelques piliers analogues a ceux de l’espeéce 
précedente; mais au centre les piliers disparaissent ‘et les cloisons sont 
plus ou moins épaissies. Ce caractére les distingue du L. insule-natahs, 
ou les piliers sont au contraire plus développés dans la partie centrale. 

2° Formes globuleuses avec collerette équatoriale. 


Lepidocyclina formosa Schlumberger. Pl. D, figs. 2, 3, 4, et 5. 


Lepidocyclina formosa Schlumberger, Samml. d. Geol. r. museums in Leiden, 
(1900), I, 6, fase. 3, 128. 


Espéce de grandeur moyenne atteignant un diamétre probablement 
supérieur 4 12 millimétres lorsque la collerette est bien entiére. la 
partie centrale est globuleuse, presque sphérique; elle mesure ordinaire- 
ment 6 millimétres de diamétre avec une épaisseur de 4.5 a 6 millimeé- 
tres. Au dela le bord s’amincit brusquement et forme dans la région 
équatoriale une sorte de collerette toujours plus ou moins brisée; la plus 
grande largeur que j’ai observée est de 3 millimétres, mais celle-ci devait- 
étre notablement plus grande (Pl. D, fig. 1 et 2). 

Cette espéce est nettement caractérisée par lépaisseur des cloisons qui 
entourent les logettes latérales; la surface parait lisse et les piliers sem- 
blent faire défaut ainsi que les granulations superficielles qui leur cor- 
respondent (Pl. D, fig. 3). L’épaisseur des cloisons peut atteindre 0.15 
4 0.20 millimétre pour un diamétre de logettes légerement supérieur. On 
observe du reste d’assez grandes variations dans ces dimensions et d’ordi- 
naire les logettes sont plus grandes vers le milieu de la coquille. 

Localités.—Cette espéce est trés abondante prés de la mine de Com- 
postela (Cebu, n° 287) ow elle est associée 4 Lep. richthofent et a Vespece 
suivante ; elle a également été recueille 4 Guila-Guila (Cebu n° 278) ou 
elle accompagne les variétés plates de l’espéce précedente. 


Lepidocyclina inermis sp. noy. Pl. D, fig. 5. 
On recontre prés de la mine de Compostela des échantillons ayant la 
méme forme que L. formosa, globuleux et bordés d’une collerette. Ils 


sont dépourvus de piliers comme cette espéce, mais les cloisons sont tou- 
jours minces; ils correspondent au stade n° 0, défini plus haut. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 73 


B. Section des Nephrolepidina. 


Formes petites, lenticulaires, plus ou moins renflées; logettes ogivales ; 
deuxiéme loge réniforme. 


Lepidocyclina smithi sp. nov. 

Les calcaires a Nummulites de Vile de Batan renferment des Orbi- 
toides de 3 a 5 millimetres de diamétre, 
qui ne sont guere connues que par leurs 
sections. J’ai pu cependant isoler une de 
ces formes qui présente les caractéres des 
Nephrolepidina. 

Elle a 4 millimétres de diamétre et a sa 
surface on distingue 4 trés grosses pustules 
qui viennent presque se rejoindre en laissant 
seulement entre elles 4 trainées de logettes 
qui dessinent une sorte d’X. En usant y 
progressivement l’une des faces j’ai pu con- ae Gat nes eee ae 
stater que les pustules en se rapprochant Pla", Gquatoriay phos auatre 
du plan équatorial, prenaient leur forme  Piliers médians, gr. 20 fois. 
ronde habituelle. a couche équatoriale présente les logettes rhom- 
boidales caractéristiques. C’est une forme microsphérique. 

Cette Lépidocycline provyient d’une couche de calcaire intercalé dans le 
systéme lignitifére (échantillon n° 2). 

Une préparation d’un calcaire de Vile de Batan (baie de Calanaga n° 
4) dans lequel on observe de nombreuses Nummulites 4 test noir, montre 
la section verticale d’un Orbitoides avec 2 grosses pustules d’un cdté et 
une de l’autre, mais c’est mégasphérique. C’est peut-étre la forme A 
correspondant a Vespéce précédente. 

Le type trés particulier que je viens de décrire correspond a certaines 
variétés de la L. premarginata d’Kurope. Hlle se distingue de cette 
espéce par ses 4 grosses pustules trés rapprochées ; elle rappelle également 
L. ferrerot, mais dans cette derniére les pustules sont beaucoup plus 
éloignées et donnent 4 la coquille une forme étoilée. 


Lepidocyclina verbeeki N. et H. PI. D, fig. 8. 
Orbitoides papyracea Brady, Geol. Mag. Dec. II (1875), 532, Pl. XIV, fig. 1, 
non Boubée. 
Lepidocyclina verbeeki Newton et Holland, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1899), 
VII, 3, 257, Pl. IX, fig. 7, Pl. X, fig. 1. 
Les formes types caractérisées par quelques pustules de grandeur 
moyenne sont assez rares. la figure 8 reproduit un de ces échantillons 
partiellement engagé dans la roche. I] provient du Calcaire blane 


74 . DOUVILLE. 


supérieur de Cotabato Valley (ile de Cebu, n° 279) ot il est associé a la 
forme suivante et aux Miogypsina. 


Lepidocyclina inflata Provale. Pl. D, fig. 6 et 7. 
Lepidocyclina tournoueri var. influta Provale, Riv. italiana in Erlleorigieete. 
Ann, XV (1909), 73, Pl. III, figs. 14, 15. 

C’est une forme voisine de la précédente, mais qui s’en distingue par une 
trés grosse pustule centrale, tantdt seule, tantdt entourée de pustules plus 
petites. C’est de beaucoup l’espéce la plus fréquente dans les calcaires 
blancs supérieurs de Pile de Cebti. C’est peut-étre une simple variété 
de Vespéce précédente.. Ce groupe de formes mégasphériques represénte 
dans la province orientale celui du Lep. tournoueri, dont il se distingue 
par ses logettes équatoriales plus petites. 


Lepidocyclina cf. marginata Mich. 

Nummulites marginata Michlotti, Saggio Storico dei rizopodi caratteristici 
dei terreni Sopracretacei (1841), 45, Pl. III, fig. 4. 

Lepidocyclina marginata Lem. et. R. Douv., Sur le genre Lepidocyclina, Mem. 
Soe. geol. Fr. Paleont. (1904), 12, 16; Rob. Douvillé, Sur des Lepido- 
cyclnes nouvelles. Bull. Soc. géol. Fr. (1907), IV, 7, 307, Pl. X, figs. 
1G A es, 

Les formes précédentes mégasphériques sont accompagnées d’une forme 
plus rare, un peu plus grande et microsphérique; elle présente de nom- 
breuses pustules peu saillantes séparées par des logettes 4 parois épaisses 
et son diamétre atteint 7 millimétres. Mais les matériaux a ma disposi- 
tion étaient insuffisants pour en permettre une description complete, et je 
Vai considérée provisoirement comme une race du Lep. marginata. © 


- Genre MIOGYPSINA. 


Miogypsina irregularis, race orientalis. Pl. D, fig. 9 et 10. 


Nummulites irregularis Michelotti, Saggio Storico die rizopodi caratteristici 
dei terreni Sopracretacei (1841), 45. _ 

Miogypsina irregularis Sacco, Bull. Soc. belge de Géologie, (1893), 7. 

Flabelliporus orbicularis Dervieux, Atti d. R. Acad. delle Scienze di Torino, 
(1893), 29 

Miogypsina irregularis Schlumberger, Bull. Soe. géol. de France (1900), Iii, 
28, 328, Pl. II, figs. 1 4 7. 

Cette forme est abondante dans les calcaires planes supérieurs de Vile 
de Cebu; elle est trés yoisine de Vespéce d’Hurope dont elle différe seule- 
ment par ses gros granules plus espacées et occupant une plus grande 
partie de la surface. 

Quelques échantillons plus petits ont été trouvés dans les calenives 
tendres jaundtres de Gaba Bay (ile de Batan, n° 8) -situés bien aw 
dessus des couches charbonneuses; ils sont associés au Cycloclypeus et a 
des Amphistégines. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. 75 


Genre AMPHISTEGINA. 


Trés commun dans toutes les couches. 


Amphistegina niasi Verbeek. 
Nummutlites Niasi I Verbeek, Verbeek et Fennema, Deser. geol. de Java et 
Madoura (1896), 1155, Pl. TX, figs. 120-122. 
Dans les calcaires 4 Nummulites du systéme charbonneux de l’ile de 
Batan. 


Amphistegina cf. mamillata d’Orbigny. : 

Hspéce de petite taille, ayant environ 1.5 milli- 
métre de diamétre; le cété visible ressemble tout 
a fait & la figure qui a été donnée par Carpenter 
(Intr. pl. XIII, fig. 23); les différences dans le 
mode de terminaison des loges de la face infé- 
rieure tiennent peut-étre 4 un meilleur état de 
conservation. 

Localité.—Couche a Cycloclypeus communis de pig 9. amphistegina cf. 


Vile de Batan (Gaba bay). mamillata, del’ fle de 
Batan, gr. 20 fois. 


RESUME ET CONCLUSIONS. 


D’aprés V’étude qui précéde on peut classer de la maniére suivante les 
échantillons communiqués : 

I. Terrain eogéne (comprenant l’éocéne et Voligocéne) Stage Stam- 
plen. 

Calcaire de Caracaran (ile de Batan,?" éch. n° 2). 

O’est un calcaire gris bleudtre, sur lequel les Foraminiféres se déta- 
chent en noir; il fait partie du systéme lignitifére et il est indiqué comme 
intercalé entre les couches de lignite. 

Les plaques minces et les sections polies ont montré de petites Num- 
mulites de 2.7 millimétre de diamétre, qui paraissent correspondre a NV. 
niasi Verbeek; mais cette derniére espéce étant microsphérique, celle des 
Philippines, qui est mégasphérique, a du étre distinguée comme NV. sub- 
niast. Le méme calcaire renferme montre Amphistegina niasi Verbeek, 
Polystomella sp. et une curieuse Lepidocyclina de la section des Neophro- 
lepidina, L. smitht, qui rappelle certaines variétés du L. proemarginata. 

La coexistence des Nummulites et des Lépidocyclines caractérise le 
Stampien; il est 4 remarquer que ces deux genres ne sont représentés 
ici que par des formes de trés petite taille, tandis qu’un peu plus au 
sud, 4 Bornéo, les grandes formes abondent. 

IL, Terrain Néogéne (aquitanien, burdigalien, helvétien, etc.) Htage 
Aquitanien. 


* The Coal Deposits of Batan Island par Warren D. Smith, 1905 (Bull. No. 5, 
the Mining Bureau, Manila). 


76 DOUVILLE. 


1° Grés tendre jaunatre de Sibud Gulch (old Alpaco Mine, ile de 
Cebu,?® éch. n° 273). 

La roche est d’une faible dureté et le ciment calcaire est trés peu abon- 
dant; les fossiles y sont 4 état d’empreintes et les caractéres internes 
sont tres difficiles a reconnaitre. la faune se compose essentiellement 
@Orbitolites et d’Alveolinella; il faut ajouter Operculina costata, var. 
tuberculata, Rotalia, Polystomella. Cette couche est indiquée comme 
supérieure au systeme lignitifére et inférieure aux calcaires 4 Lépidoey- 
clines. lle serait ainsi 4 peu prés au niveau des couches 4 Orbitolites 
et Alveolinella de Java que M. Verbeek place dams son étage m, c’est-a- 
dire dans l’Aquitanien inférieur. Mais par suite de la conservation 
insuffisante des fossiles, cette attribution doit étre considerée comme seule- 
ment provisoire. I] faut ajouter que M. le professeur Martin a signale 2° 
des Orbitoides trouvées par Semper dans une marne d’Alpaco. 

2° Le niveau le mieux caractérisé est celui des calcaires 4 grandes - 
Lépidocyclines : 

“Caleaire de Guila-Guila (Cebu, n° 278) ; il renferme de nombreuses 
Lépidoeyclines de grande taille; les unes présentant des tubercules bien 
développés sur toute leur surface, ont été rapportées 4 L. insule-natalis, 
tandis que les autres, dépouryues de tubercules ont été assimilées a L. 
richthofeni; ces deux formes sont du reste trés voisines; elles sont as- 
sociées a une troisiéme espéce beaucoup plus petite, composée d'une 
partie centrale trés renflée bordée par une sorte de collerette; c’est la 
L. formosa, dépourvue de tubercules, mais présentant entre les logettes 
des cloisons trés épaisses. Ces diverses formes se trouvent assez souvent 
dégagées. 

Il faut places au méme niveau les calcaires du Barrio de Mesaba 
(Cebu, n° 272), avec L. insule-natalis, ceux de la vallée de Cumaju- 
mayan (Cebu, n° 28) avec L. richthofem et L. formosa et deux qui affleu- 
rent prés de la mine de Compostela (Cebu, n° 289) avee ces deux mémes 
espéces et une troisieme voisine de L. formosa mais ne présentant entre 
les logettes que des cloisons minces, c’est L. inermis. 

3° Il faut placer probablement 4 un niveau un peu plus élevé, un 
échantillon de caleaire tendre d’une couleur blanc-créme recueilli dans les 
grands escarpements, le long de la route de Toledo (Cebu) sur les bords 
de la riviére Minanga (éch. n° 277, pres du Camp n° 1) ; il présente sur 
sa surface des échantillons bien conservés d’Operculina complanata et de 
Cycloclypeus communis; cet échantillon rappelle les marnes 4 Silex de 
VPAquitanien de Bornéo. 

Ktage Burdigalien. 


7*Ceba Island par Warren D. Smith. This Journal (1906), 1, 1043. The 
Geology of the Compostela Danao Coal Field, par le méme, Ibid. Sec. A, (1907) 
2, 377. 

» Orbitoides von den Philippine, Centralbl. f. Mineral., Geol. u. Paléon. (1901), 
326. 


LES FORAMINIFERES. Th 


Ce niveau supérieur est caractérisé par Vapparition des Miogypsina et 
Pabondance des petites Lépidocyclines du groupe de L. (Nephrolepidina) 
verbeekt. Je lui rapporte les deux échantillons suivants: 

Un ealeaire sableux jaunatre, trés tendre de Gaba Bay, dans Vile de 
Batan (éch. n° 8), indiqué comme affleurant bien au dessus du systéme 
lignitifére; il renferme des Foraminiféres bien conservés, mais trés 
fragiles, parmi lesquels Globigerina, Cycloclypeus communis, Amphiste- 
gina cf. mamillata, et de petits Miogypsina, ces derniers rappelant tout 
a fait les formes du Burdigalien des environs de Dax. 

Un caleaire blane assez tendre, qui couronne la Cordillére centrale 
de V ile de Cebu, dans la Vallée de Cotabato (éch. n° 279): il renferme 
L. verbeeki, déja signalé par M. Warren D. Smith, mais surtout LD. 
inflata associé 4 de nombreuses Miogypsina irregularis. : 

Des trois faumes que je viens de signaler, la seconde caractérisée prin- 
cipalement par Vabondance des grandes Lépidoeyclines a une extension 
considérable depuis Madagascar jusqu’aux Philippines. J’ai fait voir 
dans mon Etude sur les Foraminiféres du Tertiaire de Bornéo *° qu’elle 
correspondait a PAquitanien; j’y ai distingué trois niveaux E, F, G, 
qwil sera peut-étre possible de retrouver aux Philippines, quand les ex- 
plorations géologiques y seront plus avancées. 

Le niveau supérieur Burdigalien H, présente aussi une grande ex- 
tension; il est trés développé dans Vile de Nias, 4 Java, d’ou pro- 
vient le type de LZ. verbeeki, et 4 Bornéo ot je n’avais pas distingué 
cette espéce de la forme européenne voisine (Ll. towrnouert). Ce méme 
niveau parait se prolonger au Nord a Formosa (Taiwan) et au Ja- 
pon au environs de Tokyo. Cette dernicre localité n’atteimt encore 
que la latitude de 36°, c’est-a-dire a peu pres celle de Gibraltar, tandis 
que les Lépidocyclines atteignent en France presque le 44° degré, et 
dépassent en Italie le 45°. 

Le tableau suivant résume les rapprochements que je viens d’indiquer: 


— 
Philippines. Bornéo. 
CENGEETCS SERS NEES a petites _| Lep, Verbeeki, Miogypsina Benne a. BURDIGATLEN! 
Lépidocyclines _-____-------__- Cycloelypeus communis —-_----_--____ 
Calcaires moyens_______----__- eee communis -__--.------- Ne. 
Il. Operculina complanata______----____ 


3 AQUITANIEN. 
Lep. insulée-natalis ______----________ F. 8 


eps Richthotentes=—= === enc eeee 
‘Lépidocyclines --...-_-___-___- he ps OFM OSty= = so eee te, 


Calcaires inférieurs 4 grandes_ { 


Nummulites Subniasi __ 
Amphistigina Niasi ____ 
Lépidocyclina Smithi___.----_-______ 


ire Inférieur 4 Nummulites_ 


I. Systéme lignitifere et calca- 
D. Stampien. 


* Bull. de la Soc. géol. de France, 4 Série, t. V, p. 43. 


78 DOUVILLE. 


En Europe la sucession des faunes est trés analogue: les Lépidocyclines 
y sont trés développées dés le Stampien aussi bien en Espagne qu’en 
Italie, elles y atteignent une grande taille et y sont associées comme 4 
Bornéo avee des Nummulites réticulées. Le groupe du ZL. dilatata rem- 
place le groupe Asiatique du L. insule-natalis et se prolonge dans Aqui- 
tanien, tandisque dans les niveaux supérieurs le groupe du L. towrnowert 
remplace celui du L. verbeekv; tous les deux sont associées aux Miogyp- 
sina. 

Le bassin européen et le bassin asiatique paraissent avoir été compléte- 
ment séparés dés la fin de ’Hocéne par le soulévement du Liban qui 
s’est développé en travers de la Mésogée et a séparé la Mediterranée de 
VPOcéan Indien. C’est seullement 4 une époque beaucoup plus récente 
qui ouverture de la mer Rouge a été sur le point de rétablir, une com- 
munication entre les deux mers, mais les eaux de l’Océan Indien ont été 
arrétées a quelques kilométres de la Méditerranée devant la faible bar- 
riére de V’isthme de Suez. 


TABLE DES MATIERES. 


Alveolinella ‘ mamillata (Amphistegina) 
Amphistegina marginata (Lepidocyclina) 
andrewsiana (Lepidocyclina) martini Schl. (Lepidocyclina) 
angularis (Lepidocyclina) j martini W. Smith (Lepidocyclina) 
angulosa (Lep. tournoueri var.) - martini (Orbitoides) 
borneénsis. (Lep. tournoueri var.) -multipartita (Lepidocyclina) 
carteri (Lepidocyclina) murrayana (Lepidocyclina) 
communis (Cycloclypeus) neodispansa (Lepidocyclina) 
complanata (Operculina) Nephrolepidina 

Cycloelypeus ngembaki (Lepidocyclina) 
ephippioides (Lepidocyclina) niasi. (Amphistegina ) 
Eulepidina Nummulites 

ferreroi (Lepidocyclina) Operculina 

formosa (Lepidocyclina) Orbitolites 

gallienii (Lepidocyclina) Polystomella 

gigantea (Lepidocyclina) : provalei (Lepidocyclina) 
Heterostegina radiata (Lepidocyclina) 
inermis (Lepidocyclina) =~ --richthofeni (Lepidocyclina) 
inflata (Lep. tournoueri var.) Rotalia - ; 
inflata ( Lepidocyclina) smithi -(Lepidocyclina) 
insule-natalis (Lepidocyclina) subniasi (Nummulites) 
irregularis (Miogypsina) . sumatrensis (Lepidocyelina) . 
joffrei (Lepidocyclina) BSE tournoueri (Lepidocyclina ) 


Lepidocyelina ; verbeeki (Lepidocyclina) 


Fie. 1. 
. Orbitolites. Méme provenance, gr. 10 fois. 

. Operculina costata d’Orbigny. Minanga river (Cebi, N° 277), gr. 10 fois. 
. Operculina costata var. tuberculata. Ola Alpaco Mines (Ceba, N° 273) 


Fic. 


Fie. 


Fie. 


Nn 


or} 


© % 


. Méme espéce de la méme localité, Section mince 


EXPLICATION DES PLANCHES. 


PLANCHE A. 


Alweolinella. Old Alpaco Mines (Cebt, N° 273), gr. 10 fois. 


gr. 10 fois. 


. Cycloclypeus communis Martin. Minanga River (Cebfi, N° 277) gr. 10 


fois. 


. Heterostegina. Barrio of Mesaba (Ceba, N° 272) gr. 10 fois. 
. Lepidocyclina insule-natalis J. et Ch. Guila-Guila (Ceba, N° 278) x 10, 


@aprés une préparation de M. Warren D. Smith. 


PLANCHE B. 


. Lepidocyclina insule-natalis J. et Ch. Barrio of Mesaba (Ceba, N° 272). 


(la) Profil en vraie grandeur; (1>) surface grossie 10 fois; le milieu 
vers le haut 4 gauche a été légerement usé. 


. Méme espéce, de la meme localité, grandeur naturelle. 
. Lepidocyclina insule-natalis J. et Ch. Guila-Guila (Cebi, N° 278). (3 et 


3a) En grandeur naturelle; (3>) surface du méme échantillon grossie 
10 fois. 
: PLANCHE C. 


. Lepidocyclina richthofem Warren D. Smith. Guila-Guila (Cebi, N° 278), 


grandeur naturelle. (1b) Surface du méme échantillon grossie 10 fois. 


. Autre échantillon de la méme provenance beaucoup plus épais et avec 


un commencement de collerette. 


. Lepidocyclina richthofeni. Cumajumayan Valley (CebG, N° 285), détail 


de la surface, gr. 10 fois. 
PLANCHE D. 


et 2. Lepidocyclina formosa Schlumberger. Compostela Mine (Cebti, N° 
289). Vues de face et de profil en vraie grandeur. 


. Méme espace de Guila-Guila (Ceba, N° 278), détail de la surface gr. 10 


fois. 

gr. 10 fois, d’aprés une 
préparation de M. Warren D. Smith. 

Lepidocyclina inermis H. Douvillé. Compostela Mine (Ceba, N° 289) gr. 
10 fois. 

ét 7. Lepidocyclina inflata Provale. Cotabato Valley (Ceba, N° 289), gr. 
10 fois. 

Lepidocyclina verbeeki Newton et Holland. Méme provenance, gr. 10 fois. 

et 10. Miogypsina irregularis Michelotti, race orientalis. Méme_ prove- 
nance, gr. 10 fois. 


80 


Fic. 1. 


2. 


P DOUVILLE. 


FIGURES DANS LE TEXTE. 


Nummulites subniasi sp. nov. de la formation charbonneuse de Vile de 
Batan, gr. 10 fois. 
Lepidocyclina swmatrensis, gr. 6 fois d’aprés la figure originale de Brady. 


2bis, Section d’un echantillon de Vile de Nias, gr. 10 fois. 


3. 


4. 


Lepidocyclina carteri Martin, disposition des piliers prés de la surface, 
gr. 20 fois. 

Lepidocyclina gigantea Martin, disposition des piliers prés de la surface, 
gr. 20 fois. : 


. Reproduction grossis 5 fois de la partie centrale de la figure type de MM. 


Rupert Jones et Chapman, le grossissement de cette derniére figure 
nest pas indiqué. : 


. Lepidocyclina formosa, disposition des logettes sur une section de l’échan- 


tillon type de l’espéce, gr. 20 fois. 


. Lepidocyclina gallienti de Madagascar; coupe prés de Ja surface montrant 


la disposition des piliers, gr. 20 fois. 


. Lepidocyclina smithi; coupe prés de la surface paralléle au plan équatorial, 


montrant le grand développement des quatre piliers médians, gr. 20 
fois. 


. Amphistegina cf. mamillata de Vile de Batan, gr. 20 fois. 


DOUVILLE: LES FORAMINIFERES. | (PHIL. JOURN. ScI., Vou. VI, No. 2. 


PLANCHE A. 


DoUVILLE : LES FORAMINIFERES.} 


PLANCHE B.- 


[PHiu. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2. 


NS eee 


DouvILLe: LES FPORAMINIFERES. | (PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2. 


PLANCHE C. 


DOUVILLE : LES FORAMINIFERRS. ] 


PLANCHE D 


[Pri. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2. 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D, General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 2, April, 1911. 


THE HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 


By Roy FRANKLIN BARTON. 


The Ifugao has some hundreds of spirits of various ranks ranging 
from gods to demons, monsters, imps, and spirits dwelling in trees and 
stones; and in addition to these, there are the souls, linawwa, of his 
ancestors, who are nearly as powerful as the other spirits. A very large 
share of the Ifugao’s life is spent in obtaining animals and other things 
needed for religious feasts. 

Whenever a member of the family falls ill, chickens, ducks, pigs, or 
a carabao, according to the wealth of the family and the seriousness of 
the case, are killed; one or more jars of rice wine and a quantity of 
betel nuts and betel leaves are provided. An enormous number of spir- 
its, including all the spirits of the ancestors for six or seven genera- 
tions, and the ancestral spirits in a direct male line from Bugan and 
Balitok, the survivors of a great flood, are invited by name to the feast. 
Tf an Ifugao leaves on a journey far from home; if he enlists in the 
Constabulary; or cuts his son’s hair for the first time, he makes a reli- 
_ gious feast. If he happens to go to Nueva Vizcaya to buy a carabao, 
he makes a feast to which he invites certain spirits, praying to them to 
put it into the mind of whomsoever he may try to buy from, to sell the 
animal cheap. If an Ifugao marries or is divorced; if a child is born 
to him; if he makes a loom; if he becomes angry with a man of another 
village and desires his death; if he moves into another house; if he is 
apparently unsuccessful in a love affair; if he finds that he is consuming 
his supply of rice too rapidly; if a bird called pitpit flies into his house ; 
if he names his baby; if a bad debtor delays payment—a proper feast is 
the invariable accompaniment. 

Certain feasts rank higher in importance, expense, and pretentiousness 
than others. The most expensive and the one which invests the giver 
with great prestige is the uyaue,! the feast of the kadanyyan, a class of 
rich men that approaches an aristocracy. The kolating, or harvest feast, 


*In writing Ifugao words in this article, a phonetic system of spelling is used. 
It may be noted that the vowels have the Continental values and that the g is 
always hard. 

81 


82 BARTON. 


is not very expensive; it can be given for from fifteen to twenty pesos; 
it is not pretentious, for every one who has a few rice fields gives it; but 
it is of the greatest importance.* When the meaning of rice to the Ifu- 
gao is considered, it is not strange that harvest time should be celebrated 
by feasts having profound religious importance. A bad rice crop indi- 
cates that the spirits have a “bad mind” toward the village and special 
effort must be made to appease them to the end that further disasters 
may be averted. A good rice crop is an occasion for a thank offering, 
and for a feast to keep the spirits right during the coming year. . 

Every man who owns a granary, alang, must give a ceremonial feast, 
baki.2 If his granaries are located in different places, the man must 
give a feast at each. These have a fourfold function: First, to thank 
the deities, bagol, for the crop of the past year if it has been good, or 
to reprove them gently and argue the case with them if it has been a 
bad one; second, to persuade the deities to increase the rice as it is being 
cut and stored in the granary; third, to induce them not to decrease the 
rice nor to destroy it during the year, as, for example, by strong winds 
that can break granaries, or by lightning; and fourth, to put the deities 
in a “good mind,” that they may favor the general welfare of the village 
during the year to come, that they may make sickness rare, prevent de- 
structive storms, defeat enemies should enemies come, frustrate the 
designs of sorcerers in other villages, and make women, pigs, and chickens 
fertile. 

The second function-of the harvest feast, to persuade the deities to 
increase the rice as it 1s being cut and stored, is especially interesting. 
The idea seems absurd, but it must be considered that these people have 
no experience contrary to this belief; for, even if they count the mano- 
jos * of rice, butek, when they put them in the granary,’ they do not 
keep track of the number taken from the granary for daily use. The 
Igorots of Lepanto also believe that the divinities may increase the rice 
as it is being cut and stored away. But the most intelligent Ifugaos 
deny the belief in this form, They believe that the divinities may make 


*In this paper the writer desires to be understood as speaking of the Ifugaos 
who live in the village of Kiangan. The customs and practices of the various 
divisions of the Ifugao tribe vary somewhat and this article would be inaccurate 
did it pretend to apply to the Ifugaos as a whole. : 

’ Baki is the general term for a religious feast. All feasts of the Ifugaos 
have some religious significance. ! 

“Small hand sheaves of headed rice. From the Spanish manojo, a bundle of 
herbs or other plants that can be held in the hand. i 

5 Counting the manojos is, except in the case of a field that is let to a renter, 
tabooed on the ground that the bagol will not miraculously increase the manojos 
if they be counted. There is, among some card players, the vague remnant of 
a belief that if a hand be not picked up until the deal is finished, the cards 
will grow to higher denominations. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 83 


the rice sufficient, whereas it would not have been sufficient without 
their action.® This, of course, is only a vaguer form, a toning down of 
the old belief, made necessary by a growing intelligence. 

The kolating is always celebrated on the day on which the owner of 
the alang begins to cut his rice. In the early morning before either 
harvest or feast commences, the owner of the fields kills a chicken and 
examines its gall bladder for an omen as to whether or no the time is 
propitious for the harvest. A full, black bladder is a favorable sign in 
this case, as in others in which the gall bladder is examined for an 
omen, as, for example, in cases of sickness or departure on a journey. 
Unless the chicken is diseased, the gall bladder is always full early in 
the morning at which time the digestive organs have for some hours 
rested from their functions. If, by chance, the gall bladder is white, or 
empty, the harvest and feast are postponed for two or three days, when 
the omen is consulted again. 

The harvest feast takes place at the granary. The doors of the latter 
are decorated with leaves of the haganyga tree and with hagaga, a kind 
of grass common in rice fields, similar to what is called “nut-grass” in 
some parts of the United States. These decorations are said to frustrate 
malicious human sorcerers and other enemies in their efforts to make 
the rice disappear rapidly and to decrease it in quantity. 

The feast begins at about 10 o’clock in the morning. The dotal," 
a kind of a mat made of long runo stems laid closely parallel and tied 
together with rattan, used on festive or funeral occasions, is brought 
from the granary, unrolled, and placed on the ground underneath the 
structure for the people to sit on. The mat fits the space under the gran- 
ary. Bubud jars, augang, generally two, holding from fifteen to thirty 
liters each, are set in the center of the mat. These jars contain the 
fermented rice, the malt called bubud, and the binabudan, or rice wine, 
called tapui in Benguet, and tafei in Bontoc. Sometimes the rice wine 
is termed binadayan, but binadayan and baya are generally terms for 
intoxicants and apply to the bas: and gin of the Christian Filipinos and 
the whisky of the Americans. Usually, there are about four and one- 
half liters of the beverage in an average-sized bubud jar; the rest is 
malt. Wooden bowls are provided into which the binabudan is strained 
from the bubud jars by means of three or four round stalks which hold 


°There‘is a feast called humangali page given every year by such persons as 
find the rice in their granaries being consumed more rapidly than they think 
it should be. Last year, 1909, a partially Christianized Ifugao, one of the 
municipal offieials, refused to give the harvest feast. When, after about three 
months, he found that his supply of rice was being used up too fast, he gave 
this feast hoping to mend matters. 

7 Dotal is the ordinary Ifugao word for floor. It is applied to the mat here 
referred to because the mat is used at the feast to make a floor. 


84. BARTON. 


the malt back in the jar. The rice wine is dipped up from these wooden 
bowls by means of coconut shells, tawg, the rims of which have been 
notched to fit the mouth. Wooden troughs, timgap, are filled with betel 
nuts and betel leaves.§ In one trough are some twelve to twenty stones 
called buga.? Whenever an animal is killed at the granary some of its 
blood is smeared on each of these stones, the person smearing it saying: 
“Thou, blood stone, do not get lost.”2° Three or four palipal, or bamboo 
clappers, are placed in the trough with the buga. The palipal is essen- 
tially a partially split stick of bamboo about fifty centimeters long, the 
halves of which clap sharply together when it is shaken. A large flattish 
basket of cooked rice, hinamar, is provided for the linawwa. According 
to the Ifugao, everything living or dead has an invisible, immaterial 
shadow, and it is this shadow that the linawwa use. After repeated 
investigations I have been unable to find any term for this shadow. 
When hard pressed for a name two or three men have called it the 
linauwa ; but a lanauwa, strictly speaking, is the soul of a man, an animal, 
or a plant. At any rate, it is a convenient provision of the Ifugao reli- 
gion that the spirits use the invisible, immaterial, part of the rice wine, 
betel nuts, blanket, bolo, or other offering, leaving the material part for 
the consumption or use of the living. After all these things, bubud, 
betel nuts, betel leaves, cooked rice, palipal, and blood stones, have been 
placed in the center of the mat, the people take their places, squatting ” 
in a ring about them. 

Let us look at the principal actors in the ceremony about to begin. 
There are twenty men and three women present, this being about the 
usual ratio of the sexes represented at these feasts, and any number of 
small boys and girls. The larger children are busy in the rice fields. 
Occasionally, however, one of the large boys who is carrying rice to the 
granary remains for a few minutes to watch the ceremonies, and to 
rest after climbing the steep hillside. A typical feast will be described. 


® The betel nuts are kept in the troughs from year to year. In some of the 
prayers of this feast the rice is called on to become hard and dry in imitation 
of the betel nuts. It is told to “follow” the betel nuts, which stay in the granary 
from year to year; not to be eaten up; not to disappear, but to have a portion 
left at the next harvest. 

®The following is the story of the buga: Alingdayu, the place spirit of Naga- 
dangan, used to eat gold. In his stomach the gold turned to stone. He gave 
this stone to Balitok, the Ifugao Noah, who, with his sister Bugan, survived a 
flood that drowned all other people. Alingdayu told Balitok that so long as he 
kept the stone he would have good crops. Balitok put other stones with this 
original stone and these others acquired its properties. He gave them to his 
children and they have added to the number according to the demands of the 
increased population. 

10 He’a, buga, adika mondekela. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 85 


The granary belongs to Kodamon, one of the richest men in Kiangan 
and a typical representative of the upper class Ifugao, the kadartyyan.™ 
He is tall, well proportioned, and of middle age. He admires the white 
man and respects him; but his tribal pride, together with a most ad- 
_mirable sense of the fit and harmonious, holds him, it has often seemed 
to me, true to the religion and life of his fathers. He apes neither the 
white man nor the Christian Filipino. It is as if he preferred to remain 
(and this in contrast to certain of his fellow kadaryyan) a good Ifugao 
rather than become a “half-and-half.” He knows, as an Ifugao hadang- 
yan ought to know, all his ancestors, male and female, for six or seven. 
generations, and can trace his genealogy in a direct male line to Bali- 
tok, the Ifugao Noah. His two sisters and his wife are nearly of his 
age. They are vigorous appearing women who have worked hard in 
their time, but now have daughters to take their places in the rice fields. 
Gimbungan, Kodamon’s father, is a very old man, almost blind. No 
one in the region is better versed in the Ifugao folklore and religion than 
Gimbungan. His faculties, however, are waning. Whenever he starts 
an invocation, or phase of ceremony, he goes through it like an automaton, 
and immediately repeats it again and again until Kodamon starts him 
off on something else, a task performed respectfully and with evident 
filial love. JXodamon has carried Gimbungan’? a distance of over 3 
Kilometers from Longa to Pindungan, where the feast is to be held; for 
the old man is too feeble to walk so far. Hight or nine middle-aged or 
elderly cousins, and a pig, complete the list of those who take a leading 
part in the ceremony. 
The younger men** play the parts of acolytes and exhorters; they 

strain the rice wine, hold the cup for the old men who are praying, hand 
them palipal or whatever else may be needed. Not knowing the proper 


* Padre Juan Villaverde applies the term nobility to this class. This Journal, 
Sec. A (1909), 4, 241. 


* As this is being written, Gimbungan is afflicted with a derangement of the 
faculties of speech. He has directed Kodamon to find a dog to be killed at a 
feast; he says that a dog is the proper animal to cure this particular affliction. 
It may be that he has had a dream to that effect, or it may be that this belief 
is due to the fact that the dog has more powerful and versatile vocal organs 
than any other animal known to the Ifugao. Judge the dilemma in which 
Kodamon finds himself. He would like to obey, it his duty to obey his old 
father; but for an Ifugao kadargyan to eat dog! It would never be forgotten, 
and years hence, in the drunken babbling around the bubud*jar, Kodamon would 
hear of it! i 

* By younger men I mean the younger middle-aged men, for no youths take 
part in feasts. 

101776——3 


86 BARTON. 


forms and the names of the deities, they exhort and call out phrases of 
encouragement as the others pray or chant. 


Oh! that’s it! Oh grant it! Come, ye deities! Take the pig, you deities! 
Drink the rice wine! Make the rice heavy! Speed the harvesters!™* 


These and other phrases the young men call out in a high, falsetto 
voice as the ceremonies and prayers proceed. Those who perform this 
office are called montobal, exhorters. I have been invited on several 
occasions to join the young men in this, and on one occasion I accepted ; 
but for an American to summon the bagol was, I thought, an unbecoming 
and, in fact, a sacrilegious levity. However, the people did not regard 
it as such. In fact, while the people are most sincere in their belief, their 
religion has not yet reached that stage where ceremonies are conducted 
with outward tokens of great awe, respect, and solemnity. It is the 
pig, the betel nuts, the binadayan, and cooked rice that the bagol want, 
not praise and long, grave countenances, for the deities are very mate- 
rial in their desires. 

The pig, with his feet lashed together, and a small pole passed between 
them to hinder his struggles, is placed in front of the granary door near 
the mat. (See Pl. II, fig. 2.) 

The drum is the only musical instrument employed at the harvest 
feast. Sometimes one is used, sometimes two. The drum is played in 
double time. It accompanies nearly all the ceremonies. 

All ceremonial circuits in the harvest feast are counterclockwise, begin- 
ning at the east, in front of the door of the granary. The people say 
that the bagol must have told Balitok and Bugan (the man and woman 
who survived the great flood) to proceed so, and they believe that if a 
man were to go around in the other direction he would surely fall off 
a steep cliff in a journey, or else lose his way. 

About the middle of the forenoon the people commence to drink rice 
wine and invoke the linawwa of the monlapu. So begins the first part 
of the ceremony. 

The monlapu leaders in rice cultwre—Duldul, the mother of Santiago, 
a rich man of Baai, is the monlapu of Kiangan disrict. That is to 
say she is the one who decides when each phase of rice culture shall begin, 
and takes the lead in each. She first begins spading, planting the seed, 
transplanting, and harvesting. Until she has begun these things, no 
one else may begin under penalty of misfortune, of bad crops, very likely 
of death. Dulduli became the monlapu in response to a dream that came 
soon after the death of the former monlapu. She is currently believed to 
have eight years to reign in this capacity, when she will die. When 


"Oh hia! Eh damit! Umalikayun bagol! Talim di babui dakayun bagol! 
Ambayan di binadayan! Manangali page! Ikwadim di monagamid! 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 87 


she dies, she may inhabit, in the spirit, a tree or a boulder, or she 
may become a new spring, as did the last monlapu in Ligaue. Some- 
times the monlapw is a man. In case of bad crops the monlapw finds 
himself universally blamed for them. He is considered to have been lax 
in his religious duties. 

As priestess of agriculture Dulduli makes feasts to ask in behalf of 
the village for rain if it be needed or for relief from a rice pest that 
may visit it. Just as in life she takes the lead in harvesting, spading, 
planting, and so on, so after death, she (or he) is the first of all the 
many spirits to be called to the harvest feast. All the monlapu who have 
ever ruled Kiangan agriculture, together with the monlapu of neighboring 
districts, are called to the feast. 

Invocation of ancestors. Monamud.—tThe invocation and invitation of 
the souls of the ancestors is, so far as my knowledge goes, the first part 
of every feast of whatever kind, with the exception of the harvest feast 
in which the monlapu precede. The ancestors are invited to be present 
and to partake of the feast and drink the rice wine. (See Plate II.) 
An old man should be able to name his ancestors, both male and female, 
for at least six generations. Women do not usually know so many, but 
they call on those whom they do know. Each man invokes his own 
particular set of ancestors, and if none of his wife’s relatives be present, 
her brothers or her father, he calls upon her ancestors too. In fact, he 
looks upon his wife’s ancestors as his own in a way; and it is his duty 
to have learned them from her father. Complimentary remarks are ad- 
dressed to the ancestors, as, for example, this one that I once heard: - 
“Brave ancestor, Ananayo, you who speared the child-slave to death.”** 
Spirits of ancestors can not directly affect the harvest nor the growth of 
rice, but they have the greatest influence with the spirits that do have such 
power, and with the spirits that bring fortune and misfortune, children, 
sickness, and death. They must never be slighted nor offended. Their 
feelings are quite delicate, and if a man neglects his ancestors, they 
will remove their watchful guardianship from him and misfortune of 
some sort will result. The prayer to the ancestors is extemporaneous, 
each man going about it in his own way. The word sai, long drawn 
out, is used in the following invocation : 


Thou, ancestor Ginnid, come, drink the intoxicant. There are betel nuts and 
betel leaves here. Thou, ancestress Bugan, daughter of Oltagon, ete.” 


* Mahwi Apo Ananayo, te timbuk, di himbut ud nate. Is this a reference to 
the sacrifice of a slave at some early time? 

* Sa-ai-ai-ai umali Apo Ginnid; umalika, wminum di baya. Tehtu momma 
ut hapid. Sa-ai-ai-ai ka Apo Bugan, nak Oltagon, etc. In invoking the deities 
the word sa-ai-ai-ai is sung in a peculiar long drawn chant. It does not appear 
to have any meaning. 


88 BARTON. 


Rice wine is consumed at an alarming rate during this ceremony. 

Ceremomal killing of chickens—The invocation to the ancestors 
finished, some chickens are usually killed. The ceremonial killing of 
chickens is performed by cutting their throats with a sliver of bamboo. 
The blood is caught in a vessel and a prayer repeated as the chicken 
is dying. The chicken is then held over the fire until its feathers are 
burned off, when it is cut up with a knife or by a sawing motion of the 
bamboo sliver and put into a pot to boil. The intestines are stripped 
of their contents by being drawn between the thumb and finger. They 
are then put on a spit, and broiled before the fire. hey are the portion 
of the cook. Of some twelve harvest feasts which I attended, the bamboo 
sliver was used at two. At others the knife was used. After the chicken 
has been killed, the blades of two rwno stalks are tied in a peculiar 
manner, and the feet of the chicken stuck into these. Pieces of betel 
nuts wrapped in betel leaves and stuck on little sticks are tied in the 
blades. The runo stalks, so adorned and called paghing, are placed one 
on each side of the gate of the fence surrounding the granaries, or in 
the fence in front of the granary door. ‘They are given to the pili, 
the spirit that guards the granary against thieves. 

The inyocation of the ancestors proceeds in a rather leisurely manner, 
and it is generally noon or even later when it is finished. The chickens 
that have been killed and cooked are not eaten, but are put in a wide, 
flat basket as an offering to the spirits that come to the feast. In fact 
the party has not eaten anything since the night of the previous day and 
continues to fast until the ceremonies are finished. ; 

The Ifugao conception of the universe—In order to make what 
follows intelligible, it is necessary to explain the universe according to 
the Ifugao’s idea. The Ifugao conceives of three worlds: the Sky World, 
the Harth World, and the Under World. Lach is populated by a variety 
of spirits, which live in groups of houses, in trees, gullies, springs, 
waterfalls, currents, stones, and houses made of skulls. There they 
abide much as mortals do. They have an insatiable appetite for pig 
meat, betel nuts, and wines; some of them at least need bolos, blankets, 
beads, and other things that man uses. In addition to the three worlds 
mentioned before, there are two regions, places where the three worlds 
meet: The Hast, Lagod, and the West, Daya. In the Hast live some 
very vicious place-spirits. The spirits in the Hast are much more num- 
erous than those in the West. The Kiangan Ifugaos say that they 
themselves came from the Hast, which probably accounts for the fact 
that the Hast is more thickly populated with spirits. There is no north- 
ern nor southern region thus populated.” In fact, there are no words 


- 47 Villaverde is in error when he states that Kadungayan, the place where souls 
of those who die a natural death live, is to the north. This Journal, Sec. A 
(1909), 4, 248. Kadungayan is in the East. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 89 


in the language for north and south. If a Kiangan man wishes to say 
north, he names some remote place toward the north, as ud Banawul, 
toward Banaue, a village in a northerly direction from Kiangan. 

Invocation of the makalun. Monmakalun.—The makalun,* the spir- 
its that make men forget, that remind or suggest to them, are next 
invoked. The makalun may work a man great injury by causing him 
to forget the debts that are owed him, to lose spear or bolo, and so on. 
“The makalun are like police, also,” say the Ifugaos, “they bring other 
spirits to the feast.” This simile is perfectly clear when it is under- 
stood that a very small part of the work of an Ifugao policeman consists 
in preserving the peace, and that by far the greater part of his work 
consists in calling cabecillas ** and kadargyan for consultation ; in carry- 
ing instructions to foremen on the trails; carrying the mails and the 
like. The makalun are messengers of the other spirits and of those 
men who know how to call on them in the right way. As it was ex- 
plained to me, the makalun, when sent to call spirits to a feast, notify 
the chief spirit in each of the various villages of spirits. This chief 
spirit notifies the others that such and such an Ifugao is making a 
harvest feast, and that such and such spirits may go to it. An old man 
told me that the makalun tells the chief or cabecilla of the spirits some- 
thing like this: 

The men are harvesting. Let us go to the granary of Kadamon and Gagaya. 


We will drink rice wine. They will give us their pigs, chickens, and rice. We 
will chew betel nuts.” 


Some of the makalun most frequently invoked are: Ud Lagod (in 
the Hast) Tayaban,** nak Balud;?? Tayaban, nak Tagudan; Taya- 
ban, nak Manguli. Ud Kabunian (in the Sky World) Tayaban, nak 
Dalogdogan; Tayaban, nak Balitian; Tayaban, nak Amkidul; Bugan, 
nak Numbian; Bugan, nak Balitian; Bugan, nak Abugai. Ud Dalom 
(in the Under World) Tayaban, nak Ginita; Tayaban, nak Bahinag; 
Tayaban, nak Litnak. The number of makalun and the list of spirits 
that may be called upon to serve as makalun, varies considerably at 
different feasts. This is the most variable, and in fact the only greatly 
variable, feature of the harvest feast as performed in Kiangan villages. 


% Makalun: ma, able; kal, word, speech; makalun, one who is able to tell or 
-to summon. 
Spanish word used in the Philippines in the sense of chief. 


a0 Mon-ani di Ipuwao. Ume-tako hi kalumaga di Kondamon ya 
Are agents of harvesting the human beings. Will-go-we the granary of Kodamon an 


Gagaya; Manginum-tako baya. Idat-tako babui, ya manok ya page-da. 
Gagaya; ~-Will-be-agents-of-drinking-wine. Will give us the pig, the chickens, the rice-their. 
Monmomma-tako. 
Wiill-be-agents-of-chewing-betel-we. 
“Tayaban. See under heading “The Tayabans” of this article. 
2 Nak, son of. 


90 BARTON. 


The people call the makalun thus, drinking quantities of rice wine at 
the same time: 


Come thou, Tayaban, the Messenger Deity, son of * * *. Notify the souls 
of our ancestors to come. Notify the Deities of the Sky World, of the Under 
World, of the East, of the West, to come. Notify our relatives and our compan- 
ions. Summon Banuyuk of Panuyu. In order to speed the harvesters of the 

rice; in order to multiply the bundles of the rice. There are rice wine and betel 
nuts and betel leaves here.” 


These and similar phrases are repeated over and oyer, the fervor of 
the feasters growing the while. 

Suddenly some of the feasters, perhaps three or four, perhaps a dozen, 
are seized upon and possessed by an equal number of makalun. Through 
these human agencies, the makalun chant: 


We will call your relatives and companions and the spirits of the Under World, 
of the Sky World, of the East, and of the West, because you are making a 
harvest feast.™ 


So ends the second ceremony of the feast, the makalun leaving the 
bodies of those whom they have possessed and starting off on their errand 
immediately. 

The earth gods and the sky gods.—These deites, of all those whom the 
Ifugao calls to the harvest feast, are the only ones of sufficient dignity 
to be termed gods. Their benevolence generally exceeds their malice, 
which is not true of the other deities; and they control some of the 
forces of nature.2® Bahiwag and his brothers, Dunuan and Tinukud 
live in the Under World. They are thought to have a great deal to do 
with the growth of plants, especially with germination. Dalogdogan, 
Balitian, and Bayuhibis live in the Sky World and control the weather. 
Balitian makes rain and Bayuhibis makes mist. They are brothers of 


8 Sa-a-a-t Umalika Tayaban an Makalun, nak * * *. Kalunuwm di linavaca 
di amud ta umalida. Kalunum di bagol ud Kabunian, ud Dalom, ud Lagod, ud 
Daya, ta umalida. Kalunum di mundomang® ya nunhalug. Pananduan hi Ba- 
nuyuk ud Panuyu. Ta ikuadin di monagamid di page; ta gumalutigid di udung » 
di page. Tehtu baya ya momma ya hapid. 


24 Sa-a-a-t Komalum-kami mundomang,°  manhalung Idalom® 
Say! Will-be-agents-of-calling-we relatives companions Residents-of-the 
Under-World 
Tkabunian Mlagod Ipaddan® te mon-kolating-kayo. 
Residents-of-the Sky-World Residents-of-the Residents of the West because agents-of-perform- 
East. ing-harvest-feast-you. 


a Mundomang: relatives, including relatives by blood and relatives by marriage. 

b Udung, butt of the manojo of rice; poetically, the whole manojo. i 

© Mundomang: See note a. 

a7, as a prefix in the Kiangan dialect, denotes residents of; as, for example, Ikiangan, 
residents of Kiangan ; Jdalom, residents of Dalom, the Under World. 

e Paddan, a place to the west; figurative term for West. 


> Another quality of their godhood is that so far as.any Ifugao knows, they 
have always existed. They were not born of parents. There is no story of their 
creation so far as I have been able to ascertain. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 9] 


Amkidul and Bagilat, who respectively make thunder and lightning. 
These gods are the same throughout Ifugao-land, notwithstanding the 
fact that there are ten or twelve different dialects in the subprovince. 
They are invoked by the entire body of feasters, in the usual high, 
falsetto voice, in these or similar phrases: 


Oh come! Bahiwag of the Under World. Drink the rice wine. Take the 
pig. Speed the harvesters of rice. Oh! that’s it! Bagol! Make the rice grains 
as numerous as the sands. Miraculously increase the rice! Oh! Grant it! 
Come thou! Make the rice heads hang over (with weight). Oh! that’s it!* 


The gods are called separately and in groups. Suddenly one of the 
gods (Bahiwag*" always comes first) comes and possesses a feaster. 
The latter springs up, seemingly without premeditation, seizes a dish of 
rice wine, or, it may be, one of the big bubud jars, swings it with a 
circular motion under the granary, at the same time hopping with the 
characteristic Ifugao dance steps. The cries and calls of the feasters 
and their white-heat fervor leave no doubt that here is a religion the 
letter of which has not yet superseded its spirit. The one possessed 
drinks and gives the others to drink, chanting the while: 


I come up from below, I, Bahiwag. I behold with favor that you are making 
a rice feast. I dance, and I drink the rice wine. Drink, you participants; because 
I am giving you to drink. I taste the chicken, the pig, and the rice, as I have 
been accustomed to do in times past. Thus I drink in dwelling and granary. 
I desire it so year after year. 


The one possessed passes to the front of the granary where he executes 
a little dance. Another feaster, of either sex, who has been possessed 
by Tinukud, one of the other two spirits from the Under World, quickly 
follows him, and together they dance and chant: 


We are the miraculous increase of the rice. We are the slowness of the rice 
to be used up. We are harvest-knives and ties.” 


76 Sai! Umali Bahiwag ud Dalom. Angbayam di binadayan. Talim di babut, 
Ikwadim di monagamid. Oh-h-h hia! an Bagol! Pumantal di Birgga. Huma- 
ngali page. Eh-h-h Dami! Umatlika. Lumatok di bintok. Oh-h-h hia! 

7 Bahiwag is chief of the gods of the Lower World. Dalogdogan is chief in 
the Sky World. [There seems to be some doubt as to whether these two gods 
are considered as leaders in any sense. Eprror.] 


8Sa-ai-ai-ai! Limadangakhi Bahiwagud Daul.  Belibeliokak Kolatingyo 
« Came up I Bahiwag of Below. Object-of- Making-harvest- 
sight-mine feast-your 
Kadaydowak ya angbayak di binadayan. Tinulpangkayo baliknadan te impirgak 
Gift-mine and drink-I the intoxicant. Drink-ye participants because 


matoldadawak hi manok ya babuiya page-yo ta impainghak di kakohayan. 
give-taste-I the chickensand pigsand rice-your hasbeenhabit-mineinthe  time-past. 


Mobanum tinulpan i haldon ya kalumaga. Pudhok at hitu katdwotdwon. 
Thus (?) drink (in) the dwelling and (inthe) granary like-I so yearly. 


°° Tanglé-kami. Gikud-kami. Gipam-kami, binwyu. 


92 BARTON. 


The second feaster takes the dish of wine from the first and offers it 
to him. He bends and drinks a long draught and then returns to his 
place on the mat, spewing out the last sup of rice wine on the ground. 
(See Pl. III, fig. 1.) The second performer now executes some fancy 
steps and chants. He is joined by a third who, after the usual little 
dance, relieves his companion of the dish of wine and holds it out at the 
level of his waist for the ceremonial drinking. And so it goes until the 
drinking has been repeated six times, that is, once for each god.*° 

There follows a recess in which the participants relax from the high- 
wrought and heated fervor in which they find themselves at the end of this 
ceremony. They sing work songs and songs of amusement. At about 
this stage of the feast, too, the drunkenness has usually proceeded far 
enough for the inevitable boasting about wealth and fields to begin. An 
Ifugao’s prestige among his fellows is fixed by the number of rice fields, 
of gold neck-ornaments, and agate beads, pamgo, he has, by the number 
of feasts he gives, and the number and kind of animals he has killed at 
these feasts. These facts determine the trend that the drunken babbling 
usually takes. Rare, indeed, are the recesses between ceremonies, from 
this pot on, when some particularly poor relative does not amuse the 
company with a recital of his enormous wealth and of the feasts he is 
going to give. 

The anointing. Monlana.—TVhese gods, a lower order of beings than 
the preceding, and more to be feared, as they belong to an order more 
malicious, now demand attention. Asked if these spirits are bad, the 
people say: “Yes, bad; but also good, if treated well.” The people say 
that these spirits steal the life of the rice if the customary offerings and 
respects are not paid them at harvest time and that they may even 
diminish the rice in the granary; but if coaxed and cajoled in the proper 
form, they “bring the life of the rice,’ and even increase it during 
harvest and after it has been stored in the granary.*t They are invoked 


In the feast of Kodamon and Gagaya, the actors were four men and two 
women. 

1 The old men are very argumentative in their invocations to these and other 
malicious spirits. They try to convince them of the error of maliciousness 
directed toward those who treat them well. The following is one argument: 
“Tf you do evil to those who give you feasts, of what use is it to offer these 
feasts? Soon no one will kill pigs for you, or give you betel nuts; because you 
prey upon your friends as well as upon those who neglect you.” The following 
spirits are usually called on, although the list is slightly varied by additions, 
there being a legion of less important spirits of the same class: Lukbukan of 
Binuyuk; Alingdayu of Nagadangan,2 Mongahid of Nantogan;@ Binongbong of 
Lantogan;2 Humidhid of Tayap;4 Dinkom of Imaloi;a Balud, nak Dinkom of 
Nuayan; 2 Tugadan of Ibaya; 4 Intikap of Kahilauan;a Inudoman of * * *. 


a Names of places a few miles east or northeast of Kiangan. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. : 93 


by phrases similar to those used in calling the gods in the foregoing 
ceremony. A bowl containing chicken grease is passed about by a 
feaster, possessed by Tayaban, son of Mongahid, who dances and chants 
as he goes. As he passes each head, he dips his finger in the grease 
and anoints the head of each person who is taking part. The feasters 
shout : 


We put oil on our heads, in order to put oil on the heads of the harvesters 
of the rice, in order to make the rice increase.** 


The people can not explain this custom of anointing, nor the chant 
that accompanies it. They only say, “That is the right way to perform 
a harvest feast.” The following explanation is favored by certain eyi- 
dence, and presented to the reader for what it may be worth. It is to 
be noted that all these spirits are place-spirits, and that their residence, 
Binuyuk, Nagadaigan, Nantogan, etc., are all places in the Hast, which, 
according to the Kiangan Ifugaos, is the cradle of their tribe. Now 
when an Ifugao makes a new rice-field, he always performs a ceremonial 
feast called Jaityalang, killing some chickens to appease the spirit who 
resides m the locality. Otherwise, the place-spirit would make all sick 
who disputed dominion with him and disturbed his peace by working 
his land. He would cause the field to be washed away, the rats to eat 
the young rice-plants; in short, he would make the field an utter failure. 
It may be that in times past this ceremony was performed annually, 
whenever the land was worked or whenever the crop was harvested; that 
the workers marked themselves with fat of the sacrificed chickens in 
order that the place-spirit might know those who had made the proper 
sacrifice; that the custom still survives in the harvest feast; and that 
the feasters, as they say, anoint themselves “in order to put oil on the 
heads of the harvesters.” The custom, so explained, has points in com- 
mon with the Hebrew Passover. Like the angel of the Lord, these 
terrible spirits “pass over” those who present evidence of having complied 
with the requirenients.** These faithful ones the spirits do not make 
sick nor punish by stealing the life of the rice. If, as the Kiangan Ifugao 
says, these spirits come from the Hast, it is to be noted that they still 
pay homage to the place-spirits of their former habitat; and,‘hallowed by 
time, they now rank little lower than gods. 


82 Monbelabela-kami ta monbelabela di monagamid di page, 
We-put-oil-on-our-heads in-order-to put-oil-on-the-heads of-the harvesters of the rice 


ta gumikud 
in-order-to-make-the-rice-increase. 
The meaning of white chicken feathers worn in the hair, now purely orna- 
mental, at first may have been a demonstration to the spirits that the wearer 
had made the proper sacrifice. 


94 - ; BARTON. 


After the foregoing ceremony, and in preparation for the succeeding 
one, an old man anoints the bamboo shakers, saying: 


I anoint the palipal in order to do the same to.the rice; to make soft and 
tough the rice (straw) in the fields; to speed. the harvesters; to multiply the 
bundles of rice in the fields in order that the harvest may be great; in order 
that the rice heads may hang down;* so that the harvest will be heavy; in order 
that the empty space in the granary may be filled with plenty.® 


The tayaban. Monligid. (Procession with shakers.)—The tayaban 
are predatory spirits almost without redeeming qualities. They are 
able, it is said, to increase the rice, “because they are divinities;” but 
this is through analogy with the place-spirits, and the gods of the Sky 
and Under Worlds. As a matter of fact, not much is expected of them 
except neutrality. If this nuetrality is not secured, they steal “the life 
of the rice;” they decrease it after it is stored in the granary; they fly 
in the night, hunting linawwa, souls that have wandered off in dreams ;37 
they lull the foetuses of pregnant women. Tayaban hi Apolili, is the 
genius of landslides. The tayaban that are called to the rice feast are 
Tayaban, nak Lukbuban; Oltagon, his sister; Tayaban, nak Alingdayu; 
Tayaban, nak Binongbong ; Indagan, his sister; Tayaban, nak Mongahid ; 
Tayaban Kawaéngwangan;** Tayaban, nak Humidhid; Tayaban, nak 
Tugadan; Tayaban, nak Manguli; Tayaban, hi Duyug;* Tayaban, nak 
Dinkom; Tayaban, nak Balud; Tayaban Inudoman. 

The tayaban are summoned orally in much the same manner as the 
spirits in the two foregoing ceremonies. They are asked to increase 
the rice, multiply the grains and bundles and make them heavy, “In 
the hope,” said an old man, “that they will hear what the other spirits 
do, and do likewise through shame.” When the tayaban come, they take 
possession of the feasters, by twos, usually a man and a woman, the man 
first. The tayaban then cause them to take palipal,*° bamboo clappers, 


So that it will not fall down, and the grain be scattered and lost. 

* From weight. 

% Tlana-ak hi palipal ta ukulan di page; humayumut ya pomatlag indalungene ; 
ta ikwadin di monagamid; ta gumalutigid udung nan indalunrgene hi bananu, ta 
dakol ni dnian; lumatuk di bintok ta dakol di dnian, ta inhigup natdangan di 
hinumpkal. ~ 

“They carry away and imprison the linawwa, thus causing the person whose 
linawwa was stolen to languish and die. The body without a linawwa is like a 
palm tree without a bud. 

8 Kawangwangan; of the streams. Wangwang, a stream; ka, a prefix of ab- 
straction and denoting extension. 

®Tayaban hi Duyug. Tayaban of the baliti tree. 

“Mr. H. Otley Beyer, of the division of ethnology, Bureau of Science, tells 
me that in Banaue, if a feaster breaks a palipal, he must make an expensive 
feast to ward off misfortune, and is tabooed from taking part in any other harvest 
feast until the next year. This is probably the case in Kiangan also. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 95 


and with the characteristic Ifugao ceremonial steps, proceed around the 
granary, or if there be, as there usually is, more than one granary in the 
inclosure, to proceed around all of them. (See Pl. III, fig. 2.) At 
each of the four corners, the palipal is outstretched toward the sky and 
sharply clapped. (See Pl. IV, fig. 1.) While this procession is passing 
the feasters are fervently calling on the tayaban in high falsetto voices, 
and telling them what is desired. They say: 


“Do not travel through our houses and our granaries and our villages. Fly 
over them. Do not frequent our fields nor our forests nor our roads. Fly 
around them. MHarass our enemies. Do not diminish our rice. Increase it.” And 
so on. 


As the actors complete the circuit, a feaster with a cup of wine in his 
hand executes a little dance before the pig and pours on it a little. rice 
wine, saying at the same time, “Get the pig, you spirits.”* After the 
wine has been poured on, he says: “Oh, that’s it! A lbation has been 
made the spirits !’4* This circuit is performed four or six times. Usually 
the first actor is relieved by others. At the completion of each circuit, 
wine is poured on the pig. 

Coming of Buluhan, Monbuluhan.—After a recess Buluhan, nak Luk- 
buban of Binuyuk,** is called. Buluhan is conceived of as an enormous 
creeping being, like a snake. He is called on in the usual phrases to 
come and partake of the feast and to increase the rice. Finally, he comes 
and possesses a feaster. The one so possessed takes a piece of betel nut 
in his mouth and a betel leaf. With these between his teeth, the leaf 
projecting like a snake’s forked tongue, he squirms and wriggles over 
the rice that is stacked under the eaves of one side of the granary (for 
no rice is put into the granary until after the feast) in imitation of the 
creeping of a snake. He chants: 


I have come from the Hast, I, Buluhan, son of Lukbuban, who live in Binuyuk. 
I give (what you ask). I increase the rice. I drink the rice wine, as I have 
been accustomed to in time past.* 


The feaster wriggles to a bowl of bwbud, rears his head and gazes at 
the pig. At the same time, another feaster pours rice wine on the betel 
nut from his mouth and drinks from the dish. 


“Talim di baboi dakayun bagol. 

“O hia! Nagilig an bagol. 

‘““ Binuyuk, a place in the East. 

“ Himungduak® hi Buluhan, nak Lukbuban Ibinuyuk,> kadayaowak ta huma- 
ngale page. Angbayak di binadayan ta impayinhuk di kakohayan. 

® Himungdu, come from the East. Humabang, come from the West. Lumadang, come 
from the underworld. Nunudnud, come down from the Sky World. These words are 


used only in religious ceremonies. 
» Ibinuyuk, residents of Binuyuk. 


96 BARTON. 


Bugan.—Bugan, nak Pundakugan, is the owner of all the locusts. 
“Locusts,” say the Ifugaos, “are her chickens.” A woman takes betel 
nuts and betel leaves, with some malt,** bubud, in a wooden bowl, and 
dances in front of the granary, one hand upraised. She waves her hand, 
saying: “Bugan of Binuyuk, daughter of Pundakugan, betel nuts, betel 
leaves.”#° 

The feasters invite Bugan with loud cries, and the old men pray to 
her and argue with her against the folly of injuring her friends. The 
argument may run: 


Turn your grasshoppers on the fields of our enemies, or of those who do not 
give you the things you want, and do not injure us, your friends, who give you 
rice wine, betel nuts, and pig. 


As the woman dances, a libation is poured on the pig. Bugan nak 
Humanun tells her husband to go at night to steal the life of the rice 
of those toward whom she is spiteful. She is invited to the feast by 
the same ceremony as that observed in inviting Bugan Pundakugan. 

The wind deities. The piok.’—The piok are possessed of consider- 
able power over the forces of nature; they control the strong winds, the 
winds that come with typhoons; they can increase the rice during harvest 
time; they can steal its life away and cause it to languish and die before 
maturity. It is a very noteworthy fact that in the religion of the Ifu- 
gao there is no clearly defined division of labor between the spirits or 
classes of spirits. Thus, the place spirits, the bugan, the puiok, and even 
the tayaban, are besought to increase the harvest, although the puwok are 
primarily controllers of the strong winds and the tayaban are predatory 
spirits. The wind deities usually invoked are four: Dinipaan of 
Paadan; ** Piok of Halamban; *® Puok of Ambatu; °° Puok of the Hast. 

The distinction between the puiok of Halamban and the piok of Am- 
batu is that strong winds caused by the former are not accompanied by 
rain, while strong winds caused by the latter are so accompanied. 

The feasters invite the piok in the usual terms and call upon them 
to increase the rice. The special phrases of the invocation of these 
spirits are: 


“© The Ifugao not only drink rice wine, but eat its malt. 

‘© Bugan ud Binuyuk, nak Pundakugan bibihalag dangaidahan. 
“ Piok: a strong wind. 

*® Paddan, a place about three miles west of Kiangan. 

* Halamban, a place toward the south. 

°° Ambatu, a place toward the south. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. Ti 


. Rice wind, wave the rice in the fields, but return its soul (life?). Make 
healthy its soul. Do not fell the houses and granaries. Do not summon the 
rains because we are harvesting. Here, you have rice wine and pig, ete.” 


A feaster is possessed. He takes a basket containing betel nuts and 
betel leaves, malt, and a coconut shell containing rice wine, and with 
a palipal in hand proceeds swiftly ** about the granary, with the Ifugao 
ceremonial steps, rattling the bamboo clapper vigorously ** at the four 
corners of the granaries and chanting as he goes: 


We are the slowness of rice to be used up. We are the miraculous increase 
of the rice. We are the life of the rice. We are the harvest knives. 


This procession is repeated four times, once for each puok. At the 
termination of each circuit, rice wine is poured on the pig, the person 
pouring it crying: “A libation has been made unto all you puok.”** 
Usually the circuit is performed by a different actor each time. (See 
JPL, WAYS, see) 

The bakayauan. Monbakayauan.—The bakayauan are powerful deities 
that go armed with spears. They are hunting spirits. Some of them 
have dogs. ‘They are offered sacrifices by hunters, and go to the chase 
with them. Most of them live in the Sky World, some in the Under 
World, and others have special places in the Hast.*° 

The feasters begin calling bakayauan to the feast. Suddenly one of 
their number springs up, seizes a spear °® from those stuck in the ground 


1 Pumptiok hi page, inumyum di page, mu ibangad di linawwa-na. Adikayo 
tiwan di halaon ya kalumaga. Adikayo ayagan di udan te monaki-kami. Tehtu 
binabudan ya babui, ete. é 

** Note the connection in the Ifugao’s mind between the passage of the wind 
over the rice and its health and growth. 

88 Note that the manner in which this procession is made is symbolic of a 
strong wind. 

“ Nagilig dakayun piok, amin. i 

These deities are: Bakayauan, nak Panuya, Kabunian; Bakayauan, nak 
Balitian, Kabunian; Bakayauan hi Tayaban, Kabunian; Bakayauan, nak Hol- 
dayan, Kabunian; Bakayauan, nak Mangamalig, Kabunian; Bakayauan, nak 
Balitok, Itapugan; Bakayauan, nak Lauan, Dukligan; Bakayauan, nak Dinlugan 
ud Dulom; Bakayauan, nak Domagaan, Kabunian; Bakayauan, nak Lakmayan, 
Kabunjan; Bakayauan, nak Buluhan, Kabunian; Bakayauan, nak Amgumagub, 
Kabunian. 

The spear must be a bright handsome one, of the class called bolobog, or 
of that termed gayang. This latter is called by Jenks the “anito spear.” At 
one feast I witnessed in a small group of houses no handsome spear of either 
of these two classes could be found. The procession about the granary was 
omitted. 


98 BARTON. 


near by, dances before the door and then proceeds around the granary. 
Holding the weapon in both hands, he brandishes it with an upward 
and downward wave-like motion as he goes. His black eyes shine; he 
has the appearance and glance of a madman. He chants: 


flarass (or, bewitch; torture) the enemies, and the rice disease, and the 
sorcerers (those who do evil through their bad ceremonies) and the pests.” 


The feasters cry out in the same and similar phrases and with the 
ever present prayer that the spirits increase the rice. The procession is 
repeated two, four, six, or eight times. At the end of each procession 
the actor executes a little dance before the pig, and after two or three 
threatening gestures throws the spear across the pig, sticking it in the 
ground a meter or so beyond. The spear is thrown from a distance of 
three to five meters as near as possible to the pig without injuring him. 
At the same time rice wine is poured on the pig, accompanied by the 
usual phrases. (See Pl. V, fig. 2.) 

The Koliaban, or Coverer.** Monkoliaban.—A blanket dance is the 
ceremony of this spirit. (See Pl. VI, fig. 1.) The dancer is believed 
to be possessed. The dance is very graceful, and resembles one I have 
seen performed by Bagnen and Besao Igorots in Lepanto. The people 
invite and beseech the koliaban in the usual terms and in addition make 
the following plea: 


Cover up (smother) thou the lack of rice, the hungry time, the rice disease,” 
and the pest; but do not cover up the chickens, the pigs, and the rice. Cover 
up thou the sorcerers, the persons who do evil through bad feasts, and the persons 
who cause pests.” 


Ceremonial killing of the pig. Monwiwik.—The pole is removed from 
between the legs of the pig, which is then turned with its head to the 
east, for pigs are usually ceremonially killed facing the east. One man 
holds the legs so that the animal can not struggle; the person who is 
acting as cook cuts through the skin just below the sternum and pushes 
into the chest of the helpless animal a rwno stalk, wiwik, about a foot 


7 Hango hangonmo hai binuhul utyai hiba utyai mangidat utyai balandag. 
This is probably only a fragment of what he chants. It is all I have obtained 
as yet. 

Cf. the Sa-rukub rang buni of the Malays. The World Coverer, Malay Magic. 
p. 94. 

*° The disease of the rice, not the sickness caused by the new rice as described 
by Jenks. The Bontok Igorot, Ethnological Survey Publications. Manila (1905) 
1, 107. 

% Koliaban-mo hai bitel, hai duian, hai hiba ya hai balangdan; mu adim ko- - 
liaban hai manok utyai babui utyai page. Koliabanmo hai maigidut, hai manong- 
dong, utyai mondayapat. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 99 


long. This he thrusts into the animal’s lungs, the while it squeals 
piteously. Generally it takes some time to kill the poor animal, as the 
stick is usually too blunt to puncture the walls of the heart or other large 
blood vessel, and the animal dies from hemorrhage into the lungs. (See 
Pl. VI, fig. 2.) While the pig is being killed the old men pray most 
fervently. 

Burning the hair off the pig. Monlagim.—The hole in the pig’s breast 
is plugged with a piece of runo and the animal is held in the fire, or laid 
in the fire until the hair and epidermis are charred. he body is then 
scraped. Needless to say, the animal is much bloated by the heat. (See 
TEA WADE ait 1) 

The Lepanto Igorots go through the same procedure with the pigs 
and dogs that they kill. 

Dispatching the spirit of the pig. Monhu-aa.—After the pig has been 
scraped, a wreath is made of the stick of rwno with which it was killed, 
two or three heads of rice, and a spray of hagaga grass. (See Pl. VII, 
fig. 2.) The pig is placed in the center of the mat, and decorated with 
the wreath. The feasters gather about, and, grave and silent, sit down 
while an old priest charges the pig’s soul as follows: 


Thou art enwreathed, pig, because thou art a young pig that wast used at a 
harvest feast; (and) in order that ye all, rice, hagaga, death stick (wiwik, the 
stick used to kill the pig) and pig, may go in company. Rise ye all unto the 
Sky World. Arrive unto the quarters of Ampéal, Balitian, Humamu, Wigan, 
Bayuhibis, Dulayan, Humok, Dakwigan, Numbian, Baluog, Amgalingan, Banga- 
nan, Intoldaon, Umbumabaka. Tell them, pig, that the men killed thee; that 
they sacrificed thee. Say thou, pig, “I was sacrificed at a harvest feast.’ Tell 
the bagol to increase the rice, to make the rice heavy, in order that the empty 
space in the granary may be filled with plenty. Do not remain speechless. Do 
not tarry, sleeping, pig. 

Thou art enwreathed, pig, because thou art a young pig that wast used at 
a harvest feast; (and) in order that ye all, rice, hagaga, death stick and pig 
may go in company. Descend ye all unto the Lower World. Arrive unto the 
quarters of Bahiwag, Tinukud, Dunuan, Kaliog, Lutwag, Ginita, Humamu. Tell 
them, pig, that the men killed thee, that they sacrificed thee. Say thou, pig: 
“T was sacrificed at a harvest feast.” Tell the bagol to make the rice heavy 
in order that the empty space in the granary may be filled with plenty. Do not 
remain speechless. Do not tarry, sleeping, pig. 

Thou art enwreathed, pig, because thou art a young pig that wast used at 
a harvest feast; (and) in order that ye all, rice, hagaga, death stick, and pig, 
may go in company. Proceed ye unto the East. Arrive unto the quarters of 
Lukbuban, Binongbong, Alingdayu, Mongahid, Balud, Tugadan, Mangali, Panik- 
dapan, Piok, Nabalud, Dinumpitan, Binudbud. Tell them, pig, that the men 
killed thee, -ete. 

Thou art enwreathed, pig, because thou art a young pig that wast used at a 
harvest feast; (and) im order that ye all, rice, hagaga, death stick, and pig, 
may go in company. Proceed ye unto Paaidan (the West). Arrive unto the 


100 BARTON. 


quarters of Kabigat, Dinipaan, Dumugung, Nalipang, Ambatugan. Tell them, 
pig, that the men killed thee, ete.” 


The cutting up of the pig—The small boys, who have listened patiently 
during this rather lengthy prayer, now have their reward. While the 
greater part of the animal is eaten at the granary by the feasters and 


* Wagéhan daka babui te kinlum daka, te impanga daka page, ta monkakuyug- 
kayon page, hagaga, wiwik, ya babui. Tumalakdang-kayo kabunian. Dutnangyo 
hudok nan Ampial, hi Balitian, hi Humamu, hi Wigan, hi Bayuhibis, hi Dulayan, 
hi Humok, hi Dakwigan, hi Numbian, hi Baluog, hi Amgalingan, hi Banganan, 
hi Intoldaon, hi Umbuma-baka. Imbagadaka babui dimatayanda he’a; nangi- 
padtianda babui ke he’a. Humapitka babui ‘Impaduyu-ak hi kolating.” Komali 
din bagol ta gumikud di page, ta humangale page, ta ihigup natdangan di hi- 
numpkal. Adika mahduman. Ugikabo maginaginluk babui. 

Wagahan daka babui te kinlum daka, te impangadaka page ta monkakuyug- 
kayo page, hagaga, wiwik ya babui. Monudnud-kayo ud Dalom. Dulnangyo 
Bahiwag, hi Tinukud, hi Dumnan, hi Lutnak, hi Kaliog, hi Ginitu, hi Humamu. 
Imbagadaka babui dimatayanda he’a, nangipadtianda, babui, ke he’a. Humapitka, 
babui ‘Impaduyu-ak hi kolating.’ Komali din bagol ta gumikud di page, ta 
humangale page ta ihigup di natdangan di hinumpkal. Adika mahduman. Ugi- 
kabo maginaginluk, babui. 

Wagahan daka babui ta kinlum daka, te impangadaka page, ta monkakuyug- 
kayo page, hagaga, wi-wik ya babui. Monuhaal ud Lagod. Dutnangyo Lukbuban, 
hi Binongbong, Alingdayu, Mongahid, Balud, Tugadan, Mamngali, Panikdapan, 
Pitiok, Nabalud, Dinumpitan, Binudbud. Imbagadaka babui, di matayanda ke 
he’a, ete. 

Wagahan daka babui te kinlum daka, te impangadaka page, ta monkakuyug- 
kayo page, hagaga, wi-wik ya babui. Monuhaal ud Paaidan. Dutnangyo Kabigat, 
hi Dinipéan, hi Dumugung, hi Nalipang, hi Ambatugan. Imbagadaka babui 
dimatayanda ke he’a, etc. 

The following is the first section of the above invocation: 

Wagahan dakan babui te kinlum daka te 
Object-of-being-decorated-with-wreath- thou pig because young-pig thou because 


made-of-hagaga-grass,-stick- Wwith- 
which-killed,-and-rice-heads 


impangadaka page ta monkakuyug-kayo page hagaga 
object sacrificed thou (to) rice in-order-that agent-of-going-in-a-company-ye, rice, hagaga- 
grass 
wi-wik yababui.  Tumalakdang-kayo  Kabunian. Dutnangyo 
stick-with-which-killed, andpig. Agents-ofrising-ye (unto) Sky-world Objective-of-arrival- 
your 
hudok nan Ampial, Imbagadaka, babui, dimatayanda 


quartersofAmpual, Balitian, etc. (asabove) Object-of-telling-thine, pig, sacle hen 


hea; nangipaduanda babui ke hea  hwmapitka babui cp pecn eR EGE 
thee, agents-of-sacrificing-they, pig of thee: Agents-of-saying. thou, pig, ‘“‘Was-object-of- 
sacrifice- 

hi kolating’’ Komali din bagol ta gumikud di page, 

at the harvest-feast’’ Agent-oftelling the spirits that agents-of-increasing  therice, 

ta y humangali di page ta thigup 

that agents-of-increasing-miraculously therice, in-order-that object-of-being-brought (to) 
natdangan di hinumpkal. Adika mahduman. Ugikabo 

place-for-ripe-grain (of the granary) the plenty. Do-not-thou-be mute. Do-not- Show either 

maginaginilvk, babu. 


