THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE, OR ANNALS OF CHEMISTRY, MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, NATURAL HISTORY, AND GENERAL SCIENCE. BY RICHARD TAYLOR, F.S.A. L.S. G.S. M. Astr. S. &c. AND RICHARD PHILLIPS, F.R.S. L.& E. F.L.S. &c. “ Necaranearum sane textus ideo melior quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.” Just. Lies. Monit. Polit. lib. i. cap. 1. VOL; VI. NEW AND UNITED SERIES OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. (% Ao 5 WLY_DECEMBER, 1829. ah met) LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET: Printer to the University of London. AND SOLD BY LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN; CADELL; BALDWIN AND CRADOCK; SHERWOOD, GILBERF, AND PIPER}; SIMPKIN AND MARSHALL; UNDERWOOD; W. PHILLIPS; HARDING ; HIGHLEY, LONDON; — AND BY ADAM BLACK, EDINBURGH ; SMITH AND SON, GLASGOW ; AND HODGES AND M‘ARTHUR, DUBLIN. wri ioe TABLE OF CONTENTS. NUMBER XXXI.—JULY. The Bakerian Lecture.—Dr. Wollaston on a Method of ren- dering Platina malleable......-. a Gerad: eatin Be tae eaails Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe; with a List of the Species of each Genus, and Reference to one or more of their respective Icones (continued) ....+++++++++- Spicer Mr. Fox’s Remarks on Mineral Veins, &c..........- pines ree Rev. J. Blackburn’s Description of a Parabolic Sounding Board, erected in Attercliffe Church. ........+--eeeeeeeeee cece Mr. Gray’s Attempt to improve the Natural Arrangement of the Genera of Bat, from actual Examination ; with some Observations on the Development of their Wings........ Mr. Murchison on the Bituminous Schist and Fossil Fish of Seefeld, in the Tyrol... ........ ees ee cece cceeeeeeee Mr, Miller on the Crystalline Form of Bicarbonate of Am- TIT Ra dea ieee ote area pe aE what ea me try Mr. Major’s Analysis of British and Foreign Ships of War (continued) «2... cee eee ce ceee cece ce cen cece eererees New Books:—Dr. Graham’s Chemical Catechism .......... Proceedings of the Royal Society..........-++ee+e+eeee- Geological Society...........+-.. Saas ——_—— Astronomical Society............++-++. —— at the Friday Evening Meetings of the Royal In- stitution of Great Britain... 5.2... cee cone do venees Origin of certain Brine-Springs in North America; Former Existence of Rock-Salt in the * Saliferous Rock” of that Country ; Strong Evidence that a high Temperature was con- cerned in the Formation of the New-Red-Sandstone...... Equivalent Formation, in England, of the “ Saliferous Rock” Of North-America’. .. 2.0... ect ec teen ceo ses ameccuce M. Gay-Lussac on Boyle’s Fuming Liquor.........-..-- as M. Lassaigne’s Purification of Oxide of Manganese ....... > New Patents—Meteorological Observations...........+++- Meteorological Observations made by Mr. Booth at the Garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London, by Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr, WORM BL DOSON Fo 2 ec ces cays totes pc avccccts new ragar NUMBER XXXII.—AUGUST. Sir H. Davy’s Account of some Experiments on the Torpedo Prof, Encke on Hadley’s Sextant (continued).......+++.+++ Viscount Cole and Mr. Philip Egerton’s Account of the De- struction of the Cave of Kuhloch, in Franconia.........- Page 80 iv CONTENTS. Mr. Major’s Analysis of British and Foreign Ships of War... Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe; &c. (continued).... Mr. Haworth’s Description of the Subgenus Epiphyllum .... Notice of the Arrival of some of the Winter Birds of Passage, as well as of a few of the occasional Visitants, in the Neigh- bourhood of Carlisle, during the Winter of 1828—1829; WICK, CPREIW ARTOIS: CeCe ihe 2. 82 Sicha oes 5 vg Real be ons tal Gb cuss Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope (continued ) Mr. Challis on the Integration of the General Equations of the Motion of Incompressible Fluids.................- New Books :—M., Adolphe Brongniart’s History of Fossil Ve- pate) 1: TART ES BT ee ee CN RP AF RY Proceedings of the Royal Society .............+.+0-e00- ——___—___—— Linnean Society.......... ware Se lafapsale ———— Geological Society ................ ee —__——— Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris.... Decease of Dr. Young and Sir Humphry Davy—Spongy Pla- tina.—M. Braconnot’s IndelibleInk..........,......... M. Henry’s (jun.) Preparation and Composition of some Bro- MICS — FP CrUOHNGS CL ATOR 58 oo. cides s since ie sae ss sso athe Bromide of Magnesium—Bromide of Calcium—Bromide of PBANTQUE © os pels ess Sein « SetABeds, sess ass si esos «it ee Bromide of Potassium—Bromide of Sodium—Protobromide of Mercury—Perbromide of Mercury................4- Atomic Constitution of Cyanide of Mercury—Carbazotates of (Cop PEr CEM sCBG) 60. age er Seat De cn ae gti ces Berzeliyss, Analysis, of Platina Ores... 22.0244 220000 +2000: Rosacic Acid in Human Urine—Silicate of Iron from Boden- mais—Calcareous Crystals in the Tissues of Living Vegeta- bles—Chloride and Iodide of Ammonia—Decomposition of ATQMOD12 Dy NTCt AES Rt Boe SP forse Tatil marek asl one ienea ae Analyses of Bath Water and of two Mineral Springs in Wind- sor Forest—Erratum in Mr, Ewart’s Paper, April last,p. 254 M. Serullas on Sodium—Geological Arrangement of British Hose SBN, 72) 22. Seoul bait atehoel: meen ee New Invention for Propelling Ships, &c.—Bromine and Bro- CHGS OE Fr OCAR SUNS 6 os ood aah 9 oh nerd a onion a earch Mr. White on the Variation of the Needle, as observed during a Voyage to and from India—Active Molecules in Organic and Inorganic BDGiesy 46 apugima be’ oekelweieikce o aft es Sotelst de Paw B’Gtedte rc ts. vx ecchaies Minette eis a eA ene eS Results of a Meteorological Journal forl1827, made by Mr.W. B. Booth, in the Garden of the Horticultural Society, Chiswick Meteorological Observations, .............0.0.eeeccuceee made by Mr. Booth at the Gar- den of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London, by Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr. Weall at Hoston 60 o%0d.0% over awe idle tee Be ime Page 94 99 107 110 114 123 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 152 153 154 156 158 160 NUMBER CONTENTS. Vv Page NUMBER XXXIII.—SEPTEMBER. Mr. Brown’s Additional Remarks on Active Molecules...... 161 Mr. Prideaux on the Atomic Weight of Oxalic Acid and of BU OCCOLY oceania wing ye oy we 2 oe nape ee oes hs eee hen cee 166 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the im- proved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope.. 171 Prot. Puck on aviey s sextant... = ee Sees eee ss pera 181 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe ; &c. (continued).... 188 Mr. MacLeay’s Letter to J. E. Bicheno, Esq., F.R.S., in exa- mination of his Paper ‘On Systems and Methods” in the MBMERT PistttsSChOle. 6s. oc 5 oe cc ae oaths Meine < cian aaa ni 199 Mr. De la Beche’s Note on the Differences, either Original or consequent on Disturbance, which are observable in the Se- rnnentyy meleueTine SEGCKR'? 2300 oF ero ee oe eka 213 Rey. W. V. Vernon on a Discovery of Fossil Bones in a Marl- Besbmear Orth CUE ys motisaia' es win © aire estat 9a = ace = 5 a 225 Queries respecting Mr. Hall’s Original Discovery of Achroma- Pie MEACHCO NES hf Joe Tl SRST Se NOS ATA cones 233 Dr. Daubeny on the Discovery of Iodine and Bromine in cer- tain Salt Springs and Mineral Waters in England ........ 235 Aspartic Acid and Aspartates ...........-.-.- Rae gl oie shale 236 Atomic Weight of Iodine and Bromine—Pectic Acid and the Juice of Carrots—Scientific Books .................--- 237 Remarkable Coldness of the late Spring—Meteorological Ob- Seman 0s ta bss eee bee Cee ae ee ete teas 238 Meteorological Observations made by Mr. Booth at the Gar- den of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London, by Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr. Weal, at Borten ,......52 9s. 90eepele dame sis ds. Sik 240 NUMBER XXXIV.—OCTOBER. Mr. De la Beche’s Notice on the Excavation of Valleys .... 241 Mr. Lubbock on some Properties of Curves of the Second UR Bia hob ay 10-5 SRE tale Gh Abeta Mia? ose Wie « hee 249 Mr. Yarrell on the supposed Identity of Whitebait and Shad.. 253 Mr. Sang on a Property possessed in common by the Primitives and Derivatives of the Product of two Monome Functions., 262 Prof. Bessel’s Formule and Tables for calculating the Apparent ERE OE RIREO ROTBIU SI ee t's xo o's velcte coins ale > >.».0.0 dae 267 Mr. Ivory’s Remarks on an Article in the “ Bulletin des Sciences Mathematiques,” for June 1829, § 269.........2.00e000. 272 Notice of the Arrival of Twenty-four of the Summer Birds of Passage in the Neighbourhood of Carlisle, during the Year RBIS 5 WIT MPMPEMMMIDOBT Cs. 3. aise svc Oe Us caves mole 276 Mr. RK. Phillips on the Oxides of Manganese, in a Letter ad- Gressed to. De. Fi. MM et a ols «id lami aun peimp el emas Aerke 281 Mr. Murray on the Discovery of Iodine and Bromine in the Mineral Waters of England ....., vi CONTENTS. Mr. Bevan on Measuring the Force of Pressure............ 254 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe; &c. (continued).... 286 Mr, Challis on the Determination of the Forms of the Arbitrary Functions which occur in the Integrals of Partial Differential WI GUAIOB ria hth pe Bra sich nidh pated 5 haan Sh tee arate 296 Mr. Haworth’s New Account of the Genus Kalanchoe ...... 301 New Books:—Dr. Clark on the Influence of Climate, &c..... 305 Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris .... 309 Derivation of the word Theodolite......... cece ce cceecees S11 M. Henry’s Preparation of Urea~M. Pouillet on a New Py- rometer— Poisoning by Cheese... .. 2... 20) cence teens 312 M, ‘Serullas’s’ Bromide of Carbon. : .j..2 500.4% vacheee oe en $13 Preparation of Piperine—Analysis of Arseniate of Iron—Sugar BRON S OPALCI shila. cahts Shas 8 osa.c/4 30's 2 ha baa EK toute een 314 Ammonites in Calcedony, from Haytor ?— Action of Muriatic and Sulphuric Acid upon Hydrocyanic Acid............ $15 New Principle obtained from Albumen ................+- 316 PURE et i lontdin 2 Sie Bhi a als ava sahe «ore cite. 6 oe nian 317 Meteorological (ODsenvatlonis: | ot ae, 10: s.0e sis hs artay sini Seaiglend se 318 wa made by Mr. Booth at the Gar- den of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London, by Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr. Veallat Boston ...... Shei SuPten Ob “cath tnsicixe eto! s /dacucions waa iets 320 NUMBER XXXV.—NOVEMBER. Mr. Galbraith on the Deviation of a Falling Body from the Vertical toithe: Marth 5 eSuntnee stb 6 sce. o oie: «in «dle te totahgee $21 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe; &c. (continued.).... 325 Prof. Bessel on the Calculations requisite for predicting Occul- tations of Stars by the Moon (continued) .............+.. 336 Mr. Hennell on the Mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid and Al- cohol, and on the Nature of the Process by which ther is LOCHIGE Ct io are eae Mee St soe dae ee aa ah eit 342 MM. Cuvier and DeCandolle’s Opinions on the right Use of Generic Names in Natural History .................... 348 Prof. Schultes on the Cultivation of Botany in England (con- LINED) Banyan thats soi ctst stoke's nistete Weis Deceit teats 351 Mr. Andrews on the Action of a Flame urged by the Blowpipe On them Migmen MR ore LM critisieie peice oh sand cs ne ere 366 M. Gay-Lussac on the Action of Potash on Organic Matter.. 367 M. Le Baron Fourier’s Historical Eloge of the Marquis de MARIACe >)...’ c see nee ee Oh Cae etka 16 eee 370 Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris.... 982 Sketch of the Improvements in Mining: in an Address deli- vered at a Public Meeting at Holywell, by John Taylor, Le A Ss ro arr ies. ata Gera e vir: sca tete CONTENTS. vil Page M. Berzelius’s Thorite, a new Mineral, and Thorina, a new Barth ......-- SO cement eee Uetdates bt id of staat rtare 392 Comparative Analysis of Bones—Action of Aither on Sulphate Oh BIGGS 65 FAS ole cls Ap 8 Web siciotea st alee Ga alsle ms 0/8 = 393 Combustibility of Carbon increased by Platina and Copper— M. Orfila on Mr. Smithson’s Mode of detecting Mercury.. 394 On Phosphoric Acid, by M. Gay-Lussac..........-- sateen 395 Wewek stents 44. Bees 2 dase. Sh Se Bb Nis eros Gm eae 396 Meteorological Observations .............6.-s0-eeee eee 397 made by Mr. Booth at the Gar- den of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London, by Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr, Wemrat DOstan ee Soe ewes © = oie cle ai alba wiele nia 399 Calendar of the Meetings of the Scientific Bodies of London RODS AGNES 215. - cio s scien! wie ele e'r.0 a0 e)nleiels oiseinistale 400 NUMBER XXXVI—DECEMBER. Prof. Bessel on the Plans, Arrangements and Methods, pro- posed and used by Mr. F. R. Hassler, with a view to an ac- curate Survey of the Coast of the United States.......... 401 Prof. Bessel on the Calculations requisite for predicting Occul- tations of Stars by the Moon........ Weta sshobaeede PEG wei) oiys 410 Dr. Stokes on some Optical Phenomena .............+.- 416 Mr. Bevan’s Experiments on the Modulus of Torsion....... 419 Caleb Mainspring on the System of Chronometers at Green- vo Re A A A RD SNP SR 424 Prof. Schultes on the Cultivation of Botany in England...... 428 Mr. De la Beche’s Sketch of a Classification of the European RENEE Social Mere o> ged eS aes NS OR Diale oe eate wre 440 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe, &c. (concluded) .... 451 SRM TREND oy), vi Si) 6's ‘chon wins biass ga, sie ie hia 6 28 > es 444: Meteorological Observations .. 20... ess. cee ene een tins 465 ———________--__—_—_ made by Mr. Booth at the Garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London, by Mr. Giddy at Penzance, Dr. Burney at Gosport, and Mr. Veall BE IOBLOD on i.» hte 'se. winsbinse ahi «ole sa thiaomser' ne sevinnde wale 467 PLATES. I. Plate illustrative of the Rev. J. Buacksurn’s Parabolic Sounding Board, Il. Plate illustrative of Mr. De ta Becue’s Paper on the Excavation of Valleys. ERRATA. P. 76, line 19, for hyposulphate read hyposulphite. ——— 26, for oxyhydrous read anhydrous. 30, for lime read calcium. 31, for hyposulphate read hyposulphite. 32, for sulphate read sulphite. 34, for hyposulphates and sulphates read hyposulphites and sul- phites. P. 215, line 6, for connected read converted. 25, for fusus read fucus. In the Plate accompanying Mr. Dre ta Becue’s Paper on the Excavation of Valleys, the gravel strewed on the sides, and which occurs in the bottom of the valley, fig. 1, (section of Charmouth Valley) is. represented too thick. P. 254, line 17, for low pressure read low temperature. ES THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. [NEW SERIES. ] JULY 1829. I. The Bakerian Lecture-—On a Method of rendering Platina malleable. By Witi1am Hype Woxtaston, M.D. F.B.S. ac. A® from long experience, 1 probably am better acquainted with the treatment of platina, so as to render it perfectly malleable, than any other member of this Society, I will en- deavour to describe, as briefly as is consistent with perspi- cuity, the processes which I put in practice for this purpose, during a series of years, without seeing any occasion to wish for further improvement. The usual means of giving chemical purity to this metal, by solution in aqua regia and precipitation with sal ammoniac, are known to every chemist; but I doubt whether sufficient care is usually taken to avoid dissolving the iridium contained in the ore, by due dilution of the solvent. In an account which I gave in the Philosophical Transactions for 1804, of a new metal, rhodium, contained in crude platina, I have mentioned this precaution, but omitted to state to what degree the acids should be diluted. I now therefore recommend, that to every measure of the strongest muriatic acid employed, there be added an equal measure of water; and moreover, that the nitric acid used be what is called ** single aquafortis ;” as well for the sake of obtaining a purer result, as of ceconomy in the purchase of nitric acid. With regard to the proportions in which the acids are to be used, I may say, in round numbers, that muriatic acid, equivalent to 150 marble, together with nitric acid equivalent * From the Philosophical ‘Transactions for 1829. Part I. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 31. July 1829, B to 2 Dr. Wollaston on a Method to 40 marble, will take 100 of crude platina; but in order to avoid waste of acid, and also to render the solution purer, there should be in the menstruum a redundance of 20 per cent at least of the ore. The acids should be allowed to digest three or four days, with a heat which ought gradually to be raised. The solution, being then poured off, should be suffered to stand until a quantity of fine pulverulent ore of iridium, sus- pended in the liquid, has completely subsided; and should then be mixed with 41 parts of sal ammoniac, dissolved in about five times their weight of water. The first precipitate, which will thus be obtained, will weigh about 165 parts, and will yield about 66 parts of pure platina. As the mother-liquor will still contain about 11 parts of platina, these, with some of the other metals yet held in solu- tion, are to be recovered, by precipitation from the liquor with clean bars of iron, and the precipitate is to be redissolved in a proportionate quantity of aqua regia, similar in its composi- tion to that above directed to be used: but in this case, before adding sal ammoniac, about 1 part by measure of strong mu- riatic acid should be mixed with 32 parts by measure of the nitro-muriatic solution, to prevent any precipitation of palla- dium or lead along with the ammonio-muriate of platina. The yellow precipitate must be well washed, in order to free it from the various impurities which are known to be con- tained in the complicated ore in question; and must ultimately be well pressed, in order to remove the last remnant of the washings. It is next to be heated, with the utmost caution, in a black-lead pot, with so low a heat as just to expel the whole of the sal ammoniac, and to occasion the particles of platina to cohere as little as possible; for on this depends the ultimate ductility of the product. The gray product of platina, when turned out of the cruci- ble, if prepared with due caution, will be found lightly cohe- rent, and must then be rubbed between the hands of the ope- rator, in order to procure by the gentlest means, as much as can possibly be so obtained, of metallic powder, so fine as to pass through a fine lawn sieve. The coarser parts are then to be ground in a wooden bowl with a wooden pestle, but on no account with any harder material, capable of burnishing the particles of platina*; since every degree of burnishing will prevent * The following experiment will prove the necessity of attending to this precaution :—If a wire of platina be divided with a sharp tool in a slanting direction, and, being then heated to redness, be struck upon an anvil with a hammer, so as to force into contact the two newly-divided surfaces, they will become firmly welded together; but if the surfaces have previously ; been of rendering Platina malleable. 