(emphatic) be-sleepy, pig. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 101 


harvesters, some of it is distributed to be carried home or cooked at will. 
Hach of the priests gets a good piece. A most striking feature is the 
lack of variation in the process of cutting up and distributing the pig. 
The feet are first cut off. The children eagerly contend for these, and 
only the presence of the elders prevents them from coming to blows. 
Then the skin and fascia over the belly are cut off, the belly is opened 
and the entrails are taken out. The gall bladder is inspected for an 
omen. If it is full and dark—as it nearly always is, for the pig has not 
eaten for some eighteen to twenty hours—all is well."* The chest of 
the pig then is opened and the blood poured out. Some of the clotted 
blood is often snatched and eaten by the feasters, for they have fasted 
since night of the previous day. The triangular fascia under the lower 
jaw is cut off, the head severed from the body, and the body cut into 
sufficiently small pieces to go into pots. 

The following is the apportionment of the parts of the pig: The head 
goes to the owner, for when the flesh has been eaten, the skull will be 
hung up outside the granary; the feet, pancreas, genitals, bladder, and 
a portion of the liver, to supply the children not already supplied with 
some part of the animal; the tail ** to a child or to a man or woman 
who may desire it; the skin and fascia of the belly, the skin and the 
fascia under the lower jaw, the heart, and the lungs, to the cook, as pay 
for his services; the intestines, a highly prized portion, go to the youths 
who carry the rice to the granary; the remainder is divided among the 
harvesters and feasters. 

I have never seen this allotment varied except in one case. In that 
instance, the cook, in cutting off the abdominal fascia, which rightfully 
fell to his lot, cut off some short ribs with it. The bystanders protested 
that the cook was taking more than his just portion and that he was, in 
fact, a pig himself. 

Continence and the fast during harvest time.—While it usually takes 
only one or two days for a family, with the aid of relatives, neighbors, 
and the people who come down from the higher villages, to cut their rice, 
it is generally five weeks or more from the time the first family begins 
harvesting until the last one in the village has finished. During this 


% After the examination, the gall bladder is twisted on a stick, and fixed under 
the floor of the granary. If by any chance it were empty and dark, it would be 
necessary to kill another pig. 

The tip of the tail, if it be white, is worn by a girl or woman in the hair 
as an ornament; and by a man at the end of the strings by which the neck 
ornaments are tied on. See the tips so worn by the dancers in the picture of the 
blanket dance. Plate VI, fig. 1. 

101776——4 


102 BARTON. 


time, continence is the rule for the following classes: Persons of im- 
portance, those who have a goodly number of rice fields; persons who take 
part in the harvest feasts, monbaki; and those who stack the rice in the 
granaries, called mangikapia.** The reason given for this practice is that 
the bagol do not, at this season, approve of earthly pleasures and joys, 
and punish those who indulge in them not only by not increasing, but by 
actually decreasing their rice supply. J am informed that continence is 
strictly adhered to; and I believe that it is so, knowing, as I do, the 
implicit faith of the people in the tenets of their religion. And, besides 
this implicit faith, there is the consideration that the members of the 
three classes mentioned are middle-aged or elderly persons.°° 

During harvest time no Ifugao may eat of the carabao, ox,®® deer, 
grasshopper, goat, fish, or snails. It is not forbidden to eat the flesh 
of the pig, chicken, or duck. Vegetables, except camotes, may not be 
eaten. 

This renouncing present pleasures or advantages with the intention of 
gaining greater advantages of another kind is an old story in religions 
the world over. Self-denial is pleasing to the divinities; too much 
prosperity arouses the jealousy of the gods. Who are these mere men 
that they should have so much happiness? Let them pay for it! 

It is very interesting to find in another Igorot tribe, living under 
very different conditions, an observance of celibacy and fast, from re- 
markably similar motives. The Igorots of Suyoe, in the Subprovince 
of Lepanto, live almost entirely upon the proceeds of their mining, the 
climate of their village not permitting the cultivation of rice. I am 
informed ®* that when a Suyoc man strikes, or knows that he is about 


This office is always performed by elderly men. 

® The Eskimo have a similar practice during the whaling season. Says Elie 
Reclus: “During the hunting season, the Aleutians often turned their wives out 
of doors, forbidding them to cross the threshold of the great kachim.” * * * 
Primitive Folk, p. 58. 

“Master whale is also a stickler for morality and virtue; he avoids latitudes 
frequented by base and dissolute tribes; does not approve of the whalers who 
have the honor of attacking him compromising themselves with women during 
the whaling season; he would even punish them by some terrible chastisement 
if their wives were unfaithful to the conjugal vow during their absence; he 
would cause them to perish by a cruel death if their sisters failed in chastity 
before marriage.” Ibid, p. 55. 

°° In Mayaoyao village the ox is regarded as unclean, and the use of its flesh 
as food is interdicted altogether by custom. For this information I am indebted 
to Lieutenant-Governor Jeff D. Gallman. 

*T am indebted for this information to Major C. E. Nathorst, Philippines 
Constabulary, and to Mr. Henry Reeder. 


HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO. 103 


to strike, a vein of gold-bearing rock, he quits work, goes home, and 
offers to his gods a feast lasting two or three days. From the time tha’ 
he returns to work until the vein or pocket is exhausted, he drinks no 
rice wine, and eats no flesh nor vegetables. He also remains continent. 
The reason he gives for this practice is that, otherwise, the spirits 
would get angry, and would cause the gold-bearing rock to diminish 
rapidly, and soon to fail altogether. Note the parallelism of the customs 
and the motives thereof, although the Suyoe man is working his “find” 
of ore, and the Kiangan man is cutting his rice crop. 


pasos 


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ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE I. 


. Two granaries. General view of the feast. 
. Invocation of the ancestral spirits. Note the position of the hands above 


the forehead. This is characteristic. 


PuaTe II. 


. The drum. Note runo decorated with feathers, betel nuts, ete. 
. A recess between ceremonies. 


Puate IIT. 


. Ceremonial drinking of rice wine. This picture is a pose, and does not 


begin to indicate the fervor of the feasters during the ceremony. 


. Summoning the tayaban with bamboo shakers or palipal. (Monligid.) 


PLATE IV. 


. Man in attitude of shaking palipal. Note the shelf for seed rice to the 


left. 


. Summoning the piok. 


PLATE V. 


. House of the pili, a spirit that guards the granary against thieves. 


Note offering of betel nuts and chicken flesh on the short stick of runo. 


. The procession during the summoning of the Bakayauan. 


PLATE VI. 


. The blanket dance. 
. Ceremonial killing of the pig. The children begin to be in evidence. 


Prate VII. 


. Singeing the hair and epidermis. Note the rwno plug in the pig’s breast. 
. Dispatching the spirit of the pig. A pose. Note the ceremonial wreath. 


In this case rwno blades were used instead of hagaga. 


Puate VIII. 


Kiangan rice fields. 


105 


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BARTON: HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO.] [PrIn. JouURN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2 


(PHIL. JOURN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2. 


BARTON: HARVEST FRAST OF THR KIANGAN IFUGAO.] 


ry 


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Fic. 1. 


Fic. 2. 


PLATE II. 


BARTON: HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO.) [PHIu. JouRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2. 


BARTON: HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN TFUGAO.] [Puiu. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2 


Fic. 1. 


BARTON: HARVEST FRAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO.] [PuiL. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2. 


Fic. 1. 


Fic, 2. 


PLATE v. 


BARTON: HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IPUGAO.] [PHIn. JouRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2. 


Ce - ills : 


PLATE VI. 


BARTON: HARVEST FEAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO.] [PHIL, JouRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2 


EAMal ae 


k Sn wi 


Fic, 2. 


PLATE ViIl- 


BARTON: HARVEST FRAST OF THE KIANGAN IFUGAO.] [PHrIn. JourN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 2 


PLATE ViIII- 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 2, April, 1911. 


FILIPINO EARS: III. NEGRITO. 


By Ropert BENNETT BEAN. 


(From the Anatomical Laboratory, Philippine Medical School, Manila, P. I.) 


The Negritos of the Philippines have been studied at close range by 
Meyer, Montano, Reed, and others, and from a distance by many anthro- 
pologists, including Virchow and Blumentritt. Dean C. Worcester, Secre- 
tary of the Interior, has visited Negritos wherever they exist in the 
Archipelago, and it is through his generosity in placing at my disposal 
the photographs of his inimitable collection and of the Bureau of 
Science, from which materials are drawn for this and subsequent studies 
of the non-Christian tribes, that I am enabled to produce this publica- 
tion. 

This is the first of a series dealing with the ears and other physical 
characteristics of the Philippine Islanders of the interior, and follows 
studies previously completed of the ears of Manila pedestrians and riders, 
Bilibid prisoners, morgue subjects, and the men and women of Taytay, 
Rizal Province, Luzon. 

_ The Negritos are the first of the non-Christian tribes selected for 
study, (1) because they are relatively few in number and, undoubtedly, 
are gradually disappearing, since they lose their purity when they come 
into contact with surrounding peoples; (2), because very few studies of 
Negritos have been made dealing with the physical characteristics of the 
living; (3), because no previous study has been made of their ears; and 
finally (4), because a large number of representative photographs of 
Negritos from many parts of the Islands could be obtained.t 


*The photographs have been derived from several sources, and have been taken 
at various times by different men, therefore some difficulty has been experienced 
in reproducing them uniformly. The photographs of the Negritos of Bataan or 
Mariveles Mountain, of Isabela and Pampanga Provinces, and some of those of 
Palawan Island and elsewhere, were taken by Dean C. Worcester. The Negritos 
of Zambales were photographed by William A. Reed and others; those of Cagayan 
by Charles Martin, of the Bureau of Science; the Tinitian and others (Bataks) 
in the Island of Palawan by Lieutenant E. Y. Miller while he was governor of 
Palawan Province; and the photographs of the Negritos of the Island of Panay, 
Provinces of Antique and Capiz, and Ambos Camarines, Luzon, were taken by 
Doctor M. L. Miller, chief of the division of ethnology, Bureau of Science. These 
are groups from which photographs are presented, with the addition of a few 
others. 

107 


108 BEAN. 


Tt is to be noted that Negritos still remain in the Philippines, from 
Palawan in the south to the extreme northern end of Luzon. Not only 
is the distribution of the Negritos general throughout the Islands, but 
the types selected show a similar general distribution, although slight 
local resemblances exist. The Negritos of a single locality have evidently 
inbred, yet the possibility of intermixture with the surrounding popula- 
tions can in no instance be disregarded. 

The literature dealing with the Negritos is not available. The monu- 
mental work of Meyer has not been accessible, and the only available 
publications dealing with physical measurements have been limited in 
the number of individuals measured. The work of Reed? represents 
fairly well the Zambales Negritos in a-series of photographs which is 
a most complete portrayal of a single group, but the physical character- 
istics are otherwise not treated fully. This is the first attempt ever 
made, in the manner of this study, to analyze the types of a group of 
individuals from photographs, and although I present the results with 
some trepidation, yet I believe my previous studies of the ear and the 
use of descriptions rather than measurements, enable me to characterize 
the types with a fair degree of accuracy. 


DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES. 


Before beginning the study of the Negrito ears, it may be well to 
describe the typical Primitive and Iberian ears and physiognomy, because 
they represent fundamental Negrito types. 

Primitive ears are characterized essentially by the inrolled helix with 
inversion of the concha. ‘This gives the appearance of a hollow bowl 
with the rim prominent at the upper part of the helix and at the lobule, 
and depression of the bowl’s rim at the ventral and dorsal parts of the 
ear. A shelf is thus formed both above and below, the internal part of 
the superior border of the helix forming the superior surface of the 
upper shelf, and the external part of the lobule the superior surface of 
the lower shelf. The concha is short in its vertical, and wide in its 
horizontal, diameter, although this is not invariably true. 

Iberian ears are marked essentially by the eversion of the concha and 
the consequent turning back of the helix, particularly in its lower half. 
This results im an old-Hnglish small-letter f-shape of the helix rim as 
viewed from behind. The lobule is pendant or turned backward toward 
the head, and frequently is absent as in type B, or square as in type C, 
in contrast with the lobule of the Primitive, which is turned forward 
and upward, this point alone often being sufficient to distinguish either 
of the two types of ears. 


2 Negritos of ‘Zambales, Hthnological Survey Publications, Manila (1904), 2, 
pt. 1. 


FILIPINO EARS: III. NEGRITO. 109 


The Primitive ear is usually round, the Iberian, long. The physiog- 
nomy of the Primitive, in general, is broad and flat. The forehead is 
small and prominent, the brow ridges insignificant. The nose is broad, 
flat, and depressed at the bridge, which is often totally lacking. The 
nostrils open somewhat forward rather than downward. The mouth is 
not wide, but. the lips are thick, and the chin is small and receding. 

The physiognomy of the Iberian is in every characteristic almost the 
reverse of the Primitive. The face is long, narrow, and projecting, 
with considerable facial prognathism, with an acute angle formed by 
lines joining the glabella with the external auditory meatus. The fore- 
head is square and the brow ridges small. The nose is narrow, high, 
and long. The nostrils point downward, and do not flare. The mouth 
is not large, and the lips are thin. The chin is pointed, but often pro- 
jects slightly instead of receding. The chin and forehead of the Iberian 
and Primitive are not so unlike as are the other features, the great differ- 
ences between the two faces being in the middle parts, where width and 
flatness in the Primitive and narrowness and projection in the [berian 
are the distinctive characteristics. 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES ILLUSTRATED BY PHOTOGRAPHS OF EARS. 


PLATE I. 


The two fundamental ear types, Primitive and Iberian, that charac- 
terize the Filipmos wherever I have examined them, apparently form 
basic types of Negrito ears. These two types of ears on both man and 
woman may be seen in Plate I. Figures 1 and 2 represent a character- 
istic Negrito woman of the Primitive type from Mount Mariveles, 
Bataan Province. But for the bushy head of hair, this photograph 
would well represent a Primitive Filipino such as may he seen in almost 
any part of the Islands. The ear can not be seen well but enough of 
it is shown to reveal the Primitive characteristics. The shelf lobule is 
seen on the right ear, and the rounded contour, with overturned helix 
on the left. Other Primitive traits may be seen, such as the broad, 
flat nose with depressed ridge, flaring nostrils, and apertures that open 
forward instead of downward; the vertical, or bombé, forehead that is 
particularly small in its transverse dimension; the thick, projecting 
lips; and the small, receding chin. 

The two men of figures 5 and 6 are not so typical of the Primitive 
as is the woman, but they approach the form more closely than any 
other male Negritos portrayed. The Negrito men in general are not 
of the Primitive type, but the majority of the women are of this type, 
a statement that will become evident as the study progresses. 

The woman of Zambales in figures 3 and 4 is said to be Negrito, and 
if that be true the pure Negrito is a Modified Iberian. The ear has a 
combination of Primitive and Negrito characteristics. The inrolled, 


110 BEAN. 


overturned helix is Primitive, and the slightly everted concha below and 
pendant lobule suggest the Iberian. The nose is straight, not very wide 


and flat, and the other features of the physiognomy resemble the Iberian. 


as much as the Primitive. However, this woman is not so good a repre- 
sentative of the Iberian Negrito as the man of Zambales portrayed in 
figure 8, who is almost a typical Iberian. The ear is long with pendant 
lobule, everted concha, and spiral helix. The nose is long and straight, 
and the other features resemble the Iberian. The hair is curly, rather 
than kinky, and I venture to state that this is a Huropean-Negrito cross. 

The man of figure 7, also seen in figures 1 and 2, Plate II, is called 
by title in Mr. Worcester’s catalogue “an excellent type,” yet this man 
has Iberian ears and physiognomy. It is true that they are not perfect 
Iberian, but the ear has an everted concha, slightly spiral helix, and 
somewhat dependent lobule. The nose is straight and somewhat pointed. 
Other features resemble the Iberian. 


Prate II. 


The remainder of the Negritos represented in Plate II are also of 
the Iberian type. Figures 3 and 4 are photographs from the negatives 
used by Keane on pages 220 and 222 of The World’s Peoples to represent 
a Negrito of the Philippines. The ear can not be seen well but presents 
the everted concha and pendant lobule characteristic of the Iberian, and 
the sharp, straight nose, and other characteristic features also denote the 
Iberian. Keane also gives a picture of “Ardi, one of the last of the 
Kolangs,” the aborigines of Java, whose ear is Iberian in type, not unlike 
that of the Negrito in Plate I, noted by Mr. Worcester as “a full-blood.” 


The physiognomy of Ardi, who is called by Keane “the most ape-like — 


of men,” is that of a degenerated Iberian. 

Figures 5 and 6 are rather good photographs of Pagatolan, a Negrito 
chief of Isabela, who “has had three albino children, two of whom are 
living and to one of whom he had given Christian baptism. He states 
that God has been very good to give him white children, and that he 
proposes to send them to school.” This Negrito is decidedly Iberian. 
The long, straight, pointed nose, the pointed chin, and the square fore- 
head are all evidences of the Iberian. Unfortunately the ears do not 
show well, although the lobule and lower helix and concha resemble the 
Iberian. The albino children may be expressions of Mendelian heredity 
from a previous Huropean-Negrito cross. 

Figures 7 and 8 represent a Negrito said to be of pure type (Reed, 
Plate XII), but again the Iberian is evident. However, the ear is not 
of unmixed type and the Iberian traits are not very well marked, 
although the concha is everted, and the lobule is square. 


es ee 


FILIPINO EARS: III. NEGRITO. Wil 


Prate IIT. 


This plate exhibits Negrito women of the Primitive or Modified Prim- 
itive types from Ambos Camarines, Mount Mariveles, and Palawan 
Island. It is needless to point out the Primitive characteristics, but 
the broad, flat nose with depressed bridge and nostrils that open more 
forward than downward, and the shelf-like lobule of the ear may be seen 
on each individual. 

It may be of interest and significance that the Negrito women shown 
in all the photographs are almost entirely of the Primitive type, whereas 
the men are Iberian. If Pearson’s law be true, that males inherit more 
from the father’s side and females from the mother’s, then the men 
who have impregnated the Negrito women were of the Iberian type and 
the impregnated women were of the Primitive. 


Pirate LV. 


The Negritos portrayed in Plate IV are variable blends of the 
Iberian and Primitive. Figures 1 and 2 represent a purer Iberian ear 
than the others. ‘The concha is everted, the lobule attached directly to 
the cheek at its lower margin, and there is a slight outward twist of 
the upper part of the helix. The other features are blended, although 
the nose is slightly aquiline. Figures 3 and 4 represent a less pure 
Iberian ear than figures 1 and 2. The ear has a Primitive bend or 
kmee at the junction of the lower and middle thirds, and the lobule tends 
to form a shelf, but does not quite perfect the tendency. The nose is 
large and straight and the other features are neither perfect Iberian 
nor perfect Primitive. The Negrito of figures 5 and 6 is less Iberian 
and more Primitive than the one of figures 3 and 4. The ear is very 
slightly Iberian in the eversion of the concha and slightly spiral helix, 
whereas the Primitive characteristics are marked in the rounded contour, 
outward, overturned, upper helix, and shelf-like lobule. The other fea- 
tures are blended Iberian and Primitive. 

The Negrito of figures 7 and 8 is very slightly Iberian, although the 
nose is somewhat straight and the nostrils open downward. ‘The ear is 
blended, with Primitive characters predominating. 


% PLATE V. 


x 


Plate V presents variable, female blends. However, each partakes 
largely of the Primitive type, and in none is the Iberian very well marked. 
Figures 1 and 2 show almost pure Primitive ears, although the nose is 
not Primitive. Figures 7 and 8 show forms simulating Iberian, but the 
Primitive ear is still apparent. The forms of figures 3, 4, 5, and 6 
are blends of varying nature more or less intermediate between those of 
figures 1 and 2, and 7 and 8. The women again present Primitive, and 
the men Iberian, characteristics in the blends as in the purer types. 


112 BEAN. 
Puate VI. 


However, Iberian characteristics may appear in hybrid, female Ne- 
gritos. Evidence of this is furnished in Plate VI, figures 1 and 2, 
which represents an old Negrito mestiza. The left ear is almost typical 
Iberian, with everted concha, pendant lobule, and spiral helix, whereas 
the right ear is somewhat more Primitive in character, with a slightly 
shelf-like lobule and overturned superior helix, although the latter may 
be due to pressure from the overhanging hair. The nose is straight and 
neither very wide nor flat, and the skin appears light in color. 

In figures 3 and 4, Iberian characteristics of the ear also appear, 
although less marked than in figures 1 and 2, but the other Iberian 
characters, although present to some extent, are not so well seen. 

Figures 5, 6, 7, and 8 are placed alongside each other to illustrate 
two old Negritos with Modified Primitive characteristics. 


Pirate VII. 


Other ear types, besides the Primitive and Iberian and their blends, 
appear among the Negritos. The Alpine ear of the same nature as that 
observed on many Filipinos other than Negritos may be seen in Plate 
VII. Figures 1 and 2 represent a so-called pure Negrito of Ambos 
Camarines. The ear is Alpine, having a shelf-like lower helix inserted 
diagonally downward into the cheek. The ear does not form a double 
shelf above and below by the turning in of the helix at its upper and 
lower parts, but there is a slight turning at both ends which indicates 
Primitive characters. There is also a slight spiral twist to the. helix, 
an eversion of the concha, and the insertion of the lower helix or lobule 
which suggests the Iberian. Therefore this ear must be considered as 
an intermediate form of the Primitive and Iberian, retaining qualities 
of both, yet different from either, forming a kind of mosaic, which is 
a true ear-type. 

The physiognomic characteristics of this man are also intermediate 
between the Iberian and Primitive. The nose is neither broad and 
flat nor long and straight, the forehead is both square and bombé; the 
lips are not full, nor is the chin markedly receding. Figure 5 represents 
another Negrito man from Ambos Camarines; here the ears are also 
Alpine, although slightly more like the Primitive than in the other 
Negrito from the same place. 

, The Negrito man of figure 6 is also a Camarines native with Alpine 
ears, in which the Iberian qualities somewhat overshadow the Primitive. 

The other features of the two men are those of the Alpine type, either 
a blend of Iberian and Primitive or a mosaic of the two. The four 
remaining figures (3, 4, 7, and 8) of Plate VII probably represent 
crosses between the Negritos and neighboring Malays, and they portray 
men of the Alpine type. The character of the ears and physiognomy 


FILIPINO EARS: III. NEGRITO. 113 


of the man in figures 3 and 4 is nearer the Iberian than the Primitive, 
and the same features of the man in figures 7 and 8 are nearer the 
Primitive than the Iberian. 

Prater VIII. 


Plate VIII illustrates variable forms resembling the Alpine, although 
none are perfectly true types, but rather a group of atypical, Alpine 
ears resembling both Primitive and Iberian, some more like one type 
and some more like the other. Figures 1 and 2 represent a Mariveles 
Negrito man more Iberian than Primitive; figures 3 and 4 represent a 
Negrito man from the Island of Burucay, a part of the Province of 
Capiz, off the northwestern point of the Island of Panay, who is more 
Primitive than Iberian. The man in figures 5 and 6 is a Negrito from 
Casablanca, Cagayan Province, northern Luzon, who is probably also 
more Primitive than Iberian. Figure 7 is almost an Iberian, and figure 
8 is almost a Primitive; the one, a man from the Island of Buruéay, 
“with considerable Visayan blood,” and the other, the “chief of the 
Mariveles tribe, who is a typical Negrito, and, like many of the men 
of his tribe, has quite an abundant growth of hair on the face.” 

The many forms of blended ears intermediate between the Iberian 
and Primitive belong to the Australoid type wherever the ear form is 
not that of the Alpine. The Negrito-Australoid is not unlike the Fili- 
pino-Australoid from different parts of the Islands, and the character- 
istic, large, straight nose may be seen on practically all the photographs 
of this type. It is well marked in all the figures of Plate VIII. 


PLATE IX. 


The Australoid nose may be seen clearly in figures 1, 2, 3, and 4, 
Plate 1X, and somewhat modified in figures 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the same 
plate. The ears are all modified Primitive, and may be called Aus- 
traloid ears. 

PLATE X. 


The ears previously described in this study have been similar to those 
of other Filipino populations throughout the Archipelago and no distine- 
tive Negrito ear has been demonstrated. However, there is a type of 
ear that is presented as the true Negrito ear, although it may prove to 
be only a variant of one of the forms previously described, or it may 
be Australoid. It is seen distinctly in figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 of Plate X 
(and in figs. 3 and 4 of Pl. IV), in combination with the Australoid 
nose. It is seen in modified form in figures 5, 6, 7, and 8, where the 
nose is also somewhat modified. The characteristic of this ear is the 
offset in the helix at the point where the lobule begins. This is in 
the form of an indentation on both the ventral and the dorsal surface of 
the helix, and gives a shelf similar to that of the Alpine ear, although 
the lobule does not pass immediately to the cheek, but projects downward 


114 BEAN. 


and forward in a rigid, rounded point. This ear form is simulated by 


many that have Primitive characteristics, as may be seen in Plate A . 


where the three Negritos from Pampanga have this ear type. The 
Australoid nose is especially plain in the man in the center of Plate A. 


‘ PLATE XI. 


The true Negrito ear is seen in modified form in all the figures of 
Plate XI where the nose is not typically Australoid, but also modified. 
Observations of living Negritos, with physical measurements, may be 
necessary to determine the relation of this ear to the physical type. At 
present it appears to be one of the most frequent forms and apparently 
the true ear-type. It may be regarded as a blended type derived from 
the Primitive and Iberian which has been differentiated from both in 


the processes of fusion. 
PratTe XII. 


Plate XII is presented to illustrate the results of combinations of 
types that have intermingled, and thus enables us to understand the 
processes by which amalgamation progresses. Figure 1 is an Iberian 
Filipino with perfect, Iberian, type A of ears, probably a Spanish- 
Filipino mestizo. If such a man should impregnate a Negrito woman of 
the Primitive type seen in figure 2, the result might be the production 
of two individuals similar to those in figures 3 and 4, where blending 
is evident. The further impregnation of Negrito women by such blended 
individuals might produce men similar to those portrayed in figures 5, 
6, 7, and 8, in which the kinky hair and dark skin of the Negrito appear 
because they are dominant, and in which the Iberian and Primitive ears 
and physiognomy remain blended to some extent, although one may par- 
take more of the Primitive and another of the Iberian. The union of 
individuals of the blended type might also reproduce according to Men- 
del’s law; the offspring would then be in the ratio of three Negrito 
Primitives to one Filipino-Iberian, provided the former is dominant. 


DISCUSSION. 


Three possibilities in the heredity of Iberian and Primitive characters 
are apparent from the study of the ears and physiognomy of the Negritos: 
First, there is blending with the production of a hybrid that has curly 
or wavy hair, ears that are part Iberian and part Primitive without the 
distinctive characters of either, and a nose that is straight, yet wide 
and not high; second, there is persistence of both Iberian and Primitive 
ears and physiognomy, each type accompanied by kinky hair; third, 
there is a mosaic ear, the Alpine, some parts of which are Primitive and 
others Iberian, and which, slightly modified, occurs in connection with 
kinky hair and Iberian physiognomy. 

It remains to be determined exactly what takes place in the heredity 


FILIPINO EARS; III. NEGRITO. 115 


of cross-bred races such as the Iberian and Negrito, or the Filipino 
and Negrito, but the indications are that there is blended heredity, 
mosaic heredity, and persistence of type which suggests Mendelian 
heredity. ‘There exist among the Negritos forms of hair, nose and ear, 
as well as other features of the physiognomy, intermediate at almost 
every conceivable point between the widest extremes, and the general 
effect is that of disorderly blendings as represented previously by a 
scheme for heredity of type. 

Several suggestions seem pertinent. The Negrito was originally of 
the Primitive type and contact with the Iberian has resulted in the 
production of various new forms, such as the Alpine and Australoid, 
with the retention of the two other types, Primitive and Iberian; or the 
Negrito was originally of the Australoid type and has been impregnated 
with the Primitive and Alpine through the Malay migrations, and the 
Iberian through the Spanish occupation of the Philippines, with the 
retention of these types and the formation of intermediates between 
them; or, the Negrito was originally Iberian and has become mixed 
with Primitive, Alpine, and Australoid forms through subsequent in- 
fusions from various sources; or, the Negrito was originally of a com- 
posite form embodying the Primitive, Australoid, and Iberian, from 
which these and other types have arisen; or, the true Negrito form has 
become lost through incessant intermingling, leaving only the small 
size, dark skin, and kinky hair; or, the Negrito represents a degenerated 
product with many possible forms tucked away under the kinky hair 
and dark skin; or, various combinations of all these suggestions may be 
the truth. 

‘Whatever may have been the conditions, there can be no doubt that 
the Negrito of the Philippines is not a pure race, but one composed of 
at least two forms, the Primitive and the Iberian, which are almost 
exact antitheses in the cardinal anthropomorphic qualities, and of the 
Australoid, which is a combination of the two forms. 

The most plausible hypothesis as to the composition of the Negritos 
is that they were originally of the Primitive type, and subsequently 
became impregnated with the Iberian, because the women are largely of 
the Primitive type and the men of the Iberian. The Iberian impregna- 
tion must have come at a time previous to the Spanish possession of 
the Islands, or at least it was other than Spanish or even than Filipino 
or Chinese, or else there would be found Negrito types similar to the 
Adriatic, Cro-Magnon, and B. B. B., all of which are present in the 
living Spanish, Chinese, and Filipino population of the Philippines, 
unless it be that these types, which are greater in size than the Iberian, 
are incapable of impregnating the Negrito and fecundity is possible only 
with the Iberian. It is probable that the Iberian and Primitive united 
in the Negrito before their arrival in the Philippines, or at a very 


116 BEAN. 


early period in the Philippines before the arrival of the first Malay 
migration; therefore, their origin should be sought elsewhere, probably 
in Asia. 

Davenport’s hypothesis, that straight hair is recessive and kinky or 
curly dominant, is corroborated by finding many straight-haired forms, 
such as the Iberian and Primitive, with kinky hair, although blending 
in hair-form is evident among the mixed Malay Negritos. ‘This does 
not necessarily imply that straight hair would not be dominant and 
curly hair recessive under different conditions, as among the other 
peoples of the Philippines not Negritos, where the kinky hair of the 
Negrito has probably often appeared and, I believe, disappeared. Prob- 
ably the truth of the matter is that when two extremes of hair-form 
are crossed, such as the Malay and Negrito, the first results are blends, 
with afterwards a return, more or less pure, to the original forms; but 
in the end the kinky hair of the Negrito is retained when the cross takes 
place continually among the Negritos, and the straight hair when the 
crossing is continually among the Malays. In this manner extraneous 
types are bred out. 

The photographs of the Mariveles Negritos were all placed upon 2 
large table before me, and when I scrutinized them carefully I realized 
that I was looking into the familiar faces of a people among whom I 
was born and with whom I grew up. Practically every face recalled 
youthful associations, and every individual of the Mariveles group has 
its counterpart among American Negros. 

The photographs of the Negritos from other parts of the Philippines 
were likewise disposed upon a large table, replacing the Mariveles Negri- 
tos; the familiar faces of the homeland vanished, but in their places 
appeared the faces that one meets every day in Manila or in the provy- 
inces, familiar Filipino types. A few of them still resemble the American 
Negro; this is particularly true of the Negritos of Isabela Province. 

These casual observations must be taken with reservations, because no 
data can be given to substantiate them; but I believe they indicate a 
close relationship between the Negrito of the Philippines and the African 
Negro. 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL TYPES ILLUSTRATED BY FULL-LENGTH PHOTOGRAPHS. 
PratTe XIII. 


Plates XIII to XVII represent the full figure of Negritos, and most 
striking differences may be seen in the length of the lower extremities 
of different individuals, and in different groups. The six Mariveles Ne- 
gritos in Plate XIII have relatively long lower extremities; one is a 
very tall Negrito, his stature being due to his great leg length. This 
man is as tall as the average Huropean, judging from the photograph 
taken by the side of Dean C. Worcester, who writes, “this is the tallest 
Negrito man I have ever seen.” 


FILIPINO EARS: III. NEGRITO. ° INU 


The Mariveles Negritos are mixed Iberian or Australoid in type with- 
out exception, all having the big, straight nose characteristic of the 


Australoid. 
PLATE XIV. 


The Negritos of this plate decrease in the relative length of the lower 
extremity from left to right, and the type varies from Australoid to 
Primitive with the decrease of relative leg length. The two Negritos 
on the left, figures 1 and 2, are Australoid or Modified Iberian, the two 
on the right are Primitive or Modified Primitive, and the two in the 
center are intermediate forms.’ The Negrito of figure 1 is from Mari- 
veles Mountains and the Negrito of figure 6 from the neighboring Zam- 
bales Mountains, but in spite of the proximity of their abodes they are 
very unlike. The differences apparent here are the long legs, face, and 
nose of the Mariveles Negrito and the short legs, short, wide nose, and 
short, wide face of the Zambales Negrito. These differences indicate 
Iberian affinities for the Mariveles Negrito, and Primitive for the Ne- 
grito of Zambales. The differences are apparent, not only in these two 
Individuals, but also in the two groups from the Provinces of Bataan 
and Zambales. Negritos from other parts of the Islands resemble one 
or the other group, but are usually intermediate, and represent greater 
blending with the surrounding population. 


PLATE XV. 


The Zambales Negrito of figure 2 with short legs is here contrasted 
with a Negrito of Cagayan Province in figure 1 with intermediate leg 
‘length and a Negrito of Isabela Province in figure 3 with long legs. 
The Zambales Negrito is almost pure Primitive, the Isabela Negrito 
almost pure Iberian, and the Cagayan Negrito is intermediate in type, 
the result of Malay or Igorot mixture rather than Negrito. The small 
Negrito boy of figure 5 with short legs may be contrasted with the old 
Negrito man of figure 4 with intermediate leg length. This boy is from 
Cagayan, and when full-grown would probably have legs of intermediate 
length. An illustration of three small Negrito boys of Mariveles Moun- 
tain would have been presented showing long legs in youth, although 
relatively not so long as those of the adult Negritos of Mariveles, but 
the photograph was not good enough for reproduction. One may infer 
from this that relatively short legs represent a youthful condition, but 
the relative length of individual development is not enough to overcome 
that of conditions due to type, at least in this instance. In other words, ° 
phylogeny is of stronger or greater extent than ontogeny. There is a 
greater difference between the Mariveles Negritos and the Negritos of 
Cagayan than between the men and the boys of Mariveles or between 
the men and the boys of Cagayan. 

101776 ——5 


118 BEAN. 


Prate XVI. 


The Negritos shown on Plate XVI are all mixed with the surrounding 
peoples and partake of their characteristics. The leg length is in- 
termediate, although the central figure, a Negrito from Cagayan, has 
relatively shorter legs than the others. 


Prate XVII. 


The Zambales Negritos shown on Plate XVII are very much mixed 
in type, and the variable length of leg indicates the mixture as much as 
any other character. The men on the right of each figure haye shorter 
legs than the others, and the man next to the one on the left in figure 
1 and the one next to the right in figure 2 have longer legs. Here, as 
elsewhere, the Primitive characteristics go with short legs and the 
Australoid with long legs. 

SUMMARY. 

The Mariveles Negritos, who are apparently purer in type than any 
other group and who are largely of the Iberian and Australoid types, 
’ have relatively longer lower extremities than any other group of Negri- 


tos represented by photographs; the Zambales Negritos, who are largely 


mixed and of the Primitive type, have relatively shorter lower extremities 
than any other group; and the remaining groups, who are also much 


mixed and intermediate between the Iberian and the Primitive, have 


lower extremities of intermediate length. 

It would appear from the photographs of the full figure that the purest 
Negritos are to be found in the Mariveles Mountains, and these Negritos 
are of the Australoid type, which is probably a combination of Iberian 
and Primitive that has almost reached the stage of complete amalgama- 
tion. ‘The Iberian characteristics are more or less pure in some indi- 
viduals, the Primitive are likewise more or less pure in some, but the 
greater part represent a complete blend of the Iberian and Primitive 
that conforms to the type previously designated by me as Australoid, 
which is found among the Igorots and all the littoral Filipinos so far 
examined. ; 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Any conclusion reached after a study of the photographs presented 
must be tentative and subject to revision. However, it does appear 
that there are many inseparable factors in the composition of the in- 
dividual, such as the ear form, nose and face form, length of the extrem- 
ities, that constitute a character-complex which exists as an entity and 
in inheritance may act as a unit character. 

A character-complex is that group of characters, such as the broad 
head, broad nose, broad face, and characteristic ear that, combined with 
small stature, constitute the Primitive species, which character-complex 
usually hangs together in heredity, but may break up to form new 
character-complexes. 


se 


FILIPINO EARS: III. NEGRITO. 119 


There is blending of one character-complex with another, but this 
blending probably does not take place at once upon crossing two ex- 
tremely different character-complexes such as the Iberian and Negrito, 
but results in the reappearance of one or the other character-complex 
in pure form as shown in figure 8, Plate I, where the true Iberian is 
obscured by having kinky hair and dark skin. 

From this follows the second conclusion, which is that the kinky 
hair is dominant to the straight hair when the cross takes place among 
the Negritos, therefore a character-complex may he obscured by the kinky 
hair, so that an otherwise pure Iberian may appear to be a Negrito 
because of the character of the latter characteristic. 

The Negritos of Mariveles Mountain appear to be the purest Negritos 
in the Philippine Islands, judging from the photographs. All other 
groups of Negritos are more like the surrounding population. Therefore, 
the Negritos of Mariveles should represent the fundamental Negrito 
type, and,- as they are largely Australoid, the fundamental type of the 
Negritos should be Australoid. However, the Australoid is composed 
of the Primitive and Iberian types which have fused in a disharmonic 
manner, forming a mosaic. Modified Primitive and Modified Iberian 
Negritos are also found in the Mariveles group. The women are more 
Primitive than the men, who are more Iberian and Australoid than the 
women. The Primitive and Iberian characteristics of the Mariveles Ne- 
gritos are of such a nature that they should be considered as remnants 
of the fusion which must have progressed for many centuries or even 
thousands of years to have produced so homogeneous a blend. 

May it be presumed that the Primitive and Iberian types conjoined 
in prehistoric times at some place in eastern Asia or near by, and 
by fusion produced the Negrito? From this union innumerable offshoots 
have sprung in southern Asia, in the islands bordermg that’ region, 
and also in Africa. The Primitive type remains pure in parts of the 
East, and the Iberian in Europe. If this hypothesis be untrue, the 
‘reverse of it should be considered: The Negrito forms the basic stock 
of all humanity, and the Iberian of Hurope on the one side and the 
Primitive of the Orient on the other are derivatives. If neither hypo- 
thesis be workable, then the Negrito of Mariveles has Primitive and 
Iberian characteristics ingrafted from without. Whatever may be tha 
cause of the condition, there are three types found among the Negritos: 
the Australoid, the Primitive, and the Iberian; and these three types are 
found also among all the other peoples of the Philippines wherever I 
have examined them. The Primitive and the Australoid types, and 
doubtless the Iberian, are found in all the islands of the Pacific where 
search has been made and careful analysis of the people has followed. 

The more profound the study of mankind, the more profound becomes 
the impression that the Primitive and Iberian are two fundamental types. 


‘ 


Pay Cae) 


Hey aaa 


ILLUSTRATIONS.’ 


Prate A. TRUE Necriro EARs. 


Fic. 1. Negrito man of Pampanga Province, showing pointed teeth. (Photo- 
graph by Worcester.) 
2. Negrito man of Pampanga Province. (Photograph by Worcester.) 
3. Negrito woman of Pampanga Province, showing pointed teeth. (Photo- 
graph by Worcester.) 


Piave |. Moprriep PRIMITIVE AND IBERIAN NEGRITOS. 


Fics. 1 and 2. Front and side views of head of full-grown Negrito woman of 
Bataan Province. Primitive. (Photograph by Worcester.) 
3 and 4. Front and side views of head of Negrito woman of pure blood, of 
Zambales Province. Modified Iberian. (Photograph by Worcester.) 

. Pure Negrito of Ragay, Ambos Camarines Province. Lives near town- 
and works for Filipinos. Primitive. (Photograph by Worcester.) 

6. Head of full-grown Negrito man of Bataan Province. This man is a 
full-blood and is an excellent type. Modified Iberian. (Photograph 
by Worcester. ) 

7. Head of Negrito man of Zambales Province. Modified Primitive. 
(Photograph by Worcester.) 

8. Side view of a Negrito man of mixed blood, of Zambales Province. He - 
evidently has had the back of his head shaved but the hair has begun 
to grow again. Iberian. (Photograph by Diamond.) 


or 


Prate IJ. Mopiriep I'peRTAN NEGRITOS. 


. Figs. 1 and 2. Front and side views of full-grown Negrito man of Bataan Proy- 
ince. (Photograph by Worcester. See Plate I, fig. 6.) 
3-and 4. Front and side views of Negrito man of Zambales Province. 
and 6. Front and side views of head of Pagatolan, a celebrated chief 
among the Negritos of Isabela Province. (Photograph by Worcester.) 
7 and 8.’Front and side views of head of an old Negrito of Zambales 
Province. 


oO 


PuLate III. PrimirivE NEGRITOS. 


Fic. 1. Negrito woman at Ragay, Ambos Camarines Province. (Photograph by 
Miller.) 
2. Negrito woman near Batobalani, Ambos Camarines Province. (Photo- 
graph by Miller.) 
3 and 4. Front and side views of head of Negrito woman near Batobalani, 
Ambos Camarines Province. (Photograph by Miller.) 


‘The descriptions used in these illustrations are taken from Mr. Worcester’s 


catalogue. 
121 


22 BEAN. 


Fig. 5. Side view of head of typical Negrito woman, Bataan Province. (Photo- 

graph by Worcester.) 

6. Negrito woman near Batobalani, Ambos Camarines Province. (Photo- 
graph by Miller.) 

7. Batak woman (type 8), Palawan Island. Profile:view. (Photograph by 
Worcester.) 

8. Profile view of young married Negrito woman of Bataan Province who 
is suffering from a scaly disease of the skin common among the wild 
tribes of the Philippines. (Photograph by Worcester.) 


PLATE IV. VARIABLE BLENDS OF PRIMITIVE AND IBERIAN NEGRITOS. 


Fies. 1 and 2. Captain Fernando del Barco. Negrito man near Batobalani, 

Ambos Camarines Province. Modified Iberian. (Photograph by Miller.) 

3 and 4. Side and front views of chief of the Mariveles tribe of Bataan 
Province, who is a typical Negrito, and like many of the men of his 
tribe, has quite an abundant growth of hair on the face. Blend. Aus- 
traloid? (Photograph by Worcester.) 

5 and 6. Front and profile views of young Negrito man, Bataan Province. 
Blend. (Photograph by Worcester.) 

7 and 8. Front and side views of Negrito man, Capiz Province, Panay, 
of nearly or quite full blood. Modified Primitive. (Photograph by 
Miller.) 


Prats V. VARIABLE BLENDS OF IBERIAN AND PRIMITIVE NEGRITOS. 


Fic. 1. Profile view of Negrito woman of Zambales Province. Modified Primitive. 

2. Side view of young unmarried Negrito girl of Bataan Province. Modified 
Primitive. (Photograph by Worcester.) 

3. Side view of Negrito girl of Zambales Province. Blend. (Photograph by 
Diamond.) i 

4. Side view of middle-aged Negrito woman of Bataan Province. Blend. 
(Photograph by Worcester.) ; 

5 and 6. Front and side views of Negrito woman, Cagayan Province. Blend. 
(Photograph by Martin.) ; 

7. Old Negrito woman of Zambales Province. (Photograph by Miller.) 

8. Side view of Negrito woman of Pampanga Province. Modified Iberian. 
(Photograph by Worcester.) 


Prats VI. Mopiriep IBeRIAN AND PRIMITIVE NEGRITOS. 


Fies. 1 and 2. Front and side views of old Negrito woman of Cagayan Province. 

Modified Iberian. (Photograph by Martin.) 

3 and 4. Front and side views of Negrito man near Batobalani, Ambos 
Camarines Province. Modified Iberian. (Photograph by Miller.) 

5 and 6. Front and side views of a very old Negrito woman of Bataan 
Province. Primitive. (Photograph by Worcester. ) 

7 and 8. Front and side views of an old Negrito man of Zambales Prov- 
ince. Primitive. 


PLate VII. Necriro ALPINE HARS AND TYPES. 


Fies. 1 and 2. Front and side views of pure Negrito of Ragay, Ambos Camarines 
Province. Lives near town and works for Filipinos. (Photograph by 
Miller.) 
3 and 4. Dumagat man of Kalawat, Kalawat Island. Probably a cross 
between Negrito and Malay. (Photograph by Miller.) 


Fie. 


FIies. 


Fics. 


Figs. 


Fies. 


FILIPINO EARS: III. NEGRITO. 123 


5. Negrito man at Batobalani, Ambos Camarines Province. (Photograph by 
Miller.) 

6. Negrito man at Ragay, Ambos Camarines Province. (Photograph by 
Miller.) 

7 and 8. Front and side views of young Batak man (Type 1) of Tinabog, 
Palawan Island. Note the typical hair-ecut. (Photograph by Worces- 


ter.) 
Prats VIII. VARIABLE ALPINE NEGRITOS. 


1 and 2. Front and side views of old Negrito man of Bataan Province. 
(Photograph by Worcester.) 


3 and 4. Front and side views of Negrito man of nearly or quite full blood, 


of Capiz Province, Panay. (Photograph by Miller.) 

5 and 6. Front and side views of Negrito man of Cagayan Province. 
(Photograph by Martin.) 

7. Side view of Negrito man of Capiz Province, Panay, with considerable 
Visayan blood. (Photograph by Miller.) 

8. Side view of chief of Mariveles tribe, Bataan Province. See Plate IV, 
figs. 3 and 4. (Photograph by Worcester.) 


PrLate [X. AUSTRALOID NEGRITOS. 


1 and 2. Side and front views of Negrito man of Capiz Province, of nearly 
or quite full blood. (Photograph by Miller.) 

and 4. Side view of chief of Mariveles tribe, of Bataan Province. See 
Plate IV, figs. 3 and 4. (Photograph by Worcester.) 


oo 


5 and 6. Front and side view of full-blood Negrito woman of Zambales 


Province. (Photograph by Diamond.) 

7 and 8. Front and side views of young Batak woman (type 8) of Tina- 
bog, Palawan Island. Note the head ornaments and the method of 
carrying cigar thrust in the head dress. (Photograph by Worcester.) 


PuatE X. TRUE NrEGRITO Ears. AUSTRALOID? 


1 and 2. A Negrito man of Cagayan Province. This man had the curly 
hair of his race, but managed through frequent combings to straighten 
it out to its present condition. He also used some special kinds of 
native oils to attain this purpose. Note the expression given to the 
countenanee by the unusual condition of the hair. (Photograph by 
Martin. ) 

3 and 4. Front and side views of Negrito boy of Cagayan Province. (Photo- 
graph by Martin.) 

5 and 6. Front and profile views of full-blood Negrito man of Zambales 
Province showing beard on chin. 

7 and 8. Front and side views of Negrito man of Zambales Province. 


Prate XI. Mopiriep True Necriro Hars. 


1 and 2. Front and side views of Negrito man of Zambales Province, of 
pure blood. (Photograph by Diamond.) 

3 and 4. Front and side views of Negrito man of mixed blood of Zambales 
Province. (Photograph by Diamond.) 

5 and 6. Front and side views of Negrito man of Zambales Province 
showing hair on chin. This man has lost an eye. (Photograph by 
Diamond.) 

7. Front view of head of Negrito man of Zambales Province. 

8. Side view of head of Negrito man of Zambales Province. 


124 


Fig. 


Fic. 


Fic. 


Fic. 


Fic. 


Lf 


bo 


wo 


bo 


lor} 


bo 


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BEAN. 


Pirate XII. CoMBINATIONS OF TYPES. 


. A bright, native school teacher of Santo Domingo de Basco, Batanes 


Islands. Not a Negrito. Typical Iberian ears. (Photograph by 
Martin. ) 


. Negrito woman of mixed type, Zambales Province. Primitive. 


and 4. Man of Mount Isarog, Ambos Camarines Province. Shows his Ne- 
grito blood. (Photograph by Miller.) 

and 6. Front and side views of Negrito man of Zambales Province, of 
pure blood. 

and 8. Front and side views of Negrito of Zambales Province, known to 
his fellows as the “Captain-General’” of the mountains. 


Prate XII. Mariveres NEGRIros. 


. Full length view of typical Negrito man of Bataan Province. (Photo- 


graph by Worcester.) 


. Negrito of Bataan Province, the tallest Negrito I have ever seen. It 


will be noted that his remarkable height is due to extraordinarily long 
legs. (Photograph by Worcester.) 


- Full length view of typical Negrito man of Bataan Province. (Photo- 


graph by Worcester.) 


. Chief-of the Mariveles tribe, Negrito of Bataan Province. See Plate IV, 


figs. 3 and 4. (Photograph by Worcester.) 


. Typical Negrito man of Bataan Province. (Photograph by Worcester.) 
. Full-grown Negrito man of Bataan Province. See Plate I, figs. 1 and 2. 


(Photograph by Worcester.) 


PLateE XIV. Lonc-anp SHortT-LEGGED NEGRITOS. 


. Negrito man in front of his hut near Batobalani, Ambos Camarines Proy- 


ince. (Photograph by Miller.) 


. A young Negrito of Bataan Province, at his prime with bow and arrow, 


and boar bristle ornaments on his legs. (Photograph by Worcester.) 
and 4. Batak man (Type 3), his wife (Type 6) and child, Tinitian, Pa- 
lawan Island. (Photograph by Worcester.) 


. A Negrito of Zambales Province, of mixed blood. 
. A Negrito of Zambales Province, of full blood. Note relative size of figs. 


5 and 6. 


PLate XV. Lone-anp SHoRT-LEGGED NEGRITOS. 


. A Negrito, standing, of Cagayan Province. (Photograph by Martin.) 
. Typical full-blood Negrito man, of Zambales Province. (Photograph by 


Diamond. ) 


. A Negrito man of Isabela Province, at his prime. (Photograph by 


Worcester. ) 


. A Negrito sub-chief of Isabela Province. (Photograph by Worcester.) 
. A Negrito boy of Cagayan Province. (Photograph by Martin.) 


PLate XVI. NeEGRITOS WITH INTERMEDIATE LEG-LENGTH. 


. Negrito man near Batobalani, Ambos Camarines Province. (Photograph 


by Miller.) 


. A young Batak man (Type 2) of Tinabog, Palawan Island. (Photograph 


by Worcester. ) 


FILIPINO EARS: III. NEGRITO. 125 


Fig. 3. Negrito man of Cagayan Province. See Plate X, figs. 1 and 2. (Photo- 
graph by Martin.) 
4. A young Batak man (Type 1), of Tinabog, Palawan Island. Note the 
typical hair-eut. (Photograph by Worcester.) 
5. A Negrito man near Batobalani, Ambos Camarines Province. (Photo- 
graph by Miller.) 


Prare XVII. Grours or ZAMBALES NEGRITOS. 


Fig. 1. A group of five Negrito men of Zambales Province, of mixed blood; indeed, 
the man at the left seems to have no Negrito blood at all and the 
man at the right has very little. (Photograph by Diamond.) 

2. A group of Negrito men, of Zambales Province, mostly old and infirm 
types. Note rattan tied around their legs below the knees as a cure 
for rheumatism. 


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[Putn. 


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BARS: 


FILIPINO 


BEAN : 


(ay 
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wanes 0, 


i 


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Vou. VI JUNE, 1911 No. 3 


THE BAGOBOS OF DAVAO GULF. 


By Fay Cooper Cote, 


(From the Field Musewm, Chicago, and the Bureau of Science, Manila.) 


This article gives in brief some of the results of an extended inyestiga- 
tion now being carried on by the Field Museum of Natural History among 
the non-Christian tribes of Mindanao. The funds for this work are 
provided through the generosity of Mr. Robert F. Cummings, of Chicago. 
The detailed study of this people will appear later under the title The 
Tribes of Davao Gulf. 

Mount Apo, the highest peak in the Philippines, is situated a few 
kilometers from the Gulf of Davao in southern Mindanao. The non- 
Christian people known as Bagobos live on its lower slopes, which in 
some places reach to the sea, from Daliao on the east to Digos on the 
west. On the eastern border of their territory they merge imperceptibly 
into the Atas and Guiangas, while to the west the influence of the Bila- 

_ans is strong both in material culture and in blood. 

In color the Bagobos are a light reddish-brown with a slight olive 
tinge which is more pronounced in the women than in the men. Their 
hair is brown-black and varies from slightly wavy to closely curled; face 
hairs are generally removed, yet some men have rather full beards. 

The average height of the men is ‘about 158 centimeters and of the 
women 147 centimeters; the body is uniformly well developed, but never 
stocky. The forehead is high and full; the crown and back of the head 

102305 127 


128 COLE. 


strongly arched; and the distance from the tragus to the vertex is some- 
what greater than in most Philippine tribes. 

The face is high and moderately broad, with cheek bones seldom prom- 
iment. The eyes are dark or black-brown and are set far apart, while 
the eyeslits are oblique. The root of the nose is low; the ridge broad and 
inclined to be concave, although straight noses are not uncommon. The 
lips are broad and protruding; the chin round and well formed. 

Both men and women pierce and stretch the lobes of the ears so as to 
admit enormous ear-plugs. Those worn by the women are usually of 
wood, inlaid with silyer or brass, and are connected by a beaded band 
which passes under the chin. Wooden plugs are also much used by the 
men, but the most highly prized ornaments are large ivory ear-plugs, 
made like enormous collar buttons. Both men and women file and blacken 
the teeth. 

The Bagobos are without doubt the most handsomely dressed wild 
people in the Philippines. The men confine their long hair with head 
kerchiefs, the edges of which are decorated with beads and tassels. A 
close-fitting undershirt is often worn, and above this is an elaborately 
beaded or embroidered coat which opens in front and seldom reaches 
as low as the waist. ‘The hemp-cloth trousers scarcely reach the knee, and 
the bottom of each leg is decorated with a beaded or embroidered band. 
Two belts are worn, one to hold the trousers, the other to support the 
fighting or working knives which the man always carries. In lieu of 
pockets, each man has on his back an elaborately beaded hemp-cloth bag 
which is bordered with tassels, and bells of native casting. Both men 
and women have many strands of beads encircling the neck and often 
falling free on the chest. Shell bracelets are also commonly worn. 

The dress of the woman is not less artistic than that of the man. Her 
jacket is close fitting around the neck and reaches to the skirt, so that no 
portion of the upper part of the body is exposed. ‘hese jackets are 
embroidered over the shoulders and arms, and at the neck and waist; 
often they have complicated designs in shell disks or beads. The skirt 
is made like a sack with both ends open, and is held at the waist with a 
cloth or beaded belt. Many strands of beads encircle the neck, and often 
a broad bead necklace is worn over one shoulder. A small carrying bag 
decorated with beads and bells is suspended from a shoulder. The women 
are fond of loading their arms with ornaments of brass and shell, while 
anklets and leglets with rattles and bells attached are commonly worn. 

According to the historians of the tribe Mount Apo was the first home 
of the race.t The tradition in part is as follows: 


When the world first began to be there were one man and one woman and they 
lived on Mount Apo near the place where the town of Cibolan now is. The 


1Other tales concerning the origin of this people are current, but the one here 
given is the most often heard and generally accepted. 


BAGOBOS OF DAVAO GULF. 129 


name of the man was Toglai and of the woman Toglibon. Many fruits grew on 
the mountain and the forest was filled with game, so that it was easy for them 
to procure food. After a while they had many children, both boys and girls, who, 
when they grew up, married. 

One day Toglai and Toglibon told their oldest boy and girl that they should 
go far away across the ocean, for there was a good place for them. So the 
two departed and none of the Bagobos saw them again until their descendants— 
the white people—came back to Davao. The other children remained with their 
parents and were happy and prosperous until Toglai and Toglibon died and wenti 
to the sky, where they became spirits. 

Shortly after their death the country suffered a great drought. No rain fell 
for three years; the rivers became dry, and the plants shriveled and died, so that 
there was no food in the land. The people said: ‘Manama?’ is angry and is 
punishing us, for he has taken away our plants and water; surely we must go to a 
new place where there is food or we shall die.” Two started on the way toward 
the sunset, carrying with them stones from the Cibolan River, and in a few 
days reached a good land where there were water and plants, and pigs and deer 
abounded in great fields of grass. There they settled and in time many children 
were born to them. Since then they have been called Magindanau because of 
the stones which they carried with them when they left Cibolan. 

Two others went to the southward and when they found a good land they 
stopped and made their home. On their journey they carried small baskets 
called bira-an, and because of this their children are known as Bira-an. <A pair 
who went to the northward carried small dolls and thus obtained the name Eto.* 


The tradition accounts for the naming of six other tribes known to 
the Bagobos, and then coming to themselves it continues: 


One pair only remained at Cibolan. They wished very much to go away, but 
‘were so weak from hunger and thirst that they could not walk far. One day the 
man crawled out into the fields once more to see if he could find some one thing 
alive, and when he reached there he saw a single stalk of twhbo—sugar cane— 
growing lustily. He cut a piece from the side and water began to run out until 
there was enough for the couple to drink. Because of this they called the place 
Bagobo and the people have since borne that name. 


From the time of the dispersion of the people until about three 
generations ago the story tellers have little to add. At that time, we 
learn, the Bagobos had become numerous. Taopan® of Cibolan ruled 
over all their land. Under his leadership they made frequent forays 
into neighboring districts and returned with many slaves and rich loot. 
The datu ° was noted as a brave warrior, but in addition to this he was 
a wise and just ruler, greatly beloved by all his people. When he died 
more than one thousand of his subjects attended the funeral, which lasted 


* A name often applied to the greatest of all spirits, Hugpamolak Manobo. 

* More commonly pronounced Bila-an. 

“The name applied to the Guiangas and Atas living north and west of Daliao. 

*P. Juan Doyle, 8. J., gives the following genealogy for the Bagobo datus: 
Salingolop, Bato, Boas, Basian, Lumbay, Banga, Maliadi, Taopan, Panguilan, 
Manip. 

°The Moro name for chief or ruler. The Bagobo name is lagiamoda, but the 
Moro term is in general use. 


130 - COLE. 


“ten days. On the last day the house was decked, inside and out, with 
red and yellow flowers; many valuable gifts were placed beside the corpse 
and the place was then abandoned. 

He was succeeded by his son Pangilan, whose administration, like that 
of his father, was firm and just. Upon his death he bequeathed the 
leadership of a united people to his son Manib. The new datw did not 
prove to be a great warrior and his decisions in matters of dispute were 
not always just, so that bad blood arose between the people of Cibolan 
and Talun. He was unable to quell the disturbances, and finally open 
warfare broke out, petty chiefs of other districts throwing off his control 
and ruling as datus. This was the condition which confronted his son 
Tongkaling when he found himself ruler of Cibolan. 

The claims of leadership over all the Bogobos had never been relin- 
quished, but the actual power of the datw outside his own district 
amounted to little. Tongkaling soon established his right to the name 
of a great warrior, and his people so prospered under his rule that upon 
the advent of the Americans he was much the most powerful among the 
several chiefs. Under the administration of Governor Bolton, Tongkaling 
was officially recognized as the head of the Bagobos, and with this added 
prestige, he has finally succeeded in gaining recognition from. all the 
chiefs, except those about Santa Cruz, but his actual control over them 
is still very slight. He has been a consistent friend of the Americans, 
but has jealously guarded his people against outside influences, so that 
they are much less affected than those of other districts. For this 
reason this paper deals principally with Cibolan, but where radical 
differences occur in other districts they will be noted. 

According to the long-established custom when a new ruler was to 
assume control, Tongkaling gaye a great celebration and summoned the - 
people from near and far. On the appointed day more than seven hun- 
dred guests had arrived and for six days they feasted, drank, danced, and 
made merry. On the seventh day the majority of the guests accompanied 
the datu to a great tree in the forest and there witnessed or took part in 
a human sacrifice. 

For this occasion the datw had provided a decrepit old Bila-an slave 
for whom he had paid three agongs.’ The man was fastened with his 
back to the tree, his hands tied high above his head. When all was 
ready one of the chief warriors addressed the spirits, asking them to 
witness that the people followed the old custom, and to let the reign of 
the new datu be one of continued prosperity without defeat in battle. 
The prayer finished, the datu placed his spear just in front of, and 
below the right armpit, and plunged it with full strength into the body 
of the slave. As soon as he had withdrawn his weapon the warriors cut 


7 Copper gongs worth about 16 pesos each. One peso is equal to 50 cents 
United States currency. ; 


BAGOBOS OF DAVAO GULF. 131 


the body in two, across the chest, with their fighting knives, and then 
haying loosened the parts from the tree. threw them into a shallow grave 
which had been dug near by. The people returned to the village and 
continued. the merrymaking during the night, after which they returned 
to their homes and Tongkaling was fully established as ruler. 

The people have long been accustomed to obey some powerful headman 
and, to a, certain extent, they become the servants of the new chief; but 
certain laws handed down by their ancestors are so well established by 
custom that no one thinks of changing them. 

The datu is supreme judge in all cases, but he may, if he desires, call 
in the older men to help him decide the difficult ones. The levying of 
a fine is the common method of punishment. Should the culprit be 
unwilling or unable to pay, he is placed in servitude until such time as 
the debt is considered canceled. Should he refuse to serve, he is killed 
without further ado. The datw appoints a man for this purpose and 
he usually gets his victim by stealth, either by waylaying him in the 
road or by driving a spear through him as he sleeps on the floor of his 
house. When a fine is levied the datw retains a portion as pay for his 
services; if the more drastic punishment follows it serves to emphasize 
his power and is more valuable to him than the payment. Theft is 
punished with a fine; murder by death, if the victim is from the same 
or a friendly town, and the murder unproyoked. Incest* must be 
punished by the death of both parties, otherwise the spirits will cause 
the sea to rise and cover the land. The crime is uncommon, yet 
Tongkaling claims to have exacted the death penalty in two cases. In 
the first, he had the two offenders bound and thrown into the sea; in 
the second the culprits were fastened to a tree, in the same manner 
as already described, and two warriors cut the bodies in two with their 
fighting kniyes, while all the people stood by and witnessed the punish- 
ment. Ifa wife is unfaithful, her husband may kill both of the guilty 
parties without fear of punishment, provided that he leaves the spear 
or knife with which he kills the pair in the body of one of them. A 
weapon so left is a sign that the killing was because of the fault and the 
avenger can not be held accountable either to the datw or the relatives 
of the dead man. However, if he withdraws his weapon from the body, 
the brothers or relatives of the deceased have a right and duty to avenge 
the death. Cases are known where the husband accepted payment for 
his wife’s affections, but it was considered a sign of weakness or cowar- 
dice, and the man lost caste. 

Slavery is a recognized institution, and the need of slaves is one of 
the chief incentives for hostile raids against neighboring tribes. A good 


* Intercourse between brother and sister, mother and son, father and daughter, 
between first cousins, between mother-in-law and son-in-law, and father-in-law 
and daughter-in-law comes under this head. 


132 COLE. 


slave, male or female, is valued at about five agongs. If a slave woman 
bears children to her master she is usually freed at once, or if not then, 
she is certain to be at his death. Her children are free and legitimate 
heirs. It is considered a serious crime for a man to have illicit relations 
with another man’s slave and a heavy fine will be levied on the offender. 
Should children be born from such a union they are treated as slaves. 

Polygamy is common, kinship and the lack of funds forming the only 
restrictions to the number and choice of wives a man may have. 

Certain prohibitions exist as to the wearing of the clothing which 
distinguishes successful warriors and priestesses, but punishment in these 
cases is meted out by the spirits and not by the datu. 

Cibolan is not a compact village, but consists of many small dwellings 
scattered along the mountain sides close to the clearings in which the 
people raise rice, corn, camotes, and hemp. ‘These houses are generally 
of one room with the floor raised high above the ground. ‘The sides are 
of flattened bamboo, in which small, rectangular openings or peep holes 
are cut. The sides of the roof rise to a steep peak which, at the top, 
overhangs the ends. Entrance to the house is gained by a ladder or 
notched pole. Stones, sunk in a bed of ashes, form the stove which 
stands near the door. A raised platform, about one and one-half meters 
wide, at the far end of the room serves as a bed for part of the family. 

In time of danger, or during festivals, the people assemble at the 
house of the datw. This is an immense structure, built on the same ~ 
general plan as the smaller houses, but capable of holding about two 
hundred people. Hlevated, box-like enclosures are constructed along the 
sides of the room where the datwu and some of his daughters or wives 
keep their belongings, and in which they sleep. The elevated platform 
at the end of the room is occupied at night by the fighting men, while 
the balance of the household—men, women, children, and dogs—use the 

floor. Along the walls are fastened spears, shields, looms, musical 
instruments, and what not, and in the center of the room hang six large 
agongs which furnish music for the dancers. Near to these are two tall 
bamboo poles, decorated with stripped leaves. These and numerous other 
devices and receptacles in other parts of the room are for the spirits who 
control the lives and happiness of the people. 

To describe in detail the numerous spirits known to the Bagobos, or 
the ceremonies made to secure their good will, would exceed the limits 
of this paper, but a few must be mentioned in order to give a clearer 
insight into the lives of the people. Hugpamolak Manobo”° is the chief 
of all spirits. It was he who created the world. No ceremony should 
be made without calling on him and offering him some white food or 
object of value. 


* Sweet potatoes. 
2 Also called Manama. 


BAGOBOS OF DAVAO GULF. 133 


The term diwata is applied to a powerful class of spirits who live near 
to and serve the great spirit. Toglai and Toglibon have already been 
mentioned as the first man and woman. Since their death they have 
assumed important places in the spirit world. All marriages and births 
are caused by them, and they also keep close watch over the lives of men. 
The tigyama are a class of spirits, one of whom watches over each family. 
When children of two families marry their tigyama merge into one, who 
assumes guardianship of the pair. ‘T’aragomi owns all articles of food 
and is guardian of the fields and crops. A shrine is built for him in the 
center of the field, and after the rice is gathered a great ceremony is 
made to thank him for the successful harvest. The buso are low, mean 
spirits who eat dead people and have some power to injure the living. 
They are sometimes identified with the spirits of the dead. All these 
and many more are addressed by the priestesses or “doctors.” 

The “doctor” is known as mabalian and is generally a woman past 
middle life—a woman of influence and a skilled weaver—who has been 
warned by the spirits to become mabalhian. It may be that a friendly 
spirit has imparted a new remedy to her, and to this knowledge she adds 
all that the older priestesses can teach her of the art of healing the sick, 
of the duties of a midwife, and the manner of conducting ceremonies and 
offerings for the higher beings. 

The weayers of hemp cloth are under the special patronage of the 
spirit Baipandi, who taught the women the intricate method of overtying 
the warp so that portions of the thread do not receive the dye. She 
also taught the designs which are woven into the fabrics, and the art 
of embroidery and bead work. Particular spirits are also the patrons of 
the iron and brass workers. 

Two very powerful spirits are still to be mentioned. These are Man- 
darangan and his wife Darago. hey are the guardians of the warriors 
and can be addressed only by the magant. The name magani is a term 
applied to a man when he has killed two or more persons. He is then 
entitled to wear a peculiar, chocolate-colored head covering with white 
patterns in it. After his score has reached six he is permitted to wear 
a blood-red suit and carry a bag of the same color. His dress does not 
change as the number of his victims increases, but his influence grows 
with each life put to his credit. A man who kills an unfaithful wife 
and her admirer may count the two on his score; he may also count those 
of his townspeople whom he has killed in fair fight, but unprovoked 
murder will be punished by death. He may go to an unfriendly town 
and lull without fear of censure from his own people, and the fact that 
he generally attacks from ambush or at night does not detract from 
the honor due him for the deed. The magani is one of the chiefs in a 
war party; he is also chosen to inflict the death penalty when it is 
decreed, and it is usually men of this class who assist in the human 
sacrifices. 


134 COLE. 


Each year when the constellation balatik appears in the sky a human 
sacrifice should be held in honor of the two patron spirits of the magant.?? 
This should be done regardless of good or bad times, but any person who 
has been troubled by evil spirits during the year, or any family in which 
a death has occurred, may have a part in the sacrifice by making a small 
payment to the datu who is furnishing the victim. 

On the appointed day people gather from near and far to witness the 
ceremony. ‘The slave is tied, as before described, and the datw directs 
the spear so that it will enter the body just below the right arm. All 
persons who have purchased a part in the sacrifice may take hold of the 
spear and at a given signal it is thrust through the body of the victim. 
the magani who is willing to pay the highest price for the honor’ then 
cuts the body in two with his fighting knife, after which it is buried. 

At the sacrifice which took place at Talum in December, 1907, parts 
of the body were presented to certain guests and were carried away. 
However, this does not seem to be the general custom. No part of the 
corpse is eaten or tasted at this time, but warriors sometimes eat portions 
of the livers of brave enemies, thinking thus to gain in valor. 

A short time after this offermg a great ceremony known as ginem is 
held.t* During its progress two festooned poles are raised by the magani, 
who afterwards gather around them and one by one confess to the spirits, 
Mandarangan and Darago, all their warlike deeds; the number of lives 
they have taken; the slaves captured; and in short all that entitles them 
to be known as magani. 

Offerings are provided for other spirits in another part of the house, 
but the ceremony is made chiefly to secure the good will of the war deities. 

Other ceremonies are held in honor of the patron spirit of the black- 
smiths, of the brass workers, and of the weavers. When a field is to be 
cleared, the first rice planted, and at the time of reaping, the spirits are 
consulted and offerings are made to them. After all the grain is safely 
stored a thanksgiving feast, rivaling the ginem in importance, is held. 

Severe sickmess is cured by appealing to unseen beings, and those evilly 
disposed are frequently appeased by the erection of a small shrine, on 
which offerings are placed. Daily actions are often determined by 
omens imparted by the birds, and at the critical periods of life the 
superior beings are always consulted. 

When a birth is expected, the husband summons a mabalian, who at 
once begins to administer certain medicines calculated to cause an easy 
delivery. She spreads out a mat in the center of the floor and on this 


1 A constellation which, appears about the middle of December. 

% Some of the people insist that the sacrifice is partly in honor of Balakat, 
the spirit who loves blood. , 

*% Datu Anisig of Talum informed the writer that the sacrifice should occur 
during the first day of the ginem, just before the festooned poles are raised in 
the house. 


BAGOBOS OF DAVAO GULF. 135 


places many valuable articles of wearing apparel, weapons, and agongs. 
These she offers to the spirits, beseeching them to permit an easy birth, 
and to give good health to the mother and child. The articles offered at 
this time may be used by their former owners, but as they now belong 
to the spirits they can not be disposed of unless others of equal value are 
substituted. 

The mabalian cuts the umbilical cord and assists in the removal of the 
afterbirth, which she places in a bamboo tube, covers with ashes and 
then hangs to the side of the house, where it remains until it falls of its 
own accord. The child must be placed at once on a soft piece of bark 
for “its bones are soft and our hands are hard and will injure it,” and 
water is poured over it. The mabalian must then rub a mixture of clay 
and medicine on its eyes, and on the eyes of all who witnessed the birth, 
otherwise they would become blind. For her services she receives from 
five to twenty pesos, according to the wealth of the family and the sex 
of the child. Twins are accepted without question, but triplets are 
killed at once by filling their mouths with ashes. “If this is not done the 
parents will die, for they are like animals.” 

Marriage among the Bagobos takes place much later than is common 
among most Philippine tribes, the couple often being eighteen or twenty 
years of age. As a rule the parents of the boy select the girl and 
negotiate the match. Going to the house of the girl they casually broach 
the subject, and if her parents are favorable a certain day is set to discuss 
the details. This meeting is attended by the friends and relatives of 
both families, and two headmen or datus must also be present to rep- 
resent the contracting parties. The price the girl should bring varies 
according to the wealth of the interested parties and the accomplishments 
of the bride. Whatever the sum paid, the father of the girl must make 
a return present equal to one-half the value of the marriage gift “so that 
he does not sell his daughter like a slave.” 

Usually marriage does not take place until a year or more after this 
settlement, and during the interval the boy must serve his father-in-law 
to be. When the time for the final ceremony arrives the relatives and 
friends assemble and for two or three days they feast and make merry. 
A mabalian spreads a mat on the floor, places on it many valuable 
articles and then offers all to the spirits, in order that they may be 
pleased to give the couple a long and prosperous life together. Finally, 
she puts a dish of rice on the mat and after offering it to the spirits she 
places it between the boy and girl as they sit on the floor. The girl 
takes a handful of the rice and feeds it to the boy, who in turn feeds her, 
and the ceremony is complete. The couple may then go to their new 
home, but for several years the girl’s family will exact a certain amount 
of service from the groom. 

When a person is critically ill, he is removed from his own house to 
another in order that he may be under the care of the good spirits 


136 COLE. 


residing there. Should it become evident that he will die he is taken 
back to his own place, otherwise his family must reimburse the owner of 
the house in which the death occurs for bringing evil or unfriendly 
spirits into their dwelling. 

Unless the deceased has been a person of considerable importance the 
body is kept only until a coffin can be hollowed out of a split log. He 
is then dressed in good clothes and placed in the coffin together with his 
weapons or other prized articles; the top of the log is fitted over the lower 
half and he is buried beneath the house. From that time until a human 
sacrifice has been made the family is required to wear old clothes, to eat 

“poor food, and to abstain from dancing and other pastimes. 

It is possible to remove the taboo by making a special sacrifice, but 
more commonly all the families in which deaths have occurred will buy 
a part in the yearly offering, made after the appearance of the constellation 
balatik. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Puate I. 
House of Bagobo datu. 
Puate II. 
Fies. 1 and 2. A Bagobo man. 
Puate IIT. 


Fie. 1. A Bagobo weaver with loom. 


2. A Bagobo weaver overtying warp threads. 


PLATE IV. 


Fic. 


_ 


. A group of Bagobo women. 
. Bagobos harvesting rice. 


iss) 


137 


3 Oil 
a ae or 2 | 


‘e ON ‘TA “TOA “IOS ‘“NUNDOL IIH) 


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Rs 


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S94 “| Oly 


‘€ ‘ON ‘TA “I0OA “IOS “NuDOLr ‘11H g] [any OvAYd 40 Ssosodvg :a7T0) 


No. 3 


VI; 


VoL. 


JOURN. SCL, 


[Putn. 


BAGOBOS OF DAVAO GULP. ] 


COLE? 


Fic. 1. 


Fic. 2. 


PLATE Ill. 


BAGOBOS OF DAVAO GULF. ] 


Cob: 


Fic. 2. 


Iv. 


PLATE 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol, VI, No. 3, June. 1911. 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS, GALEOPTERIDA. 


By R. W. SHUFELDT. 


(Washington, D. C.) 


INTRODUCTION. 


Osteological material for the present contribution has been furnished 
by Professor J. B. Steere of Ann Arbor, Michigan, and by Mr. Richard 
C. McGregor, of the Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. What this material 
consists of, together with letters and other notes accompanying it, will 

be set forth further on in the present introduction. 
'_ A number of comparative anatomists have touched upon the morphology 
of probably several of the species of the flying lemurs, but until the 
present time it appears that no fully illustrated and detailed account of 
the osteology of these remarkable animals has been published. 

Owen, in giving the characters of the skeleton of the Insectivora, 
briefly refers to the skull and some few of the limb bones of Galeopithecus, 
but in the case of the skull, unfortunately, he does not make it sufficiently 
clear as to whether the description does not likewise apply to Pteropus. 
Thus he says: 


This [that is the skull] in Pteropus and Galeopithecus manifests the lissen- 
cephalous affinity by the squamosal being perforated by a venous canal behind 
the root of the zygoma, by the suspension of the malar, in the zygoma, by the 
distinct petrotympanic, by the vertical occiput, small cranial cavity, and blended 
orbital and temporal fosse. The orbit is partly defined behind by long and 
slender processes of the frontal, which is perforated by a superciliary foramen. 
The parietals usually coalesce at the sagittal suture, but rarely develop a crest. 


The paragraph continues in confused and inaccurate generalities to 
the end and closes with the statement that “in Galeopithecus the coronoid 
is small.” Little more than this is added to his description of the 
skeleton, in fact only that 


In the Colugo (Galeopithecus) the ulna terminates in a point at the lower 


*+Anatomy of Vertebrates (1866), 2, 387, 385. 
139 


140 SHUFELDT. 


fourth of the radius ;? all the five digits of the hand, like those of the foot, have 
claws supported on deep compressed ungual phalanges.® 


Owen gives a figure of the skull of Cynocephalus, seen upon superior 
view, which is quite different from any of the specimens at hand. It is 
far more massive, broader for its length, and appears to be inaccurate 
in other particulars, although there exists considerable individual variation 
in skulls of this animal, when series of them are compared.* 


The skeleton is not touched upon by Mivart,® although he makes record of the 
interesting fact that “in many tortoises both the knee and the elbow are rather 
twined outwards, than the former forwards and the latter backwards, as is also 
the case in the Flying Lemur (Galeopithecus) amongst beasts.” 


This anatomist placed Cynocephalus in the order Insectivora, and 
the Lemuride among the Primates, a classification which now few would 
agree to, in so far as the latter are concerned. 

Five years prior to this Huxley ® presents a much fuller account of 
the structure of the species here being considered and practically agrees 
with Mivyart in the matter of their classification. 


He sees “no reason for dissenting from Professor Peter’s view that Galeopithecus 
belongs neither to the Primates, nor to the Cheiroptera, but that it is an aberrant 
Insectivore.” In fact, as he says on the previous page of the same work, it is 
“the most aberrant form of the Insectivora.” 


When studying the skeleton of any animal among the Vertebrata, it 
is always interesting, and even important, to know something of that 
animal’s habits, and no anatomist appreciated this fact better than Huxley. 


We are not surprised then to find, in the work just cited, references to the 
“arboreal and frugivorous habit’? of Cynocephalus, and to its “very long and 
slender limbs.” Also that these limbs “are connected with one another, with the 
sides of the neck and body, and with the tail, by a great fold of the integument, 
which is called patagiwm; and, unlike the web of the Bat’s wing, is hairy on 
both sides, and extends between the digits of the pes. By the help of this great 
parachute-like expansion, the Galeopithecus is enabled to make floating leaps, 


* Authors do not agree with respect to the character of the articulation of 
the ulna with the radius, some stating that the two bones are ankylosed, and 
others that they are not. Huxley claimed that they are. It is to be noted here 
that Owen and others employed the name Galeopithecus volans for the flying 
lemur, and where quotations are made, as in the above instance, from those 
authors, that name will be used. For Galeopithecus volans we now write Cyno- 
cephalus volans, and the latter will be used in this paper, except in quotations. 
The Malayan genus is Galeopterus. See Miller, Proc, Biol. Soc. Washington 
(1906), 19, 41; Thomas, dunn. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1908), VIII, 1, 252-255. 

5 Op. cit., 393. 

* Op. cit., 388. 

° Lessons in Elementary Anatomy (1877), 10. 

*The Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals (1872), 383. 


er 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 141 


from tree to tree, through great distances. When at rest, the Galeopitheci 
suspend themselves by their fore- and hind-feet, the body and the head hanging 
downward; a position which is sometimes assumed by the Marmosets among the 
Primates.” 