3 prevent the particles from cohering in the further stages of the process. Since the whole will require to be well washed in clean water, the operator, in the later stages of grinding, will find his work much facilitated by the addition of water, in or- der to remove the finer portions, as soon as they are suffi- ciently reduced to be suspended in it. Those who would view this subject scientifically should here consider, that as platina cannot be fused by the utmost heat of our furnaces, and consequently cannot be freed like other me- tals, from its impurities, during igneous fusion, by fluxes, nor be rendered homogeneous by liquefaction, the mechanical dif- fusion through water should here be made to answer, as far as may be, the purposes of melting; in allowing earthy mat- ters to come to the surface by their superior lightness, and in making the solvent powers ef water effect, as far as possible, the purifying powers of borax and other fluxes in removing soluble oxides. By repeated washing, shaking, and decanting, the finer parts of the gray powder of platina may be obtained as pure * as other metals are rendered by the various processes of or- dinary metallurgy; and if now poured over, and allowed to subside in a clean basin, a uniform mud or pulp will be ob- tained, ready for the further process of casting. The mould which I have used for casting, is a brass barrel, 62 inches long, turned rather taper within, with a view to fa- cilitate the extraction of the ingot to be formed, being 1°12 inches in diameter at top, and 1°23 inches at a quarter of an inch from the bottom, and plugged at its larger extremity with a stopper of steel, that enters the barrel to the depth of a quarter of an inch. The inside of the mould being now well greased with a little lard, and the stopper being fitted tight into the barrel by surrounding it with blotting-paper, (for the paper facilitates the extraction of the stopper, and allows the escape of water during compression,) the barrel is to be set upright in a jug of water, and is itself to be filled with that fluid. Itis next to be filled quite full with the mud of platina ; which, subsiding to the bottom of the water, is sure to fill the been burnished with any hard substance, the welding will be effected, if at all, with very great difficulty. When the powder of platina hag been over-heated in decomposing the ammonio-muriate, or has been burnished in the grinding, L have in vain endeavuured to give it a welding surface, by steeping it in a solution of sal ammoniac in nitric acid. , * Sulphuric acid, digested upon the gray powder of platina, thus purified, extracted less than 1-1000dth part of iron. B 2 barrel Dr. Wollaston on a Method barrel without cavities, and with uniformity,—a uniformity to be rendered perfect by subsequent pressure. In order, how- ever, to guard effectually against cavities, the barrel may be weighed after filling it, and the actual weight of its contents being thus ascertained, may be compared with that weight of platina and water which it is known by estimate that the barrel ought to contain *. A circular piece of soft paper first, and then of woollen cloth, being laid upon the surface, allow the water to pass, during partial compression by the force of the hand with a wooden plug. A circular plate of copper is then placed upon the top, and thus sufficient consistency is given to the contents to allow of the barrel being laid horizontally in a forcible press. The press which I have generally used for this purpose, consists of a flat iron bar AB, set edgeways, and screwed down |e —5 a a by a hook E, near its middle, where it would otherwise be * From the mean weight of the ingots obtained in previous operations, it is known that the barrel described in the text ought to contain 16 ounces troy of dry platina powder. The weight of the contents of the barrel sp. grav. of platina —1 Bp. grav. ot plane: et the weight of a cubic inch of = 16 ounces X water x capacity of the barrel in cubic inches = 16 ounces X = 25 ounces X 7‘05 = 18:9575 ounces troy. Should the contents of the barrel weigh materially less than this estimated weight, there must be a want of uniformity in the disposition of the powder within the barrel. liable of rendering Platina malleable. 5 liable to bend, to a strong wooden bench CD. The bar is connected by a pivot at its extremity A, with the lever AFG. An iron rod FH, which turns at its two extremities upon the pivots F and H, proceeds from the lever at F, and, as the lever descends, propells forward the carriage I, which slides along the bar. A stopper or block being placed in the vacant space If, the carriage communicates motion to the cradle £/m, which is also made to slide along the bar, and carries the bar- rel N, which lies upon ‘he cradle, straight against the piston O, which rests by its‘end against P, a projection in the further extremity of the bar. The weight, which in this machine, when the angle of the lever’s elevation is small, will keep the power, applied vertically at the extremity of the lever, zm eguilibrio = that power x AGx FH " ae AWAF+ FA) * cotan. of the angle of the lever’s elevation; which expression, in the case of the press actually used, be- comes, power x 5. cotan. of the angle of the lever’s elevation. This expression, at an elevation of 5°, becomes nearly 60 x power, and at an elevation of 1°, becomes nearly 300 x power; and when the lever becomes horizontal, the multiplier of the power becomes quwasz infinite. This explanation will be suf- ficient to show the mechanical advantage with which, by means of this press, the weight of the operator, acting on the end of the lever, will be made to bear against the area of the section of the barrel, a circle little more than an inch in diameter. After compression, which is to be carried to the utmost limit possible, the stopper at the extremity being taken out, the cake of platina will easily be removed, owing to the conical form of the barrel; and being now so hard and firm that it may be handled without danger of breaking, it is to be placed upon a charcoal fire, and there heated to redness, in order to drive off moisture, burn off grease, and give to it a firmer degree of cohesion. The cake is next to be heated in a wind-furnace; and for this purpose is to be raised upon an earthen stand about 2} inches above the grate of the furnace, the stand being strown over with a layer of clean quartzose sand, on which the cake is to be placed, standing upright on one of itsends. It is then to be covered with an inverted cylindrical pot, of the most re- fractory crucible ware, resting at its open end upon the layer of sand; and care is to be taken that the sides of the pot do not touch the cake. To prevent the blistering of the platina by heat, which is the usual defect of this metal in its manufactured state, it is essential 6 Dr. Wollaston on a Method essential to expose the cake to the most intense heat that a wind-furnace can be made to receive, more intense than the platina can well be required to bear under any subsequent treatment; so that all impurities may be totally driven off, which any lower temperature might otherwise render volatile. The furnace is to be fed with Staffordshire coke, and the ac- tion of the fire is to be continued for about twenty minutes from the time of lighting it, a breathing heat being maintained during the last four or five minutes. The cake is now to be removed from the furnace, and being placed upright upon an anvil, is to be struck, while hot, on the top, with a heavy hammer, so as at one heating effectually to close the metal. If in this process of forging, the cylinder should become bent, it should on no account be hummered on the side, by which treatment it would be cracked irremediably ; but must be straightened by blows upon the extremities, dex~- terously directed, so as to reduce to a straight line the parts which project. The work of the operator is now so far complete, that the ingot of platina may be reduced, by the processes of heating and forging, like that of any other metal, to any form that may be required. After forging, the ingot is to be cleaned from the ferruginous scales which its surface is apt to contract in the fire, by smearing over its surface with a moistened mix- ture of equal parts by measure of crystallized borax and com- mon salt of tartar, which, when in fusion, is a ready solvent of such impurities*, and then exposing it, upon a platina tray, under an inverted pot, to the heat of a wind-furnace. The ingot on being taken out of the furnace, is immediately to be plunged into dilute sulphuric acid, which in the course of a few hours will entirely dissolve the flux adhering to the sur- face. The ingot may then be flattened into leaf, drawn into wire, or submitted to any of the processes of which the most ductile metals are capable. The perfection of the methods above described, for giving * The chemist will find this flux very serviceable for removing from his crucible or other vessels of platina those ferruginous scales with which, after long use, and particularly after being strongly heated in a coal or coke fire, they become incrusted. In the analysis of earthy minerals, I have been in the habit of using a similar flux, composed of 2 parts by weight of crystallized carbonate of soda, and 1 of crystallized borax, well ground to- gether. It has the advantage of not acting, like caustic alkali, upon the platina crucible, and is a powerful solvent of jargon and many other minerals, which yield with difficulty to other fluxes. If the mineral to be operated on requires oxidation, in order to decompose it, a little nitre or nitrate of soda may be added. to of rendering Platina malleable. 7 to platina complete malleability, will best be estimated by comparing the metal thus obtained, in respect of its specific gravity, with platina which has undergone complete fusion; and by comparing it, in respect of its tenacity, with other me- tals possessing that quality in the greatest perfection. The specific gravity of platina, drawn into fine wire, from a button which had been completely fused by the late Dr. E. D. Clarke with an oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, I found to be 21:16. The aggregate specific gravity of the cake of metallic mud, when first introduced into the barrel, exclusively of moisture, is about 4°3; when taken from the press, is about 10. That of the cake fully contracted, on being taken out of the wind- furnace before forging, is from 17 to 17°7.. The mean speci fic gravity of the platina, after forging, is about 21-25, al- though that of some rods, after bemg drawn, is 21°4: but that of fine platina wire, determined by comparing the weight of a given length of it with the weight of an equal length of gold wire drawn through the same hole, I find to be 21:5, which is the maximum specific gravity that we can well expect to be given to platina. The mean tenacity, determined by the weights required to break them, of two fine platina wires, the one of 5,1,,, the other of =,1,, of an inch in diameter, reduced to the standard of a wire ;/5th of an inch in diameter, I found to be 409 pounds ; and the mean tenacity of 11 wires, beginning with ;3,,5 and ending with 54,5, of an inch, reduced to the former standard, I found to be 589 pounds; the maximum of these 11 cases being 645 pounds, and the minimum 480 pounds. The coarsest and the finest wire which I tried, present exceptions, since a wire of +='55 of an inch gave 290 pounds, and a wire of 554,55 of an inch, 190 pounds. If we take 590 pounds, as deter- mined by the 11 consecutive trials, to be the measure of the tenacity of the platina prepared by the processes above de- scribed, and consider that the tenacity of gold wire, reduced to the same standard, is about 500, and that of iron-wire, 600, we shall have full reason to be satisfied with the processes, detailed in the present paper, by which platina has been ren- dered malleable. To this paper I beg to subjoin an account of some pro- cesses relating to two of the metals which are found in the ore of platina. To obtain malleable palladium, the residuum obtained from burning the prussiate of that metal is to be combined with sulphur, and each cake of the sulphuret, after being fused, is to 8 Dr. Wollaston on @ Method of rendering Platina malleable. to be finally purified by cupellation, in an open crucible, with borax and a little nitre. The sulphuret is then to be roasted, at a low red heat, on a flat brick, and pressed, when reduced to a pasty consistence, into a square or oblong and perfectly flat cake. It is again to be roasted very patiently, at a low red heat, until it becomes spongy on the surface. During this process, sulphur flies off in the state of sulphurous acid, espe- cially at those moments when the heat is allowed occasionally to subside. The ingot is then to be cooled; and when quite cold, is to be tapped with a light hammer, in order to condense and beat down the spongy excrescences on its surface. The alternate roastings and tappings (or gentle hammerings) re- quire the utmost patience and perseverance, before the cake can be brought to bear hard blows: but it may, by these means, at length be made so flat and square, as to bear being passed through the flatting-mill, and so laminated to any required de- gree of thinness. Thus prepared, it is always brittle, while hot; possibly, from its still containing a small remnant of sulphur. I have also fused some palladium per se, without using sulphur; but I have always found it, when treated in this way, so hard and difficult to manage, that I greatly prefer the former process. To obtain the oxide of osmium in a pure, solid, and cry- stallized state, I grind together, and introduce, when ground, into a cold crucible, 3 parts by weight of the pulverulent ore of iridium, and 1 part of nitre. The crucible is to be heated to a good red in an open fire, until the ingredients are re- duced to a pasty state; when osmic fumes will be found to arise from it. ‘The soluble parts of the mixture are then to be dissolved in the smallest quantity of water necessary for the purpose, and the liquor, thus obtained, is to be mixed, in a retort, with so much sulphuric acid, diluted with its weight of water, as is equivalent to the potash contained in the nitre em- ployed; but no inconvenience will result from using an excess of sulphuric acid. By distilling rapidly into a clean receiver, for so long a time as the osmic fumes continue to come over, the oxide will be collected in the form of a white crust on the sides of the receiver; and there melting, it will run down in drops beneath the watery solution, forming a fluid flattened globule at the bottom. When the receiver has become quite cold, the oxide will become solid and crystallize. One such operation has yielded 30 grains of the crystallized oxide, besides a strong aqueous solution of it. Il. An bi Meid Il. An Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe; with a List of the Species of each Genus, and Reference to one or more of their respec- tive Icones. By J.G. CuitpRen, F.R.S. L. & LE. PLAS. &c. (Continued from vol. v. p. 370.] Genus 53. MANIA, Ochs., Treitsch. Mormo, Ochs. Lremurss, Hiibn. Legs, gressorial; second and third pair with the tibie armed with long, stout spines, terminated by a very fine point. Wings triangular, margins crenate. Antenne filiform, pectinated ; pectinations extremely short. Body rather stout ; thorax densely pilose; back with a separate tuft of hair on each segment, except the last, forming a crest down the middle; abdomen terminated by a tuft of hairs. Larva naked, with a small head; body tapering towards the hinder part ; the last segment tuberculated. Obs. Mormo being a term already employed in ornithology, M. Treitschke has rejected it, and adopted that of Mania in its stead. Species. Tcon. 1, Man. Maura, Linn.... Ernst, VIII. Pl. CCCXIX. £561. 2. — Typica, Linn.*... Ernst, VII. P1.CCLXXX1.£.461. Genus 54. HADENA, Schrank. Wings deflexed; body with tufts of hair on the back, forming a longitudinal crest; (as in the preceding genus ;) poste- riorly gibbous. Larve various: Pupa subterranean. ‘Treitschke has subdi- vided this genus into four families, founded (except the second) on certain markings on the anterior wings, not, however, sufliciently definite or constant to afford good lines * Nznia, Steph. “ Palpi rather long, porrect, ascending, triarticulate, the two basal joints clothed with elongate capitate scales, terminating in an acute point anteriorly, at the apex of the second joint, apical joint slender, elon- ate, exposed, covered with abbreviated scales; basal joint of equal ength with the terminal, and slightly bent, the second nearly as long again, more slender than the first, a little attenuated at the apex; ter- minal linear, very slender, slightly acuminated : mawille longer than the antenna. Antenne short, slender in the females, ciliated internally N.S. Vol. 6. No. 31. July 1829. © in 10 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of lines of demarcation between the respective groups. They are briefly as follows : Fam. A. With fine lines and transverse bands of a light co- lour on the anterior wings. — B. The males with strongly pectinated antenne. — C. The anterior wings with an indented transverse band near the outer margin, and irregular oblong or reni- form spots between the indented band and the base of the wing. —— D. The anterior wings with light-coloured transverse fascize, and a conical spot, extending from the base of the wings nearly to the second cross band. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. H. Saponarie, Hubn. Ernst, VII. Pl.CCLXXXI. £462. 2. — Perplera, Hubn. Ernst, VIL. Pl. CCXC.f.488. ¢.d. 5. — Capsincola, Hiibn. Ernst, VIT. Pl. CCLXXX.f.460. 4. — Cucubali, Hubn. Ernst, VII. PlLCCLXXXI.£463. Fam. B. 5. H. Popularis, Fab..... Ernst, V. Pl. CLXX XVII. f. 243. 244, 6. — Leucophea, Hiibn. Ernst, V. Pl.CLX XXVIII. f.245. Fam. C. c—h. 7. H. Glauca, Hiibn.... Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 87. £410. (foem.) 8. — Proxima, Hiibn. Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 87. f.409. (foem.) 9. — Marmorosa, Bork. Ernst, VI. Pl.CCX XXVII.f.348. 10. — Dentina, Hubn... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXLII. f. 356. 11. — Peregrina,Treitsch.* Fam. D. 12. H. Amica, Treitsch.+ in the males: head small, with a crest between the antenne: eyes rather prominent, naked: ¢horaz stout, with an anterior and posterior crest: abdomen slightly depressed, with a carina in the male: wings in- cumbent, faintly denticulate: /egs short, rather stout. Larva naked, with the anal segment a little elevated: pupa folliculated, with a single spine at the apex.”—Steph. Illust. Brit. Ent, Haustell. 11. 165. Stephens complains of the unnatural union of the Noctuze Maura and Typica, Linn. effected by Ochsenheimer and ‘Treitschke, “ than which,” he says, “ nothing can be more unnatural, their only resemblance consisting in the dinginess of their colours.”— Nzenia may be readily known by the peculiar bifid appearance of the apex of the palpi, arising from the elonga- tion of the scales,—combined with the highly crested thorax, dingy, reti- culated, and subcrenated wings.” —Steph. J. c- * Had. alis anticis argillaceis, macula conica obscuriori, strig4 posticd dentata albida, maculis sagittiformibus brunneis; posticis albis, fusco veno- sis.— Treitschhe. + Had. alis anticis fusco rubroque variis, macula anteriori oblonga, re- niformique albidis, fascia posticA violacea. 13. Sa- Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 11 Species. Icon, 13. H. Satura, Hiibn..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXVI. f.4:75. b..c. 14. — Adusta, Hiibn.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXVI. f. 4°76. C. 15. — Thalassina, Borkh. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXVI. f. 474, a. b. 16. — Gemina, Hiibn... Ernst, VII.Pl.CCLXXXV.f.471. 17. — Geniste, Hubn... Ernst, VIL. Pl.CCLXXXV.£.473. 18. — Contigua, Fab. ... Ernst, VII.P].CCLXXXV.f.472. 19. — A@ruginea, Hiibn. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXX XIX. f, 482. 20. — Convergens, Fab. Hiibn. Noct.Tab. 18. f.84. (mas.) 21. — Distans, Hiibn... Hiibn.Noct.Tab.112.f.522. (mas.) 525. (foem.) 22. — Protea, Hubn.... Hiibn. Noct.Tab.87.f.406. (mas.) Genus 55. ERIOPUS*, Treitsch. Legs, anterior pair porrected when at rest, in the males fur- nished with long woolly hairs, as far as the penultimate joint of the tarsus; in the females naked. Antenne slightly pectinated on the inner side, in the males, rather pubescent beneath; simple in the females. Wings, anterior deflexed, angular. Larva solitary, feeds on the Pieris aquilina (Common Fern) and always keeps underneath the leaves; head light-brown or fulvous; body delicate green, with a white stripe, mar- gined with brown on the sides and stigmata, and a trans- verse line and a crescent of the same colours on each segment, the points of the crescent being directed towards the anus. Duponch. Lep. de France, vi. 326. Pupa subterranean. Td. l.c. Esper had named the species on which Treitschke has formed this genus Lagopus; but as that term is already adopted in Ornithology, the latter has changed the appel- lation to Eriopus. Species. Icon. 1. Evi. Péeridis, Hiibn. Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 13. f.65. (feem.) Larv. Lepid. IV. Noct. II. Genuin. E. e. fig. a. b. Duponch. VI. pl. 93. fig. 1. (mas.) fig. 2. (foem.) The only species of the genus. * Eprov lana, xous pes—woolly foot. C2 Genus 12 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Genus 56. PHLOGOPHORA*%, Treitsch. Antenne \ong, setaceous, slightly pectinated on the inner side. Wings indented; anterior rounded or angular, generally va- riegated with brilliant colours. Body, thorax crested. Larva rather long and slender, with a small tubercle on the anal segment; delicately marked with longitudinal and transverse lines; feeds chiefly on low plants. Pupa folliculated; metamorphosis subterranean. Fam. A.— Wings involuted when at rest, crenate; the anterior marked with brilliant colours. Fam. B.—Wings rounded, less involuted, subdeflexed ; only the cilia crenate. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. Ph). Adulatriz, Hibn. Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 111. fig. 517. (foem.) Tab. 142. fig. 649. 650. (mas.) 2. — Scita, Hiibn......... Hiibn. Noct.Tab. 14. fig.68.(foem.) Tab. 101. fig. 475. (mas.) 3. — Meticulosa, Linn. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXC. f. 487. Fam. B. 4. Phi. Lucipara, Linn... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCII. f. 491. 5. — Fovea, Treitsch.+ 6. — Empyrea, Hibn. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXVII, £426. Genus 57. MISELIA4, Treitsch. (Curtis.) Miseuiz, Hubn. Antenne inserted close to the eyes, on the crown of the head, long, setaceous, robust in the males, sometimes pro- duced on the inside; covered with scales above, pube- scent beneath, basal joint cup-shaped, the scales extend- ing far beyond the edge. Mazille spiral, setaceous, not longer than the antenne, fur- nished with tentacula at the apex. Labial palpi short, porrected somewhat obliquely, thickly clothed with scales excepting the terminal joint, which is almost naked; 3-jointed, basal joint rather robust, 2nd long and not so thick, 3rd elongate obovate. * daog flamma, Pego fero. + Ph. alis anticis purpurascentibus lucidis, fascia nigra, stigmate postico maculaque marginis interioris flavis: posticis cinereis, foved pellucida in mare.— Ochs. Treitsch. V. pars I. p. 380. £ Misa odio, ‘Haios Sol. Head Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 13 Head tufted on the crown: eyes rather small and oyal. Body, thorax quadrate, thickly clothed with scales: abdomen large, robust, angulated, tufted on the back near the base, ovate conic in the females. Wings slightly deflexed ; superior large, the posterior margin and cilia crenate; inferior rather small. Legs strong, anterior the shortest: femora thickly ciliated: tibia, anterior thickly clothed with scales, concealing the internal spine, middle and posterior spurred, the latter having a pair above the apex, one being very short: ¢arsz 5-jointed, basal joint the longest, as long as the tibia in the anterior pair: claws distinct, bifid: pulvilli small. Larva, head and pectoral segments depressed, penultimate gibbous or tuberculated *. Species. Icon. 1. Mis. Conspersa, Hiibn. Ernst, VI.P].CCX XX. f.332.c. g. 2. — Compta, Hiibn.... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXXX. f. 332. a. b. 3. — Albimacula, Borkh. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCX XX. f. 331. 4. — Gemmea, Treitsch.+ 5. — Culta, Fab.......... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCX XIX. f. 329. ‘6. — Serpentina,Treitsch.t 7. — Oleagina, Fab§... Ernst, V. Pl. CLXXXVL. f. 241. ‘8. — Orbiculosa, Esper. eee Schm. III. Th. Tab. 93. outers 9. — Oxyacanthe, Linn. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXXIX. f. 328. 10. — Bimaculosa, Linn. Ernst, VI. Pl.CCX XIX. f. 327. Curtis, Brit. Ent. 1V. Pl. 177. Imago et Larva. 11. — Aprilina, Linn.... Ernst, VI. PLCCXXVIIL f. 326. Genus 58. POLIA, Treitsch. (Curtis) Poutim, Hubner. _ Antenne inserted close to the eyes on the crown of the head, setaceous, rather stouter in the males, composed of nu- * Characters from Curtis, Brit. Ent. IV. 177. + Mis. alis anticis fuscis flavo alboque yariis, maculis ordinariis albis, lineisque transversis arcuatis atris; posticis cinereis, lunula media fascidque terminali fuscis.—Ochs. Treitsch. V. pars I. 393. { Mis. alis anticis viridescenti fuscis, nigro undatis, macula reniformi alba; posticis maris niveis nigrocinctis, foeminz cinereo adspersis.— Ochs. Treitsch. V. pars 1. 399. § Curtis rejects this species, as incompatible with the genus, on account of its strongly pectinated antennae. Habricius classes it with the Bombyces. merous 14 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of merous transverse joints, covered with scales above, pube- scent: beneath, each joint producing a bristle. Mazilla setaceous, spiral, not longer than the antennee, fur- nished with tentacula at the apex. Labial palpi porrected obliquely, thickly clothed with scales, which are longest beneath and very short on the terminal joint; triarticulate, basal joint short, slightly curved, 2nd twice as long, slightly attenuated, and acuminated at the superior angle of the apex, 3rd rigid, compressed, ovate and acuminated, having a longitudinal groove on the side. Head thickly clothed with shortish scales: eyes globose : ocellé two. Body, thorax subquadrate, slightly crested and trilobed: ad- domen long, robust, sometimes tufted down the back, ob- tuse, dilated at the apex in the males, somewhat tapering in the females. Wings deflexed ; anterior long, sublanceolate. Legs strong, anterior the shortest: femora thickly ciliated: tibia, anterior thickly clothed with scales, concealing the internal spine, the others spurred, and furnished with a brush of scales on the outside near the middle, the po- sterior with two pair of unequal spurs: farsi with the basal joint very long, having series of bristles beneath: claws bifid *. Larva smooth, cylindrical, feeds on low plants. Pupa folliculated ; metamorphosis subterranean. Fam. A.—General colour greyish white, the wings rather short, and rounded. Larva greenish, usually becoming greyish-brown before it changes to the pupa state. Fam. B.— General colour brown, the wings longer. Larva dark coloured, dusky. Fam. C.— Anterior wings rounded, and dark coloured; po- sterior yellow, with black margins. Larva whitish- gray coloured. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. Pol. Cappa, Hubn..... Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 95. fig. 447. (foem.) 2. — Chi, Linn.......6.. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXLI. f. 354. 3. — Serena, Fab....... Ernst, VI. Pl.CCXL. f.352. c—fi 4. — Dysodea, Hiibn... Ernst, VI. Pl.CCXX XIX. £350. a—ti. 5. — Filigrama, Esp... Ernst, VI. PlL.CCXXXIX. f.350. gl. * Characters from Curtis, Brit. Ent. VI. 248. 6. Pol. Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 15 Species. Icon. 6. Pol. Cesia, Hiibn..... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXLI. f. 355. 7. — Templi, Thunb... Hubn. stir Tab. 80. fig. 373. mas. 8. — Polymita, Linn... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCLXXIII. f. 439. 9. — Flavicincta, Fab... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXXXVIII. f. 349. 10. — Nigrocincta,Treitsch.* 11. — Platinea, Treitsch.+ Fam. B. 12. Pol. Zeta, Treitsch.t 13. — Serratilinea,Treitsch. Hubn. Bop Tab. 78. fig. 365. (mas. 14. — Advena, Fab...... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXIV. fig. 468. 15. — Tincta, Borkh.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXIIL. fig. 467. 16. — Nebulosa, Hubn. pn Vit PL CCU SX iv. ~ 470. 17. — Occulta, Linn..... Ernst, VI. Pl.CCX XXII. fig. 336. Curtis, Brit. Ent. Pl. 248. Larva et Imago. 18. — Herbida, Hiibn... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXIIL fig. 465. Fam. C. 19. Pol. Prospicua, Hiibn. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLX VIII. fig. 431. 20. — Texta§, Esp....... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXVIII. fig. 430. Genus 59. TRACHEA, Treitsch. Acuatrz, Hiibner. (Acuatea, Curtis.) Wings deflexed, anterior usually variegated with lively colours; posterior ciliated ; cilia generally white, or very light co- loured. Body * Pol. alis anticis cinerascentibus, medio nigrocinctis, strigique posticA albis.—Ochs, Treitsch. V. pars I. 3). + Pol. alis anticis albido-griseis splendentibus, strigis cinerascentibus ob- soletis, serie punctorum nigrorum ad marginem externum.—Ochs.T'reitsch.V. pars I. 34. { Pol. alis anticis ceeruleo-cinereis, e albo notatis, fimbriis latioribus albo cinereoque variis.— Ochs. T'reitsch. V. pars I. 35. § Cenico, Steph. “Palpi_ rather porrect, ascending, slightly compressed, clothed with loose hair-like scales, triarticulate, the joints of nearly equal length, the basal 16 Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. Body, thorax crested, crest divided, small. Larva, marked with broad, longitudinal bands, generally of brilliant colours. Metamorphosis subterranean. - Fam. A.—Wings broad and long. Fam. B.—Wings narrow and long. Fam. C.—Wings broad and short. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. Tr. Atriplicis, Linn... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXII. fig. 464. Fam. B. 2. Tr. Pracox, Linn..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLX XXIII. fig. 466. Fam. C. 3. Tr. Porphyrea, Hubn. Ernst, VI. PlL.CCXXXV.fig.340. 4, — Piniperda*, Esper. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCI. fig. 489. Curtis, Brit. Ent. II. Pl. 117. Larva et Imago. basal joint reniform, the next cylindric, slightly attenuated at the apex, the terminal more slender, bending outwards, and somewhat acute: maxillg long. Antenne elongate, setaceous, slightly pectinated to the apex in the males: head clothed with loose scales: thorax stout, a little crested behind, loosely squamous: dody cylindric, rather long, slightly carinated on the back, tufted at the apex: wings horizcntal, entire, anterior elongate-triangular, with three stigmata: posterior suborbiculate-triangular, usually pale yellow, with a darker hinder border.’—Steph. Illust. Brit. Ent. Haust. Il. p. 106. Stephens considers this species as more allied in its habits to the Tri- phznz than the Poliz, from the latter of which it is readily known by its proportionately shorter and broader (anterior) wings, and by the lively co- lour of the posterior ; and from the former it differs in the proportion of the joints of its palpi, its subcrested thorax, and dissimilar antenne. Stephens mentions no other species as belonging te this genus. * Acnatra, Curtis. ' “ Antenne inserted at the back of the head, serrated, and somewhat thickest in the middle in the males, slender in the females, composed of nu- merous joints, covered with scales above, hairy beneath, the basal joint large and hairy. “ Maville long, furnished with tentacula towards the apex. “ Labial palpi small, very hairy, porrected horizontally, 3-jointed, Ist joint curved upward, long, robust, 2nd short robust, attenuated, 3rd minute, cylindric, truncate. “ Head small, nearly concealed: eyes small. Thorax large, hairy: abdo- men robust, short, very soft, hairy beneath. Wings deflexed when at rest; superior obtuse, inferior rather small. Legs, anterior short : tibiz, anterior short with a small spine on the internal side, 4 posterior terminated by spurs: ¢arsi 5-jointed: claws large. Larva naked, with 6 pectoral, 8 abdominal, and 2 anal feet.”— Curtis, 1. c. [To be continued.] III. Some Pp aay III. Some Remarks on Mineral Veins, &c. By R.W. Fox, Esq.