Selecting from this account only such parts as refer to the skeleton, we note 
that Huxley observed that in Cynocephalus “the fore-limbs are slightly larger 
than the hind-limbs” and further that “the pollex and the hallux are short, and 
capable of considerable movement in adduction and abduction, but they are not 
opposable; and their claws are like those of the other digits. 

“The occipital foramen is in the posterior face of the skull. The orbit is 
nearly, but not quite, encircled by bone. The lachrymal foramen is in the orbit. 
The bony roof of the palate is wide and its posterior margin is thickened. There 
is a strong curved post-glenoidal process of the squamosal, which unites with 
the mastoid, beneath the auditory meatus, and restricts the movement of the 
mandible to the vertical plane. A longitudinal section of the skull shows a large 
olfactory chamber projecting beyond that for the cerebral lobes, and two longi- 
tudinal ridges, upon the inner face of the latter, prove that these lobes must 
have possessed corresponding sulci. The tentorial plane is nearly vertical and 
the floceular fosse are very deep.” All these points are characteristic and cor- 
rectly stated. “The ulna” he adds, “is very slender inferiorly, where it becomes 
anchylosed to the distal end of the radius, [?] which bears the carpus. When 
the ilia are horizontal, the acetabula look a little upward and backward as well 
as outward. The fibula is complete. As in the Sloths and most Primates, the 
navicular and cuboid readily rotate upon the astragulus and calcaneum so that 

_ the planta pedis is habitually turned inward.” * 


In giving the dental formula, Huxley also refers to the peculiar 
pectination of the lower, single-fanged, incisor teeth, but these structures 
will be touched upon later on. 

Passing to the work of another writer who has investigated the anatomy 
of the family Galeopteride we find that Flower points out a number of 
the characters of the skeleton in these “aberrant Insectivores,” * now being 
examined. Briefly, he says: 

The characters of the family are those of the suborder Dermoptera, to which 
may be added that the orbit is nearly surrounded by bone, the zygomatic arches 
are well developed, the tympanics form bull ossexw, the ulna is distally united 
with the radius, the tibia and fibula are distinct, the pubic symphysis is long. 

Then follow descriptions of other parts of structure of these animals. 
Flower, it is observed, agrees with Huxley with respect to the ankylosis of 
the bones of the forearm, but that is one of the points that the present 
paper will settle. 

From another work® by the same author we learn that in Cynocephalus “each 
vertebra bears at its hinder end a pair of hypopophysial tubercles;” that the 
number of trunk vertebre is 21 (15 thoracie and 6 lumbar); that the tail is 


*The Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals (1872), 382, 383. 
* Osteology of the Mammalia in Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th ed., 15, 401. 
° Osteology of the Mammalia, 39. 


142 SHUFELDT. 


long; that the number of vertebre in the spinal column apparently varies for 
the species thus: 


Cer- | Thor- | Lum- 

vical. | acic. | bar. |52CT#l-|Caudal. 
| 
7 13 5 5! 16 
Wy ey NONE WS = oS ee a ea 7 13 6 i) | 14+ 
| 7 14 8 4| 17 
Gophilippinensis= 7 14 6 4) 17+ 


That the “cranium much resembles that of the Lemurina, having a considerable 
and vaulted cerebral cavity, large orbits, nearly vertical occipital plane, large 
olfactory fosse, a well-developed zygomatic arch sending up a postorbital process 
to meet a corresponding one from the frontal so as either partially or completely 
to encircle the orbit behind, and tympanics ankylosed with the other cranial 
bones, dilated into a bulla, and produced externally into a tubular auditory 
meatus. The face is generally elongated, and narrow anteriorly, but in Galeo- 
pithecus it is broad and depressed.” ** That the coracoid of the scapula “is greatly 
developed and bifurcated”; that “the radius and ulna are fused together distally’; 
“the symphysis of the pelvis, as already stated above, is long”; and, finally, that 
“the fibula and tibia are complete and remain distinct” throughout the life of 
the individual. 


About a year ago, Mr. Richard C. McGregor, of the Bureau of Science, 
Manila, kindly forwarded to me for description two adult specimens of 
Cynocephalus, probably C. philippinensis (Waterhouse). 

Mr. McGregor wrote as follows: 


We have on hand two skeletons of Galeopithecus, both of which are being 
sent to you by mail. These were collected near Guindulman, Bohol, where the 
species is fairly common. A considerable number are killed by the natives, but 
I did not learn that the fur was used by them. In Cebu there were between 20 
and 30 skins of this species for sale in a store; they came from Bohol, of course, 
as the species is unknown in Cebu. It is found also in Mindanao, Samar, and 
Basilan. 

This animal seems to be strictly arboreal and to feed exclusively on the leaves 
of trees. It is an animal difficult to see, as whenever it suspects danger it 
remains perfectly quiet and hugs a branch. Its colors are quite protective. 
When moving in a tree it is very cautious and seems to glide rather than to 
move like a squirrel or other small mammal; in fact, its movements impressed 
me as being very snake-like. The native name is “Ca-gudn.” 

The color of the pelage, even of specimens from one locality, varies greatly, 
running from seal brown to light gray and from unspotted to thickly spotted 
with gray. 

Padre Elera, in Fauna de Filipinas (1895), 1, 16, lists five species: Galeo- 
pithecus volans (Shaw), G. rufus Geoff. & Cuv., G. variegatus Geoff. & Cuv., 
G. marmoratus Temm., and G. philippinensis Waterh. as being found in the 
Philippines, but I doubt if so many species should be credited to these Islands. 


#0 In the paragraph just quoted Flower intended to cover not only Cynocephalus, 
but likewise Tupaia, Macroscelides, and Rhynchocyon.—R. W. S. 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 143 


You may make such use as you wish of the specimens sent, and return them 
to the Bureau of Science at your convenience. 

During the summer of 1908 I communicated with Professor J. B. 
Steere, of Ann Arbor, Michigan, whose work as a naturalist in the Philip- 
pines many years ago is well known. In his courteous reply Professor 
Steere wrote me that he had collected the skeleton of a specimen of 
Galeoptthecus (adult), which he had preserved in the rough; he also had 
the young, consisting of two foetuses in spirits. He later on donated the 
skeleton for my use, but was unable to find the preserved specimens of 
the young which would have been very valuable additions to my material. 
The letter he wrote me was interesting, but I have been unable to put 
my hand on it for some time past, and so recently wrote him again for 
data, but upon this occasion no reply has been received. In any event 
I remember Professor Steere wrote me that he collected the skeleton 
about twenty years ago (1887—88?), but upon which island he had for- 
gotten, and he had no other data, and there was no label on the specimen, 
so the sex of the individual is likewise unknown. It has been carefully 
cleaned by me for description in the present connection. Without doubt 
it was a larger form than the ones from which Mr. McGregor obtained 
his skeletons, and it leads me to believe that the Steere specimen belonged 
_ to a different species. Mr. McGregor in his letter, given above, does not 
specifically diagnose the two specimens he sent, so that there is some doubt 
as to whether I really have the skeleton of a true “G. philippinensis” at 
hand, although the material admits of obtaining the characters of the 
skeleton at least in so far as the genus is concerned. 

The McGregor specimens show numerous shot holes in the skulls, and 
these have given rise to considerable mutilation. This is not the case 
with the larger skeleton from Steere. It is possible that the examples 
from McGregor may not be fully adult, a suspicion which is borne out 
by an examination of the long bones where the epiphysial sutures do not, 
as yet, seem to have entirely disappeared. Still there are differences to 
be observed; and while the two McGregor specimens seem to be repre- 
sentatives of the same species, exhibiting only certain individual varia- 
tions in the skull upon comparison, the skull of the one from Steere, 
which is fully adult, although possessing the same general characters, 
has the superficial appearance of having belonged to some other species 
of the genus. 

The “hyoidean apparatus” is missing in the case of all three of these 
skeletons ; all the skeletal ungual joints of manus and pes, so peculiar in 
their morphology, have probably been retained upon the skins in the 
case of the specimens from the Bureau of Science, while they are present 
upon the toes of the skeleton from Steere, and consequently their general 
characters can be given here. 

102305——2 


144 SHUFELDT. 


OSTEOLOGY OF THE FLYING LEMURS. 


THE SKULL, 


o 


As has already been pointed out in the Introduction, there exists 
considerable variation in the three skulls at hand for examination, which 
may be due to age, sex, individual variation, or to the skulls having 
belonged to different species, or to all of these factors more or less 
combined. Some differences are to be observed even in the case of the 
two skulls from the Bureau of Science, skulls which, presumably, are 
from representatives of the same species. The skull from the skeleton 
collected by Steere evidently belonged to a very old animal, the bones 
being hard and smooth, with all sutural traces entirely obliterated. 
Moreover, it is of a clear ocher color and the teeth are considerably worn 
down. The other two skulls present every evidence of having belonged 
to much younger individuals; they are quite white; the dental cusps are 
sharp, and some of the cranial sutures are still traceable. 

In so far as size is concerned some of the apparent differences can be 
demonstrated by. measurement, for which purpose the metric system is 
employed and the results set forth in the following table: 


Measurements of the cranium of Cynocephalus. 


Extreme aaa za dinnsten 
cee Greatest Gistance Greatest Srey in 
line from) vsath:in-| postor- |Hameter| verse |magnum 
Specimens. occipital Penalei Petal ofan or- | diameter) to ante- 
crest to diameter.| process bital pe- jat base of rior apex 
anterior loftrontal riphery. | occipital| of pre- 
end Ge Gl area. mae 
nasal. a ary 
malar. spine. 
mm. mm. mm. mm. mm, mm, 
Professor Steere No. 1__. = 66 43 10 17 31 61 
Bureau of Science No. 2_ ee 63 42 11 17 27 61 
Bureau of Science No. 3------------- 64 45 5 17 30 61 


In some instances, where convenient, in the following description of 
the skeleton of Cynocephalus, the numbers. 1, 2, and 3, given to the 
specimens in the above table may be employed to designate the particular 
skeleton referred to. This will consist in placing the number in 
parentheses after any statement made or character described. 

In form, after the removal of the mandible, the skull is broad, some- 
what compressed from above, downward, and elongate in the antero- 
posterior direction. When viewed from above it will be observed that 
the facial portion, anterior to the orbits, contributes very considerably 
to the marked general breadth of the skull. Its surface is quite smooth, 
being broadly convex from side to side, and rounded off-anteriorly, thus 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 145 


causing the superior mandibular arch in front to be likewise broadly 
eurved. (Plate II, figure 3.) In some skulls a smooth, low, longitudinal 
elevation bounds the nasals upon either side, all to a few millimeters 
in front (1, 3), but this character is not invariably present (2), while 
in other skulls, the sockets of the canines, and to a lesser degree, the first : 
one or two molars, are indicated on the sides of the maxillaries by 
smooth, vertical elevations (3), absent in others. 

Posteriorly we find the smooth character of the facial portion carried 
backward to include the frontal region between the orbits, and the narrow 
parietal space as far back as the occipital crest. This median parietal 
space lies between the temporal ridges (the latter are always strongly 
marked), and is broadest where it passes into the frontal area, gradually 
contracting as we pass backward, to expand slightly again as it arrives 
at the occipital crest. Its area is determined by the temporal ridge 
bounding the temporal fossa upon either side. (Plate II, figure 3.) 

Anteriorly we see the floors of the orbits, and upon either side, the 
arch of the zygoma, while posteriorly the broad, coneayed piers of the 
zygomatic arches look directly upward. Between these is the rather 
ample, semiglobular cranium or brain-case, either side of which, within 
the temporal fossa, may exhibit considerable muscular rugosity (1), or 
it may be comparatively smooth (2, 3). Among the few distinctive 
characters upon this aspect of the skull are the very prominent post- 
orbital processes of the frontals. ‘They are more or less raised above the 
interorbital frontal area and jut out from it upon either side. As the 
periphery of an orbit is nearly circular in outline each contributes to 
this circularity at its supero-posterior are. In some skulls the decurved 
free extremity of the process is produced backward and downward farther 
than it is in others, thus more nearly completing the bony circlet of the 
- orbit, especially where the postorbital process of the malar is similarly 
produced, as it is in some skulls (3). 

The opening for the supraorbital nerve may be either a “notch” or a 
foramen and, in any case, occurs far forward upon the orbital rim. It 
is more in evidence in some skulls (1) than in others, and in one of the 
specimens here being examined it is a notch on the left side and a foramen 
on the right (1), while in the other two skulls it is a less conspicuous 
foramen on both sides. The infraorbital foramen is usually very minute 
in all skulls and can be distinctly seen only upon lateral view. (Plate 
I, figure 2.) 

Upon regarding the skull from in front there is to be observed the 
rather large, circular opening of the anterior nares, through which may 
be seen the vomer and the scrolled ethmoturbinals, two in number, on 
either side, with the smaller one beneath. The periphery of the anterior 
narial orifice may (1), or may not (2, 3), be completed in bone. Owen, 
in his figures of the skull of Cynocephalus, has it so completed by the 


146 SHUFELDT. 


otherwise intervened free angles of the maxillaries codssifying with the 
anterior apex of the yomer.’* 

Passing to the posterior view of the skull we find the entire occipital 
area to be in the vertical plane, the longitudinal axis of the skull being 
perpendicular to it. The line of the very definitely marked occipital 

crest is semicircular in outlme and there is a strong, median, vertical 

crest, that passes from the middle point of the occipital crest to the 
supero-middle point on the periphery of the foramen magnum. The 
base line of the occipital area is perpendicular to this median crest, while 
the condyles project slightly below it. These latter are large, semi- 
ellipsoidal in form, inclined toward each other inferiorly, with their flat 
sides facing each other and the median plane. They project posteriorly 
considerably beyond the large and subcireular foramen magnum. ‘The 
exoccipitals are massive projections with their flat bases in the horizontal 
plane. (Plate I, figure 1.) Im some specimens each of these bases is 
marked with a deep groove, passing forward and inward toward the 
median plane (2, 3). A more or less median “occipital prominence” 
exists above the foramen magnum on the posterior aspect of the skull and 
is better marked in some specimens than in others. 

Chief among the points of interest on the lateral aspect of the skull 
is the capacious orbit, which is posteriorly incompleted by bone (Plate 
I, figure 2), and with the plane of its periphery directed outward, forward, 
and upward. The orbital wall within is entirely completed in bone 
anteriorly, including the floor below, while posteriorly it is equally 
lacking in this respect, the whole space in this locality merging with the 
temporal fossa in its rear. The postorbital process of the malar occupies 
a mid-point on the strong and twisted zygoma. The posterior root of 
the latter is broad and starts from an extensive base line on the side of 
the cranium. 

Within the orbit the foramen rotundum and foramen ovale are distinct 
and occupy their usual sites. The lacrymal foramen is well marked in 
some skulls (2), minute in others (1), while the other foraminal openings 
for nerves, are of remarkably small caliber. Elliptical in outline with 
its major axis vertical, the osseous meatus auditorius externus is likewise 
small as compared with the size of the cranium. It is found in the deep 
recess between the posterior root of the zygoma and the exoccipital of 
the same side. 

The basis cranii (Plate I, figure 1) is especially remarkable for the 
fact that a large share of it lies in the same horizontal plane (see figure 2 
of Plate 1), which is rather unusual in mammalian skulls. Nearly one- 


4 Anatomy of Vertebrates (1866), 2, 388, fig. 253 and 3, 312, fig. 247. Both 
of these figures are very different representations of the basal view of the skull 
of Cynocephalus. They are altogether too wide for their length and they are 
quite crude in the matter of delineation. 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 147 


half of the inferior portion of the occipital condyles constitutes the sole 
part of the skull that falls below this plane, the roof of the mouth being 
only slightly above it. This latter area is laterally bounded by the 
teeth, but has a free premaxillary margin in front. Its outline is a broad 
U with its convexity forward. All sutures among the bones, maxillaries, 
premaxillaries, and palatines have been entirely absorbed, without leaving 
the slightest trace of their original lines of articulation. he surface is 
extremely smooth, being slightly concave from before, backward, and 
rather more so from side to side. The palatine foramina are minute and 
are situated far back, one on either side, close to the margin of the 
posterior nares, and even posterior to the anterior peripheries of the same, 
indicating that the palatal bones contribute but a small share to the bony 
roof of the mouth. ‘This latter, anteriorly, is deficient in bone, there 
being a median, circular vacuity found there between the premaxillaries. 

Jutting into this anterior palatine fossa, in the middle line from 
behind, is a sharp, free spine; this is the anterior apex of the vomer. 
(Plate I, figure 1.) In some skulls (2, 3) this free anterior end of the 
yomer is in contact, or may unite, with the produced median extremities 
of the premaxillaries, and thus convert the palatine fossa into a pair of 
anterior palatine foramina, each elliptical in outline with the major axes 
directed longitudinally. Owen’s skull had this formation, but not so the 
one collected by Steere, wherein the sharp-edged alveolar incisor margin 
is noncontinuous to the extent of at least 5 millimeters in the median 
part. Both skulls from- the Bureau of Science agree with Owen’s 
figures (cited above) in that the anterior spine of the vomer is produced 
forward, bifureates, and each minute bifurcation either meets, or cods- 
sifies with, the premaxillary of its own side. This character at once 
commands attention upon glancing at the basis cranii of the skull. At 
the hinder boundary of the vault of the buccal cavity we see the posterior 
narial apertures. Each is rounded in front, with the convexity so directed, 
the free margins being embellished with a raised osseous rim that is 
continued backward, on either side, to terminate as the minute inferior 
fork of the bifurcation of the hamular process of the sphenoid. The 
posterior nasal spine is rather large with rounded apex. It occurs in 
the imaginary plane passing through the centers of the second molars. 
As apertures, the posterior narial ones are considerably compressed in the 
vertical direction, which is compensated for by their width. 

Each zygomatic arch has a broad base anteriorly, being composed, as 
usual, of the malar and maxillary bones, its base line including rather 
more than the second premolar and all three molars. Standing well out 
from the side of the face, this part of each zygomatic arch has its inferior 
surface directed downward and outward at an angle of about 45° with 
the median plane (Plate I, figure 1). 

Although the teeth are structures not belonging to the osseous system 


148 SHUFELDT. 


in the Mammalia, they are so intimately associated with the mandibles 
in the skull among all higher mammals and haye been so extensively 
employed in the matter of classification, that to entirely ignore them in 
any general work upon the osteology of an animal belonging to that class 
would be considered an almost unpardonable oversight. Anatomists have 
by no means neglected the dental armature of Cynocephalus and we meet 
with accounts of it in a number of works on comparative anatomy. Here. 
however, reference will be made to only two authorities, Owen and Flower. 

Owen and Flower agree on the dental formula of Cynocephalus and, 
as given in their works, it agrees with all three of the specimens at hand. 
According to Owen 7? the dental formula of the genus is: 


year AS). Bes 


(ao Oa aa aa 


Owen also states that— 


The two anterior incisors of the upper jaw are separated by a wide interspace. 
In the Philippine Colugo they are very small, with simple sub-bilobed crowns; 
but in the common Colugo (Lemur volans Linn.; Galeopithecus Temminckui Wat.) 
their crown is an expanded plate with three or four tubercles; the second upper 
incisor presents the peculiarity of an insertion by two fangs in both species of 
Galeopithecus.* ; 

In the lower jaw the crowns of the first two incisors (7), present the form 
of a comb, and are in this respect unique in the class Mammanta. Figure 249 
[Owen’s figure] shows a section of one of these teeth magnified. This singular 
form of tooth is produced by the deeper extension of the marginal notches on the 
crown, analogous to those on the edge of the new-formed human incisor, and those 
of certain shrews, the notches being more numerous as well as deeper. 

Each of these broad pectinated teeth is implanted by a single conical fang, 
and is exeavated by a pulp cavity, which divides into as many canals as there 
are divisions of the crown, one being continued up the center of each to within 
a short distance of its apical extremity. The medullary canal or branch of the’ 
pulp cavity is shown in some of the divisions of the crown, (at p). Each divi- 
sion has its proper investment of enamel, (e€), which substance is continued for 
a short distance upon the common base. 

The deciduous teeth appear not to cut the gum before birth, as they do in 
the true Bats. In a fetus Galeopithecus Temminckit, with a head one inch and 
a half in length, I found the calcification of the first incisor just commenced in 
the closed alveolus, the second incisor and the rest represented by the vascular 
uncalcified matrices. The upper milk teeth consist of two incisors, a canine and 
two molars, which latter are displaced and succeeded by the two premolars. The 
deciduous teeth are six in number in the lower jaw, the incisors being pectinated, 
but much smaller than their successors. The true molars are developed and 
in place before the deciduous teeth are shed. 


* Anatomy of Vertebrates (1866), 3, 311-313. 

“If we rely upon this diagnosis based upon the teeth, the specimens here 
being studied are certainly not C. volans; but that would not proye them all to 
be G. philippinensis, as there may be other species having the two anterior incisors 
of the superior mandible like it.—R. W. 8. 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 149 


* 

Flower committed one or two errors in giving the osteological char- 
acters of the Galeopteride ** and then briefly dismissed the subject of 
the teeth thus: 

Galeopithecus (i 2, ¢ +, pm 3, m %; second upper incisors and canines with two 
roots), with two species G. volans and G. philippinensis. The former, the Flying 


Lemur of Linneus, distinguished from the latter by the form of the upper in- 
cisors, has a total length of nearly 2 feet. 


Now in the upper jaw the two widely separated, anterior, incisors are 
not only “very:small,” as Owen points out, but they are, also, at least 
twice pectinated, and sometimes exhibit a faint indication of a third 
pectination, which may be discovered by the use of a lens (2). The 
second pair of upper incisors are the largest teeth in the upper jaw, 
extending downward below the canines, and very considerably below any 
of the molars. They are each two-fanged, distinctly triangular in form 
with a very sharp apex, and are compressed. Both their surfaces, as in 
the case of the canines, are fluted, the markings running from the base 
to the apex. A canine of the superior mandible has the same form as 
the second incisor, only it is somewhat shorter, and wider in the antero- 
posterior direction. 

As stated upon a previous page both the molars and premolars of 
both jaws in the Steere specimen are very much worn and, therefore, 
do not present the true characters of these teeth. In the upper jaw the 
premolars are all two-fanged and offer certain definite characters, the 
second pair closely approaching in their morphology the anterior pair 
of true molars. A first upper premolar has a rather complicated 
tubercular crown consisting of two outer, triangular, sharp-pointed cusps 
arranged antero-posteriorly to each other; their outer surfaces are flat 
and longitudinally fluted; their inner surfaces are convex and similarly 
marked. The inner portion of the crown in the first upper premolar 
exhibits two more yery rudimentary cusps; these in the second premolar 
tend to become three, as in the leading true molar. The outer cusps in 
all the true molars agree with those of the premolars, being the most 
reduced in the last molar. Their inner crowns, that is, the buccal aspect 
of the crowns, develop from three to four small, sharp, trihedral cusps, 
and these are partly overshadowed by the inwardly directed pair of outer 
cusps of any particular molar. All the true molars seem to be three 
fanged, the largest root being internal, with a pair of much smaller ones 
placed antero-posteriorly side by side externally. In one specimen (3) 
the crowns look directly upward, in another (2) they face more toward 
the median plane, which is decidedly the case in the specimen where they 
are much worn (1). Through this cause, in the latter, the second 
premolar has come to resemble very much the leading true molar next to 
it, its outer cusps being only a little sharper and more pronounced. 


* Encyc, Brit., 9th ed., 15, 401. 


150 SHUFELDT. 


Before completing our study of the basis cranii, it will be as well to 
finish with the teeth, and to this end examine those of the mandible or 
the lower jaw. For this purpose one of the specimens (2) from the 
Bureau of Science will be used, as in it the dental armature is unusually 
perfect. (Plate I, figure 2.) This specimen presents other interesting 
features, for on the right side there is to be noted the eruption of a 
second canine tooth immediately external to the canine belonging to the 
full set. The former is closely pressed against the latter and is nearly 
of equal size, although only about two-thirds of the crown has made its 
appearance. A similar eruption is seen in the case of both second 
premolars. At the outer side of each, but not in contact with them, a 
minute cusp is making its appearance just within the alveolar margin. 
This is another second premolar struggling to the surface. The anterior 
cusp of the first premolar in this jaw closely resembles the canine next 
in front of it; the crown of the second premolar possesses characters very 
much like howe of the first true molar, but the cusps are a trifle longer 
and sharper than they are in the latter. 

Six perfect incisors are found in this specimen, three in either side 
of the mandible. ‘The two pairs in front very closely resemble each other, 
while the last incisor upon either side is quite different. All are single 
fanged, and in the dried skull easily tumble out of their sockets. In 
this particular they markedly depart from the molars, which require 
some little force to extract them with the fingers. Owen, in his aboye- 
cited figure of a section of one of the first incisors of the lower jaw, 
makes seven elongate pectinations on the tooth, while in the four now 
being considered, there are at least eleven of these structures. The 
crowns of the two central incisors are somewhat narrower than in the 
pair to their outer sides, otherwise, as has been remarked, they are 
similar. The exposed part of the tooth im any case is nearly square in 
outline. As normally implanted the teeth point almost directly forward; 
that is, their anterior and posterior surfaces, including the cutting edges, 
he almost in the horizontal plane, and, excepting prehension, it is difficult 
to understand the use for which they can be employed. In young 
specimens these four incisors are of a glistening, enamel white, while in 
old age they become stringy and flexible. Hach is gently concave on 
its inner (here upper) aspect, and correspondingly convex on its outer 
surface or, in reality, its inferior surface. Owing to their pectination, 
the free distal edges are minutely serrated. ‘The pectinations are of 
nearly uniform length, the proximal ones being the shortest in any 
particular tooth. They are subcylindrical in form, extremely delicate in 
structure, although very strong, and it requires a lens of some power to 
reveal the fact that the interstices among them are carried down to their 
bases; distally, they are apparently in close contact, but not fused. No 
other living mammal possesses such teeth as these. 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. i/5yIl 


Passing to one of the third lower incisors a very different tooth is 
seen. ‘The coronal portion is antero-posteriorly elongated; as naturally 
implanted, it is directed upward; it is slightly concave on buccal aspect 
and correspondingly conyex on its outer surface; it presents five pectina- 
tions which become smaller and smaller from before backward; the 
fifth pectination is sometimes very rudimentary. This tooth is much 
thicker than any one of the four thin, front incisors just described.- 
These six incisors are very nearly, or quite, in contact and there is no 
true diastema among the teeth of either jaw. The very wide interval 
between the two anterior incisors of the upper jaw can hardly be con- 
sidered a true diastema. 

The last premolar, and the true molars of either side of the mandible, 
develop from four to five sharp-pointed, trihedral cusps that vary con- 
siderably in size and, packed together along the alveolar border, lend to 
the series a very complicated appearance. The largest cusps are external 
and median, while the much smaller ones are, as a rule, ranged internally. 

With the jaws normally articulated and tightly closed, the abruptly 
inturned, sharp-pointed, external cusps of the molars and last premolars 
of the upper jaw lie entirely without the alveolar margin of the lower 
jaw, and in mastication act as true cutters rather than as grinders. When 
the mandible is thus normally articulated, and we regard the skull as a 
whole upon its basal aspect, all these aforesaid cusps are in full view, 
even their apices, which is a very remarkable arrangement. 

Returning to the base of the skull we next observe the far backward 
extension of the pterygoidal wings of the sphenoid, with the rather deep 
longitudinal valley that exists between them. These wings turn slightly 
outward, and at the postero-inferior angle of each there is to be noted 
the not very large, bifurcated, hamular process already referred to above. 

Passing mesially from the posterior end of the vomer from beneath 
the posterior nasal spine, there is a prominent ridge, or line, running 
backward almost to the anterior margin of the foramen magnum. ‘This 
line is most conspicuous and sharpest in its anterior part, and at its 
posterior ending merges gradually into the general surface on the basi- 
temporal. Between the backward sloping termination of a pterygoidal 
wing and the glenoid fossa, upon either side, occurs the foramen ovale, 
the largest pair of foramina in the basis cranii. Hach transmits, on its 
own side, the third division of the fifth nerve, the small meningeal artery, 
and the small petrosal nerve. 

The glenoid fosse constitute prominent features on the base of this 
skull; either one is large (elongo-elliptical in outline, with the major 
axis perpendicular to the cranial axis), flat, and smooth, the articular 
surface being in the horizontal plane, and completely overlying the inferior 
surface of the posterior root of the zygoma. (Plate I, figure 1.) These 
fosse are separated mesially by an average distance of 15 millimeters. 


152 SHUFELDT. { 


Below each glenoid fossa we meet with a prominent postglenoid process. 
These are vertically compressed, nearly square in outline, smooth on their 
upper articular surfaces, and roughened upon their lower. Both point 
directly forward and very slightly downward. Through the aid of the 
postglenoid process, a glenoid fossa is rendered deep and capacious, afford- 
ing an ample socket for articulating with the powerful mandible upon 
either side. 

Near the inner side of the postglenoid process occurs another conspic- 
uous apophysis, which appears to correspond to the vaginal process of 
anthropotomy. It is triangular in outline and produced anteriorly into 
asharp spine. The glenoid articular surface extends over the postglenoid 
process, while between it and the base of the cranium we find the orifice 
of the canal for the Hustachian tube, the foramen for the internal carotid 
artery, and other small foramina for nerves and vessels in the immediate 
vicinity. 

The basioccipital area is smooth, rather broad, and mesially divided by 
the above-described crest. We find no tympanic bulle as they occur in 
many of the carnivora and other mammals. Hach exoccipital area in 
its place is roughened, flat, and quadrilateral in outline. 

Foramen lacerum posterius, the foramen stylomastoideus, and the 
condylar foramen all occupy their usual sites, the first named being large 
and oval in outline. The external auditory meatus is small, vertical, and 
slit-like, being situated in a deep recess posterior to the glenoid fossa. A 
thin, sharp rim of bone surrounds it upon all sides save above. 

The ossicula auditus, presumably consisting of the usual malleus, incus, 
and stapes, will not be described here, while it is much to be regretted that 
the osseous parts of the hyoidean apparatus are missing in all three of 
these specimens. (The hyoid and larynx are described at the end of 
this paper.) 

Cynocephalus possesses only a fairly large cranial cavity. In two of 
these specimens (2, 3) it has been considerably shattered by shot, and 
in the remaining one (1) the vault of the skull was not removed for an 
examination of the interior of the cranial casket. However, a view of 
it was obtained in another (3), but the characters presented nothing 
remarkable. The cribiform plate is large and subcircular in outline; the 
perforations in it are rather minute and numerous. The “sella turcica” 
and the clinoid processes are but feebly developed, while the usual 
foramina are to be observed in the vicinity. More posteriorly, at the 
hinder part of the cavity, a raised osseous crest marks the line for the 
insertion of the tentorium cerebelli, dividing the fossa for the cerebrum 
from that for the cerebellum, the latter not being especially capacious. 
The internal vault of the cerebral cavity is fairly marked by the con- 
volutions of the brain; a raised osseous crest in the median line divides 
the left from the right side. The internal entrances of the usual neural, 


SKELETON IN THE. FLYING LEMURS. 153 


venous, and arterial foramina are all to be observed at their ordinary 
sites. : : 

As above remarked, Cynocephalus has a powerful mandible or lower 
jaw. (Plate I, figure 2, and Plate II, figure 4.) Taken as a whole this 
bone possesses a deep U-shaped outline, with the limbs of the body and 
the rami rather more diverging in some specimens (1) than in others 
(2, 3), where they may be quite parallel to each other anteriorly beyond 
its ramal portion. In front the symphysis is strong, deep, and firmly 
united, exhibiting a prominent mental process below, while its concave 
inner surface is smooth. Beyond either ramus the body of the jaw is 
thick from side to side, with its straight, upper, alveolar margin deeply 
marked with the sockets of the various teeth, and its lower border, 
parallel to it, rounded and smooth. The mesial line of the symphysis is 
directed from below, forward and upward, at an angle of about 45° with 
the imaginary mid-longitudinal line of the bone. The ramal portion of 
either limb is considerably deeper than-the body, extending both above 
and below it, being as a whole gradually turned outward from it at an- 
angle of 35° or more. Its outer surface is smooth and looks forward and 
outward, while its inner surface, also smooth, presents two conspicuous 
ridges for the pterygoidal muscles and is directed backward and inward. 
Again, the outer surface is very moderately convex below, as compared 
with the markedly concave inner surface. At the upper anterior margin 
of this concavity we note tne inferior dental foramen situated almost in 
line with the alveolar border, at the base of the coronoid process, and 
some 6 millimeters posterior to the last molar tooth. The angular border 
is thickened, circular in outline, and finished off with a raised rim. 
Externally and superiorily, the ramal portion is concave, that is, between 
the coronoid and condylar process, a concavity that is gradually lost as 
we approach the middle of the ramal area, or surface, upon this aspect 
of the bone. . 

The mental foramina, upon either side, appear to be three or four in 
number, a few millimeters apart, and all in the longitudinal line extend- 
ing from a point opposite the second incisor to include the last premolar, 
well within the lower border of the dentary portion of the jaw. Between 
the base of the coronoid process and the last molar tooth there exists 
a deep. pit, the use of which can not here be determined, although in 
life it probably harbors the tendon of insertion of the buccinator muscle. 

The coronoid process is, as a whole, situated above any other portion 
of the mandible, being flattened from side to side, slightly thicker at the 
base than above, and shaped lke a cat’s claw with the apex directed 
backward. (Plate II, figure 4.) It is directed upward and outward at 
an angle of about 45° with the transverse diameter of the condyle, from 
which it is separated by a considerable interval. The axis of the condyle 
is perpendicular to the median plane, its smooth articular surface extend- 


154 SHUFELDT. 


ing entirely over its superior convex aspect. From before backward it 
measures about 2 millimeters; transversely it averages 1 centimeter, 
being very slightly larger at its inner than at its outer extremity; a 
concavity occupies the entire surface of the former, while the latter is 
bluntly rounded off. In yery old specimens, and perhaps in others, the 
two limbs of the mandible after prolonged maceration part company 
at the symphysis, exposing there a roughened, subelliptical surface, whose 
major axis 1s identical with the symphysial axis. 


THE TRUNK SKELETON. 


There has been given on a former page (p. 142) of the present 
memoir, the number of vertebra in the spinal column of two species of 
Cynocephalus, ar recorded by Flower, viz, three specimens of “G. volans’’ 
and one specimen of “G. philippinensis.” This second exhibits, if correct, 
some remarkable variations in this part of the skeleton. 

Flower discovered 7 cervical yertebre in all four of the specimens he 
examined, while he found 13 thoracic in two “G. volans ;” 14 in another ; 
and 14 in “G. philippinensis.” Still more remarkable is the record he 
left with respect to the lumbar vertebre present in this animal, for in 
“G@. volans” these ranged 5, 6, and 8, while in the specimen of “G. philip- 
pinensis” there were 6 of these vertebre. Coming to the sacrals, he 
claims to have found 5 in two of “G. volans,’ 4 in another, and 4 in 
“G. philippinensis.” 

As Cynocephalus has a long slender tail, we are not greatly surprised 
at any variation that may occur there, especially as some of these vertebrae 
may be lost for one reason or another, and at the best they are likely to 
vary somewhat in this division of the column. Flower found in “G. 
volans” 14+, 15, and 17 caudal vertebre, and 17+ in the specimen of 
“G. philippinensis’ he examined. Taking his total count for the vertebral 
column it stands thus: “G. volans” 45-+-, 45, and 50, and for his specimen 
of “G. philippinensis’ 48+. In other words no two specimens, without 
regard to species, were in agreement in this particular. 

Upon careful count, the three specimens here being examined show 
the following for the number of yertebre im the spine: 


Number of vertebre in Cynocephalus. 


| | 


| | 
. Cer- | Tho- | Lum- | | | | 
Specimens. Seni. || waite, || Tne eer \Caudal., Total. 
| | | 
| | 
| Professor Steere No. 1----------_- | 7 13 9 3 19+ 51+ 
Bureau of Science No. 2 _-_______ | 7 13 8 3) 18] 49> | 
Bureau of Science No.3 ____----- | 7 | 13 7 4) d6+] 47+ 
| 


If bya + in his account of the number of caudal vertebre present 
Flower meant that certain terminal caudals were missing, no such meaning 
is here intended to be conveyed. In the above table a ++ does not mean 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 155 


that the skeleton with respect to the number of caudal vertebre is 
imperfect in any of the specimens examined, but that the skeleton of the 
tail is finished off distally by an apparently rudimentary vertebra which 
lacks the posterior moiety. The truth of this has been confirmed in my 
specimens by the use of the microscope. For example, caudal vertebrae 
11 to 15 in specimen number 2, very much resemble, upon a casual glance, 
some of the joints of the manus or pes, with a shaft and articular extrem- 
ities. Now the minute terminal vertebra of the tail in specimen number 
2 (and in others) if compared with a phalangeal joint, appears to have 
been broken in two at the middle of the shaft, or at a point that in reality 
is the middle of the centrum of the vertebra. The + stands for this 
“nib” or rudimentary terminal caudal vertebra in my specimens, apd 
as such is entitled to recognition in the total count. (See figure 17, 
plate V.) 

‘From an examination then of six individuals, three of Flower and 
three here, it may be stated with certainty that the number of vertebrz 
in the spinal column of Cynocephalus, irrespective of species, is markedly 
variable, after we pass the 7 cervicals, which are invariably present in all 
specimens. There may be 13 or 14 thoracie vertebree (bearing ribs) ; 
from 5 to 9 lumber vertebre; from 3 to 5 sacrals, or those that fuse 
together to form the “sacrum ;” and, finally, from 14 to 19 caudals, which 
in most cases possess in addition (a +) a rudimentary one at the termi- 
nation of the tail series. 

Throughout the class Mammalia, even including man, the number of 
caudal yertebre present in any particular species is subject to considerable 
variation. This becomes less and less the case as we pass from the tail to 
the cervical division of the spine, where with but very few exceptions 7 
is the rule. Manatus among the Sirenia has but 6 cervical vertebrae ; 
which is also the case with Cholepus among the Edentates, while in the 
same group (Hdentata) Bradypus possesses 9. At the present writing 
no other exception to this rule is known to me in the class. 

The count may be made to vary, too, by the number we elect to repre- 
sent the pelvic sacrum. In Cynocephalus as in other mammals, man 
included, the number varies also with the number that fuse together to 
form the sacrum. Where they have thus codssified, the bones so united 
have been here considered as sacral vertebre; 3 in two instances; 4 in 
another. In man they vary from 4 to 6. 

All these facts led Flower ** to state that— 

It must never be forgotten that although the division of the vertebral column 
into distinct regions is convenient for descriptive purposes, at the contiguous 
extremities of the regions the characters of the vertebre of one region are apt 


to blend into those of the next, either normally or as peculiarities of individual 
skeletons. 


* Osteology of the Mammalia, 78. 


156 _ SHUFELDT. 


In describing the spinal column in any mammal it has been the rule 
of the present writer to consider all those vertebree between the skull and 
the first one in the chain, proceeding backward, that bears a pair of true, 
free ribs, as cervical vertebrz; all those bearing a pair of true, free ribs, 
as dorsal or thoracic vertebre ; all those between these last and where they 
codssify to form the “pelvic sacrum,” as lumbar vertebre; all those fusing 
together between the ilia of the pelvis, as sacral vertebre; and all the 
rest to the end of the column, or chain, as caudal vertebre. This rule 
has been here applied to Cynocephalus. (Figures of vertebre will be 
found upon Plates II to V of the present memoir, that is figures 7, 8, 10, 
11, 12, 13, 14, and 17.) 

« In describing the spinal column of the insectivore here being considered, 
the’ specimen furnished by Steere has been selected; constant references, 
however, will be made to the others, designating them as 2 and 3, respec- 
tively, as already indicated. 

There is nothing especially unusual in the vertebral column of Cyno- 
cephalus, as it is strictly mammalian in character, with all of the vertebra 
‘reduced to their simplest forms for an imsectivorous animal. Hven in 
the matter of number these bones may agree with others among the 
Insectivora, as in the case of the common Huropean mole (Talpa europea), 
which has in its vertebral column 7 cervical, 13 thoracic, 6 lumbar, 5 
sacral, and 11 caudal vertebra, the tail simply being somewhat longer in 
Cynocephalus. : 

Viewed in its entirety in the latter it is to be noted that the atlas is 
by far the largest vertebra in the chain; the axis is the next in size and 
is considerably smaller, being about equal in bulk to the last lumbar. 
The succeeding five cervical, and the first dorsal are all large vertebre. 
which very gradually decrease in size as we approach the dorsal region of 
the spine. From the second dorsal to the seventh inclusive the vertebre 
continue gradually to diminish in size; except the terminal caudals, the 
seventh dorsal is about the smallest one in the column; beyond the seventh 
dorsal the vertebre gradually increase again, become much larger and of 
different character in the lumbar region, and terminate with the largest 
one of all, which articulates with the anterior vertebra of the pelvic sacrum. 
The first lumbar bears considerable resemblance to the last dorsal, but is 
distinguished by not supporting a pair of facets for ribs. 

The vertebre composing the sacrum fuse very solidly, but the lines 
of demarcation between the central and the neural spines are always more 
or less distinguishable, more so in some specimens (1 and 3) than in 
others (2). The first caudal vertebra, which is free, resembles the last 
sacral, and the same may be said of the second, third, and fourth caudals, 
although the resemblance becomes gradually less evident as we proceed 
toward the end of the tail. This dissimilarity continues to increase rather 
rapidly, although never abruptly, as we follow the caudal series to its 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 157 


termination, each succeeding vertebra having its various apophyses disap- 
pear, becoming lengthened and much simpler in character, straight and 
subeylindrical, and with interarticulations of the most primitive kind. 
As we come to the last four or five caudals they gradually shorten again, 
being in this region represented by mere delicate straight rods, with 
slightly enlarged articular ends, and finally terminate in a minute osseous 
tip, the smallest vertebra in the entire series, hardly worthy of the name 
(figure 17). 

No neural spine occurs upon the atlas vertebra, although a very prom- 
inent one, arising from the entire length of the neural arch is to be 
found upon the axis. Its superior border is convex from before, backward. 
The neural spine in the remaining five cervicals is very markedly reduced 
in size, in each bone being represented by a mere stumpy process. In the 
first dorsal it starts to imerease again, being situated posteriorly and 
directed backward. It then gradually increases in size; becomes nearly 
vertical, quadrilateral in outline, and almost imperceptibly dwarfs once 
more to include the eighth dorsal, when again its proportions increase, and 
this continues as we pass through the lumbar region. In the mid-series 
of the vertebre in this latter locality in the Steere specimen, the neural 
spine is a very conspicuous feature of the bone, being lofty, quadrilateral 
in outline, and with a thickened superior border; it extends the entire 
length of the neural arch, being about one-half the size on the last lumbar 
vertebra. In other individuals these neural spines are not nearly so con- 
spicuous (figure 17) as the ones just described (figure 7, Plate I1). 

Neural spines are always present upon the sacrum, but here by fusion 
they constitute a single plate of bone, being individualized only by the 
thickened superior borders (figure 8). This plate is not so high poste- 
riorly as it is in front, while at the same time it extends the entire length 
of the sacral neural arch. 

On the leading caudal vertebra we find a fairly well-developed neural 

spine of about the same size as the one on the last dorsal vertebra. It is 
centrally situated. This is the case with the next two succeeding caudals, 
but in these the neural spine is becoming aborted, while in the fourth 
caudal it may be only just evident, to entirely disappear in the vertebra 
next following, and not be produced again for the balance of the vertebral 
elements in the skeleton of the caudal appendage. 
. A mere mesial raised line represents the hemal process or hemapo- 
physis, in the axis and the third cervical vertebra; for the rest of the 
column no such structure is present, while the caudal vertebrae appear to 
be entirely lacking in chevron bones. These last are found in many 
mammals, as, for example, among marsupials, the Edentata, Cetacez. 
many rodents, carnivores, and even in some Insectivora, as Rhynchocyon, 
where, according to Flower, they “are well developed and bifid.” *° 


* Osteology of the Mammalia (1885), 73. 


158 SHUFELDT. 


Returning to the atlas (figure 10) we find, in addition to characters 
already ascribed to it, that it possesses upon its anterior aspect the usual 
two, extensive, cup-shaped facets intended for the condyles at the back 
of the cranium. They face forward and inward in about equal propor- 
tions, and are completely out of view when the vertebra is regarded from 
directly above. ‘The neural canal is short and cylindrical, being covered 
by the broad neural arch above, but very slightly so protected ventrally. 
Each apophysial, transverse, lateral expansion is twice pierced by for- 
amina; the anterior ones are for the vertebral arteries and suboccipital 
nerves, the other pair, entering the neural canal at its sides, are for the 
vertebral arteries. On the posterior floor of the neural canal, the articular 
surface for the odontoid process of the axis and the entire fore part of the 
latter bone, save its neural spine, are continuous, thus affording very 
considerable play between the two bones. The under sides of the nearly 
horizontal, lateral, apophysial plates of the atlas are decidedly concave, 
with the mesial, almost entirely aborted, hypophysial tubercle standing 
between them behind. 

This ventral surface of the atlas is bounded in front. by a deep concave 
articular border with the concavity directed backward. A similar border 
with thickened edge forms the posterior boundary; its concavity, which 
is not so profound, is directed forward. Between the nearest points of 
these two concaye borders in the middle line, the separating isthmus of 
bone measures only a few millimeters. The margins of the lateral edges 
of this vertebra are sharp and convex outward. 

Passing next to the axis, or second cervical vertebra, it is to be noted 
that its odontoid process is but fairly well produced, being bluntly trian- 
gular in form, considerably compressed from above, downward, and to- 
gether with the rest of the articular surface on that aspect of the bone, 
projecting entirely beyond the neural spine above it. This is by no means 
always the case in mammals, for among certain Felide and Canide it 
may be observed that the anterior projection of the neural spine in this 
vertebra overhangs the odontoid process. There are no prezygapophyses, 
while the postzygapophyses are much aborted, the elliptical articular 
facets, which they support in other vertebre being represented, one on 
either side, by similar surfaces situated beneath the neural laminz. They 
project beyond the small and vertically much compressed centrum, which 
presents, posteriorly, a rather large facet for the third vertebra. (Plate 
III, figure 11.) The transverse processes are moderate in size, triangular 
in outline, and much compressed in the vertical direction. No foramen 
for the passage of the vertebral artery, on either side, is to be found in 
the axis, while the cylindrical neural canal is much smaller than it is in 
the atlas. In fact it has about the same caliber and form throughout 
the cervical series as it has in the axis now being considered. 

The remaining five cervicals are all very much alike, and we find each 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 159 


of them perforated upon either side, in the longitudinal direction, by the 
foramen for the vertebral-artery. Im each the centrum is much» com- 
pressed from above, downward, which results in giving the articular facet 
at either end a transverse elliptical form, the concave one being behind, 
the convex one in front. The prezygapophyses are quite individualized 
and project directly forward beyond the centra and the neural arch. 
Postzygapophyses practically agree with what has been described for the 
axis. All these vertebrae have a broad, compressed appearance with 
their flat ventral aspects quadrilateral in outline. Small and stumpy in 
the third cervical, the transverse processes become gradually more con- 
spicuous to include the seventh, or last cervical, where they are produced 
both forward and backward from a broad common pedicle. 

Among the leading dorsal vertebre the centra are much compressed 
as we found them in the cervicals, but they gradually become more 
cylindrical in form to the close of the series. Reniform in outline, the 
articular facets at either end have their concave edges upward. 

Greatly reduced in size and caliber throughout the dorsal region, the 
neural canal is slightly compressed from above, downward, in the first 
few dorsals, finally to become cylindrical among the ultimate ones. This 
continues to be the case through the lumbar vertebre, until we arrive 
at the last lumbar, where the canal is very much compressed from above, 
downward, and with this form passes through the sacrum and the first 
four caudal yertebre. On the fourth caudal the spinal cord receives its 
last and very scant osseous protection, passing through a delicate little 
arch on the superior aspect of the bone, posteriorly. 

Among all the dorsal vertebrae the diapophyses, or transverse processes, 
are short and thick, and in all cases project directly outward from their 
bases. At their nether extremities we note the usual facets for the 
tubercles of the ribs articulated with them at these points. The capitular 
facets for the heads of the ribs are shared in each case throughout the 
dorsal series by two vertebrx, by which is meant that one-half of the facet 
(a demifacet) is on the centrum of one vertebra and the other half on the 
side of the centrum of the vertebra next following it. No exception to 
this rule has been met with in the three specimens examined. ZAyga- 
pophysial processes here present their usual mammalian characters, the 
postzygapophyses only becoming differentiated as true processes in the 
last few bones of this region. 

The intervertebral foramina for the entire spinal column are formed 
about as they are throughout the mammalian series, including man. 
They are large in the cervical region, very much smaller in the dorsal 
section, and increase in size again in the lumbar where they are longitu- 
dinally slit-like, and are found in each ‘case between the centrum and the 
long, backwardly directed, spiny anapophysis on either side, at the pos- 
terior end of the vertebra (figure 7). 

102305——3 


160 oars! SHUFELDT. 


These anapophysial processes of the lumbar vertebre, where present, 
are quite characteristic. Hach one on either side forms a deep notch 
with the postzygapophysis next to it on the same vertebra. Into this 
notch, when the bones of the spine are normally articulated, fits the 
prezygapophysis (of that side) of the next succeeding vertebra, the com-. 
bination making a very close interlocking articulation, which, when taken 
altogether for the six leading lumbars, accounts for the remarkable fixity 
and stability of this part of the column in Cynocephalus. In the last 
two lumbar vertebree these anapophysial processes are entirely aborted, 
as are the transverse processes in the first two lumbars. After that, 
however, these diapophyses begin to appear again, being represented by 
thin, quadrilateral, horizontal plates of bone of good proportions. They 
are thick and strong in the last lumbar, and claw-shaped in the three that 
precede it with the apices of the claws directed to the front. (Plate IV, 
figure 13.) Metapophyses of a very rudimentary type are also to be seen 
in the mid-lumbar vertebre ; in any case the most of the projection belongs 
in reality to the anterior zygapophysis, an exception being found in the 
last lumbar vertebra, where these processes are much better defined and 
rather more prominent. 

In Steere’s specimen the sacrum is a very it bone, composed of three 
vertebre thoroughly fused together. The leading one has double the bulk 
of the last, while the middle one is massive anteriorly and slopes away 
behind (Plate IV, figure 14).  Anteriorly, the first sacral presents the 
usual facets, processes, and surfaces to articulate with those on the hinder 
aspect of the last lumbar. So, too, the posterior face of the third sacral 
is similarly modified in order to meet the requirements of an articulation 
with the anterior face of the first caudal vertebra. laterally, the entire 
mass of the first sacral and the anterior moiety of the second, are enlarged, 
thickened, and curved ventrad to support on their outer aspect a large, 
subelliptical, articular surface for the ilium of the same side. This 
surface looks upward and outward, and the major axis of the ellipse is 
in line with the longitudinal axis of the spinal column, being parallel to 
the long axis of the ilium when the bones are normally articulated. There 
are two pairs of foramina on the ventral surface of the sacrum for the 
exit of the anterior roots of the spinal nerves. Similar pairs of foramina, 
for the posterior roots, occur on the dorsal aspect of the bone directly 
opposite these; then the foramina for the pairs of roots of the spinal 
nerves both anterior and posterior to these are only completed when the 
last lumbar and first caudal vertebra are in position and duly articulated 
in the column, being represented only by shallow notches in front and 
behind when we study the sacrum as a single bone. 

Considerable compression in the vertical direction is noticed in the 
first four caudal vertebra. The fifth is rather stocky, after which they 
commence to elongate and lose their apophyses and the other usual 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 161 


vertebral characters of the bones in the fore part of the column. The 
lateral processes, especially, are developed in the first four caudals, most 
so in the third and fourth, where they are extensive horizontal plates with 
circular limiting borders. Zygapophysial processes are well developed in 
the leading caudals, particularly the prezygapophyses, which subsequently, 
as we pass down the skeleton of the tail, become a pair of rounded tubercles 
situated side by side on the supero-anterior aspect of the bone, » These 
persist in a number of vertebra as we pass toward the end of the tail. 

On the ventral aspect of the skeleton of this part of the vertebral chain 
in Steere’s specimen, between. the sixth and seventh and the seventh and 
eighth vertebr, and situated directly over the intervertebral articulations, 
we note a pair of minute ossicles, ellipsoidal in form, and placed side 
by side, at an interval of about one millimeter. They are perfectly free 
and are held in place by delicate ligaments. Possibly similar pairs may 
be found posteriorly between a few more vertebra, but after that they 
surely disappear altogether. These last have evidently been lost in the 
specimen, and it is fair to presume that these ossicles probably represent 
rudimentary chevron bones. 

Flower,!’ under the Insectivora, makes no mention of the ribs and 
sternum, although he lightly touches upon them for Talpa, Sorex, Hrina- 
ceus, and Rhynchocyon. 

Viewed as a whole the osseus framework of the thorax in Cynocephalus 
is quite in keeping with what we meet with in this part of the skeleton 
in any average mammal, being decidedly more so than in T'alpa, although 
the mole and the colugo each possess 13 pairs of ribs. 

The chest capacity of Cynocephalus is considerable, notwithstanding 
the fact that it is much contracted anteriorly, where it is bounded by the 
first pair of ribs, the first dorsal vertebra, and the presternum. From 
this region it gradually, though very uniformly, expands to the plane of 
its posterior termination, where it has an average transverse diameter of 
6 centimeters. 

Owing to the greater sizeof the leading dorsal vertebrae and to the 
small dimensions of the ribs themselves the first three pairs of ribs have, 
upon either side, greater intervals between them than any other members 
of the series. These ribs are somewhat roundish in form, although 
exhibiting a disposition to flatten at their vertebral ends as we pass 
backward. In the fourth pair this flattening associated with an increased 
width is pronounced, and from thence on is continued to include the 
last pair. This accounts for the decrease in the width of the intercostal 
spaces after passing the third pair of ribs, so that each intercostal space 
is about equal to the ribs that bound it. There is very little difference 
in the width of the ribs from the fifth to the thirteenth pair, inclusive, 


7 Osteology of the Mammalia, 94-96. 


162 : SHUFELDT. 


and each one is nearly as wide at its sternal end, where it is joined by 
‘a costal rib, as it is at its angle. Those forming the first pair are the 
‘shortest in the series; the sixth, seventh, and eighth pairs are of about 
equal length and are, at the same time, the longest ones of all. 

Seven of the leading pairs of ribs are joined to the sternum through the 
‘intervention of costal ribs; in the eighth pair the costal ribs are very long 
“and attenuated, and lack but very little of meeting the distal extremity of 

the mesosternum. . After this they rapidly shorten, the ninth, tenth, and 
sometimes the eleventh articulating in sequence with each other’s lower 
‘borders; the twelfth and thirteenth are thus joimed by a ligamentous 
‘membrane only, and are practically floating costal ribs. (Figure 17.) 
The first pair of costals are the shortest of all that unite the vertebral 
‘ribs with the anterior end of the presternum, occupying facets, one upon 
either side, just behind where the clavicles articulate. Like all the others 
they are’ curved, the concavity of the curvature looking forward... From 
the first to the: last, or seventh, pair of costals this curvature continues, 
although it is here principally, indeed, almost entirely confined to the 
outer third of the bone, especially in the last two or three pairs. ‘They 
become progressively longer as we pass backward, and all seem: to be 
composed of true bone, although.a little elementary in character. ‘The 
distal pairs of costals are still more cartilaginous, but there is evidence 
of osseous tissue in all of them. At their sternal ends they articulate 
upon facets situated between the joints of the presternum and meso- 
sternum, the sixth and the seventh articulating at the distal end of the 
posterior joint of the mesosternum. None of the costals ever articulates 
‘with the xiphisternum. 

All the thoracic ribs articulate with the dorsal venes in the way 
usual among mammals and they present the common characters of these 
bones. .They are somewhat narrower in some specimens (1) than in 
others (2, 3), but wide or narrow, any single rib in mid-series varies but 
little in its own width from angle to costal articulation. All»present the 
usual curvature, although here it involves almost the entire continuity of 
the bone and is most pronounced dorsad. 

If we select a “true rib” of the eighth pair as an example we find that 
its capitulum-is well developed; the elliptical double facet is rather large 
and placed longitudinally on the bone. The “neck” is but moderately 
constricted; the “tubercle” is-but feebly pronounced, and owing to the 
short transverse process of the dorsal vertebra, is quite close to the 
capitulum. The ‘fangle” is but very: faintly indicated, and is entirely 
absent in the last three pairs of true ribs. . As in the rest of the series, 
the “body” of the twelfth rib is very flat with rather sharp anterior and 
posterior borders. These last in Steere’s specimen are far more rounded. 
Posteriorly and at the same time dorsad, there is a faint groove running 
down the border of this rib. It harbors in life‘the intercostal vessels and 


SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 163 


nerve, while its borders give attachment to the internal and external 
intercostal muscles. 

A very shallow concavity, or pit, occupying the ventral end of all the 
true ribs, is intended for articulation with the outer extremity of the 
corresponding costal rib. 

Between the head and tubercle in most of the true ribs of this animal 
we meet with a single nutrient foramen, usually upon the posterior aspect 
of the bone. It is extremely minute in some of the ribs and varies some- 
what in locality. 

Cynocephalus possesses an ordinary and rather stout sternum, the parts 
consisting of spongy bone overlaid by an extremely thin outer covering of 
compact tissue. As usual in most mammals it is divided into the pre- 
sternum (manubrium), the mesosternum (gladiolus, etc.), and the 
xiphisternum (ensiform cartilage, or xiphoid appendage, etc.). Some- 
times the parts of the mesosternum are designated as sternebre, the whole 
being frequently called the “breast bone.” (Figure 17.) 

The presternum is here short and trihedral in form, with its blunt 
third angle situated mesially, and articulating in life with the anterior 
end of the first sternebra of the mesosternum. Its outer anterior angles 
are for articulation with the first pair of costal ribs. The sharper antero- 
mesial-angle has, running between it and the distal end of the bone, a 
low mesial raised crest which stands between the lateral aspects of this 
joint of the sternum. Dorsally it is flat, while anteriorly the triangular 
surface is very moderately concaved. Its longitudinal diameter averages 
about 8 millimeters, and it is scarcely any wider at its widest part in 
front.*® 

Passing to the mesosternum we find it composed of four sternebre 
closely resembling one another in form, and differing but little in the 
matter of size. They are vertically compressed, smooth bones, narrower 
at their middle than at their extremities, and in life articulate with each 
other in the manner usual among mammals. They average about 4 
millimeters in width, and rather more in length, the anterior one being 5 
millimeters long and the third or longest one about 8 millimeters long. 
They present the usual facets at their anterior and posterior angles for 
articulation with the costal ribs. 

The xiphisternum varies considerably in form, although it may be 
described as a cartilaginous appendage, about as long as the third ster- 
nebra. Occasionally it appears to be in two bits, one behind the other, 
the anterior one exhibiting a very faint disposition to ossify. Viewing 
the thorax from in front, it will be noticed that in most specimens the 


The presternum in Oynocephalus is entirely different from that bone as we 
find it in the mole (Talpa europea), as will be seen by examining Flower’s 
figure of the latter. Osteology of the Mammalia, figure 34. 


164 SHUFELDT. 


sternal ends of the seventh pair of costal ribs articulate with each other 
in the mesial line, and at the same time with the distal end of the last 
sternebra. The xiphisternum is united to the mesosternum at the dorsal 
aspect of this triple articulation; this is an unusual arrangement among 
mammals, possibly not existing in any other known species. It is entirely 
different in Talpa, and very probably in other insectivores. 

In the articulated skeleton the xiphisternum is about opposite the tenth 
dorsal vertebra, and the entire sternum has an average length of 4.5 


centimenters. 
[To be concluded.] 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE A. 


Skeleton of a flying lemur. By permission. Reduced. From the mounted speci- 
men in the collection of the United States National Museum. 


Pate I. 


Fic. 1. Basal aspect of the skull of Cynocephalus ; lower mandible removed, and 
a few teeth missing. Adult. Very slightly enlarged. Specimen from 
Professor J. B. Steere. 

2. Left lateral view of the skull of Oynocephalus, with lower mandible 
articulated im situ, and the dental armature complete. Hyoidean ap- 
paratus removed. About adult. Very slightly enlarged, and in same 
proportion as figure 1, A specimen from the Bureau of Science, Manila, 
12) dh 

Prate II. 


Fic. 3. Superior aspect of skull of Cynocephalus, lower mandible removed. Same 

specimen as shown in figure 1 of Plate I. Exact natural size. 

4. Lower mandible of Cynocephalus seen upon direct superior view. Dental 
armature complete. This jaw belongs to the skull shown in figure 3. 
Exact size of the specimen. 

Left scapula of Cynocephalus seen upon direct ventral view, and natural 
size. The absence of the superior angle, and the foraminal vacuities 
in the blade are normal. The rounded superior angle of the right 
scapula in this specimen is perfect. The bone belonged to the same 
individual from which the skull and mandible were taken shown in 
figures 3 and 4. 

6. Left femur of Cynocephalus seen upon anterior view and slightly enlarged. 
Note the almost entire absence of the pit for the ligamentum teres. 
From the same specimen as figures 3, 4, and 5. 

7. Lumbar vertebre of Cynocephalus, being the third to the seventh, inclusive, 
and seen upon left lateral aspect. Natural size; from the same speci- 
men as the other bones in this plate. 


SH 


165 


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Herr ts “eign red 


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hi caine ageren ates? 
AE GEL  Gragied eae nee wiht teat Me 


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8S 


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s. ¢ 


St PRIMING domtite sree “ania 
Litter, ae tgs tS Te or PSr Yd: 
ee Sy tre dichiinrk ‘ 4 
Breet Tale skate un 


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Age ESS: 1 edd 


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aiahions ataeede, qt ied Sane! 


ttre faiirsbt ethos ele set 


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SHUFELDT: SKELETON IN THE FLYING LemurRs.] [PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 3. 


PLATE A. 


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cs Us fl L OS "NwoOo0 


SHUFELDT : SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. ] [PHim. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 3. 


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Vou. VI AUGUST, 1911 No: 4 


NEWLY DISCOVERED BREEDING PLACES OF PHILIPPINE 
: SEA BIRDS. 


By Dean C. WORCESTER. 


Gulls and terns in considerable variety have long been known from the 
Philippines. Brown boobies, too, have been recorded by various ornitho- 
logical collectors, but only one specimen of the red-legged booby, and 
that an immature individual, had been collected in the Islands prior to 
June 25, 1910, on which date, when crossing the Sulu Sea between Ka- 


lusa Island and Puerto Princesa, Palawan, I saw a large flock of these 


birds hoyering oyer a school of fishes. I had the captain change course . 
slightly so as to take the steamer near them, but they dispersed before 
us. Several individuals flew within long shotgun range of the ship and 
I had the good fortune to bring down a fine, adult specimen which fell 
into the sea but was recovered by stopping the steamer and lowering a— 
boat. 

On July 13, 1910, on which date I was exploring the islands in Green 
Island Bay on the east coast of Palawan when I was heading for Reef Is- 
land, I saw, on the starboard bow, a sandbar rising not more than a meter 
above the sea, the tide at that time being full. While I was examining 
it through my field glasses, a large flock of terns suddenly rose from it, 
and after circling for a few moments settled again. Although the 
breeding season for most birds was then well over, I was at a loss to 
understand why these terns should be gathered in such numbers upon a 
perfectly bare sandbar unless they had eggs or young there, so ordered 


the steamer stopped and a boat lowered, and proceeded to investigate. 
104558 167 


168 WORCESTER. 


The terns did not again take wing until we were close in shore, and 
then refused to leave the immediate vicinity of the reef, circling close 
over our heads. Nearly all of the individuals were black-naped terns, 
Sterna melanauchen Temminck, but by pure accident I Jalled a single spec- 
imen of the oriental roseate tern, Sterna gracilis Gould, which had never 
before been taken in the Islands. By watching sharply, I was then able 
to pick out and kill two additional specimens, recognizing them in flight 
by their red legs. ; 

We found numerous eggs on the reef. They were deposited singly or 
in pairs in slight depressions in the sand, lined in a number of instances 
with bits of sea shell and of white coral. 

So far as I am aware, this was the first time that terns have been 
found breeding in the Philippines. 

On August 24, 1910, I joined Gevernor-General Forbes and the Sec- 
retary of War on board the steamer Rizal at Capiz, Panay, and was 
greatly interested to learn that on their way from Jolo to Puerto Prin- 
cesa they had landed on Bankoran Island in the middle of the Sulu Sea, 
finding great numbers of brown and red-legged boobies and some of the 
greater frigate birds, as well as a few terns. They had obtained speci- 
mens of all the species observed and had put them in cold storage so that 
I was able to make positive identifications. They told me that there 
were many nests in the trees and on the ground, but that only one egg 
had been obtained. Upon examination I found that the egg was ob- 
viously that of a booby, but whether of a brown or a red-legged booby it 
was impossible to say. 

On September 16, 1910, I had occasion to leave Manila on a trip to 
the west coast of Palawan and subsequently passed through Balabac 
Strait and sailed north along the chain of islands and shoals which 
extends in a generally northeasterly direction through the Sulu Sea. 
Bankoran Island was reached early on the morning of September 22. 
Fortunately the weather was calm and we were able to land at the south- 
western end of the island at 6 o’clock. From the steamer we had seen 
immense flocks of boobies circling about the island, which is covered 
throughout nearly its entire extent with trees, but has at its western end 
sand-spits, partially overgrown with grass and bushes, while at low tide 
rough masses of coral rag are left exposed by the receding water. 

We at once discovered that the red-legged boobies, Sula piscator (Lin- 
nus), were nesting in the trees, while the brown boobies, Sula lewco- 
gastra (Boddaert), were nesting on the ground. “A few moments’ ob- 
servation sufficed:to show that a number of red-legged boobies, which 
we found in, or close to, nests upon the ground, were not their owners as 
we had at first supposed, but were stealing nesting material from them in® 
the absence of the brown boobies which had built them. 

- With very few exceptions the nests on the ground contained no eggs. 


BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. 169 


We soon discovered this to be due to the fact that two boat loads of 
Moro egg-hunters had on the previous afternoon removed every egg 
from the ground nests. Their boats were still anchored on the shoal to 
the north of the island and were found to contain both boobies’ eggs and 
sea turtles’ eggs in large numbers. 

Apparently they had been too lazy to climb the trees after the eggs of 
the red-legged boobies, some of which we were, therefore, able to collect. 

The Moros assured us that by noon there would be plenty of fresh eggs 
in the nests of the brown boobies, and this proved to be the case. The 
boobies of both species were so tame that we experienced no difficulty in 
catching alive as many as we needed for specimens, and we were also able 
to secure a yery interesting series of photographs, and to observe closely 
the nesting habits of the birds of both species. The male and female — 
brown boobies were readily distinguished by the fact that the former had 
the bare skin at the base of the bill and on the throat dark blue, while 
in the latter it was bright lemon yellow. 

The ground nests of the brown boobies were made of bits of rotten 
wood, dead leaves, small branches, and twigs to many of which green 
leaves were still attached. In fact we saw the birds breaking such twigs 
from the trees. The female usually remained sitting bolt upright in 
her nest, while the male brought nesting materials which he turned over 
to her. These she promptly put in place, not infrequently lifting and 
putting down repeatedly a given leaf, twig or bit of punky wood until she 
had placed it just to suit her. Occasionally the materials brought by 
male birds were rejected, and as a rule when the latter endeavored to put 
any material in place in the nest, as was sometimes the case, it was 
thrown out by the females, which were evidently determined to construct 
their houses in strict accordance with their own ideas and to keep the 
male birds under proper discipline. 

In many cases the nests were in close proximity to each other and the 
male birds were constantly trying to steal materials from other nests. 
This led to vigorous vocal protest from the rightful owners and not 
infrequently to rough-and-tumble fights as well. The fights were all 
of short duration and quite bloodless. In no instance could we see that 
one booby really injured another. 

The red-legged boobies not only stole nesting materials from their 

brown relatives, but quarreled shamefully among themselves. 
_ Every bird which attempted to fly through the air with a fairly size- 
able branch in its mouth was set upon by half a dozen others, which, in 
their efforts to make it drop its burden frequently drove it to the ground 
where it was vigorously mauled until it relaxed its hold upon the branch. 
Some other bird then attempted to fly off with it and was set upon in 
turn. These contests seemed always to end when a lucky individual 
succeeded in getting to its nest with the coveted branch: 


170 WORCESTER. 


Both brown and red-legged boobies rose readily from the ground, and 
flew among the trees with greater skill than one would have expected 
them to display, but if caught in grass or brush they were very helpless. 

Only a single frigate bird was observed, and this individual promptly 
left the island on our arrival. 

The eggs of the two species were indistinguishable. Hach had a white, 
chalky outer layer, with a harder underlying layer which was very light 
blue in color. The female brown boobies were most reluctant to leave 
nests which contained eggs, and in some instances would not do so until 
actually pushed off. Upon the near approach of any member of our 
party, females which were sitting upon eggs manifested their uneasiness 
and nervousness by croaking and by picking up and laying down bits 
of nesting material. In a number of instances they displayed great 
courage, staying by their eggs and pecking vigorously at the hands 
of those who attempted to dislodge them. When taking photographs 
with a Graflex camera I had no difficulty in getting within four feet of 
nesting birds. 

In the course of the morning a fresh breeze sprang up and the tide 
which had been low when we landed rose so that we could not reémbark 
on the windward side of the island but had to send the boat around 
to the leeward side. We returned to the steamer at a quarter past 
twelve and I requested the captain to sail for Tub-bataha, thinking 
we might find sea birds on one or another of the several small islands 
which rise from this extensive shoal. The captain, however, objected, 
as we should necessarily have arrived at night. The position of Tub- 
bataha is not definitely known, and there are a number of bad outlying 
shoals, so that he did not deem it prudent to stand on and off in the 
dark. As an alternative he suggested that we visit Maeander Reef, 
where, according to the sailing directions, sea birds had been “seen in 
large numbers. 

At 4.30 in the afternoon the steamer changed course sharply to the 
south. Maeander Reef had been sighted from the masthead considerably 
to the south of the point where it is shown on the chart. We reached it 
in half an hour and found it to be a mere sandbar about 200 meters 
long by 150 wide, rising not more than two meters above the water. 
It is surrounded by an extensive shoal over which we were forced to 
wade and is absolutely devoid of vegetation. Drift wood lodged at 
its highest point showed that the waves break clean over it in very 
heavy storms, in spite of the shoal which one would suppose would prevent 
any such result. : : 

While still at a considerable distance, we saw through our glasses 
flocks of birds flying over the reef, and regiments of brown boobies 
sitting in long lines upon the shore. As we drew nearer we made out 
groups of northern Bergius’s terns, Sterna boreotis Bangs, with young 


BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. lege 


which were big enough to run about freely and to take to the water 
upon our nearer approach. Upon walking up the steeply shelving 
sand beach we beheld a wonderful sight. Hnormous numbers of sooty 
terns, Sterna fuscata Linneus, were standing on the sand in great 
groups, containing fully adult birds in breeding plumage, immature 
birds which were dark brown or black with some white-spotted feathers, 
young still partially in the down but with wings feathered out, and 
freshly hatched chicks colored so like the sand about them that when 
they crouched flat upon it, with outstretched necks and extended wings, 
they disappeared from view before one’s yery eyes. Eggs were scattered 
around in large numbers, but many of them were bad ones which had 
failed to hatch. Large solemn-looking chicks of the brown booby, 
still in the down, but apparently heavier than their parents, were 
sitting about in considerable numbers. ‘There were also numerous breed- 
ing groups of northern Bergius’ terns, with small chicks and eggs, in 
addition to the groups previously referred to which contained young 
big enough to run about actively. 

Immediately after landing we observed several noddy terns, Anows 
stolidus (Uinneus). A shot fired at one of these caused thousands 
upon thousands of birds to take wing. We worked actively until dark, 
taking photographs and securing specimens of the several species of 
birds in different plumages, and then returned to the ship heavily ladened 
with valuable ornithological spoils. 

I could not make wp my mind to leave the reef without taking ad- 
ditional photographs. The light at the time of our arrival was very 
weak and it had faded rapidly so that I feared that many of the plates 
which we had exposed would be failures. Therefore, we stood on and 
off through the night. The current drifted us some four miles to the 
northward but we picked up the reef from the masthead at 5.30 the 
following morning. 

On the afternoon of our arrival the birds had been kept in constant 
motion by the sailors who were running about in search of turtles’ 
eggs, and by other members of our party who were looking in vain for 
insects or plants. 

Our two ornithological collectors remained on board to care for the 
material obtained the previous day, and I limited the landing party to 
the Director of the Bureau of Science, one Filipino collector, two sailors, 
and myself. 

With difficulty the sailors were convinced that it was to their interest 
to sit down and keep still. I then got an opportunity to obtain some 
very interesting photographs. There were a few red-legged boobies 
on the reef, but so far as I could see they were not breeding. A number 
of brown boobies had deposited their eggs in hollows in the sand, as 
there was no nesting material available on the island, except a little 


© 


172 - | WORCESTER. 


decayed wood laboriously. torn from the few tree trunks which had 
drifted on to reef. One enterprismg female had actually dug out 
enough punk to make a hollow in a log and had deposited her two eggs 
therein. 

Although the number of eggs laid by one ae seemed to be quite. 
uniformly two, in only one instance did I see: a brown booby caring 
for more than one young one. Photographs of the boobies could be 
taken at any desired distance. 

I found it possible to walk directly among the sooty terns.. Although 
they at first flew away from my immediate vicinity they promptly 
returned again. The nesting groups of the northern Bergius’s terns 
proved much more difficult to approach, but by the exercise of a little 
care and patience I was able to get quite satisfactory photographs of 
one such group. I had never previously known that the birds of this 
species had the power of erecting the black feathers of the head so 
as to form conspicuous crests. One of the photographs reproduced 
(Plate V, figure 1) shows clearly that this is the case. Shortly before 
10 o’clock a strong breeze sprang up from the southwest. Immediately 
every sooty tern on the island, except a few of the downy chicks, 
faced the wind which proved to be the forerunner of a heavy shower. 
When the rain was almost upon us Doctor Freer fired at a frigate bird. 
Thousands of terns took wing but instead of circling widely as they had 
previously done when alarmed, held themselves stationary in the air, 
hovering for a moment over their eggs and young, but almost im- 
mediately dropping upon them again. After the rain began to fall the 
birds which were incubating eggs refused to leave them until actually 
pushed away, pecking savagely at the hands of intruders. 

I greatly regretted the coming of this shower as I wished to secure 
more photographs showing the habits of the big booby chicks. When I 
first landed I saw a number of chicks stretched out flat on the sand 
with wings extended and heads doubled back under their necks. I thought 
at first that they were dead but found upon touching them that they were 
very much alive. I then jumped to the conclusion that they were 
trying to hide, as did the little terns, but after further observation con- 
vinced myself that they were merely sleeping. In each instance when I 
attempted to turn the camera on them at short range they woke “UP and 
hopped awkwardly away. 

As there was no sheltering vegetation of any kind the heat upon the 
reef became intense as soon as the sun got well up. The booby chicks 
promptly took advantage of the shadows cast by older birds, often coming 
up from behind and flattening themselves on the sand with their heads 
stretched under the tails, or even between the legs, of their mothers. 

As it was obviously unsafe to remain on the reeef a moment after the 
sea began to rise, we reluctantly turned our backs on one of the most 


BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. 173 


extraordinary scenes which I have ever witnessed, waded out to the edge 
of the shoal, took the boat to the steamer, and sailed for Cayilli Island, 
where we arrived the next morning shortly after daylight. 

Just before we left Maeander Reef three man-of-war birds had sud- 
denly appeared, hurrying in before the on-coming storm, and Doctor 
Freer had succeeded to our great ‘satisfaction in killing two of them. 
When discussing our good luck on board the steamer the following even: 
ing it was suggested that it only remained to find oa birds and petrels 
breeding on Cayilli! 

Just as I was going down to breakfast in the morning my son came 
running to tell me that frigate birds were hovering low over the steamer, 
and upon ascending to the upper bridge deck I discovered several in- 
dividuals within easy range. Within the next few moments I shot nine, 
of which eight were recovered. By this time we could see frigate birds 
in large numbers flying over Cavilli Island, which like Bankoran Island, 
is heavily forested. Furthermore, we saw in increasing numbers, birds 
which we at first took for petrels, and it really began to look as if the 
wish which we had expressed the night before was to be fulfilled. 

Immediately after breakfast we landed in the ship’s small boat, having 
as usual to wade for a long distance over a shoal before reaching the 
beach. On our way we shot a number of specimens of the above mentioned 
small petrel-like birds, which proved to be of the genus Micranous. No 
representative of this genus had ever previously been recorded from the 
Philippines. Comparison with specimens in the United States National 
Museum shows that this is a species closely allied to Micranous leucoca- 
pillus (Gould). It is described in this Journal as Micranous worcestert 
McGregor, sp. noy.t 

Upon arrival at the beach, Mr. McGregor, the government ornithologist, 
set off rapidly for a sand spit at the east end of the island where 
he expected to find Micranous breeding, while the rest of us went directly 
into the forest where I hoped to be able to kill some of the frigate birds 
which were flying just above the tree tops. To my amazement, I found 
countless thousands of Micranous nesting in the trees. A single cartridge, 
loaded with a small charge of dust shot, brought down seven perfect 
specimens. Sailors were sent up the trees but found most of the nests 
empty. We had arrived too late to get eggs in any numbers. An adled 
egg was, however, obtained, and we also secured several well-grown 
nestlings which were photographed at short range. The frigate birds 
had apparently finished nesting but immature birds were present in large 
numbers. 

Red-legged boobies were Fine in the trees, but we aad not see a 
single brown booby on the island. 


*This Journal, Sec. D (1911), 6 


174 WORCESTER. 


Male frigate birds, Pregata aquila (Linneus), were flying about with 
their scarlet throat pouches puffed out like children’s toy rubber baloons, 
and a photograph was secured of a fine male which came down wounded 
and kept its throat pouch partially inflated. 

Shortly before noon we returned to our steamer taking with us a 
splendid series of specimens of the frigate bird and of Micranous, and 
also a number of wood rats which were extraordinarily abundant. 

During the lunch hour we ran as near as possible to the Arena Islands 
of which there are two rising from an extensive shoal. Here we found 
two frigate birds; also a number of brown boobies nesting on the ground. 
We decided, however, that it was best to return to Cavilli Island and 
collect carefully selected specimens of frigate birds in order to complete 
a series showing fully the immature and adult plumages. 

This we were able to do. A wounded bird which fell into the sea near 
shore served to attract others in large numbers so that we could select 
our specimens at will. We also obtained a good series of immature red- 
legged boobies. These birds displayed a great interest in us both when 
we approached and when we left the island and in several mstances 
attempted to alight upon us or our boat. 

Just before dusk as we were leaving for the steamer we witnessed an 
extraordinary scene. Large numbers of red-legged boobies which had 
apparently been fishing all day began to return, bringing fish to their 
nesting mates and to their young. The frigate birds promptly formed 
a skirmish line and, singly or in pairs, attacked all comers, compelling 
them to give up their fish. Some of the boobies, possibly sophisticated 
individuals which had learned wisdom by experience, actually handed 
their fish over to the frigate birds and so escaped without much drubbing, 
but less experienced or more obstinate individuals which at first refused 
to disgorge were vigorously punished until they changed their minds and 
threw up their fish which were most adroitly caught in the air by their 
piratical enemies. In one instance two frigate birds set upon a booby, 
one of them attacking him from above and the other flying below to 
catch the fish which he dropped, and getting five out of seven. Soon the 
incoming bobbies began to arrive in flocks and the frigate birds were not 
able to set upon them all, so that many individuals got through to the 
island. Once among the trees they were left in peace. 

A trip should be made to Cavilli Island earlier in the season when 
Micranous and possibly also the frigate birds will be found mating. 

On June 23, 1911, I sailed from Manila with Governor-General Forbes 

- and others on a trip to the Calamianes Islands, Palawan, the Sulu Archi- 
pelago, and Mindanao. On the evening of June 28 we left Puerto Prin- 
cesa for Sibutu and Sitanki, and as the weather was unusually calm 
decided to go by way of Tub-bataha Reef which I had never previously 
succeeded in visiting. 


BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. 175 


Harly the following morning we reached that reef finding, near its 
exterme northern end, a low flat sandy island called Usong. It is some 
400 meters long by 150 wide. The sailing directions state that this 
island has upon it a rock 20 feet high, as well as some trees, but this 
is not the case. A boat belonging to some turtle hunters was anchored 
just off the beach and they had erected on shore a small hut thatched 
with nipa-palm leaves. Doubtless some timid navigator passing the 
reef at a distance mistook such a house for a rock. 

There was no vegetation on the island except a few plants of pursley.? 
There can never haye been any trees there as the waves evidently dash 
clear across it during violent storms. 

Brown boobies in enormous numbers were nesting in the sand. 

Near the center of the island there was a large colony of black and 
white boobies, which we at first mistook for red-legged boobies. Presently, 
however, the Governor-General called my attention to the fact that they 
were not red-legged. On the contrary their legs, feet, toes, and nails 
were of a very dark lead color. Indeed they were almost black. Their 
bills were dull yellow and the bare skin at their bases was of the color 
of that of the feet and legs. I have since identified these birds as belong- 
ing to the species Sula cyanops (Sundey.), a species not previously 

“recorded from the Philippines. 

There were numerous noddy terns, Anous stolidus (Linnaeus), on 
the island and they were nesting on the ground among the pursely plants. 
We did not find any of ‘them nesting on the bare sand. 

There were also a number of large and interesting groups of northern 
‘Bergius’s terns. The egg hunters had gathered the terns’ eggs into 
heaps preparatory to carrying them off. I compelled these misguided 
individuals to leave the birds undisturbed throughout the day, and with- 
in a short time the terns had scattered the heaps of eggs over the sand 
and were incubating as busily and contentedly as if nothing had 
happened to disturb them. — 

After gathering numerous typical eges for the collection of the Bureau 
of Science, shooting a number of fine specimens of the breeding birds, 

. and taking a series of photographs, we sailed to the south skirting 
the eastern edge of Tub-bataha Reef until the small island on Black 
Rock Reef hove in sight. Meantime we had passed near a second 
small sandy island on Tub-bataha Reef. It seemed to be covered with 
brown boobies, as was the island on Black Rock Reef. We landed on 
the latter, finding numerous nesting brown boobies and northern. Ber- 
gius’s terns, but nothing else. 


2 Portulaca oleracea I.. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fic. 


Fic. 


Fia. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


(Photographs by Worcester and Cortez.) 
PLATE I. 
Brown booby; Sula leuwcogastra (Boddaert) . 


Prate Il. 


. Female brown booby with two large chicks. Maeander Reef. 
. Brown booby with nest and egg. Bankoran Island. 


Prate Ill. 


. Nest and egg of red-legged booby, Sula piscator (Linneus). Bancoran 


Island. 


. Red-legged boobies nesting. Bankoran Island. 


Prate IV. 


. Sooty terns, Sterna fuscata (Linneus). Maeander Reef, 
2. Group of sooty terns nesting. Maeander Reef. 


PLATE V. 


. Northern Bergius’s terns, Sterna boreotis Bangs, nesting. A sooty tern 


in the foreground. Maeander Reef. 


». Eggs and young of northen Berguis’s tern. Maeander Reef. 


Pirate VI. 


. Boobies on Usong Island. Tub-bataha Reef. 
2. A group of sooty terns, chiefly immature. Boobies in the background. 


Pirate VII. 


. Young of Micranous worcesteri McGregor, sp. nov. in nest. 
2. Bankoran Island from the north. 


PLATE VIII. 


Sula cyanops (Sundey.). Usong Island, Tub-bataha Reef. 
177 


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THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
1). General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 4, August, 1911. 


HYBRIDISM AMONG BOOBIES. 


By Drawn C. WoRCESTER. 


On the morning of June 29, 1911, while observing the boobies on 
Usong Island at the northern end of Tub-bataha Reef, I saw and shot 
an extraordinarily colored individual which had every appearance of 
being a hybrid. This led me to walk the length of the island several 
times, carefully searching among the thousands of nesting birds for other 
similar individuals. I found two, and J am satisfied that there were 
no more. 

What interested me still more was to find a female Sula cyanops mated 
with a male Sila leucogastra. he latter was in full breeding plumage 
and his sex was conclusively proved by the color of his legs and feet 
and of the bare skin of his head. 

The strangely matched pair had a nest to which they promptly returned 
whenever I drove them away. It contained no eggs, but this was 
a lack which was evidently soon to be remedied! There was no possible 
doubt that the birds were mated, and it seems not improbable that the 
three hybrid individuals observed, all of which proved to be fully adult, 
may have been their offspring. - 

179 


"FON ‘TA “TOA “IOS ‘NUNOL “‘TIHg] [ Sara00g] DNOWY WSIGINAAPT : UAGSTOMOAL 


ILLUSTRATION. 


Prats I. Portion of colony of nesting boobies on Usong Island showing a fe- 
male Sula cyanops (Sundey.) mated with a male Sula leucogastra (Boddaert.) 
(Photograph by Worcester.) 

181 


"pON ‘TA “IOA “IOS “NUDOL “11H ] ['Saulg. Vag JO saovId DNIaCWAN : UILSTOVO MW 


WORCESTER : BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. ] [PHIn. JOURN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 4. 


PLATE Il. 


WORCESTER: BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. |] [PHiIn. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 4. 


[PuHIn. JourN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 4. 


Ds. ] 


S OF SEA BIR 


BREEDING PLACE 


STER: 


WORCE 


Fic. 1. 


Fia. 2. 


IV. 


PLATE 


WORCESTER: BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. ] (PHIL. JouRN. Sci., Vou. VI, No. 4. 


mS 


ese 0 


PE ene 3 ee eee 


er 


WORCESTER: BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. | [PHiIn. JOURN. Sci., Vou. VI, No. 4. 


Fic. 2. 


PLATE VI. 


WORCESTER: BREEDING PLACES OF SEA BIRDS. | [PutIn. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 4. 


Fic. 2 


PLATE VII. 


"IA St7w41da 


"FON ‘IA “I0A “IOS ‘Nuno “TIHg] : [sauig vag 40 sdovtg DNIGaGUg : ULSAOUOW 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL oF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 4, August, 1911. 


RECORD OF A PUFFINUS NEW TO PHILIPPINE WATERS AND 
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF MICRANOUS. 


By RicHarp C. McGREGoR. 


(From the Section of Collection of Natural History Specimens, Biological Labor- 
atory. Bureau of Science, Manila, P. f.) 


Puffinus chlororhynchus Gould. 

A female of this species of shearwater was captured aboard the United 
States Army transport Crook, July 30, 1910, off the Zambales coast, 
Luzon. Length, 230 millimeters; extent of wings, 960. Legs and feet 
pale bluish white, brown along the outer side; bill dark horn-brown; iris 
brown. No. 13172, Bureau of Science collection. Collected by Dean 
C. Worcester. Dr. Charles W. Richmond of the United States National. 
Museum has examined this specimen and agrees with my identification 
of it. 

Micranous worcesteri sp. nov. 


Type.—No. 7300, adult male, Bureau of Science collection. Collected 
on Cayilli Island, Sulu Sea, Philippine Islands, September 24, 1910, 
by Dean C. Worcester, R. C. McGregor, and A. Celestino. Bill black; 
tarsus and toes dark, reddish brown; nails black. Length, 355 milli- 
meters; wing, 222; tail, 120; exposed culmen, 43; bill from nostril, 31; 
tarsus, 21; middle toe with claw, 38. 

Specific characters.—This species is undoubtedly closely related to 
M. leucocapillus Gould, but it differs in having a darker, grayer tail, and 
somewhat longer toes. ” 

Immature—lLarge nestlings with rectrices not extending beyond the 
toes resemble the adult in plumage, but the forehead, crown, and nape 
are nearly pure white instead of ashy gray. 

Nest and egg—The nest of Micranous worcesteri consists of a mass 
of leaves with little or no depression for the egg, and is situated on the 
branch of a tree. A nest is about 10 centimeters in diameter. The 
only egg collected by us contained a dead chick and measures 46 by 27 

104558——2 183 


184 M’GREGOR. 


millimeters. Color dull white with a few, large spots of burnt umber 
about the larger end. 

Remarks.—As described by Worcester this species is abundant on Ca- 
villi Island during its breeding season. Several of our specimens have 
been examined by Dr. Charles W. Richmond to whom J am indebted 
for notes on the various species of the genus. The species is named 
for Mr. Dean C. Worcester through whose interest and efforts it was 
discovered. 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. WAG No. 4, August, 1911. 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS, GALEOPTERIDA. =« 


By R. W. SHUFELDT. 


(Washington, D. C.) 


(Concluded. ) 
THE SHOULDER GIRDLE. 


Comparative andtomists have observed great differences in the mor- 
phology of the shoulder girdle among the various representatives of the 
Insectivora, not finding this structure alike in any two families of the 
order. Cynocephalus has the two bones composing it, the clavicle and 
the scapula, remarkably well developed and in full proportions for the 
size of the animal. 

Making the usual articulations with the sternum and the scapula, we 
find the clavicle to be a large, strong bone. Its extremities are enlarged 
to support the articulatory facets. The shaft is stout with its continuity 
of nearly uniform caliber, and presents two curvatures. About two- 
thirds of its mesial length offers the least apparent curvature, being 
slightly and uniformly bent so as to present the concavity to the front; 
the remaining third of the bone makes a very decided curve to arrive 
at its scapular articulation. ‘This part of its shaft is somewhat antero- 
posteriorly flattened, or rather compressed, being nearly flat behind and 
concave in both directions anteriorly. In the normally articulated skele- 
ton, this curvature allows the clavicle to pass over the prominent coracoid 
process of the scapula, and brings its outer extremity in articulation 
with the external process of the two apophyses which finish off the upper 
end of the acromion process of the scapula. In one of the specimens 
from the Bureau of Science (2) the clavicle has a length of 3.6 centi- 
meters while it is only 3.4 centimeters in the Steere specimen, and 3. 
centimeters in the remaining individual (3). Therefore it averages 3.2 
centimeters in length, and is about as long as one of the thirteenth pair 
of true, or vertebral, ribs of the skeleton to which it belongs. 

It is somewhat remarkable that the scapula in some specimens of 
Cynocephalus does not fully ossify; this lack of ossification occurs in the 
so-called “blade” of the bone, (Plate II, figure 5 (1): see explanation 

185 


Or Or 


186 SHUFELDT. 


of plates), while in others it is very complete and rather thick (2, 3). 
Again, the scapula in different individuals is prone to vary in some of 
its characters, but to no greater extent than we find among a series of 
human scapule chosen from adults of the same sex and race. One of 
the skeletons sent by McGregor (2) has the scapula thoroughly ossified, 
quite perfect, and presenting all the characters of the bone as they occur 
in our subject. It is here seen to be a distinctly triangular bone with 
all its parts highly developed. 

Facing upward and inward, the glenoid cavity is rather extensive; 
the concavity is pear-shaped in outline, and the small end extends upon 
the base of the coracoid process. From the glenoid cavity to the inferior 
angle we have the external or axillary border, which here presents a 
notable departure from mammalian scapule generally in being broad 
and flat for almost its entire length to the lower point of the bone. This 
flat border is of uniform width to its termination, that is about 4 milli- 
meters, and appears as if it had been formed by bending that much 
of the blade of the bone abruptly, at a right angle toward the spine, 
thus creating a deep “infraspimous fossa,” but adding nothing to the 
ventral aspect of the bone. The vertebral or internal border is not as 
long as the axillary one, and its margin is only very slightly thickened 
for its entire length. The two borders make an angle of 30° with 
each other, and the angle thus formed, or the inferior angle of the 
scapula, is here rounded off rather than acute; the sizable bit of the 
apex, evidently formed from the usual independent center of ossification, 
has not yet united with the blade of the bone.** The superior border, 
extending from the inner base of the coracoid process to the angle 
which in anthropotomy is known as the “superior angle,” is here sharp 
and uniformly concave throughout its length. The superior angle 
is about a right angle and is rounded as in most mammalhan scapule. 
The superior border is only about one-half as long as the axillary one; 
the vertebral border stands between the two in this respect. A supra- 
scapular notch hardly exists in the superior border near the coracoid 
process; indeed, although the greatest céncavity of the border here is 
where it usually occurs, no such break in its continuity is to be dis- 
tinguished. At its narrowest part the neck of the scapula measures 
just 1 centimeter, and likewise this is the thickest part of the bone 
antero-posteriorly, it being about 0.5 centimeter just within the glenoid 
cavity. 


“This indicates that the animal was still in a subadult stage when killed. 
Complete union has taken place in the other two specimens (1 and 3) from which 
we conclude that they are more advanced in age. In the human species it is not 
until the sixteenth year that this epiphysis unites with the rest of the scapula at 
this point. 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 187 


Smooth and quite level, the subscapular fossa on the venter of the 
bone exhibits hardly any muscular ridges, the only one of any prominence 
being a mere indication of such extending from the neck to a mid-point 
on the vertebral border. Even this may be absent from some specimens. 

The coracoid process is represented by a straight, somewhat flattened 
rod of bone, that may attain a length of nearly 1.5 centimeters. It is 
extensively attached to a raised base or pedicle at the junction of its 
inner and middle thirds. This gives rise to a long and a short process, 
the first assisting in the formation of the articulation for the-humerus, 
and the inner and shorter one for ligamentous attachment. Its long- 
itudinal axis makes an angle with the long axis of the acromion process 
of about 60°, and an angle of about one-half as many degrees with the 
plane of the scapular blade. Thus it will be seen that the coracoid is 
not bifurcated as stated by Flower *° but simply produced both ways 
from its base, in the same straight line. 

Very conspicuously developed, the spine on the dorsum of the scapula 
commences superiorly or, perhaps, what may be called externally, beyond 
the glenoid cavity. Here it supports a large acromion process and a 
metacromion; this is followed by a somewhat flattened pedicle to the 
scapular neck, and from there on it becomes a thin lamina of bone which 
gradually slopes away to a point near the middle of the vertebral border. 
This osseous partition creates the supraspinous and infraspinous fosse, 

-which are thus thoroughly defined. The latter is about twice the size 
of the former, and lengthwise is bounded by the aforesaid spine on the 
one hand and by the raised axillary, described above, on the other. The 
scapula makes the usual articulations with the humerus and clavicle, and 
has attached to it, either by origin or insertion, a number of important 
muscles and ligaments. 

THE PELVIS. 


Beyond a few unimportant individual variations, the pelves (Plate 
II, figure 8; Plate IV, figure 14, and Plate V, figure 17) of the three 
specimens of Cynocephalus at hand present the same characters for 
description. On the other hand this part of the skeleton differs widely 
in its morphology among the Insectivora as a group, being long in some, 
short in others, while in such genera as Sorea, Talpa, and Chrysochloris 
a wide interval separates the pubic bones at the mesial line below, where 
they usually unite. 

When submitted to ordinary maceration in water the two ossa in- 
nominata readily part company with the sacrum and with each other. 
This happened in the case of the Steere specimen here shown in figures 
Sand 14. One of the most striking features of the pelvis in Cynocephalus 


* Osteology of the Mammalia, 253. 


188 - SHUFELDT. 


is its unusual length as compared with its width; the former being 
about 8.7 centimeters and the latter 4.3 centimeters taken opposite the 
acetabule. 

Its articular surface for the sacrum is upon the inner side of the ium 
about 1.7% centimeters from the “crest,” and covers an area of a little 
more than 1 centimeter in length. Dorsally, this area projects as an 
elongated, sharp crest; otherwise it is entirely confined to the surface 
of the ilium proper and is faintly divided into two facets, a long posterior 
or dorsal one, and a shorter oval one, parallel to and in close contact 
with it. 

Flower has stated that in “Galeopithecus” the symphysis pubis “is 
long, as in the Carnivora, and becomes ankylosed.” ** He is certainly in 
error in this statement for in all the specimens before me the symphysis 
pubis is reduced to the merest contact of the bones, the area being very 
small, and ankylosis never results. (See figure 14.) As he states, the 
symphysis is long in most Carnivora, and this can be easily verified by 
examining the pelvis of any of the Felide. 

In the articulated skeleton of Cynocephalus the preacetabular portions 
of the ilia are nearly parallel to each other and lie in a subtransverse 
plane that makes but a slight angle with the longitudinal axis of the 
lumbar and sacral vertebre. The anterior presacral portions of the ila 
are directed upward, forward, and outward; the free extremities, which 
are slightly enlarged and rounded, are about opposite the neural spines 
of the vertebre. Thus it will be observed that all the preacetabular 
portion of the pelvis affords but very slight protection to the contained 
abdominal viscera; it does afford protection to some extent laterally, 
and in conjunction with the sacrum and leading caudal vertebree, to a 
greater extent dorsally. 

It remains to say of the preacetabular part of an ilium that it is 
sigmoid in form, and for the most part subcylindrical, although exhibit- 
ing slight longitudinal flatness dorsally, mesially, and externally. This 
rod-like part of the ilium gradually expands as it comes to the acetabulum 
which it assists in forming. The latter is large, bemmg over 1 centi- 
meter in diameter, and presents all the usual mammalian characters. 
Its cotyloid notch is wide and rather deep; the cotyloid articular ring 
is well developed; while the bone at the bottom of the cavity is often 
very thin and always translucent. As usual, it is formed by the three 
pelvic bones, the ilium, the ischitum, and the pubes, the sutures among 
which have become entirely obliterated within the cotyloid cavity. In 
fact the only sutural line that persists throughout the life of the in- 
dividual among any of the three pelvic bones is the one between the 
rami of the ischium and pubes. It is very distinct in all specimens at 
hand, and probably is invariably present. (Figure 14.) 


*t Osteology of the Mammalia, 320. 


THE SKELETON IN ‘THE FLYING LEMURS. 189 


The postacetabular portion of the pelvis is triangular in outline, the 
acetabulum occupying one angle, the symphysis pubis another, and the 
remaining one being at the tuberosity of the ischium, the last two bemg 
rounded off. Upon its mesial aspect this part of the bone is uniformly 
and moderately concave throughout, and entirely unmarked by elevations 
or depressions. It encloses the very large, oval, obturator foramen, the 
larger end of which is formed by the ischiopubic rami, where its margin 
is sharp and clean cut, it being thicker and more rounded for the 
remainder of the curve of this vacuity. 

Externally the surface of the postacetabular part of the pelvis is like- 
wise smooth, with its convexity corresponding to the concavity of the 
mesial aspect. But one muscular line marks it, and that the usual one, 
halfway between the obturator foramen and the tuberosity of the ischium, 
indicating the limitations of the areas where arise certain important 
muscles of the thigh, or more exactly, of the posterior femoral and 
adjacent regions. 

The external borders bounding this postacetabular portion of the 
pelvis are rounded, smooth, and continuous for the pectineal line, con- 
tinuous and slightly thickened for the ramal line, and considerably 
thickened where formed dorsally by the ischium. The ischium presents 
two prominent tubercles just without the rami of the cotyloid cavity. 
They are separated by a shallow valley or notch, and the anterior one 
has generally been designated as the “spine of the ischium,” at least, it 
has been so-called in the human skeleton, where it affords surface tor the 
origin of the gemellus superior muscle, the gemellus inferior arising 
from the other tuberosity. These muscles among the lower mammalia 
are generally known as the gemellus anterior and gemellus posterior, 
owing to the direction of the longitudinal axis of the body. 


THE SKELETON OF THE PECTORAL LIMB. 


Both pairs of limbs in Cynocephalus are fully and powerfully devel- 
oped, and they present many points of considerable interest. In writing 
upon the subject of “the adaptive changes which take place in the seg- 
ments of the limbs proper in yarious animals,” Flower ” has said: 


In what may be considered the first stage of modification each segment of the 
limb is simply bent upon the one above it. The proximal segments (humerus 
and femur) remain unchanged in position, the dorsal surface still looking upwards, 
and the ventral surface downwards, the middle segment is bent downwards, so that 
its ventral surface faces inwards and its dorsal surface outwards; and ‘the 
joints between these segments (elbow and knee) form prominent angular pro- 
jections: 

The third segment being bent to a greater or less degree, in the opposite direc- 
tion to the middle one, retains much of its primitive position, the dorsal surface 
being directed upwards and the ends of the digits pointing outwards. The rela- 
tions of the pre-axial and post-axial borders of the limb are unchanged. No 


* Osteology of the Mammalia (1885), 365, 366. 


190 SHUFELDT. 


mammal habitually carries its limbs in this position, although the climbing 
Galeopithecus and the Sloths are not far from it. It is, however, very nearly 
the normal position of some Reptiles, especially the Tortoises, although it is 
ill adapted for anything but a very slow and clumsy mode of progression. 


In Cynocephalus the humerus makes the usual articulations with the 
scapula proximally, and the radius and ulna distally, that are seen among 
mammals generally. ‘These articulations are in all cases extensive and 
the joints very perfect anatomically. 

The left humerus of the colugo (figure 15) offers the following points 
for examination, some of which are better seen in the right humerus 
(figure 16) from the same skeleton, this being due to the different posi- 
tions in which the bones were photographed. Its characters, including 
its length and to some extent its size, vary somewhat in various 1n- 
dividuals. It is considerably shorter than the ulna or the radius; in 
man it is the longest bone of the arm. 

Viewed in its entirety, upon either its direct imner or outer aspect, 
the humerus is seen to possess for its continuity the true “sigmoid curve.” 
This curve starts at the head and terminates with the trochlear extremity. 
Ignoring the prominent ridges its shaft is for the most part subeylindrical 
in form, the principal departure being at the distal end which is ex- 
panded to support the trochlez for the bones of the antibrachium. It is 
uniformly smooth, and pierced by an oblique, nutrient foramen situated 
about 2 centimeters distad of the articular part of the head, on the 
posterior aspect. 

The very conspicuously elevated deltoid ridge with its thickened edge 
extends down the shaft, on its anterior aspect, for about one-third of its 
length. It commences at the head and slopes away rather abruptly 
distally. Its nearly straight free margin is almost parallel to the shaft’s 
long axis, its sides being smooth. On the other hand the supinator ridge 
is low, sharp, and thin, extending from the external condyle almost to a 
middle point of the shaft, following accurately the lower sigmoidal 
curvature of the latter, where it is gradually lost. 

Among mammals we rarely meet with the humerus possessing a more 
perfect head than it does in Cynocephalus, in which genus it is almost 
a complete and entirely smooth hemisphere. For the most part its 
articular surface is distinctly differentiated by its circular limiting line 
and surrounding shallow groove or neck, the major part of which is seen 
on posterior view. It reminds one of the humeral head of anthropotomy 
and surmounts the shaft in a very similar manner (figure 15). Upon 
either side of it the greater and lesser tuberosities are well developed, the 
comparatively deep bicipital grooye passing the latter down the shaft and 
the side of the deltoid ridge. 

At the distal extremity of the bone, posteriorly, the olecranon fossa 
is very deep and markedly defined. Its osseous base is thin, and may 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. — 191 


be perforated by a minute foramen. The internal and external condyles 
are large, and pitted for the origin of certain muscles upon either side. 
Above the internal condyle, anteriorly, there exists a delicate span of 
bone of no great length. It passes, as a gently curved arch from the 
condyle, obliquely toward the center of the shaft in a proximal direction 
forming the supracondyloid foramen (figure 15), which gives passage 
and protection to the median nerve and brachial artery. Where high 
division of the brachial occurs, the nerve only, as a rule, passes under it, 
but may be accompanied by the ulnar-interosseous artery. 

The distal points of the trochlea and capitellum he in the same 
horizontal plane to which the axis of the shaft is perpendicular. Hach 
constitutes a prominent tuberosity separated distally by a well-marked 
valley. Both in front and behind they rise to the same transverse line 
on the shaft, ceasing at the distal boundary of the olecranon fossa poste- 
riorly, and at the rather shallow depression intended for the ulna 
anteriorly. The smaller tuberosity is flat upon its internal aspect, while 
the capitellum for the radius is fully double the size with a roundly 
convex articular surface. The average extreme length of the humerus 
is about 10.2 centimeters. 

Judging from the material at hand it would appear that when the bones 
of the arm are normally articulated they admit of extreme flexion to a 
far greater degree than they do of extreme extension, that is, extension 
to the extent of bringing the long axis of the shaft of the humerus and 
the ulna into one and the same straight line. 

The radius is a very strong and nearly straight bone with enlarged 
extremities and subcylindrical smooth shaft. It has an average extreme 
length of 12.2 centimeters, or two centimeters greater than the humerus. 
(Plate II], figure 9.) At its proximal end, the tuberosity for the in- 
' sertion of the tendon of the biceps, is represented by a short longitudinal 
crest, terminating in a groove near which we usually discover the opening 
of a small nutrient foramen. Above the tuberosity the bone is some- 
what constricted to form the neck of the radius and the latter is sur- 
mounted by the head of the bone. The head is large, oval in outline, 
and at its summit exists the rather deep concavity for articulation with 
the capitellum of the humerus, while its marginal articulatory surfaee 
for the ulna is about 2 millimeters deep. The outer lower third, or 
more, of the shaft is flattened, forming a surface to which the distal 
fourth of the ulna is firmly attached by ligament. Anteriorly, on its 
expanded part at this extremity, we note the five conspicuous longitudinal 
grooves intended for the passage of the extensor tendons as they go to 
the hand. A sharp, peg-like, styloid process projects forward at the 
outer side of the bone, but does not extend beyond the border over which 
the extensor tendons pass. Internal to this process is a deep, elliptical, 
transverse facet for articulation with the first row of bones of the wrist 


192 SHUFELDT. 


or carpus. The interosseous space existmg between the articulated ulna 
and radius is long and narrow. From a study of the various articula- 
tions of the antibrachium it would appear that during life the power 
of pronation and supination must be somewhat limited. 

A yery considerable amount of atrophy marks the development of the 
ulna of Cynocephalus. To some slight extend this involves the head of 
the bone, but is far more evident in the shaft. (Plate III, figure 9.) 

On the whole the ulna is very straight from one extremity to the 
other, straighter distally than represented in figure 9, where some cur- 
yature is shown due to long maceration and subsequent drying. It has 
an average length of 12.1 centimeters, or is practically of the same length 
as its companion in the antibrachinm; it holds a postaxial position with 
respect to the latter in the normally articulated skeleton. Among other 
mammals, where the ulna is fully developed, it is a much longer bone 
than the radius, due principally to its extension at the elbow. ‘This is 
the case in man, in the Felide, and in many other mammals. 

In the subject here under consideration the shaft of the ulna below 
the head is considerably compressed from side to side and longitudinally 
grooved for some little distance on its radial aspect, thus giving rise to 
a sharp margin for the attachment of the interosseous membrane. From 
its coronoid process to its distal apex the shaft contracts very gradually 
and uniformly, and where the lateral flattening ceases it becomes more 
or less compressed in the opposite direction, a condition which continues 
to its distal end. On its outer surface this flatness is continuous from 
one end of the bone to the other. In human osteology this outer surface 
is described as the posterior surface of the ulna.** 

Distally, the ulna is carried finally to a very sharp apex, or point, 
which in the articulated skeleton is found just above the styloid process 
of the radius. This point, together with the lower fourth of the bone, 
is closely apphed to the shaft of the radius and is held there by a firm . 
ligamentous attachment. That it ever actually ankyloses with the radius 
is very much to be doubted, as ordinary maceration is quite sufficient to 
separate the two completely. : 

Proximally, the greater sigmoid cavity is circularly concave and not 
very wide, although withal of good size; it is overarched by the olecranon, 
which is here concave on its summit, uniformly thick from before, back- 
ward, and pretty well fills the deep olecranon fossa of the humerus when 
the limb is fully extended. There is not the slightest evidence of any 
longitudinal division of the greater sigmoid cavity by a raised central 
ridge as in man and other mammals. 

Both the lesser sigmoid cavity and the coronoid process are well deye- 
loped, the former being but very slightly concaved with its limiting 
margin sharp and circular in outline. On the radial aspect of the head 


* Gray’s Anatomy (1870), fig. 158. 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 193 


a deep notch marks the boundary between the two sigmoid cavities, while 
on the opposite side the limiting border is continuous and distinctly 
circular in outline (figure 9). It is unnecessary to add that such an 
ulna as Cynocephalus possesses takes no part in the carpal articulation. 

The bones of the arm and forearm vary among the Insectivora to a 
very marked degree; as, for example, among the hedgehogs, moles, and 
shrews; and it is said that the ulna in Macroscelides and Petrodromus 
is atrophied distally as in the colugo, but whether in these animals it 
codssifies with the radius at that end may be open to question. 

According to Flower: 

Among the insectivora, the scaphoid and lunar (in the carpus) coalesce in 
Galeopithecus, Tupaia, Centetes, Solenodon, Hrinaceus, and Gymnura, but in 
most of the other forms these bones are distinct. A distinct os centrale is found 
in all except Galeopithecus, Potamogale, Chrysochloris, and Sorea.™* 

A very careful microscopical examination of two wrists, or carpi, in 
two different specimens of the material at hand, proves beyond all question 
that this statement, in so far as Cynocephalus is concerned, is quite in- 
correct. All of the eight usual bones of the carpus are to be found in 
this animal. . They are especially well developed in the manus of Steere’s 
specimen, the one from the right pectoral limb having been very carefully 
examined by me under a high-power lens. ‘There are four bones in the 
proximal, and an equal number in the distal row. 

Commencing at the inner end of the proximal row (ulnar side) we 
find the pisiform to be represented by a rather large, elongate ossicle 
that has a facet upon its mesial aspect merging with another distally, the 
first articulating with the cuneiform, and the latter with the unciform, 
as in the Felide and probably other mammals. Cuneiform, one-third 
larger than pisiform, is of an irregular cuboidal shape, with a small facet 
for pisiform, and a larger one for unciform and semilunar, the latter 
being much concaved. 

The semilunar is larger than any three of the other carpal bones taken 
together, and is the only one of the wrist that articulates with the former. 
This it dees with its large semi-ellipsoidal facet on its proximal aspect, 
intended for the articulation at the distal end of the radius. Its outer 
extremity also has a rather large, nearly circular, facet with which the 
scaphoid articulates. Distally, the bone presents a raised, ridgelike, longi- 
tudinal articulation for the trapezium; this is separated by a deep 
eroove from a larger, central, likewise longitudinal, raised facet which 
articulates with trapezoid and os magnum. More internally it offers a 
small articular surface to the unciform. Thus it will be seen that the 
semilunar articulates with no fewer than seven hones, viz: radius, 
cuneiform. 


*% Osteology of the Mammalia (1885), 289. This authority’s description of 
the hand in the insectivores will hardly apply with accuracy to the colugo which 
is unusually large. : 


194 SHUFELDT. 


unciform, magnum, trapezoid, trapezium, and scaphoid. Scaphoid is a 
small compressed bone, but is larger than pisiform; it has but a single 
articular facet covering its entire mesial aspect that articulates with a 
similar facet on semilunar. It is connected with the trapezium by liga- 
ment only.?° 

Trapezium of the distal row is only exceeded in size by the unciform. 
It is of an irregular cuboidal shape, with articular facets for the proximal 
end of pollex metacarpal, trapezoid, and lunar. Above it, attached by 
ligament only, we find the scaphoid, while mesially it presents a small facet 
to the proximal end of index metacarpus. 

Having very nearly the same form and _size, either being parallelepipedal 
with respect to the former, the trapezoid and os magnum articulate with 
each other and both with semilunar. ‘Trapezoid also articulates with the 
metacarpus of index digit, as os magnum does with the same bone of the 
middle finger. 

Unceiform is a cube of irregular shape, the last carpal in the distal 
row on the ulnar side, that articulates with lunar, cuneiform, and the 
metacarpus of minimus digit, and the imner side of the base of the meta- 
carpus of the fourth phalanx. Its palmar process is but feebly developed. 

The manus of Cynocephalus is large in proportion to the size of the 
animal, and exhibits in its skeletal morphology the chief uses to which 
it is put, that is, being fitted to serve the purposes of climbing rather 
than of prehension. It is especially long and rather narrow, being 
armed distally with very efficient and powerfully hooked claws. It is a 
pentadactyl member with a short pollex and four elongated digits. All 
the phalanges composing these digits present the usual characters seen 
among ordinary small mammals. Their shafts are very nearly straight 
and quite cylindrical, while their distal extremities, or heads, support the 
usual double trochlee for articulation with the phalanx next beyond 
them in each instance. ‘The base of each of these long bones is larger 
than its head and also presents an articular facet, which is oval and 
concave to receive the head of the phalanx next behind it. The ungual, 
or distal, joimts are entirely different and will be described further on. 
The metacarpus consists of five bones; distally they articulate with the 
five proximal phalanges of the digits and at their other ends with the 
carpus In a manner already pointed out. Pollex metacarpal is very con- 
siderably shorter than any of the others; mdex and minimus metacarpals 


* In describing this bone as the scaphoid, the fact is known to me that among 
rodents there are many wherein the scaphoid and lunar unite to form a single 
bone; and further that a special ossicle, which has been described as occurring 
on the radical side of the wrist, is of very considerable size in Castor. It has 
also been said that in the beaver the scaphoid and lunar fuse to form one bone. 
Notwithstanding these statements it is contended here that the scaphoid is 
present in Cynocephalus, though embryology may disprove it, and two centers of 
ossification may be shown to exist in the bone here described as semilunar. 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 195 


come next in length and nearly equal each other in this respect. Medius 
and annulus metacarpals are also of equal length and larger than any of 
the other bones of this part of the hand. Pollex metacarpal is the stoutest 
of them all and is about 1.6 centimeters long; minimus is also stout and 
has a length of about 2.8 centimeters, while that of index is 5 millimeters 
shorter. The shafts of the middle and ring, or the medius and annulus, 
metacarpals are rather more slender, and each is nearly 3 centimeters long. 
These metacarpal bones are slightly curved palmad and like the phalanges, 
nearly parallel and very close to each other when the member is at rest. 
Pollex has one short (1.5 centimeters), stout phalangeal joint and an 
ungual joint; all the other digits have three each including the ungual 
joints. Index is the shortest finger, minimus next, with medius and 
annulus of about equal length. Not including the terminal joint, annulus 
has a length of about 4 centimeters. 

The ungual joints are all very much of the same form and size; the 
largest being on pollex, index, and the next two digits, the smallest on 
the little finger. Any one of them is very deep from dorsal to palmar 
border, the latter being slightly concave, and the former powerfully con- 
vex and a little jagged distally. From side to side one of these thoroughly 
ossified joints is uniformly compressed to extreme thinness, while its 
proximal border is somewhat thickened for the articular facet and for 
tendinal insertions. At the postero-dorsal angle there is a very small, 
concave, circular process for the insertion of the extensor tendon; palmad 
to this is a large concave facet divided by a median longitudinal ridge. 
This concavity is twice as deep as it is wide, and its surrounding border is 
raised above the general surface. Palmad to this again, at the postero- 
palmar angle, there is another very small process for the insertion of 
the flexor tendon, while above this, beneath the lower border of the mid- 
articular facet, are two minute foramina, side by side in the transverse 
Ime. They lead into the bone and appear to be nutrient foramina. 

The horny theca, fitting as a claw over one of these ungual joints, is 
also powerfully compressed from side to side, and in form, with its very 
sharp apex, resembles upon lateral view the upper bill of one of the 
smaller typical falcons. 

On the palmar aspect, beneath the articular joints of the metacarpals 
and phalangeal bones, we observe in the case of each digit a pair of se- 
samoids. These have the form of small compressed ellipsoids, the largest 
ones being in the proximal tier of bones, whereas in the case of the 
smaller pairs beyond, they are placed side by side in the transverse line. 

Distally, the sesamoids are very minute and may be absent in the 
index digit, between its first and second phalanx. They do not occur, 
apparently, beneath the ungual joints at all. These sesamoids occur in 
the hands and feet of other mammals, as certain carnivora, and even 
in the tendons running to the toes on the plantar aspect of the foot in man. 


196 SHUFELDT. 
THE SKELETON OF THE PELYIC LIMB. 


Proportionately, the pelvic limb of Cynocephalus is not as powerfully 
developed as is the pectoral limb, though there seem to be exceptions to 
this general rule. In Steere’s specimen, for example, the long bones of 
the posterior limbs are fully as well developed as are the corresponding 
ones in the anterior extremities. However, pes always seems to be weaker 
and somewhat smaller than manus, and this is also evidenced in the 
skeleton of these parts. 

In the matter of proportions there are very marked differences in the 
pelvic limbs of the three skeletons at hand. These differences may be 
due to the fact that they came from different species, or if from the same 
species, it may be due to differences in age or even sex. In any event 
the Steere specimen was a much bigger animal than either of the 
McGregor specimens, and one of the latter (3) is larger than the other 
(2), though the characters throughout agree. 

Two of the femora, selected as examples, show how marked these 
differences are; for instance, the right femur of the Steere skeleton has 
an extreme length of 12.3 centimeters, as compared with the extreme 
~ length of the femur in the smaller of the two individuals from the Bureaw 
of Science, which is only 11.1 centimeters. Then in the matter of actual 
size the two bones are also in proportion to this difference in length, 
the shaft of the femur in the first case being fully one-third larger than 
in the second ease. 

The description of the pelvic limb here given is from the right side 
of the skeleton in Steere’s specimen, with occasional reference to the 
other two individuals. 

The femur (Plate II, figure 6), possesses a stout, straight, cylindrical 
shaft, which is so smooth that even linea aspera is scarcely indicated 
upon it. The proximal extremity of the bone presents an elegant, smooth, 
hemispherical head, in fact so globular is it that it approaches the sphere. 
This head is marked by no pit for the ligamentum teres; its boundary 
is sharply defined in front; less so behind, where the articular surface 
encroaches slightly upon the summit of the shaft of the bone. The axis 
of the head and neck makes an obtuse angle with the axis of the shaft, 
thus bringing the head above the latter’s summit. Conspicuous and 
rough, the great trochanter curves slightly to the front, thus making the 
neck of the bone very distinct behind it and the caput femuris. Minute 
nutrient foramina may occur in this locality. On the postero-external 
aspect of the great trochanter there is a well-marked pit, the so-called 
trochanteric fossa, within which certain muscles are inserted. 

Situated internally and at the same time posteriorly, and about 1 centi- 
meter below the head, there arises the lesser trochanter, sometimes called 
the tibial trochanter. It is bluntly triangular in form, and arises from 
a substantial base. On the opposite side of the shaft, that is, on its 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 197 


external border, and rather lower, there is still another and smaller 
process, which is the third trochanter. Between these two projections 
on the posterior aspect of the bone, the shaft is very smooth and partic- 
ularly flat. No spiral line joins the greater and lesser trochanters on 
the anterior surface of the bone, while posteriorly, the trochanteric line 
is very feebly pronounced in the corresponding locality. Both these lines, 
or intertrochanteric ridges, are very noticeable in the femora of many 
other mammals, man included. 

At the distal end of the shaft the two condyles are strong and thick. 
They are almost exactly of the same size and neither one is lower on the 
shaft than the other, as is sometimes the case among mammals where the 
inner condyle is the lower of the two. 

The smooth, convex, articular surfaces seen posteriorly on these 
condyles are practically of exactly the same size, and they terminate in 
the same transverse planes, both above and below. Between them is a 
deep, sharply defined, intercondyloid notch, that terminates abruptly at 
the lowest plane of the bone and superiorly in a similar manner on a flat 
surface named in anthropotomy the popliteal space. Again, either the 
internal or external condyle exhibits upon its outer surface a distinct pit, 
or depression, wherein certain muscles arise or are inserted. One is about 
as well marked as the other, as are the tuberosities that occur, one in 
‘each case, above them. The one on the outer condyle is the outer tubero- 
sity, and the other the inner tuberosity. Anteriorly, the intercondyloid 
space is of a nearly quadrilateral outline; it is smooth, shghtly narrower 
above than below, gently concave from side to side, and roundly convex in 
the longitudinal direction with respect to the axis of the shaft. This 
surface is shown in figure 6. 

The patella is poorly developed in Cynocephalus. It may, or may not, 
be completely performed in bone, and there is reason to believe that in 
young specimens it will always be found im cartilage or at the best in 
yery elementary osseous tissue. When in bone it is not large, though 
it extends from a point opposite the center of one condyle to a point 
opposite the center of the other, being parallelogramatic in outline, with 
the long sides transverse. Anteriorly, the patella is convex from above, 
downward, and correspondingly concave posteriorly. The tendon in 
which this sesamoid is embedded, the quadriceps extensor, is very tough 
and strong and is inserted on the free anterior border of the head of the 
tibia. 

The tibia is the longest bone in the skeleton of this animal; it is, 
however, by no means the stoutest, being exceeded in this respect by both 
the humerus and the femur. Proximally the tibia has a shaft the caliber 
of which about equals that of the femoral shaft at the junction of its 
upper and middle thirds, but as we pass to the distal end this caliber 
gradually diminishes until just before arriving at the lower end of the 

Yr 


198 SHUFELDT. 


bone. The shaft, likewise, exhibits a curvature from one extremity to 
the other, the greatest amount being at its middle; the entire convexity 
is on the outer side. The shaft of the tibia in most mammals is triangular 
in section, but in Cynocephalus it is quite quadrilateral, especially where 
its caliber is at its minimum. A shallow longitudinal groove marks its 
outer aspect, being best seen along the middle third; otherwise the bone, 
or rather its continuity, is devoid of any particular characters. 

The proximal end, or what is known as the head of the bone, is expanded 
and nearly as big as the distal end of the femur. This expansion gives 
rise to two lateral eminences, the tuberosities of the tibia. They support 
superiorly the two smooth concavities with which the condyles of the 
femur articulate im life. In extent they are of about equal size, and 
between them toward the back of the bone is a low, pointed process, the 
spinous process of the tibia. A slight notch occurs in the posterior border 
bounding the tibial head which has received the name of the popliteal 
notch, and to it the posterior crucial ligament is attached. On the outer 
side of the head there occurs a flat, subcireular, articular facet intended 
for the head of the fibula. It is of no great size. Posteriorly, the 
boundary of the head somewhat overhangs or extends beyond the shaft, 
which is here broad, flat, and smooth. 

The enlarged distal end of the tibia is not more than one-half the 
bulk of the proximal extremity, and it has a form to fulfill a variety of 
purposes. Chief among these are its articulation with one of the bones 
of the metacarpus, its articulation with the fibula, for the passage of 
tendons of certain muscles, and for ligamentous attachment. At its 
inner side it is prolonged distally into a prominent process which is the 
internal malleolus. Just above this there is a deep, oblique groove, its 
lower opening being in front. In life this groove gives passage to the 
tendons of the flexer longus digitorum and the tibialis posticus muscles. 
There is a small, rough, inconspicuous facet on the outer side of this distal 
end of the bone with which the lower end of the fibula articulates. The 
extreme inferior surface of this extremity is given over entirely to a 
broad, spindle-shaped, articulate concavity which in life articulates with 
the astragalus; internally this is carried slightly up the shaft, or at least 
upon the back of this end of the bone. In front this extremity is 
conyex from side to side and very smooth; over it in life glide the extensor 
tendons. 

The fibula is very nearly as long as the tibia, being exceeded only by 
the internal malleolus of the latter. On the whole it is the most slender 
long-bone in the skeleton and, for its length, the straightest. Some 
specimens have the proximal moiety reduced to extreme slenderness 
while the head of the bone at that end, which makes a feeble articulation 
with the tibia, is always reduced to a mere semiellipsoidal nib, only a 
few millimeters long, flattened on its inner articular aspect, and convex 


SHUFELDT : SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. ] [PHin. JourN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 4. 


PLATE Ill. 


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THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 199 


on its outer. The shaft is smooth, compressed from within, outward, 
and very gradually increases in caliber toward its malleolar extremity. In 
one specimen (38) this bone is deeply and longitudinally grooved for 
the entire upper one-third of its tibial aspect. 

Bulbous in shape, its distal end forms the external malleolus, being 
obliquely truncate from above, downward, and outward; the inner surface 
is given over to the facets for articulation with the tibia and the astragalus 
of the foot. Above this is a distinct little process for ligamentous attach- 
ment. There is another, but larger, tubercle on its outer aspect. Liga- 
ments of the ankle are also attached at a few other points; in fact, the 
most important function of this bone in Cynocephalus is to assist in 
completing this very essential joint. 

Pes contains the same number of metatarsals as manus contains meta- 
carpals, and the toes the same number of phalanges as we find in the 
hand; that is, three joints in all the toes with but two in hallux. 

The study of the foot of Cynocephalus is wonderfully interesting. 
Owing to the unusual way the member has been used and ontogenetically 
evolved, it has the appearance, on first sight, of having been dislocated. 
The articulatory part of the astragalus which articulates with the tibia, 
and to some extent the bone itself, has rotated inward and to a degree 
forward, so that the longitudinal axis of this long and narrow foot makes 
a varying angle with the continuity of the shafts of the bones of the leg. 
This angle in the vertical plane may range all the way from 120° through 
a right angle to an acut@ one of 70°, according to the manner in which 
the animal holds its foot. The member possesses also a certain amount 
of motion either backward and forward, when the limb is held away 
from the body, or inward and outward, when it is brought near the latter 
and the effort is made to move the foot in those directions. 

Flower *° states, and it is true, that “The bones of the tarsus of mam- 
mals present fewer diversities of number and arrangement than those of 
the carpus.” Cynocephalus offers no exception to this rule. 

There are seven bones in the tarsus of the colugo, namely the astragalus, 
the os calcis or caleaneum, the scaphoid or navicular, the three cuneiforms 
(internal, middle, and external), and the cuboid. This enumeration does 
not take into consideration the presence of several important sesamoids 
which will be noticed farther on. 

The astragalus of all the tarsal bones is next in size to the os calcis, 
the latter being the largest bone of the foot. In man this bone receives 


* Osteology of the Mammalia, 340. Many works have been ‘examined in this 
connection, and the literature of the subject is very extensive, but it would 
appear that no author as yet has produced sufficient evidence to warrant any 
radical change in the nomenclature of the tarsal bones, or to set aside their 
homologies as they have long been given in standard treatises on anatomy. 

104558——-3 


200 SHUFELDT. 


the weight of the body in standing and walking, transmitted to it from 
the tibia, and to a very slight degree the fibula. Quadrupeds have this 
weight variously divided, while in Cynocephalus it appears that this tibio- 
tarsal joint sees its chief use as an enarthrodial articulation. Usually the 
yery irregularly-shaped astragalus is described as having a head, a neck, 
and a body, and such divisions are easily made out. When duly arti- 
culated, the head projects to the front in line with the scaphoid, the 
cuneiform bones, and the first and second toes. Anteriorly the head has a 
large, smooth, convex facet which articulates with a concavity in the 
scaphoid and a surface on the antero-superior aspect of the os calcis.** 
The latter encroaches upon the surface of the neck beneath. The neck 
is somewhat compressed from above downward (here really from side to 
side), and is wider in the opposite direction. The entire upper part of 
the body is occupied by an elegant, smooth, convex facet for articulation 
with the two bones of the leg. This articular surface is carried over upon 
the sides of the astragalus, and here the malleoli of the aforesaid bones 
articulate, as is the case with nearly allmammals. Fibula gets the smaller 
share, a little less than one-half of this articulation. Posteriorly and 
beneath we note a well-marked groove, which in life gives passage to the 
tendon of the flexor longus hallucis muscle. On the sides there are pits 
for the attachment of ligaments. At the center of the bone, on the side 
next to the os calcis in articulation, there is an irregular concavity ; this 
is on the neck, while posterior to it on the body there is an elliptical 
facet for a similar one on the caleaneum. No Muscle either arises from, 
or is inserted upon, the astragalus, and as pointed out above the astragalus 
articulates with four bones: tibia, fibula, caleaneum, and scaphoid. 

The os ealcis or caleaneum, is longer, narrower, and larger than the 
astragalus ; the latter projects just a trifle more to the front, while the 
former exceeds it in length behind. Altogether the bone is very irregular 
in form and has the tendons of a number of muscles and ligaments 
attached to it, or arising from it. Os calcis is the tarsal that forms the 
skeletal part of the heel and here we find this posterior extension to be 
a distinct semi-ellipsoidal projection, subyertically placed upon the body of 
the bone. ‘This is generally called its tuberosity, and upon it is inserted 
the tendo Achillis. Beyond it, the body of the bone is somewhat con- 
stricted and compressed from side to side. Mesially, it throws out a 
conspicuous triangular process, the upper side of which articulates with 
the under side of the neck of the astragalus. A similar, rather smaller, 


*In assigning directions, and the directions in which surfaces look or face, 
for the sake of convenience, it is assumed that the animal stands on the ground 
as do ordinary quadrupeds, otherwise it would be very difficult to appreciate 
the relations of the tarsus to the rest of the skeleton, and the most unusual posi- 
tion in which the foot is held with respect to the surface upon which the animal 
is traveling. 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 201 


apophysis, occurs on the outer aspect of the bone just posterior to the 
cuboidal articulation ; this is intended for muscular insertion. 

Anteriorly, the face of the os calcis is entirely given over to a concayo- 
conyex articular facet for the cuboid, which presents a peculiarity, in 
that it is conically hollowed on the planter border; into this fits a 
pea-like articular process on the cuboid. On the under, or planter, side 
of this the two bones are firmly lashed together by a broad tough liga- 
ment. There would appear to be some special cause for the development 
of a joint such as this, but the cause is not apparent. Internal to the 
cuboid articulation there is a small facet for the scaphoid. When the 
two tarsal bones thus far described are articulated, and we view them 
from what is really the outer side, we note that the plantar aspect of 
the neck of the astragalus is oblique and arches over a similar groove 
on the caleaneum, the two forming a foraminal passage through which 
we can look. Jn the recent state this is filled up by the calcaneo- 
astragaloid interosseous Ligament, and is present in nearly all ordinary 
mammals. y 

The cuboid in Cynocephalus is really more or less cuboidal in form; 
its posterior articular face has already been described. It is also articular 
in front where its slightly concave surface is divided by a ridge into two, 
for the fourth and fifth metatarsals. There is a strong oblique groove 
on its plantar surface, and this lodges the tendon of the peroneus 
longus muscle. On its mesial aspect the cuboid makes an extensive 
articulation with the scaphoid, and also the external cuneiform. Thus 
it articulates with four bones: caleaneum, scaphoid, and the fourth and 
fifth metatarsals. 

Os naviculare, or scaphoid, is rather larger than the cuboid and its 
posterior articulation is somewhat remarkable, for it not only articulates 
with the head of the astragalus, but on its plantar aspect on the margin 
of this articulation, it sends back a distinct process the side of which 
articulates with the os calcis, and upon which the plantar surface of 
a part of the head of the astragalus rests. This process has a notch 
on its outer side. Anteriorly; it has facets to articulate with the three 
cuneiform bones. These are all more or less cuboidal in form, differ- 
- ing a little in the matter of size, and each articulates anteriorly with 
the base of a metatarsal. The internal cuneiform is the largest and 
joins the hallux metatarsal; it extends farthest to the front; the middle 
one is the smallest, and the external one is between the two in point of size. 

The three middle metatarsals very closely resemble the correspond- 
ing bones in the hand, while in the foot a peculiarity is seen in hallux 
metatarsal in that it has a conspicuous, rounded process erected on the 
dorsal aspect of its extreme distal end. The articular surface in front 
is carried upon this, affording the joint next beyond an unusual amount 
of backward play in the vertical plane. 


202 SHUFELDT. 


The metatarsal of the little toe is almost as stout as, and considerably 
longer than, hallux metatarsal, and as in many other mammals it deve- 
lopes a process proximad that projects from the side of the foot. This 
is the tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal; in man and probably in many 
other mammals the peroneus brevis muscle is attached to it. 

The distal phalanges as well as the greatly compressed ungual joints, 
closely resemble those of manus and consequently require no special 
description. 

At the side of the foot,.a short distance back of the hallux meta- 
tarsal and apparently encased in the lateral ligaments in that locality, 
there is a large, flat, quadrilateral sesamoid. It is on the tibial side of 
the tarsus and rests, flatwise, on the scaphoid and internal cuneiform 
bones. Baur took this to be the rudimentary tarsale tibiale in which 
he was doubtless mistaken, as it is sesamoidal in all its characters.** 

Tt would appear that no special name has as yet been bestowed upon 
this bone, so it might conveniently be known as the tarsal sesamoid. 

There are other sesamoids in the sole of this foot, and they agree in all 
particulars with the corresponding ones in the hand. We see them, 
proximad, just within the tarsophalangeal articulations, a pair back of 
each jomt, and very much smaller pairs in the row of joints beyond. 
Occasionally specimens are found having a few very small sesamoids in 
the sole of pes, and in the partly cleaned skeleton the palmar surface of 
the process projecting backward from the scaphoid may easily be mistaken 
for one, as it is exposed there and has the same elliptical form. 

No tendon of any of the muscles in Cynocephalus has been found to 
ossify, nor have there been, beyond the rings of the trachea, any other 
ossifications met with in this animal. 

So much then for the osteolgy of Cynocephalus, the caguan, the 
aberrant insectivore of certain islands of the Indian Archipelago, which 
we know is certainly no lemur. 


THE HYOID ARCHES AND THE LARYNX. 


As stated above the specimens here described lacked the hyoid arches 
and the trachea. ‘This I communicated to Mr. McGregor by letter and 
in due time received the following reply from him. ; 


I have, unanswered, your letters of October last and of January of this year 
[1909.] I am glad to know that you have a paper on Galeopithecus roughed 
out and I will hope to-be on hand to see it copied and to read the proof for it. 
I regret that the specimens sent you were incomplete. They were prepared in 
the field by my assistant at a time when we had a great press of other work 
and you know what that is in a hot climate. I am fortunate in having on 
hand a pickled specimen of the lemur from Basilan, doubtless the same species 


2 Amer. Nat. (1885), 19, 349. This bone has also been discovered to exist 
in Hyraz, the duckbill, certain Rodentia, and in some of the Edentates. 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 203 


as the Bohol specimen, and I will forward the entire head and neck of this in hope 
that you may be able to dig out the hyoid from it. It has been long in formalin 


so that the bones may have softened a bit or perhaps hopelessly so, at any rate 
I think it worth while to forward in case it will complete your description. 

If you have already mailed your manuscript you can write out the hyoid 
matter and send to me with indication where to insert, ete., and I will see that 
it is properly placed in your manuscript. 

Toward the latter part of April, 1909, I received by mail the above 
mentioned head and found it to be a specimen of the kind described by 
Mr. McGregor and in a very satisfactory condition for dissection. I 
have carefully dissected the hyoidean apparatus, the larynx, and about 
an inch of the trachea (all that came with it) of this specimen. 

I have compared all the parts with the corresponding ones of a domestic 
cat as figured by Mivart, and with several other species of the Carnivora, 
bats, ete. Upon the whole it agrees pretty well with the first-named 
animal, except in the matter of the tympanohyal, and it was Flower °° 
who said: 

The hyoid [in the Insectivora] is formed generally like that of the Carnivora, 
with three complete extracranial ossifications in the anterior arch, a tranversely 
extended basihyal, and tolerably long, stout, flattened thyrohyals, sometimes anky- 
losed with the basihyal. 


The tympanohyal in Cynocephalus, if it exists at all, is very small and 
codssifies with certain bones at the base of the skull between the periotic 
and tympanic elements in the neighborhood of the stylomastoid foramen. 

Neither Dobson nor Flower, I believe, ever described the hyoid or the 
ossifications of Cynocephalus, and in fact up to the present time I have 
not met with any observations of any kind upon this part of the skeleton 
of the flying lemur. 

The specimen at hand is from a fully adult animal and probably 
ossification in the parts has gone as far as it ever goes in this species, 
though in individuals attaining an unusual age it may be carried some- 
what further. 

The anterior cornu has a length of 1.5 centimeters, and the posterior 
cornu has a length of 6 millimeters, while the average height of the laryn- 
geal box is 7 millimeters, and its width about the same, the former in- 
cluding the crinoid cartilage. 

So much of the windpipe as remained with this specimen is composed 
of vertically narrow, closely adjusted rings. These rings are not large; 
they are transversely elliptical, performed in elementary bone, and while 
thinner posteriorly they appear to unite in bone in the medio-vertical 
line; the first few superior rings certainly do. All the parts usually 
found in the larynx among the higher vertebrates are present, but it is 
only in the case of the anterior thyroid ale that firm ossification is 


2 Osteology of the Mammalia, 176. 


204 SHUFELDT. 


observed ; all the other elements remain in cartilage and these, apart from 
the cricoid, fuse more or less together. 

The hyoidean apparatus rests directly upon the top of the larynx 
and it is only the limbs of the anterior cornua, including the epihyals 
and stylohyals, that stand out independently; these project posteriorly. 
Hach thyrohyal is broadly paddle-shaped,.the blade being in front and 
directly articulating on either side with basihyal. They only connect 
with the superior cornu of the thyroid by means of cartilaginous ex- 
tensions. Parallelogramic in outline, the basihyal is nearly flat, being 
but very slightly concave from side to side posteriorly, and correspond- 
ingly convex in the same direction in front. The stylohyals are entirely 
in cartilage and rudimentary, while both the epihyals and ceratohyals 
are in hone, each being represented by extremely delicate little rods, 
making feeble articulations with each other upon either side, and with 
the basihyal anteriorly. 

It will be of interest to mention, incidently, that Cynocephalus has a 
very large thick tongue, finely serrated on the thin edge of its semi- 
circular, anterior margin. The roof of the mouth is peculiarly cor- 
rugated in curious, transverse, zigzag lines, and these being raised leave 
strong similar impressions on the sttperior surface of the tongue. This 
last may be of a post-mortem nature and may not exist during life. 


NOTES ON THE OSTEOLOGICAL MATERIAL REPRESENTING THE GALEOPTE- 
RIDZ IN THE, COLLECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL 
MUSEUM. THe” 


After the typewritten copy of this memoir had been forwarded to me 
by Mr. McGregor for revision and had received my careful reading, it 
occurred to me that the value of the memoir would be greatly enhanced 
if certain parts of it were read by such an eminent writer on mammalogy 
as Mr. Gerrit S. Miller, jr., curator of the division of mammals in 
the United States National Museum. Mr. Miller at the time was im 
Hurope, and did not return to Washington until the early part of Sep- 
tember, 1910. On the first of the followimg month I took the material 
I had deseribed, together with the typewritten manuscript to Mr. Miller 
at the Museum! and after taking up some of the points in the latter, he 
advised me to make a thorough comparison of the skeletons and skulls 
of my own collection with those of the far more extensive collection 
of the Galeopteride belonging to the United States National Museum, 
together with a series of skulls of flymg lemurs loaned him by the 
Bureau of Science. Mr. Miller informed me that all the species of these 
animals belonging to the Malayan fauna were now contained in the 
genus Galeopterus, and that the Philippine species volans was of the 
genus Cynocephalus. 

There are a number of Malayan species and perhaps subspecies, but 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 205 


the skins and osteological material of the Philippine forms were as yet 
not sufficiently extensive in the National Museum collections to differ- 
entiate them. In addition to the above-mentioned material, Mr. Miller 
placed at my disposal a particularly fine and perfect mounted skeleton 
of an unidentified Malayan form of flyimg lemur belonging to the 
National Museum. This specimen was photographed for me by Profes- 
sor T. W. Smillie, chief of the photographic division of the National 
Museum, and the reproduction of this photograph illustrates the present 
memoir as a frontispiece. It is particularly valuable as showing the 
skeleton in one of these animals with all the bones, even including the 
hyoid and trachea, normally articulated. There is listed in the following 
tables all of the osteological material (October 1, 1910) representing 
the flying lemurs in the collection of the United States National Museum, 
which I have compared and studied. The scientific name given is the 
name on the label attached to the specimen. Such information likewise 
applies to the locality, sex, and name of collector given. In some in- 
stances the condition of the specimen is added. 


Skulls of Cynocephalus from the Philippine Islands, United States National 
Museum collection. 


7 7 
nies cue Name. | Locality. | Sex, age, ete. Collector. 
i —!- —— — | ——— — oe ee — —— ~ 
144663 | 6145 | Cyanocephalus | Catagun, Min-| Adult ¢; broken, | E. A. Mearns. 
volans. danao. inc. plete. 
144662 GO46)| Ben dole se ee Basilan Island Isa- | Adult ¢__----______ Do. 
bela. | 
144660 6036 |----- (oh) ae eee CS es eee -|-----do_____--------- Do. 
144659 6034 }----— (6 Koes ee as (OS Do. 
25499) | eee coh: Pantar, Mindanao__| Not given; adult, | Not given. 
| perfect. 
144655 6027 | Cyanocephalus | Basilan Island, Isa- | Adult 2 BR. A. Mearns. 
| volans. | bela. | 
144657) 6030. do = [Bett cymes ames 8 Broken up; adultg_) 5. A. Mearns, 
| | 1906. 
144656 60285 | eee Oyeanee a= anes eee do___._--____-_-_/ Adult 9; perfect ____| E. A. Mearns. 
144658 CUES |e donee Rie ame ewe! Omens eaiee Sn) ANGI Oe Do. 
144661 | 6038 |_____ do. Reena ee Near o Hulree Ou BL Juvenile Q____---___ eae: 
| | 


Skulls of Cynocephalus from the Philippine Islands, Bureau of Science collection. 


| 


Original | Locality. | Sex, age,ete. | Collector. 


number. | Namie: 


105 LAGI (ofan a | R. C. McGregor. 

111 | Not given Do. | 
108 | Adult 9__ | Do. 

104 ANGKPNNG pote e | Do. 


flO Gy] ered pee re een eae eee] yaaa AN fa |e ove esnneiaaks | Do. 


Two skeletons of Malayan species. 


\U.S. Nat. 


SHUFELDT. 


United States National Museum. 


| Mus. Name. Locality. Sex, ete. Collector. * 
| number. | | 
ieee need CIEE Nee Wet TG | iat 
49640 | Galeoplerus sp.2 | Pulo, Bintang | AGU teO soe | (2) t 
| 154600 |-_-_= (s\oyeas Ronere er | MountSalak, Tandak _ Juvenile, complete_| O. Bryant, 1909, 
| Java Expn. 
Skulls of Malayan species, United States National Musewm. 
1S a | oa | } | 
Y Mus. ee Name. | Locality. Sex, age, etc. | Collector. 
| 122841 | 2454 | Guleopithecus —___- | Malacca Strait, ©) sty <a | W. L. Abbott. 
| G. Karimon Is- | | | 
| | ‘ | land. | 
| 144373 5089 |_---- GOES. =e a IpRbiorArches biloye===doe== sae Do. 
| Jombol. 
144872 | 5088 |_____ dpe ee pa) | CP ACTS A @T | Dw, 
| } shot holes. 
144377 5095) |---== do e=* tl 22-2 do asses rad nts la eeDos 
123085 | 2616 | Galeopithecussp.2_, 8. Sumatra, Pulo | ¥ subadult_______ | Do. | 
| Bakong. | | 
123086 | 2700 |_____ donee E. Sumatra, Pulo | Q adult; broken__| W.L. Abbott, 1903. | 
| | Penuba. 
| 123088 | Do. 
| 123087 | Do. 
|. 128069 | 2676 |__-do___.____.___ BH. Sumatra, Pulo| g adult _________ |p, 
| | Sebang. | 
| 112427 | 1000 | Galeopithecus aoris, 8S. China Sea, |----- dower ses W.L. Abbott, 1901. 
| | Pulo Aor. | 
104600 | 463 | G. gracilis _____--- Natuna Islands, | _____ (Sone ee Do. 
Sirhassen. | 
| 104447 | 154 | G. pumilus____---- | Butang Islands, | @juvenile;perfeet W.L. Abbott, 1899. | 
Pulo Adang. | 
121748 | 2285 |G. saturatus_—_-_-- Batu Islands, | ¢ adult; perfect__| W.L. Abbott, 1903. 
| | Tana Bala. : 
121749 OD |e 0 = = en jose Oe 222 eae e g adult; badly Do. 
| shot up. 
121747 2216 |____- GW seca seen |=S52=! =a @ adult; perfect __ Do. 
115605 1884 | G. volans —___-.- Rhio Areh., Pulo | Q adult; perfeet__, W. L. Abbott, 1902. 
| Bintang. 
143327 4704 | Cyanocephalus | 4. Sumatra, Pulo (2) W. L. Abbott, 1906. 
| sp.? (Galeopte- Rupat. 
| |} Tus). 
143325 4696 | Galeopterus  sp.? |----- doe===== 2 adult; good ____ Do. 
| | (Cyanocephatus.) 
| 114376 1460 | Galeopithecus | Banjak Islands, | g adult —_______ W. L. Abbott, 1902. 
| twaneus. Pulo Tuangu. 
121853 2353 | Galeopithecus sa-| Batu Islands, |_____ dose aa W.L. Abbott, 1903. 
| twratus (Galeop- | Pulo Pince. 
| terws). 
| 121854) _ 2364 |____- do _---------=:|---- do ------------|_____ does Do. 
3780 | Se UT | Galeopithecus | Singapore, Ma-| Not given _______ Explor. Exped. 
3940 | | volans. lay Peninsula. — oS 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 207 


Skulls of Malayan species, United States National Musewm—Continued. 


Mus. Original) Name. Locality. | Sex, age, ete. | Collector. 
3785 \ Sena Galeopithecws | Singapore, Ma- | Not given -_______ Explor. Exped. 
3946 volans. lay Peninsula. | 
18K Vee ae (3 (eee eee el Pee dope [ike GOj22 ee Do. 
3945 
IPAS || Galeopithecus sp.?_| Malay Peninsula, |----- (0 (0) See aera | W. L. Abbott. Pa- 
Pinie. | | tietals dented, 
| killed with 
blow. 
115493 |- 18388 | G. volans ----__-_- Rumpin R., Pa-} @ adult -__-______ Vie Te Abbott, 
hang. July, 1902. 
122888 2521 | Galeopithecus _---_ E. Sumatra, Pulo| 2 adult; mand-/| W. L. Abbott, 
Kundur. ible broken. July, 1903. 
496938 |S 2s 2&2 GAUCLanS ae E. Sumatra, Pulo | @ adult; perfect__| W.L. Abbott, 1903. 
Kundur. | 
fa ee eet Oe eeass | OTON 2) aL OLWie Ta | == Ones W.L. Abbott, 1899. 
Siam. 
844207 |S § eae eee (8\ oe eee Uae OV eee EE Cjenaee eee W. L. Abbott, 
Mar. 5, 1897. 
4107] | enone | Bean oe ee ee Glee eee | 9 young; some-| W. bL. Abbott, | 
what broken. Mar. 4, 1897. 
VEY? | SS | OOS See dojsees Fs! Sex not given;/ W. L. Abbott, 
young. Mar. 4, 1899. 
BERG eso eet (Soy a cee FN a doses eeen | g subadult _______ W. L. Abbott, | 
‘ Mar. 1, 1896. 
151887 5701 | Galeopithecus sp.2-| Pulo Sebuku ____- quadult = W.L. Abbott, 1897. 
i : | 


Skull—Taking the series as a whole (Malayan and Philippines) and 
viewing the skull from above there are a number of points of difference 
worthy of notice, and these apart from the matters of sex and age. 
On this view any Philippine Islands specimen can be distinguished at 
once from any of the Malayan forms by the character of the naso- 
maxillary arch, taken transversely from alveolar process of one side to 
the one on the opposite side and including all the region anterior to 
the orbits. In the Philippine forms this is very broad and rounded ; the 
nasals more or less lyimg in the same surface; while on transverse 
section here the line of the curve is circular. In the Malayan forms this 
region is narrower; as a rule, more acute, and the nasals more in eyi- 
dence, and raised above the general surface for their entire lengths. 
In old individuals these bones in all forms (Malayan and Philippines) 
fuse completely with the bones they articulate with in the face. 

In the Malayan forms the superior produced arches of the orbital 
peripheries are more elevated and, as a rule, much broader than they 
are in any of the Philippine forms. In all species, the orbital cavity 
is strikingly circular in outline, with the plane of its margin looking 
forward, outward, and slightly upward; its cavity, everything else being 
equal, being markedly greater in the Malayan species than it is in any 


208 SHUFELDT. 


of the specimens from the Philippine Islands, at least one-third larger 
on comparing skulls of equal size. (As 144655 9 Basilan Island and 
84420 @ Trong, Lower Siam.) This character is constant and eminent- 
ly distinguishing. 

One of the most interesting characters on this superior view of the 
skull is the variation in the extent of the area of the temporal fosse, 
and the fact as to whether or not they meet in the median line posteriorly, 
and to what extent, if they do meet. This character I have carefully 
examined in the 52 skulls at hand belonging to the National Museum 
and the Bureau of Science, and in the few skulls of my own collection. 
On any specimen the surface of one of the temporal fosse, selecting 
either side, may be more or less rough. Im all forms these areas are 
very distinctly defined, with the limiting boundary line more or less 
raised. Now in no Malayan form of flying lemur do the temporal 
fosse at all approach each other posteriorly: the interval often being 
nearly one centimeter in adult skulls of either sex. This appears to be 
the case with the young of Cynocephalus (number 144661 ¢@) and still 
‘more marked in the young of Galeopterus. ° 

Among the Philippine forms this character varies, though in none of 
them do the temporal fossz ever approach each other anywhere as closely 
as in any of the Malayan forms. 

Referring to the numbers in the above tables for the specimens and 
their localities the following are found to be the intervals between these 
fosse. In number 144663 it could not be determined as the skull is 
too much broken up. Of all the skulls from the Philippines the contact 
is most extensive in number 144655 where the internal margins of the 
fossee come in contact for one centimeter, their common borders forming 
a distinct crest, which extends posteriorly to the occipital crest. In 
numbers 123422 and 144656, where it is about equal, it is less extensive, 
* the medium crest is less pronounced and does not extend to the occipital 
crest. The contact is slightly less in number 144658. In numbers 
144657 and 144659 there is an interval of one millimeter, and in num- 
ber 144660 about two millimeters. The greatest interval is seen in skull 
number 106 where it is equal to the interval in the Steere specimen in 
my own collection, that is five millimeters; it is slightly less in number 
108, and still less in 105 and 111, the interval still being from one 
to two millimeters. As a rule, then, the approach of the temporal 
fossee, posteriorly, is likely to be far more extensive in Basilan specimens 
than in those from Bohol; in the latter they are rarely, if ever, in actual 
contact. 

Turning to the base of the cranium we find the palatal region, or roof 
of the mouth, comparatively broader and much more in front in the 
Philippine specimens than in any of the Malayan species; the tympanic 
bulle are much better developed and have thinner walls in the latter than 


THE SKELETON IN THE FLYING LEMURS. 209 


in any of the skulls from the Philippines. Posteriorly, we find that the 
form of the occipital area varies to some extent, though as a rule it is 
lower and more rounded superiorly in skulls of Cynocephalus than in 
any of the others. In the Malayan skulls it tends to become more lofty 
and oblong in outline, its width averaging nearly double its height. 

In Cynocephalus the mandible is as a rule, in specimens of the same 
age and sex, a considerably stronger and deeper bone than in any of the 
Malayan species. (Compare numbers 121749 and 168.) 

Mr. Gerrit Miller has pointed out to me the fact that the nulk teeth 
in Philippine forms (volans) more or less resemble the permanent 
teeth in any of the Malayan species. This is well seen in two skulls 
prepared for the purpose, namely, number 121854 4 (Malayan) and 
number 105 ¢ from Bohol. To compare all the dental characters would 
require too much space here. They vary in the two genera and in old age 
wear down considerably. 

Trunk skeleton—Passing to the trunk skeleton it is to be noted that 
apart from the fact that all flying lemurs possess 7 cervical vertebrae, and 
as a rule 13 dorsals, they may vary very decidedly in the number of the 
lumbar vertebrz, as the following table tends to show. 


Vertebre in Galeopteride. 


Number of vertebra. 


Specimen. rr 
Cervical.| Dorsal. | Lumbar. 


McGregor specimen in personal collection ________ 7 
No. 49640, National Museum, ad. @ ____.____-_____ 7 #13 om 
No. 154600, National Museum, juy._________________ 7 13 


“The 13th supports a pair of free ribs. 


Moreover, the characters of some of the vertebrae are different, as for 
instance, in the atlas. In Galeopterus (number 49640) this bone is 
nearly square in outline, and possesses a fairly well developed neural 
spine, situated anteriorly. here is no evidence whateyer of such a spine 
in the atlas of Cynocephalus, in which genus this vertebra is very much 
wider transversely than it is longitudinally. The transverse processes 
of the lumber vertebre in Galeopterus (number 49640) are strongly 
developed, in every case springing from the entire side of the centrum, 
and are directed outward and forward. They are much smaller in the 
Steere specimen (Cynocephalus), and in the specimens of this genus 
sent by McGregor from the Philippines they are nearly entirely absent. 
Some unimportant differences are seen in the sacral and caudal vertebrze 
of the specimens here under consideration and, everything else being 
equal, the ilia of the pelvis in Cynocephalus are longer than in the Ma- 
layan species. 


210 SHUFELDT. 


LInmbs.—The comparison of the bones of the limbs, although made 
with care, need not be entered upon to any extent in the matter of 
description. In the main the long bones are very much slenderer in 
Galeopterus (number 49640) than they are in the specimen of Cyno-. 
cephalus collected by Steere, while they vary very little in their lengths. 
This is especially well seen in the humeri and in the femora. 

In the forearm of Galeopterus the radius and ulna still remain distinct 
in the adult, though the ligamentous union is very close, and in very old 
animals it is just possible that codssification may take place distally 
between these two bones. It is fair to presume that for this character 
Owen, Huxley, and Flower examined old adult specimens of some Ma- 
layan flying lemur in the collection of the British Museum or at the Royal 
College of Surgeons and that without forcing maceration far enough to 
separate the bones, they came to the conclusion that osseous union had 
taken place between the radius and ulna distally. Mr. Gerrit Miller 
was kind enough to examine this character with me, and even went so 
far as to macerate for several days the forearms of the old Galeopterus 
and the young one in the National Museum collection, and became 
convinced of the above facts as here set forth. 

The scapule and clavicles of these two genera are quite similar, and 
in animals of the same age the differences are scarcely noticeable. 


Fie. 8. 


10. 


11. 


12. 


Fie. 13. 


14. 


16. 


Fie. 17. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


(From photographs by the author.) 
Prate III. 


Left lateral view of the pelvis of Cynocephalus, natural size, and from 
the same adult specimen which supplied the bones shown in figures 
3 to 7. The leading vertebra shown in this figure is the last or eighth 
lumbar vertebra. 


. Antero-external aspect of the left radius and ulna of Cynocephalus ; 


slightly enlarged and from the same specimen as before, figures 3 to 8. 
This figure shows the ligamentous attachment of the ulna to the radius. 
The bones are somewhat pulled apart at their proximal extremities. 

Ventral view of the first cervical (atlas) vertebra of Cynocephalus, adult, 
natural size and from the same specimen, figures 3 to 9. This is a 
direct view and the extremity of the bone that articulates with the 
skull is faced toward the top of the plate. 

Direct left lateral aspect of the second cervical (axis) vertebra of Oyno- 
cephalus. From the same specimen from which the other bones were 
obtained, figures 3 to 10. 

Direct ventral view of the five caudal vertebre of Cynocephalus (being 
the fourth to the eighth inclusive), natural size and from the same 
spécimen, figures 3 to 11. When artieulated in the skeleton the first 
three of these yertebre are between the pelvic bones, the distal extremity 
of the third being exactly opposite the posterior ischio-iliac border. 


Prats LV. 


Lumbar vertebre of Cynocephalus, being the third to the seventh inclu- 
sive and seen upon direct dorsal view. Slightly reduced and the same 
bones as those shown in figure 7 of Plate II. The seventh lumbar is 
toward the top of the plate. 

Direct ventral view of the pelvis of Cynocephalus,; slightly reduced and 
the same bone as shown in figure 8 of Plate III. The vertebra in 
front of the sacrum is the eighth lumbar. 


. Outer aspect of the left humerus of Cynocephalus, very slightly enlarged. 


At the distal end the supracondyloid foramen is partly in view. From 
Same specimen as before, figures 3 to 14. : 

Right humerus of Cynocephalus ; direct view of posterior surface, and the 
bone very slightly enlarged. From the same skeleton from which the 
the one in figure 15 was taken. 


PLATE V. 


Right lateral view of the trunk skeleton of Cynocephalus, reduced about 
one-third. Skull removed. This is from one of the skeletons sent from 
the Bureau of Science. Some of the dried ligaments have not been 
removed, especially in the cervical region. Spinal column complete. 
The skull of this specimen is shown in figure 2 of Plate I. 

211 


A ne shea 
ATMS RTOS Sy 
f 


: lop ay ray 
’ ys 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 4, August, 1911. 


ON THE HABITS OF THALASSINA ANOMALA (HERBST). 


By A. S. PEARSE.* 
(From the Zodlogical Laboratory, University of the Philippines.) 


Although Thalassina anomala, as Bate* (p. 27) says, is of particular 
interest because it “supplies a link connecting the macrurous with the 
anomurous Crustacea,” but little has been learned concerning its habits. 
Again quoting from Bate: 

“We do not know much of the habits of this animal, but many of the group 
are burrowers in the deposits beneath the seas in which they live, hence it is 
more than probable, from the matted condition in which I found the fur that 
covers many parts of the animal, that it inhabits hollow passages in the mud, 
and that the circulation of the water through the branchial chamber can not be 
very vigurous * * *.” He believed that the structure of the branchie showed 
that they were capable “of extracting oxygen from water that had been stored 
for a long period where it has not been affected by the atmosphere.” 