* [* appears to be a question worthy of investigation, how far the internal structure and temperature of the earth may be connected with electricity and magnetism, and with the mete- orological phenomena observable at its surface. Both the Wernerian and Huttonian hypotheses seem to have a tendency to involve the subject of geology in obscurity, rather than the reverse; especially when applied to the expla- nation of the origin of veins. How, for instance, could very oblique open fissures in the earth, sometimes many yards wide, and of great but unknown length and width, exist for a moment without being closed by the weight of the superincumbent mass? Besides, I apprehend that in Cornwall, at least, the width of the veins, taken in the aggregate, is not found to diminish in depth; although some of our mines have been worked to the extent of from 230 to 240 fathoms under the surface. Veins are, however, often found irregular in their thickness at different depths; and when this circumstance and_ their frequently great inclination from the perpendicular are consi- dered, it may be asked, why, if they were originally rents in the rock, they do not abound with fragments of it ? Proximate veins often unite for a certain distance, either horizontally, or in their descent, and appear to have the cha- racters assigned to contemporaneous veins. If so, it is im- possible to imagine them to have been open fissures, as the included rock would have had no support. If we suppose them to have been formed from fissures produced at different periods, it may be questioned, why the old rents, where the ad- hesion might be presumed to be the weakest, did not re-open ? whereas neighbouring veins are sometimes not quite parallel, but often far otherwise in descending into the earth; and the direction seems to be wholly independent of the cleavage or dip of the containing rocks; and in fact they pass through different rocks, such as granite and clay-slate, without suffer- ing, any alteration in their course at the place of junction. ut ifit should be admitted, for the sake of the argument, that such open fissures as have been alluded to, could exist, and that the substances found in veins could all be held in so- lution, and might be deposited in the actual forms and com- binations in which they are now found,—there is nothing like horizontal stratification to be seen even in the largest veins; and * Communicated by the Author. N.S. Vol. 6. No. $1. July 1829. D the 18 Mr. R. W. Fox’s Remarks on Mineral Veins, Sc. the commonly smooth surfaces of their containing sides, or “* walls,” and the rarity of stalactitical forms in them, equally forbid the idea of the contents of veins having once flowed down their sides or exuded from them. Nor are there any instances that I am aware of, of even the smallest veins, how- ever great their inclination, exhibiting extensive open fissures, in consequence of the upper part being closed up or choked by depositions from above. It may be remarked, that the contents of veins are not ar- ranged according to their specific gravity, the metalliferous ores being commonly found in detached masses, sometimes near the surface only, and at other times at considerable depths, or they are dispersed in the veins at various depths. Frequently, ores of different kinds, which would combine immediately if in fusion, are found in contact, but in entirely distinct masses. Many of these combinations would be instantly decomposed by a great degree of heat; and clay, which is so prevalent in veins, cannot be supposed to have an igneous origin. Thus I think it may be asked, if the theories which have been advanced on this subject be calculated to remove some difficulties, do they not substitute greater in their stead ? The curious arrangement of veins, and the geological struc- ture of the earth, seem to me to afford ample evidence of de- sign; and I cannot but believe that the operations of Nature under the surface, as well as above it, are intimately con- nected, and that they equally derive their origin from Divine wisdom and creative power. ' It is a very remarkable fact, that veins are in a considerable degree, either coincident with, or at right angles to the mag- netic meridian. In Cornwall and Devon, copper and tin veins are instances of the latter; and those of clay, quartz, &c. of the former. Lead and silver ores, &c. are usually found in north and south veins, when they occur in the neighbourhood of those of cop- per and tin. In some parts of Cornwall, however, instances have occurred of lead veins assuming nearly the E. and W. direction, but I am not aware that any copper and tin veins are known to exist in their immediate neighbourhood. _I be- lieve the lead veins generally run from about E. to W. in Wales, and in some parts also of the North of England. This is likewise the prevalent direction of the great silver veins in Mexico. The same observation applies to the veins in many mining districts in Europe. This may be taken as the most common direction of the principal metalliferous veins in different districts, as far as my information Mr. R. W. Fox’s Remarks on Mineral Veins, §c. 19 information extends; and I believe the fact of some other me- tallic ores being arranged at right angles to the former, is not peculiar to Cornwall. In the latter district the E. and W. veins are usually inter- sected and broken by the cross veins; and instead of being continued in straight lines, the parts are more or less widely separated. And as the cross veins commonly consist of clay or quartz, or of both together, the insulation seems almost complete as it respects water and electricity. ‘The clay being found to dam up the water effectually even in the immediate neighbourhood of deep excavations; and the quartz, which is an imperfect conductor of electricity, appears to me to be ren- dered more effectually so by its radiated texture,—a forma- tion which I believe is peculiar to quartz found in cross veins. Sometimes the quartz is on one side of the clay, and in others included in the middle of it. Nor must I omit to allude to veins of another kind (if they may be so termed), which more easily approach an horizontal yosition, and are usually in an E. and W. direction, and are called “ slides” by the miners, from their separating the veins at different depths under the surface. These slides are also mostly impervious to water. There seems, in fact, to be a remarkable analogy between the arrangement of veins and some electrical combinations, The high temperature of the earth varying as it seems to do at different places, and the salts contained more or less in water, tend to strengthen the resemblance. The arrangement of ores in the veins also affords evidence, I think, in many ways, of the presence of electricity, either as cause or effect. 1 may instance the regular disposition and aggregation of different kinds of ores in the same veins, and the frequent accumulation of metallic ores in parallel veins in places at right angles to their direction *. The principal mining districts in Cornwall are usually near the places of junction of granite and clay-slate. It has been observed that nearly parallel EZ. and W. veins often become more productive when they unite either hori- zontally or in depth, and the reverse frequently happens when veins iguaaiie into the earth at opposite inclinations inter- sect each other. Instances are occasionally, but very rarely, met with of E. * My friend R. Tregaskis, of Perran, near this place, who is well ac- quainted with the practical part of mining, has remarked to me, that veins are usually found most productive of ore near the intersection of cross veins, and J believe this observation to be well founded. Dg and 90 Mr. R. W. Fox’s Remarks on Mineral Veins, §c. and W. veins intersecting the cross veins without suffering interruption. The great veins or dykes of porphyry, or Elvan courses as the miners term them, may also be connected with electrical action. They are nearly in an E. and W. direction, and are not affected by the veins which cross them. I need not say that the above is a very summary and im- perfect statement of some of the phaenomena of veins; and I can- not but believe, that a more minute investigation and complete classification of facts than has yet been attempted, relative to this important branch of geology, would be interesting to the philosopher, and perhaps valuable to the miner. This object might, I think, be best attained by scientific individuals, or so- cieties, employing a suitable person who would devote his time and attention to the subject. He might also try various ’ experiments, especially with the magnetic needle, near the junction of different rocks, and in the vicinity of veins having different directions, to ascertain if the variation or the mag- netic intensity is affected thereby. With the view of making some experiments hereon, when I can find sufficient leisure for the purpose, I have had some magnetic needles prepared with one polarity only in action; the other being neutralized, or nearly so, by altering the centre of suspension to within the neutralized pole itself, and extend- ing it with brass as a counterpoise to the acting pole*. If it should prove that veins differently circumstanced have different effects on these needles; may it not tend to explain the cause of the periodical variation of the compass, if we sup- pose electrical action to vary in its relative intensity at differ- ent periods of time? And may not electricity, the intensity of which varies so continually in the atmosphere, affect the oscillation of the pendulum and cause the discrepancies ob- servable, especially when the pendulums are insulated, or only partially so, on agate edges ? * To make the above description more intelligible: Suppose NS to be the magnetic steel; 5d an addition tothe steel, 6 Sc d N made of brass or some 7 other metal not affected by magnetism, to act as a counterpoise to the opposite arm; d the centre of the steel part of the needle where magnetic neutralization takes place. It is evident that ¢, the centre of suspension, can be so placed that the two arms c S, ed having south polarity, may counteract each other, and Jeave the north polarity dN to its full action; or the case may be reversed, by substituting the 5 pole for the N. Would it not be interesting to make experiments with these needles on the magnetic intensity at different places, and in different lati- tudes ? I may Rev. J. Blackburn on a Parabolic Sounding Board. 21 I may also just remark, that the rotation of the earth on its axis from W. to E. appears somewhat analogous to certain phznomena in electro-magnetism. Geology has perhaps hitherto been considered too much as an insulated science; whereas, I believe that the phenomena it embraces are only additional Jinks in the chain of creation, so intimately connected in all its parts. Otherwise it must be admitted to present an anomaly when compared with the other works of the Deity, in the minutest portions of which, order, wisdom, and reciprocal dependence become more and more evident in proportion as they are investigated. Rosert W. Fox. IV. Description of a Parabolic Sounding Board, erected in Attercliffe Church. By the Rev. Joun Bracxsurn, M.A., late of St. John’s College, Cambridge; and Minister of Al- tercliffe-cum-Darnall*. [With a Plate.) [ the year 1826 a new church was consecrated at Atter- cliffe, near Sheffield; being built according to a design by the late T. Taylor, Esq., by means of a grant from His Ma- jesty’s Commissioners appointed under the Act for the building and promoting the building of additional Churches. The area of the interior is in the form of a rectangular paral- lelogram, 95 feet by 72. At the east end is an elliptical recess 32 teet wide and 10 feet deep, making the extreme length of the centre line from east to west 105 feet. The roof is vaulted and groined ; the highest point in the ceiling of the nave about 56 feet from the plane of the floor: there are galleries at the sides and at the west end. In this church the resonance was powerful, but the sound indistinct and confused, whatever was the character of the voice from which it proceeded: no exertions, no pains on the part of the speaker could render him audible. To remedy this most serious inconvenience, various unsuccessful experi- ments were made. ‘The pulpit was removed to different points; and although its present situation proved the best +, the evil complained of still remained: the common horizontal sounding board was tried, which conferred indeed a benefit on a few seats about the pulpit, (seats which least of all re- * Communicated by the author. + The pulpit stands in the middle aisle, 15 feet in advance of the altar rails; its form is octagonal; its floor 9 feet above the floor of the church ; the ascent is by a winding staircase, with the door on one side; in front are the reading-desk and clerk’s-desk, ; quired 22 Rev. J. Blackburn’s Description ofa Parabolic quired such aid,) but its general effect was so decidedly dis- advantageous, that it was again taken down *. The desired object was to convey a distinct sound to remote parts of the church: under the impression that this might be attained by intercepting so much of the sound as escaped behind and echoed in this part of the vaulted roof; as also by giving it a right direction ; and conceiving that a parabolic figure might be so applied as to answer these ends, the writer of this paper made the trial; and the issue has more than realized his hopes and expectations. Grateful for this result, believing that the application of the principle was new, hoping to awaken the attention of others better qualified than himself (for he does not pretend to much mathematical science or knowledge of acoustics), and induce them to pursue the investigation of this interesting and im- portant, but perhaps neglected, subject,—he addressed a paper to the Royal Society, which was kindly received and honoured with a place among the records of that distinguished insti- tution. Since this communication to the Royal Society, in- quiries having been made in every variety of form as to the construction and effect of the parabolic sounding board, a more detailed account is now presented to the public, as the most effectual means of supplying the information required. Those who wish to satisfy themselves by personal view will receive every attention. The material is pine wood. The surface is concave, and is generated by half a revolution of one branch of a parabola on its axis. The distance from the focus to the vertex = 2 feet. The length of the abscissa\is’. 3. < oc . == 4efeet. The length of the ordinate to the axis. WV 32 feet. nearly 5.7 rad. of outer circle. The axis is inclingd forwards to the plane of the floor at an angle of about 10 or 15 degrees, and elevated so as that the speaker’s mouth may be in the focus. A small curvilinear section is taken away on each side from beneath, that the view of the preacher from the north and south galleries may not be intercepted; whence the outer semicircle is imperfect. * This follows of course, on the principle that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection; and yet the horizontal board is that always in use: whence many persons have assumed that no sounding board could be adopted with advantage in any church, No. 1. Sounding Board erected in Attercliffe Church. i Front View. 28 24 Rev. J. Blackburn’s Description of a Parabolic This, however, gives an appearance that is not inelegant; and the outer edge being orna- mented with crockets and leaves and with a finial at the highest point, and the concave surface being painted in imitation of a sroined oak canopy, the effect of the whole is pleasing to the eye. A curtain is suspended from the lower edge of the ca- nopy for about 18 inches on each side; the object of this is to intercept the sound which would pass beneath the sounding board, and might create a confusion behind : but to press it into the service as proposed hereafter is of course to be preferred. By means of this erection the volume of sound is increased in a very considerable ratio, and is thrown powerfully, as well as distinctly, to the most distant parts of the church; so that whereas formerly the difficulty of hearing an intelligible sound was very great, now that difficulty is effectually removed. The preacher was scarcely audible even in the pews near the pulpit, and not at all in those more remote: he may now be heard in every part. It should seem that the voice is reflected in a direction parallel to the axis; for let A stand in the pulpit, and B stand first in the west gallery opposite to the pulpit, and then in the side galleries; though B is much nearer to A in the latter case than in the former, he can yet hear with decided advantage when opposite to A (i.e. at the greater distance from him). The side galleries appear to be benefited rather by the in- creased volume of sound, and by the secondary vibrations excited in a lateral direction. It appears also that vibrations proceeding from a distant point and moving in the direction of the axis, are reflected from the parabolic surface towards the focus. For let A stand in the pulpit as before, and B in a distant point oppo- site to A, A can then converse with B in a whisper; whilst C, standing at an intermediate point, cannot at all distinguish the words spoken by B; he can however hear what is said by A. Also if B, at a distance, opposite to the sounding board, speaks; whilst A places one ear in the focus of the parabola and one ear towards B, the effect produced is that of a voice close to the ear, and in a direction the reverse of that from which it really proceeds. The converse of this also appears true from the following experiment. Let Sounding Board erected in Attercliffe Church. 