This peeuliar crustacean probably occurs throughout the Philippine 
Islands. Dr. L. E. Griff informs the writer that it is common in 
Oriental Negros, and it is abundant along the estuaries of Manila Bay. 
In the latter locality it is called palatak by the Tagalogs. During the 
months of May, June, and July, 1911, the writer made many observations 
on its habits and ascertained that, though Bate’s? plates of this animal 
were very inaccurate, his conjectures concerning its habits were in general 
correct. Though it may burrow “in the deposits beneath the seas,” 
along Manila Bay the mounds of earth (fig. 1) brought out at the 
opening of its burrows are found at the edges of estuaries near or above 
the usual high tide mark. 

Thalassina burrows with the first legs, the dactyls of these appendages 
being used somewhat like trowels to pull the dirt loose. The animal 
works a load free and then carries the mass before it to the mouth 
of the burrow. The load is carried in the first legs between the dactyl 
and the propodus, and it may also be supported below to some extent 
by the second legs which are held in a horizontal position. The first 
two pairs of legs form a sort of a basket which is an admirable instrument 
for sweeping all loose mnd before the animal as it moves through its 


+ Assistant Professor of Zoélogy, University of the Philippines. 

2 Bate, C. S. 1888. Report on the Crustacea Macrura dredged by H. M. 8S. 
Challenger during the years 1873-1876. Challenger (1888), 24, 27. 
; 213 


214 PEARSE. 


burrow. The loads of mud are dumped at the mouth of the hele, the 
first legs being stretched forward while the sticky mass is pushed from 
them with the second legs. Where the burrow opens above high tide mark 
the dirt often accumulates and forms a tower, like that shown in Plate J, 
which may sometimes be nearly one meter in height. 

The opening of a burrow is usually closed when it is not being used. 
On July 4, the writer while sitting within two feet of the Thalassia 
tower shown in Plate I saw its owner “close up” for the day. This 
individual had apparently been digging actively during the night, for 
a lot of fresh mud had been thrown over the side of the mound. Soon 
after 10.00 o’clock in the morning he pushed a mass of mud out to 
within about 12 millimeters of the open mouth; before 10.42 he had 
brought two similar loads, the first of which was deposited beside the 
earlier one. As he carried up the last load the whole mass of fresh mud 
was pushed up from below so that the top of the tower assumed a more 
or less rounded contour. When a Thalassina opens a burrow that 
has been plugged he does not always choose the same place and may 
leave the old exit as a blind passage; this is particularly true of burrows 
in the softer grounds that are covered by the tide (text fig. 2). On the 
other hand, holes dug in the hard clay of grassy meadows (text fig. 1) 
often go nearly straight down until they are below water level. Hvery 
burrow explored by the writer was of sufficient depth to have standing 
water in its deeper portions so that it was impossible to follow it on 
account of the rapidity with which water seeped in. 


hi] 


Ith flitolls 


We 
lip 


1 
i 


peel 
1 


Fis. 2. 


HABITS OF THALASSINA ANOMALA. DAlte 


Through the study of the structure of preserved specimens, Bate 
surmised that Thalassina was able to live in poorly aerated water, 
and its habits are such that this ability would often be of advantage. 
It possesses an adaptation that is probably for this purpose, that is, 
the branchiostegites are movable on the dorsal portion of the carapace 
by a sort of flexible hinge-joint. An individual placed in a dish will 
often move the sides of the carapace in such a manner that it resembles 
a vertebrate gasping for breath. Such movements would serve to clear 
the water quickly from the branchial chamber. 

Judging by an examination of the stomach contents of a medium ~ 
sized female captured at 11.00 in the morning of July 20 and examined 
about two hours later, Vhalassina is a vegetarian. This stomach con- 
tained a little fine silt, many bits of vegetable tissue (apparently largely 
from the stems of vascular plants), a root tip, and a small grass plant 
bearing several leayes and roots. ‘These things indicate that. the food 
came largely from the pasture land at the edge of the estuary, for 
the most careful examination failed to reveal any alge. Alge are 
always abundant in the stomachs of the fiddler crabs that dig their 
holes beside those of 7halassina and feed over the wet mud-flats during 
the day. 

The Thalassina is extremely shy. Most of its burrows are closed 
during the day, but more of them are open on rainy or cloudy days 
than when the weather is clear. When handled or placed on the ground 
this crustacean is slow moving and cautious rather than pugnaceous, 
attempting to hide or to creep away. It is apparently nocturnal or 
becomes active in the twilight, for fresh mud is usually seen at the 
mouth of burrows in the morning, rarely in the afternoon. Though 
Thalassina depends largely on its secretive habits to protect it from its 
foes, once it is in the hand of its enemy the many spines on the surface 
of the body and legs form an admirable adaptation for escape. Those 
on the body all poimt toward the anterior end and when in the grasp 
of an enemy serve to prevent the body from slipping forward but facil- 
itate movement in the opposite direction. It is surprising how hard 
it is to hold an animal that pushes your hand forward frantically with 
its legs; the spines do not allow the fingers to regain their hold easily. 
Hence Thalassina often slips to the ground and backs into the nearest 
burrow. 

The Filipinos assert that the palatak makes sounds, and they attempt 
to imitate them by making a popping noise with the tongue, similar to 
that made by the cork of a beer bottle as it is withdrawn. The writer 
has often heard such sounds when among the Thalassina burrows, and has 
produced a similar sound by rubbing that animal’s first leg along the 
curved row of spines on each side of carapace, but has never seen this 
species stridulate. 

104558 ——4 


} ae 


itis 43 


PHARSE: HABITS OF THALASSINA. | [PHin. JouRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 4. 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vols VI, No. 4, August, 1911. 


CONCERNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF FROG TADPOLES 
IN SEA WATER. 


By A. 8. PEARSE.* 
(From the Zoélogical Laboratory, University of the Philippines.) 


It has iong been believed that amphibians are unable to withstand 
salty water. Gadow * says: 

Common salt is poison to the Amphibia; even a solution of 1 per cent prevents 
the development of their larvae. Consequently seas, salt lakes, and plains 
encrusted with saline deposits act as most efficient boundaries to normal 
“spreading.” 

Some observations at Manila durmg the summer of 1911, which 
show that certain frogs live and breed along the swampy edges of 
estuaries where the water is almost as saline as that of the ocean itself, 
are of interest in this connection. 

During the month of May, the writer had occasion to spend many 
quiet hours along the edge of an estero* not far from its opening into 
Manila Bay. He was struck by the fact that frogs were often seen to 
hop about on the flats at low tide and to dodge into the crab* holes 
filled with salty water. Four of. these frogs captured on July 13 were 
all referable to the genus Rana and, though they. apparently belonged 
to a single species, it could not be determined with the literature at 
hand. They were all small, measuring respectively 35, 34, 32, and 18 
millimeters in length. 

On June 17, at 8.20 in the morning the writer observed that two 
erab holes at the edge of the estevo were filled with a wriggling mass of 
newly hatched frog tadpoles. ‘These holes had been seen to be left 
above low-tide mark with water standing in them and to be covered by 
water at high tide on each of the three days previous. On the date 
mentioned, they were submerged by the advancing tide at 8.30.in the 


* Assistant Professor of Zoblogy, University of the Philippines. 
*Gadow, H. Cambr. Nat. Hist., London (1901) 8, 72. 
* An estero is a small creek into which the tide flows. 
* Sesarma bidens (de Haan). 
219 


220 PEARSE. 


morning and the tadpoles streamed from them into the salty water; at 
9 o'clock a tadpole was seen swimming 6 meters from the hole where it 
hatched. At 2 o’clock in the afternoon, after the tide had begun to ebb, 
‘a sample of water was taken directly over the holes where the tadpoles 
had been observed in the morning. ‘This was analyzed by Mr. V. Q. 
Gana of the Bureau of Science and found to contain 18.7 parts of 
chlorine per 1000, the equivalent of 26.44 grams of sodium chloride per 
liter, or a 2.64 per cent solution. These frog tadpoles, then, apparently 
developed in crab holes that were left exposed at every low tide and 
covered by 30 and 60 centimeters of water respectively at high tide. 

On July 6 samples of water were collected from two pools, on the 
edge of the estero, both of which contained tadpoles. The dimensions 
of the first pool were about 2.5 by 2 meters. This pool was connected 
with the main estero by a narrow ditch, so that the two communicated 
at high tide. The second pool was larger, being about 10 meters square 
and though it was connected with the estero by a ditch, was not flooded 
with salt water so often because it was on a higher level. ‘The tadpoles 
taken from the first pool were nearly ready to metamorphose into frogs 
and had well-developed legs; those from the second pool had been hatched 
only two or three days. Mr. Gana’s report on the amount of chlorine 
per liter was as follows: 


Grams. 
Sample from first pool 14.851 
Sample from second pool 7.920 


The tadpoles in the former, therefore, were living in a 2.096 per cent 
solution of sodium chloride; those in the second pool in a 1.124 per cent 
solution of the same salt. 

The observations described show that amphibian tadpoles developed in 
slightly diluted sea water, containing as high as 2.096 per cent of sodium 
chloride and make it seem probable that the same thing occurred in a 
2.644 per cent solution. 


REVIEWS. 


The Biological Stations of Europe. By Charles Atwood Kofoid. United States 
Bureau. of Education Bulletin No. 4, 1910. Illustrated. Pp. x1v—360. 


This bulletin of the United States Bureau of Hducation is a most wel- 
come and opportune yolume. It forms a splendidly illustrated book of 
360 pages, conveniently arranged and indexed. Doctor Kofoid has based 
his report largely upon a personal visitation and investigation of the 
fresh water and marine biological stations of Europe and the results of 
personal knowledge are plain throughout the work. Every American 
biologist should possess and make a careful study of this book, not only 
because of the descriptions and photographs of the stations, with detailed 
plans of buildings, aquaria, and fixtures. which are presented, but also 
beeause the practical objects to be attained through biological stations 
are clearly stated. In the mind of the American public and, it is to be 
feared, in the minds of most biologists also, biological stations are con- 
sidered as educational luxuries, not as economic and scientific interests 
of the nation. If he does not look upon them as pleasant summer resorts 
for teachers and students, the biologist is still quite apt to consider that 
they should be laboratories for research in pure science. One does not 
need to be a prejudiced admirer of all things German in order to recognize 
the value of the different attitude of the middle European countries 
toward the function of biological stations; it is in Germany and Austria- 
Hungary that they are performing their most noteworthy economic work. 
Stations for the investigation of pond culture of fishes and crayfish; of 
river and lake life; of the control and biological utilization of sewage ; 
of the effect of sewage and chemical by-products upon the animals inhabit- 
ing rivers and for the active control of evils arising from these causes, 
do not lessen the scientific activities of their workers but rather increase 
~ them, by giving definite aims and purposes to the researches. 

According to Doctor Kofoid’s report, there exist in Europe 85 biological 
stations, of which 27 are located on fresh-water. The distribution is worth 
noting. Italy has 4, France and Monaco 20, Great Britain and Scan- 
dinavia 12 each, Germany and Austria-Hungary 10 each, Holland and 
Finland 3 each, Russia 7, Spain 2, Belgium and Bulgaria 1 each. The 
disparity between the number of. biological stations in Germany and 


France is superficial, for it must be remembered that Germany is largely 
Peel 


222 REVIEWS. 


the supporter and founder of that at Naples, while one of the best of the 
French stations, Villefranche, is related to, although not under, the admin- 
istrative control of the University of Kief of Russia. The geographical 
location of the seashore of Germany has turned a very considerable number 
of the biological students of Germany to the Naples station, while the 
French students have been able to seek work on their own more favored 
coast. This is indicated by the list of the attendance at Naples, which 
Dr. Kofoid gives by countries during the years of 1873 to 1909. Out of 
1,934 occupants of research tables, Germany furnishes the largest number, 
namely, 630, while France furnishes but 4. The United States is sixth 
in this list of countries. 

The report deals very clearly with the economic or applied scientific 
activities of the biological stations. One particularly valuable feature 
lies in the statements made of the objects which certain stations are 
attempting to accomplish, and the lines of investigaion which are being 
followed. 

The distribution of the fresh water stations, and their numbers in 
the various countries as compared with the marine stations, is significant 
both of the geographical location and of the economic interests of these 
countries. In France four out of 20 stations are fresh-water. In Great 
Britain but one out of 12, im Germany and Austria-Hungary, each, 
six out of 10, in Scandinavia four out of 13, in Finland two out of 3, 
and in Russia three out of 7. 

Thirty-nine of the 85 stations, may be termed independent; that is, 
they are supported either by private individuals or by societies, or by 
local societies in conjunction with private persons and are not controlled 
by the government or by a university. Nearly all of these independent 
stations receive grants of money from their respective governments but 
without being brought thereby under governmental control. It is sig- 
nificant that these independent stations on the whole, include, the finest 
of all, such as that at Naples, the Institute of Oceanography at Monaco, 
the Plymouth Marine Biological Stations, and stations of the Liverpool 
Marine Biological Committee. 

Twenty are supported by universities, generally as coordinate divisions 
of the Zodlogical departments. The development of the university 
biological stations in France is noteworthy in contrast with other HKuro- 
pean countries, for 13 are related to French universities while a four- 
teenth, that at Villefranche, is related to the Russian University of Mef. 
In Germany and Austria-Hungary but a single university possesses its 
own zodlogical station. This is no doubt to be explained by the fact that 
the governmental department of public instruction to a large extent con- 
trols and supports all of the stations of these countries. 

There are thus remaining 32 stations in Europe which are directly 
supported by governmental agencies. All of these and about half of the 


REVIEWS. 223 


first group are primarily engaged in economic biology. The short histo- 
ries of the development of each of the more important stations form a 
particularly interesting feature of Doctor Kofoid’s book, and one which 
will be greatly appreciated by his readers. 

LAWRENCE KE. GRIFFIN. 


The Racial Anatomy of the Philippine Islanders. Introducing new methods of 
anthropology and showing their application to the Filipinos, with a classifica- 
tion of human ears, and a scheme for the heredity of anatomical characters 
in man. By Robert Bennett Bean, B. S., M. D. Cloth. Illustrated. Pp. 
236. Price $2, net. Philadelphia & London: J. B. Lippincott Company, 
1910. 


The author’s thesis is admirably set forth in the preface as follows: 


“This book represents studies of the human form rather than the skeleton, 
and embodies the results of three years’ investigation of the Filipinos. A method 
of segregating types is introduced and affords a ready means of comparing dif- 
ferent groups of men. The omphalic index is established as a differential factor 
in racial anatomy, the ear form becomes an index of type, and other means of 
analyzing random samples of mankind are presented for the first time. The 
book, therefore, represents a new departure in anthropology, and the term racial 
anatomy of the living is not inappropriate as a title. Approved methods of the 
Old World have been utilized, and it is to be hoped that this contribution from 
the New World will be received with due consideration as a striving after truth. 
* *  * The object of this book is to establish definite types of man that may 
be recognized by ear form, cephalic index, nasal index, and other factors, that 
‘such types may be studied in families through several generations to establish 
their hereditary characteristics, and this is the author’s reason for the present 
publication.” ; 


The conclusions arrived at may be divided into three very distinct 
classes: I. Those relating to methods of physical anthropology;* Il. A 
new Classification of the whole human race, based upon the results of 
the new methods employed; and, III. The classification and corelation 
of the people of the Philippine Islands. 

- Cuxass I. Old methods of somatology: The cephalic index has long 
been held to be the most permanent physical characteristic of man. 
Doctor Bean throws grave doubt on this assumption, affirming that the 
manner of sleeping seriously affects the shape of the head. ‘This is parti- 
cularly true in the Orient where the Chinese sleep on porcelain beds, the 
lowland Malays on mats laid upon the floors, and the mountain peoples on 
sleeping-boards of hard wood. However, Doctor Bean uses the cephalic 
index in his work, as well as the nasal index, facial index, height, reach, 
and other anthropometric measurements in common use by somatologists. 
2. New mvthods of somatology: Two entirely new factors in the deter- 


*It is to be regretted that the author does not use the more precise term 
“somatology,” now in general use by leading anthropologists. 


yo 


224 REVIEWS. 


mination of physical type are introduced by Doctor Bean, namely, Har 
Type and The Omphalic Index. 

“Types of human ears are established for the first time, and each ear type 
is associated with a physical type of man. * * * ‘The types of ears not of 
European origin are morphologically older than the European ears. The Spanish 
population of Manila has ear types which are closely simulated by the European 
types among the Filipinos. * * * Ear type seems to be independent of pig- 
mentation to some extent, because the same type of ear is found on blond and 
brunette Europeans, on dark-skinned and light-skinned Filipinos, and on dark- 
skinned Indians and light-skinned Chinese.” 


One of the most important factors in favor of ear type as a means of 
somatological classification is that it is so little modified by natural 
selection. The Omphalic Index is described by the author as follows: 

“The position of the umbilicus in relation to the pubis and the suprasternal 
notch, although it is more variable than the two points last mentioned, is of im- 
portance in the differentiation of the species of men. * * * The index is 
found by dividing the distance of the umbilicus from the pubic spine by its 
distance from the suprasternal notch. This indicates its relative position on 
the body. If the index is high, the umbilicus is relatively near the suprasternal 
notch, but if low, it is relatively near the pubic spine. I propose the name of 
Omphalic Index for the index of the umbilicus.” 


Cuass [I]. From a study of the measurements of 2,500 white Amer- 
icans, 100 American negroes, 1,500 lowland Filipinos (chiefly Tagalog), 
and 104 Igorots of Benguet and Bontoc, together with various smaller 
numbers of published measurements of Russians, Siberians, Chinese, 
Japanese, ete., the author finds but three systematic species of the genus 
Homo. These he names Iberian, Australoid, and Primitive. The Iberi- 
an is the fundamental Huropean type, the Australoid the fundamental 
negroid type, and the Primitive the fundamental type of the Orient and 
of the Pacific peoples. But among all races, and in all countries of the 
world thus far examined, all three types are to be found in yarying 
proportions. 

“Among Europeans the other types resemble the Iberian; among negroes the 
other types resemble the Australoid; and among Orientals the other types re- 
semble the Primitive. The composition of any group of people, large or small, 
depends on the relative proportions of each type that entered into the composi- 
tion of the group, the time during which the types have been in contact, the 
conditions of feod, water, air, habits, etc., and other factors. There is no evi- 
dence that any type of man that ever existed has disappeared entirely, although 
there is evidence that the types have become somewhat modified in different parts 
of the world.” 


Cuass III. In his study of the people of the Philippines Doctor 
Bean finds the three systematic species already mentioned, and these he 
further divides into twelve varieties, viz., Iberian A, B, C, D, Primary and 


2JTn connection with this statement attention might be called to the Tasma- 
nians, as a possible exception. 


REVIEWS. 225 


Secondary Australoid, Primitive, Modified Primitive, Blend (?), and 
Adriatic. In addition to these varieties he finds four further types, 
the Cro-Magnon (?), B. B. B. (?), Australoid, and Alpine, which he 
considers are elementary species being at present developed from amal- 
gamation of various combinations of the above varieties. 

“The word Malay has been avoided purposely so far because I have been 
unable to decide to my own satisfaction what is the Malay type, if there is such 
a type. My opinion is that the Malay is a composite of the Iberian from Europe, 
the Primitive from Asia, and the Australoid from its primary center, wherever 
that may have been. * * * If the Australoid and Primitive types represent 
the original elements of the Filipinos, and the other types represent modifications 
caused by Europeans and Chinese, recent and remote, then the individuals of the 
present population are larger than the original in all physical characters. Con- 
tinued immigration, with consequent interbreeding of Americans and Chinese with 
the Filipinos, will result in further increase of size. With increase of size go in- 
erease in bodily and mental vigor. Advance on the part of the Filipinos will 
be coincident with and incident to the continuation of the amalgamation of the 
races, although better nutrition, fewer animal parasites, and improved hygiene 
may assist in the advance.” 

An appendix is added to the book giving a detailed description of 
Doctor Bean’s Homo philippinensis. Only a single specimen is described, 
and it would seem that we should await the evidence of further research 
in the Philippines, and in the Hast Indies generally, before ascribing much 
importance to this type. 

In Chapter VII, “The Relation of Morphology to Disease,” the author 
attempts to show that tuberculosis in the Philippines is confined almost 
exclusively to individuals of the Iberian type. He also holds that the 
Iberian is more susceptible to all diseases than is the Primitive. As all 
of the persons examined were from Manila, or the immediate vicinity, 
it would be interesting to have further data on this point gathered from 
other parts of the Islands. 


Though several leading anthropologists have, within recent years, ar- 
rived at conclusions similar to those of Doctor Bean with regard to the 
classification of the human race, and as to the compound nature of the 
type formerly known as Malay, yet no one, within the knowledge of the 
reviewer, has set down his conclusions so clearly and definitely as has the 
author of the book under consideration. It may safely be predicted 
that the work of Doctor Bean will give a great impetus to further inves- 
tigation along the lines suggested, and, whether his striking conclusions 
be justified or not, the result will be a distinct addition to the sum of our 
knowledge regarding the origin and development of the present existing 
peoples of the earth. It may well be that it will give us some insight 
also into what will be the future effect of the general amalgamation of 
races that is now so universally taking place. 

The typography of the book, and the illustrations, mostly from photos 
by Worcester and Martin, are excellent, although there is certain evidence 


226 REVIEWS. 


of a too hasty reading of the proof. A little care would have eliminated 
such errors as that on page 144, where Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga’s 
“Hstadismo de las Islas Filipinas” is cited as “P. Martinez makes the 
statement in his book ‘Hstadismus de Filipinas, ete.” 

In explanation of the absence of references the author says: 

“No attempt has been made to give references to the literature, because refer- 
ences haye been given already in the Philippine Journal of Science, where the 
original monographs of the author covering a part of the subject matter of this 
book have appeared from time to time during the past few years.” 

Jn conclusion, attention may be called to two recent papers * in which 
Doctor Bean gives the results of some further investigations, and sums 
up his conclusions with even greater clarity than in the book itself. 

Regardless of the effect of future investigations upon his conclusions, 
the work of Doctor Bean marks a distinct step in advance in the science 
of somatology. 

H. Orney Bryer. 


2 Am. Anthrop. (1910), 12, 220-236; Ibid. (1910), 12, 377-389. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Pirate [. 


Shore of an estuary showing a mud tower raised by a Thalassina over the mouth 
of its burrow. 
TEXT FIGURES. 


Fic. 1. Section to show the plan of a Thalassina burrow excavated July 4. 
Distance from surface of ground to bottom of burrow about 1.2 meters. 
2. Diagram showing a plan of the mouth of a Thalassina burrow excavated 
July 2; the distance from a to « was about 0.75 meter, the depth at 
the water level, 0.30 meter below the surface of the ground. a, open 
entrance; 6, closed entrance. 
217 


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Order Mo, 401, 
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By A. H. JENKs. 
110 pages. 3 maps. 154 photographic plates. 9 figures. 


An interesting study; the result of almost a year’s residence among 
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Price $1 United States currency, postpaid. 


Order No, 402, 
NEGRITOS OF ZAMBALES. 
By Witi1am Atian REED. 


62 photographie illustrations. 91 pages. 


An interesting ethnological study of the pygmy blacks of Zambales. 


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Vou. VI NOVEMBER, 1911 No. 5 


THE PHILIPPINE 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 


EDITED BY 
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VoL. VI NOVEMBER, 1911 No. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 


By H. Orney Bryer. 
(From the Division of Ethnology, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I.) 


\ 


AND 


Roy FRANKLIN BARTON." 


(From the Bureau of Education, Manila, P. I.) 


CONTENTS. 


Parr ONE.—INTRODUCTION, BY BEYER. 
The Ifugao Clans and the Former Prevalence of Head-hunting. 
The Suppression of Head-hunting by American Authority. 
The Munhiming Burial Ceremony: 
Sources of information. 
The death and burial of Battang. 
The death and burial of Kalatong. 
Parr Two.—THE BURIAL OF BAHATAN, BY BEYER. 
The Life and Death of Bahatan. 
The Bringing in of the Body. 
The Ceremonies at the House. 
The Ceremonies on the Hill. 
The Burial. 
The After-Burial Ceremonies. 
The Liu-liua. 
The Vengeance Ceremonies. 
Conclusion. 
Parr THREE.—THE BURIAL OF ALIGGYUN, BY BARTON. 
Aliguytn’s Death at Kidtigan. 
The Assembling of the People. 
The Ceremonies on the Hill. 
The Burial. 


* Supervising teacher, Kidngan, Subprovince of Ifugao. 
106713 227 


228 BEYER AND BARTON. 


PART I. INTRODUCTION. 


The religious and public ceremonies of the Ifugaos of northern Luzon 
are probably as highly developed as any such ceremonies to be found in 
the whole Malay-Polynesian area, and their religion is so closely inter- 
woven with the daily life of the people that its’ importance can scarcely 
be exaggerated. Every event of life is accompanied by its appropriate 
ceremony, and the greater the event the more elaborate the ceremony. 

The purpose of this paper is to describe the ceremonies connected with 
the burial of. beheaded bodies and the bodies of persons killed by hered- 
itary enemies, whether or not their heads be taken. With the passing 
of the custom of head-hunting, these and al! other ceremonies more or less 
directly connected with that custom will soon fall into disuse or mate- 
rially change their form. It is desirable that an accurate record of 
them be made before they become wholly matters of hearsay and valuable 
details are lost. For this reason the authors offer no apology for here 
presenting a detailed account of such of these ceremonies as have come 
under their observation. 

To understand the ceremonies clearly, some knowledge of Ifugao 
general customs is necessary. The most important facts are briefly set 
forth in the following paragraphs. 


THE IFUGAO CLANS AND THE FORMER PREVALENCE OF HEAD-HUNTING AMONG THEM. 


The Ifugao people are divided into a large number of hereditary clans, each 
of which occupies a definite clan district and has a definite name. They vary in 
population from a few hundred up to four or five thousand people each, distributed 
in from ten to a hundred or more villages. In most cases, each clan is cut 
off from those surrounding it by natural barriers such as rivers, caiions, and 
mountain ranges. The people invariably call themselves by their clan name, 
with the prefix i- (equivalent to the English preposition “of’). Thus: J- 
banauol-kami, “We are (people) of Banauol clan”; J-nagakdran-kami, “We 
are (people) of Nagakaran clan”. These clans were once wholly exogamic, as 
all members of the clan were believed to be descended from a common ancestral 
pair. Within recent years the exogamic feature has more or less broken down, 
and the whole clan organization is in the process of slow disruption. 

Among these clans the institution of head-hunting grew up, in ages past. 
Each formed a little state, politically independent of all the other clans surround- 
ing it, and making war or declaring peace with them, as it chose. In war, 
the head was regarded as a trophy, as was the scalp among the American Indians. 
The chief reason for desiring the head, was not so much the excitement of the 
actual fighting to secure it, in which only a very few people took part, as the 
fact that the possession of a head was necessary before the great head-ceremony 
(or celebration of victory) could be held. This ceremony, in which all the 
people of the clan took part, was one of the three greatest given by the Ifugaos. 
It is not the purpose of this paper to describe it, but rather the exactly opposite 
one given by the clan of the beheaded man at his burial, the munhimiaig, which 
is also one of the three greatest Ifugao ceremonies. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 229 


THE SUPPRESSION OF HEAD-HUNTING BY AMERICAN AUTHORITY. 


The first task that confronted the American government in the Ifugao 
country was the unifying of the Ifugao clans, the establishment of peace 
among them, and the suppression of head-hunting. The rapidity and 
completeness with which these objects were attained after the organi- 
zation of the Subprovince of Ifugao in September, 1908, has few parallels. 
No heads have been taken in Ifugao for more than two years past, nor 
has there been any fighting among the clans. About 450 kilometers of 
new roads and trails have been built which greatly facilitate commun- - 
ication between the various clans, and have been one of the chief factors 
in the development of the era of peaceful intercourse now in progress. 

The better features of Ifugao culture will develop rapidly under these 
conditions, while many of the older customs will become much changed 
or entirely lost. To preserve the knowledge of them for future gen- 
erations they must be studied and recorded at once. 


\ THE MUNHiMONG BURIAL CEREMONY. 


Sources of information—The writers of this paper have each resided 
for several years among the Ifugao people. The writer of this in- 
troduction witnessed, in whole or in part, four munhimung burials in the 
Central Ifugao area, and Mr. Barton one in the Kidngan Ifugao area. 
Two of these ceremonies will be described very briefly, and two in full 
detail. The other will be mentioned only. 


The sole previously published description of one of these ceremonies is that 
given by Jenks,’ who, as a member of the party of Mr. Dean C. Worcester, 
arrived at Banaue in April, 1903, just in time to witness the burial of a 
beheaded man, but not the preceding ceremonies. The description is very brief, 
but the two plates* published with it are of interest. These plates are from 
photographs taken by Mr. Worcester at that time, and show the beheaded body 
in the procession and at the tomb. The pictures are typical of the ceremonies 
witnessed by the writer, excepting’ that usually 4 men in place of 2 carry the 
body in the burial procession. The statement that only about 20 men accompanied 
the body to the tomb* indicates that the beheaded man was of low rank in the 
community. The case is very similar to the first munhiming ceremony that 
I witnessed; that of Mangili of Panangan who was killed and beheaded in an 
expedition against Kambulo clan, and was buried by Banauol clan on June 6, 
1906. He -was a serf of Tagtagon, the head chief of Banauol, who bore the ex- 
penses of the ceremony which was not very elaborate and was poorly attended. 


THE DEATH AND BURIAL OF BATTANG. 


On June 30, 1906, Battamg, an Ifugao chief of great prominence, was killed 
at his house in the village of Bokos (clan district of Banauol) by an hereditary 
enemy from the clan district of Kambulo. Conditions were rather unsettled 


* Hthnological Survey Publications, Manila (1905), 1, 182, 183. 

*Tdem, Plates CXXXV and CXXXVI. 

* There is an error in Jenks’ statement as to the number of men in this instance. 
[D. C. W.] 


230 BEYER AND BARTON. 


in Ifugao at that time and Battaig’s death created great excitement among 
the people. Nearly 5,000 persons from all parts of Central Ifugao and Western 
Ifugao attended the ceremony, and more than 1,500 men, fully decorated for 
the occasion, marched in the procession which conveyed the body to the tomb. 
This was the largest gathering of people for a similar purpose that I have 
ever witnessed in Ifugao. Through the misfortune of having exposed my last 
film a few days before the event I was unable to obtain photcgraphs. The 
procession was very elaborate and required more than an hour to pass a given 
point. From 200 to 300 men attended the vengeance ceremonies held on the 
6 successive mornings following the burial. 


THE DEATH AND BURIAL OF KALATONG. 


Kalatong of Kambulo (Plate I, fig. 1) was a man of very interesting character. 
He was born in Barlig, in the Subprovince of Bontok, and was of mixed Bontok 
and Ifugao parentage. He early won fame both as a warrior and as a diplomat, 
and married the daughter of a wealthy chief of Kambulo. As is common in 
Ifugao, he took up his residence in his wife’s village, and soon attained much 
prominence in the Kambulo clan. This excited the jealousy of the other chiefs, 
who began to plot against him. Their plot was successful and late in the year 
1905 Kalatong was imprisoned in Banaue on a charge later proved to have 
been false. When Lieutenant Jeff. D. Gallman (now Lieutenant-Governor of 
Ifugao) took charge at Banaue he carefully investigated Kalatong’s case and 
completely exonerated him. During the investigation, at which I was present, 
Kalatong made the most remarkable speech in his own defense that I have ever 
heard made by any Ifugao. He held even his enemies, who filled the room, 
spellbound. After Kalatomg’s release he attained to a power which up to that 
time no other Ifugao chief had ever possessed. He completely dominated the 
clans of Kambulo, Batéd, Talbok, and Ginihon, containing more than 12,000 
people. However, in acquiring this great influence he made many enemies, and 
some of them very bitter ones. He was a man with a very highly developed 
sense of justice, and ruled his people with tact, diplomacy, and courage, going 
alone into the most dangerous places. This eventually brought about his death, 
for he was so just in his dealings with the people and with Lieutenant Gallman 
that his enemies decided that the only way they could rid themselves of his 
rule was by killing him. In January, 1908, three men of Ginihon clan treacher- 
ously speared and beheaded Kalatomg while he was bathing in the Ginihon 
River. As Ginihon clan had been very inimical to Kambulo before they were 
conquered by Kalatong, they immediately made the latter’s death the occasion 
for a great head ceremony. However, they dared not keep the head, for fear 
that the combined vengeance of Kambulo and the powerful town of Barlig 
would wipe them out completely. They opened negotiations at once, and returned 
the head to Kambulo from whence it was brought to Banaue. The photograph 
for Plate II, fig. 1 was taken by me at Lieutenant Gallman’s house on the day 
the head was brought in. It was raining heavily and the negative is poor. 
So far as I know this is the first and only negative of a freshly-taken head ever 
made in the Mountain Province, and for that reason a print from it is here 
reproduced. A disabled foot prevented my attending the great ceremonies at 
the burial of Kalatong’s body, but they were graphically described to me after- 
wards by Lieutenant Gallman. 


The burial ceremonies on all above occasions were, with the exceptions 
noted in the text, similar to those given at the munhimung of Bahatan, 
now to be described. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. Vail 


PART II. THE BURIAL OF BAHATAN.® 


THE LIFE AND DEATH OF BAHATAN. 


Bahatan of Angadal was in early life a serf of Tanggana,* one of 
the wealthiest and most popular village chiefs of Banauol clan. When 
the first Americans came to Banaue, Bahatan found employment with 
them, and proved exceptionally faithful and intelligent. His employ- 
ment was remunerative and he was soon able to redeem the mortgaged 
rice terraces inherited from his father. He then married a well-to-do 
girl with several fields of her own, and became a substantial middle-class 
citizen. In 1907 he was enlisted in the special Ifugao police. These 
Ifugao policemen hold responsible positions, but Bahatan proved fully 
equal to the work and soon became the most trusted and capable man 
at the Banaue station. 

On March 31, 1908, Bahatan went to a village in Namulditang district 
on a matter of business connected with the roadwork then in progress. 
Having accomplished his errand before noon, he was resting under the 
house of the village chief when a man of the Lingai clan came up. 
Litgai had not then been brought under governmental control, and 
was still at war with Banauol. Moreover, the man in question had 
lost several ancestors and relatives in fights with the Banauol people. 
He at once determined to kill Bahatan. He approached him with fair 
words, drawing his blanket closely around his body to conceal his bolo, 
and offered Bahatan a-betel nut which the man from Lingai inten- 
tionally dropped upon the ground. As Bahatan stooped to pick up 
the nut the man quickly threw off his blanket and with two well- 
directed blows of his bolo severed Bahatan’s head from his body. The 
man did not stop to take the head. Before the people in the vicinity 
fully realized what had happened, he had vanished in the rwno* thicket 
surrounding the village, eventually escaping safely to Liigai. 


THE BRINGING IN OF THE BODY. 


There was great excitement and grief in Banauol when the news 
reached us. Several hundred armed warriors assembled within a few 
hours, ready to go after the body and look for a fight on the way. 
However, Lieutenant Gallman would not let them go, although he 
had some difficulty in restraining the warriors. Only the wife, mother, 


5 By H. Otley Beyer. 

*See figure on left, in Plate V. 

™ Runo, a species of large grass, common throughout the Philippines. Ifugao 
name: bildu. Scientific name: Miscanthus sinensis Andr. (Gramineae). This 
and following plant identifications were made by Elmer D. Merrill, botanist of 
the Bureau of Science, from specimens collected by the authors. 


232 BEYER AND BARTON. 


and a few near relatives of the dead man were allowed to accompany 
the detachment which was sent at once to recover the head and body. 
This object was accomplished without trouble as both had been cared 
for in the village where the killing had occurred. The party came 
back too late that night to allow me to take separate photographs of the 
head and body, or of the returning people. The picture shown in 
Plate IV, fig. 1, was taken on the following morning, after the head 
had been replaced upon the body and securely tied to the shield and 
post against which the body lay. It would have been a serious sacrilege 
to have asked for its removal then. 

During the absence of the expedition, religious ceremonies were per- 
formed in every village in Banauol where the requisite priests could 
be had. The purpose of these ceremonies was to insure success for 
the expedition, and the classes of beings principally invoked were the 
a-amud (ancestral souls) of Banauol clan and the halupe (tormentors 
and go-betweens). Thousands of the ancestral souls were called upon 
by name in the various villages, particular attention being paid to famous 
warriors and brave fighters of the past. These were counselled to aid 
those who had gone out to get the head and body, and to prevent the 
a-amud of the Lingai people from injuring them or placing obstacles 
in their path. The tormentors were urged to torment the Lingai war- 
riors with blindness and dizziness and to fill them with fear, so that 
they would not attack the rescue party. The only gifts offered the 
spirits during these ceremonies were small chickens, rice-wine (where 
it was obtainable on such short notice), betel nuts, and betel leaves. 
However, great gifts of hogs and other things were promised if the 
expedition proved successful. 

The procedure of the returning party was as follows: The body 
and head were securely bound on the dead man’s shield, which had 
been taken along for that purpose, and the whole suspended from a 
long pole borne on the shoulders of four men, two in front and two 
behind the body. Immediately in front of the pole-bearers walked 
two men, one of whom beat a sharp tattoo at regular intervals upon 
his shield with the handle of his spear, while the other played the 
bangibang.® The relatives of the deceased, except the wife and mother, 
followed in single file behind the pole-bearers. In former times a long 
line of warriors would have preceded the party, but in this case that 
service was performed by the detachment of Ifugao soldiers that aceom- 
panied it. 

* The bangibarg is a musical instrument of very hard and resonant wood which 
is beaten with a short stick also of hard wood. On a still day the sharp, clicking 
beat of this instrument can be heard miles away. It is used only in death cere- 
monies and in the ceremonies for the cure of very serious illness. (See Plate I. 
fig. 2.) 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. Las} 


The wife and mother walked beside the corpse, at times. throwing 
their arms around the bloody body and weeping violently. At other 
moments they stared into the gruesome features. of the head and cried 
out: “Bahatan! Bahatan! Come back, come thou back!® Occa- 
sionally the whole party broke forth in the Central Ifugao death-call: 
“Oh! Bahatan! Come back, come thou back, for our houses are filled 
with mourning!’?° In fact, grief was the keynote of the occasion. 
Vengeance did not become predominant until the following day. 


THE CEREMONIES AT THE HOUSE. 


A group of people of considerable numbers, among whom were 
several priests and village chiefs, were gathered at Bahatan’s. house 
when the party returned. As soon as the cries, which filled the air 
for fully twenty minutes, had quieted down, two old priests made a 
short baki (religious ceremony) in the house, sacrificing a chicken to 
the bagol (great deities) of the Sky World., Immediately upon com- 
pletion’ of this ceremony, the omen being good, the preparation of 
the body began. Everything was arranged as shown in Plate IV, fig. 1, 
in which position the body remained until, it was removed for burial 
on the third day. The body faced Lingai, the murderer’s clan district, 
and rested against the shield on which it was carried in." 

During this preparation of the body certain things were also being 
done by some of the old women: to the widow, mother, and brother 
of the deceased. The clothing and ornaments of the latter were all 
removed and they were arrayed in old, torn garments made of coarsely- 
woven bark fiber, such as are worn by the poorest serfs when working 
in the fields. (See Plate VI, fig: 1.). Rings and bands of woven 
rattan, called ryuhu, were placed upon their arms and the calves of 


°“Bahatan! Bahatan! Mabdanga-bangad- ha! pe The grief of an Ifugao wife or 
mother over the dead body of her husband or son is something that no one can 
look upon untouched. I know of no people who exhibit’ stronger family affection. 

*“Bahatan-ah! Mabdnga-bangad-ka! ta nalagidan di bale-tiu!” This death- 
ery in Central Ifugao is set up by all the people of the village at the death of any 
person, and is repeated for from ten to thirty minutes. The name of the dead 
person is of course changed in each case. 

“The wooden spear, in the picture, standing beside each of Bahaean’s arms, 
and the little carved wooden ornament suspended from his‘néck, are of particular 
interest. The wooden spears, which are really throwing javelins, are called tukdb 
and consist of a pointed bamboo'head set-in a hard wood shaft. The tukdab is 
undoubtedly the oldest form of Ifugao spear, dating from long before the in- 
troduction of metals. It is still largely used in real fichtine. The little wooden 
ornament suspended from Bahatan’s neck is called kinillo and indicates that he 
was ldéhop, that is, a brave warrior who has taken heads in his lifetime. At the 
burial of Mangili, mentioned in Part I of this paper, no kintllo was suspended 
from his neck as he had never taken a head. 


234 BEYER AND BARTON. 


their legs. Juarger bands of the same sort were also worn by the brother 
upon the crown of his head and by the women around their necks. 
Earrings made of small cross-sections of runo stalks were placed in 
their ears, and the widow also wore a necklace made of the same 
material. The faces, arms, and legs of all three were then rubbed with 
a mixture of soot and ashes, and in this condition they remained for 
the next three days. During that time they ate no food and drank 
very sparingly of water. The-widow and mother were prohibited from 
bathing for a full month after Bahatan’s death, and the brother for 
ten days after the burial. Certain articles of food were also taboo 
to them during this period. They might not mix much with other 
people nor go on long journeys from home. Neither were festivities 
of any sort to be held in the house nor participated in. For her full 
twenty-eight days of mourning, the widow continued to wear her coarse 
clothing, and also wrapped around her head (in the manner shown in 
Plate VI, fig. 3) a striped blanket.1? 

A number of the other relatives and very near friends of Bahatan 
also removed their ornaments and wore ear-rings or necklaces made 
of pieces of runo stalk. These people also ate little and did not bathe 
until after the burial. However, in their case it seems to have been 
purely a voluntary and personal matter. Continence is maintained 
among young and old throughout the clan district of the beheaded 
man during the three days between the death and burial, and by some 
of the nearer relatives during the six succeeding days. ‘This taboo is 
said to be very rigidly adhered to. 

After everything had been prepared, conditions remained practically 
unchanged during the following two days. Fifteen or twenty men, 
with their spears and shields always within easy reach, remained under 
or around the house at all times. They were relieved at frequent in- 
tervals, and there was a constant coming and going. Many people came 
simply to view the body, to get first hand information regarding the 
fight, and to learn what revenge was planned. The calling on the 
soul of the dead man never ceased. At intervals of every two or. three 
minutes, both day and night, an old woman approached the body and 
poking at the severed neck with a slender stick about 80 centimeters 
long she cried to the soul to return and avenge itself. Several old 
women relieved one another in this duty. Occasionally, an old priest 
approached and addressed the body with a long tirade to the same 
effect. Once in an hour, perhaps, the widow or mother emerged from 
the little hut where she sat, and throwing her arms around the corpse 
wept most piteously, crying to the soul to “come back! come back:”: 
or, shaking the body violently, she cried: “Wake up! Bahatan! Wake 


"Called hapi. This headdress when thus worn is called balu. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 235 


up!4* During this time, also, until the morning of the third day, 
an almost constant ceremony was held in the house. Two or three 
priests relieved one another at long intervals. I have not yet obtained 
the text of those house ceremonies and can say little about them except 
that their general purpose was to keep the soul of the dead man, the 
ancestral souls of the clan, and other friendly spirits always near 
at hand. This was probably both for present protection and in pre- 
paration for the great ceremonies to follow on the third day. 


THE CEREMONIES ON THE HILL. 


At earliest dawn on the morning of the third day a party of men 
proceeded to a small level plateau lying about 400 meters west (toward 
Lingai) and 90 meters above Bahatan’s house. They cut down the 
tall grass on a place from 60 to 90 meters across, and built a small 
grass shelter on the south side of this clearing. Around this shelter, 
and enclosing an 8-meter space in front of it, they planted a circle of 
bunches of green rwno stalks with the leaves left on. Soon after sun- 
rise five priests came, bringing with them various of the sacred ob- 
jects and paraphernalia used in religious ceremonies. Others arrived 
at intervals during the next hour until the final number of priests was 
sixteen, including all those of highest rank in Banauol clan. They 
took up their station within the runo-enclosed circle, and after the begin- 
ning of the ceremony it was taboo for any other person to step within 
that circle. 

From 8 o’clock until 10 o’clock the people began to gather for the 
great ceremony of the munhiming, until more than 2,000 were in 
the vicinity of the plateau. They came in parties of from 20 to 200 
people each, from all the clans at peace with Banauol within half a 
day’s jourhey about. The procedure in the case of each party was 
the same as that so well described by Barton in Part III of this paper, 
and I shall not give it in detail here. The men who were to take part 
in the burial procession always led, while the women and children fol- 
lowed in a group at the rear. The striped shields, the bangibarg,'* 
and the headdresses are well shown in Plates J, II, and IV. The 
white markings on the shields are painted with a mixture of lime and 
water. The white bark band of the headdress holds the blood-red 
damgla*® leaves in place. Hveryone was dressed in his or her finest 


*<Bumdngon-ka! Bahatan! Bumdngon-ka!” 

“See footnote No. 8. é 

8 Dangla is Cordyline terminalis Kunth, (Liliaceae), and is the most important 
and most used of the sacred plants of the Ifugao. Large quantities of it are 
planted on the walls of the rice terraces (See Plates’ III, VII, and VIII). These 
spots of crimson color attract every traveler’s attention, as they form the most 
striking ornament on the giant stairways of terraces that run up the mountain- 
sides almost to their very tops. 


236 | BEYER AND BARTON. 


clothing and ornaments and the parties certainly presented a striking 
appearance as they slowly wended their way into the valley. At times 
a dozen of them were in sight, coming from different directions, and 
the beating of the wooden musical instruments could be heard for 
miles. 

In Central Ifugao the parties do not go to the house of the dead 
man. unless their path leads them by it, but proceed at once to the plateau 
or hill upon which the ceremony is being held. In the present case, 
as each party approached the plateau the women and children dropped 
out and only the men who were to take part im the procession went 
on. The men trotted with a swinging dance step onto the plateau, 
playing their bangibang + rapidly, and passing once around the circle 
of runo clumps came to a halt beside it. The leader communicated 
with the priests within the circle, and they assigned him «his position 
in the procession. Upon learning this the party broke up, the members 
wandering off singly or in groups to find their assigned places. 

In the meantime, since 10 o’clock, the religious part of the ceremony 
had been in progress. Two hogs and several chickens were necessary 
for the sacrifice, and on the present occasion one of the hogs was con- 
tributed by Lieutenant Gallman and the other by myself. This was emi- 
nently proper, for Bahatan had died in our service, and, to the Ifugao, 
Lieutenant Gallman stood in the relation of his overlord. The chickens, 
rice, and other things necessary were contributed by the family of the 
deceased and by Tanggana, his former overlord. The hogs and chickens 
were placed in the little grass shelter, already referred to, to await the 
time when they would be needed. 

The first ceremony for the securing of vengeance is called muntibib. 
Two chickens were sacrificed in the ordinary manner, after a short 
religious ceremony.’ ‘Their meat was then cooked in one pot and 
some rice in another. Several pieces of the cooked meat were tied 
in various places on the roof of the little grass shelter, and others | 
were placed in a small basket which was tied in the top of one of the 
runo clumps near which the priests sat. At the foot of this clump 
five small wocden bowls were placed, and filled, one with the chicken’s 
blood, two with chicken broth, and two with the rice drink (budud). 
All of these articles were carefully watched by the priests from the 
time they were so placed until high noon, when the ceremony ended. 
This was to learn the will of an idu, or omen spirit which usually 
manifests itself in the form of a little bird called pitpit.1* If one or 
more of these birds comes to eat of the meat or drink of the liquids 


** Wooden musical instruments, see p. 232. 
* Baki, see p. 233. 
8 Prionochilus sp. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 237 


in the bowls, it is a very favorable sign. Had that occurred in this 
case, the hogs would have been sacrificed immediately in the vengeance 
ceremony and on the following night a party of warriors would haye 
started for Lingai. However, no idw appeared at the ceremony for 
Bahatan, and to make clear what really did occur it is necessary here 
to describe briefly a few of the general beliefs regarding the omen 
spirit and the significance of its appearance at the munhimung ceremony : 

Most of the omens are unfavorable, and whenever an omen spirit appears, its 
every movement is watched with anxiety. Of special significance are the direction 
of its flight and the character of its cries. If it flies slowly overhead in any 
direction away from that of the inimical clan, at the same time uttering a low 
mournful ery, it is a bad sign; but if it flies rapidly to the rear of the observers, 
uttering a sharp cry of fright, it is the worst sign of all. Hither of these things 
indicates that vengeance will not be obtained for some time to come, and that 
any war party sent out at once would surely meet with disaster. Many other 
things may be learned from the idu—but it sometimes happens that none appears 
before 12 o’clock, as was the case at Bahatan’s munhimiitg. This is not taken 
as a bad sign but merely indicates that the time is not ripe and that a series of 
vengeance ceremonies must be held on the days following the burial. 


‘THE BURIAL. 


At all munhimuty, no matter how the ceremonies on the hill turn 
out, the burial in no case is delayed—it always begins exactly at noon. 
The time is determined by the Rice Chief*® of the clan. The Rice 
Chief of Banauol is Bundinlan of the village of Ambaliu. At the 
ceremony for Bahatan he sat with the priests in the rwno-enclosed circle 
on the plateau, and shortly after 11 o’clock he removed from his 
hip-bag five little wooden pegs which he thrust in the ground in‘a 
vertical position. From watching the shadows cast by these pegs he 
was able to determine when the sun had reached the meridian. Hven 
had the day been cloudy he would have guessed the hour with great 
exactness. 

As noon approached, the men who were to take part in the proces- 
sion sought: their assigned positions, and when Bundinlan rose to an- 
nounce the hour a long line of nearly a thousand men in single file 
reached from the plateau to a point far beyond Bahatan’s house. <A 
few minutes before 12 o’clock, the priests sent eight men down to the 
house to prepare the body by tying it on a pole in the same manner in 
which it had been tied when brought home. They also sent several 
other men to open and prepare the tomb and cut the grass around it. 


The Rice Chief is called twnuinéh in Central Ifugao and munlapu in Kiéngan 
Ifugao. In the former area the position is nearly always filled by a man, in the 
latter either by a man or a woman. The Rice Chief is the astronomer and 
meteorologist of the clan, in addition to being its leader in agriculture. The 
twmtnéh of Central Ifugao haye considerable astronomical knowledge and have 
evolved an excellent calendar. . 


238 BEYER AND BARTON. 


Exactly at noon Bundinlan spoke to the priests and they all stood 
up together, shouting at the tops of their voices: “Attention! ye Deities 
of the Sky World, for we are about to bury a beheaded man!”° This 
cry was taken up and repeated throughout the whole line of waiting 
men, and they fairly made the hills ring with their shouts. Six of 
the highest ranking priests at once left the plateau and went to the 
house, from which place, after glancing at the body to see that it was 
all right, they proceeded to the head of the procession. Hach of the 
three leaders carried two spears and wore a peculiar back-basket of 
the type called 1-nab-ni-tan.21_ The three following priests each carried 
a spear and a shield. They advanced very slowly, dancing all the way 
a peculiar dance which represented a mimic fight. This was accom- 
panied by much low-voiced muttering and occasional loud cries. About 
half of the men in the procession carried shields and the other half 
bangibang. The-tattoo upon the shields and the playing of the wooden 
musical instruments was kept up all the way from the house to the tomb. 
For the greater part of the distance the body was carried about midway 
in the procession, but as they neared the tomb the men carrying it 
advanced to a position just behind the leading priests. The women, 
children, and men not taking part in the procession stood in scattered 
groups and lines on the hillsides and along the walls of the rice terraces, 
where they could get a good view of the proceedings. The wife and 
mother of the dead man were the only women in the procession. ‘They 
followed just behind the body. 

Men for whom the munhimig ceremony is performed are not buried 
in ordinary graves, but in large tombs called guigat, hollowed out in the 
mountain-side. 

These tombs are from 6 to 8 meters across and about 1 meter high. The roof 
is supported by pillars of earth or stone which are left at frequent intervals. 
There are 6 of these tombs in Banauol clan district. The opening is walled up 
with stone, and in front of each a quick-growing tree called hand’li™ is planted. 
The rate of growth of this tree is known, and it is cut off near the ground each 


time a burial is made. The people are thus easily able to tell when the last burial 
was made in that tomb. 


The distance from Bahatan’s house to the tomb where he was buried 
is about 3 kilometers, and the procession was fully an hour and a half 
in reaching its destination. When the leaders had arrived at the place, 
the procession halted and those in the rear began slowly to disperse. 


2 “<épa-gopan dakayun Bagol ad Daya, ta munhimiuig-kami!” 

1 The appearance of the priest wearing this basket is extremely grotesque. The 
basket is covered with long black needles made from fern-tree roots, and as the 
priest stoops in the dance these needles stand erect all over his back like 
the bristling quills of a porcupine. 

2 Also sometimes called twigéb. I do not know the scientific name. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 239 


About twenty of the men immediately behind the leaders advanced and 
removed their headdresses which were then strung on two short poles, 
cut from the hand ts tree at the mouth of the tomb, and stood up one on 
each side of the passage which led at a sharp angle downward into the 
tomb. ‘The body was then brought forward, removed from the shield, 
and carried into the tomb. ‘The passage was so small that those who 
entered were forced to crawl on their hands and knees. The body. was 
not wrapped in a death blanket, but was dressed only in an ordinary 
clout. It was placed in a sitting posture at one side of the tomb, facing 
Lingai, and held in position by wooden stakes cut from the hand@’ti tree 
previously referred to. After everything was prepared two men again 
walled up the mouth of the tomb. 

During all the time that the burial was taking place, and until the 
wall was almost finished, the widow, mother, and brother of the dead man 
stood at the beginning of the passage and cried out to him with loud 
voices. They alternately asked him to come back, and to avenge him- 
self. After everything was finished they quietly went home, where they 
remained in comparative seclusion during their period of mourning 
previously described. After the walling up of the mouth of the tomb 
the poles containing the headdresses were laid over it, and a tukab 
(wooden spear) stuck in the ground at right-angles to the slope. The 
people then quietly dispersed, and the munhiminy ceremony was finished. 


THE AFTER-BURIAL CEREMONIES. 


Although the munhimiung ended with the burial of the body, the 
after-burial ceremonies, while not so spectacular nor attended by so 
great a number of people, were even more curious and interesting. They 
were of two kinds yery different in character,—the /iu-liua (or ceremonial 
nights of general license) held on the three nights following the mun- 
himuig, and the vengeance ceremonies held at sunrise on the six succes- 
sive mornings following the burial. 


THE L{U-LivA. 


Before returning home, all of the men of Banauol clan who had 
marched in the burial procession took a ceremonial bath. The period of 
enforced continence was now at an end. That night in every village of 
Banauol there were little ceremonial gatherings of men and women at 
the houses of the kadatyyan (nobility). These gatherings are called 
lMiu-liua, and there are present at each from ten to forty or fifty guests. 
The people are invited by one of the nobility, who also provides sufficient 
bubud (the fermented rice-drink), betel nuts, betel leaves, and tobacco to 
last throughout the night—for the gathering does not break up until early 
dawn. The number of men and women is usually about equally divided, 
and all are young or middle-aged. mostly coming from the nobility 


240 BEYER AND BARTON. 


and middle classes. Children and old people do not attend. The gather- 
ing is held on the paved place, called daulon, underneath the house, and 
usually begins at about 8 or 9 o’clock in the evening. The host as a 
rule sits in the center beside the jar of rice-drink and the baskets or bowls 
containing the betel nuts, leaves, and tobacco. A small fire of pitch 
pine, both for light and warmth, is also built near the center. In the 
earlier part of the evening the women usually gather in a group on one 
‘side of the fire while the men sit on the other, but by midnight or after, 
when all have become warmed with the wine and the fervor of the 
songs, they mix together freely. No person is responsible for anything 
that he or she may do at a /éu-liua, and no enmities or hard feelings are 
ever retained.?* 

The principal purpose of the gathering is the singing of certain 
ceremonial songs, and this is kept up during the whole night. The 
songs are of two distinct types: the a-dpéx di gimatyany and the mun- 
liu-liua. The former are of mutual criticism on the part of the men 
and women, and the latter are of love and war. The latter are sung at 
all liu-liua ceremonies, throughout the year, and are in a curious, 
secret language utterly different from the spoken Ifugao.** 

The a-apox di gimaiyang are sung only after the munhimung ceremony, 
and never at liu-liua held on other occasions. They are in the ordimary 
spoken language and, unlike most Ifugao songs, are not sung by a 
leader and chorus but by all the men singing together in one group 
and the women in another. The following extract from one of these 
songs was obtained at the house of Kinggiigan of Pasnakan, on the 
second night after Bahatan’s burial, and will show their general 
character. It is given both in the original ** and in a free translation: 

°° The Ifugaos ordinarily have a very strict moral code, and the crime of adul- 
tery is punishable by death, but there is no doubt that formerly general license 
of every sort was permissible at a liu-liua. At the present time improper inter- 
course is very much frowned upon, and the younger married people will not 
attend a liu-liua where anything improper is liable to occur. 

** This secret language is used only in certain religious and ceremonial songs, 
such as the munhangal of the Central Ifugao priests and the munhidhid harvest 
song of the Kiéigan women. It is so different from the spoken language that I 
have listened to it for hours without being able to recognize a single word, except 
an occasional proper name. Indeed, the Ifugaos themselves have largely for- 
gotten the meaning of these words. They know the general meaning only, and 
ean not translate it word for word into the spoken language. 

» 4-apdx di Gimaiyang. 

Men. Dakyu\hi binabaii, le-le-fi-lin-um-an, isda-yu giniiga-yu hi nan payo, 
le-le-G-lin-um-an. 

WomEN. Dakywu hi linalaki, le-le-G-lin-um-an, ya isda-yu hi wangwaig di mu- 
gadiu-yu, le-le-G-lin-um-an. 

Men. Dakyu hi binabani, le-le-G-lin-um-an, ya e ipipluk hi payo di gininga-yu, 
le-le-G-lin-um-an. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 241 


A-dpoz di Gimaiyarg. 


Men. “Ye the women, le-le-ti-lin-wm-an, ye eat of the shell-fish ye have captured 
in the rice-fields le-le-w-lin-wm-an.” 

Women. “Ye the men, le-le-v-lin-wm-an, and ye eat at the river the fish ye have 
captured, le-le-a-lin-wm-an.” 

Men. “Ye the women, le-le-z-lin-wm-an, and ye cook upon the walls of the rice- 
fields the shell-fish ye have captured, /e-le-v-lin-wm-an.” 

Women. “Ye the men, le-le-vi-lin-wm-an, and (when ye go on a journey) ye eat 
your clouts upon the path, le-le-si-lin-um-an; and ye do not return to your homes, 
le-le-vi-lin-wm-an; and (because of that) your children are weeping, le-le-d-lin- 
um-an.” 

Men. “Ye the women, le-le-vi-lin-uwm-an, and ye.do not go to your sweet-potato 

_ fields, le-le-u-lin-um-an; and (because of that) your husband becomes lank and 
lean, le-le-1i-lin-um-an; because he has not eaten of the results of your planting, 
le-le-u-lin-wm-an.” 

Women. “Ye the men, le-le-v-lin-wm-an, and the meat (ye have obtained at the 
feasts ye have attended) decays in your hip-bags, le-le-u-lin-um-an; for ye forget 
to remove it when ye return to your homes, le-le-vi-lin-wm-an; and there is no 
meat-food in your houses, /e-le-ti-lin-wm-an; and a stench arises from the meat 
in your hip-bags, le-le--lin-wm-an.” 

Ktce., ete. 

These songs of mutual criticism are sung during the first half of the 
night, and the other class of songs occupy the remainder of the time. 
The attendance on the second and third nights of the Jiu-liua is not 
so large as on the first night, and is frequently composed of different 
people. Considering their character, the conduct of these ceremonies 
is very orderly. There is seldom enough of the intoxicant to produce 
much drunkenness, other than the required “joyful” feeling, and there 
are no public obscenities. In many districts of Central Ifugao these 
ceremonies are now no more than an ordinary social gathering and 
Sdngerfest. 

THE VENGEANCE CEREMONIES. ci 

The vengeance ceremonies are very different in spirit and character 
from those just described, and it was possibly to counteract their frenzied 
ferocity that the latter were invented. They are called mungamu-gaman, 
and really last for seven mornings, since the one held on the morning 
of the burial day is essentially the same in purpose as those held on the 

Women. Dakyw hi linalaki, \e-le-G-lin-um-an, ya isda-yu nan dalan di wanaax-yu. 
le-le-G-lin-um-an; ya meid idatangyu bale-yu, le-le-G-lin-um-an; ya han tumdang- 
da nan inrvbabdle-yu, le-le-G-lin-um-an. : 

Men. Dakywu hi binabaii, le-le-G-lin-um-an, ya meid idatargyu binkaan-yu, 
le-le-G-lin-um-an; ya din napigit nan ahauwa-yw le-le-G-lin-um-an; di meid di 
kanona di binkdan-yu, le-le-G-lin-um-an. 

WoMEN. Dakywu hi linalaki, lJe-le-G-lin-um-an, ya mapite de dotag hi buting-yu, 
le-le-G-lin-um-an; addi-kayu ukaton hi bale-yu, le-le-G-lin-um-an; ya meid di isda- 
yu hi baleyu, le-le-G-lin-um-an; ya humamu ham6éi di dotég hi butirg-yu, 
le-le-ti-lin-wm an. ; 

Btc., ete. 


242 BEYER AND BARTON. 


six following. ‘The true vengeance ceremony is not held until the omen 
spirit appears with the decree of fate. Should it appear with a favor- 
able decree on the morning of the burial day, vengeance will be obtained 
very soon; but if on any of the following six days, it is held that ven- 
geance will be obtained in as many months as the number of days waited. 
Should it not appear at all during these days, it is doubtful if vengeance 
will ever be obtained. 

At the vengeance ceremony for Bahatan the omen spirit appeared at 
about 7 o’clock on the third morning after the burial, and ate of the meat 
and blood. Therefore, it was held that vengeance would be obtained 
within three months. (As a matter of fact this prediction came true.) 
The ceremonies on the first and second days were the same as those 
at the munubib ** held on the morning of the burial day, except that 
the time was from sunrise to about 7.30 o’clock instead of from 10 
o’clock until noon. Also, from 50 to 100 young men were present 
who from time to time sang vengeance songs and songs addressed to 
the omen spirit asking him to come quickly. When the idu appeared 
in the form of a small bird ?* everyone remained silent until it had finished 
its meal and flitted away in the general direction of Lingai. The 
priests then all arose and shouted a few words after the departing 
spirit. The young men returned to their homes, to spread the news, 
while the priests immediately proceeded to the house of Bukahan (the 
brother of Bahatan) in the village of Dimpal, where the two hogs had 
been taken on the afternoon of the burial day. The most interesting 
ceremony of the whole series then took place, but as it is described 
in detail by Barton in Part III of this paper, I will mention it only 
briefly, putting in the few details in which the Central Ifugao ceremony 
differs from that of Kiangan Ifugao. 

‘The ceremony was addressed principally to the great deities of the Sky World 
(Ad Daya) and the Upper World (Ad. Kabunian), who are the gods of war and 
fighting. The most important of these deities are: Manahaut (the Deceiver), 
Amalgo (the chief of the Sun Gods), Ambulan (the chief of the Moon Gods), 
Lubog, Pawit, Halangob, Amtalu, Amtilég, etc. Various of the priests were 
possessed by these deities. Amalgo speared the pig and Ambulan threw himself 
upon it, drinking the spurting blood until he was pulled away. Several of the 
priests seized handfuls of the blood and smeared themselves from head to foot. 
The pig was still living, but was soon killed in the ordinary manner by piercing 
its heart with a sharpened stick (the wiwik).* After the hair had been burned 


off, the body was cut up with secant ceremony and a small portion cooked. The 
meat was divided among the priests and the near relatives of Bahatan. 


78 Where the chicken meat, blood, broth, and rice-wine were prepared for the 
coming of the idu. 

7 Pit-pit, see p. 236. 

* This is apparently not the custom in Kidngan Ifugao, as there the spear is 
thrust through the pig’s heart, killing it immediately. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 243 


‘(One hog.was killed im the forenoon and: ‘the. other in the afternoon 
_of:the third day. On:that same afternoon a large shallow pit, about 
3 meters square and 1 meter deep, was dug on the plateau where. the 
ceremonies of, the. previous’ mornings had been held. ‘The ceremonies 
of the fourth, fifth, and sixth mornings took place around this pit, 
and were all alike. From two to three hundred young and middle-aged 
warriors with spears and shields danced a mimic battle and sang songs 
of -vengeance :from sunrise until about 7 o’clock.. At the same time 
two old priests ‘sat in’ the center of the pit, where a small fire was 
built, and performed a religious ceremony over some of the meat of 
the hogs killed on the third day. The warriors danced and sang ‘them- 
selves into a. frenzy disquieting to look upon. Some women and-children 
who had gone up to the plateau on the fourth morning ran. away in 
fright when the dance reached its height. After this ceremony the 
men returned home dhoweuls ial) exhausted and did little or no work on 
that ey 


* CONCLUSION. 


The completion of the vengeance ceremonies likewise completes the 
observances connected with the munhiminy burial. The people believe 
that the souls of men buried by this ceremony lead most unhappy 
lives. They are forced to wander about, for a time at least, among the 
war gods and great evil deities of the Sky World (Ad Daya) and the 
Upper World (Ad Kabinian). It is far from being an honor to have 
one’s head taken. In fact, to the Ifugao, it is the greatest of all mis- 
fortunes. ' 
PART II. THE BURIAL OF ALIGUYUN.?° 


ALIGUYUN’S DEATH AT KIANGAN. 


Aligtyun, of the district of Nagakaran in Kiangan Ifugao, was a 
soldier in the constabulary company stationed at Kidigan. He was 
killed while on duty, May 2, 1910, by a prisoner in the guardhouse 
who had secretly obtained a weapon. This prisoner had determined 
to escape and would have killed anyone who barred his way had he 
not been immediately shot by one of the other soldiers. 

The killing of Aligiyun was therefore not done. for revenge; in, 
fact, his murderer probably did not know who he was nor where he 
was from. However, it so happened, that the prisoner himself was 
from the district of Kurfig, which is about 10 or 12 kilometers distant 
from Nagakaran, the home of Aligtyun. Old feuds existed between 
nearly all the clans in this area, and Nagakaran and Kurtig were not 
exceptions. : 

Since the suppression of head- ae in Ifugao, it has neeane a 


* By Roy Franklin Barton. 


244 BEYER AND BARTON. 


general custom to accord the munhimiung burial to all persons killed 
by members of inimical clans, and this custom was followed in the 
case of Aligiyun. I witnessed only the ceremonies of the third day, 
and the following narrative of the events of that day was written shortly 
after their occurrence.*° 


THE ASSEMBLING OF THE PEOPLE. 


On the third day after Aligiyun was killed, the principal funeral 
ceremonies took place. To these ceremonies came a number of people 
from their rancherias,** the party of each rancheria being led by relatives 
of the dead man—some of them very distant relatives. 

Nagakaran, the rancheria of Aliguyun, was until quite recently very 
unfriendly to Kiangan, where I live. However, Aligiyun had some 
kin in Kiangan and these, together with their friends, went to the 
funeral. Their shields, as well as the shields of all who attended, 
were painted with white markings, some taking the conventional form 
of men, some of lizards, and some were zigzag. (Plates I and II, fig. 
2.) Each man who attended had a headdress made of the leaf petiole 
of the betel-nut tree and the red leaves of the dafgola** plant. To 
each leaf were attached pendants of feathers. Mourning bands, made 
of strips from the same petiole, were tied around both arms and legs, 
and in some cases a pendant dagola leaf was attached to each band. 
Every man was dressed in his best clout and the women in their best 
skirts and in all their finery of gold ornaments and agate necklaces. 

Nagakaran yillage is one of several in a very large valley (Plate 
VII). When I reached a point in the trail commanding this valley 
there could be seen coming from each of the various villages a procession 
wending its way slowly toward Aligtyun’s home. From the time 
when it came within sight of the house, which was sometimes at a 
distance of from 2 to 3 kilometers, each procession danced its way, 
beating on the striped shields with drum sticks, and on the bangibang, 
a wooden stick made of hard resonant wood ** coated with chicken 
blood and extremely old. 


* At the request of Major Willcox, United States Army, who was in Kidngan 
at the time of Aligtityun’s death. Some corrections and minor changes have been 
made in the text. 

* The word rancheria, as used lin the following pages and as commonly used 
by the American officials in Ifugao, designates what Beyer terms clan district 
in Parts I and II of this paper. ; 

2 The Kiadngan Ifugao name for Cordyline terminalis Kunth, (Liliaceae), pre- 
viously described. 

The bangibarg is usually made of tz-ol, an extremely heavy dark-red wood. 
The specific name of #u-ol is Bischofia javanica Bl. (Euphorbiaceae). There are 
both wild and cultivated varieties. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 245 


This stick is curved slightly, is about 60 centimeters long, and is held in one 
hand suspended by a rattan string so that the vibrations are not interferred with. 
It is beaten with a drum stick as is also the shield. The gaitgha, or bronze gong, 
is never used in the funeral of a beheaded man. 


Each of the two head men of each procession carried two spears. 
Behind the head men came a man carrying spear and shield. The two 
men in front faced the oncoming procession, stepping most of the 
time backward, and making thrusts toward the bearer of the spear and 
shield. The latter returned the thrusts and executed various “fancy 
steps,” the whole being a dance which in some respects resembles one 
of the head-dances of the Bontok Igorot. From the high place on the 
trail all moved slowly along the walls of the rice terraces toward the 
central village. The columns appeared in the distance like gigantic cen- 
tipedes or files of ants. It usually takes an hour for such a procession 
to cover 1 mile. It was a still morning and the beating of shield and 
stick could easily be heard across the wide valley. 

Arriving at Aligiyun’s house we found him sitting on a block facing 
the sun, and leaning against his shield which was supported by the 
side of the house. The body was in an advanced state of decomposition. 
It was swollen to three times its living girth. Great blisters had col- 
lected under the epidermis which broke from time to time, a brownish- 
red fluid escaping. The spear wound in his neck was plugged by a 
wooden spear-head. In each hand Aligtyun held a wooden spear. No 
attempt whatever had been made to prevent decomposition of the body 
or the entrance to it of flies. ‘Two old women on each side with pen- 
holder-shaped loom-sticks a half meter long continually poked at Ali- 
guyun’s face and the wound to wake him up. From time to time 
they caught the gruesome head by the hair and shook it violently 
shouting : 

Who-00-00 Aligtiyun, wake up! Open your eyes. Look down on Kurig.* 
Take his father and his mother, his wife and his children, and his first cousins 
and his second cousins, and his relatives by marriage. They wanted him to kill 
you. All your kin are women. [They say this in order to deceive Aligtiyun 
into avenging himself.] They can’t avenge you. You will have to avenge 
yourself. There is ordén® now; no one can kill them but you. Take them 
all. You are to be pitied. You will be lonesome. Accompany their spirits ™. 
If they eat, eat with them. If they sleep, sleép with them. If they go to get 


water, go with them. If they go to get wood, turn the ax into their bodies. If 
they go on a journey, push them over a precipice. So, you will have com- 


* Kurfig being the rancheria from which came AligGyun’s murderer. 

© Law; referring to the establishment of American authority and the prohibi- 
tion of head-hunting. 

*° The spirits of the kin of the murderer. 


2AG -BEYER AND BARTON. 


panions there in the; oy World; you will haye someone ‘to help you get wood 
andvwaterstsy.¢: Son 3 a : the Ras 


This calling on Aligtyun’s soul never ceaceal When .one old woman 
grew hoarse, another took her place. As the procession | came to the 
house it’ filed past Aligayun and its leaders stopped and shouted words 
to ‘the same- effect as those that the old woman kept shouting. The 
key-note of the whole ceremony was vengeance. It is true that the man 
who had ‘killed Aligtyun was himself killed, but the people of a ran- 
cheria regard themselves as being about the only really valuable people 
in the world, and hold that three, four, or five men of another rancheria 
are not equal to one of theirs. F 


THE CEREMONIES ON THE HILE. 


Toward noon the people told me *® that they were going to perform 
the ceremony which looked toward securmg vengeance for Aligtyun’s 
death. They went to a little hillock some distance from any house, 
where a grass shelter had been built for protection from the piercing 
rays of the noonday sun. Two pigs were provided there, one of which 
was: very small. Only the old men were permitted to gather around 
the pigs and the rice wine and the other appurtenances of the ceremony. 
The ceremony began by a prayer to the ancestors, followed by an invo- 
cation to the various deities. The most interesting and principal one 
of the ceremonies was the invocaticn of the celestial bodies who are 
believed to be the deities of War and Justice. Manahaut (the Deceiver) 
a companion of the Sun God was first invoked. The priests cried: 


“Who-o0-00, Manahaut! look down! Come down and drink the rice wine 
and take the pig. Don’t deceive us. Deceive our enemies. Take them into the 
remotest quarters of the Sky World; lock them up there forever so that they 
will not return. Vengeance for him who has gone before.”” Then an old priest 
put his hands over his forehead and called: “Come down, Manahaut of the 
Sky World.” Manahaut came and possessed him causing him to call out: 
“Sa-ai! Sa-ai! I come down Manahaut; I drink the rice wine; I will deceive 
your enemies, but I will not deceive you.” * 


*Tt is somewhat strange, this idea of a soul’s associating with the souls of 
his enemies, whose death he has brought about. However, throughout the Ifugao’s 
religion we find evidences that the soul is conceived as losing earthly affections 
and enmities, but never earthly appetites and desires. . 

*Nagakaran being the rancheria that speared and nearly killed my predecessor, 
Mr. Wooden, I explained my presence to the people there by saying that the 
soldier being an agent of our government was in a way a relative of mine, 
and that I had come to assist in the last rites and ceremonies due him. The 
explanation was a perfectly natural one to the people and they treated me 
with the greatest courtesy and helped me to see whatever was to be seen. 

*<Teceive” in the sense of “Cause to fall into danger or ambush, possessed by 
the assurance of safety.” 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 240 


- The priest who was: possessed’ jumped up and\ with® characteristic 
Ifugao dance step, danced ‘about the rice-wine jar, and about the’ pig. 
Quickly there followed him a. priest who had called Umalgo, the Spirit 
of the Sun, and who had been possessed by. that deity. Manahaut danced 
ahead of. Umalgo to show. him the pig, and to urge him on. “Umalgo 
seized a spear, danced about the pig two or three tinies, then stepped over 
to it and with a thrust, seemingly without effort, sone its heart. The 
priests started the blood-thirsty cry which was taken up by the hundreds 
of high-wrought barbarians standing round: “So may it. be done to, our 
enemies of Wurtg.”*° The blood spurted out of the pig’s side and 
there quickly followed a priest who had been possessed by’ Umbulan, the 
Spirit of the Moon, who threw himself on the pig and drank its blood. 
He would have remained there forever, say the people, drinking the 
pig’s blood had it not been for the fact that one of the Stars, his 
son, possessed a priest and caused him to dance over to Umbulan, catch 
him by the hair, and lead him from the pig. ° 
_ Following these ceremonies other priests came, possessed by various 
Spirits of the Stars, to cut off the pig’s feet and head. And after 
each event, the cry issued from hundreds of throats: “Sa may it be 
done to our enemies.” Next came the cutting up of the pig, to cook © 
it in the pots. The blood that had settled in its chest was carefully 
eaught; it-was used to smear the bangibang ** and the hipag.: 


The hipag are interesting. (See Plate IX.) They are little images of men, 
pigs, dogs, chickens, and ducks. The spirits that dwell in them help men to 
take heads. The hipag are made of wood, and are about 15 to 20 centimeters 
high. When an Ifugao goes on a’ head-hunting expedition he takes the images 
in his head-basket tegether with a stone to make the enemy’s feet heavy, so that 
he can not run away, and a little wooden stick in representation of a spear, 
to the end of which is attached a stone. This last is to make the enemy’s spear 
strike the earth so that-it shall not strike him. 


As the pig was being put in the pot to be cooked for the priests 
who had performed the ceremony, some unmannerly young fellow started 
to make away with one piece of the flesh. Immediately there was a 
scramble for pork which was joined by some three or four hundred 
‘Ifugaos from all the different rancherias. Wyery man there (I think 
that there were over 1,000 who attended the ceremony) leaped for his 
spear and shield. The people who had come from Kiangan rushed to 
where I was and took their stand in front of and around me, and 
told me to stay there, and that they would protect me from any harm; 
all of which, as may be supposed, produced no trifing amount of 
warmth in my feelings toward them. Fortunately nothing came of the. 
scramble. 


©«“Batna kana okukulan di-bihol-mi td Kudig.” 
_ 4 Bangibarg, wooden musical instruments, see p. 244. 


248 BEYER AND BARTON. 


I have no hesitancy ‘in saying that two or three years ago, before Governor 
Gallman had performed his truly wonderful work among the Ifugaos, this scram- 
ble would have become a fight in which somebody would have lost his life. 
That such a thing could take place without danger was incomprehensible to the 
old women of Kiéngan, who doubtless remembered sons or husbands, brothers or 
cousins, who had lost their lives in such an affair. With the memory of these 
old times in their minds they caught me by the arms trying to drag me off with 
them and said: “Balton [Barton], come home; we don’t know the mind of 
the people. They are likely to kill you.” When I persisted in refusing to miss 
the rest of the ceremony they told me to keep my revolver ready. 

Looking back on this incident I am sure that I was in little or no danger, 
but must give credit to my Ifugao boy who attended me for having the wisest 
head in the party. This boy immediately thought of my horse which was picketed 
near, and ran to it, taking with him one or two responsible Kiangan men to help 
him watch and defend it. Had he not done so some meat-hungry, hot-headed 
Ifugao might easily have stuck a bolo in its side during the scramble and attendant 
confusion. Immediately some 500 or more Ifugaos would have been right on top 
of the carcass and hacking at it with their long knives, and it probably would 
have been impossible ever to find out who gave the first thrust. 


The priests who had performed the ceremony, after the people had 
quieted somewhat, began scolding and cursing those who had run 
away with the meat. Finally, they managed to prevail upon the meat 
snatchers to bring back three small pieces about the size of their hands, 
from which I concluded that Ifugao is a language admirably adapted 
to stating a situation clearly—for I know how hungry for meat these 
Ifugaos become. 

Three old men stuck their spears into a piece of meat and began 
a series of long stories the theme of which was some past confusion 
of enemies. At the conclusion of each story they said: “Not there but 
here; not then but now.” ‘The mere telling of these stories is believed 
to secure a like confusion and destruction of the enemies of the present. 
When this ceremony had been completed each old man raised his spear 
quickly in order to secure the impaled meat for himself. If he had 
not done this it would have been snatched by those who were waiting 
for that purpose, and made the object of another scramble. In one 
case one of the old men just missed ripping open the abdomen of the 


man who stood in front. 
THE BURIAL. 


The ceremonies on the hill being finished, the people made an attempt 
to assemble by ranchertas and to file along the trail to bury Aligiyun. 
Nagakaran rancherta took the lead. As the procession came near the 
grave the men took off their headdresses and strung them on a long 
pole which was laid across the trail. A Nagakaran man went to 
where Aligtyun was sitting, picked him up, carried him to the grave, 
and placed him in a sitting posture facing Kurtig. Aligiyun was not 
wrapped in a death blanket as corpses usually are. His body was 
neglected in order to make him angry and incite him to vengeance. 