25 Let B remain in the situation last supposed, and let A place his face towards the parabolic surface, and his back towards B; let A now speak, having his mouth in the situation of the focus, and he will be heard as distinctly as when his face was turned towards B. If the mouth of the speaker is placed much within or with- out, above or below the focus, the effect is proportionably di- Iinished. It has been asked if the speaker must necessarily be confined to one point: to this it may be replied certainly not. He may consult his ease, and will still find the advantage of the canopy over his head; but as his mouth approaches the focus, an attentive hearer will perceive an effect that may . not unaptly be compared to the gentle swell of an organ (par- vis componere magna). The greater the distance between the focus and the vertex, the less will this variation be perceived. This sounding board is equally well adapted for a strong or weak voice; the latter acquires strength, whilst in both cases distinctness of articulation is preserved: this may perhaps in some measure be accounted for thus. Assuming that the sound issuing from the focus is reflected in a direction parallel to the axis; assuming also that the velocity of sound is uni- form; then the vibrations of the air proceeding from the focus and striking the parabolic surface, at whatever point, will ar- rive at the same moment of time at a plane perpendicular to the axis. For (according to the properties of the parabola) the sums of the distances (from the focus to the paraboloid, and from the paraboloid to the plane so situated) are always equal to each other: it must however be admitted, that the velocity of sound is too great to allow much dependence to be placed on this conclusion; but it is here proved beyond dispute, that a parabolic surface is capable of being success- fully applied to the purpose of a sounding board: whether other concave surfaces similarly situated would be equally successful*, or other materials better adapted to answer the end than pine+, it might be worth while by experiment to ascertain. It is clear that unless the sounding board be con- structed with mathematical nicety and placed with mathe- matical precision, much of the effect will be lost. Whilst the figure of the canopy remained perfect, the effect was most complete: perhaps it might be improved if constructed larger, or in other words, if continued further in * Many persons have expressed a preference for the hyperbolcid, as giving a divergency to the rays: one friend has proposed a logarithmic curve. + Some have suggested stone, or a frame-work covered with Roman ce- ment; because such a piece of work would not vibrate, and consequently would not counteract the vibration of the air, on which the sound depends. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 31. July 1829. | advance ; 26 Rey. J. Blackburn’s Description of a Parabolic advance; but the distance from the focus to the vertex (which regulates the curve) must depend on the supposed situation of the speaker, which will vary according to the diameter of the pulpit. The outline, No. 2, represents an improved parabolic sound- ing board, formed by an entire revolution of the parabola on its axis, with pulpit, reading-desk, and clerk’s-desk, according to a model designed and arranged by the writer of this paper, and deposited with the Society of Arts, together with a model of sounding board, No. 1. The ornamental parts may, of course, be adapted to the character of the building in which it stands: the altar table might be placed in front. The reflection of sound from the lower part would take the same direction as that from the upper, viz. parallel to the axis: and the effect would probably be much more than double that produced by sounding board, No. 1. Many im- provements may still doubtless be suggested. In erecting a new church, might it not be found most ad- vantageous to give to the east end of the building itself the form 4 a paraboloidal concave, and to place the pulpit in the focus! The sounding board, No. 1, was thus constructed. The curve was first drawn according to the following method :— On the straight line LN (fig. 6.) make LA = AS=SN. At the point A draw AB perpendicular and equal to AL. Join LB. Produce LB to C. Divide AN into any number of equal parts in a, 6, c, &c.; and at a, b,c, &c. draw aa, bb, cc, &c. parallel to AB, and meeting LC in a, 6, c, &c. Let straight lines = AB, aa, 6b, cc, &c. revolve round S as a centre, inter- secting AB, aa, bb, cc, &c. respectively in A, p, 9,7, &c. Join A, p, ¥ 7, 5, t, &c., and the curve traced out will be a para- bola; of which A will be the vertex, S the focus, AN the axis. The distance between the speaker’s mouth and the back of the pulpit being 2 feet = AS = SN = AL. Another method is subjoined, being taken from the Me- chanics’ Weekly Journal, No. XXIV. ‘«‘ The parabola being the curve that is best adapted for the reflection of heat, and of course requisite for the formation of metallic mirrors, covings of chimneys, and cupolas of melt- ing furnaces; an easy method of describing it, adapted to the comprehension of workmen, was wanted. “Mr. Leslie, in his * Enquiry into the Nature and Propa- gation of Heat,’ having occasion for metallic mirrors, de- scribed the gauges for them in the following manner. “Let AB (fig. 7.) denote the extreme breadth, and CD a intended Sounding Board erected in Attercliffe Church. 27 intended depth. Divide AB into 20 parts, and draw perpen- diculars from each division. Consider the depth CD as equal to 100. Make the next ordinate, or perpendicular, or either side equal to 9 multiplied by 11, that is to say 99, by the same scale; which is easily done by the line of lines on a sector rule: the next ordinate on either side equal to 8 multiplied by 12, that is to say 96; andsoon. These numbers being respectively as the rectangles of the segments into which CD is divided.” A scaffolding was made of three semicircles (fig. 4.), KL, MN, PZ; fixed perpendicular to the axis of the parabola; the axis passing through their centres. This done, three para- bolic sectors (fig. 1.), AB, AC, AD, were cut out of three-inch pine and placed as in fig. 1., pointed at the bottom; these were let into two cross ribs, EF, GH, cut out of tough wood natu- rally bent (to avoid crossing the grain), and dovetailed at each end to keep the three sectors firm and in their place: the spaces between IC, CB, BD, DK, were filled up with sectors cut out of 14 inch wood, nailed and glued well together: lastly, the inside was cleaned off and proved by the sector (fig. 6). At regular distances, three iron plates or bands were let in (both inside and outside), well fastened with screws. ‘The horizontal edge IAK was finished with two sectors of hard wood; and the back strengthened where the points chiefly met, with a tough piece of inch board; where also the sounding board was fastened to the pulpit-back with screw-bolts and nuts, being further supported near the centre of gravity by an iron rod suspended from the ceiling above. The wood was well seasoned, and placed beside a furnace for six weeks; the sounding board has been fixed for nine months, and has not been affected by weather. Figs. 2 & 3 represent the cross ribs EF, GH in fig. 1. Fig. 5 represents a parabolic sector whose concave is that required. Fig. 6 represents a parabolic sector whose convex answers to the concave of fig.5; and is used to prove the work when done, being applied at the point A, and turned on its axis AZ, Attercliffe Parsonage, near Sheffield, February 28, 1829. E 2 V. An [ 2 ] V. An Attempt to improve the Natural Arrangement of the Genera of Bat, from actual Examination ; with some Obser- vations on the Development of their Wings. By J.E. Gray, Esq. F.G.S. M.R.S.L. M.%.S. &c.* ) the Zoological Journal, vol. ii. p. 242. some time ago I attempted to divide the Bat into two natural groups; and these groups have been adopted, without acknowledgement, by M. Lesson in his Manuel. But since that time having had the opportunity of personally examining several genera which T had not then seen, and having profited by the observation which Temminck has made on the variations which take lace in the number of the cutting and other teeth of Bats, which I have the power of verifying myself, I have been in- duced to study again the characters of the genera and their groups: and in the hopes of facilitating the study of this uni- versally acknowledged difficult subject I send you an abridge- ment of my observations. The genera of Bats have been al- most entirely formed from the study of the number and posi- tion of the cutting teeth and grinders. ‘Temminck has lately proved, by the examination of several specimens in different stages of growth of the same species, that these characters chiefly depend on the age of the individual examined; and by this means he has been enabled to abolish several of the ge- nera established by Geoffroy, and acknowledged by the other French naturalists: and I have been enabled, by the oppor- tunities which I have had of examining several of the speci- mens which served Dr. Leach as the type of his new genera, to arrange them with their allies, and in most instances to prove that their advancement to the rank of genera was owing to their being examined in a dry state, and to the particular age of the specimens under examination. The French natura- lists have paid some attention to the peculiar form of the ears of some of the Bats,—an organ which appears to give most ex- cellent characters: but their descriptions have been very vague, certainly not taken from the examination and comparison of the ears of the various genera; for thus, in Desmarest’s de- scription of the ear of the genus Nyctinomus and Molossus, he must have mistaken the lobule for the tragus or oreillon, and have overlooked the true tragus, which is certainly very small, and sometimes nearly wanting, but very similar to those of the genus Noctilio, where he has correctly described them; and in the genus Glossophaga, the description of the ears has been entirely omitted. Several genera have been established on a slight variation in * Communicated by the Author, the On the Natural Arrangement of the Genera of Bat. 29 the number of the grinding teeth, without any other external or zoological character. ‘These I have not adopted; as the front grinders are often deciduous: and their number not being to be seen without destroying the animal, renders them almost useless to the zoologist, and such genera certainly do not facilitate the study of zoology. Sect. I. ISTIOPHORAL.—Nose furnished with a leaf-like appendage. The teeth acutely tubercular. Index-finger not clawed. Fam. 1. RHINOLOPHINA.—Nose-leaf complicated, pierced by the nostrils and with a central lobe ?—Wings large, interfe- moral membrane large.—Index-finger of only one bony pha- lange, the others supplied by cartilage.—Ears moderate, the upper and lower margin of the conch united together, the ante- helix rib-like thin, the lobule spread out. Tragus none; ante- tragus keeled,—Tail long, enveloped, inflexed.—Cutting teeth small, deciduous, and distant from the canine; lower more crowded. The female provided with pubal as well as pectoral teats. 1. RurnoLopnus, Geoff? Inhabits the Old World. Fam. 2. PHYLLOSTOMINA.—Nose-leaf simple, pierced by the nostrils, which are generally covered by one or two valves.— Wings large, interfemoral membrane often wanting or large. —Index-finger of two long phalanges. The conch of the ear simple, often very large and united together, the upper and lower margin separated, distant. The antehelix rib-like, the tragus distinct, often serrated; the antetragus indistinct.—Lobule thin, inflexed.—Tail often wanting, sometimes long.—Cutting teeth 2 or 4 above, and 4 or 6 below. Some of the genera have pubal teats. * Interfemoral membrane short ; tail none, or short, free. 2. Puyitiostoma.—Ears distant. Cutting teeth 4, crowded ; upper two central largest, lateral ones deciduous. Lips fringed. Tongue short. Tail none, or very short, free. —The genera Monophyllus, Artibeus and Medateus, of Dr. Leach. Diphydia of Spix does not differ from the above. The genus Vampyrus of Geoffroy, only differs in having an additional grinder on each side of the lower jaw. —They are cantina to the warmer parts of America. The genus Desmodus of Pr. Max. (Anim. Braz.) appears only to differ in having the “* Museau couvert a sa pointe de plusieurs crétes nasal.” 3. GLossopHaGa, — Ears distant. Tail very short or none. Lips not fringed; lower cut. Tongue long, bristly. Cutting teeth $3 very small.—Found in America. “” ¥* In. 30 Mr. Gray on the Natural Arrangement * * Interfemoral membrane short. Tail long, end free. 4, Rurnorpoma. Geoff:— Ears united over the forehead. Forehead with a deep concavity. Tail long, end free. Nose-leaf simple; nostrils covered with a small valve. Cutting teeth 2. _ Pubal teats distinct.—Found in the warm parts of the Old World. *** Interfemoral membrane long. Tail inclosed in the mem- brane or none. 5. Mormoprs, Leach.—* Ears distinct, confluent with the nose-leaf. Tail half as long as the interfemoral mem- brane, end free. Cutting teeth 4.” Leach. Found in America. 6. Mecaprrma, Geoff:— Ears very large, united over the forehead, lobule inflexed. Tragus deeply cut. Tail none. Cutting teeth 2 when old.—Found in India and Africa. 7, ?Nycroruitus, Leach. — “ Ears large, united. Tail produced to the end of the interfemoral membrane of 5 exserted joints. Cutting teeth 2.” Leach. Dr. Leach described the index-finger as having but one joint; but he has described Monophyllus as having the same formation, when actually the specimen he described has two; there- fore I have ventured to place it in the family. g. Nycrenis, Geoff:—Ears large, united. Tail as long as the interfemoral membrane, ending in a forked cartilage. Forehead with a deep groove. Nostrils closed by a cartila- ginous valve. Cutting teeth#2. Found in Africa. I have a bat said by Temminck to belong to this genus; but I can see no characters to distinguish it from Vespertilio. Its only peculiarity is the great length of the spurs of the ossa calcis, which is certainly only a specific distinction. Geof- froy represents a small double nasal leaf. Sect. II. ANISTIOPHORI.— Nose simple, without any leaf-like appendage. * Teeth acutely tubercular, index-finger clawless. Fam. 2. VESPERTILIONINA.—Head small.—Face nakedish. —FEars: concha thin, upper and lower edge separated by a short space.—Antehelix and antetragus rib-like.—Lobule thickened, tubercular.—Tragus large, long, mostly entire.—Wings large, and long.—I{ndex-finger of two bony joints.—Tail long, enveloped in the large interfemoral membrane.—Feet small.—Toes nearly equal.—Cutting teeth, when young, aay upper ones in pairs near the of the Genera of Bat. 31 the canines, with an intervening space; the front ones long, co- nical, hinder small, often deciduous; and sometimes entirely wanting ; the lower small, close-set.—Eating insects. * Tail inclosed in the interfemoral membrane. 9. BarBastELLus, Gray.—Ears large, united in front. Tragus long. Nostrils with a short membranous crest behind them, and the forehead with a naked erectile? Longitudinal fold in the skin. B. 10. Puiecotus, Geoff-—LEars very large, united in front. Nostrils and forehead simple. Tail jointed to the end of the prolonged interfemoral membranes. Cheek-pouches none.—P. auritus. ‘The genus Nycteris of Geoffroy ap- pears to be very like this genus. n.s. and perhaps Vespertilio Barbastellus, Zinn. 11. VespertiLtio, Zinn. — Ears separate, conical, lateral. Nostrils simple. Forehead hairy. ‘Tail with distinct ver- tebrze to the top of the produced interfemoral membrane. Cheek-pouches large?—The genera Atalapha, Nycticeus, and Hyperodon of Rafinesque depend on the deciduous na- ture of the teeth. The genus Nyctalus of Bowdich (Voy. Mad. 36), is only a Vespertilio, with ticks in the ears! and I believe his African Pteropi (p. 221) are only true bats in which he mistook the thumb for the index-finger,as he did in the above genus.—The genus Scotophilus of Leach is a Ves- pertilio, one of the largest species of the genus ; his descrip- tion of the bones of the finger does not agree with Mr. Brookes’s specimen.—Inhabits all parts of the world. 12, Furia, F. Cuv. not Linn.—“ Ears large, separate. In- terfemoral membrane produced. Tail with distinct verte- bra only half the length of the interfemoral membrane, the rest cartilaginous. Cheek-pouches none.” #. Cuv.—In- habits South America. ** Tail bare, inclosed, and free on the upper side of the membrane. 13. Progoscipra, Spix.— Emballonura, Kuhl. ? — ‘ Ears small, lanceolate, distinct, adpressed. ‘Tragus lanceolate, entire. Lobule tubercular. Head acute; nose. long. Cutting teeth 4, upper near the canines. Wings short, wide. ‘Tail half enveloped, end free on the upper sur- face of the short interfemoral membrane; spurs long.” Spiz.—This genus, which I have never had the opportu- nity of examining, appears to unite the two subfamilies, having 32 Mr. Gray on the Natural Arrangement having the teeth of Vespertilionina, and the tail and wings of Noctilionina. “ *** Tail very short, covered with bony valve. 14. Dictipurvus, Pr. Maz.—No character. “Ears short, broad. Tragus ? Wing long. |Arms very long and strong. Tibia long and thin. Spur long. Tail composed of two concave horny plates; the lower triangular and acute, fitted to the other, of a larger size.” Pr. Max. Diclidurus Frey- reissii. Pr. Maz. the D. albus. Isis 1819, p. 1629. From the figure the interfemoral membranes appear to be large and truncated. Fam. 3. NOCTILIONINA. —Head large.—Face nakedish.—Lips large pendulous, often grooved or warty.—Ears: Concha thick, leathery, often large and folded. Helix thickened, interrupted in front. Antehelix and antetragus costate, often very distinct : lobule thickened, tubercular. Tragus small, sometimes reduced to asmall tubercle, placed deep inthe meatus auditorius—— Wings small.—Index-finger of two long joints; the membranes sometimes arising from near the centre of the back, so as to leave a deep nursing-pouch on each side.—Thumb short, thick ; interfemoral membrane generally truncated.—Tail thick, end free, either be- yond or on the upper or lower surface of the membrane.—Feet large, great toes largest, sometimes opposible.—Cutting teeth very variable, # 4, or ¢ or 3; upper teeth near together in the front of the mouth, leaving a space between them and the ca- nines ; sometimes wanting ; the lower small.—Eating insects. Tail, end free on the upper surface. 15. Nocritio, Geoffi—Ears separate, distinct, smal]. Antehelix small. ‘Tragus linear, dentated. Forehead simple. Cut- ting teeth # or 3. ‘Tail short, enveloped. ‘Tip produced on the upper surface of the truncated interfemoral mem- brane. Perhaps Celano of Dr. Leach, will form part of this Abana was it notestablished from N. wnicolor of Geof- froy ! 