AN IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. 249 


The grave was a sepulcher dug out of a bank. It was walled up 
with stones after Aliguyun was placed in it and an egg thrown against 
the tomb whereupon the people yelled: “‘So let it happen to our enemies 
of Kurig.”* The poles on which were strung the headdresses were 
taken away and hung over the door of Aligtyun’s house. After this 
the people dispersed to their homes. On the way home they stopped 
at a stream and washed themselves, praying somewhat as follows: 

Wash, water, but do not wash away our lives, our pigs and our chickens, our 


rice, and our children. Wash away death by violence, death by the spear, death 
by sickness. Wash away pests, hunger, and crop failure, and our enemies. 


““Batna kana okukulan di bihol-mi tid Kudtig.” 


ey 


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ILLUSTRATIONS, 


Prater I, 


Fic. 1; Kalatomg (x), the chief of Kambulo clan, with a group of Kambulo 
‘ people. (Photograph by Beyer, Banaue, September 12, 1907.) 
2. Five of the men who marched in the funeral procession at the burial of 
' Bahatan. Note the headdresses, armlets, and leglets of white bark; 
also the striped shield and the four baigibarg. (Photograph by 
Beyer, April 3, 1908.) 
t ef Prate II. 


Kie. 1. Kalatong’s head, on the third day after he was beheaded. (Photograph 
by Beyer, at Banaue in January, 1908.) 

2. A man who took part in the procession at the burial of Bahatan. (Dumapis 
of the village of Bokos, Banauol). Note the painted shield. This man 
wears a turban in place of the usual bark headdress. (Photograph 
Beyer, April 3, 1908.) 


Prats [I]. ' 


Southern half of the clan district of Banauol, where Bahatan lived. ' Battang’s 
house is shown on hill to the left, just above the largest rice terraces. 
The tomb where Bahatan was buried is in the mountainside behind the 

f same hill. (Photograph by Beyer, February 28, 1911.) 


Pirate LV. 


Fie. 1. The body of Bahatan as prepared for the ceremonies at the house. The 
head has been fastened in position on the severed neck. Note the 
kinillo on the breast, the shield behind the body, and the wooden spear 
standing beside each arm. (Photograph by Beyer, April 1, 1908.) 

2. A part of the procession at the burial of Bahatan. The people in the 
foreground, and on the hill to the right of the procession, are spectators. 
(Photograph by Beyer, April-3, 1908.) _ 


PLATE V. 


Three Ifugao priests of Banauol clan. From left to right they are: Tangeana 
of Angadal, the overlord of Bahatan mentioned in the text; Pitpi- 
tingai of Ulditamg, a very wealthy kadangyan but of low rank as 
a priest; Bulangon of Panangan, the chief priest of Banauol clan. 
(Phetograph by Barton, Banaue, 1911.) 

251 


PAP? BEYER AND BARTON. 


Prate VI. 


Fic. 1. A Central Ifugao woman of the serf class. (JInéyao of the village of 
Pasnakan, Banauol.) Note the coarse garments made of woven bark 
fiber. (Photograph by Worcester, April, 1903.) 

. Three Central Ifugao women of Kambulo and Banauol clans. The woman 
in the center was the wife of Battang, and the one on the right a relative 
of Kalatong. (Photograph by Beyer, Banaue, 1906.) 

3. A typical Kiéigan Ifugao man—Dultidul of the village of Baai, Kiangan. 

(Photograph by Beyer, 1906.) 


to 


Pxuate VII. 


The clan district of Nagakaéran, the home of Aligiyun. (Photograph by Martin,’ 
1909.) 
Prate VIII. 


Fic. 1. Kiangan, Ifugao, looking east from the lieutenant-governor’s house at 
Kiangan. The black dots in the terraced fields in the foreground are 
mounds of earth on which cotton is grown. (Photograph by Haskell, 
1909.) 

2. The central village of the clan district of Bfirnai, in Kiaéngan Ifugao. 
(Photograph by Beyer, 1907.) 


Priate IX. 


Some Ifugao religious objects used in this ceremony: (a) The basket in which 
the hipag of a.Kiaéngan Ifugao family are kept; (b). The skull of 
a crocodile. This skull and one other are practically the common 
property of Kiangan clan. It has the same power as the hipag. 
The crocodile is an Ifugao deity; (¢c) The hipag, the mulizg (hard, 
heavy stones), and the stick with a stone tied to one end, that belong 
to the family of Manfyao, a Kidigan priest. All of these objects 
are encrusted with human blood and the blood of sacrificed animals, 
and are of extreme age. (Photograph by Barton, Kiaéngan, 1911.) 


PLATE X. 


Fie. 1. An old priest of Kiamgan. The blanket over his shoulder is of the 
variety called hapi, mentioned in the text. (Photograph by Martin, 
1909.) 
2. A Central Ifugao priest—Dolmug, of Lugu clan. (Photograph by Martin 
1909.) ; 
3. A typical Central Ifugao man—Kulingai of the village of Pasnakan, 
Banauol. (Photograph by Beyer, Banaue, 1905.) 


BrYER AND BARTON: IrPUGAO BuRIAL CerEMony. | [Putu. Journ, Sct., Vou. VI, No. 5. 


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IFUGAO BURIAL CEREMONY. ] 


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Fic. 1. 


Fig 2. 


PLATE VIII. 


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PLATE *. 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI. No. 5, November, 1911. 


‘A CHECK-LIST AND KEY OF PHILIPPINE SNAKES. 


By LAWRENCE EDMONDS GRIFFIN." 


(From the Zodlogical Laboratory, University of the Philippines, Manila, P. 1.) 


It is twenty-five years? since a list of Philippine snakes has been 
published. During this time Boulenger’s * monograph has appeared and 
the systematic position of many species has been so changed as to limit 
the use of Boettger’s list. A considerable number of species has also 
been added to the fauna of the Philippines since the appearance of the 
- “Catalogue of Snakes.” 

The object of the present paper is not only to present a complete list 
of the ophidian fauna of the Philippines so far as it is now known, but 
also to present this information in such a form that it can be used by 
persons who are interested in their local animals. For this reason the 
list of species is arranged in the form of a key, in which external characters 
are used to distinguish the species, so far as is possible. The experience 
of thé author indicates that snakes not heretofore recorded from the 
Philippines, and even new species, may still be met with in any locality. 
As a large part of the Philippines is still im a .zodlogically unexplored 
condition, considerable additions to the herpetological fauna may be 
‘expected. Two species not previously recorded from the Philippines are 
included in this paper; namely, Xenopeltis wnicolor Reinw. and Zaocys 
carinatus Giinther. The occurrence of these species in Palawan again 
calls attention to the close relationship of the faune of that island and 
Borneo.* 

In the following list only definite localities usually are given, refer- 
ences to “Philippines” being omitted unless there is no more exact 
locality known. The classification used in this list is that of Boulenger, 


* Associate professor of zodlogy, University of the Philippines. 

* Boettger, Oskar, Aufziihlung der von den Philippinen bekannten Reptilien und 
Batrachier. Bericht iiber die Senck. Naturf. Ges. (1886), 91-134. 

*Boulenger, George Albert, Catalogue of Snakes in the British Museum, 
(1893-96), 1-3. 

*Boulenger, G. A., on the Herpetological Fauna of Palawan and Balabac. 
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (1894). VI, 14, 81-89. 

253 


254 GRIFFIN. spin see 

although several recent changes in generic and’ family names have been 
followed. As a matter of course, Boulenger has also largely been drawn 
upon for the structure of the key. The author will be glad to com- 
municate with any residents of the Philippines who are interested in 
making collections of reptiles and frogs. Snakes are easily preserved in 
either alcohol (strong) or 10 per cent formalin, if a number of slits are 
made in the abdomen. If the abdomen is not thoroughly opened the 
inner tissues decompose before the preserving fluid can penetrate the 
skin. Lizards require a single abdominal incision., 


| 


a, 


Se. 
os 

RS 
SS 


Fic. 1.—Head of Dendrelaphis cerulcatus Griffin: ch, chin shield; f, frontal; il, inferior 
labial ; i, internasal; 7b, superior labial; Jo, loreal; m, mental or symphysial ; 
n, nasal; gar, parietal; pf, prefrontal; po, preocular; pto, postocular; r, 
rostral; so, supraocular; ta, anterior temporal; fp, posterior temporal; v, 
ventral. (Drawing by T. Espinosa.) 


‘Family TYPHLOPIDZ. 


Small worm-like snakes living under fallen grass or leaves, or burrowing in 
the ground. Incapable of harm. Head not distinct from body; eyes reduced to 
vestiges which are covered by shields; no teeth in the lower jaw or on the 
palate; no enlarged ventral scales; tail very short, and pointed, color generally 
CREST. Wire see coe Oe oN ee se ee bene etna en (ee Genus Typhlops. 
@., Snout rounded; nostrils lateral. 

b+, Preocular in contact with second and third labials. 

ce’, The nasal cleft (i. e. the fissure dividing the nasal shield) proceeding from 
bh eM ree OCU aires eesece eee eee Typhlops braminus (Daudin). 
Manila (Gray, A. Duméril); Daraga (Peters); Paracale (Peters) ; 
southern Mindanao (J. G@. Fischer); Negros (Boulenger); Manila, 
Malabon, Mindoro, Samar (Bureau of Science collection). A most 
widely distributed snake, occurring in all southern Asia, the Malay 

Archipelago, the Ladrones, Madagascar, East and South Africa. 
c’..The nasal cleft proceeding from the second labial.. Typhlops jagori Peters. 
Mount Isarog, Luzon (Peters). Not known from any other locality. 


CHECK-LIST AND KEY. OF. PHILIPPINE SNAKES. 2 20D 


b*. Prxocular; in-contact with the;third labial only. 


@. Thirty seale-rows around the body-.--...:-2.2... -Typhlops ruficauda (Gray). 
Daraga and Paracale (Peters). Found only in the Philippines. 
ce. Twenty-six.scale-rows around the body-.............. Typhlops ruber Boettger. 


Samar (Boettger). Only the type specimen recorded. 
a, Snout with a sharp horizontal edge; nostrils inferior. 


b*. Tail from 2. to 2.5 times as long as broad.......... Typhlops olivaceus (Gray). 
Samar ( Peters). Found also in the Moluccas and in northwestern 
Australia. RES 

b*. Tail 4 to’5 times as long as broad.2.................. Typhlops cumingii (Gray). 


Philippines (Gray). Not recorded elsewhere. 
Family BOIDA‘. 


Large snakes; with vestiges of hind limbs usually ending in a claw-like spur, 
which is visible on each side of the vent. . Teeth in both jaws; 65 to 80 longitudinal 
rows of. scales; ventral scales transversely enlarged. Represented in the Phil- 
ippines by only 1 species. Not poisonous. Light brown, with large rhomboidal 
markings of dark brown..to black. A black line along the middle of the head 
and on each cheek: .... Python reticulatus (Schneider). 

Luzon (Peters); Laguna, Polillo, Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). 
Found throughout Burma, Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. 


Family ZENOPELTIDAs. 


This family consists of a single species. Teeth are found in the premaxille, 
as well as in maxillx, palatines, and mandible. The dentary bone is movably 
attached to the end of the articular.’ Teeth small and numerous in both jaws 
(33 to 38). Body cylindrical and thick; tail short, about one-tenth of the total 
length; scales in 15 rows, smooth and highly iridescent, dark brown with lighter 
edges on the back and sides, white below; head small, flattened, not distinct from 
neck, snout rounded; eyes small, pupil vertical; easily distinguished from other 
Philippine snakes by the presence of an unpaired interparietal scale, between 4 
PaNrebalsts py NOt ppOISONOUS jee arene ee Zenopeltis unicolor Reinhardt. 

Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). Previously found in the 
Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Celebes, and Java. 


Family COLUBRID. 
Series A. Aglypha. 


All the teeth solid, without grooves. Non-venomous. 
@. Scales not imbricate, very small and numerous; no enlarged ventral shields; 
body and tail compressed, with a ventral fold; aquatic. : 
Subfamily Acrochordine. 
Only one species is recorded from the Philippines. 
Olive to black, with light transverse bands or rings. Found from 
southern India to New Guinea. Very common in Manila Bay and the 
IP ASIOPRAV CL wesc ates teee eee Chersydrus granulatus (Schneider). 
Manila (Peters, Steindachner); Los Bafios, Cabasao, Santik, 


*That the arrangement of these bones is peculiar can be noted without dis- 
section, as the body of the mandibular ramus can be felt nearer the middle line 
of the lower jaw than the dentary, and in a position markedly different from 
its position in other snakes. 


256 GRIFFIN. 


Luzon (Peters); Manila Bay (Boulenger); Bantayan and Samar 

(Bureau of Science collection) . 

a*. Scales imbricate, large ventral shields, head covered 
by regular scales.................- Subfamily Colubrine. 

I. Hypapophyses*® present on the vertebre of the pos- 
terior fifth of the trunk. 

u*, Dentary bone of mandible loosely attached to the 
apex of the articular, and freely movable upon 
it; teeth very numerous and closely set, equal, 
30 to 50 in each jaw; no interparietal shield. 
Length, 490 millimeters. Black above, with a 
white streak on each side. White below, with a 
black spot on the outer end of each shield. 

Polyodontophis bivittatus Boulenger. 
Palawan (Boulenger). Only the type speci- 
men known. 

a*, Dentary bone not, or but slightly. movable on 
the articular. 

5*. Posterior maxillary teeth longest (18 to 40 in 


Fic. 2.—Upper figure ; 


vertebra with a hy- all),’ mandibular teeth sub-equal; eye mo- 
papophysis projecting derate or large with round pupil; a pair of 
LEUTED UES: LOTTE SUE) Oe internasal shields. Scales generally keeled. 


the centrum. Lower Genus Nati 
figure ; vertebra with- 


out hypapophysis. c’. Maxillary teeth not more than 30, the last 2 
(From Boulenger.) or 3 abruptly enlarged. 


"To note the presence or absence of the hypapophyses it is necessary to 
make a slit in the posterior fifth of the abdomen; by pushing the viscera aside 
and bending the backbone downward the ventral surfaces of the vertebre may 
be examined. If hypapophyses are present they appear as median ventral processes 
of the vertebre. 

“As the characters of the maxillary teeth are most important in classifying 
snakes, it is necessary that they should be determined without mistake. The 
method described by Stejneger, Herpetology of Japan and Adjacent Territory, 
page 258, is most useful. “The examination of the dentition must be made very 
carefully in order to avoid mistakes. The safest way is probably to dissect out 
one of the maxillary bones. This can be done very easily by running the point 
of a sharp knife between the supralabials and the underlying bone, cutting the 
tissue along the whole length of the latter. By forcing the point of the knife 
over the upper edge of the bone in the region of the eye the bone can be easily 
lifted up and the connecting ligaments severed. The adherent tissue may be 
carefully removed, though in most cases it is sufficient to let it dry. The teeth 
can now be examined conveniently. Care must be had not to mistake the space 
left by a lost tooth for a natural interval; if a tooth has fallen out, a distinct 
pit or depression is left on the alveolar edge of the maxilla. In counting the 
teeth the second inner row of loose teeth which are only the reserve teeth must 
not be taken into consideration. If the specimen is so hardened that it is difficult 
to open the mouth it should not be forced open by prying, a procedure apt to 
ruin the teeth and break the lower jaw, but the thick muscle at the corner of the 
mouth closing the jaws should be cut through on both sides. If properly done 
the specimen reed show no outward sign of mutilation. The maxilla after being 
dissected out and cleaned should be placed in a small glass tube or vial and 
provided with the same number as the snake, kept in the same bottle, or separately 
together with other preparations of the same kind.” 


CHECK-LIST AND KEY OF PHILIPPINE SNAKES. 257 


d. Head moderately elongate, not distinct from neck. 
e1. A single anterior temporal. “Greenish or brownish olive, with more 
or less distinct black spots or reticulated cross-bars intersected 
by two yellow longitudinal bands, which are best marked pos- 
teriorly.” (Boulenger) -....................- Natrix stolata (Linnzus). 
Calumpit, Bulacan Province (Peters). Widely distributed, 
from Ceylon to the Himalayas and the Malay Archipelago. 
é&. Two anterior temporals. 

f. Internasals shorter than prefrontals; outer row of scales feebly 
keeled. Yellowish brown, with darker stripes and spots. Belly 
white or yellowish, with numerous round, black dots. 

Natrix spilogaster Boie. 

Negros (Boulenger); Palawan (Boulenger); Manila (Jan) ; 
Albay (Peters); Bataan (Ff. Miiller) ; southern Mindanao (J. 
G. Fischer); Manila and vicinity, Polillo, Limay, Camiguin * 
(Bureau of Science collection). Occurs in the Philippines only. 

f?. Internasals as long as prefrontals; all scales strongly keeled. 
Brown or greenish above, with indistinct darker cross-bars ; 
frequently with a series of light vertebral spots; yellowish 
white below, with few or no dark dots.... Natrix chrysarga Boie. 

Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). Common in Pa- 
lawan, which is the only island of the Philippines in which 
this widely distributed snake is found. Elsewhere, found in 
the eastern Himalayas, Assam, Burma, southern China, the 
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Jaya. 

@*. Head short, very distinct from neck. 
e’. Seales in 17 rows. Dark brown above, with a yellowish vertebral 
stripe, and a white stripe on each side.. Natrix auriculata Giinther. 
Loquilocun, Samar (Peters); Mindanao (Ff. Wiiller) ; southern 
Mindanao (J. G. Fischer); Pasananea (Challenger). Confined 
to the Philippines. 
e*. Seales in 19 rows. 
f*. Subeaudals 96 to 101. Olive above, vertebral line lighter. 
Natrix crebripunctata (Wiegmann). 
Philippines (Giinther). Restricted to the Philippines. 


ceo SUL EO UCL GU] Ss a6 eee Natrix lineata (Peters). 
Loquilocun, Samar (Peters). Known only from the Phil- 
ippines. 


ce. Maxillary teeth 35 to 40, the posterior ones but slightly enlarged; eye 
very large, body very slender. Olive above, with black spots an 
two series of yellowish spots; yellowish beneath, with numerous large 
blacktidots: 3. Natrix dendrophiops (Giinther). 
Zamboanga (Challenger); Mindanao (Ff. Willer); Agusan River 
Valley, Mindanao (Bureau of Science collection). Known only from 

the Philippines. 
6*. Maxillary teeth subequal, 20 to 35; pupil vertically elongated; snout 
pointed. The genus is Philippine exclusively_....... Genus Oxyrhabdium. 


*Camiguin, throughout this paper, refers to the island of that name in the 
Babuyanes, north of Luzon. 


258 GRIFFIN. 


c. Eight upper labials, fifth and sixth: entering the eye: Reddish brown 
above, yellowish below. 

Oxyrhabdium mrodestai (Dumeéril et Bibron). 

-Luzon (Gitnther); Samar (Peters); Dinagat (Boulenger) ; Min- 

danao (Ff. Miller) ; Samar and Mindanao (Bureau of Seience collec- 


tion). 
©. Seven upper labials, fourth, ane fifth-entering the eye;,- Colors like those 
of the preceding species.............. . Oxyrhabdium- fete ibis (Giinther). 


Luzon (Boulenger). ; 

b°. Posterior maxillary and mandibular teeth Era “enlarged anterior 
maxillary teeth separated from the other teeth by a short space; scales 
equal, smooth, with apical pits; nostril between 2 nasals, pupil round. 
Dark brown above. Belly white with triangular brown spots along each 

side. A genus of 1 species; which is found only-in the Philippines. 
Cyclocorus lineatus (Reinhardt). 
Manila (Jan)-; Daraga (Peters); Mindanao (F. Miller) ; Occidental 
Negros; Benguet, Laguna, Bataan. and Tarlac Proyinees, Luzon; Polillo 

"(Bureau of Science collection). 
II. Hypapophyses absent in the posterior dorsal yertebr; the lower surfaces of 
which are smooth. 

@, Anterior maxillary and madibular teeth strongly enlarged; posterior maxil- 
lary teeth increasing in size; anterior maxillary teeth separated from 
the rest by an interspace 2.2. t.o 30 tet a Genus Ophites. 

b*. A preccular, separating the eye from the prefrontal. 
@. Nasal single. Three series of alternating black spots on the back; brown 
Delo ww: 2 See ee ee Ophites tesselatus (Jan). 
Manila (Jan). Recorded from the Philippines only, with Manila 
as the only definite locality. 

¢&. Nostril between 2 nasals. Dark brown above, with light yellow lips 

and collar. Yellowish below. A common snake about Manila. 
Ophites aulicus (Linnzus). 
Manila (Peters, Westphal-Castenau) ; Paracale (Peters); Butuan, 
Mindanao (Giinther) ; southern Mindanao (J. G. Fischer) ; Manila, 
Cuyo, Bantayan, Occidental Negros, Montalban (Bureau of Science 
collection). Widely distributed in southern India and the East Indian 


Islands. 
6°. No preocular; prefrontal entering the eye. Dark brown on the back and 
sides, crossed with broad bars of white... Ophites subcinctus (Boie). 


Mindanao (Boulenger) ; Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of Science collec- 

tion). Found also in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java. 

a*, Anterior maxillary teeth increasing in size to the eighth or ninth, which is 

fang-like, followed by a short interspace, then 3 small teeth succeeded, 

without a second interspace, by 3. much enlarged, laterally compressed 

Le ne en ee ee Te Genus Haplonodon. 

The genus is represented by a single species. General ‘color brown. 

The body and tail crossed by numerous (79) dark bands separated by 

marrow light bands #222 s Se Haplonodon philippinensis Griffin. 
Polillo (Bureau of Science collection). 

a*..Anterior maxillary teeth not enlarged, middle and posterior longest, no 

interspaces; pupil vertically elliptic... 2s... Genus Stegonotus, 


« 


CHECK-LIST AND KEY OF PHILIPPINE SNAKES. 259 


tt. Not more than 100 subeaudals. Uniform brown above, whitish below. 
Stegonotus muelleri Duméril et. Bibron. 
Samar (Duméril and Bibron); Cubo-cubo, Samar (Peters). Not 
recorded from any other place. 

b?, One hundred and twelve to 123 subeaudals. Grayish brown above with a 
median row of dark brown spots, and a row of smaller spots on each 
side; yellowish beneath -............-.........- Stegonotus dumerilii Boulenger. 

Surigao (Giimther); Daraga, Iraga Volcano (Peters). Limited to 
the Philippines. 
a‘, Anterior and middle maxillary teeth not enlarged; posterior increasing in 
size, or the last strongly enlarged. 

6. Palatine and pterygoid bones toothed; pupil vertically elliptic. Maxillary 
teeth Sito 1 Oe ee eee Dryocalamus philippinus Griffin. 

Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). A single specimen 
only is known. Length, 241 millimeters. Black above, with 3 narrow, 
white longitudinal stripes; lower surface white. 

b*. Palatine and pterygoid bones toothed; pupil round. 

ce. Longitudinal series of scales in even numbers; maxillary teeth 20 to 23. 
Genus Zaocys. 


Gi (Salles in WAL TOW S aise ecco cer scence Zaocys luzonensis Giinther. 
Luzon (Giinther). Only the type specimen appears to be re- 
corded. 


@. Seales in 16 or 18 rows; 2 median dorsal rows of scales keeled. Dark 

brown. This snake can be recognized instantly by the dorsal keels. 

Zaocys carinatus Giinther. 

Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). Three specimens 

were recently captured in Palawan, where the snake is said to be 

common. This species has been found in Borneo, Sumatra, and the 

Malay Peninsula, but has not been recorded before from the Phil- 
ippines. A large snake, reaching a length of 3 meters. 

ce’. Longitudinal series of scales in odd numbers; ventrals rounded laterally. 
Maxillary teeth 8 to 12, posteriorly compressed........ Genus Holarehus. 

@. Two superposed anterior temporals. Dark brown, with an indistinct, 
lighter, vertebral stripe -....... Holarchus octolineatus (Schneider). 
Tawi Tawi (Boulenger). Found in Java, Borneo, Sumatra, 
Malay Peninsula, and southern India. 
d@. A single anterior temporal. Above, light brown with transverse 
black-edged blotches. Rosy pink below, when alive. 
Holarchus phenochalinus (Cope). 
Luzon (Boulenger); Manila (Cope); southern Mindanao (J. G. 
Fischer); Daraga, Luzon (Peters); Manila, Benguet, Zambales 
(Bureau of Science collection). Known also from Java: 

é. Longitudinal series of scales in odd numbers; ventrals with suture-like 
lateral keels, and a notch on each side corresponding to the keel. 
Seales of dorsal row large......2......2.2.4.-2-:-2sc0c2ceeeeeeeoe Genus Dendrophis. 

d@. Seales in 15 rows. Olive, bronzy brown, or dark blue above. Usually 
striped along the sides. Lower parts greenish. 

Dendrophis pictus (Gmelin). 

Manila (Duméril and Bibron) ; Daraga, Albay; Mount Santik; 

Passino; Camarines (Peters); Loquilocun, Samar (Peters) ; Min- 

danao (Duméril and Bibron), southern Mindanao (J. G. Fischer) ; 

106713-—3 


260 GRIFFIN. 


Palawan, Manila, Mindoro, Tarlac, Polillo (Bureaw of Science 
collection). Widely distributed over southern Asia, the Malay 
Peninsula and Archipelago. ( 

d*, Seales in 13 rows. Brown or olive above, lighter below. 

Dendrophis punctulata (Gray). 
Ticao (Parenti and Picagla). Found elsewhere in northern and 
eastern Australia, New Guinea, and the Moluccas. 
b°. Palatine and pterygoid teeth absent or few; maxillary bone short, with 

6 to 8 teeth in an uninterrupted series................... . Genus Oligodon. 

c’. Anal entire. 

d@. One postocular; no loreal. Dark brown above with a yellowish 
vertebral streak; yellowish below........ Oligodon modestus Giinther. 

Southern Negros (Giimther). Found only in the Philippines. 

ad. One postocular; loreal present. “Dark purplish’ brown above, with 
yellow dots and a series of large transverse, rhomboidal, yellow, 
black-edged spots; head yellow, with two chevron-shaped black 
bands”. (Boulenger. ) -......-.-.1.2--..2-..--- Oligodon notospilus Giinther. 

Mindoro (Giinther). The type specimen only known. 

d’. Two postoculars; loreal present. Dark purplish brown above, with 
11, dark red, rhomboidal spots along the back. Ventral surface 
NOSC=T edie eee eee BAN ee ee Oligodon iwahigensis Griffin. 

Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). 

c@. Anal divided. Dark gray above, with very small, white, black-edged 
spots; 2 chevron-shaped transverse bands on the head; ventral 
SUGLACe OTA Leese eee eee Oligodon schadenbergii Boettger. 

Busuanga (Boettger). Known only from this locality. 
a, Maxillary teeth equal or nearly so, or the posterior ones decreasing in size. 
6*. Seales with apical pits. 

c’. Seales forming straight longitudinal series.............--.... Genus Elaphe. 

d. Anal divided. Bright bluish green. A large snake reaching a length 
of 2.3 meters Elaphe oxycephala (Boie). 

Legaspi, Luzon (Peters); Iwahig, Palawan (Bureaw of Science 
collection). Common to the eastern Himalayas, the Malay Penin- 
sula and Archipelago. 

d*. Anal entire. 

e’. Without bars along sides. Nearly uniform reddish brown. 
Elaphe erythrura (Duméril et Bibron). 
Luzon, northern Leyte, Negros (Giinther, Boulenger) ; Daraga, 
Luzon (Peters); Manila (Jan); Loquilocun, Samar (Peters) ; 
Mindanao (J. G. Fischer); Manila, Malabon, Tarlac; Occidental 
Negros, Polillo (Bureaw of Science collection). Found also in 
Celebes. 
e*. With 3 to 14 black spots or bars on the anterior part of the body. 
- Except for the spots the coloring is the same as of #. erythrura. 
Elaphe philippina Griffin. 
Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). Not known 
from any other locality. 

c?, Seales narrow and obliquely arranged; ventrals and subcaudals with 
suture-like lateral keels and a notch on each side corresponding to 
the keel; vertebral row of scales not enlarged... xenus Dendrelaphis. 


CHECK-LIST AND KEY OF PHILIPPINE SNAKES. 261 


d@. Four to 8 black stripes extending the length of the body. Bronzy or 
greenish yellow, the dark edges of the scales forming the black 
stripes which extend the length of the body. 

Dendrelaphis caudolineatus (Gray) . 

Puerta Princesa, Palawan (Boulenger) ; Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau 

of Seience collection). Found in southern India, Borneo, and 
Sumatra. 

d*, A single black stripe on each side extending the length of the body, 
2 to 4 others on the posterior third of the body. 

Dendrelaphis terrificus (Peters). 

Albay (Peters) ; Ticao (Parenti and Picaglhia) ; Loquilocun and 

Borongan, Samar (Peters); northern Mindanao (Giinther) ; Ca- 

miguin (Bureau of Science collection). The few specimens secured 

indicate that this snake occurs over the entire Philippine Arch- 
ipelago. It is also found in Celebes. 

d'. Olive above, scales finely edged with black; no black lines on the body. 

Dendrelaphis modestus Boulenger. 
Bongabon, Mindoro (Bureau of Science collection). Hitherto 
known only from Ternate, Malmaheira, and Batjan (Boulenger). 

d‘. Upper surface dull, dark brown; skin under scales deep blue; ventrals 
plas) eee ease ee ee Dendrelaphis czeruleatus Griffin. 

Siquijor, Banton, Negros Occidental, Polillo (Bureau of Science 
collection). Known from these localities only. 

d*. Seal brown above, slightly lighter below, under surface of head 


reddish brown ............--------2:::-------- Dendrelaphis fuliginosus Griffin. 
Negros (Bureau of Science collection). Only the type specimen 
known. 
b*. Scales without pits. 
Ce Anterior temporal pres emt eee escent esc eeneece Genus Ablabes. 


d*, Nostril in a single nasal which is completely divided from the 
internasal. Olive or greenish above, white below. A short black 
stripe on each side of the head and neck. 

Ablabes tricolor (Schlegel). 
Iwahig, Palawan (Bureaw of Science collection). Also occurs in 
Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. 

d>. Nostril between nasal and internasal, which are completely fused in 
front of the nostril. Light yellowish-brown above, with 4 dark 
brown, longitudinal streaks, the middle ones broader than the 
lateral; whitish-yellow below ...... .. Ablabes philippinus Boettger. 

Culion and Samar (Boettger); Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of 

Science collection). Found only in the Philippines. 
ec. Anterior temporals absent, the parietals being in contact with the 
labials; nostril in a single minute nasal; no loreal. Very small 


snakes. 
da‘. Internasals present Genus Pseudorhabdium. 
e. Supraocular distinct; a preocular; frontal longer than broad. 
Iridescent brown, often with a yellowish collar. 
Pseudorhabdium longiceps (Cantor). 
Daraga, Luzon (Peters). Found also in the Malay Peninsula, 
Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes. 


262 GRIFFIN. 


e*, Supraocular very small and united with the postocular; no 
preocular; frontal broader than long. Uniform iridescent dark 


DIOWN. eso Pseudorhabdium oxycephalum (Giinther). 
Negros (Boulenger). Found only in the Philippines. 
@SiNowmternasalls; se ke Se ee eh ee Genus Calamaria. 


e*. Symphysial in contact with the anterior chin-shields. 

. Frontal less than twice as broad as the supraocular. Black 
above, barred with alternate bands of black and white below. 

Calamaria grayi Giinther. 
Recorded by Giinther as from the “Philippines,” the definite 
locality being unknown. Not known elsewhere. 

-. Frontal at least twice as broad as the supraocular. Rostral as 
deep as broad, frontal as long as the parietals. Brown above, 
uniform yellowish below ..........-..--.- Calamaria bitorques Peters. 

Luzon (Boulenger). Restricted to the Philippines. 

. Rostral as deep as broad; frontal shorter than the parietals. 
Brown above, with several fine light streaks on each side, 
yellow below (in spirit, white) . 

Calamaria gervaisii Duméril et Bibron. 
Manila (Jan); Batu, Daraga, Paracale, Mount Iraga 

(Peters); Bataan (F. Miiller) ; southern Negros (Giinther) ; 

southern Mindanao (J. G. Fischer) ; Manila (Bureau of Science 

collection). A purely Philippine form. 

f*. Rostral broader than deep; frontal shorter than the parietals. 
Brown above with longitudinal series of black dots; a yellow 
spot on each side of the neck. 

Calamaria mindorensis Boulenger. 
Mindoro (Boulenger). Only the type specimen is recorded. 
é. Symphysial not in contact with anterior chin-shields. 

f'. Diameter of eye much more than its distance from the mouth. 
Brown above, with two longitudinal rows of dark spots on 
@aChy Side ectee fee a eee eee Calamaria everetti Boulenger. 

Palawan, (Boulenger) ; Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of Science 
collection). Also found in Borneo. 

f. Diameter of eye less than half its distance from the mouth: 250 
ventrals. Dark brown above, with the two outer scale rows 
tipped with yellowish; a yellow collar on the neck; a pair of 
large pale lateral spots at the base of the tail. 

Calamaria mearnsi Stejneger. 
Mindanao (Stejneger). Only the type specimen recorded. 
d°, Internasals present; eye concealed under the ocular shield. Uniform 
blackish, scales edged with white. A Philippine genus with a 
single species -..-.-....------------ Typhlogeophis brevis Giinther. 
Northern Mindanao or Dinagat (Giinther): Only the type 
specimen known. 


7h 


~ 


ors) 


Series B. Opisthoglypha. 


One or more of the posterior maxillary teeth grooved and usually enlarged, 
forming small fangs. The snakes of this series are poisonous, but on account of 
the position of the fangs in the back of the jaw and their small size, they are not 
often dangerous to man. Their prey consists principally of lizards and small 
mammals which they paralize before swallowing. 


CHECK-LIST AND KEY OF PHILIPPINE SNAKES, 263 


@. Nostrils valvular, on the upper surface of the snout; aquatic snakes. 

Subfamily Homalopsine. 
b+. Nasals in contact. Scales keeled; numerous small scales in place of the 
JOUER IS), ete tee aaa re pe ee oer ee ea ase Genus Hurria. 
ce. Four lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields; scales strongly 
keeled, in 23 to 27 rows, ventrals 132 to 160. Light brown above and 

below, spotted and barred with dark brown. 
Hurria rhynchops (Schneider). 
Manila (Jan); Batu, Daraga, and Buhi, Luzon (Peters); Negros 
(Ginther) ; Placer, Mindanao (Giinther); Palawan (Boulenger) ; Ban- 
tayan, Polillo, Palawan, Cuyo (Bureaw of Science collection). Found 
along the coasts of India, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, 

the Pelew Islands, Timor, and the Moluccas. 

@, Three lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields; scales fully 
keeled, in 29 rows; ventrals 163 to 165. Color about the same as in 
Hurria rhynchops (Schneider) ...............- Hurria microlepis (Boulenger). 

Philippines (Boulenger) ; Camiguin (Bureau of Science collection). 
Not recorded from any other locality. 
b?. Nasals separated by a single internasal. Dark olive or gray above, with 
.a broad white band on each side. 
Gerardia prevostiana (Hydoux et Gervaise. ) 
Manila (Duméril and Bibron). Found along the coasts of India, Ceylon, 
and Burma. 
a, Nostrils not valvular, lateral; mostly tree or bush snakes. 
Subfamily Boigine. 
6*. Anterior mandibular teeth strongly enlarged; scales without pits; sub- 
caudals single; pupil round; scales smooth; solid maxillary teeth equal, 
20. Hypapophyses developed to some extent throughout the vertebral 
column. Brown above, with black spots on the head and neck, and a black 
line on each side of the posterior part of the body and the tail; lower 
partsieyellowasht ees e Set coer csceseseeecreceee Hologerrum philippinum Giinther. 
Philippines (Boulenger). A genus containing only a single species, and 
limited to the Philippines. 
b?. Solid maxillary teeth subequal; head very distinct from neck, pupil vertical. 
Genus Boiga. 
ce’. Anterior palatine teeth but slightly enlarged. 
@. Snout longer than the diameter of the eye; scales in 21 rows. Ringed 
by alternating, broad black and narrow yellow, bars. 
Boiga dendrophila (Boie). 
Samar (Peters) ; Mindanao (Giinther) ; southern Mindanao (J. G. 
Fischer); Palawan and Mindanao (Boulenger); Palawan, Rizal 
Province, Polillo (Bureau of Science collection). Found throughout 
the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. 
d’, Snout as long as the eye; scales in 19 rows. Grayish or yellowish brown, 
with dark brown spots and cross bars, the latter extending across the 
[ae aa ean ee ee Boiga angulata (Peters). 
Leyte (Peters) ; Polillo (Bureau of Science collection). <A strictly 
Philippine species. 

c?. Anterior palatine teeth strongly enlarged. 

d*. Seales in 19 rows. Brownish yellow above with black cross-bars. 
Boiga philippina (Peters). 
Luzon (Peters). Not found elsewhere. 


264 GRIFFIN. 


d. Scales in 23 to 25 rows. Fawn-colored, reaching a length of 2 meters. 
Boiga cyonodon (Boie). 
Mindanao (Giinther); Palawan and Polillo (Bureau of Science 
collection). Found also in Assam, Burma, the Malay Peninsula and 
Archipelago. 
bv’. Solid maxillary teeth subequal; scales with apical pits. Pupil round or 
horizontal. 
c’. Pupil horizontal. Pale brown, mottled with darker color. 
Dryophiops philippina Boulenger. 
Cape Engafio, Luzon (Boulenger) ; Manila (Bureau of Science collec- 
tion). Known only from Luzon. 
©. Pupil round. Usually black above, with white markings on the head, 
and a series of red flower-shaped spots on the back. Sometimes the 
snake is uniform light brown or brownish-gray, without markings. 
Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw). 
Manila (Steindachner); Lauang, Samar (Peters); southern Min- 
danao (J. G. Fischer); Manila, Banton, Bantayan, Palawan, Mindoro, 
Polillo (Bureau of Science collection). Widely distributed throughout 
the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. 
b*. Solid maxillary teeth unequal, the middle ones longest. 
c’. Pupil vertically subelliptic. Iridescent dark brown; lower parts powdered 
with brown dots ....-.......--------=--- Psammodynastes pulverulentus (Boie). 
Balabac, Palawan, Mindanao, Dinagat; Albay (Boulenger) ; Palawan, 
Mindanao, Negros, Polillo, Sorsogon (Bureaw of Science coliection). 
Widely distributed in southern Asia, Formosa, the Malay Peninsula and 
Archipelago. 
¢. Pupil horizontal. Typically, leaf-green above, with a narrow yellow lateral 
line; yellowish green below. The color varies greatly, gray, pink, dark 
red, dark blue, and yellow specimens being found. Commonly known 
as the rice snake or dahon-palay.........-.--------------- Dryophis prasinus Boie. 
Sibutu, Mindanao, Luzon (Boulenger) ; Daraga and Albay (Peters) ; 
Samar (Peters); southern Mindanao (J. G. Fischer); Polillo, Negros, 
Bataan Province, Camiguin, Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). 
Distributed throughout southern Asia, the Malay Peninsula and 
Archipelago. 


Series C. Proteroglypha. 
The anterior maxillary teeth grooved or folded into a tube, and usually 


considerably enlarged. Venomous snakes. 


a. Tail strongly compressed into a vertical fin....................-- Subfamily Hydrinz. 
b*. Ventral shields small or absent. 
c’, All maxillary teeth grooved (some are often very faintly grooved); 4 


to 10 small teeth follow the fangs..............-.-2--2c.2:------ Genus Disteira. 
@. Head very small; diameter of neck not half the greatest depth of the 
hy pp es se Es aad ere aoc OE Disteira fasciata (Schneider) . 


Manila (Peters). Found from India to New Guinea. 
d. Distinguished from D. fasciata (Schneider) by characters which can 
not be readily included in this key, is 
Disteira cincinnatii Van Denburgh and Thompson. 
Manila Bay (Boettger. Van Denburgh and Thompson). Not re- 
corded from any other locality. 


CHECK-LIST AND KEY OF PHILIPPINE SNAKES. 265 


d?. Head not remarkably small; diameter of neck more than half the 
greatest depth of the body. 
e*, Second pair of chin-shields separated by several scales. 
f*. Two or 3 superposed anterior temporals._.... Disteira ornata (Gray). 
Iwahig, Palawan (Bureaw of Science collection). Coasts of 
southern Asia to northern Australia. 
f?. A single anterior temporal.................... Disteira semperi (Garman). 
Lake Taal, Luzon (Garman). Not known elsewhere. 
e°. Second pair of chin-shields in contact or separated by 1 scale. 
f'. One postocular, one anterior temporal; head black above, with a 


crescentic yellow mark ...................-------- Disteira spiralis (Shaw). 
Manila (Jan). Found on the coasts of India and the Malay 
Archipelago. 


f?. Two postoculars, two superposed anterior temporals. 
g.. Thirty-nine to 45 scales around the middle of the body. 
Disteira cyanocincta (Daudin). 
Manila (Jan); Cebu (Boulenger). Found on the coasts of 
the Persian Gulf, India, China, Japan, Formosa, and the Malay 
Archipelago. : 
g?. Second upper labial in contact with the prefrontal; 34 scales 
around the body; grayish with darker cross-bars. 
Disteira longiceps (Giinther). 
Manila Bay (Bureau of Science collection). Recorded from 
the Indian Ocean. 
ce. Maxilla short; 2 to 5 small, faintly grooved teeth follow the large fangs. 
Body short and stout; scales polygonal, juxtaposed. Alternating trans- 
verse bands of black and yellow................-...... Lapemis hardwickii Gray. 
Manila (Jan, Steindachner) ; Manila and Negros (Boulenger) ; south- 
ern Mindanao (J. G. Fischer); Manila (Bureau of Science collection). 
Found from the'coasts of India to New Guinea. 
o?. Ventrai shields large. 
c. Nostrils on upper surface of snout; nasals in contact with each other; 
8 to 10 grooved teeth in addition of the fangs. 
Aipysurus eydouxii (Gray). 
Philippines (Boulenger). Recorded also from Singapore and Java. 
¢@. Nostrils lateral; nasals separated by internasals ; one or two small solid 
teeth in addition to the fangs... Genus Laticauda. 

d. No unpaired shield between the prefrontals. 

Laticauda laticaudata (Linnus). 
Samar (Peters). Widely distributed along the northern and eastern 
coasts of the Indian Ocean. 

d’. An unpaired shield between the prefrontals: The largest of our marine 
snakes, reaching a length of more than 2 meters. Olive or yellowish 
with broad, brilliant, black rings.... Laticauda colubrina (Schneider). 

Luzon (Peters); Jolo (Ginther); Palawan, Bantayan (Bureau of 
Science collection). 
a’, Tail cylindrical. Poison fangs well developed.................... Subfamily Elapine. 
b*. Internasal bordering the nostril; scales oblique.................-........- Genus Naja. 
c. Seventeen to 25 scales around the middle of the body, 21. to 35 scales 
around the neck; rostral 1.25 to 1.5 times as broad as deep. 
Naja naja (Linnus). 


266 GRIFFIN. 


d', Pale brown or yellowish without markings on body or head; 25 to 31 
scales across the neck, 21 to 25 across the body. 
Naja naja var. ceca Gmelin. 
Northern Luzon (Boulenger) ; Manila, Palawan (Bureau of Science 
collection). Distributed from Transcaspia to Java. 
ad. Dark brown or black; 21 to 23 scales across the neck, 17 to 19 across 
ther bod ygteeeer Soe ver cree Naja naja var. miolepis Boulenger. 
Palawan (Boulenger); Palawan (Bureaw of Science collection). 
Recorded only from Borneo and Palawan. oes 
c. Seventeen to 19 scales around the body; 21 or 23 around the neck; rostral 
one and two-thirds times as broad as deep. Darker brown than Naja 
AUG] CU VAT on COE CO) eee nee ate eee Naja samarensis (Peters). 
Samar (Peters); Mindanao and Leyte (Boulenger); Samar (Bureau 
of Science collection). Known only from Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. 
c*. Wifteen scales across the middle of the body, 19 or 21 across the neck; a 
pair of large occipital shields back of the parietals. The largest of 
venomous snakes, it is said to prey exclusively upon other snakes. 
This species is often called the king cobra or hamadryad. Nearly 
Toa Goo wae eee Naja bungarus Schlegel. 
Samar (Peters); southern Mindanao (J. G. Fischer) ; Isabela (Bouw- 
lenger); Benguet, Palawan, Laguna (Bureau of Science collection). 
Widely distributed throughout India, southern China, the Malay Penin- 
sula and Archipelago. 
b?. Internasal not bordering the nostril. 
Gh. Scales#inwl5) nows=24-2eee eee ee Genus Hemibungarus. 
ad. Two anterior temporals, 6 upper labials. Nearly black above, with 
narrow, white cross-bars; red beneath, with black bars. 
Hemibungarus calligaster (Wiegmann). 
Manila (Jan, Wiegmann) ; Daraga, Mount Isarog (Peters); Albay 
(Peters, Boulenger); Bataan Province (F. Miller); southern Min- 
danao (J. G. Fischer); Rizal, Polillo, Laguna (Bureaw. of Science 
collection). Occurs only in the Philippines. 
d*. No anterior temporals; the parietal touching the sixth labial; 7 upper 
labials. Black above, with a yellowish collar on the neck; barred 


with red and black below...,...-.----..- Hemibungarus collaris (Schlegel). 
Manila (Jan); Philippines (Bouwlenger). Found only in the Phil- 

ippines. 
cre Scales sin, U3 iO Ws steerer te ec nee lore Nee eee ee Genus Doliophis. 


ad. Diameter of eye much more than one-half the distance of the eye 

from the mouth. Dark brown above with 2 white longitudinal stripes. 

Doliophis bilineatus (Peters). 

Palawan (Peters); Palawan, Balabac, Mindanao (Boulenger) ; Pa- 

lawan (Bureau of Science collection). Found only in the Philippines. 

ad. Kye half as long as its distance from the mouth. Dark brown on the 

back and sides, crossed by narrow white bars, which widen on the 
ventral surface; the remainder of the ventral surface black. 

Doliophis philippinus (Giinther). 

Southern Mindanao (A. B. Meyer); Manila (Bureau of Science 

collection). Restricted to the Philippines. 


CHECK-LIST AND KEY OF PHILIPPINE SNAKES. 267 


Family AMBLYCEPHALIDA. 


No median (mental) groove beneath the chin; body compressed; maxillary 
bone very short, with 5 subequal teeth; head very distinct from neck; eye large, 
with vertical pupil; scales smooth, oblique, without pits, in 13 rows; subeaudals 
single (unpaired). 


Light brown. LHasily distinguished by the small, deep, almost cubical head, 
which is very distinct from the neck...............---.... Haplopeltura boa (Boie). 
Southern Mindanao (J. G. Fischer); Palawan and Balabae (Boulenger) ; 
Iwahig, Palawan (Bureau of Science collection). Found also in Pinang, 
Borneo, Java, and the Moluccas. 


Family VIPERIDA. 


Maxilla very short, capable of being erected, and bearing only a pair of large, 
hollow, poison fangs. 


Subfamily CROTALINA. 


A deep pit between the eye and the nostril. Head large, distinct from neck, 
triangular. 
Only one genus is found in the Philippines. Most of these snakes are arboreal 
and are protectively colored. Their bite is dangerous.... Genus Trimeresurus. 
a. Tail prehensile. 
b*. Scales between the eyes smooth. 
ce’. Ventrals 145 to 175; supraocular narrow; nasals in contact, or separated 
by 1 or 2 scales. Dark green above, with a yellow streak along the 
outer row of scales on each side of the body. 
Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw). 
Paracale (Peters) ; southern Mindanao (J. G. Fischer) ; Iwahig, Pa- 
lawan (Bureau of Science collection). Found in all parts of south- 
eastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago. 
ec. Ventrals 170 to 187; snout prominent; supraocular narrow, 2 or 3 scales 
between nasals; 8 to 10 between supraoculars. Bright green above, 
with a yellow spot on each scale of the lateral rows. 
: Trimeresurus flavomaculatus (Gray). 
Mindanao (Ff. Miiller, J. G. Fischer, Giinther) ; Luzon (Boulenger) ; 
Laguna Province and Batan Island (Batanes) (Bureau of Science col- 
lection). Occurs only in the Philippines. 
c*. Ventrals 180 to 191; supraocular large, 4 to 9 scales between supraoculars. 
Bright green, with 2 series of white spots along the back. 
Trimeresurus sumatranus (Raffles). 
Palawan (Boulenger). Found also in Borneo, Sumatra, and Sin- 
gapore. . 
ce. Ventrals 203; supraoculars narrow; internasals small, separated by 2 
scales of similar size. Bright green, with fine black lines above; outer 
row of scales, canary-yellow ...............-..-. Trimeresurus schultzei Griffin. 
Iwahig, Palawan (Bureaw of Science collection). 
6°. Upper head scales all strongly keeled. Bright green, with white and purple, 
or white and red, vertical bars on the sides.. Trimeresurus wagleri (Boie). 
Mindanao (Gmelin, Peters, F. Miiller, Giinther, J. G. Fischer) ; Samar 
(Peters); Palawan, Albay (Boulenger); Palawan (Bureaw of Science 
collection). 


268 GRIFFIN. 


@, Tail not, or but slightly, prehensile. Red-brown to blue above, bluish beneath. 
No yellow lateral stripe. Tail colored like the body. 


Trineresurus halieus Griffin. 
Polillo (Bureau of Science collection). Known only from this locality. 


DOUBTFUL SPECIES. 


Tropidonotus dorsalis Giinther is classified by Boulenger® as Pseu- 
doxenodon dorsalis (Giinther). The genus is limited to China and 
southern India. ‘The reference of a specimen of this species to Manila 
seems doubtful.*° 

Topidonotus aft. hypomelas Giinther ** is probably Natrix dendrophiops 
(Giinther). 

Leptophis vertebralis Duméril et Bibron, from Luzon,’? is probably 
a Natrix, which it is not possible to place more definitely at the present 
time. 

Naja naja (Linneus) var. sputatrix Boie, listed as from Mindanao 
by F. Miller ** should probably be Naja naja var. miolepis Boulenger. 

There is some mistake in referring 1* Piesogaster boettger1 Seoane to 
Panay and Polloc.® Boulenger** includes this species under Hpicrates 
imornatus (Reinhardt) and gives Jamaica, Santo Domingo, and Porto 
Rico as the localities in which it occurs, making no mention of Panay and 
Mindanao. 


’ Cat. Snakes, Brit. Mus. (1893), 1, 271. : 

oF, Miiller, I. Nachtr. Cat. Herp., Samml. Basel Mus. (1880), 31. 

“FF. Miiller, III. Nachtr. Cat. Herp., Samml. Basel Mus. (1883), 15. 
2 Duméril et Bibron, Erpétologie gén. (1854), 7, 543. 

BH. Miiller, II]. Nachtr. Cat. Herp., Samml. Basel Mus. (1883), 18. 
“4 Seoane, 4bhandl. Senck. Ges. (1880), 12, 217. Pl. 1. 

 Boettger, O., Ber. Senck. Ges. (1886), 115. 

% Cat. Snakes, Brit. Mus.. (1893), 1, 97. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


TEXT FIGURES. 


Fie. 1. Head of Dendrelaphis cewruleatus Griffin. (Drawing by Espinosa.) 
2. Upper figure; vertebra with a hypapophysis projecting from the lower 
side of the centrum. Lower figure: vertebra without hypapophysis. 
(From Boulenger. ) 
269 


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‘ 


ve REVIEWS. 


.The First Grammar of the Language Spoken by the Bontoc Igorot with a Voca- 
bulary and Texts, etc. By Dr. Carl Wilhelm Seidenadel. Price $5. Chicago. 
The Open Court Publishing Company, 1909. (Date of publication: April 
1910.) 


This grammar of a hitherto unexplored dialect spoken far up in the 
mountain fastnesses of northern Luzon can not but have come as a sur- 
prise to persons resident in the Philippine Islands and interested in the 
study of the vernaculars of their peoples since it originated on the op- 
posite side of the globe, at Chicago, in the heart of the United States 
of America. The explanation is, perhaps, in more than one sense, 
characteristic of the new order of things. 

The bulk of hitherto existing grammars and vocabularies on Philip- 
pine languages is made up of more or less time-honored works written 
by Spanish friars to whom the study of these languages was of immediate 
practical interest. It is characteristic of these works, especially of the 
older “Artes y Bocabularios,” products of years of linguistic study and 
practice among the natives, that they existed often for a considerable 
time only in manuscript form, and thus were copied and passed on from 
colleague to colleague and from one generation of missionaries to another, 
until, after many corrections and additions, they ultimately appeared in 
print in Manila. 

Here, now, we have the work of an American philologist, Dr. Wilhelm 
Seidenadel, who, withoutleaving Chicago, his place of residence, has been 
in contact for not more than about six months (two and one-half months 
in 1906, and three and one-half months in 1907) with two successive 
groups of Bontok people, who, from their mountain home in far Luzon, 
were sent to America for exhibition. Their presence excited in him 
a great interest in the strange tongue and he set himself to study it. 

“The difficulties seemed at first unsurmountable, for none of those whom the 
author met at first understood English sufficiently well to comprehend questions 
or to give explanations. Thus it became necessary to force the way into their 
idiom by their idiom, but what had appeared, in the beginning, to be almost 
a misfortune, proved afterwards to be a blessing: the necessity of using in the 
research almost exclusively their vernacular, through which the investigator 
succeeded in gaining genuine and correct material, such as in many other Malayo- 
Polynesian idioms is collected from unreliable translations of the Bible, from 
prayerbooks, manuals for priests, reports of unphilological officials, traders, mis- 
sionaries and similar sources. While the material was taken down during the 

271 


272 REVIEWS. 


first few weeks without any definite plan, the fascinating success soon induced 
the author to proceed systematically. Henceforth it was his aim to elicit from 
the Igérot as many examples as possible, illustrative of grammatical rules already 
sketched, and to collect an extensive vocabulary of genuine Bontoc Igérot words. 
But, as a matter of no less importance, he never neglected to take down also 
from the Ig6rot’s mutual conversation as many phrases as he could obtain, 
although the significance of most of them was quite obscure, at that first period 
of his research.” 


I take these quotations from the author’s narration of the genesis of 
his work as given by him in the preface. To judge by the date of the 
latter, the writing of the grammar was finished by October 18, 1907, 
that is, two months after the departure of the last group of Bontok people 
from Chicago. This is indeed a remarkable achievement of rare lin- 
guistic talent combining enthusiasm and perseverance in a self-imposed 
scientific task. The magnificent volume in which the labors of the author 
have found their embodiment may truly be regarded as a monument 
erected to these qualities by that group of American citizens who through 
their munificence made possible the publication of this work. 

The main parts of the book are: 

A collection of photographs showing, in various attitudes, individuals and 
groups of those representatives of the Bontok people who went to Chicago on 
exhibition. 

An inscription to the patrons alluded to above. 

Preface (pp. VII-xv). 

List of contents (pp. XVII—XXIV). 

Part I: Grammar, with appendix on Bontok proper names (pp. 1-270). 

Part Il: Vocabulary, with preface (pp. 273-475). 

Part III: Texts, with preface including a section “To the memory of Matyu 

from Bontoe” (Detroit, Michigan, September 3, 1908) (pp. 479-583). 

Addenda et Corrigenda (pp. 587-588) . 


In connection with the epitaph just mentioned, I may dwell here on a 
feature of Doctor Seidenadel’s work which impresses us in different parts 
of the book. It is his profound humane sympathy with his Bontoe 
friends, a sympathy which, transcending the mere professional interest 
taken by a scientist in the object of his study, would seem to be—accord- 
ing to the dictum: “Alles Verstindnis kommt uns nur durch die 
Liebe’—a guarantee of the faithfulness with which he has interpreted 
in his grammar genuine Bontok thought and speech. 


THE PREFACE. 


The preface, as has already been indicated, makes us acquainted 
with the peculiar cireumstances under which the book was conceived and 
born. After a review of the literature already existing on Bontok the 
author proceeds to give us an insight into the purpose and plan that 
guided, him in writing his grammar. To explain the absence in it of 
all comparative studies, he states that he considered it his task 


REVIEWS. BUS 


“to furnish material for such studies, to contribute at least a certain amount 
of reliable material for comparative research, which ought to be based upon the 
results of new, uninfluenced investigations—fieldwork—into the various idioms as 
spoken by the natives, and not upon religious books made by missionaries and 
their apprentices. It were best to consider the entire field of Philippine languages 
as yet untouched and to begin anew to study (but not without personal sympathy 
with the natives!) ‘jene Prachtwerke des malaiischen Baustils, die philippinischen 


? 


Sprachen, ..... * Concerning the plan underlying the grammar we are told: 
“While composing the grammar, several methods of arranging the material sug- 
gested themselves. The Author concluded—indeed not without hesitation—that 
it would be more convenient for students trained in the grammars of Indogermanic 
Languages, if he would retain, with slight modifications, the customary order 
of the chapters in such grammars, if he would first treat the articles, then the 
noun, pronoun, adjective, ete., just as if the Bontoc Language would distinguish 
the same grammatical categories as the Indogermanic Languages. This method 
seemed helpful for acquiring knowledge of the idiom, but for practise the student 
must absolutely abandon those former conceptions of etymology and syntax which 
he may have gained from his previous studies of the classical or modern Germanic 
or Romance Languages; the sooner he can free himself completely from clinging 
to his former notions of the structure of a language and adapt himself to new 
categories of linguistic elements, the earlier he will succeed in entering into the 
spirit of this admirable idiom.” 


It appears herefrom that, while the book is primarily intended to fur- 
nish material for studies in comparative Indonesian philology, that mate- 
rial is presented in such a form that it is available also for those familiar 
only with grammars of Indogermanic languages. The grammar is thus 
both critical and didactic; it investigates and discusses, and it teaches 
and is intended to be practiced. The combination of these two tasks 
offers, of course, certain difficulties, and where no systematic division is 
‘instituted, the claimants of either of the two spheres of interest involved 
must have the good grace to make certain concessions to those of the other. 

To consider first the interests of “the tradesman, the engineer, the 
teacher, the missionary, the official,” who are given directions on page 279 
how to derive practical advantage from the book, the reviewer is of the 
opinion that they could hardly do better than imitate the splendid 
example set by the author himself and use the vernacular from the very 
outset in talking with the natives. If, having thus acquired a smattering 
of the language, they begin reading the grammar, taking a suitable section 
day by day, and consult the book on every point of interest arising, they 
will certainly come to feel grateful to the author for his research work, 
and will be in a position fully to appreciate its merit. 


LIST OF CONTENTS. 


Both the practical student and the philologist probably will regret 
that the treasure of information stored in this volume has not been made 
somewhat easier of access. The List of Contents, as far as it refers to 
the grammatical part, might advantageously have been made more synop- 
tical by preserving in it the same division into chapters and sections into 


274 REVIEWS. 


which the text is actually divided. Without the headings used in the 
text and reduced to a running enumeration of the 462 paragraphs that 
make up the grammar, the List of Contents makes the latter wrongly 
appear a mere aggregate of grammatical details, among the great mass 
of which any particular matter is not easily detected. 


THE GRAMMAR. 


The Grammar begins by stating by whom the Bontok language is 
spoken, and its territorial extension. 

The author then gives a list of the symbols used by him to represent 
the sounds of that speech. As we become acquainted with the many 
indistinct, fluctuating, and interchanging sounds with which it abounds, 
we realize the difficulties the author had to conquer in making his way 
through this first barrier and must admire the conscientious and pains- 
taking manner in which he has undertaken to present to us throughout 
the book the peculiar Igorot sounds according to his system. It is but 
a proof of this conscientiousness that he, himself, in the preface calls 
attention to some inconsistencies in orthography, accents, and quantity. 
We are told that these are but a consequence of the changing elocution of 
the natives for whom he did not consider himself entitled to create a 
normal language. This is a very sensible remark, and one that touches 
at the root of the controversies which arise from time to time over the 
proper graphic representation of several sounds occurring in all these 
Indonesian languages, written or unwritten. Where the speakers them- 
selves, contemporaries in the same town or settlement, are not yet agreed, 
one with the other, nor each with himself, as to a definite pronunciation of 
their tongue, the exploring linguist would indeed commit a mistake in 
covering up the existing unstableness by fixing a normal spelling for 
himself. There is one statement in the author’s description of Bontok 
Igorot sounds upon which some comment may be useful as it relates to 
an apparent divergence of views found among some authors on Indonesian 
languages. Under the heading diphthongs, the author states: “All diph- 
thongs are vocalic with a final consonantal sound y or w.” Regarding 
the class of diphthongs here implied, a similar remark is often met with, 
namely, that the second part of the combination contains something con- 
sonantal, or is a consonant. ‘To explain this sound the two symbols, y 
(in Dutch j) and w, are referred to. It would certainly promote a clearer 
understanding if, instead of two ambiguous letters the pronunciation of 
which varies with different nationalities, a physiological description of 
this consonantal something were given. What is to be understood here 
by “consonant”? Is it, in the etymological sense, a sound which, more 
or less indistinct to the ear if alone, only sounds together with a vowel? 
This would be nothing more than the ordinary character of the second 


REVIEWS. 275 


part of the diphthongal combination here discussed, so that, once called 
diphthongs, it would be understood that the first part of the combination 
carries the syllable while the second part is reduced so as to give just a 
margin of different vocalic color to the first, remaining, however, vocalic 
to the end. 'The reviewer, for his part, has not been able to detect more 
than this in the mouth of Filipinos of different tribes whom he has asked 
to pronounce those diphthongs, nor can he find it in the examples by 
which the author illustrates some of the Bontok Igorot diphthongs: 


“ay nearly like ai in aisle 
“ey nearly like ey im eye, or ei in height 
“oy as in boy.” 

But by the term “consonant,” used in the case alluded to, more may 
be meant. That term is also defined as denoting, in the precise case here 
under discussion, a sound in the production of which that narrowing 
between lip and lip, and between tongue and palate, which is necessary for 
the articulation of w and 7 respectively is carried to the degree of becom- 
ing an obstruction to the passage of the breath, thus producing that rub- 
bing sound which is characteristic of the class of consonants involved 
(spirants or fricatives) and in which the vocalic element becomes extin- 
guished. To this class belongs the sound contained in certain French 
words cited by the author to illustrate the following diphthongs: 


“oy as in French feuille, 
“wy as in French fouille, 
“iy as in French tuyau.” 


As regards the group “ao, au, as in how” it would seem that as long 
as the lips in pronouncing the second part’ of the combination remain 
sufficiently open to make a fluctuation between o and w at all noticeable 
it is not probable that the narrowing required for the labial spirant is 
reached ; neither is it reached in the English word “how” used as example. 

After a detailed exposition of Bontok Igorot phonology the author 
proceeds to treat consecutively: the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective. 
Verb, Numerals, Prepositions, Adverbial Expressions, Particles, Conjunc- 
tions, ete. In so doing he amply fulfills his promise in the preface, to 
assist the student in all possible ways on each page of the grammar by 
establishing rules, by an abundance of examples and by frequent literal 
translations not only into English, but, wherever considered more helpful. 
into German, French, Spanish, and Latin. As, at the same time, he 
dwells upon and explains in their finer shades the turns of Igorot phraseo- 
logy, the student, in advancing, also becomes initiated into the spirit and- 
rules of syntax, so that, when the last part of speech is reached, there 
remain to be considered only a few special syntactical constructions. 
Chapters like Modifiers of Verbs (p. 117-130), Auxiliaries Constructed 

1067134 


276 REVIEWS. 


with Ligature ay (p. 130-134), Modifying Verbs (p. 134-138), Negatives 
(p. 138-148), which are among the most imteresting of the book, show 
clearly how profoundly the author has penetrated the intimacy of Igorot 
speech notwithstanding the short time allowed him for its practical study. 
The grammar in general convinces us that the material, in the first 
place, has been collected with great care and diligence, and afterward 
very studiously arranged so as to present it to the student as one 
systematic whole. 


It is in connection with this latter point, namely, the systematization given 
by the author to his matter, that I wish here to take up and extend a little the 
remarks made at the beginning on the formation of Philippine grammars in 
the past. 

Since it has been recognized that every language carries its order in itself, 
it is a just demand that this natural methodical disposition of its several parts 
be made the basis upon which the structure of any language, or group of closely 
related languages, be presented in a grammar. In the older Philippine grammars, 
those written by Spanish friars, we find this principle generally not carried out, 
either because it had not yet been established clearly and universally at that 
time, or because any attempt to evolve a natural system or order was subordinated 
to the practical purpose of instructing the younger members of those religious 
corporations in a manner then considered most adapted to their previous schooling 
in Latin. The fact is that Latin furnished the model for these Indonesian 
languages. Latin grammatical categories, by more or less specious interpretation 
of the native forms, were also found in Tagalog, Pampanga, Pangasinan, ete. 
As far as concerns the interest of the vernaculars, and not that of the students, 
the procedure was clearly recognized as improper, at least by some authors. 
Thus. P. Francisco Lopez, the excellent Ilocanist, says: “Aunque el idioma de estas 
lenguas es muy diferente de el de la lengua Jatina; con todo eso, en cuanto fuere 
posible, nos conformarémos con el método de el Arte de Antonio de Nebrija, por 
ser 6] por donde los mas de los Religiosos que vienen 4 estas Islas han estudiado 
el Jatin. Y asi hallaran mas claridad y facilidad en aprender esta lengua.”* 
But the evil produced, the obscuration of the genuine character of these languages, 
makes itself felt till to-day, both in the Philippines and outside, and the condemn- 
ation in Doctor Seidenadel’s Bontok Grammar of a particular “fallacy”—of which 
more presently—merits the more attention as he is a classicist himself. How ill 
adapted Latin as a grammatical taskmaster for an Indonesian language really is, 
may be gathered from an extract of what may be called a summary of the short- 
comings of Austronesian languages if tested upon the presence in them of 
grammatical forms characteristic of inflectional languages, as given by Doetor 
Codrington in his classical work on the Melanesian languages: “These languages, 
all of them, are destitute of inflexions, and this gives them a common character. 
There are, therefore. no Declensions or Conjugations: there are no Cases, no 
Genders, and, excepting Pronouns, there is no Number or Person. Since, then, 
these grammatical forms do not exist, it is unreasonable and undesirable to speak 
of them as if existing .... Corresponding with the absence of Inflexion there 
is an absence of those variations in the form of words which may distinguish 
the Parts of Speech. It is not that there is a complete absence of such speeial 


*Gramiatica ilocana, compuesta por el P. Predicador Fr. Francisco Lopez... . 
Third edition, Malabon (1895) p. XIII. (First edition 1627.) 


REVIEWS. 277 


forms as Verb or Noun, but that the same word, without any change of form, 
may be in use as almost any of the parts of Speech. The use of the word, not its 
form, commonly declares its character .... - 5 

The first among Spanish grammarians to depart from the traditional Latin 
observance was probably P. Toribio Minguella. For the use of other than Latin- 
bred students he published in 1878 a Tagalog grammar which, perhaps on account 
of its being an attempt in a new direction, he modestly called “Ensayo de 
gramatica hispano-tagala.” In this work-he endeavors to do more justice to the 
language itself. Besides fitting the grammar for practical use by giving exercises 
and matter for reading and translating, he guides himself, in presenting the 
structure of the language, more by its own forms, and introduces certain terms 
denoting grammatical categories under discussion of their definition and their 
applicability to Tagalog. 

As was seen in a previous quotation from Doctor Seidenadel’s preface, the 
proper arrangement of his material has been with him likewise a matter of 
consideration. Consulting in this respect the convenience of students trained in 
Indogermanic languages, he decided to adhere, with slight modifications, to the 
customary order observed in those grammars, designating that order, however, 
as one applied to his grammar only “as if the Bontoc language would distinguish 
the same-grammatical categories as the Indogermanic languages.” We are, then, 
not at liberty to look upon the order followed by the author as representing his 
views on the proper systematic presentation of an Indonesian language such as 
Bontoe Igorot; but we are also absolved for. the same reason, from giving 
consideration to that hypothetical plan from this point of view. 

Still, as already indicated above, at one point of his chosen plan the author 
makes a strong criticism of the views held by a number of Indonesian philologists 
concerning certain classes of derivatives particularly characteristic of Philippine 
languages, and since the reviewer is completely in accord with the negative part 
of the author’s contention, and believes that the time has come for a revision of 
prevailing views involved, he extracts here some of the paragraphs in Doctor 
Seidenadel’s grammar which bear directly on the matter. 


212. If roots shall be formed into Nomina actionis, they receive (after certain 
phonetic changes [220]) one of these verbalizing particles: 
I. the suffix -en (but no prefix) 
Ii. The suffix -an (but no prefix) 
Il]. the prefix 7- (but no suffix) 

213. By combination with one of these particles the root is transformed into an 
Active Verbal Noun. The particles indicate that the action named by 
the root passes from the agent to an object. They give the Active 
Verbal Noun transitive force. 

216. Since the Nomen Actionis possesses active foree—as has become evident 
through many various experiments with the spoken language—the 
relations of the direct object or accusative, in our conception, to the 
Nomen Actionis with -en is: (a) Hither the object of the Nom. act. is 
in the accusative; it is governed by the Nom. Act. which has its 
transitive force in the suflix -en. If we represent this transitive force of 


*The Melanesian Languages by R. H. Codrington, D. D. Oxford 1855, pp. 
101-102. The judgment quoted may appear somewhat severe; as a remedy against 
the belief in the universality of Latin categories, it is certainly wholesome. 


278 REVIEWS. 


-en by our verbs “‘to affect,” or “to concern” or “to influence,” we obtain 
this translation: 

leytjenmi tjaitja: our liking concerns them.’ (b) Or the object is in 
the predicative nominative; the transitive force of -en may be indicated 
by words like “aim,” “object”: 

alaentako nan tolfeg: our taking-object (is): the key 

217. The relation of the object to the Nomen actionis with suffix -av is analogous 
to the construction mentioned in [216], if we assume the possibility 
that -an is probably identical with -aen, or merely a variation of -en, in 
this combination with Nom. actionis. The following theory seems to 
be more plausible: -an is the locative particle, as affixed to substantives 
in [56-58]. The object is the place where the action named by the 
Active Nom. act. “takes place”, to which it tends; it is the end of the 
action. We can translate: 

ayakantako nan aliwidtako our calling-end (is): the man * 

218. The relation of the object to Nomina actionis with the prefix 7- appears 
to be the same as that to Nom. Act. with -en; i- performs here a similar 
function as -en does there; 7- directs the action towards the aim, the 
object. 

(I- may be compared with our prefix be- in bespeak, befall: or it may 
represent the preposition is, and may then be compared with invade, 
offend, persuade, provide, and other prepositional compounds. ) 

In certain cases i- points to a person in whose behalf another acts, and 
to the tool which a person uses in performing or executing that which 
the Nom. act. names; 

itafongko nan soklongna my hiding affects his hat. The discussion of 
the constructions in the examples of -en, -an, i- Verbs given [216-218] 
was attempted for the purpose of facilitating translation and re- 
translation and with the assumption that there were in Bontoe Igérot 
eases of the substantive, distinctions between nominative and accusative, 
which do, in fact, no exist: the Bontoe Igérot does not distinguish 
between Casus rectus and obliquus. 


Later, on page 95, the author returns incidentally to the subject under the 
heading Future Passive: 

The imperative [of the Passive] does not exist: any theoretical forms and 
any experimentative use of them in sentences were unexceptionally denied; 
“Because you cannot tell a man what shall be done to him”... (But the 
misnamed “Three Passives” (the “Genus Relativum’, my Active ‘“Possessive 
Verbs”) were put in the Imperative without hesitation; this shows also that the 
-en, -an, i- verbs are conceived to be Active Nomina Agentis.)° 

To the parenthetical clause of paragraph 218 above quoted the following is 
added as a footnote: 

. However convenient for minds trained, to some extent, in Latin, the Doctrine of 
the Three Passives has appeared, centuries ago, to its inventor, and however 
eredulously his disciples clung to this perverse interpretation of the Active Verbal 
Noun (Nom. actionis) in Tagalog and in the dialects of several other tribes—in 
the Bontoe Igorot Language the Verbal Noun is certainly not passive, but active 
in its character. 


*Here as in the paragraphs following I give only one of several examples. 
For diacritical marks used with Bontok words, compare the original. (Rev,) 


““Man” is but a lapsus for “our friend” ( Rev.) 
° Agentis ? (Rev.) 


REVIEWS. 279 


If a passive is wanted, there is one on hand, in all times and moods of Igorot 
(265-276): prefix ma--+ root + personal endings. Experiments with the Igorot 
by means of their own vernacular (but not through interpreters) proved in- 
disputably their correct consciousness of an active and a passive idea. 

The fact that the Three Passives Fallacy has been propagated in good faith 
for about two centuries and is still indefatigably copied and republished and 
taught, shows (as also other factors do) how necessary it is to revise and to 
compare the “Artes” of time-honored “authorities” and the entire material of 
sacred books, catechisms, confessionals, prayerbooks, with the living dialects 
spoken by the natives. The result of such future careful investigations into the 
people’s vernacular, the collection of tales and songs in the unbiased dialects of 
the different tribes ought to be most welcome to Comparative Philologists who 
seem to rely only on the unreliable material at hand, fawte de mieux, material 
collected by unphilological compilers, with a few admirable exceptions, such as 
Totanes, Minguella. 

The unfelicitous term of the Three Passives (which may have sprung from 
its originator’s inability to distinguish between the Gerundium and the Gerun- 
divum) was employed unscrupulously in many grammars and learned articles 
and papers on various Philippine dialects, Bontoe Igorot excepted. The Three 
Passives and their alleged application occur, for instance, in . . . [follows a list 
of 25 authors, titles of books, and some comment]. 


THE VOCABULARY. 


The vocabulary contains some 2,000 English catch-words, each of 
which either is given one or more Igorot equivalents or is treated as a 
theme developed into a summary of Igorot expressions for identical 
and related ideas, always, however, with sharp discrimination between 
words indigenous to the people and those borrowed from outside. “Verbs 
are given first in the Present Active in their most common form (not 
special form) ; the other “principal parts” follow: Preterite—Passive Par- 
ticiple in Present—Nomen agentis. Personal Verbs are found in Present 
and Preterite only.”° The basic form, the stem-word, of derivatives, for 
which comparative philologists probably will look first, is not given. 
The reason for this perhaps may be found in some remarks made by the 
author in the preface to the vocabulary: “Is it necessary to warn against 
using my Vocabulary any one who would, without having studied and 
practiced the Grammar, attempt to derive any benefit from the Vocabu- 
lary? ... The student of the Bontoc Grammar can easily construct and 
supply the missing forms. The Author thinks he could do the same; 
but he does not intend to depart from his principle: to write down only 
what he has heard and as he has heard it.” 


THE TEXTS. 


A large amount of Bontok Igorot “Text” is found scattered throughout 
the grammar in the shape of phrases taken down by the author from the 
Igorots’ mutual conversation, and used by him as examples for illustrating 


* Page 279 (Preface to the Vocabulary). 


280 REVIEWS. 


points of grammar and syntax. These phrases constitute very valuable 
material for gaining an insight into that “language” which springs from 
the mouth of the people as they work in their fields, attend to their 
domestic affairs, go to war or chide, scorn, langh among themselves, ete. 
It is precisely because, from the intelligent use made by the author of 
such phrases, we can form a judgment as to the considerable insight 
gained by him into the spirit of the language, that we wish he had 
given them in the coherent form of some animated conversation among 
individuals of the tribe. Could any other kind of “text” reflect more 
truly the live speech of the people, or disclose more clearly the tem- 
perament of the speakers? By this remark I certainly do not wish to 
detract in the least from the great merit of the collection of folk-lore 
that forms the third part of Doctor Seidenadel’s work and which also 
contains examples of spirited conversation. 


These texts, eleven in number, are: 

1. LumMAwie, an extremely interesting and probably the most important story 
of Bontok folk-lore, beginning with an account of how the (Bontok) world was 
created and the Great Flood caused by two brothers, sons of Lumawig; how the 
latter bade the sole survivors, a brother and sister, located on top of Pokis 
Mountain, to marry, ordering his dog and the deer to furnish them the fire, ete.” 

2. HEADHUNTERS’ RETURN AND CEREMONIES. 

3. THE IGOROT IN THE BATTLE OF CALO/OCAN; a narration of the part taken 
by a number of Bontok men in the action between the American and Filipino 
forces at Caloocan, near Manila, on February 10, 1899. 

4. THE RAT AND THE TWO BROTHERS; a graceful legend telling of the gratitude 
of a rat, whose life had been spared by the younger of two brothers. The rat 
makes presents to them both and the younger of the two, by a cunning exchange 
gets possession of a magic spoon and pestle which when put into a pot will fill 
it with meat and rice. 

5. THE STARS; a spicy little tale, illustrating the quick-witted inventiveness 
and satirical vein of the people who explain in it the origin of the [loko tax- 
collectors of Spanish times. 

6. Tiz1n; the metamorphosis of a girl into a rice-bird (tilin) as a warning to 
parents who begrudge their children a liberal measure of food. 

7. Korie, and 

8. THE MONKEY, two more metamorphoses of children, as a warning to parents 
who are too severe or neglectful. 

9. PALPALAMA AND PALPALAKING; another story pointing a moral for greedy 
people. 

10. VARIA. 

11. Songs; containing many words and phrases belonging to a “Song Dialect”, 
words “of the old folks”, of forgotten or obscure meaning. which are of the greatest 
interest to ethnologists and philologists. 


Doctor Seidenadel has the merit of having overcome unusual difficul- 
ties to enrich our knowledge of Philippine languages by a work containing 
comprehensive and exhaustive information on the hitherto unexplored, 


™Vaguely similar traditions exist in Ifugao folk-lore. 


REVIEWS. 281 


or at best very superficially known language of a people of northern 
Luzon, who upon the downfall of Spanish sovereignty were taken charge 
of by the American Government as crude head-hunters, and are now 
‘being prepared for entrance into the comity of their civilized brother- 
tribes. The compilation of an exhaustive grammar, ample vocabulary, 
and representative collection of texts of their language is certainly a 
means to bring them nearer our understanding, and to promote the task 
just indicated. lo comparative Indonesian philology the complete re- 
presentation of a member of the so-called Igorot dialects has always been 
a desideratum ; thanks to Doctor Seidenadel this is now fulfilled and his 
work is already being drawn upon in furtherance of such studies. 

In the interest of the linguistic exploration of the Philippine Islands 
it is to be hoped that Doctor Seidenadel will continue dedicating his 
eminent talent to a task already so greatly furthered by him. 

OTTO SCHEERER. 


Allin’s Standard English-Visayan Dictionary. By Benjamin Casey Allin, gov- 
ernment surveyor working in the Province of Cebu, Philippine Islands. 
Cloth. Pp. 260. Falek’s Printing House, Cebu, Cebu, P. I. 


This is a handy little volume designed for the use of Filipinos who 
are learning English and of English speaking persons who are learning 
Bisaya. 

As there is no Bisaya-Hnglish section it could not be used by a person 
who had no knowledge of English. 

Tt contains over 5,000 English words listed alphabetically in the first 
column. The second column contains the same words spelled phone- 
tically, the third abbreviations indicating whether the word is a substan- 
tive, verb, preposition, etc., and the fourth the definitions in Bisaya. 

Tt is not quite clear why the compiler states that the letter “V” is 
“used only in introduced Spanish words” and yet spells the name of the 
language “Visayan” instead of Bisaya. ‘There is also a good deal of 
difference of opinion as to the wisdom of representing by “aw” the final 
sound ordinarily represented by “ao.” This sound in other countries 
where the languages are being written phonetically is represented by “au.” 
To many this seems more nearly to represent the sound and it certainly 
would have the advantage, if adopted, of bringing Philippine philologists 
into conformity with other students of the languages of the east. 

There are many typographical errors in the book but probably none 
of them so important as to interfere seriously with its usefulness. 

One who has some knowledge of Bisaya or a considerable knowledge of 
English ought to find the Dictionary useful. 
M. L. M. 


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, ree: Vs fea 
Ch acu ae = Weacehs Cad hy ea as Fodateuaeell ¥) 1 Tae ee hse ae: wat 
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THE PHILIPPINE 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 


D. GENERAL BIOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY 
AND ANTHROPOLOGY 


Vou. VI DECEMBER, 1911 No. 6 


THE FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 
PART IV, MISCELLANEOUS MARINE PRODUCTS. . 


By ALVIN SEALE. 


(From the Ichthyological Section, Biological Laboratory, Bureau of Science, 
Manila, P. I.) 


CONTENTS. 


I. Trepang (Béche de Mer). 
II. The Shark-fin Industry. 
III. Philippine Sea Turtles and Tortoise-Shell. 
TV. The Philippine Window Shell. 
V. Philippine Shells Used in the Manufacturing of Buttons. 
VI. Precious Corals. 
VII. Edible Seaweeds of the Philippines. 
VIII. The Preparation of Isinglass in the Philippines. 
IX. Preparing Skins of Aquatic Animals for Leather. 
X. A Check-list of Philippine Holothurians. 


I. PHILIPPINE TREPANG (BECHE DE MER). 


Trepang is a general name applied in the Philippines to all of the 
many species of animals belonging to the group Holothurioidea and known 
locally as béche de mer, balatan, bilate, munang, hisam, sea cucumber, 
and cotton-spinner. Large quantities of these animals are gathered in 
the Philippines for export to China and Japan. 'Trepang is a staple 
food of all Oriental people and is an important item of export from the 
Philippine Islands. 

Trepang in general appearance resembles pickled cucumbers. The 

106346 283 


284 SEALE. 


skin may be smooth, or covered with prickle-like teats arranged in rows 
or scattered over the body. In color they range from pale flesh-color 
to black. These animals, when dry, are hard, sausage-shaped, and appear 
to be altogether unpalatable and it is not until they have been cleaned, 
minced, and made into a most delicious soup by the skillful hand of 
the Chinese cook that the real value of this product of the sea is 
understood. Béche de mer live among the white sand and coral in the 
sea-gardens and feed upon small sea-animals and sea-vegetation, so there 
is no reason why they should not rank as a delicious food product and 
come into general use among Huropeans and Americans. I can, from 
experience, heartily recommend a trial of trepang soup* to those who 
delight in a dish free from the contaminations of the land, with a delicate 
aroma of the deep sea about it. 


VARIETIES OF PHILIPPINE TREPANG. 


In Manila all the large dealers in trepang are Chinese. They recognize 
five different varieties, as follows: 

No. 1.2—Oé (Plate I, fig. 1). A large, uniformly black, perfectly 
smooth variety (H. atra Jeger). This species, when dry, is from 420 to 
200 millimeters in length and 40 to 60 millimeters in diameter. This is 
regarded as the most desirable species found in the Islands and sells for 
the highest price, being valued at 65 to 98 centavos per kilogram whole- 
sale, according to the size of the animal, and care in curing. I will 
call it the great smooth black trepang. 

No. 2.—Gan Sim (Plate I, fig. 2), is a large brownish trepang, with 
two rows of teats on each side. The animal, when dry, is of a rather 
flat, oval shape, about 120 millimeters in length and 60 millimeters in 
width. Its back is but slightly roughened. ‘This species is regarded as 
being next to the best variety, sells for 40 to 80 centavos per kilogram, 
and is in fair demand. We will call it the great oval brown trepang. 

No. 3—Bark Sim (Plate I, fig. 3) is the third grade of trepang and 
to this belongs the great mass of trepang shipped from the Islands. It 
includes a large variety of forms ranging in price from 35 to 70 centavos 


*To make trepang soup.—Clean and wash out the trepang in cold water, slice 
and put them in a chopping bowl and mince fine, soak in cold water five hours, 
then boil for one hour, add salt and pepper and a quantity of beef or chicken 
stock and bring to a boil. Serve hot. [Sing Fat.] 

27 have been unable to find anyone in the Philippines who recognized or could 
give me any information regarding the names given to the Philippine trepang by 
Simmonds in his Commercial. Products of the Sea, although I have repeatedly 
asked dealers and fishermen both in Jolo and Manila. It is possible that his 
so-called “bankolungen” is the gan sim, his “munang” the oé, his “telepan” the 
moi whar che, his “sapatos grande” the smooth white ringed bark sim, his 
“sapatos china” is perhaps the great convoluted bark sim, and his “lowalowan” 
is possibly the bark sim, called the small black wrinked trepang in the present 
paper. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 285 


per kilogram, the most abundant, perhaps, being small, black, slightly 
roughened, cylindrical in shape, and when dry about 90 millimeters long 
by 25 millimeters wide (Plate II, fig. 1). Another very common form 
of this grade is the Philippine convoluted trepang, a large, light brown 
species about 130 millimeters by 40 millimeters, cylindrical, with the 
body, when dry, thrown into deep folds (See Plate II, fig. 5). Another 
bark sim is a moderately roughened, cylindrical trepang of a dull yel- 
lowish-brown color and 150 by 35 millimeters in size (Plate II, fig. 3). 
Another is a dark brown, almost smooth form (when dry), with the back 
covered with small orange spots with black centers. This is a large 
species, 170 by 70 millimeters, and cylindrical in shape (Plate 4, fig. 4). 
I will call this the smooth white-ringed trepang. Another form very 
similar to the last I will term the rough white-ringed trepang. (Plate 
II, fig. 2.) This trepang is 160 by 48 millimeters in size, cylindrical, 
with the body decidedly tuberculate; it is rather dark brown in color 
with numerous white circles around the large tubercules of the sides and 
back. Another rather common trepang of the bark sim grade, is a small, 
very black form, with deep wrinkles in the body (Plate II, fig. 6). This 
variety when dry is cylindrical in shape and about 80 millimeters long 
by 20 millimeters deep. I will call it the small black-wrinkled trepang. 

No. 4.—Moi Whar Che (Plate I, fig. 4). This trepang is a large, 
eylindrical black form, easily distinguished by the fact that the entire 
back is covered with numerous, very long teats which are black or reddish 
brown in color. ‘This variety is quite abundant, but is regarded as fourth 
rate as a food product, the price being from 30 to 50 centavos per 
kilogram. I will term it the great prickly trepang. 

No. 5—Hong Che (Plate I, fig. 5) is the fifth grade of trepang, and 
resembles the last except that it is smaller and more cylindrical; the 
teats are more pointed and slightly longer. Its wholsale price is from 
35 to 45 centavos per kilogram. Many of the young of the moi whar 
che are to be seen in this class, but are distinguished easily by their 
short teats. In size the hong che is from 50 to 90 millimeters in length 
by 16 to 20 millimeters in width. 

There are numerous other grades among the 63 species of these animals 
found in the Philippines, but none are of sufficient importance or value 
to be recognized in trade. However, one very common form, called “yel- 
low belly,” is so abundant, especially about Mindoro, that is deserves at 
least to be catalogued. This form when dry is yellow-white on the belly 
and black on the back,.about 60 millimeters in length and 25 in depth; 
its value is not above 12 pesos * per picul. It is only the great abundance 
of this grade that makes it worth our consideration. 

All of the above grades retail in Manila for fully 30 per cent advance 
on the prices obtained by the fisherman. 


* One peso is equal to 50 cents United States currency, and 1 picul is 139 pounds. 


286 SEALE. 


DISTRIBUTION, HABITS, GROWTH, AND PRODUCTION OF PHILIPPINE TREPANG. 


The wide distribution of these apparently helpless, sedentary sea- 
animals is a matter of interest and astonishment to all who give the 
subject any thought. - Twenty of the species found in the Philippines are 
also common to Polynesia, 16 to the Malay Archipelago, 30 to the Red 
Sea and the coast of Africa, while 3 extend even to the west coast of 
America. The majority of the recorded forms are believed to be well 
distributed throughout the Philippines, but are most abundant in the 
Sulu Archipelago. The supply for Manila comes chiefly from Tacloban, 
Polillo, and Ambos Camarines. They are found in water of various 
depths, even in very shallow water and also on reefs dry at high tide, 
down to 137 fathoms and even to much greater depth. Sheltered places: 
inside the coral reefs where the bottom is of coral sand seem to be favorite 
haunts of the bark sim and hong che forms, while moi whar che, gan 
sim, and o€ seem to prefer water of greater depth just at the edge of 
the reef. The greater number of the trepang appear to pass large quan- 
tities of sand and mud through their alimentary canals; from this sand 
they extract the small animals and plants on which they feed. On 
Arboles Reef, Gulf of Davao, Mindanao, I once noticed a large number 
of Colochirus quadrangulus Less. feeding on sea-weed which at low tide 
was about 75 millimeters (3 inches) under water. They were so abun- 
dant that it was scarcely possible to step without treading them down, 
and in one scoop of an ordinary dip net I secured 57 of them. It is 
probable that during the season for depositing the eggs they all seek 
the reefs or rocky crevices. Mitsukuri,t in his most interesting paper 
on the common Japanese trepang, writes, referring to the Island of Oki, 


The people there have for a hundred years or more been in the habit of putting 
up loose stone-piles in the shallow sea in order to obtain a supply of this trepang. 


Nowhere in the Philippines is this devise put into practice although it 
doubtless would yield profitable results. 

Practically nothing is known about the breeding time of the Philip- 
pine trepang and it is a subject well worth investigating. In Japan (as 
abstracted from the above paper), the trepang spawn in May and June, 
and at the end of the first year have a maximum size of 5 by 25 centi- 
meters. ‘They reach the adult condition at the end of the second year, 
but do not spawn until the end of the third; some individuals probably 
live two or three years after spawning. The young specimens are white 
and transparent, and they attach themselves to the roots of alge, or seek 
rocky crevices in sheltered localities. Hence a rock pile affords a 
natural collecting ground for the very young as well as for the old. 
Japan has put some measures in force setting aside certain localities as 


4 Notes on the Habits and Life-History of Stichopus japonicus Selenka. Annot. 
Zool. Jap. (1903-06), 5, 1-21. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 287 


breeding reserves for trepang, upon which stone piles or dikes have 
been constructed, and in these places fishing for trepang is strictly for- 
bidden. In this way the Japanese hope to conserve this valuable food 
supply. 

There are so many natural breeding places in the Philippines along 
the coast and among the rocks on the shore line of the many islands, 
that our supply now is, and probably for years to come will be, much 
greater than the demand, or rather more than the fishermen under present 
conditions will take the trouble to dry and prepare for market. 


METHODS OF FISHING FOR TREPANG. 


In gathering trepang, the fisherman usually goes out at low tide wading 
in the shallow water, dragging a small canoe or banca behind him, into 
which he throws all the trepang he picks up;- sometimes he fishes 
from a boat, with a long handled, one-pronged spear, with which he 
gathers up the trepang in water of 3 to 4 meters. In water of greater 
depth some fishermen dive and bring up the trepang in their hands. 
There are localities where small dredges undoubtedly could be used with 
good effect. 


PREPARING TREPANG FOR MARKET. at 


The Filipino method of preparing trepang for the market is to boil 
them for a short time (from five to twenty minutes) in fresh water, after 
which they are split up the belly, eviscerated, and then thoroughly dried 
in the sun. Hach variety seems to require a slightly special treatment 
particularly in regard to the length of time required for boiling, in 
order to bring out the best flavor. However, they should all be heated 
thoroughly throughout, and when taken out of the boiling water they 
should be hard and elastic, and should dry quickly like a hard boiled egg. 
The 0é frequently is boiled only five minutes; it should be well stirred. 
Experience really is the only guide as to th; length of time required for 
boiling. Sun-dried trepang are the best, and in the greatest demand, 
but the method of sun-drying is too slow for preparing a whole ship-load. 
The following method given by V. Simmonds ° is followed in preparing 
large shipments of trepang. 

The first thing to do on arriving at an island where trepang is plentiful is 
to erect a curing house on shore. This house may be of any desired size but 
one 30 meters long by 15 meters wide, with sides 4 meters high, will be found 
convenient for preparing a ship’s cargo. This structure may be built of native 
material such as mats, bamboo, etc., and roofed with a coconut thatch which 
must be put on well to keep out the rain. A small door should be left in each 
end of the house. Platforms for drying the trepang are then erected along 
one side of the entire length of the house and these should be 2 meters wide, the 
lower one about breast-high from the ground and the upper one | meter above that. 


>The Commercial Products of the Sea. New York (1897), 111. 


288 SEALE. 


These are made of split pieces of bamboo or small slats. A trench 1 meter 
in width and a half meter deep is then dug beneath the lower platform along its 
entire length, for the fires. Tubs filled with salt water are placed at short 
intervals along the trench, with buckets near at hand for use in preventing the 
fire blazing up and burning the trepang or destroying the house. 

The process of curing is as follows: The trepang is first caught and gutted 
and washed in fresh water; it is then carried into the curing house and placed 
on the lower platform where it is spread out about 14 centimeters (5 inches) 
thick, to dry. When this platform is covered with the trepang, the fires are 
lighted in the trench; they must constantly be kept going, day and night, and 
be carefully guarded. Much skill is required in properly drying the trepang 
as well as in boiling it, as too much heat will cause it to blister and get porous, 
like a sponge, whereas too little will lead to its spoiling and turning putrid 
within twenty-four hours after being boiled; care is requisite likewise in gutting, 
for if this is not properly attended to the animals will turn into a blubbery 
mass within a few hours after being caught. On the afternoon of the second 
day after the fires are lighted, they are extinguished for a short time and the 
trepang is shifted to the upper platform; splints of wood should be put in those 
not properly drying. The lower platform is then filled again with a fresh 
supply of trepang from the pots, and the fires are again lighted. The trepang 
on the lower platform should be turned frequently during the first twelve hours. 
After another two days the fires are again put out and the trepang on the upper 
platform shoved over at one end to make room for those on the lower platform, 
and the same proceeding repeated for the two following days, by which 
time (six days in all) the first day’s product will be cured properly. The 
trepang is then taken off the upper platform and carefully examined, those not 
dry are put back again, and the quantity cured is stowed away in bags on 
shipboard or in a dry storehouse. The product soon becomes damp, unless 
packed in air-tight casks. If held in storage for three months, it requires to be 
dried again for a short time in the sun. 

Forty men are necessary to work a house of the above size to its greatest 
capacity. 

UTILIZING TREPANG AS FOOD. 


The chief use of trepang as food is in the form of a savory soup, 
as heretofore described. It is also eaten as a meat by certain natives 
of the Philippines, after it has been roasted. In some islands of the 
Busuanga group, the natives collect these animals and by irritation cause 
them to eject a viscous white fluid which swells up greatly when it comes 
in contact with sea-water and splits into numerous white threads, 
not unlike cotton; these threads are cooked and eaten and are regarded 
as a delicacy. However, as the animal frequently ejects almost all the 
viscera as well as the mucus, the dish probably would not appeal to 
Huropeans or Americans. 

The Chinese believe that trepang is not only a most delicious food, 
but that it also possesses excellent medicinal qualities. 


QUANTITY AND VALUE OF EXPORTED PHILIPPINE TREPANG. 
Sixty-six thousand eight hundred thirty-eight kilograms of trepang 


were exported from the Philippines in 1909. The export in 1910 was 
120,969 kilograms, which, at the low price for third grade quality, would 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 289 


be valued at 51,780 pesos. As a matter of fact much of it was first and 
second grade trepang so that probably the true value would more nearly 
approximate 75,000 pesos. According to British statistics, the Sulu Ar- 
chipelago alone supplied Singapore in 1907 with trepang valued at 21,975 
pesos. Singapore’s total trade in trepang for that period was valued at 
442,102 pesos, two-thirds of which was shipped to Hongkong. It would 
be much cheaper for Hongkong to buy directly from Manila; as a matter 
of fact, our last year’s increase in export largely was due to the direct 
buying of Hongkong dealers. 

China imports each year about 3 million kilograms of trepang, chiefly 
from the Malay Archipelago, Philippine Islands, and the South Pacific 
Islands. The export from Manila might easily be doubled without damage 
to the fisheries. 


COMMERCIAL POSSIBILITIES IN PHILIPPINE TREPANG. 


While it is true that trepang is one of the minor marine products of 
the Philippines, nevertheless, we should not lose sight of the fact that it 
is a staple and recognized article of diet with a country which has the 
largest population on the face of the globe, and where it finds a ready 
market; also, that it can be cheaply prepared, that the natural supply 
in the Islands is large, and that with but little care the output probably 
could be increased readily. Taking all these facts into consideration, it 
is rather a matter of astonishment that large canning companies, espe- 
cially in the United States, have not awakened to the possibility of this 
product of the sea and added the delicious trepang soup to their list of 
conserved products. 

A check list of Philippine holothurians appears.at the end of this paper. 


II, THE SHARK-FIN INDUSTRY IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 


The drying and curing of sharks’ fins (Plate III, fig. 1) in the Phil- 
ippines, for export to China, is one of the minor industries, requiring 
but little capital and yielding profitable returns. At present the business 
is almost entirely in the hands of Chinese merchants. 

The fins of all of the numerous species of sharks found in the Islands 
are used, as well as some of the fins of the larger rays. The big, dorsal 
fin of the shark is the most desirable; this is usually of a uniform pale 
grayish or whitish color on both sides, and is supposed by the Chinese 
to contain more gelatin than any of the others, therefore it commands the 
highest price and is known in commerce as the “white fin.” All the 
remaining fins, which include the ventrals, pectorals, anal, and caudal, 
are classed together as “black fin.” The large caudal fin when uniform 
in color is frequently put in as “white fin.” he fine white fins are 
selected for the making of soup, while the black fins are largely used in 
manufacturing a superior grade of fish glue. 


290 SEALE. 


METHOD OF CATCHING SHARKS. 


Sharks are principally caught by the Moros, although they are captured 
in considerable numbers in corrals and nets throughout the Islands. The 
Moros usually spear them, or catch them with hook and line, using 
stale fish for bait. The observer can not fail to be impressed by the 
number and size of the sharks caught by the Samal Moros in the vicinity 
of Sitanki Island. 

A number of Philippine sharks will take the trolling spoon, especially 
if it is painted red on one side; they afford very good sport. In India, 
sharks are captured in large nets for the sake of the oil secured from 
the liver; they are also used as food by the poorer classes. In the Phil- 
ippines the Moros alone seem to relish shark-meat, and the manufacture 
of fish oil is an entirely neglected industry. If we consider the great 
number of sharks caught in these Islands, it is a matter of surprise to 
find that the making of fish-oil is not carried on in connection with the 
shark-fin industry, as this would very materially increase the revenue 


_ derived from each shark. 


THE PREPARATION OF SHARKS’ FINS. 


The fins are cut from the shark as soon as possible after its capture, the 
thick fleshy portions of the larger fins are slit open to facilitate their drying, and 
they are then spread out in the sun. It requires from three to six days to 
dry the product depending upon the amount of sunshine. After the fins are 
thoroughly dry they are assorted into two grades: The white fins, or first class 
variety, in which are placed all the large dorsal fins; and the black fins, or 
second class, which includes all the small fins. They are then packed tightly 
in bales of about 100 kilograms each and are ready for export. 

These fins are further prepared by being soaked in boiling water for a short 
time and the skin removed. They are then shredded into small cartilaginous 
rods, somewhat resembling a very fine grade of sphagetti. These are waxy white 
and attractive in appearance (Plate III, fig. 2). 

At this stage they are either made into soup, or dried and reéxported to all 
parts of the world at considerably more than double the original price. To make 
this prepared fin into a savory and wholesome soup it is soaked in cold water one 
day, then placed in hot water for one hour, this causes all the rods to separate. 
Eggs and some chicken or beef stock, salt, pepper, and butter are added and the 
mixture boiled for two hours. That the above receipt produces a most delicious 
soup was the unanimous verdict of the staff of the Bureau of Science after testing 
a sample prepared by Sing Fat, a well known Chinese cook of Manila. 

No great Chinese feast is complete without a dish of this soup and I believe 
it is worth while to call the attention of our large soup manufacturing estab- 
lishments to the possibilities of this industry in the Philippines. I believe that 
an almost unlimited market could be found in China. 


THE AMOUNT AND VALUE OF SHARK-FIN EXPORTED FROM THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 
Sharks’ fins weighing 172,610 kilograms, valued at 85,000 pesos (42,500 


dollars), were exported from Manila during the year 1910. The current 
price of shark-fin at Zamboanga, which is one of the centers of the trade, 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 291 


is 84 centavos per kilogram for the white fin and 58 centavos for the 
black, therefore, it is evident that the export valuation is very low and 
that the real value probably would be somewhat over 100,000 pesos. The 
price is subject to considerable variation. In 1909 the maximum price 
paid for the entire yield was 2.19 pesos per kilogram including both white 
and black fins. Chinese merchants in Zamboanga informed me that 
the price for the first grade white fin sometimes reaches 6.58 pesos per 
kilogram, but this is unusual. Almost the entire yield of Philippine 
shark-fin is shipped to Singapore or Hongkong, and from these places 
is distributed to various parts of China. 

In Manila the retail price of prepared shark-fin, as shown in Plate III, 
fig. 2, is from 8 to 10 pesos per kilogram. 

In conclusion I wish again to call attention to the fact that the by- 
products of the shark fishery are entirely wasted. If, in addition to 
the fins, the liver was used to make fish oil, and the skin which is used 
for scabbards for swords was also saved, the revenue derived from each 
shark would be about doubled. 


III. PHILIPPINE SEA TURTLES AND TORTOISE-SHELL. 


VARIETIES OF PHILIPPINE MARINE TURTLES. 


. Sea turtles of large size find a congenial home in the warm waters of 
the Philippines. Abundant schools of fish supply them with plenty of 
food, and the hot sandy beaches of numerous, small, uninhabited islands 
furnish them ideal nesting places; hence, as a result of these conditions, 
the three recognized species of sea turtles are found throughout the 
Archipelago. 

The marine turtles ° are easily distinguished from all other kinds by 
the fact that their hmbs have become completely changed into paddles, 
the fingers being entirely encased in a single skin, with one or two claws 
only projecting. They swim swiftly in the sea, but are almost helpless 
on the land, and if turned on their backs they can not regain their 
normal position. 

Our most important sea turtle, popularly known as the hawksbill 
turtle, is Chelone wmbricata Linn. (Plate IV, figs. 3 and 4), which sup- 
plies the tortoise-shell of commerce. It is easily recognized by the 
fact that it has a hooked bill (Plate IV, fig. 4) and but 13 plates on the 
back, which overlap like the shingles on a roof; in addition, there are 
25 small plates which form the margin of the back. This turtle feeds 
largely on fish, crabs, and mollusks, and when full-grown is about 1 
meter in length. 


* All members of the turtle family that live in the sea are called turtles; 
those living on the land only are termed tortoises; and those living in fresh 
water terrapins. 


292 SEALE. 


The green turtle (Chelone mydas Linn.) is next in importance. (Plate 
IV, fig. 5.) This turtle has a straight bill (Plate IV, fig. 6), but the 
shields on the back, while the same in number as in the hawksbill, are 
perfectly smooth, evenly joined, and do not at any stage overlap. This 
turtle is valued chiefly as food, the shell being of no value. However, 
as an article of food it has from time immemorial been considered a great 
delicacy. This species is herbivorous, and when adult it is about 1.25 
meters in length. The flesh may be cooked in any desired way, either 
roasted, used as soup, fricasseed, or made into stews or pies. The fol- 
lowing method of cooking the plastron, or shell of the belly, is given by 
Father Labat, a Dominican monk." Jt sounds so appetizing that I give 
it in full. 

The plastron or bluckler is the shell of the belly, on which is left three or 
four inches of flesh, with all the fat, this being green, and of a very delicate 
flavour. The plastron is placed in the oven. It is seasoned with lemon, capsicum 
or cayenne, salt, pepper, cloves, and eggs beaten up. The oven ought not to be 
too hot, as the flesh of the turtle being tender it should be cooked slowly. While 
it is baking the flesh must be pierced from time to time with a wooden skewer, 
so that the gravy may penetrate all parts. The shell is sent up to the table and 
the meat carved out from it. I have never eaten anything more appetizing or 
better flavoured. 

There are large factories in various countries that can the soup made 
of this turtle. 

The third variety of marine turtle found in the Philippines is the 
loggerhead (Thalassochelys caretta Linn.) (Plate IV, figs. 1 and 2). 
This species is easily distinguished from either of the above from the fact 
that it has 15 shields on the back and 27 around the margin of the 
shell. The jaw is strongly hooked (Plate IV, fig. 2). It feeds on 
crabs and other crustaceans. The shell is about 1.25 meters in length 
when full-grown. The shell practically is of no value, being almost as 
thin as paper (Plate V, fig. 4), and it is only used for veneering and 
inlaying work. The price for which it sells is from 2 to 4 pesos per 
kilogram. However, the animal supplies a large portion of the turtle oil 


of commerce. 
TORTOISE-SHELL, 


During the fiscal year 1909 there were exported from the Philippines 
2,040 kilograms of tortoise-shell valued at 34,942 pesos. During the 
year 1910 the exportation fell to 1,191 kilograms, probably owing to 
home buying and domestic use. 

The hard, bony plates which cover the back (carapace) of the hawks- 
bill turtle are the tortoise-shell of commerce (Plate V, fig. 1). There 
are 13 of these plates on the back of each turtle, 5 in the center and 


7 Simmonds, Commercial Products of the Sea. New York (1895), 367. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 293 


4 on each side. In commercial terms these are known as 8 “sides,” 2 
“hoofs,” 1 “skull,” and 2 “main” plates. The two middle side-plates are 
of the greatest value, being the largest and thickest. Plates 17 by 30 
centimeters in diameter with a thickness of 5 to 6 millimeters are not 
unusual in the Philippines. In addition to these large plates, there are 
25 small ones around the margin of the shell; these are known as “hoofs” 
and are of much less value. All of the plates together are known as a 
“head” of shell, and tortoise-shell nearly always is sold by the “head.” 

Practically all the Philippine tortoise-shell is brought into the market 
by native fishermen. Now, while a small number of these turtles is 
captured by fair means, with hook, net, spear, or trap, by far the greater 
number is taken when they come ashore to deposit their eggs. The 
fishermen are so eager to secure their prizes that as a rule they do not 
give the poor turtle a chance to deposit her eggs before they kill her. 
This short-sighted policy eventually will result in the destruction of the 
fisheries unless the turtles are protected during the breeding season, which 
is from May to August. The turtle fishermen go to small, uninhabited 
islands, frequently many miles from the large islands surrounding the 
Sulu Sea, and wait perhaps days for the turtles to come ashore to deposit 
their eggs. If the men are in no especial hurry they may wait until the 
turtle has deposited her eggs, which sometimes are 150 to 200 in number, 
and about the size of hens’ eggs, with. tough leathery shells. The fisher- 
men then kill her before she can reach the water, and dig up the eggs 
which they use as food. The islands of Bancoran, Lumbucan, Arena, 
Cavilli, and others in the Sulu Sea, are well-known nesting places of the 
turtle, and it is only necessary to visit these islands to see the destruction 
wrought during the nesting period. 

The best method of removing the tortoise-shell from the back of the 
turtle is to immerse the back in boiling water until the shell loosens; 
another method is to bury the body in the sand for eight days, when the 
shell becomes loosened; still another is to hold the shell over a slow fire 
until loosened. This latter process usually is employed. In some coun- 
tries the live animal is held over the fire until the shell is loosened ; it is 
then turned loose “to grow another shell.” This method is barbarous, 
not only for its cruelty but also for its lack of utility, for the animal 
promptly dies. 


WORKING AND WELDING TORTOISE-SHELL. 


The methods employed in the working of tortoise-shell are quite similar 
to those used in working horn. As a matter of fact, horn frequently 
is used as an imitation of tortoise-shell. Slow heat or steam is em- 
ployed, the shell becoming plastic by immersion in water of 90°C. for 
two minutes. When cool, it retains any shape given it while hot. 


i 


294 SEALE. 


The exact technique * of welding tortoise-shell is as follows: 


When two pieces of shell are to be joined, the two edges are beveled so that 
one inclined edge may lie upon the other. The edges are scraped perfectly clean, 
contact with the fingers or any greasy substance being carefully guarded against. 
A piece of paper is then bound around the overlapping edges and fastened 
with a string. A pair of flat tongs or pincers, something like hair-dresser’s tongs, 
are then heated and applied to the shell, one jaw of the pincers above and the 
other beneath, by means of which the shell is grasped throughout the length of 
the seam or overlap. By holding it a short time in this position, the heat of 
the iron penetrates through the paper, softens the shell, and causes the two 
pieces to unite firmly. Sometimes two pieces of shell are united by means of 
boiling water as follows: The two edges are overlapped, two pieces of metal are 
placed along the joining, the shell is placed in a press, and the whole is immersed 
in boiling water. As the shell softens, the press is screwed more tightly, by 
which the two pieces of shell become firmly united. Owing to the fact that the 
shell becomes mobile with heat, it is easily molded into almost any desired shape 
by means of boiling water and the screw press, and even small bits of shell 
are utilized by being thus welded together. If too much heat is used the shell 
becomes blackened, consequently in many places, especially in Japan, most of the 
work is accomplished by hand graving, following a pattern as in scroll work. 
The same method is followed in Manila, where the outfit of the workman 
consists simply of scraper, saws, files, and a bench. Manila has two small 
factories employing about six men (all Chinese), where crude combs (Plate VI, — 
figs. 1 to 6) of tortoise-shell are made. There is also a small factory in Iloilo. 
All the work in this place is done by hand and is of the crudest sort. 


The method used to weld tortoise-shell in Japan differs in slight detail. 
Dr. Shigeho Tawaka of the Zoological Institute, College of Science, [m- 
perial University of Tokyo, kindly supplies the following information. 

First of all, shells which are to be welded are just dipped in water and thus 
moistened, the shells are then put in between two thin pieces of magnolia 
wood (Magnolia hypoleuca) and then the whole thing is moderately pressed with 
a pair of heated pincers which have been dipped in water an instant before 
operating (a hissing sound is the usual sign of these being sufficiently heated). 
The welding of the shell is thus completed. The reason why they use the magnolia 
pieces is to avoid the direct contact between the heated pincers and the shell. 
The temperature of the pincers is not scientifically made known, being said to 
be the trade secret kept among the preparators. 


The appearance of tortoise-shell frequently is given to horn by brushing 
it over with a paste made of two parts lime to one part litharge, and a 
little soda lye, which is allowed to dry on. Artificial tortoise-shell is 
manufactured by melting gelatine and various metallic salts. 


VALUES AND GRADES OF PHILIPPINE TORTOISE-SHELL. 


It is very difficult to arrive at a true valuation of tortoise-shell, owing to its 
variations and the reluctance of the Chinese merchants, who now control the 
trade, to give out any facts regarding the matter, but 4 different grades are 


5 Simmonds, Commercial Products of the Sea. New York (1895), 355. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 295 


recognized. Two of the principal merchants of Zamboanga give the value of 
the first grade (which is not often found), as 50 pesos per kilogram while 2 
principal dealers in Balabac quote the value of the first grade at 167 pesos per 
kilogram. These prices were quoted to customs officials. The value of the 
second grade is from 16 to 20 pesos per kilogram. A considerable portion of the 
Philippine shell falls in this grade (Plate V, figs. 1 and 2). The third grade 
is thinner and is valued at from 11 to 13 pesos per kilogram, while the fourth, 
consisting of small shell is valued at 4.16 to 8 pesos per kilogram. It usually is 
sold by the catty, which is equal to 1.39 pounds. 

The value of tortoise-shell depends not only on the size and thickness 
of the plates, but also largely upon the coloring and marking, there being 
a great variation in the beautiful clouded and mottled patterns in the 
shell. The color most in demand at present seems to be the rather dark 
shell with but few light spots. Golden-colored combs, at one time greatly 
prized and to-day much used by ladies with blond hair, are made from 
the plates of the plastron or belly. The price of the shell also depends 
largely upon the prevailing style in ladies’ hair dressing as well as upon 
the fashion in toilet articles. However, the demand for good tortoise- 
shell seems steadily. to be increasing. Japan is the center of the work for 
oriental countries. 


POSSIBILITIES OF TORTOISE-SHELL WORK IN THE PHILIPPINES. 


* Personally I have seen nothing in the Philippines which seems to offer 
so sure a return to a man with a small amount of capital, say 6,000 to 
10,000 pesos, as the buying and working of tortoise-shell. The machinery 
required is but little. The manufactured articles would enter the United 
States duty free, thereby finding a ready market. The supply of shell 
is, on the average, about 2,000 kilograms per year, which would be suffi- 
cient to keep a small factory in operation and I have no doubt that the 
returns would be remunerative. The main difficulty would be to induce 
the Chinese middlemen to deal directly with the factory rather than with 
Shanghai or Singapore (the two places that take practically our total 
yield). A man who could buy directly from the fishermen would have 
a still larger profit. 


CULTIVATION OF THE TORTOISE. 


The cultivation of the hawksbill turtle has never been undertaken in 
the Philippines, but it is not improbable that it could be cultivated to 
advantage in much the same way as is the edible turtle (Tryonyx japonicus 
Schlegel) in Japan. It is a subject worthy of consideration not only by 
private individuals but by the Government. A careful study of the habits, 
nesting places, rate of growth, and food of the hawksbill and green turtles 
should be undertaken with artificial cultivation in view, and if thought 
practical, steps should be taken to establish turtle farming, for practical 
and experimental purposes. 


296 SEALE. 


IV. THE PHILIPPINE WINDOW-SHELL. 


DESCRIPTION. 


In the majority of windows in the city of Manila, the pane is of shell 
instead of glass. ‘The shell used for this purpose is called kapas or 
window-shell (Placuma placenta Linn.). 

This shell (Plate VII, fig. 2) is thin and flat with a rounded outline, 
and somewhat resembles a very large wafer. The entire shell including 
the animal is about 1 centimeter in thickness (Plate VII, fig. 1) by 14 
centimeters in diameter. ‘The left side (valve) of the shell is slightly 
convex, the right side is flat. The right side is easily transformed into 
a windowpane simply by squaring off the edges with a big pair of scissors 
or a crude machine such as is used for cutting plug tobacco. The shells 
are then framed and are ready for use. ‘The size of shell most in demand 
will square 7.5 centimeters, although those that square 6.5 centimeters 
are also much used. ‘The opinion prevailing among the general public 
regarding window-shell is that it is a slab of shell split off from some 
larger shell. This, needless to say, is entirely erroneous, as the window- 
shell is used in its natural condition, the two halves being torn apart 
and the edges merely trimmed. ‘The left side of the shell is convex and 
hence is in but small demand. Windows made of these shells are trans- 
lucent, admitting a soft light, very grateful to the eyes in a tropical 
country. 

The windows present a most attractive appearance (see Plate IX, 
fig. 1) and consequently are used in some of the handsomest structures 
in Manila, such as the American Cathedral, the new General Hospital, 
and the new Young Men’s Christian Association building; and while 
they increase considerably the beauty of this type of architecture, they 
are also peculiarly adapted to, and make a most attractive appearance in, 


buildings of the bungalow style. - 


DURABILITY AND STRENGTH OF THE WINDOW-SHELL. 


These windows of-shell last for generations. Some of the old churches 
of Manila have shell windows which have been exposed to the weather for 
over a hundred years and which are still serviceable. Shell windows are 
easily repaired, as a new shell is readily sprung into place when one 
becomes broken or worn. 

The strength of these thin, wafer-like shells is something astonishing. 
Below is given a table showing the relative strength of window-shell as 
compared with plate glass 2 to 3 millimeters in thickness by actual test 
in the Bureau of Science.® It is shown by this table that window-shell 
is much stronger than plate glass 3 millimeters in thickness. The 


°The tests were made by W. C. Reibling of the laboratory of inorganic and 
physical chemistry, Bureau of Science. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 297 


relatively poor showing of the Capiz shells probably is due to the fact 
that they were old and very dry; they also were somewhat smaller than 
those from Cavite. 


Table showing the strength of window-shell compared with plate glass. 


Number of falls of a steel ball weighing | Number of 
3.55 grams, necessary to produce failure on | blows neces- 
samples 2.54 cm. wide and supported at |sary to produce 


both ends 5 cm. apart. failure with 1 
Aver- ae eine te | kg. ecient a 
Material tested. | ,28¢ | Weight Height of fall. Pe eaaaerenal 
Hale Per falling tem, 
: ae 7 high on speci- 


| men 7 by 7 cm. 
and supported 
50 em. 100 em. 150 cm. at both ends 6 


em. apart. 


Capiz shells __-_- 6 to 73. 
Cavite shells ____ 390 to 1,500. 
1, 
2. 


GENERAL ANATOMY OF THE WINDOW-SHELL.” See Plate VIII (a-l). 


These shells when alive are more or less transparent and in younger 
specimens the functions of the animal may readily be observed through 
them. Old specimens are thickened and opaque. 


The,largest and most striking object that attracts attention upon opening a 
window-shell is the mantle, or pallial lobe (Plate VIII, fig. a), which lines the 
interior of the shell, the margin of which has numerous, fine, finger-like projections 
forming the pallial fringe (fig. b) ; the mantle usually is much pigmented. When 
the left valve is removed and the left pallial lobe cut away, the 4 scimitar- 
shaped gills or branchiew are exposed (fig. c). Near the center of the shell is 
the round, hard adductor muscle (fig. d) which has been cut in order to open 
the shell. Directly above the muscle, surrounding the stomach, is the large, 
yellowish-green liver (fig. e) ; directly to the right of this is the large, yellow, 
genital lobe (fig. f).; originating just above the highest point of the gills is the 
foot (fig. g), a long tube-like organ extending to or beyond the edge of the mouth 
and ending in a disk which is usually full of mud. On the opposite side of the 
shell is seen a structure slightly similar but much smaller and ending in a disk; 
this is the anal funnel (fig. h). The intestine extends up to the stomach. Near 
the base of the foot, between two, thin, flap-like membranes, the labial palps 
(fig. i), is found the small, slit-like mouth. Between the lower genital lobe and 
the muscle will be seen a delicate, thin-walled organ, the heart (figs. j and k), 
consisting of 2 auricles and 1 ventricle. The aorta, with some of its large 
branches, is on the top of the liver. To the left and near the muscle are the 
kidneys, or nephridia (fig. 1); dark colored, elongate organs. By dissecting 
between these and the muscle, a long, curved, cartilage-like rod is exposed. This 
is the crystalline style; it is inclosed in a sac, the pyloric cecum. 


* For a detailed and accurate account of the anatomy and histology of Placuma 
placenta L. we refer the reader to the excellent work of James Hornell, F. L. S., 
of the Madras Fishery Bureau, in a Report to the Government of Baroda on 
the Marine Zoélogy of Okhamandale in Kittrawar, Part I (1909), 43-99, 5 pl. 


298 SEALE. 


The nervous system is similar to that of other members of this order, being 
composed of the following three ganglia: (1) The cerebral ganglion may be seen 
by folding back the labial palps; it is a large, pale, orange-colored mass halfway 
between the base of the palps and base of the foot. (2) The pedal ganglion is on 
the base of the foot in the middle on the dorsal side. (3) The parieto-splanchnic 
ganglion will be found on the lower front curvature of the muscle close to the 
extremity of the kidneys. The byssus and byssus gland are absent. 


DISTRIBUTION OF THE PHILIPPINE WINDOW-SHELL. 


The window-shell is widely distributed throughout the Islands in 
certain definite areas. A large bed exists in Manila Bay, especially in 
the shallow arm of the bay east of Cavite known as Bacoor Bay. It is 
also found at Paranaque; in fact, the entire east end of the bay from 
Paranaque to Cavite is a potential bed for the window-shell. Kawit is 
the center of activity for window-shell fishing for the Manila Bay beds. 
Important beds also oceur at Pangolao and Talibon in Bohol, at Valla- 
dolid in Oriental Negros; in Capiz, Masbate, and Lloilo; in the Province 
of Pangasinan, Luzon, and in numerous localities in Mindanao. Doubt- 
less, there are a number of other places in the Islands where this shell is 
found which have not been reported. Iloilo supplies large quantities of 
shell for the Manila market. Shells from the Province of Pangasinan 
seem to be uniformly thicker and more opaque than Iloilo shells, but 
average slightly less in size, being 112 and 107 millimeters in diameter. 

In no place in the Philippines are these shells fished for the pearls 
which they sometimes contain, but always for the shell alone. 


HABITS, CULTIVATION, AND FOOD OF THE WINDOW-SHELL MOLLUSE. 


The window-shell mollusk is usually found in shallow water, but has 
been known to exist in a depth up to 20 fathoms. It requires a bottom 
of grayish or bluish mud where more or less fresh water is carried in by 
streams. 

There is a large variety of marie life found in the Manila beds, 
such as large quantities of clams and edible oysters; in fact, the cul- 
tivation of the oyster and the window-shell is carried on simultaneously 
by a number of fishermen. The oyster beds are staked off by their re- 
spective owners, and when fishing for window-shell or oysters outside of 
their claims, all the small and half-grown window-shell oysters are col- 
lected and planted on their oyster farms and kept there until they are 
mature. The young shells can not be sold as they are not large enough 
for windows. The adults keep the claim well supplied with spat. 

The owners of these claims club together and hire a watchman, who 
is stationed in a house built over the water near the claims. 

The yield of the Cavite beds is estimated at 14,000 adult shells for a good 
week’s fishing. However, the fishing is intermittent, depending pon the demand 


and also upon the owner’s need of ready cash. The shells are fished entirely 
at low tide in water of 1 meter or less in depth; the fishermen feel for them 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 299 


either with their toes or their hands, just as the fancy strikes them. Adult 
shells are rather scarce on the public fishing grounds of these beds. I secured but 
35 in one hour of fishing, but in ten minutes an owner of one of the planted 
beds secured 100 adult shells for me. These measured 118 to 135 miilimeters 
in their greatest diameter. 

The shell matures in three years. At the end of the first year it is 62 
to 83 centimeters in its largest. diameter. ‘The sexes are separate, the 
egos being fertilized in the water. The mature ova have a decided resem- 
blance to the form (in outline) of the mature shell, while the spermatozoa 
have globular-shaped heads and extremely long tails, fully 10 to 15 
times the length of the head. It is a comparatively easy matter to 
fertilize the ripe ova under artificial conditions by taking the ripe 
spermatozoa of the male in sea-water or normal salt solution. 

The artificial fertilization and cultivation of this important com- 
mercial mollusk is well worth our careful consideration, and it is to be 
hoped that with the opening of the salt-water aquarium and _ fish 
hatcheries having running salt water, that the study of the life and 
cultivation of this shell will be made with great care and detail. 

The food of the window-shell mollusk consists of small marine or- 
ganisms, chiefly diatoms, which it collects from the water. The window- 
shell mollusk apparently does not moye about, but lies flat on the mud 
on its convex, left side. The foot, instead of being a means of locomotion, 
is used to keep the mud from the gills and other organs. 


QUANTITY OF SHELL AVAILABLE AND PRICES DEMANDED. 


The supply of this shell in the Philippines is so large that at no 
place has it been found necessary to resort to diving for it, as is done 
in India, as plenty of shell is secured by wading in water less than 1 
meter in depth and feeling about with the toes. 

There are no laws regulating the gathering of window-shells, and so 
far as we have been able to ascertain there are no municipal ordinances 
relating to them. 

It is estimated that there are 5,000,000 of these window-shells used 
each year in the City of Manila alone. A single lumber company of this 
city in 1910 used 1,500,000. The demand is increasing. 

The price depends upon the size. Shells that will square 63 milli- 
meters (2.5 inches) sell for 3 to 7 pesos (1.50 to 3.50 dollars) per 
thousand ; while the large ones which square 7.5 centimeters (3 inches) 
sell for 8 to 10 pesos (4 to 5 dollars) per thousand. One window-shell 
fisherman explained to me that he had three prices for the first-grade 
shells. These were valued at 8 pesos per thousand to the Filipino, 10 
pesos per thousand to the Spaniard, and 12 pesos per thousand to the 
American. 

The Chinese traders do not hesitate to.ask the amateur buyer 15 pesos 
per thousand. he shells usually are sold in large baskets, each holding 


10,000 pieces. 
106346——2 


300. SEALE. 


The window-shell is not exported to any extent, the only shipment 
for last year being 1,458 kilograms sent from Iloilo to New York. How- 
ever, it is expected that when the builders of bungalows in the United 
States, especially in California, recognize how much stronger, cheaper, and 
more attractive these shell windows are than the same thickness of glass, 
there will be a brisk demand for them in that country. 


"HOW WINDOW-SHELL IS USED. 


Shell windows are made of narrow strips of wood usually 13 to 18 
millimeters wide and 13 millimeters thick, or they may be any size 
desired. These strips are grooved on two sides and notched every 6.0 
or 7.5 centimeters as the case may be, to receive the cross stick which 
also is notched; thus a solid square frame is formed for each shell. 
After these are put together the entire square is set in a solid frame to 
fit the window or door. (Plate IX.) 

The following uses are also suggested for the shell: 


Screens.— (Plate IX, fig. 2.) These shells make a most attractive and useful 
screen, made up either in three divisions in the usual form of the Japanese 
sereen, or else in a single division like the Spanish screen. 

Lights for verandas.—(Plate I, figs. 1, 2, and 3.) These shells make a most 
durable and desirable light for open yerandas, as they lend themselves to a 
great diversity of forms, the shell being easily trimmed to fit into any form of 
opening. The old-fashioned lantern shape is a popular form for these lights. 

Old mission shade lights (Plate X, fig. 3) are most attractive and serviceable; 
they are usually made up with hard-wood frames and large window-shells. 

Conservatory windows.—These shells would be found most desirable by the 
owners of hot-houses or conservatories in countries where hail is prevalent or 
where the direct rays of the sun are too strong; they admit a soft light with 
a fair amount of heat, and the expense as compared to that resulting from 
breakage and painting or frosting of glass would be almost nothing. 

Fronts to kitchen cabinets—These window-shells would make up into most 
attractive fronts for kitchen cabinets, being easily kept clean and not liable 
to breakage. 5 


A dozen other uses might be suggested for window-shells. We can 
most highly recommend them for almost any purpose to which opaque 
glass would ordinarily be applied, and I feel confident that, when their 
cheapness and utility are recognized in the United States, they will be 
exported in larger quantities. 


VY. PHILIPPINE SHELLS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PEARL BUTTONS. 


In addition to the pearl-oyster shells, which are exported from the 
Philippines in large quantities,” there are three varieties of shells found 
in these Islands and used in the manufacture of pearl buttons. These 


™ Names of Philippine dealers from whom window-shells may be obtained in 
quantity, can be obtained by applying to the Bureau of Science. 
“See This Journal, Sec. D (1910), 5, 87 to 101 (with 6 plates). 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 301. 


are the great top shell (Trochus niloticus Linn.), the green snail (T'urbo 
marmoratus Iinn.), and the chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius 
Linn.). 


THE GREAT TOP SHELL. 


The great top shell (Trochus miloticus Linn.) (Plate XI, figs. 1 to 
4) known locally as the lock, conic shell, trochus, susong-dalaga, or 
samong, is a large, conical, top-shaped shell, found in abundance in many 
islands of the Philippine Archipelago. Aside from the true pearl oyster, 
this shell is the one in greatest demand for manufacturing buttons. As 
a matter of fact, owing to its cheapness, it is frequently made into 
buttons in preference to employing the pearl oyster. The great top shell 
when mature is from 10 to 15 centimeters in diameter and a trifle less 
in height; it has many close whorls, the largest of which flares decidedly. 
The shell is marked with radiating or zigzag bands of red, violet, or 
brown; the aperture is oblique and has a spiral operculum. An adult 
shell 10 centimeters in diameter weights 330 grams. 

The great top shell is usually found at low tide near the outer edge 
of coral reefs or under large rocks, and while small quantities may be 
encountered on almost any coral teef in the Archipelago, they are espe- 
cially abundant in the vicinity of Sitanki, along the coast of Pangasinan, 
and Ambos Camarines, Luzon, and on the northern coast of Palawan, 
the eastern coast of Samar, and in the vicinity of Masbate. ‘There are 
also numerous places on-the coasts of Mindoro where they are abundant. 
I noticed a number of these shells washed up on the beach on the 
eastern side of the Gulf of Davao. 

The soft portion of the great top shell is regarded by the Filipinos 
as a very fine article of food and, as a matter of fact, this species of 
mollusk is more sought after for its meat than for its shell. One proof 
_ of this is in the numerous piles of empty shells to be found on the 
beach im localities near the ocean. It is usually noticed that they have 
been placed on the fire, in order to cook the animal, after which it is 
easily removed from the shell. Of course, shells treated in this man- 
ner are spoiled so far as their commercial value is concerned. The proper 
way to remove the animal is to place the shell in hot water, as the shell 
is in no wise injured by this treatment. 

So far as my experience shows, the great top shell is always more 
or less solitary and while five or six are frequently found under one large 
stone they never occur in beds or in great numbers over a given limited 
area. 

The average annual export of this shell from the Philippines during the 
past four years has been about 350,000 kilograms valued at about 60,000 
pesos. ‘The price fluctuates greatly. For a considerable period the stand- 
ard price was 7.50 pesos per picul for middle grade shells. The Manila 


302 SEALE. 


button factory, in 1910, was paying from 10 to 22 centavos per kilogram, 
depending on the grade. A small quantity of shell sent to the United 
States was sold for about 22 centavos per kilogram (5 cents gold per 
pound). Japanese button factories offered to buy, in large quantities, 
half-grown shells for 28 pesos per picul of 137.5 pounds. During May 
the price for great top shell in Zamboanga was 18 pesos per picul. 
During the past few weeks the price has fallen to 12 pesos. 

The establishment of a second button factory in Manila, together 
with the evident desire on the part of American button factories to secure 
Manila shell, no doubt, are responsible for the increase in the price. The 
result will certainly be greatly beneficial to the trade as it will stimulate 
the gathering of these shells and the native fishermen will soon learn 
that it is more profitable to bring them to market than to destroy them 
by fire in order to extract the animal for food. 

The one objectionable feature which must soon be taken into consideration is 
the desire of the Japanese buyers to secure the young, half-grown shells. It is 
very evident that if the young shells are taken it will not be long before there are 
none left to propagate. However, this is a condition that may easily be remedied 


by legislation. An adequate export duty on great top shells of less than 9 
centimeters (3.5 inches) should be imposed at the earliest possible date. 


No careful study has been made in the Philippines of the reproduc- 
tion, habits, rate of growth, food, or the possibilities of artificial cultiva- 
tion of this commercially important shell. 


THE GREEN SNAIL SHELL. 


The green snail shell (Turbo marmoratus Linn.) (Plate XII, figs. 
1 to 4) known locally as turbo, sea snail, /along, or bulolo, is a large. 
heavy, turban-shaped shell, found throughout the Philippine Archipel- 
ago, and largely used in the manufacture of buttons. It is not in as 
great demand as the great top shell, as it is considerably harder to work, 
and of less desirable color, having an opalescent instead of a pure white 
luster. 

The green snail is the largest of the turbo family, sometimes reaching © 
a diameter of 20 centimeters. ‘The usual size is about 16 centimeters; 
the whorls are few, more or less knobbed; the body whorl is the largest ; 
the aperture is nearly round. 

The color of the shell is a rich green, mottled or spotted with brown 
and white. The very old shells lose much of the brown color, and show 
continuous bands of white following the whorls. When the rough outer 
layer is removed they are of a beautiful, opaline mother-of-pearl color 
inside and out. 

In addition to being made into buttons they are also a favorite shell for 
cabinets, spoons, and drinking horns. The royal family of Scandinavia from 


time immemorial have had these shells studded with gems, mounted with silver, 
and formed into royal drinking cups. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 303 


The animal is highly esteemed as food by the Filipinos and is eaten 
in Japan also, where it is made into chop suey. 

The green snail is found in the greatest abundance at the edges of 
coral reefs and in water several fathoms deep. It is also to be encoun- 
tered along rocky shores under large boulders. The small islands in the 
vicinity of Cebu yield a considerable quantity. It is also fairly abundant 
along the coast of Negros and Masbate. The northern coast of Palawan 
also yields a large supply. 

About 100,000 kilograms of the green snail shell are exported from 
the Philippines annually. The price paid to the fishermen ranges from 
7.50 to 11 pesos per picul of 63.25 kilos. 

As in the case of the great top shell, very little is known of the life 
history, habits, reproduction, or the possibilities of artificial cultivation 
of this shell in the Philippines. 


THE CHAMBERED NAUTILUS. 


The chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius Linn.) (Plate X, fig. 4) 
is so well known that a description is unnecessary. It is world-wide 
in distribution and is an inhabitant of water of from 300 to 350 fathoms 
in depth. China seems to be the only country that manufactures this 
shell into buttons, consequently its export from the Philippines is prac- 
tically limited to that country. 

The chambered nautilus is obtained in large numbers along the southern coast 
of the Island of Negros, sometimes as many as 3,000 nautilus shells being gathered 
in this region during one season. They are frequently caught in fish traps and 
are sold as a sort of “by-product”. at 10 centavos each, although when brought 
into market the very fine, large specimens sell for much more. In many 
countries these shells are fashioned into spoons, vases, and pearl ornaments. 
A practical as well as an ornamental use has been made of these shells by the 
author, who has them mounted on red coralline, set in a solid base of red 
cement and with an electric globe fitted to the inside of the shell. This makes 
a most satisfactory reading lamp. (Plate X, fig. 4.) In Paris these shells are 
used for making the finest grades of cameos, and ornamental objects of pearl. 
They are among the most striking common shells in all museum cabinets. In 
New York City dealers charge from 2.50 to 5 dollars each for nes large shells. 
Unfortunately the New York market is limited. 


However, there is an increasing demand for these shells for the pur- 
pose of export, and some fishermen are found who give their entire time 
to catching nautilus. Ordinary bamboo fish-traps with funnel-shaped 
entrances are used. ‘These are baited with crab and lowered into deep 
water, mm a day or two they are drawn up and the nautilus removed. 
The Filipinos eat the flesh to a limited extent. 


SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTABLISHING BUTTON FACTORIES IN THE PHILIPPINES. 


_ Judging from the numerous letters of inquiry received by the ichthy- 
ological section of the Bureau of Science from various parts of the world 
regarding the establishment of button factories in the Philippines, this 


304 | SEALE. 


is a subject of sufficient interest to warrant giving the following sug- 
gestions: 


Location of factory—Manila, Cebu, Iloilo, or Zamboanga would be a good place 
for the establishment of a button factory. The cost of renting a suitable 
building for a factory in either of these places would not exceed 50 dollars per 
month. A building would cost somewhat more than a similar structure in the 
country or coastwise districts in the eastern United States. 

Labor.—The laborers would be Filipinos. They are found quite satisfactory 
by the Manila button factory, the pay in this factory being from 5 to 10 pesos 
per month, ten-hour days. : 

Power.—Steam or gasoline power would probably be found most satisfactory, 
although in all the places mentioned, except Zamboanga, electric power could 
be obtained. Wood as fuel is quite out of the question; coal costs from 10 to 
14 pesos per ton in Manila. At Zamboanga water-power might be secured. 
Gasoline in Manila sells at from 4.50 to 5.00 pesos per 10 gallons; petrolewm 
costs 1.40 pesos per tin of 5 gallons. 

Taxation—A manufacturer’s license, costing 2.40 pesos, is required, and. the 
internal revenue tax is one-third of 1 per cent of the gross receipts, payable 
quarterly. 

Amount of shell available—The amount of shell ayailable for button making is 
about 450,000 kilograms of great top and green snail shell and 300,000 kilograms 
of pearl shell, making a total of about 750,000 kilograms (1,675,000 pounds) 
of shell per year. 

Bleaching shell for button making.—A large portion of the button trade is 
‘with the Chinese and they require a very white button, consequently a bleach 
of some sort is necessary. The following method, given by Robert R. Williams of 
the laboratory of organic chemistry, Bureau of Science, is effective and cheap. 

“Many processes are in existence for the bleaching of ivory, horn, and shell for 
ornamental or other purposes. When chemicals are used those having a solvent 
or oxidizing action on the organic matters-in the horn or shell are chosen. 
Nowadays the most commonly used agent is hydrogen peroxide which may be 
had very reasonably in Europe and America. It is not feasible to use it at a 
distance from the factories making this chemical because of the deterioration in 
transit. Therefore it is more practicable to use a metallic peroxide and generate 
the hydrogen peroxide when needed. Barium or sodium peroxide may best be 
used, preferably the latter. The follewing process has been tested on shell 
buttons and found satisfactory. The buttons are first immersed in fuming 
sulphurie acid for ten to fifteen minutes. The acid is then drained off and may 
be used repeatedly if kept in well stoppered bottles. The buttons are then 
rinsed three times with water and covered with a 5 per cent solution of oxalic 
acid. Ordinarily 1 liter of buttons will require 1 liter of solution, though 
more is necessary for large or dark-colored buttons than for small or light ones. 
The oxalic acid solution should be kept ice cold if possible or at least below 20° 
C. Commercial sodium peroxide is now added in small quantities with constant 
stirring till the solution is alkaline to litmus paper. About 40 to 45 grams will 
be required per liter according to the purity of the chemicals. A very little of 
the 5 per cent oxalic acid solution is now added till, after stirring, the solution 
reacts acid to litmus. It is important that the solution be acid, but a large 
excess of acid is to be avoided. 

“The buttons are allowed to lie in this solution for 24 to 72 Agmns according to 
their size and color. Bleaching proceeds better and more rapidly if the buttons 
are exposed to direct sunlight while lying in the liquor. This can be done in 
colorless glass jars which, if possible, should be tightly stoppered. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 305 


“The buttons after removal from the bleach liquor may be washed with water 
containing a little hydrochloric acid. This removes the encrustation from the 
outside and brings out the luster. After washing again with water they are 
ready for the further processes of manufacture. 

“Tt will be found that buttons can be bleached effectively by this means 
and that the strength of the shell is increased by the deposition of caleium 
oxalate in the interior.” 

VI. PRECIOUS CORAL. 


A small spray of true precious coral (Corallium sp.) was found on the 
beach of the Gulf of Davao, Mindanao, directly in front of the small 
station called Vigas. This specimen resembled very closely a species of 
Japanese precious coral (C. japonicum Kishinouye). 

As it is not improbable that considerable quantities of precious coral 
eventually may be discovered in the Islands, it seems worth while to 
give a short description of this article of commerce, and to describe the 
methods employed in coral fisheries. 


DESCRIPTION OF PRECIOUS CORAL. 


The precious coral of commerce in its natural state closely resembles a 
small shrub, or the branch of a tree from which the leaves have been removed. 
Each stem and twig of this coral shrub has a hard central axis, or skeleton. 
Outside of this and similar to the bark on a plant is the thin soft covering or 
skin, which is easily rubbed off when fresh and is friable when dry. There are 
numerous small holes in the “skin” through which minute, flower-like animals 
project when the coral is alive; these are the coral animals (zoids) ; each of them 
has 8 small arms or tentacles around its mouth, with which it gathers food. 
All of these zodids are connected by a vascular system inside of the skin. 

The hard part or skeleton is the valuable portion of the coral. It is made up 
of fused spicules consisting of carbonate of calcium with a small amount of silica 
and magnesia. The structure is concentric with radiating lines. The entire 
skeleton is very. hard and so compact that no pores can be seen in a cross-section 
without the aid of a lens. This furnishes an easy test for distinguishing the 
precious coral from the numerous varieties of no value. 

In color these corals range from white or delicate pink to dark red. Precious 
corals reproduce sexually, and by budding. The reproductive organs are internal 
and attached to the faces of the mesenteries; they shed their contents within the 
body where fertilization takes place. The precious corals are believed to be 
viviparous. Colonies are sometimes composed entirely of males, sometimes entirely 
of females, frequently all on one branch are males, while all on another branch 
of the same colony are females. Occasionally both sexes are combined in one 
animal, forming a hermaphrodite. The eggs contain a considerable amount of 
yolk and when hatched the larval forms are free swimming and may move a 
fair distance before they settle and become fixed. 

The food of the precious corals consists of living organisms; they have been 
known to eat the powdered flesh of fishes. 


VARIETIES AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIOUS CORALS. 


The best known species of precious coral is Corallium nobilis Pallas, more 
generally known under its synonym of O. rubrum Linn. This species is found in 
the Mediterranean Sea off the northern coast of Africa, also off the coast of 


306 SEALE. 


Tunis, Sardinia, Italy, Corsica, and at the Cape Verde Islands. Hight species of 
precious coral have been described from Japan. These are Corallium japonicum 
Kishinouye, C. elatiws Ridley, C. boshuensis Kishinouye, C. suleatwm Kishinouye, 
C. pusillum Wishinouye, C. imutile Kishinouye, 0. confusum Moroft, and C. konojoi 
Kishinouye. Two species, C. johnsoni (Gray) and OC. maderense (Johnson), are 
found in Madeira. C. stylasteroides (Ridley) occurs in Mauritius, C. regine 
(Hickson) is found in Timor, and C. secundum (Dana) has been found at Banda, 
Iti Islands and in the Hawaiian Islands. This constitutes the entire list of 
established species of precious corals known to the present time. 

The vertical distribution of these corals in the sea varies from 5 to 500 or 
more fathoms. They are found attached to rocks, dead shells, or dead coral; 
some species seem to prefer overhanging, submarine cliffs. 

In general the vertical distribution of the Japanese species ranges from 50 
to 180 meters, while in the Mediterranean fisheries the work of obtaining the 
coral is usually carried on in waters of much greater depth. 


FISHING FOR PRECIOUS CORAL. 


Fishing for precious coral is almost always carried on by means of various sorts 
of dredges. In Japan the dredge consists of a rectangular bag net about 1.5 
meters wide and 1 meter high, with a 13 centimeters mesh, this is fastened to 
a frame of bamboo, tufts of old netting are fastened to the lower edge of the 
net and at the sides. These collect many broken coral branches. The coral 
fishing boats are allowed to drift over the banks with the sails at half mast. The 
net is allowed to touch the bottom and proceeds with a jerking motion. When 
the fishermen think they have secured or fastened to coral they pull up the net. 

The dredge used in the Mediterranean coral fisheries is of wood in the shape 
of a large cross with a heavy stone attached to the extremity of the lower 
arm and with coarse, twine bags of large mesh and with numerous tangles of 
frayed ropes attached to the anterior arms. Numerous variations of this, as well 
as ordinary tangles, are also used. ; 


USES AND VALUE OF PRECIOUS CORAL. 


The chief use of precious coral is in the manufacture of coral beads and 
ornaments. It is first sorted into different grades, of which there are several 
recognized in commerce; it is then cut into suitable pieces and all necessary holes 
are drilled in it. It is then filed into any shape desired, and engraved. Next 
it is polished with pumice stone and water, followed by a polish of very fine 
chalk and water. Oil is never used on coral. 

The value of precious coral depends upon its color, form, and quantity. A 
string of large uniform beads may be bought in Italy for 20 pesos, while a string 
of beads of similar size but of the best quality will cost 400 pesos. Japanese 
precious coral in its native state sells for from 100 to 500 pesos per kilogram, and 
the best Mediterranean sells for twice these amounts. 

The export value of coral from Japan is about 500,000 pesos per year. 


THE CULTURE OF CORAL. 


The culture of precious corals has not received the careful scientific attention 
that it should. 

C. noblis has been kept alive for some time in aquaria, and if it were planted 
under natural conditions possibly it could be grown with profit. Careful ex- 
perimenting along this line might lead ‘to useful and valuable information. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 307 


LITERATURE ON PRECIOUS CORAL. 


KisHiInouyE, K. Notes on the Natural History of Corals. Journ. Imp. Fisheries 
Bur. (1904), 14, 1-32, (13 plates). 

KiraHara, T. On the Coral Fisheries of Japan. Journ. Imp. Pisheries Bur. 
(1904), 13, 1-14 (5 plates). 

THOMPSON and HENDERSON. Report on the Aleynarian Corals Collected by the 
Investigator. Pub. Indian Mus. (906), pt. I, 120.% 

WricHt and STUDER. Challenger Report (1889), 31, 185. 

Jounson, J. Y. Notes on the Corallidae of Madeira with Descriptions of two 
New Species. Proc. Zool. Soc. (1899), 57. 

Riptey, 8. O. On the Arrangement of the Corallide, with Descriptions of new or 
rare Species. Proc. Zool. Soc. (1882), 221. 

Dana, J. D. United States Exploring Expedition. Zoéphytes. Phil., (1846), 
8, 641. 

LACAZE-DUTHIERS. Histoire Naturelle du corail. Paris (1864). 

Mororr. On a New Species of coral from Sagami Bay, Japan. Zool. Jahrb. 
Syst., (1902), 17, 404. 

BLUE CORAL. 


In numerous localities throughout the Philippine Archipelago a fine quantity 
of blue coral, Heliopora cwrulea Linn., is found in considerable quantities, usually 
in water of from 2 to 10 fathoms depth. 

This coral is a beautiful, permanent, cerulean blue in color. It takes a fine 
polish and is found in large heavy masses. No doubt it could be used in jewelry 
and ornamental work. No amount of polishing, however, will entirely obliterate 
the pores. I have collected this coral at Jolo, and at Butuan, Mindanao, on the 
eastern coast of Samar, and on the northern coast of Palawan. No use is made 
of it at the present time, but as a body for broaches, bracelets, etc., it would 
be very beautiful or as a background for pearls it would, in my judgment, be 
unsurpassed. 

RED ORGAN-PIPE CORAL. 


The red organ-pipe coral (Tubipora spp.) is very common throughout the 
Philippines. It has no especial value, its only use apparently being for cabinet 
specimens. It is a shallow-water form. I have seen large blocks of it used with 
other corals in the construction of a wharf. 


REEF CORALS. 


The common reef corals comprising a great variety of genera and species, 
which have as yet never been identified, are used largely in the building of roads 
throughout the Islands. They are employed to a limited extent in the manufacture 
of lime. 

BLACK CORAL. 


The so-called black coral (Antipatharia sp.) is very common in the Philippines. 
Fine specimens several meters in length and from 5 to 15 millimeters in diameter 
are common throughout the Jolo Archipelago. It is also found in larger quantities 
in the Gulf of Davao, Mindanao and near Cebu. It is usually secured in water 
of from 10 to 20 fathoms. 

The U. S. 8. Albatross dredged large quantities of this “insulated cable wire” 
as it was called by the sailors and this term, indeed, is fairly descriptive of the 
body of this coral; however, the branches are very numerous and give the small 
corals a decidedly shrub-like appearance. 


“This report includes a complete bibliography relating to corals. 


308 SEALE. 


This coral is used chiefly for making canes, as it is easily straightened or 
bent. into any desired shape by immersion in hot water for a short time. It takes 
a most beautiful jet-black polish and could doubtless be used in the manu- 
facture of coral beads and rosaries. A cane of this coral nicely prepared and 
polished can be bought for from 5 to 10 pesos. The raw material has very little 
value at present. 


VII. EDIBLE SEAWEEDS OF THE PHILIPPINES.** 


Im connection with the series of articles on minor marine products, 
it has been thought advisable to include what is known regarding the 
edible seaweeds, with the hope that the publication of the meager data 
available may stimulate interest in the subject. Below is given a list of 
the species known to be used for food, and it is confidently expected that 
eventually it will be greatly extended as data on the subject become 
available. Very little seems to have been published on the subject. 
The determinations have kindly been made by Dr. M. A. Howe, of the 
New York Botanical Garden. The list is for the most part based on a 
collection made by Eugenio Fénix of the Bureau of Science, in Union 
Province, Luzon, supplemented by some local observations in and about 
Manila. ; 

In most parts of the Philippines, along the seashore, various species 
of marine alg or seaweeds are found, although in this Archipelago as 
in most tropical countries, these are not found in masses, or in such 
great quantities as is the case with many forms in temperate regions, at 
least in shallow waters. 


The first impression on studying Philippine alge is that the number of species 
is very limited, but intensive collecting has brought to light a considerable 
number and, doubtless, as botanical exploration progresses, the list of Philippine 
alge will be greatly increased. In some regions the marine alge play no small 
part in the economy of the natives, a considerable number being used for food, 
thus entering into the local commerce. 

At the present time a large percentage of our material is unclassified. Doubt- 
less very many of our species are used for food, but collectors have given this 
phase of the subject comparatively little attention, so that the data on the 
utilization of local marine alge are very fragmentary. 


Seaweeds are used for food both raw, in the form of salads, and 
cooked sometimes with vegetables, such as tomatoes, and sometimes 
with the addition of sugar, forming the dish, popular among the natives, 
known to the Tagalogs as gulaman. It is probable that in Manila, at 
least, a large part of the gulaman is made from prepared seaweeds im- 
ported by the Chinese, although the local product is almost always to be 
found in the markets. In Manila various species of alge are known 
as gulaman, but the most important appear to be Aghardiella sp. (Fucus 
gulaman Blanco), and Gracillaria confervoides (L.) Grev. 


“Data supplied by H. D. Merrill, botanist, Bureau of Science. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 309 


Aghardhiella sp. (Huews gulaman Blanco). This species is common in 
Manila Bay and is universally known to the Tagalogs as gulaman. It is probably 
the most generally used species in Manila, and during certain seasons is almost 
always to be found in the native markets. 

Chaetomorpha crassa (Ag.) Kiitz. Known in Union Province as cauat-cauat, 
and locally used for food. 

Codium tenue Kiitz. Known in Union Province as pupu-lo; edible. 

Enteromorpha intestinalis L. This green alga is abundant in brackish 
water about the mouths of streams, and is eaten by the natives to some extent. 

Eucheuma spinosum (L.) J. Ag. Known in Union Province as rupruppuue ; 
edible. ; 

Gracillaria confervoides (L.) Grey. Abundant in Manila Bay at certain 
seasons, locally known as gulaman, and sold in the native markets of Manila. 

Gracillaria crassa Harv. Used for food in Union Province; known to the 
Tlocanos as susueldot-baybay. sie 

Gracillaria eucheumoides Harv. Known in Union Province as canot-canot ; 
edible. i 

Gracillaria lichenoides (L.) Grey. Known in Union Province as guraman; 
edible. The above four species are allied to a Japanese species largely used in 
the manufacture of agar-agar.* 

Halymenia formosa Hary. Known in Union Province as gamet; there used 
for food. An allied spécies found in Manila Bay, native name unknown, is 
doubtless also edible. ; 

Liagora cheyneana Harv. Known in Union Province as baris-baris; edible. 

Sargassum siliquosum J. Ag. Known in Union Province as aragan, there 
used for food. Widely distributed in the Philippines, as are several other 
species of the genus, all of which are doubtless utilized to a greater or less 
extent as food. : 


VIII. THE PREPARATION OF ISINGLASS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 


The preparation of isinglass is an industry that could be carried on 
easily in the Philippines, but so far as I have been able to ascertain, it 
has never been inaugurated. 

Isinglass is the purest form of commercial gelatin known; it is pre- 
pared from the “sounds” or air-bladders of certain fishes. 

The preparation is very simple and requires no outlay of capital. The 
exact method of procedure is as follows: 


Remove the air bladders (also called “maw”, “swim bladder”) from the 
fishes soon after they are caught, slit them open and wash thoroughly, take 
off any thin membranes which envelop them. Then expose to the air to stiffen. 
If oily, wash in lime water, then in fresh water and dry. They should be put 
to dry on “flakes” or nets so the air will have free access to all parts. It is 
sometimes desirable to give slight pressure in which case they may be dried 
between sheets of paper, or flat driers, like botanical specimens. When thoroughly 
dry they are put up in convenient packages and are ready for market, 


The well known seaweed-isinglass, or agar-agar of Japan, is made from 
an alga of the genus Gelidiwm. This genus has not yet been reported from the 
Philippines. 


310 SEALE. 


USES OF ISINGLASS. 


Probably the chief use of isinglass is in fining liquors of various sorts, 
especially the best grades of wine. It is also used in the preparation of creams 
and jellies, in stiffening fabrics, and in lustering ribbons. Isinglass is also used 
in the manufacture of court plaster, artificial pearls, diamond cement, and 
imitation glass. 

It is true that owing to the expense of securing pure fish isinglass, agar-agar 
prepared from seaweed, is used largely as a substitute. However, there is no 
question that pure, fish isinglass is more desirable and gives better results in 
almost all cases than the vegetable product. 


FISHES FROM WHICH ISINGLASS IS SECURED. 


The best grade of isinglass is secured from the sturgeon and is put up 
in Russia. In the Malay Archipelago a very fair grade of isinglass is 
secured from the fishes called thread-fin and from certain species of cat- 
fish and croakers. In the Philippines, a profitable source of isinglass 
could be found in the thread-fin, Polydactylus plebeius (Brouss.), called 
mamali in Tagalog, and tatik in Moro. It is a very common fish in 
the Manila markets, and ranges in length from 35 to 50 centimeters. 
The common catfish (Netuma nasuta Bl.), called kanduli in Tagalog, 
which is very abundant, especially in Laguna de Bay, also supplies a good 
grade of isinglass. In addition, there are several species of croakers, 
(Otolithes argenteus Kuh] & Van Hasselt), (Otolithes leuciscus Guuth.), 
and Johnius belengeri C. & V.), and at least two species of Umbrina, from 
all of which isinglass can be secured. The above are all common market- 
fish and it has been estimated that the isinglass thrown away from them 
is greater in value than the price secured by the fisherman for the entire 
fish. ; 

VALUE OF ISINGLASS. 

The current value of isinglass quoted from a late trade journal is as 
follows: 

Russian isinglass, 2.75 to 3 dollars per pound; American isinglass, 0.73 to 
0.75 dollar per pound; 14,000 pounds were imported into New York during the 
month of April, 1911. 

There seems to be no local demand for this product, but, owing to 
the recent tariff regulation, it would enter the United States duty free: 
consequently, it could be exported from the Philippines with profit. 


IX. PREPARING SKINS OF AQUATIC ANIMALS FOR LEATHER. 
CAYMAN OR CROCODILE SKIN. 
(Crocodilus porosus Schneider and C. palustris Lesson.) 


For commercial purposes, skins of the medium-sized cayman, of about 
3 meters.(9 feet) length, are the most desirable as they are easier to tan, 
and make the best leather. The skin should be cut along the middle line 
of the belly from the chin to the tip of the tail and carefully removed 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 311 


from the animal soon after its death. Fine salt in sufficient quantity 
should then be rubbed thoroughly into the raw side of the skin. It is 
then rolled compactly and placed in a dry place to cure; occasional 
examination should be made to see if it is curing properly. When 
thoroughly cured the skin is ready for tanning. 


To tan, it is first soaked in a tub of clear fresh water from two to six days— 
depending on the size of the skin,—a 3-meter skin requires about five days. 
It is then placed in a rather weak solution of lime and water which should be 
increaséd in strength daily for about ten days. The wet skin is now placed on a 
. smooth beam, raw side out, and all the fat or flesh rubbed or shaved off. It 
is then placed in a thick mixture of bran and water and allowed to soak for one 
day—this is to neutralize the alkali of the lime. During all of the above processes 
through the solutions it is better if the skin be agitated occasionally so that 
all parts receive sufficient treatment. The hide is then washed and immersed 
in a tank of tanning extract. Any of the native tans may be used, or oak bark, 
gambia, or sumac liquid of 4 per cent strength, and stronger liquid is added 
each day until the strength has reached 20 per cent at the end of eighteen days. 
The length of time will vary according to the size of the skin, strength of the 
solution, or the color desired. The hide is then hung up to dry and harden. 
It is then shaved and cleaned again so as to leave it of the desired thickness. 
Tf black, red, brown, or green shades of color are desired the skin is put into 
a bath of wood and aniline dyes, for about three-quarters of an hour. It is 
then stretched out and nailed to a board or wide frame for drying. When dry 
it is rubbed briskly over an iron or wooden beam to make it flexible.* The 
skin is then ready for use. The price paid for prepared skins is from 2 to 4 
pesos per 20 lineal centimeters. 


So far as I have been able to learn no serious attempt has been made 
to prepare the Philippine crocodile skin for leather. It is an experiment 
well worth trying, as the cayman is notoriously abundant in many streams 
of the Philippines. 


WATER-SNAKE SKINS. 


(Lapemis hardwickii Gray, Chersydrus granulatus Schneider, and other species.) 


There are great numbers of water snakes in the Philippines. I have 
seen more than one hundred brought in with one haul of an ordinary 
fish sein on the Malate beach. It is quite probable that a good industry 
could be built up in tanning the skins of these snakes for leather. Many 
of them are finely marked and would make attractive belts, card cases, 
and ornamental objects. Considerable quantities of snake-skin leather 
are used in France. The following is the method of preparation: 

The skins are removed from the animals and soaked for ten days in a strong 
solution of sulphate of zinc. They are then fleshed, scraped, washed by hand, and 
placed in a bath containing 100 parts water, 10 parts borax, 100 parts boracic 
acid, 25 parts tartaric acid, and 25 parts saturated solution of precipitated 
alumina. They remain in this bath one day and are then transferred to bath 
No. 2 containing 1000 parts water, 25 parts phosphate of zine, 25 parts 
benzoate of aluminium, 50 parts glycerine, 20 parts alcohol. The skins are 


© Report U. S. Fish Comm. (1902), 350. — 


ele SEALE. 


left one day in this solution, then they are placed in the first bath again for 
one day, then. back into the second for another day, this alternating of baths 
being continued for five or six days, by which time the tanning is complete. 
The skins are then dried, lightly staked, and finished off. 


PREPARING SHARK SKIN. 


Shark skin is used for a great many purposes, especially for sword 
grips, knife and sword sheaths, for polishing wood and ivory, and for 
covering small ornamental objects, such as jewel boxes or card cases. 
A manufacturer in Paris has made a big reputation by tanning the skin 
of the Malabar shark into morocco leather. 

Some yery beautifully marked sharks are found in the Philippines 
such as Chiloscyllium indicum (Gm.), Stegostoma tigrinum Linn., Sey- 
Ilium capense Mull. & Hen., and S. marmoratum Gray & Hard. Their 
skins could be made into excellent leather. 