16. TapHacous, Geoff? — Ears separate, distinct, small, drooping. Antehelix indistinct, lobule spreading. Tragus short, blunt. Cutting teeth ¢. Forehead with a conca- vity. Tail half enveloped, end produced on the upper sur- face of the long truncated interfemoral membrane. ** Tail base enveloped, end produced beyond the inter- Jemoral membrane. 17. CHetrometes, Hor'sf-— Ears separate, distant, small. Antehelix ? of the Genera of Bat. 5 33 Antehelix ? Tragus ? Cutting teeth ? Tail bare, partly enveloped in the short interfemoral membrane. Great toe large, opposible. 18. Dysoves, IJilig. not F. Cuv.— Ears large, pendant, united over or close together on the forehead. Antehelix and antetragus large, distinct; lobule tubercular, large; tragus small, sometimes reduced to a point. Cutting teeth 2. Face large, lip thick, grooved. ‘Tail base enve- loped with the short interfemoral membrane; end free.— This genus includes the genera Dinops of Savi, Nyctinomus and Mollossus of Geoffroy, and perhaps Thyropterus of Spix, and Stenoderma of Geoffroy. % * ?19. Myopreris, Geoff? — “ Kars separated, distinct, small. Tragus small. Cutting teeth 2. Tail half enveloped.”— Geoff: **** Tail attached, half as long as the membrane. 20. Aitio, Leach.—“ Ears approximating, short, very broad. Tragus none. Cutting teeth 2. Tail attached, half as long as the large interfemoral membrane. Limbs long.” I have not had the opportunity of examining the two latter genera. The genus Dysopes of F. Cuvier, which probably belongs to this group, has only been established from the examination of a cranium. Teeth bluntly tubercular. Tragus none. Index-finger often clawed. Fam. 4. PTEROPINA.—Head long, conical. —Nose end two cut, nostrils tubular; lips small—Ears. Concha moderate, thick, coni- cal, lateral edges united in front so as to form a conical meatus auditorius without any distinct tragus or convolutions.— Wings large, with a broad membrane uniting the thumb, so that the fin- gers and thumb form a cone, when expanded. The index-finger of three bony joints generally ending in a sharp claw. Thumb long, membrane often arising from near the centre of the back. Interfemoral membrane very short, sometimes wanting. Tail very short, sometimes deficient.—Cutting teeth—Feet long.—Toes nearly equal.—Eating fruit, congregating together. 21. Preropus, Geoff:—Index-finger clawed. Tongue short. Head moderately long. The genus Cynopterus of ¥. Cu- vier only differs in having a grinder less on each side; and every true zoologist must allow that it is not for the benefit of science to adopt such genera.—Inhabits India and Poly- nesia.— The African and Madeira Pleropi of Bowdich appear to be Vespertiliones. 22. Macroaxossus, F. Cuv. not Fab.—Index-finger clawed. Head very long. ‘Tongue very long, extensile. N.S. Vol, 6. No. 31. July 1829. F 23. Har- 34 Mr. Gray on the Natural Arrangement 23. Harrya, Iilig. — Index-finger clawless. Head short; membranes of the wing arising ; from the dorsal line: con- taining part of Cephalotes and Pteropus of Geoffroy. The genera of these animals being almost proverbially difficult to distinguish, I have been induced to draw up the following Bablexs in the hope of facilitating the inquiries of the Zoological student. 1. Interfemoral membrane large, extended. Tail, none. 6. Megaderna. . Interfemoral membrane large, extended. Tail formed of two bony VEIVED cietaeteiete sietece © sicher loin, thelasis oteu, Atisteleyeicinne sie e4els 14. Diclidurus. Interfemoral membrane large, extended. Tail only half as long as the membrane, and more or less attached to it. Nose complicated ....... SUED AGS aon 3 ww we «eee 5. Mormoops. Nose simple. Tail soldered to the membranes. ET GIS UAT Ua stearate raj fsa e la. 2 cuclercientc, 6 ais » 12. Furia. Close POPet Mere cs. Re seis. eincicewmis sie 20. Ello. Tail end free above the membranes. Head long, acute ............ Se Hearts a oie 13. Proboscidea. — conical, blunt. Forehead simples. 722's0e6.stess s+ «101. 15. Noctilio. PIGECEM ota teaniletncerts choi tise 16. Taphagous. 4, Interfemoral membrane large, extended. Tail as long as the membrane, and attached to it. Nose with leaves. Ears simple ........... Hadaee aocekels eesees 1. Rhinolophus. united. (iatlhendcontealiys chietes ses « o\do sive GI +e. %- Nyctophilus. ROCK CU ters ete’ nie roieternysve eetstatsialsiasstelcts 8. Nycteris. Nose simple. Ears simple Ss coed dad coutaatl darichsiistters - 11. Vespertilio. united. ge ies Dalry Mtemielstelciaieta sien chars aevevsteists aise 18. Plecotus. naked. . Lvebltniaeks « jstetle SORE OAS 9. Barbastellus. 5. ees membrane short, tail more or less long, attached at the base to the membrane, and extended beyond it. Nose leafed, forehead pitted ........ oS AE ts 4. Rhinopoma. simple. Ears distinct. Great toe ——?........+.... anapipia wip tia Ba'ele 19. Myopteris. large, opposible aiplaj elite SoHE ons 17. Cheiromeles. Ears close together, drooping........... . 18. Dysopes. Interfemoral membrane none or very small. and free. Nose leaved. Lips fringed. | Tongue short............... Tail none, or very short 2. Phyllostoma. not fringed, —— long..........+++...- 3. Glossophaga. Nose simple. Index-finger clawed, Head conical ..... Siete Beat Aaa eee 2). Pteropus. very long ...... ane A oboe «+» 22. Macroglossus. Index-finger clawless........++...- a aisle o o0c0n Goo LOrpyd. In of the Genera of Bat. 35 In a late visit to the College of Surgeons, I was much struck at observing the small size of the wing of the Feetuses of Pte- ropi, compared with these parts in the adult animal; and on continuing the examination I found that the same difference of development appeared to take place in the other genera of bats. These differences in the relative development of the fore and hind extremities appear to have escaped the observa- tions of Temminck and other modern writers on this family of animals; it is of the more importance, as several of the writers on this subject have been induced to place great re- liance on the proportions of these parts compared with the size of the body in their specific descriptions. Indeed, in the last part of the Linnean Transactions, the Rev. Mr. Jenyns, who is certainly a very acute observer, and who has paid great attention to the bats of this country, has been induced to describe a bat as a distinct species, which only differs in the relative measurement of these parts, under the name of Plecotus brevimanus; and which from the examination of a specimen in the collection of the Zoological Society, named by the author, I am induced to think is only the very young state of Vespertilio auritus, as I had named the specimen when I was assisting in making the catalogue of the Mammalia and Reptiles of that collection. I shall give a description of the young state of Pferopus*, as I have been enabled to see three specimens, in different stages, of an apparently undescribed species, which were dis-. covered in the late expedition under Captain Beechy, which I refrain from describing, as Mr. Lane, the naturalist of the expedition, informed me that he intended soon to describe it in another journal. The Feetusof the Pteropus (cut from the body of the mother) has a large head, and small arms: and wings with a large longly clawed thumb. ‘The hind legs and claws are also very large and perfectly formed. These peculiarities are easily ac- counted for when the habits of the young bat are considered ; for in the young state they do not require the use of their wings, but rest attached to the sides of their mother, and for the purpose of holding themselves on, they are provided with Jarge and well-clawed thumbs and feet, allowing the wings to gradually develope themselves. In a visit which I lately paid to Haslar Hospital, at Ports- mouth, for the purpose of examining the Mollusca brought home, and so well described by the collector, the surgeon of the expedition, I was fortunate enough to discover a very * Pteropus pselaphon, Lay, Zool, Jour. vol. iv. p. 457. I 2 young 36 Mr. Murchison on the Bituminous Schist and young specimen of this animal, which was intermediate in the relative size of the wing between the foetal and the perfect state of the animal.—The following Table exhibits the measure of the same parts of the specimen in the three stages of growth; but as the measurements were taken at three very different times and places, they do not all exactly correspond. The measurements are in inches and parts: Pteropus pselaphon. Feetus. | Young. Adult. Length of body and head ......| 33 | — | 94 Antebrachivmies....cccesccewscsvos} Lye] 2, F179 Endex HNGEr ie wecedecveccecssecel Ll «| Zoey Se Middlesfinger ..sc.0.c0 2055005 .0006( 22.) S21 OF Ring finger ..cacccecccscsvesevesses) 14 | 24 | 7 Little finger... cc. ..cccescsessecveee| 1Z | ZE | 6F A Tinysaesetieds wteacicesassveseescesl! “47. MIke AD ani GLa, tics. ses Vocnecdsvesel eo de: ESOT! SHS GES. Sseewedetdseseeee] SO, SE LP — PeGt ais wie ctebnpeseccbaccstcawttvcreecitt gy | > ft — FAING Teet seas ten scetvavstwovwancos! 2) LD) — Expanse of the wings.......0++ VI. On the Bituminous Schist and Fossil Fish of Seefeld, in the Tyrol. By Roperick Impey Murcuison, Esq. F.R.S. Sec. G.S. FLAS. &c. &c.* "Et village of Seefeld is situated at the summit level of the principal road from Inspruck to Munich, where it traverses one of the most northern ridges of the Rhetian Alps. This range of mountains is chiefly composed of dolomite; but the middle and lower members of it, about 24 miles N.N. W. of Seefeld, consist of a bituminous schist or slate containing impressions of fish, which is quarried, not for building or roof- ing purposes, but solely for the extraction of bitumen.—The chief object of the present communication is to show that this schist does not belong either to the age of a tertiary deposit, or to that of the lias, to each of which epochs it has been re- ferred by different authorities}. ‘Ihe inferior strata are much obscured by herbage and pine forests; but in ascending the western and northern flanks of the mountain, the out-crop of the schist is observable in ravines, and also in old quarries * Read before the Geological Society, April 3, 1829 ; and communicated by the Author. + See Edin. Phil. Journal, vol. xiii, p. 372; and Annals of Philos., June 182], p. 456, / near Fossil Fish of Seefeld, in the Tyrol. 37 near the abandoned oil-works, the sites of which are marked by heaps of the scorified fragments of the rock which have passed through the fire, and in some of which the black and shining scales of fish are still conspicuous. ‘The schistose system appears to form a belt of about five or six hundred feet in thickness, the lower beds of which have been worked out; and the two furnaces now in activity are therefore esta- blished in the highest portions of it, and consequently at so great an elevation as to be near the limit of vegetation.— Here I found a Tyrolese and his sons heaping logs of wood upon a blazing pile, whilst the bitumen was exuding from a furnace below :—at the other furnace, the materials being still in pre- paration, I observed the following process. ‘The stone quarried for use is distinguished by the workmen into two qualities: one, which is of black colour and of small specific gravity, af- fords a very viscid petroleum; the other is a brown slate, and gives off a thinner liquid*. Small fragments of the black and brown sorts being equally mixed together, are placed in fire- clay crucibles of a conical form, each about three feet in height, which at a few inches apart are luted upon an iron platform with holes, to which are attached pipes to convey the liquid bitumen into buckets. Large logs of pine are laid upon the crucibles, which are kept together by a loose low wall of stones in the form of a parallelogram. Fire is then applied, in three or four hours the bitumen begins to distil off, and in nine or ten hours it is completely extracted from the stone. The oil is then poured into strong barrels containing about fifty pounds each, and conveyed to Seefeld; from whence it is sent to considerable distances in the neighbourhood, being used as a medicine, and considered a powerful diaphoretic and specific for rheumatism +. To return to the structure of this mountain.—The zone of schist on its western and northern sides is overlaid by and included in dolomite, some thick beds of which even alter- nate with the schist. ‘The bituminous beds are in general very thinly foliated ;—some of them so much so, as to resem- ble laminz of lignite. All are extremely fetid when struck by the hammer, are very much contorted, and their general dip is to the S.S.E. at high angles, varying from 70° to 80°. A much greater number of perfect impressions of fish were formerly found, when the lower beds were quarried, than in * Some of these pieces are so bituminous, and especially the brown sort, that they do not leave more than one half their weight of earthy matter, after the melted bituminous portion has been allowed to run off + It is called “ Stone oil” by the Tyrolese, and is sold at Seefeid for twelve florins per cwt, the 38 Mr. Murchison on the Bituminous Schist and the upper limits of the schist where the furnaces are now esta- blished. The few fragments however which I collected have enabled Mons. Valenciennes, the able coadjutor of Baron Cu- vier in his new work on Fishes, to give the following account of them. “There appear to be at least four species of fish among these specimens; of which three are particularly distinguished, by having quadrangular scales without articulating points, and ranged in sinuous and oblique rows, thus resembling the Esox osseus of Linneeus (Lepisosteus of Lacepéde): but the fragments marked No. 1. and 2.* show that this species was of a form essentially different from the Esox osseus, in having a forked tail. The anal fin is placed behind and [near the caudal, whilst a number of bony spines, at least eight in one of the specimens, appear in front of the articulated rays. ‘The absence of vertebral fins prevents my deciding positively upon the order. “In No. 3. the scales of the tail resemble those of the fossil fish of the Kiipfer schiefer of Mansfeldt and Eisleben; with this distinction, that they do not advance so far into the tail fin. “ No.4. differs from those above described in the larger size of its scales. «* No. 5. differs entirely from the three species described, in the form and much smaller size of the scales. ‘The existence of dorsal, pectoral, and ventral fins, places this fish in the order Abdominales. 'The head and tail are wanting, but the scales of the belly form a toothed keel, and thus leave no doubt that it belongs to the genus Clupea.” In the form of their scales and in their general character, these fish of Seefeld have a strong resemblance to several of the genera and species found in the various deposits subordi- nate to the new red sandstone and magnesian limestone; whilst they differ altogether from the Dapedium of the lias, or any family of fish as yet discovered in, or above the oolitic series. These fish were the only animal remains I could detect in the formation, or in the accompanying range of dolomite, nor was there a trace of any fossil of the oolite or lias. ‘There were however in the schist a few fossil vegetables; of which one specimen bears great resemblance to a Lycopodium, a family of plants which (as well as the fish) is characteristic of the for- mations below the new red sandstone. In mineralogical characters the rock of Seefeld accords in many respects with that of Caithness, described by Professor * These specimens are deposited in the Museum of the Geological So- ciety, and were previously examined by Mons. Valenciennes during his recent visit to this country, Sedewick Fossil Fish of Seefeld, in the Tyrol. 39 Sedgwick and mmyself*, with which it further coincides in con- taining no animal remains, except fish; and as copper ore is extracted from this same chain of dolomite a few miles to the west, I am on that account still more inclined to refer this schistose deposit to some one of the formations between the new and old red sandstone, so remarkable for their abundance of Ichthyolites and their metalliferous character, among which the Thuringian copper slate, the magnesian limestone of England, and the Caithness schist, constitute prominent groups of different ages. Chemical analysis of the schist kindly undertaken by Mr. Faraday indicates, that it contains a much larger proportion of ammonia than has ever been obtained from any quality of coal, however bituminous; and although no positive conclusions can be drawn from this circumstance, still, when the vast number of the fossil fish is considered, a strong suspicion may be entertained that the destruction of such animal matter may have cooperated in the bituminiza- tion of the stone. The schist in its upper portion passes into a compact yellow dolomite which rises into rugged and barren _peaks, the forests of pine wood terminating with the superior limit of the bituminous beds.—And here I cannot but express my dissent from that theory of Von Buch by which he attempts to account for the origin of all the dolomite of the Tyrol, of whatever age it may be. That eminent geologist imagines that these vast and lofty mountains acquired their dolomitic cha- racter by the magnesia derived from augitic rocks in a state of fusion. Now although in some localities which he cites, and where pyroxenic rocks are either in contact or contiguous with the dolomite, (as in the valleys of Fiemme and Fassa,) it may be allowed that secondary limestones have been altered into crystalline marble, and occasionally thrown up into fantastic forms; there is no possibility of a similar cause having pro- duced the dolomite of Seeteld, where there is not a vestige of any igneous rock in the neighbourhood, but, on the contrary, where strong beds of the dolomite alternate regularly with the bituminous schist containing fossil fish. No geologist has ever sought to explain the presence of magnesia in the great de- posits which are so highly charged with it in England and in Germany, by any theory like that of Von Buch; and if it be conceded that magnesia may have been an original ingredient in one formation, we may equally presume that it was an ori- ginal ingredient of any other in which we now find it. For we know that the mountain limestone in England, the oolitic series * In a memoir of the forthcoming Part of the Geological Transactions, now in the press; and read before the Geological Society, June 1828. in 40 Mr. W.H. Miller on the Crystal of Bicarbonate of Ammonia. in the southern Tyrol, the green-sand in France, and the ter- tiary rock of Verona, are all occasionally distinguished by beds of dolomite, although the formations containing it are frequently far removed from igneous rocks, to the influence of which, any alteration of their original structure could by possibility be due. Nor can it be allowed that the grotesque peaks of the Tyrolese dolomite afford countenance to the above hypo- thesis; since their irregularity of outline may have been in great measure produced by the vast dislocations which these rocks have undergone subsequent to their deposition.—In an- other memoir I have endeavoured to show* that on the southern flank of the Tyrolese Alps near Bassano, where the secondary and overlying tertiary deposits have been elevated conformably, the serrated outline of those several formations from the newest tertiary conglomerates to the dolomite of the Jura limestone, is exclusively due to the high inclination and verticality of the constituent strata. VII. On the Crystalline Form of Bicarbonate of Ammonia. By Mr. W. H. Miter. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. Gentlemen, HAVING never seen any correct description of the crystals of bicarbonate of ammonia, and understanding that some attempts to crystallize it for the purpose of measuring the in- clination of its faces were unsuccessful, I am induced to send you the following description and measurements, which, how- ever, vary 15 or 20 minutes in different crystals. It cleaves parallel to the lateral planes (M M/) of a right rhombic prism, which appears to be its primary form. The planes 64, are often wanting, and usually very small: when iia ee aand M are nearly equal, the crystals may easily be mis- taken for regular six-sided prisms (see Henry’s Chem. vol. i. p. 417, ed. 10.) M on M’ = 111° 48! cone = 135 40 bon! = 117 40 aonM =124 7 aonc = 112 10 * Phil. Mag. and Annals of Philosophy, June 1829; and read before the Geological Society, March 1829, It -Mr. Major’s Analysis of British and Foreign Ships of War. 41 It may be observed that tan 4 (M on M') = ~ 3 a .. the planes } and c are produced by the same kind of decrement. The index of ordinary refraction for yellow rays is 1-558. I obtained the crystals by dissolving the common sesquicarbo- nate in water, ina strong well-corked bottle, at a temperature of about 130° Fahr., and permitting the solution to cool slowly. Yours, &c. W. H. Miter. VIII. Analysis of British and Foreign Ships of War. By Mr. Magsor, formerly of the School of Naval Architecture*. [XN exhibiting the following calculations to the notice of per- sons conversant with naval affairs few. observations are re- quired, with regard to their utility or importance; as the value of such tables is obvious, and their national importance will be readily acceded to. The facilities which the Honour- able Navy Board granted me for the execution of an exten- sive plan of calculations, which I had the honour to submit for the benefit of the navy in October 1821, have been the means which have enabled me to compute the analyses here given. A description of this proposition may be found in the Annals of Philosophy for Nov. 1825. The particulars relative to the Ordnance and Victualling Office departments have been ob- tained directly from the respective establishments, and com- puted from official documents, in consequence of requests from the Navy Board for that purpose; those relating to accounts kept at the Navy Office, Dock-yards, and School of Naval Archi- tecture at Portsmouth, are also derived immediately from these establishments, and are of the most authentic nature. To Dr. Inman, the Professor of the Royal Naval College and School of Naval Architecture, it is due to me to say, that while at Portsmouth in 1822, in prosecution of the plan, the work was much promoted by him, and that he afforded me considerable facilities for eflecting the object. I have also to acknowledge the liberality of J. Knowles, Esq. F.R.S., of the Navy Office, in giving me his advice and allowing me free ac- cess to many valuable and scarce works in his marine library. As naval architecture has not, been long cultivated in this country after the liberal manner of the sciences, by general and public investigation—without which no branch of knowledge is promoted with certainty,—complete calculations of all descrip- tions of ships are not to be expected: but it is hoped it will be allowed, that all that could have been looked for in this case has been done; especially when it is remembered that the * Communicated by the Author. ‘ N.S. Vol. 6. No. 31, July 1829. G consideration 42 Mr. Major’s Analysis of British consideration of the forms, calculations, and equipments of ships, is not yet introduced in the official duties of the profes- sional superintendents of His Majesty’s Dock-yards. As op- portunity may offer for completing them, numerous other calculations, and the details of those here presented, ‘which are in my possession, will be added to the present. The computations of ships here given, form but a small part of the digest of His Majesty’s ships of war, proposed by me to the Navy Board in October 1821 ; as that work would require constant attention in calculating the elements of all sea-going ships at the Dock-yards. The present tables will, however, tend to reduce to precision and certainty, what is often un- known, as we may witness in looking at the extensive altera- tions which some of our English ships have required. In the Annals of Philosophy for November1825, may be seen the view which I have taken of the best mode of pursuing the study of naval architecture: my plan is there explained at large. In the numbers for the following January and June may also be found additional remarks on a digest of the Navy. It is to be regretted that the centres of gravity of some of His Majesty’s ships have not been found by experiment, as it will be seen, by referring to the article on Ship-building in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, that no objection to the mode, on the score of accuracy, now exists. Some writers have pre- tended to give the exact stability of ships without obtaining the centre of gravity of the entire vessel; but such pretensions are only vain and nugatory: at the same time the metacentric calculations here presented, as used in the French tables, are extremely serviceable as estimates of the stability of vessels. The form of exhibiting the results of the calculations of British ships of war has been taken from the French Marine Ordinance of 1786, as a general view of the powers and capa- cities of the ships is well given by that description of table: for this purpose also, the averages of different estimates have been taken. The corresponding French tables, reduced to English measure, are also given for the purpose of comparison; as they contain the types from which our 84-gun ships and 46-gun frigates have been built,—two numerous classes, amounting together to fifty or sixty innumber: the French Franklin, or English Canopus, having been the model of the one, and the fébé frigate, the model of the other class. The elements of the Franklin will be found in the third column of the table of French ships of the line, as when captured she carried only eighty guns, four guns having been omitted at the ports of the admiral’s cabin. ‘The elements of our 46-gun class are those of the 18-pounder frigates in the French tables. For further guidance and Foreign Ships of War. 43 guidance in the construction of ships, the elements of the ships of war designed by the celebrated Swedish constructor, Chap- man, are given: they are extremely fine specimens of naval architectural skill. ‘The French and Swedish tables, as here exhibited in English measure, have been calculated by Mr. Read and myself, jointly. Inavery absurd article on Ship-building, signed “* Neptuni,” in No. 6, of The Naval and Military Magazine, my plan of cal- culations is characterized, “‘as a mode of getting the light dis- placement (!), quite impracticable and totally erroneous.” It is, however, evident that the miserable writers ‘* Neptuni,” or the Sea Gods (!), have never read my plan; or if they have read it, they have not been able to understand it, as they are obviously unacquainted with its nature, and are unequal to passing an opinion on it. They may now see that the work is not im- possible. In addition to the synoptical view of ships of war here given, other calculations on them, with the legitimate deduc- tions arising therefrom, will in a short time be published. Analytical Tables of British Ships of War, according to the present Proportions and Establishments. Taste I. Principal Proportions, and Summary of the Weights which compose the Equipment of Ships of the Line. Ist Rate |2nd Rate | 3rd Rate Nature of the Elements. 120Guns.| 84 Guns. | 74 Guns. Ft. In.\ Ft. In.| Ft. In. Length on the gun-deck..............00e0ee0+ 205 0| 193 10} 176 0 SEMANA EXMEITIC; . 4 WAL < ; : jo skuq f 10 AAIY “yy 49 *JOJOWIOULIOLY T, *JOJOWIOIVET u0jsog JO TIFAA py pun uodsoxy yw ATINUA ““y ‘eounzuagT fuopuorT unau Syoumsiyy yn hyavo0g yo unynayory ayy fo uap. DX) ay} 10 HLOOT “TT fig apnus suoypasasgg 7001VF0p0Loaja PY THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. — [NEW SERIES.] AUGUST 1829. XII. An Account of some Experiments on the Torpedo. By Sir Humeury Davy, Bart. F.RS* AMipstT the variety of researches which have been pur- sued respecting the different forms and modes of excita- tion and action of electricity, it is surprising to me that the electricity of living animals has not been more an object of at- tention, both on account of its physiological importance, and its general relation to the science of eleetro-chemistry. a ia reading an account of the experiments of Walsh, it is impossible not to be struck by some peculiarities of the elec- tricity of the organ of the Torpedo and Gymnotus ; such as its want of power to pass through air, and the slight effects of ignition produced by the strongest shocks: and though Mr. Cavendish, with his usual sagacity, compared its action to that of a battery weakly charged, when the electricity was Jarge in quantity but low in intensity, yet the peculiarities which I have just mentioned are not entirely in harmony with this view of the subject. When Volta discovered his wonderful pile, he imagined he had made a perfect resemblance of the organ of the gymnotus and torpedo; and whoever has felt the shocks of the natural and artificial instruments, must have been convinced, as far as sensation is concerned, of their strict analogy. After the dis- covery of the chemical power of the voltaic instrument, I was desirous of ascertaining if this property of electricity was pos- sessed by the electrical organs of living animals; and being in 1814 and 1815 on the coast of the Mediterranean, I made use of the opportunities which offered themselves of making experiments on this subject. Having obtained in the Bay of * From the Philosophical Transactions for 1829, Part I. N.S. Vol. 6. No, 32. Aug. 1829. M Naples, 82 Sir Humphry Davy’s Account of Naples, in May 1815, two small torpedos alive, I passed the shocks through the interrupted circuit made by silver wire through water, without being able to perceive the slightest decomposition of that fluid; and I repeated the same experi- ments at Mola di Gaeta, with an apparatus in which the smallest possible surface of silver was exposed, and in which good con- ductors, such as solutions of potassa and sulphuric acid, were made to connect the circuit; but with the same negative re- sults. Having obtained a larger torpedo at Rimini in June in the same year, I repeated the experiments, using all the precau- tions I could imagine, with like results; and at the same time I passed the shock through a very small circuit, which was completed by a quarter of an inch of extremely fine silver wire, drawn by the late Mr. Cavendish for using in a micro- meter, and which was less than the ;,4;,dth of an inch in dia- meter; but no ignition of the wire took place. It appeared to me after these experiments, that the comparison of the organ of the torpedo to an electrical battery weakly charged, and of which the charged surfaces were imperfect conductors, such as water, was more correct than that of the comparison to the pile: but on mentioning my researches to Signor Volta, with whom I passed some time at Milan that summer, he showed me another form of his instrument, which appeared to him to fulfill the conditions of the organs of the torpedo; a pile, of which the fluid substance was a very imperfect conductor, such as honey or a strong saccharine extract, which required a certain time to become charged, and which did not decom- pose water, though when charged it communicated weak shocks. The discovery of Cirsted of the effects of voltaic electricity on the magnetic needle, made me desirous to ascertain if the electricity of living animals possessed this power; and after several vain attempts to procure living torpedos sufficiently strong and vigorous to give powerful shocks, I succeeded in October of this year, through the kind assistance of George During, Esq., His Majesty’s Consul at Trieste, in obtaining two lively and recently caught torpedos, one a foot long, the other smaller. I passed the shocks from the largest of these animals a number of times through the circuit of an extremely delicate magnetic electrometer, (of the same kind, but more sensible, than that I have described in my last paper on the electro-chemical phenomena, which the Royal Society has ho- noured with a place in their Transactions for 1826,) but with- out perceiving the slightest deviation of or effect on the needle ; and I convinced myself that the circuit was perfect, by making | some Experiments on the Torpedo. 83 my body several times a part of it, holding the silver spoon, by which the shock was taken, in one hand, wetted in salt and water, and keeping the wire connected with the electrometer in the other wet hand; the shocks which passed through the reduplications of the electrometer were sufficiently powerful to be felt in both elbows, and once even in the shoulders. These negative results may be explained by supposing that the motion of the electricity in the torpedinal organ is in no measurable time, and that a current of some continuance is necessary to produce the deviation of the magnetic needle; and I found that the magnetic electrometer was equally insen- sible to the weak discharge of a Leyden jar as to that of the torpedinal organ; though whenever there was a continuous current from the smallest surfaces in voltaic combinations of the weakest power, but in which some chemical action was going on, it was instantly and powerfully affected. ‘Two series of zinc and silver, and paper moistened in salt and water, caused the permanent deviation of the needle several degrees, though the plates of zinc were only 3th of an inch in diameter. It would be desirable to pursue these inquiries with the elec- tricity of the gymnotus, which is so much more powerful than that of the torpedo: but if they are now to be reasoned: upon, they seem to show a stronger analogy between common and animal electricity, than between voltaic and animal electricity: it is however I think more probable that animal electricity will be found of a distinctive and peculiar kind. Common electricity is excited upon non-conductors, and is readily carried off by conductors and imperfect conductors. Voltaic electricity is excited upon combinations of perfect and imperfect conductors, and is only transmitted by perfect con- ductors or imperfect conductors of the best kind. Magnetism, if it be a form of electricity, belongs only to perfect conductors; and, in its modifications, to a peculiar class of them. The animal electricity resides only in the imperfect conduc- tors forming the organs of living animals, and its object in the ceconomy of nature is to act on living animals. 