To tan shark skins, the skins are (if hard) first soaked in water for four 
or five days; they then are placed in a solution of lime and water, as in the case 
of the crocodile skins; they remain in this solution from two to six days, and are 
then washed free of lime, and soaked in bran water for a day or so; they 
are then fleshed, or shaved, and immersed in an alum solution composed of 0.5 
kilogram of alum and 0.1 kilogram of salt to 4 liters of water; they remain in 
this solution two or three days, with occasional stirrings. On removal they are 
dried and are ready for manufacturing. 

To prepare shark’s skin for the use of cabinet-makers it is merely cleaned and 
not tanned, the hard dry skin is soaked in lukewarm water for three or four 
days, shaved on the flesh side, and then dried. This skin will outwear many sheets 
of sand-paper of equal size. 


We are indebted to Chas. H. Stevenson’s valuable paper regarding 
methods of tanning, for much of the above information.** 


X. A CHECK LIST OF PHILIPPINE HOLOTHURIANS. 


1. Cucumaria conjungens Semper. 
General color brownish, MHabitat: Mariveles, Luzon. In shallow water. 
Length 20-25 millimeters. 


2. Cucumaria longipeda Semper. 

Color dull gray. Habitat: Bohol, Pandanon. In water of 30 fathoms. Length 
20 millimeters. 

3. Cucumaria citrea Semper. 

Color orange-yellow. Habitat: Bohol. In 8 fathoms. Length 15-20 milli- 
meters. 

4. Cucumaria versicolor Semper. 


General color olive-green. Habitat: Bohol. In water of 6 to 10 fathoms. 
Length 6-7 centimeters. 


5. Cucumaria maculata Semper. 
Habitat: Bohol. In water of 10 fathoms. Length 4.5 centimeters. 


™ Report U. S. Fish Comm. (1902), 283. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 313 


6. Cucumaria mirabilis Théel. 
Habitat: Cebu, at the depth of 100 fathoms. 


7. Cucumaria canescens Semper. 
Habitat: Bohol. In water from 6 to 30 fathoms. Length 1.5—-3 centimeters. 


8. Miulleria nobilis Sel. 
General color dusky. Habitat: Bohol. In shallow water. 


9. Milleria mauritiana Quoy & Gaim. 
Habitat: Philippines. In shallow water. 


10. Milleria lecanora Jeger. ‘ 

General color dirty yellowish. Habitat: Philippines. In shallow water up to 
6 fathoms. 

11. Psolus complanatus Semper. 

- General color grayish. Habitat: Zamboanga. In shallow water. Length 22 

millimeters. 

12. Psolus boholensis Semper. 

Upper portion gray, lighter below. Habitat: Bohol. In water from 6 to 17 
fathoms. Length 15 millimeters. 


13. Psolus boholensis pandanensis Semper. 
Habitat: Bohol at Pandanon. In water of 30 fathoms. 


14. Thyone villosa Semper. 3 
General color yellowish-brown. Habitat: Philippines. In water of 10 fathoms. 
Length 20-30 millimeters ‘4 


15. Thyone rigida Semper. 
General color grayish brown. Habitat: Bohol. In 10 fathoms. 


16. Thyonidium cebuense. Semper. 

General color brownish gray. Habitat: Cebt. In 10 fathoms. Length 30-35 
millimeters. : 

17. Echinocucumis adversaria Semper. 

General color grayish. Habitat: Bohol. In 30 fathoms. Length 8-10 milli- 
meters. 

18. Haplodactyla molpadioides Semper. 

General color pale-violet or lavender. Five branching papille around the anal 
pore. Habitat: Bohol, CebG. In 13 to 20 fathoms. 


19. Haplodactyla molpadioides pellucida Selenka. 
Habitat: CebGi. Shallow water. 


20. Chirodota rigida Semper. 
Color light brown with whitish dots. Habitat: Bohol. 


21. Chirodota incongrua Semper. 
Sixteen tentacles, each with 18 to 20 digits. Habitat: Camiguin Island. 
Shallow water. 


22. Chirodota dubia Semper. 

Tentacles 18, each with 18 to 20 digits. Habitat: Camiguin Island. Shallow 
water. 

23. Chirodota variabilis Semper. 

Tentacles 17 or 18, each with 20 to 24 digits. Habitat: Mariveles, Luzon. 


314 SEALE. 


24. Chirodota panaensis Semper, 
Habitat: Panay. Shallow water. 


25. Synapta dubia Semper. 
Habitat: Bohol. In water from 6 to 10 fathoms. 


26. Synapta pseudo-digitata Semper. 
Habitat: Bohol. In water of 15 fathoms. 


27. Synapta molesta Semper. 
Habitat: Philippines. In shallow water. 


28. Synapta reticulata Semper. 
Habitat: Philippines. In water of 8 fathoms. 


29. Synapta indivisa Semper. 
Tentacles 13, each with about 20 very long slender digits. Habitat: Zamboanga. 


30. Synapta nigra Semper. 
Digits of tentacles united by web at base. Habitat: Bohol. In shallow water. 


31. Synapta grisea Semper. 
Color in life greenish-gray, arranged in spots and bands, the ground color being 
a dirty light-green. Habitat: Bohol. In water from 4 to 6 fathoms. 


32. Synapta glabra Semper. 
Color dark yellowish-brown above, yellowish below. Habitat: Ceba, Bohol. 
Length 500 millimeters. Found in water from 4 to 6 fathoms. 


33. Synapta innominata Ludwig. 
Habitat: Manila Bay. 


34. Synapta recta Semper. 
Thirteen tentacles, with very short digits. Habitat: Bohol. In water of 6 to 8 
fathoms. 


35. Synapta gracilis Semper. 

General color whitish with slight wash of yellowish-brown. Habitat: Manila 
Bay. 

36. Synapta beselii Jeger. 

Color in life greenish. Habitat: Cebti reefs. 

37. Synapta similis Semper. 

Pinkish-white, with some brown anteriorly. Habitat: Bohol. In shallow 
water. 


38. Ocnus pygmzeus Semper. 
Upper color greenish, the underparts yellowish-brown. Habitat: Bohol. In 
water of 9 fathoms. Length 10 millimeters. 


39. Ocnus imbricatus Semper. 
General color yellowish-brown, lighter below. Habitat: Bohol. In water of - 
8 to 15 fathoms. Length 35-40 millimeters. 


40. Colochirus coeruleus Semper. 

General color pinkish and green with markings of yellowish. Habitat: Bohol. 
In water of 10 fathoms. Length 18-20 centimeters. 

41. Colochirus viridis Semper. 

General color sea-green. Habitat: Zamboanga, Mindanao. In shallow water. 


42. Colochirus cucumis Semper. 
Habitat: Bohol. In 6 fathoms. Length 3 centimeters. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 315 


43. Colochirus anceps Selenka. 


General color orange, the feet red. Habitat: Bohol. Shallow water up to 
10 fathoms. Length 8-10 centimeters. 


44, Colochirus cylindricus Semper. 
Habitat: Bohol. In water of 10 fathoms. Length 5 centimeters. 


45. Colochirus tuberculosus Quoy & Gaim. 
Habitat: Bohol. In shallow water and up to 10 fathoms. 


46. Colochirus quadrangularis Less. 
Habitat: Bohol. In shallow water and up to 10 fathoms. 


47. Stichopus variegatus Semper. 
Yellowish-gray with markings of gray and brown. Habitat: Philippines. 
In shallow water up to 10 fathoms. 


48. Stichopus naso Semper. 
General color yellowish-gray. Habitat: Bohol. In 10 to 15 fathoms. 


49. Holothuria marmorata Jeger. 

Auburn above, with some large spots or bands of yellowish-white; yellowish 
below. Scattered over the sides of the body are violet spots on a yellowish-white 
area. The deposits in the body wall are X-shaped, or oval with central incisions 
on each side. Habitat: Bohol. In shallow water. 


50. Holothuria tenuissima Semper. 
Pedicels all over the body. The deposits consist of incomplete rosettes, or 
slightly branched rods. Habitat: Bohol, in 15 fathoms of water. 


51. Holothuria similis Semper. 
Fine papillx all over the body. Habitat: Bohol, in 10 to 15 fathoms of water. 


52. Holothuria erinzeus Semper. 

Color dark-brown or blackish, lighter below; pedicels a light yellowish-brown. 
The rods bear a few spines on their sides, their ends are slightly branched or 
perforated. Habitat: Bohol and Luzon, in shallow water. 


53. Holothuria graffei Semper. 
Ventral pedicels in three distinct longitudinal series. The dorsal , papille 


large. The deposits consist of tables, rosettes, and irregular branched plates. 
Habitat: Luzon. 


54. Holothuria pulchella Selenka. 

The ventral pedicels are more crowded than the dorsal papille. The spire of the 
table consisting of a reduced almost annular disk, with 12 teeth on the top. 
Habitat: Philippine Islands, in shallow water. 


55. Holothuria pervicax Selenka. 

Color in alcohol grayish-brown, with some darker cross bands on the back. 
The pedicels and papilla are about the same size. The ventral surface is more 
crowded. The tables are not well developed, the spire being short and terminating 
in but 4 teeth; disks small, rounded, smooth or slightly uneven on the margins. 
Rods small, elongate, and uneven on the margins, or with holes on the sides. 
Habitat; Philippine Islands. 


56. Holothuria atra Jeger.” 
Dorsal papille and ventral pedicels of nearly equal size. Disks forming simple 
rings; often with small hole at the base of each vertical rod. The spire ter- 


minating in 8 horizontal and 4 vertical teeth. The plates are evenly rounded, or 
106346——3 


316 SEALE. 


undulated on margins, often with X-shaped branches. Habitat: Philippine 
Islands, in shallow water. 


57. Holothuria edulis Lesson. 

Color a dark reddish-brown, light gray on sides and belly, a minute, dark ring 
around the base of the pedicels. The dorsal papille are very minute and more 
scattered than the ventral pedicels. Disk of the tables reduced to a small ring 
more narrow than the top of the spire, which, when seen from above, presents 
a small circular hole surrounded by 4 prominences, each with 4 or 5 teeth. 
Habitat: Bohol, in 10 to 20 fathoms of water. 


58. Holothuria monacaria Lesson. : 

Color yellowish white, speckled with brown or greenish-brown on the back. 
The young specimens are auburn, with the ventral surface white. The papille 
paler. The dorsal papille are arranged in 4 indistinct longitudinal rows. The 
rounded disks of the tables have a central hole surrounded by 4 to 12 holes. The 
spire terminates in 12 teeth. Habitat: Zamboanga, in shallow water. Length 
110 millimeters. 


59. Holothuria vagabunda Selenka. : 

The color varies from a dark brown to a reddish-brown. The table >ave small 
disks; the spires terminate in 8 to 10 teeth placed around a 1 ireular 
aperture at their top; buttons with 6 holes; the dorsal ped’ Save 
supporting rods, these are spinous and taper towards the ends 
pines, in shallow water. 


60. Holothuria fusco-cinerea Jeger. 

Color dusky-red, with some darker transverse bands on the 5 E able 
never seem to attain the usual length of the spire, nor to have the umber 
of transyerse beams. Habitat: Bohol, in 6 to 10 fathoms of water. neth 222 
millimeters. 


61. Holothuria immobilis Semper. 

Color on dorsal surface brown, with some darker spots or bands, belly dirty 
yellowish-white inclined to brown anteriorly. Tentacles 26; ventral surface with 
pedicels, the dorsal surface with papille. The disks of the tables spinous; the 
buttons irregularly formed, with about six holes. Habitat: Bohol, in from 6 
to 8 fathoms of water. 


62. Holothuria coluber Semper. 

The dorsal surface with papillae; ventral surface with pedicels. The tables 
have long spire of 4 rods, and 3 to 5 transverse beams. Habitat: Bohol, in 6 to 8 
‘fathoms. 


63. Holothuria impatiens Forskal. 

Color in alcohol, light brown, inclined to violet. Integuments rough, the 
smooth disks of the tables are pierced with 9 holes of equal size; buttons sym- 
metrical with 6 holes. Habitat: Philippines, in 6 fathoms. 


64. Holothuria scabra Jeger. 

The color varies with different localities. Some are cinereous with almost 
black transverse bands, with a few small whitish bands or spots on the back, the 
belly being yollowish-white, and each papilla being surrounded with a small dark 
circle. In other localities they are paler and punctated with a few large dark 
spots, but are without the dark bands. The tables are solid, with smooth, well 
developed disks, spires of usual shape with 12 to 16 teeth. The buttons have 6 
holes, are symmetrical, and for the most part knotted. Habitat: Bohol, in shallow 
water. Length 170 millimeters. 


FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. oud 


65. Holothuria albiventer Semper. 

Belly dirty gray, finely punctated; papille whitish; back dusky; tentacles 
yellowish-white. The tables have large rounded disk with numerous small holes. 
The spire is formed by 6 or 10 rods, its large rounded top is covered with small 
teeth; buttons oval. Habitat: Bohol, in shallow water. 


66. Holothuria squamifera Semper. 
Papille seale-like. Tables small, numerous; spire long narrow, with 5 trans- 
verse beams; buttons with from 6 to 12 holes. Habitat: Philippines. 


THE MOST IMPORTANT WORKS RELATING TO TREPANG. 


Semper, C. Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen (1868), 1, pt. 2. 

THEEL, H. Report of the Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S. 
Challenger, 1873-76. Zoology (1882), 4, pt. 3; (1886), 14, pt. 2. 

Pearsons, J. Report on the Holothurioide of the Gulf of Manaar. In Ceylon 
Pearl Oyster Report. Roy. Soc. Supp. Rep. No. 5 (1903), 1, 181. 

Smovmonps, V. Commercial Products of the Sea. New York (1879). 

Mirsukuri, K. Notes on the Habits and Life-History of Stichopus japonicus 
Selenka, Annot. Zool. Jap. (1903-1906), 5, 1. 

Mirsuxuri, K. On Changes which are found with Advancing Age in the Calca- 
reous Deposits of Stichopus japonicus, Selenka. Ibid. (1897), 1, 31. 

Sturrer, C. Fauna des Java-Meeres. Nat. Tidj. v. Ned. Indie (1887), 47. 

SenpnKka, E. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. (1867), 17, 291. 

Bett, F. J. Zoological Collection of H. M. S. ‘Alert.’ (1884). 

Epwarps, C. L. Variation, Development and Growth in Holothuria floridana Pour- 
talés and in Holothuria atra Jiger. Biometrika (1908), 6, 236-301. 


Lak een 


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ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE [. PHILIPPINE TREPANG. 
Fie. 1. The oe. 
2. The gan sim. 
. The bark sim. 
. The moi whar che. 
. The hong che. 


Om oo 


PLATE II. DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF “BARK SIM.’ 
(Third grade Philippine Trepang. ) 
Fie. 1, Small black trepang. 
. White ringed trepang. 
. Yellowish brown trepang. 
Dark brown trepang. 
. Convoluted trepang. 
. Small convoluted trepang. 


Dom wD 


Puate II]. PHILIPPINE SHARK-FIN. 


Fie. 1. Dried shark-fin prepared for export. 
2. The fin prepared for soup. 


Prate [V. THREE VARIETIES OF SEA TURTLES. 


Ite. 1. The loggerhead (Thalassochelys caretta Linn.). 

2. Head of the loggerhead turtle. 

3. The hawksbill turtle (Chelone imbricata Linn.). 

4. Head of hawksbill turtle. 

5. The green turtle (Chelone mydas Linn.). 

6. Head of green turtle. 

PLATE V.. PHILIPPINE TORTOISE-SHELL. 

Fre. 1. Plate from the hawksbill turtle. 


1 

2. Section showing thickness of the above plate. 

3. Plate from the green turtle. 

4. Section showing thickness of the green turtle shell. 


Prats VI. Comps MADE IN MANILA FROM PHILIPPINE TORTOISE-SHELL. 
PuaAtE VII. PHILIPPINE WINDOW-SHELL. 


lig. 1. Cross-section of shell near the adductor muscle showing actual width of 
shell including the animal. ; 
2. Window shell, with growth of crustacean ege's near one margin. 
. Window shell opened and with the mantle of left side removed showing 
the organs in place. 
Pirate VIII. ANATOMY OF THE WINDOW-SHELL MoLuusk. «a, Mantle; 6, pallial 
fringe; c, gills; d, adductor muscle; e, liver; /, genital lobe; g, foot: 
h, anal funnel; 7, labial palps; 7, ventricle; /, auricle; /, kidneys. 
319 


oo 


320 SEALE. 


Prate IX. Urmizine Wrxpow SHELL. 


Fic, 1. Shell window in the new General Hospital, Manila. 
2. Sereen made of window shell and red narra wood. 


PLATE X. SHELL LAMPS. 


1. Small porch-light made from window shell. 

2. Lantern light made from window shell. 

3. Reading lamp made of wood and window shell. 

4. The nautilus reading light. a, Base of red cement; b, stem of red coral- 
line; e, shade of chambered nautilus; d, electric wire to bulb which is 
hidden in nautilus shell. aig Secor aa 


PratTeE XI. THE Top SHELL. 


Fic. 1. Top shell (Yrochus niloticus Linn.). Showing cuts for buttons in the 
partition walls. 

2. Side view of Trochus niloticus Linn. 

3. Trochus niloticus cut through the vertical plane. 

4. Top view of Trochus niloticus Linn. 


PrLaTe XII. THe TurBon SHELL. 


Fic. 1. Turbon shell (Yurbo marmoratus Linn.) 
. Turbon shell (young). 
. Turbon shell cut on a vertical plane. 


. Side view of Turbo marmoratus Linn. 


pm Oo DO 


SEALE : FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. | 


| Fig. 3. 


[PxHin. Journ. Sct., Vou. VI, No. 


Fig. 5. 


PLATE I. 


- 
F 
hes: 


Was 
pale tore 


SEALE: FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] 


[PHIn. JouRN. Scr., VoL. VI, No. 


Fig. 1. 


Fig. 5. 


Fig. 6. 


PLATE II, 


; 
’ ~ 
t 
i 
ae 4 
s 
. 


. JouRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 


‘T Bl 


‘9 ON ‘TA “TOA “10g ‘NUDOr TIHg] 


[‘SANIddIIIHg FHL JO sHOUNOSTY AVAHSTY : AIvaS 


‘TA "I0A “ICS ‘NUNOLF 11g] 


"A S41Vv1d 


HililitflihihlitAl 


“WD ¢| 


[(SANIdd ITH AHL oO SHOUNOSHY AVGHST AY : aTVWaAS 


SEALE : FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. | [PHIL. Journ. Sct., Vou. VI, No. 6. 


Fig. 1. 


15 cm. 


EAE || | vk [|| al 


PLATE vi. 


SBALE : FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. | [ PHIL. JouRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 


OOO TUCURETUUODD 


PLATE VII. 


SEALE: FisHEeRY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] [PHrn. JouRN. Sct., Vou. VI, No. 6. 


PLATE VIII. 


‘IT ‘Sl4 


h.  @eeeee 

— ERSESR 
 EEESEE L we 
SRekee ‘< 
BESS Ss: 


‘9 ON ‘IA “LOA “L § NUDOL TIN] [SANT4a1T1 TH FO SOOMNOSAQT UIMEST A : FIVaS 


‘9 ‘ON ‘IA “IOA “IOS "NUNOL “T1Hg] [ SANIddIMHg FHL JO SAOUNOSTY AUAHSIY : ATVAS 


SEALE : FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ] [PHIL. JourN. Sci., Vou. VI, No. 6 


Fig. 1. 
Fig 2. 


WO SI 


Width 


PLATE XI. 


SeaLeE: FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. | [Putn. Journ. Scr., Vou. VI, Ne. 6. 


Fig. 1. 


Fig. 3. 
Fig. 4. 


TEEPE pepe 


PLATE XII. 


MILLER : NON-CHRISTIANS OF AMBOS CAMARINES | [Put.. Journ. Sct., Vou. VI, No. 6. 


rileh Fig. 4. 
PLATE I. 


fea 


yj 
By 

eee 
“a 


MILLER : NON-CHRISTIANS OF AMBOS CAMARINES. | 


(PHIL. JourRN. Scr., Vou. VI, No. 6 


MILLER : Non-CHRISTIANS OF AMBOS CAMARINES. | [PHin. Journ. Sct., Vou. VI, No. 6. 


nN: 


Fig. 1. 


‘9 ON ‘IA “IOA “IOS “NUNOL TING] ['SUNIMVNVD SOdINY TO SNVILSIUHD-NON : YaTTIPY 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 6, December, 1911. 


THE NON-CHRISTIAN PEOPLE OF AMBOS CAMARINES. 


By Merron L. MInzer. 


. (From the Division of Hthnology, Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I,) 


The Province of Ambos Camarines is occupied mainly by the Bikol 
people. In the northern part of Camarines Norte there are certain 
towns which are occupied wholly or in part by Tagalogs. Many of the 
latter are said to have come in from the north at the time of the dis- 
covery of gold at Paracale and neighboring towns. With these excep- 
tions all the municipalities of the province are occupied by Bikols. 
However in the hills of both Camarines Sur and Camarines Norte there 
are other people who apparently are neither Tagalog nor Bikol, In 
Camarines Sur these people know themselves and are known to the 
Christian population of the towns as “Agta.” The great body of them 
lives on the slopes of the two extinct volcanoes, Iriga and Isarog. They 
state that in Spanish times white people never ventured among them. 
Their hostility toward the Spaniards is said to have been due to con- 
tinual attacks made on them by the latter and to the consequent: desire 
for revenge awakened in the hill people. To all appearances there 
is no danger whatever in going alone among them at the present time. 

Those about Mount Isarog are found for the most part about one- 
third of the way up the slopes and apparently in about the place where 
they have lived for years. ‘They formerly were scattered about in the 
hills, but now are slowly coming to live in groups, although they say they 
prefer to live scattered about. This is probably partly because they are 
thus enabled to be nearer to their growing crops and partly because they 
haye been accustomed to this method of life for many years. 

The people of Consosep are typical of these groups of Isarog people. 
Consosep is some six or seven hours travel from Mabatobato, almost 
all of it uphill. Mabatobato is a barrio distant about three and one- 
half hours from Pili. .A schoolhouse is located at Consosep on a 
spur which juts out from Isarog and is perhaps 610 meters high. The 
building can be seen for many miles, as the country immediately around 


it is not wooded. A few hundred yards back of the schoolhouse toward 
321 


Bee MILLER. 


the mountain are two houses. About the same distance below at a 
place where the hill is a little less steep is a group of six small houses. 
Off on another spur, across a deep gulch twenty minutes walk away, 
can be seen another house. Still others are scattered about in the 
forest, some near and some several hours’ travel away. 

The day I was at Consosep about 75 individuals—men, women, and 
children—came together in response to a call and they were probably 
not more than one-half or two-thirds of all the people belonging to 
this settlement. They are a peculiar people. They are not Negritos, 
although the name by which they are known both among themselves 
and to others—Agta—might indicate that they are. Neither are they 
typically Malayan. ‘There are, it is true, many among them who do 
not differ at all in appearance from the ordinary Christian Filipino, 
but as a rule they are smaller than the average among the latter. They 
are also darker. Very few of them have straight hair. Some have 
hair which is almost kinky, while the majority have wavy hair. Some 
have thick lips and a few the large, noticeable eyes of the typical Negro. 
(Plate I, figs. 1 and 2; Plate III.) 

They dress like most of the other people of the Philippines. The 
women wear a camisa and for a skirt several pieces of cloth wrapped 
about the body and tucked in at the waist. The men wear trousers 
reaching to the knees and most of them some kind of a jacket or shirt. 
However, when working in the fields they wear usually only the loin 
cloth. i 

In former times these people lived in rude shelters much like those 
in which the Negritos still live. Now they dwell in small houses, so 
small that even they can not stand upright anywhere in them. They 
are built about 1.5 meters above the ground with floors of bamboo and roofs 
of leaves. 

These people plant upland rice, camotes, maize, taro, squash, bananas, 
yams, and some few other plants. They have no goats or sheep, but 
occasionally kill birds to eat. 

An old woman with whom I talked who had lived at Consosep all 
her life said that she did not remember a time when there were Negritos 
about there. From this as well as from the appearance of the people 
one would conclude that the Negrito admixture took place many years 
ago. She also said that formerly they were more numerous than now, 
that they had been killed by smallpox, cholera, and in fights with the 
Spaniards, but that they were increasing in number now. 

They marry at from 13 to 15 years of age. The old woman above 
mentioned told me of one woman who had eight children. One man 
sometimes has as many as three wives, although as a rule they are mo- 
nogamous. They are said to have a language of their own which has 


NON-CHRISTIANS PEOPLE OF AMBOS CAMARINES. Be 


some Bikol words in it. It may be, however, that this is merely a 
dialectic variation of Bikol and not a distinct language. 

On the Kalawat Islands, which lie a few miles east of Paracale in 
Camarines Norte, there is a small population most of whom are Bikol, 
like the people on the mainland opposite, but there are besides the 
Bikols certain small groups of people known as “Dumagat.” They 
live for the most part in small groups by themselves not far from the 
Bikol settlements. These people too, like the Agta of Camarines Sur, 
show evidence of Negrito blood. They are darker than their Bikol 
neighbors though not noticeably smaller. Some of them have wavy 
and some curly hair while others have hair as straight as the ordinary 
Filipino. (Plate I, figs. 3 and 4.) 

The Dumagat people of Kaboong Island, one of the Kalawat group, 
said they came from the mainland. One man was from near Nueva 
Caceres and looked much like the people about Mount Isarog. They 
said that they had all been baptized, but the probability is that they 
are practically non-Christians, as they are remote from any Christian 
influence. They talk Bikol among themselves, live for the most part 
scattered about on the hillsides in houses like those of other Filipinos, 
plant camotes, maize, taro, and yams, but do not plant rice. They 
had never heard of Negritos living on the Kalawat Islands. They say 
they call themselves Dumagat because they live near the sea. 

I was told that on Butawanan Island off Kinabugsukan Point in 
Camarines Sur there is a considerable number of these Dumagat people. 
There are also a few of them scattered among the Bikol people of the 
coast towns. I did not visit Butawanan and so can not say whether 
the people of that island resemble the Dumagat of the Kalawat Islands. 

There are three possible explanations of the origin both of the Agta 
people in the vicinity of Mounts Isarog and Iriga, and of the Dumagat of 
the Islands off the east coast of the province and of the neighboring 
shores of the mainland. The resemblance between the two groups is 
sufficiently close to lead one to believe that their origin may be the same. 

The first possibility is that they are remnants of an earlier Malayan 
invasion which preceded that which brought the Bikols and Tagalogs 
to the Philippines. The second is that they are the result of crossing 
between an aboriginal Negrito population and their Malayan neighbors. 
It is furthermore possible that they may be the result of the crossing 
of some primitive Malayans with Negritos. That there is Negrito 
blood in them I have no doubt, although this opinion is based only 
on their physical appearance. 

The simplest explanation of the characteristics of these people is 
that they are the result of crossing many years ago between the Ma- 
layan people and Negritos. Occasionally even now men from the low- 


324 MILLER. 


lands join these hill people, preferring the life of the latter. to that 
of their fellows in the plains. 

The Negritos in Camarines are to be found both in Camarines Sur 
and Camarines Norte. In Camarines Sur a few Negritos live near 
Payatan on the slope of Mount Isarog. Here scattered about they 
dwell in rude shelters in the forests. They work for their Filipino 
neighbors. They are typical Negritos, apparently without admixture 
of other blood. 

Near the town of: Iriga there is a settlement of about 68 people of 
mixed Negrito and Malayan blood. Some have almost kinky hair and 
others hair almost straight. I saw no one at this settlement who ap- 
peared to be of pure Negrito blood, although in Iriga itself are some 
10 or 15 Negritos who are said to be practically slaves and who are 
not allowed to leave their masters. They do, however, occasionally escape. 

In Camarines Norte on the other hand are many pure Negritos, 
although how many I am unable to say. ‘There is one groupinear the 
barrio of Batobelani and there is at least one other group near Ragay 
on the west coast of Camarines. These Negritos do a little farming 
on their own account, but they more often work for the Christian Fili- 
pinos planting and harvesting crops. When they come into the Christian 
settlements the women and some of the men wear the ordinary Filipino 
costume. Others of the men wear only the customary loin cloth. The 
shelters in which they live are often the simplest possible, consisting 
of a rough floor and a roof of leaves. (Plates II, IV, V.) 

It seems to be a rare thing with them to intermarry with the Christian 
Filipino. All whom I saw in Camarines Norte looked like pure Negri- 
tos with no admixture of other blood. Im all probability prejudice 
against marriage with the Negritos has increased with the coming of 
Christianity. If this be true most of the blending of the Negrito and 
Filipino blood which has occurred here took place many years ago. 

There are probably several hundred Negritos in Camarines Norte. 
I suspect most of them have come to be dependent to some extent on 
the Christian Filipinos and, therefore, live near them. They are a 
mild-mannered, inoffensive people, but I did not see enough of them 
to learn much about their mode of life. 

They are typical Negritos. They are short of stature, have dark 
skin, closely curled hair, and flat noses. When they are of pure blood 
there is never any possibility in the Philippines of sauces them 
for any other people. 

With the exception of the Negritos, the Dumagat people, and those 
living about Mounts Isarog and Iriga all the other inhabitants of 
Camarines I believe to be Bikol, with some Tagalogs in the north and 
a few individuals from other parts of the Philippines scattered about 
here and there. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATE I. 


Fie. 1. Woman of Consosep, Camarines, showing no evidence of Negrito blood. 
2. Man of Consosep, Camarines, showing strong evidence of Negrito blood. 
3 and 4. Men of Kalawat Islands, Camarines, showing traces of Negrito blood. 


PLATE II. 


Figs. 1 and 2. Negrito women, near Ragay, Camarines. 
Fie. 3. Negrito man, near Ragay, Camarines. 
4. Negrito man, near Batobelani, Camarines. 


Puate IIT. 


Fic. 1. Group of men, near Mount Iviga, Camarines. Some evidently have 
Negrito blood; others not. 
2. Negrito hut near Mount Isarog, Camarines. 


Puate LV. 


Group of Negrito men, women. and children; Ragay, Camarines. 
> 2 b= beer? 


ses 
wey 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 6, December, 1911. 


THE STRUCTURE OF THE PALLIAL TENTACLES OF LIMA 
SPECIES: 


By LAWRENCE E. GRIFFIN.’ 


(From the Zoélogical Laboratory, University of the Philippines.) 


While turning over stones on a coral reef on the eastern coast of 
Negros, P. I., there came from under one which I lifted a small Lima 
which went flapping off, like 
a startled Pecten, in a des- 
perate effort to escape. 
From the edges of the man- 
tle trailed scores of delicate 
tentacles, from 25 to 60 mil- 
limeters in length, of a 
blood-red color. As quickly 
as possible I caught the little 
creature and immediately 
several dozen of the tentacles 
fastened to my hand. Many 
of them clung so tightly that 
they were broken before 
letting go. 

Each of the tenta- 
cles was ringed with an- 
nual grooves. These an- 
nulations and the great 
adhesive power of the 
tentacles, which seemed 
to be due more to suc- 
tion than to a mucila- 
ginous secretion, were 
immediate reminders of 
the tentacular cirri of 
Nautilus. This first 
specimen of Lima sp. was destroyed by an accident and it was several 
months before more were found. These were discovered buried at a depth 


Fig. 2. 


* Associate professor of zodlogy, University of the Philippines, Manila, P. I. 
327 


28 PALLIAL TENTACLES OF LIMA. 


wo 


of 8 to 10 centimeters in the loose broken coral on the inner side of a 
reef. 

A microscopic examination proved that the internal structure of the 
tentacles of this bivalve is even more remarkably like that of the Nautilus 
cirri than the external structure. A cross sec- 
tion (fig. 1) shows a large nerve extending 
through the center of the tentacle; radial 
muscles pass from the central region to all parts 
of the periphery; and strong longitudinal mus- 
cles lie in the spaces between the radial fas- 
ciculi. The central portion of the nerve is com- 
posed exclusively of fibers. Upon its surface 
is an almost continuous layer of nerve cells, but 
more or less distinct aggregations of nerve cells 
are found at poimts corresponding to the an- 
nular ridges of the surface of the tentacle. 

As in the Nawtilus cirri, 
the epidermal cells are high 
upon the ridges but very low 
in the grooves of the ten- 
tacle (fig. 3). On the outer 
surface of the tentacle is a 
narrow longitudinal groove. 
at the base of which also the 
epidermal cells are very low 
(fig. 1). In some cases the 
epidermal cells were found to 
be crowded with mucous se- 
cretion. i 

The muscular  develop- 
ment of the Nautilus cirri is 
greater, and there is more 
difference in the epidermis of 
the inner and outer stirfaces 
than appears in the tentacles 
of Lima, but in the charac- 
teristic structures of the ten- 
_tacles the differences are 
those of degree rather than of kind. - The striking parallelism of develop- 
ment of these rather complex structures in forms so widely separated. 
systematically, is the more interesting when we remember that the ten- 
tacles of Lima are appendages of the mantle edge, while those of Naw- 
tilus hélong to the head or foot. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


TEXT FIGURES. 


Fie. 1. Transverse section of a tentacle of Lima sp. Im, longitudinal muscle 
bundles; ”, nerve; 7m, radial muscles. Original. 

2. Transverse section of a cerus of Nautilus pompilius. A, artery; CU, 
circular muscle layer; H, thickened epithelium on inner surface; LM, 
LM’, longitudinal muscles; N, nerve; OM, oblique muscle layer; RM, 
Tadial muscles; 7'’M, transverse or radial muscles; V, vein. (From 
Griffin, Anatomy of Nautilus pompilius. ) 

3. Longitudinal section of a pallial tentacle of Lima sp. Original. 

4. Longitudinal section of the tip of a cirrus of Nautilus pompilius. (From 
Griffin, Anatomy of Nautilus pompilius. ) 

329 


Apri: Pea aon 
ae oy 


ESA ieci ty 
Ce eas iy age ae ih he, 


THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 
D. General Biology, Ethnology and Anthropology. 
Vol. VI, No. 6, December, 1911. 


BEITRAG ZUR COLEOPTEREN FAUNA DER PHILIPPINEN. 


= Von J. Moser. 


(Berlin, Germany.) 


Holotrichia latecostata sp. nov. 

Supra picea, pruinosa, subtus brunnea, nitida, pygidio abdomineque 
flavis. Capite fortiter subrugoso-punctato clypeo margine antico emar- 
ginato; prothorace lato, lateribus medio rotundato-dilatatis, disco spar- 
sim, versus margines laterales paulo densius punctato, linea media laevi, 
antice abbreviata ; scutello remote punctato, medio laevi; elytris, singulo 
4-costato, costa prima postice ad suturam versus valde dilatata, subrugoso- 
punctatis,~feminae juxta suturam transversim-plicatis; pygidio haud 
dense umbilicato-punctato. _ Subtus medio subtiliter parce punctato, late- 
ribus densius punctatis et flavo-pilosis; tibiis anticis tridentatis, articulo 
primo tarsorum posticorum secundo aequali. 

Long. 16 mill. 

Typus No. 11739 in Coll. Ent., Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. 

Hab: Panawan, Bacuit (C. MW. Weber, Collector). 

Die Form des Halsschildes, die pruindse Oberseite und der aufgetrie- 
bene gelbe Bauch verweisen die Art in die mucida-Gruppe. Der Kopf 
ist kraftig, fast runzelig punktiert, der Clypeus in der Mitte leicht aus- 
gebuchtet. Die Seiten des Halsschildes sind in der Mitte bogenformig 
erweitert, vor den Vorderecken ist der Seitenrand flach ausgebuchtet. 
Die Oberfliche ist zerstreut mit Nabelpunkten bedeckt, doch stehen die 
Punkte nach den Seiten zu etwas dichter und sind grober. Hine punkt- 
freie Mittellinie ist nur in der hinteren Hilfte zu erkennen. Das Schild- 
chen ist zerstreut punktiert, seine Mitte glatt. Die Fliigeldecken sind 
miassig dicht nabelartig und namentlich beim ? etwas runzelig punktiert. 
In der Mitte neben der Naht zeigen sich beim ? Querfalten. Jede 
Pliigeldecke lasst 4 schwache Rippen erkennen, von denen die innerste 
sich hinten sehr stark nach der Naht zu verbreitert. Wahrend bei dem 
yorliegenden ¢ die ganze Oberseite der Fltigeldecken pruinés ist, sind 


bei den beiden 2 die Seiten glinzend. Das Pygidium ist schwach gewolbt 
106346——4 331 


332 MOSER. 


und miassig dicht mit Nabelpunkten bedeckt. Die Unterseite ist mit 
Ausnahme des gelben Abdomens braun, in der Mitte sehr zerstreut, an 
den Seiten dichter punktiert und hier behaart. Die behaarten Stellen 
an den Seiten des Abdomens sind matt. Die Vorderschienen sind in 
beiden Geschlechtern kriftig dreizihnig, die beiden ersten Glieder der 
Hintertarsen sind gleich lang. Die Krallen sind an der Basis ver- 
breitert, am Ende ziemlich stark gebogen, der mittlere Zahn ist schwach 
und etwas nach riickwarts gerichtet. 


Protaetia banksi sp. nov. 

Viridis, flavo-maculata, supra opaca, subtus nitida. Capite maris sub- 
tiliter, feminae grosse punctato, fronte 2- an 4-flavo-maculata, clypeo 
nitido, marginibus paulo elevatis, margine antico emarginato ; prothorace 
lateribus flavo-marginatis, vitta marginali postice abbreviata, disco flayvo- 
bimaculato; scutello immaculato ; elytris obsolete punctato-striatis, juxta 
scutelli basin atque apicem, prope suturam, apice, juxta margines laterales 
et inter scutellum et humerum maculis flavis ornatis; pygidio flavo-bivit- 
tato, vittis antice furcatis. Subtus pectoris abdominisque lateribus flayo- 
maculatis ; procéssu mesosternali dilatato, margine antico rotundato ; tibiis 
anticis in utroque sexu tridentatis, mediis et posticis intus flavo-ciliatis. 

Long. 17 mill. . 

Typus No. 6334 in Coll. Ent. Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I. 

Hab: Negros Occidental, Bago (Charles S. Banks, Collector). 

Die Art hat in der Zeichnung Ahnlichkeit mit venerabilis Mohn. 
Sie ist etwas kleiner, die Unterseite ist bei allen vorliegenden Hxem- 
plaren griin und auf den Fliigeldecken befindet sich unterhalb der Schul- 
ter eine schmale gelbe Seitenrandbinde, die bei venerabilis fehlt. Auch 
der Forceps ist anders gebildet wie bei dieser Art. Der Clypeus ist 
beim ¢ fein, beim ? kraftig punktiert, missig hoch umrandet, der Vor- 
derrand ausgebuchtet. Auf der Stir befinden sich 2 oder 4 gelbliche 
Tomentflecken. Das Halsschild lisst infolge der Tomentbekleidung eine 
Skulptur nicht erkennen. Die Seitenrinder sind gelb gesaumt, doch 

-reicht die Seitenrandbinde nicht bis zu den Hinterecken. Auf dem Dis- 
cus befinden sich 2 rundliche gelbe Makeln. Das Schildchen ist unpunk- 
tiert und ungefleckt. Die Schulterblatter haben einen hinteren gelben 
Rand. Die Fliigeldecken lassen nur undeutliche Punktreihen erkennen. 
Sie sind neben der Naht etwas verflacht, so dass die Naht deutlich her- 
yortritt. Von gelblicheln Makeln befinden sich auf ihnen je einer neben 
Schildchenbasis und Schildchenspitze, ein rundlicher in der Mitte und 
ein querer hinter der Mitte neben der Naht, ein klemer an der Naht- 
spitze. Neben dem Seitenrande lauft eine schmale Lingsbinde unter- 
halb der Schulter und befinden sich dahinter 4 mehr oder weniger quere 
Makeln, von denen der letzte neben dem Endbuckel liegt. Ausserdem 
befinden sich hinter dem Vorderrande noch 2 kleine, hintereinander- 


CELEOPTEREN FAUNA DER PHILIPPINEN. 333 


liegende Flecken. Das Pygidium tragt jederseits eine gelbliche Langs- 
binde, welche sich nach vorn verbreitert und gabelt. Auf der Unter- 
seite sind die Seiten yon Brust und Abdomen gelb gemakelt und zwar 
tragt jedes Abdominalsegment jederseits 2 gelbe Querbinden, die aus- 
sere am Hinterrande, die innere am Vorderrande. Der Brustfortsatz 
ist nach vorn yerbreitert, sem WVorderrand ist flach abgerundet, seine 
Oberfliiche fast glatt. Die Vorderschienen sind in beiden Geschlechtern 
dreizihnig, die Vorderhiiften, Schenkel und Schienen sind gelb bewimpert. 

Ich widme die Art dem Entdecker derselben, Herrn Charles S. Banks, 
Entomologist, Bureau of Science in Manila. 


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) : Leet, FE eee ARS TF ced italy meting co els PA otf ait 
: ; PTA |i tate iit Miter PY, baa HT. 


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INDEX. 


(New names are printed in heavy-faced type; numbers in italics indicate synonyms or 
references of minor importance.) 


Be A 
A-amiid, 282. 
A-apox di gimaiyang, 240. 
Ablabes philippinus Boettger, 261. 

tricolor (Schlegel), 261. 
Acrochordine, 255. 
Actinocyclira, 61. 

JBtheopsar, digestive system in, 32. 
‘Athopyga bonita Bourns and Worcester, 46. 
magnifica Sharpe, 46. 

Agar-agar, 309, 

Aghardhiella sp., 309. 

Agongs, value of, 130. 

Aipysurus eydouxii (Gray), 265. 
Aktinocyclina, 67. 


Alang, 82. 

Allin, Benjamin Casey: Allin’s Standard 
English-Visayan Dictionary, reviewed, 
281. 


Alveolina, 61. 
Alveolinella, 54, 56, 76. 
quoyi, 55. 
Amblycephalide, 267. 
Ambos Camarines, non-Christians of, 321. 
Amphistegina cf. mamillata d’Orb., 75, 77. 
niasi Verbeek, 67, 75. 
Anas, digestive system in, 32. 
Anous stolidus (Linnzus), 171. 
Anthropology. The men of Cainta, 7; Fi- 
lipino ears: III. Negrito, 107. 
Anthus rufulus (Vieillot), 46. 
Antipatharia sp., 307. 
Aragan, 309. 
Artamides panayensis Steere, 43. 
Asterocyclina, 61. 
Astur trivirgatus (Temminck), 41. 
Augang, 83. 


B 


Bagobos of Davao Gulf, 127. 
Bagol, 82, 233. 
Baipandi, 133. 
Bakayauan, 97. 
Baki, 82, 233, 236. 
Balakat, 134. 
Balatan, 283. 
Balatik, 134. 
Balitok, 81. 

Balu, 234. 
Bangibang, 232. 


| BARTON, 


Baris-baris, 309. 

Bark sim, 284. 

ROY FRANKLIN, 
Feast of the Kiangan Ifugao, 
also BEYER, H. OTLEY, 


The Harvest 
81. See 


| Basi, 83. 


Baya, 83. 

BEAN, ROBERT BENNETT, Filipino Ears: 
III. Negrito, 107; The Racial Anatomy of 
the Philippine Islanders, reviewed, 223. 


BEAN, ROBERT BENNETT, and PLANTA, 
FEDERICO S., The Men of Cainta, 7. 


| Béche de mer, 283. 


BEYER, H. OTLEY, Review of Bean’s The 
Racial Anatomy of the Philippine Island- 
ers, 223. 


BEYER, H. OTLEY, and BARTON, ROY 
FRANKLIN, An Ifugao Burial Ceremony, 
227. 

Bilate, 283. 

Bilau, 231. 

Binabudan, 

Binadayan, 83. 

Birds from northern Negros, 39. 

Birds, Philippine sea, newly discovered breed- 
ing places of, 167. 

Bischofia javanica Bl., 244. 

Black coral, 307. 

Blue coral, 307. 

Boide, 255. 

Boiga angulata (Peters), 263. 

cyonodon (Boie), 264. 
’ dendrophila (Boie), 263. 
philippina (Peters), 263. 


83. 


| Boigine, 263. 


Boobies, hybridism among, 179. 
Book reviews.. See REVIEWS. 
Borkenkafer der Philippinen, 17. 
Bradypus, 155. 
Bubad, 236. 
Bubud jars, 83. 
Bubulcus coromandus (Boddaert), 41. 
Bubulcus, digestive system in, 32. 
Buga, 84. 
Bugan, 81, 96. 
Bulolo, 302. 
Buluhan, 95. 
Burial ceremony, Ifugao, 227. 
Burial jars, 3. 
Butek, 82. 

335 


336 


Cc 


Cacomantis merulinus (Scopoli), 42. 

Cainta, men of, 7. 

Calamaria bitorques Peters, 262. 

everetti Boulenger, 262. 

gervaisii Duméril et Bibron, 262. 

grayi Giinther, 262. 

mearnsi Stejneger, 262. 

mindorensis Boulenger, 262. 
Callisitta cnochlamys (Sharpe), 45. 
Camiguin Island, burial mounds of, 1; loca- 

tion and description of, 1. 

Canot-canot, 309. 

Catfish, 310. 

Cauat-cauat, 309. 

Cave burials, 3. 

Cayman skin, 310. 

Centetes, 193. 

Ceyx bournsi Steere, 41. 

Chaetomorpha crassa (Ag.) Kiitz., 309. 

Chambered nautilus 301, 303. 

Chelone imbricata Linn., 291. 

mydas Linn., 292. 

Chersydrus granulatus (Schneider), 

311. 
Chiloscyllium indicum Linn., 312. 
Chirodota dubia Semper, 313. 
incongrua Semper, 313. 
panaensis Semper, 314. 
rigida Semper, 313. 
yariabilis Semper, 313. 

Cholepus, 155. 

Chrysochloris, 187, 193. 

Chrysocolaptes xanthocephalus Walden and 

Layard, 42. 

Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw), 264. 

Cibolan, 132. 

Cinnyris guimarasensis Steere, 46. 

Cittocincla nigrorum Grant, 44. 

Coccotrypes graniceps Hichhoff, 21. 

pygmeus Eichhoff, 17. 

Cocos nucifera Linn., 25. 

Codium tenue Kiitz., 309. 

COLE, FAY COOPER, The 

Davao Gulf, 127. 
Coleopteren Fauna der Philippinen, 331. 
Colochirus anceps Selenka, 315. 

ceruleus Semper, 314. 

ecucumis Semper, 314. 

eylindricus Semper, 315. 

quadrangularis Less., 315. 

quadrangulus Less., 286. 

tuberculosus Quoy and Gaim., 
315. 

viridis Semper, 314. 

Colubride, 255. | 

Colubrine, 256. \ 

Colugo, 148. 

Columba griseogularis (Walden and Layard), 

41. 

Conic shell, 301. 

Coral, black, 307. } 
blue, 307. | 
Japanese precious, 305. | 
precious, 305. 
red organ-pipe, 307. 


255, 


Bagobos of 


INDEX. 


| Corallium boshuensis Kishinouye, 303. 


confusum Moroff, 306. 
elatius Ridley, 306. 
inutile Kishinouye, 306. 
japonicum Kishinouye, 305, 306. 
johnsoni (Gray), 306. 
konojoi Kiskinouye, 306. 
maderense (Johnson), 306, 
nobilis Pallas, 305. 
pusillum Kishinouye, 306. 
regine (Hickson), 306. 
rubrum Linn., 305. 
secundum (Dana), 306. 
stylasteroides (Ridley), 306. 
sulcatum Kishinouye, 306. 
Corals, reef, 307. 
Cordyline terminalis Kunth, 235. 
Cotton-spinner, 283. 
Craniorrhinus waldeni Sharpe, 42. 
Crimes, 131, 132. 
Criollas, 7. 
Crocodile skin, 310. 
Crocodilus palustris Lesson, 310. 
porosus Schneider, 310. 
Crossotarsus comatus Chapuis, 26. 
lecontei Chap., 17. 
Crotaline, 267. 
Cryphalus squamulosus Strohmeyer, 20. 
Cryptolopha oliyacea (Moseley), 43. 
Cucumaria canescens Semper, 313. 
citrea Semper, 312. 
conjungens Semper, 312. 
longipeda Semper, 312. 
maculata Semper, 312. 
mirabilis Théel, 313. 
versicolor Semper, 312. 
CURL, HOLTON C., Notes on the Digestive 
System of Hydrocorax, 31. 
Cyanomyias celestis (Tweeddale), 
Cycloclypeus, 64. 
Cycloclypeus communis Martin, 57, 60, 75, 
TA TL 
Cyclocorus lineatus (Reinhardt), 258. 
Cynocephalus, 140, 186, 205. 


D 


Dactylipalpus quadratocollis Chapuis, 18. 
transyersus Chapuis, 18. 

Dangla, 235. 

Dangoia, 244. 

Darago, 133. 

Dasycrotapha speciosa Tweeddale, 44. 

Datilon, 240. 

Daya, 88. 

Dendrelaphis czruleatus Griffin, 261. 
caudolineatus (Gray), 261. 
fuliginosus Griffin, 261. 
modestus Boulenger, 261. 
terrificus (Peters), 261. 


43. 


| Dendrophis pictus (Gmelin), 259. 


punctulata (Gray), 260. 
Diczum dorsale Sharpe, 46. 
hematostictum Sharpe, 46. 
Dicrurus mirabilis Walden and Layard, 46. 
Discocyclina, 61. 


INDEX. 


Disteira cincinnatii Van and 
Thompson, 264. 

cyanocincta (Daudin), 265. 
fasciata (Schneider), 264. 
longiceps (Giinther), 265. 
ornata (Gray), 265. 
semperi (Garman), 265. 
spiralis (Shaw), 265. 

Diwata, 133. 

Doliophis bilineatus (Peters), 266. 
philippinus (Giinther), 266. 

Dolium costatum, 65. 

Dotal, 83. 


DOUVILLE, HENRI, Les Foraminiféres dans 

le Tertiaire des Philippines, 53. 
Dryocalamus philippinus Griffin, 259. 
Dryophiops philippina Boulenger, 264. 
Dryophis prasinus Boie, 264. 


Denburgh 


E 


Ears, Filipino, 107. | 


Ears, Negrito, 107. 
Earth World, 88. | 
Eccoptopterus sexspinosus Motsch, 25. | 
Echinocucumis adversaria Semper, 313. 
Edible seaweeds, 308. | ‘ 
Edible turtle, 295. 
Edolisoma panayense Steere, 43. 
Elaphe erythrura (Duméril et Bibron), 260. 
oxycephala (Boie), 260. 
philippina Griffin, 260. 
Elapine, 265. 
Enteromorpha intestinalis L., 309. 
Entomology. Borkenkafer der Philippinen, 


17; Beitrag zur Coleopteren Fauna der | 
Philippinen, 331. 
Epicrates inornatus (Reinhardt), 268. | 

Erinaceus, 161, 193. 

Ethnology. The burial mounds of Cami- 
guin Island, 1; on a quinary notation | 
among the Ilongots of northern Luzon, 47 ; | 
the harvest feast of the Kiangan Ifugao, | 
81; the Bagobos of Davao Gulf, 127; 
an Ifugao burial ceremony, 227; the | 
non-Christian people of Ambos Camarines, 
321. 

Eucheuma“spinosum (L.) J. Ag., 309. 

Eugpamolak Manobo, 132. 

Eulepidina, 59, 61, 68. 

Eurydactylus multispinous, 25. 

sexspinosus Motsch, 17, 25. 


F 


Feast of Kiangan Ifugao, harvest, 81. 

Filipino ears, 107. 

Fishery resources of the Philippines, 283. 

Flabelliporus orbicularis Dervieux, 74. 

Flying lemurs, Galeopteride, the skeleton 
in the, 139, 185. 

Foraminiféres dans le Tertiaire des Philip- 
Pines, les, 53, 

Fregata aquila (Linnzeus), 174. 

Frog tadpoles, 219. 

Fucus gulaman Blanco, 309. 


G 

Galeopithecus temminckii Wat., 148. 

Galeopteride, the skeleton in, 139, 185. 

Gamet, 309. 

Gan sim, 284. 

Gelidium, 309. 

Gerardia prevostiana (Hydoux et Geryaise), 

263. 

Ginem, 134. 

Globigerina, 77. 

Gracillaria confervoides (L.) Grev., 309. 
crassa Hary., 309. 
eucheumoides Harv., 309. 
lichenoides (L.) Grey., 309. 

Great top shell, 301. 

Green snail, 301. 

Green snail shell, 302. 

Green turtle, 292. 


GRIFFIN, LAWRENCE EDMONDS, A 
Check-list and Key of Philippine Snakes, 
253; Review of Kofoid’s The Biological 
Stations of Europe, 221; The Structure 
of the Pallial Tentacles of Lima Species, 
327. 

Gulaman, 308. 

Gungat, 238. 

Guraman, 309. 

Gymnura, 193. 


H 
Hagaga, 83. 
Haganga, 83. 
Halcyon moseleyi (Steere), 42. 
Halupe, 232. 
Halymenia formosa Hary., 309. 
Hana’ti, 239. 
Hapi, 234. 
Haplodactyla molpadioides Semper, 313. 
molpadioides pellucida Selenka, 
318. 
Haplonodon philippinensis Griffin, 258. 
Haplopeltura boa (Boie), 267. 
Harvest feast of the Kiangan Ifugao, $1. 
Hawksbill turtle, 291. 
Head-hunting, Ifugao, 228. 
Heliopora ccerulea Linn., 307. 


| Hemibungarus calligaster (Wiegmann), 266. 


collaris (Schlegel), 266. 
Hemiprocne major (Hartert), 42. 
Herpetology. A  check-list and key 
Philippine snakes, 253. 


of 


| Heterostegina, 57. 


Hierococcyx sparverioides (Vigors), 42. 
Hinamar, 84. 
Hipag, 247. 
Hirundo gutturalis Scopoli, 43. 
rustica Linneus, 43. 
Hisam, 283. 
Holarchus octolineatus (Schneider), 259. 
phenochalinus (Cope), 259. 
Hologerrum philippinum Giinther, 263. 
Holothuria albiventer Semper, 317. 
atra Jeger, 315. 
coluber Semper, 316. 
edulis Lesson, 316. 
erineus Semper, 315. 


Holothuria fusco-cinerea Jeger, 316. 
graffei Semper, 315. 
immobilis Semper, 316. 
impatiens Forskal, 316. 
marmorata Jeger, 315. 
monacaria Lesson, 316. 
pervicax Selenka, 315. 
pulchella Selenka, 315. 
scabra Jeger, 316. 
similis Semper, 315. 
squamifera Semper, 317. 
tenuissima Semper, 315. 
vagabunda Selenka, 316. 

Holotrichia latecostata Moser, 331. 

Homalopsine, 263. 

Hong che, 285. 

Hopea, 19, 20. 

Human sacrifice, 130. 

Humangali page, 83. 

Hurria microlepis (Boulenger), 263. 

rhynchops (Schneider), 263. 
Hydrine, 264. 


Hydrocorax hydrocorax, digestive system 
of, 31. 
Hyloterpe winchelli Bourns and Worcester, 
45. 
I 
Idu, 236. 


997 


Ifugao burial ceremony, 227. 

Ifugao, harvest feast of the Kiangan, 81. 

Ilongots, quinary notation among, 47. 

I-nab-ni-tan, 238. 

Invertebrate zodlogy. On the habits 
Thalassina anomala (Herbst), 213; the 


structure of the pallial tentacles of Lima | 


species, 327. 
Iole guimarasensis Steere, 43. 
Isinglass, 309. 


J 


Japanese precious coral, 305. 
Johnius belengeri C. and V., 310. 


K 


Kadangyan, 81, 239. 

Kanduli, 310. 

Kapas, 296. 

Kiangan Ifugao, harvest feast of, 

Kilillo, 233. 

Kittacincia superciliaris Bourns and Wor- 
cester, 44. 

Kofoid, Charles Atwood: The Biological 
Stations of Europe, reviewed, 221. 

Kolating, 81. 

Koliaban, 98. 


$1. 


L 

Lagod, 88. 
Lalong, 302. 
Langalang, 93. 
Lapemis hardwickii Gray, 265, 311. 
Laticauda colubrina (Schneider), 265. 

laticaudata (Linneus), 265. 
Lemur yolans Linn., 148. 


of 


INDEX. 


Lemurs, the skeleton in the flying, 133, 185. 
Lepidocyclina, 59, 60, 75. 
andrewsiana, 63. 
angularis Newton et Holland, 
64, 68, 70. 
var. angulosa, 68. 
var. borneénsis, 68. 
earteri Martin, 65, 69. 
dilatata, 63, 65, 69, 78. 
elephantina Mun. Chalm., 70. 
ephippioides, 63. 
ferreroi Provale, 67, 70, 73. 
formosa Schlumberger, 63, 64, 
66, 67, 70, 72, 76. 
gallienii Lemoine 
Douvillé, 65, 69. 
gigantea Martin, 70. 
inermis Douvillé, 72, 76. 
var. inflata, 68. 
inflata Provale, 70, 74. 
insule-natalis Jones et Chap., 
62, 63, 67, 69, 71, 76, 78. 
joffrei, 65. 
mantelli, 65. 
marginata Lem. et R. Douv., 
Th. 
, martini, 64, 66. 
meodispansa, 62. 
morgani, 64, 65, 70. 
= multipartita, 61. 
murrayana, 63. 


ebia kes 


ngembaki Schlumberger, 63, 
67, 70. 

premarginata, 73, 75. 

provalei Osimo, 67, 70. 

raulini, 67. 

richthofeni W. D. Smith, 71, 
72, 16. 

schlumbergeri, 67. 

smithi Douvillé, 73, 75. 

sumatrensis, 64, 67. 

tournoueri Lem. et R. D., 
67, 68, 70. 

tournoueri, var. inflata Pro- 
vale, 74. 


yerbeeki Newton et Holland, 
62, 63, 64, 68, 70, 73, 77, 
78. . 
Leptophis vertebralis Duméril 
268. 
Leucotreron occipitalis (Bonaparte), 41. 
Liagora cheyneana Harv., 309. 
Lima species, pallial tentacles of, 327. 
Linauwa, 81, 84. 
Liu-lfua, 239. 
Lock, 301. 
Loggerhead, 292. 
L6éhép, 233. 
Loriculus regulus Souancé, 41. 
Luzon, quinary notation among Ilongots of, 
47. 


et Bibron, 


M 


| Mabalian, 133. 


Macrocelides, 193. 
Magani, 133. 


INDEX. 


Magindanau, 129. 

Makalun, 89. 

Mamali, 310. 

Mammalogy. The skeleton in the 
lemurs, Galeopteride, 139, 185. 

Manama, 129. 

Manatus, 155. 

Mandarangan, 133. 

Mangikapia, 102. 

Manojos, 82. 

Marginopora, 56. 

Marine products of the Philippines, 283. 

Marriage ceremony, 135. 


McGREGOR, RICHARD C., Notes on a Col- | 


lection of Birds from Northern Negros, 
39; Record of a Puffiinus New to Phil- 
ippine Waters and Description of a New 
Species of Micranous, 183. 
Megalurus tweeddalei McGregor, 45. 
Micranous leucocapillus (Gould), 173. 
worcesteri McGregor, 173, 183. 
MILLER, MERTON L., The Burial Mounds 
of Camiguin Island, 1; review of Allin’s 
Standard English-Visayan Dictionary, 
281; The Non-Christian People of Ambos 
Camarines, 321. 
Miogypsina, 74, 77, 78.. 
Miogypsina irregularis Sacco, 74, 77. “ 
irregularis, race orientalis Dou- 
villé, 74. 
Miscasthus sinensis Audr., 231. 
Moi whar che, 285. 
Monamud, 87. 
Monbakayauan, 97. 
Monbaki, 102. 
Monbuluhan, 95. , 
Monhu-aa, 99. 
Monkoliaban, 98. 
Monlagim, 99. 
Monlana, 92. 
Monlapu leaders, 86. 
Monligid, 94. 
Monmakalun, 89. 
Montobal, 86. 
Monwiwik, 98. 
Morenos, 7. 
MOSER, J., Beitrag zur Coleopteren Fauna 
der Philippinen, 331. 
Mounds of Camiguin Island, burial, 1. 
Milleria lecanora Jeger, 313. 
mauritiana Quoy and Gaim., 313. 
nobilis Sel., 313. 
-Munang, 283. 
Mungamu-gaman, 241, 
Munhimting ceremony, 229. 
Munia jagori Martens, 46. 
Munlapu, 237. 
Mun-liu-liua, 240. 
Muntbig, 236. 
Muscadivores chalybura (Bonaparte), 41. 
Myiogypsina, 57. 


Myology. Notes on the digestive system of | 


Hydrocorax, 31. 
Mythology, Ifugao, 81. 


flying 


339 


N 


Naja bungarus Schlegel, 266. 
naja (Linneus), 265. 
naja var. ceca Gmelin, 266. 
miolepsis Boulenger, 266, 268. 
sputatrix Boie, 268. 
samarensis (Peters), 266. 

Natrix auriculata Gtinther, 257. 
chrysarga Boie, 257. 
crebripunctata (Wiegmann), 257. 
dendrophiops (Gtinther), 257, 268. 
lineata (Peters), 257. 
spilogaster Boie, 257. 
stolata (Linnzus), 257. 

Nautilus, 327. 

pompilius Linn., 301, 303. 

Negrito ears, 107. 

Negros, notes on birds from, 39. 

Nephrolepidina, 59, 61, 62, 63, G8, 73, 75. 

Netuma nasuta BI., 310. 

Nguhu, 233. 

Non-Christians of Ambos Camarines, 321. 

Notation among Ilongots of northern Luzon, 

quinary, 47. 

Nummulina ramondi, 59. 
variolaria Brady, 58, 59. 

Nummiulites, 61, 73. 
elegans, 67. 
fichteli, 67. 
irregularis Mich., 74. 
marginata Mich., 74. 
niasi Verbeek, 75. 
niasi I Verbeek, 58, 75. 
niasi II Verbeek, 58. 
subniasi Douvillé, 58. 


O 


Ocnus imbricatus Semper, 314. 
pygmeus Semper, 314. 

06, 284. 

Oil, fish, 291. 

Oligodon iwahigensis Griffin, 260. 
modestus Giinther, 260. 
notospilus Giinther, 260. 
schadenbergii Boettger, 260. 

Omens, 83. 

Opereculina, 61. 

ecomplanata, 76. 

costata d’Orb., 56, 57. 

costata var. tuberculata Dou- 
villé, 56, 76. 

Ophites aulicus (Linneus), 258. 
subcinctus (Boie), 258. 
tesselatus (Jan), 258. 

Opisthoglypha, 262. 

Orbitoides, 56, 57, 76, 61, 73. 

carteri, 60, 61, 62. 

dispansa, 59. 

gigantea, 60, 62. 

insule-natalis Jones et Chap., 71. 
martini, 66. 

papyracea Brady, 59, 62, 73. 
radiata, 61. 


340 


Orbitoides richthofeni, 66. 
sumatrensis, 59. 
Orbitolites, 55, 76. 
martini? Verbeek, 55. 

Oriolus steeri Sharpe, 46. 

Ornithology. Notes on the digestive system 
of Hydrocorax, 31; notes on a collection 
of birds from northern Negros, 39; newly 
discovered breeding places of Philippine 
sea birds, 167; hybridism among boobies, 
179; record of a Puffinus new to Philip- 
pine waters and description of a new 
species of Micranous, 183. 

Orthophragmina, 61, 67. 

bartolomei Schlm., 72. 

Osmotreron axillaris (Bonaparte), 40. 

Osteology. The skeleton in the 
lemurs, Galeopteride, 139, 185. 

Otolithes argenteus Kuhl: and Van Hasselt, 

310. 
leuciscus Giinther, 310. 
Oxyrhadium leporinum (Giinther), 258. 
modestum (Duméril et Bibron), 
258. 

Ozopemon fuscicollis Hagedorn, 24. 
gravidus Blandford, 24. 
laevis Strohmeyer, 22, 24. 
major Strohmeyer, 23, 24. 
obanus Hagedorn, 24. 
regius Hagedorn, 24, 
rugatus Blandford, 24. 
sumatranus Blandford, 24. 
theklae Hagedorn, 24. 


flying 


theklae var. singalangicus Hage- 
dorn, 24. 
var. sirambeanus Hage- 
dorn, 24. 
P 


Paghing, 88. 

Palatak, 213. 

Paleontology. Les Foraminiféres dans 
Tertiaire des Philippines, 53. 

Palipal, 84. 

Pango, 92. 

Pardaliparus elegans (Lesson), 45. 

Pearl buttons, 300. 

Pearl-oyster shells, 300. 

PEARSE, A. S., On the Habits of Thalas- 
sina anomala (Herbst), 218; Concerning 
the Development of Frog Tadpoles in Sea 
Water, 219. 

Penelopides panini (Boddaert), 42. 

Petrodromus, 193. 

Phapitreron maculipectus Bourns and Wor- 

cester, 40. 
nigrorum Sharpe, 41. 
Philippine fishery resources, 283. 
sea birds, newly discovered breed- 
ing places of, 167. 
sea turtles, 291. 
snakes, 253. 
tortoise-shell, 291. 
Philippinen, Beitrag zur Coleopteren Fauna 
: der, 331. 
Borkenkafer der, 17. 


le 


INDEX. 


Philippines, les Foraminiféres dans le Ter- 
tiaire des, 53. 
Piesogaster boettgeri Seoane, 268. 
Pili, 88. 
| Pitpit, 81, 236. 
Pitta erythrogastra Temminck, 43, 
Placuma placenta Linn., 296. 
PLANTA, FEDERICO S. See BEAN, ROBERT 
BENNETT, 
Platydactylus abnormis Hichhoff, 25, 
sexspinosus Motsch., 25. 
Platypus caliculus, 27. 
; jansoni Chapuis, 26. 
lepidus Chap., 17, 27. 
schultzei Strohmeyer, 26. 
setaceus Chap., 17. 
turbatus Chap., 17. 
Polydactylus plebeius (Brouss.), 310. 
Polygamy, 132, 
Polyodontophis bivittatus Boulenger, 256. 
Polystomella, 58, 76. 
craticulata, 58. 
Polystomella sp., 75. 
Potamogale, 193. 
Pratincola caprata (Linneus), 45. 
Precious coral, 305. 
Prioniturus discurus (Vieillot), 41. 
Prionochulus sp., 236. 
Protaetia banksi Moser, 332. 
Proteroglypha, 264. 
Psammodynastes pulverulentus (Boie), 264, 
Pseudorhabdium longiceps (Cantor), 261. 
oxycephalum (Giinther), 
262. 
Pseudoxenodon dorsalis (Giinther), 268. 
Psolus boholensis Semper, 313. 
boholensis pandanensis Semper, 313. 
complanatus Semper, 313. 
Pteropus, 139. 
Puffinus chlororhynchus Gould, 183. 
Punishments for crimes, 131. 
Ptok, 96. 
Pupu-lo, 309. 
Python reticulatus (Schneider), 255. 
| R 
Red organ-pipe coral, 307. 
| Reef corals, 307. 
REVIEWS (BOOK): 

Allin, Benjamin Casey: Allin’s Stand- 
ard English-Visayan Dictionary, 281. 

Bean, Robert Bennett: The Racial 
Anatomy of the Philippine Islanders, 

| 223. : 

Kofoid, Charles Atwood: The Biological 
Stations of Europe, 221. 

Seidenadel, Carl Wilhelm: The First 
Grammar of the Language Spoken by 
the Bontoe Igorot with a Vocabulary 
and Texts, etc., 271. 

The Provinces of China, Together with 
a History of the First Year of H. I. M. 
Hsuan Tung, and an Account of the 
Government of China, 51. 

Rhabdornis longirostris McGregor, 45, 
mystacalis (Temminck), 45. 


INDEX. 341 


Rhipidocyclina, 61. 

Rhipidura albiventris (Sharpe), 43. 

Rotalia, 57, 76. 

schroteriana, 57. 

Runo, 83, 231. 

Rupruppuue, 309. 

Rynchocyon, 157. 

SS) 

Samong, 301. 

Sargassum siliquosum J. Ag., 309. 

SCHEERER, OTTO, On a Quinary Notation 
among the Ilongots of Northern Luzon, 47 ; 
review of the Provinces of China, 51; 
review of Seidenadel’s The First Grammar 
of the Language Spoken by the Bontoc 
Igorot, 271. p 

Scyllium capense Mull. and Hen., 312. 

marmoratum Gray and Hard, 512. 

Sea cucumber, 283. 

Sea snail, 302. 

Sea turtles, Philippine, 291. 

SEALE, ALVIN, The Fishery Resources of 
the Philippine Islands. Part IV, Miscel- 
laneous Marine Products, 283. 

Seaweed-isinglass, 309. 

Seidenadel, Carl Wilhelm: The First Gram- 
mar of the Language Spoken by the Bon- 
toe Igorot with a Vocabulary and Texts, 
ete., reviewed, 271. 

Shark-fin industry, 289. 

Shell, conic, 301. 

great top, 301. 
green snail, 302. 
tortoise, 291. 

Shorea robusta, 20. 

SHUFELDT, R. W., The Skeleton in the 
Flying Lemurs, Galeopteride, 139, 185. 

Skin, cayman, 310. 

crocodile, 310. 
shark, 291. 

Sky World, 88. 

Slavery, 131. 

Snakes, check-list and key of, 253, 

Solenodon, 193. 

Sorex, 161, 193. 

Sorites, 56. 

Spherotrypes barbatus Hagedorn, 20. 
blandfordi Schaufuss, 20. 
coimbatorensis Stebbing, 19. 
globulus Blandford, 79. 
philippinensis Strohmeyer, 18, 

20. 
pila Blandford, 79. 
siwalikensis Stebbing, 29, 20. 
tanganus Schaufuss, 20. 
Spilornis panayensis Steere, 41. 
Stegonotus dumerillii Boulenger, 259. 
muelleri Duméril et Bibron, 259. 
Stegostoma tigrinum Linn., 372. 
Sterna boreotis Bangs, 170. 
fuscata Linneus, 171. 
gracilis Gould, 168. 
melanauchen Temminck, 168. 


Stichopus naso Semper, 315. 
variegatus Semper, 315. 
Stomach in Hydrocorax, lining of, 31. 
STROHMEYER, H., Borkenkafer der Phil- 
ippinen, 17. 

Sula cyanops (Sundev.), 175, 179. 
leucogastra, (Boddaert), 168, 179, 
piscator (Linneus), 168, 

Surniculus velutinus Sharpe, 42. 

Susong-dalaga, 301. 

Synapta beselii Jeger, 314.. 

dubia Semper, 314. 
glabra Semper, 314. 
gracilis Semper, 314. 
grisea Semper, 314. 
indivisa Semper, 314. 
innominata Ludwig, 314. 
molesta Semper, 314. 
nigra Semper, 314. 
pseudo-digitata Semper, 314. 
recta Semper, 314, 
reticulata Semper, 314. 
similis Semper, 314. 


T 


Tachornis pallidior McGregor, 42. 
Tafei, 83. 
Talpa europea, 156, 
Tanygnathus lucionensis (Linneus), 41. 
Taopan, 129, 
Tapui, 83. 
Taragomi, 133. 
Tatik, 310. 
Taugh, 84. 
Tayaban, 94. 
Tentacles, pallial, of Lima species, 327. 
Tertiaire des Philippines, Les Foraminiféres 
dans le, 53. 
Thalassina anomala (Herbst), 213. 
Thalassochelys caretta Linn., 292. 
Theobroma cacao Linn., 21. 
Thread-fin, 310. 
Thriponax hargitti Sharpe, 42. 
Thyone rigida Semper, 313. 
villosa, Semper, 313. 
Thyonidium cebuense Semper, 313. 
Tigyama, 133. 
Tingap, 84. 
Toglai and Toglibon, 129. 
Toglibon, 129. 
Tomicus perforans Wollaston, 24. 
Topidonotus aff. hypomelas Giinther, 268. 
Tortoise-shell, Philippine, 291. 
Trepang, 283. 
Trimeresurus flavomaculatus (Gray), 267. 
gramineus (Shaw), 267. 
halieus Griffin, 268. 
schultzei Griffin, 267. 
sumatranus (Raffles), 267. 
wagleri (Boie), 267. 
Trochus, 301. 
niloticus Linn., 301. 
Tropidonotus dorsalis Giinther, 268. 
Tryonyx japonicus Schlegel, 295. 


342 


Tubipora spp., 307. 
Tukab, 233, 239, 
Tumtnoh, 237. 
Tungob, 238. 
Tii-ol, 244. 

Tupaia, 193. 
Turbo, 302. 


Marmoratus Linn., 301, 302, 


Turtle, edible, 295. 
green, 292, 
hawksbill, 291. 
loggerhead, 292. 
Turtles, Philippine sea, 291. 
Typhlogeophis brevis Giinther, 262. 
Typhlopide, 254. 
Typhlops braminus (Daudin), 254. 
cumingii (Gray), 255. 
jagori Peters, 254. 
olivaceus (Gray), 255. 
ruber Boettger, 255, 
ruficauda (Gray), 255. 
U 
Umbrina, 310. 
Under World, 88. 
Uroloncha evertti 
Uyaue, 81. 
Vv 
Vicarya callosa, 55, 66. 
Viperide, 267. 


(Tweeddale), 46. 


INDEX. 


Ww 


Window-shell, 296, 

Wiwik, 98. : 

WORCESTER, DEAN C., Newly Discovered 
Breeding Places of Philippine Sea Birds, 
167 ; Hybridism among Boobies, 179. 


X 


Xantholema roseum (Dumont), 42. 


| Xeocephus rufus (Gray), 43. 


Xyleborus abnormis Hichhoff, 25. 
capito Schauf, 77. 
kraatzii Eichh., 24. 
kraatzii var. philippinensis Hichh., 
17, 20. 
perforans Wollaston, 24. 
perforans var. philippinensis 
Eichh, 25. 
Y 
Yacal, 719. 
Yungipicus maculatus (Scopoli), 42. 


Z 


| Zaoeys carinatus Ginther, 259. 


luzonensis Giinther, 259. 


| Zenopeltide, 255. 


Zenopeltis unicolor Reinhardt, 255. 
Zonophaps poliocephala (Hartlaub), 41. 
Zosterops nigrorum Tweeddale, 45. 


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THE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN THE ISLAND 
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By Herpert S. WALKER. 
145 pages, 10 photographic plates, and 1 map. 
Price $1.25 United States currency, postpaid. 


ABSTRACT OF CONTENTS. 


Page 

Introduction; general and geographical information regarding Negros ........ 9 

Mountains, rivers, and climate 11 

The sugar-producing districts of Negros .. 14 
History of sugar production in Negros; varieties of cane grown in N egros; 
cane diseases and insect enemies; nationality of the planters; native 

labor; difficulties, past and present. 20. eeee 16 

The soil of Negros compared with that of other sugar-producing countries.. 68 


Average composition of the purple or native sugar cane in Negros; other 
varieties of cane grown in Negros; cane in the Hawaiian Islands; 
Egyptian cane; Java cane; Louisiana cane; West Indian cane; Negros 
as-compared with other countries in respect to the quality of cane; 
desirability of introducing other varieties of cane —-..--.. 2-2. 76 

The cultivation of sugar cane and the production of sugar as carried on 
at the present time in Negros; preparation of the soil; preparation of 
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ratoon canes; period of growth of the cane; cost of cultivation; cutting 
the cane; transporting the cane to the mill; cost of cutting the cane 
anid) fran PORE) 1b EON tlie ere Th Ts eee cree cee eee eee ee 82 

Manufacture of sugar from the cane; extraction of the juice; manufacture 
of sugar from the juice; quality of the sugar produced in Negros; cost 
of manufacture; transportation and sale of the sugar; estimate of aver- 


LE CCOS OTN LITT eee ae 92 
Quantitative experiments to determine the weight of sugar produced from 
a@civen: weieht Of (Canes ea see ee ee ee 114 


Calculation of the average cost of producing sugar in Negros by the methods 
now employed; cost “for labor alone; estimate of fixed charges for main- 
tenance and depreciation of plant and interest on the capital invested ; 
LOLA COST OR yO UCONN ees eee eee ee eee 123 
Possibilities for improvement; in cultivation; in manufacture; advantages 
of a change to modern methods of manufacture; the future of Negros; 
summary; appendix; an investigation to discover if diseases of the 
sugar cane exist in Negros eee eate 
Index 


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Order No. 411, 


INDO-MALAYAN WOODS. 


By Frep W. FoxwortHy. 
(Being Section C, No. 4, Vol. IV, of the Philippine Journal of Science.) 
182 pages, 9 photographic plates. 


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TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
I. Introduction. 
a. Erroneous popular notions with regard to eastern timbers. 
b. Object of this work. 
c. Definition of the Indo-Malayan region. 
d. Review of previous work and acknowledgments. 
II. Properties of Wood. 
a. Woods of Tropics and Temperate regions compared. 
b. Weight and hardness, tables. 
ce. Strength, work of Newton, Gamble and Gardner. 
d. Odor, color, taste. 
III. Suitability of different woods for special purposes. 
a. Enemies of wood. 
b. Woods exposed to salt water. 
¢. Ship and boat building. 
IV. Rare, ornamental, or precious: woods. 
V. Comparative chart of common names. 
VI. Timbered areas and future supplies of wood. 
VII. Species notes. 
VIII. Index. 


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Messrs. Wm. Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London, W. C., England. 
Mr. Martinus Nijhoff, Nobelstraat 18, The Hague, Holland. 

Messrs. Mayer & Miiller, Prinz Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berlin, N. W., Germany. 
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Order No, 401, 
THE BONTOC IGOROT. 
i ayer By A. EK. JENKS. 
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62 photographic illustrations. 91 pages. 


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NOTE. 


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FOREIGN AGENTS. 


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Messrs: Wm. Wesley & Son, 28 Hssex Street, Strand, London, W. o ‘abled: 

Mr. Martinus Nijhoff, Nobelstraat 18, The Hague, Holland, 

Messrs. Mayer & Miiller, Prinz Louis Ferdinandstrasse 2, Berlin, N. W., Germany, 
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CONTENTS. 


SEALE, ALVIN. The Fishery Resources of the Phi- 
lippine Islands. Part IV—Mliscellaneous Marine 
Produces Coin wy MMnpAA ales yi Ei Ola Pen ANS Sic inc Aan dee 283 

MILLER, MERTON L. The Non-Christian People of 
Ambos)Camarines |i aie weal bial calao tee) ieecLotdse yi 321 

GRIFFIN, LAWRENCE E. The Structure ofthe Pal- 
lial Tentacles of Lima Species Et Gh) EN 327 

MOSER, Jj. Beitrag zur Coleopteren Fauna der Philip- 
PINEM HL Sa EK UNG O Rens SAK Sg ae eee a 331 

Index, Title Page, and Contents Hun sOn OM MIp eanIaeM ie gale th dich ea) 


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