4 Distinctions might be established in pursuing the various modifications or properties of electricity in these different forms; but it is scarcely possible to avoid being struck by another re- lation of this subject. ‘The torpedina ae depends for its eh ay upon the will of the animal. John Hunter has shown ow copiously it is furnished with nerves. In examining the columnar structure of the organ of the torpedo, I have never been able to discover arrangements of different conductors si- milar to those in galvanic combinations, and it seems not im- M2 probable 84 Prof. Encke on Hadley’s Sextant. probable that the shock depends upon some property deve- loped by the action of the nerves. To attempt to reason upon any phznomena of this kind as dependent upon a specific fluid, would be wholly vain. Little as we know of the nature of electrical action, we are still more ignorant of the nature of the functions of the nerves. There seems, however, a gleam of light worth pursuing in the peculiarities of animal electricity, its connection with so large a nervous system, its dependence upon the will of the animal, and the instantaneous nature of its transfer, which may lead when pursued by adequate inquirers to results important for physiology. The weak state of my health will, [ fear, prevent me from following this subject with the attention it seems to deserve; and I communicate these imperfect trials to the Royal Society, in the hope that they may lead to more extensive and profound researches. October 24, 1828. Lubiana, Illyria. XIII. On Hadley’s Sextant. (From Prof. Encke’s Ephemeris for 1830, p. 285.) [X instruments of reflexion, the measurement of angles is ef-. fected by the coincidence of a ray coming directly from an object into the eye, with one from another objectthat has under- gone one or two reflexions. ‘The coincidence, in this case, sup- plies the place of the observation of the second object in other instruments for measuring angles by direct vision, and does away the necessity of investigating, whether the radius deter- mined by the first reading has remained unchanged, or at least parallel to its former position. In the case of reflecting in- struments, we have only to regard the angles which the dif- ferent lines form with each other, and not their absolute posi-, tion in space; and it will therefore be sufficient, instead of the real lines, to introduce lines parallel to them all, passing through ‘one point; and in this manner all the investigations relating to them will be converted into problems of spherical trigono- metry. _ Let O (fig. 1.) be the centre of the division, and leta sphere of any diameter be described about this point. ‘The intersec- tion of the divided plane of the sextant with this sphere will be a great circle. If the divided arcis to show the correct value of every angle, the direct and the reflected rays, the lat- ter of which supplies the place of the second bisection, must be entirely in this plane, from which we derive these eposiitiang o Prof. Encke on Hadley’s Sextant. 85 of a correct measurement; viz. the line of collimation of the telescope must be parallel Fig. 1. to the plane of the sextant, and both mirrors must be perpendicular to it. In this supposition, let OA _ be parallel to the line of col- limation, and p that pole of the plane parallel to the small mirror which answers to the back of it; in the same manner let P be the pole of the plane of the great mir- ror, but the one answering to its reflecting surface. By our assumption, ae Zo 7 Centre of gr, of displacement from . SH1.9s$1.8.25F% _ 8572) 8:105| 7598} 7:308 waterline “> ssti.dsca © Metacentre above water-line ps 6°43 6:22 6°31 6°35 SIC OO eee Common centre of gravity of ship t : . 2: 21 eet fs water-line = » .......- — aa be listance of metacentre above cen- : . . eh tre of gravity = a........:... es qn8 wa Soe To have the same stability in all these ships with the same surface 3°709| 3:88 4,02 417 of sail, a must be equalto .... Centre of gravity before middle 7 2-32 of water-line 24 bas eted cate bi a4 ia Middle of the water-line J abaft the middle of the water-line "485 “455 “436 “407 LET OP ae Seen ae Smee Centre of gravity before the middle : 987 , : of the water-line 2 =a....... Be e387 oi adi ¢ — ere centre of gravity i 11:52 | 1079 10:1 9-68 9 section before middle of eat 1412 | 13:33 | 125 12:0 line 2 = a@.n-+-2 ...0-ccccce. From the abaft end of the ern 114-94 | 108-7 1028 | 99:32 ane Ete os oaks pthc a s0- ene ite for design, between the 11:49 | 10°87 | 102-8 9:93 sections abaft ¢= occ From the fore end of the water- 85:68 | 81-28 ‘Ol / line / to g, for design, =Q.... ; 3 a an rs) between the sections, before ig be fy 856} 812 | 77 7:45 a 10 ere ew eee ewer eee eons Height of lower portsills above water] 6°28 | 6°3 6°71 6°62 Weight of guns, shot, wads, pow- ) 21194 | 16882 13612 | 11737 der, carriages, in cubic feet.... § Oy Ditto, in tons...... tr aeste Matt ous 607 483 390 336 3 Gunners’ stores joo of above, t 635'8 506'4 | 408-3 3521 add, in cubic feet of water .... Ditto, in hiwopd 3 "i a f. iy Fee. 18° 14°4 11°6 10°06 Weight of ballast in cubic feet of 1685) 13156 | 10332 8924 Water Yisdasi.5.)2 Se Sie St AD ONG st saci ix dict Siaclae.s 4828 | 376°9 296° | 255: Number of men ................ 1000 848 706 658 Weight of hull, rigging, boats, an- chors, &c, or the weight of ship 0688: 67907: o | 51771 without guns, stores, ballast, and ows 7907" | 5739 * provisions, in cubic feet ...... BC IN YOU J 2 de ccasees vincent see 2025 1945 1644 1483 V.S. Vol. 6. No. 32. Aug. 1829. 97 1-82 7-091 6°39 2-18 4-21 4°23 2°26 ‘407 2°66 9:38 11:64 968 9°68 72°78 727 6°54 10693 306 320°8 91 81223 232°7 606 47822 1370 1104°3 2474 ABLE 98 Mr. Major’s Analysis of British and Foreign Ships of War. Tass VI. Table of Elements for Swedish Frigates, reduced to English Measure. [From Chapman’s Treatise on Ships of War, published in 1806. Nature of the Elements. No Main deck, Sw. calib. |2 of. {Be in Engl. calibre 44 Guns. 40 Guns. 36 Guns. 278 5 Tons. 88:75 29-45 pund Quarter deck, & forec.|18-12 [14-8 Do. in English calibre|— 11:24] — 7-49} —5-92 INo. Of icrew: 5. artes 46.2. 400 330 No. of months provisioned for 5 5 . Tons. Tons. Weight of guns and ammu- i nition at 60 shot per gun : bala I Be Weight of crew with effects 42-38 | 34-96 Provisions, casks, wood for five months, and water ¢ 252-51 | 208-3 & casks for half the time Ballast, in tons ........ 000 49-64 | 123-13 Weight of ordnance and stores, crew and effects, 610-68 | 494-02 provisions, water, wood, casks, and ballast...... Weight of hull, in tons.. 749-07 | 605-94 Roundhouse, boats, &e,” cordage to tackling, sails, anchors, rope, cables, blocks, dead-eyes, mas- 170-32 | 141-59 ters’ and carpenters’ stores, in tens........ Total displacement to out- side ai ieaiked in tons.. i 1530-07 | 1241-5 Weight of plank .......... 76:5 62-7 Displacement to outside of plaok,allowing the plank +] 1606-57 | 1304-2 to be % of displacement Length of water-line, in feet] 160-1 149-5 ag aig breadth of water- 41-63 | 39-41 Depth of @ toupperside§] ies | 1520 Height of lower portsill A shure water ... ig aL 8:44 8-11 rea of @ in square feet without alaake eR natdsie vl 489-35) 426-57 Area of floatation witht plank} 5593-59 | 4910-9 Height of metacentreabove centre of gravity of dis- 12-56 12-12 = aed Centre of grav. of dis olace- ment alow, waleh rect 578 5:37 Cent. of gray.above floatation 2-34 2-24 Metacentre above floatation 6-77 6:75 Do, above centre of gravity 4-43 4-51 Excess of draught of water 7 abaft over that forward ; 73 1-65 28 Guns, 26 Guns. Engl-28- 11 |ingl. 22. 19). — 16:86 tee 24 ual 24) — 3-75 12-6 213 43 Tons. 52°89 22-56 127-9 Sse ee ee | Pe ee 682-88 34:14 717-02 122-9 33°68 12-55 6:82 287-8 3404-6 10-96 4:33 1-83 6-63 4-8 1-46 53:8 10Gun Guns. 52 Tons. 39-01 18-96 97-9 Tons. 7-69 5°51 26-5 19-8 209-67 257-1 533-91 26-69 560-6 113-5 31:57 11-58 6-16 244-9 2905-6 10-51 3:91 1:69 6:60 4:9 1:38 [ 99 ] XVI. An Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe; with a List of the Species of each Genus, and Reference to one or more of their respec- tive Icones. By J.G. Cui~pr41n, F.R.S. L. §& E. FL.S. §c. (Continued from p. 16.] Genus 60. APAMEA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stephens*.) (Curtis. ) Wings, deflexed during repose; anterior elongate triangular, obtuse, the apex in some species slightly acuminated. Antenne very slender, pubescent beneath, pilose in the males. Palpi moderate, subclavate, the basal joints clothed with elon- gate broad scales, the terminal exposed, obtuse, not so Jong as the basal, very slender, compressed, the apex ob- tuse, the intermediate joint as long again as the first, slightly bent and somewhat acute at each extremity, basal joint a little curved, rather slender at the base: maxille as long as the antenne. Head * The recent publication of the 27th and 28th Numbers of Mr.Stephens’s « ]llustrations of British Entomology,” enables us to make some useful addi- tions to the genera we gave last month ; and first we shall supply the mi- serable deficiency of Treitschke’s generic characters of Hadena, by copying those given by Stephens at p. 179 of the second volume of his “Haustellata.” «« Palpi short, rather slender, slightly ascending, clothed with hair and scales, triarticulate; terminal joint rather exposed, short, subovate: the basal joint curved, in general rather shorter and stouter than the second, which is a little attenuated towards the apex; terminal subovate, ob- liquely truncate: mawille about the length of the antennze. Antenna short, rather stout, in general simple, with the under side ciliated in the males, or obscurely subserrate, with a distinct fasciculus of hair on each joint within: ead small, with a dense frontal crest ; eyes large, globose, sometimes pubescent: ¢horaw slightly crested: body stout, rather elongate, very acute in some females: wings slightly deflexed during repose; anterior obscurely denticulate on the hinder margin: in general of gay colours, sometimes with pale reticulations, and mostly with a pale undulated striga, in which is usually a conspicuous angu- lation, resembling the letter W, near the posterior margin ; stigmata distinct ; posterior wings with an obscure emargination towards the costa : larva naked, generally of lively colour: pupa subterranean,”— Evrcexia, Steph. Of the fourth species of Treitschke’s fifty-sixth genus, Phlogophora luci- para (Noctua lucipara, Linn.), Stephens has made a new genus by the name of Euplexia, to which he assigns the following characters. Kuriexia. “ Palpi moderate, subclavate, clothed with elongate scales, the terminal joint exposed, obtuse, rather slender ; basal joint slightly curved, rather ei than the third, which is somewhat attenuated and acute; the second as long again ae the third, and gradually attenuated to the apex, which is obliquely truncate: mawville long. Antenne stout, elon- 2 gate, 100 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Head with a dense fascicle of scales on the crown: eyes glo- bose, naked: thorax subquadrate, slightly crested,'the crest anteriorly gate, closely ciliated in the males, with a few short bristles in the fe- males: head small, with a dense frontal crest: eyes naked: thorax stout, subquadrate, with a double crest posteriorly: ajdomen moderate, carinated, and crested on the back, the crest on the third segment very long and conspicuous, the terminal segment in the males broad, semi- circular, and fringed with long fascicles of hair; in the females some- what triangular, and but slightly fringed: wings short, entire, deflexed, and longitudinally wrinkled during repose: cilia emarginate: stigmata very large. Caterpillar naked, smooth: pupa subterranean,” —Steph. dilust. Brit. Ent. Haust. U1. 3. Stephens mentions only one species of Euplexia. TracueEa, Ochs. (Genus 59.) “« Palpi moderate, the basal joint pubescent, the second densely clothed with scales, the terminal minute, exposed, ovate; basal joint stouter and shorter than the second, a little bent; second stoutest at the base, rather attenuated at the apex; terminal one-third as long as the second, rather slender, ovate; mawille elongate. Antenne simple in both sexes, pubescent beneath and ciliated in the males: head with a dense frontal crest, produced into a tuft at the base of each antenne : eyes globose, naked: ¢horaa stout, quadrate, crested anteriorly and posteriorly : abdomen elongate, carinated and crested on the back in both sexes ; male with a small anal tuft: wings deflexed during repose, anterior elongate-triangular, the posterior margin faintly denticulated ; posterior ovate-triangular. Caterpillar naked, smooth: pupa subter- ranean.” —Steph. 1. c. p. 21. : The only species which Stephens enumerates as of this genus is Noct. atri- plicis, Linn., the first in Treitschke’s catalogue, and constituting his Family A. —For Treitschke’s three remaining species, viz. Precox, of his Fam. B., and Porphyrea, and Piniperda, Fam, C., Stephens has adopted as many distinct genera, Actesra, Scorornita, and Acnaria, with the following characters assigned them respectively. Actesta *, Stephens, “ Palpi short, robust, porrected obliquely, densely clothed with com- pact scales; the terminal joint exposed, subrhombic; the two ba- sal joints nearly of equal length and stoutness, the first curved, the second shuttle-shaped, the terminal slender, elongate-cvate: mawille elongate. Antenne elongate, slender, pubescent beneath, ciliated on each side in the males; the basal joint large [and squamose: head small, with a dense frontal crest: eyes large, globose, naked: thorax slightly crested posteriorly : abdomen elongate, somewhat depressed, a little pubescent at the base, slightly carinated in the males, with a small anal tuft; stouter in the females: wings deflexed during repose ; anterior very narrow, linear, entire, glossy ; posterior ovate-triangular, entire. Caterpillar naked, smooth: pupa subterranean.”—Steph. 1. c. p. 20. Only one species. ‘Scoropuita®, Stephens. “ Palpi rather distant, porrected obliquely, slender at the base, subclavate, the two basal joints clothed with rather elongate scales, the apical mi- nute, exposed, somewhat acute; the basal joint about two-thirds the * Axzn littus ; Biow vivo. ® Sxortos Lenebre, Pirew amo. length Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 101 anteriorly and posteriorly bifid: abdomen moderate, scarcely tufted on the back and sides, the apex with a small tuft, obtuse in the males, acute in the females. Larva naked; pupa subterranean*. Ochsenheimer, or rather Treitschke, has divided this genus into four families. Fam. A.—With a very bright white or yellow reniform spot on the fore-wings. Fam. B.—Small species (N. Pusillae, Fam. V. Wien. Verz.), with bright metallic markings on the fore-wings. Fam. C.—Larger, generally dark coloured, species, with the fore-wings long, and rounded at the extremities. Fam. D.—Colour inclining to copper-red, with the fore-wings shorter, and pointed at the extremities. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. Ap. Nictitans, Linn. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLVII. f. 394. a. b. 2. — Didyma, Borkh. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLVI. fig. 390 & 392. & Pl. CCLVII. f. 393. 3. — Ophiogramma, Hib. Ernst, VIII. PIL.CCCVI. f. 529. Fam. B. 4. Ap. Furuncula, Hibn. Hubn. Noct. Tab. 117. fig. 545. (mas. ) 5. — Captiuncula,Treit.t — — me length of the second, stout, reniform, the second more slender, rather tumid at the base, the apex attenuated and truncate; terminal sub- ovate, obtuse: mawille elongate. Antenneé long, pubescent beneath, stout, subserrate, and slightly pectinated in the males; slender and simple in the females: head small: eyes globose, naked: thorax sub- quadrate, not crested: abdomen moderate, rather depressed, acute at the tip in the females, with a tuft in the males: wings entire, deflexed ; the anterior narrow ; posterior rather large. Caterpillar naked : pupa subterranean.” —Steph. lc. p. 18. Only one species. Acuatta, Hiibn. “ Palpi very short, nearly concealed by long hairs, the terminal joint not visible ; the two basal joints robust, the first as long again, and stouter than the second, slightly curved, second attenuated, the apex trun- cate, third minute, cylindric, truncate: mawville elongate. Antenne rather long, slender, and simple in the females, subserrated, and rather robust in the males, pubescent beneath : head minute, scarcely visible from above: eyes small, naked: thorax large, downy: wings deflexed during repose; anterior entire, obtuse: abdomen short, rather stout, pubescent on the sides, and at the apex. Caterpillar naked, smooth : pupa subterranean,” —Steph. l. c. p. 19. Only one species. * Characters from Stephens, Haust. Il. p. 6. + Ap. alis anticis fuscis, fascid medida obscuriore, stigmate reniformi fas- ciaque externa albidis.— Ochs. T'reitsch. V. pars IL. 96. 6. Ap. Suf- 102 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Species. Icon. 6. Ap. Suffuruncula, Treit.* 7. — Latruncula, Hubn.t Ernst, VIII. Pl. CCCXIV. f.548. 8. — Strigilis, Linn.t... Ernst, VIII. Pl. CCCXV. f. 551. Fam. C, 9. Ap. Connexa, Borkh.§ Ernst, VI. P].CCXXXIX.f. 351. 10. — Testacea, Hubn.§ Ernst, VII. P].CCLX XVII. f.451. 11. — Basilinea, Fab.§ Ernst, VIL. Pl. CCLXIII. f. 414. 12. Ap. * Ap. alis anticis fuscis, cupreo argenteoque splendentibus, macula in medio quadrata nigra.— Ochs. Treitsch. V. pars Il. 97. + Mrana, Steph. “ Palpi short, porrected obliquely, the two basal joints sparingly clothed with elongate scales, the terminal one exposed, somewhat acute, and placed obliquely, very slender when denuded; the basal joint short, stouter than the following, which is slightly curved, attenuated towards the apex, and nearly three times as long as the basal; terminal elon- gate-ovate, nearly as stout as the second, and about the length of the basal: maville elongate, Antenne short, finely ciliated and pubescent in the males, simple in the females: head with a frontal crest: eyes naked: thorar subquadrate, with a posterior dorsal crest: abdomen slender, with a small tuft at the apex in the males, and a little crested on the back : wings entire,.deflexed, anterior elongate triangular, with indistinct, nearly concolorous stigmata. Caterpillar naked: pupa sub- terranean.”—Steph. Illust. Brit. Ent. Haust. U1. p. 11. . Stephens adds, that the species of this genus are distinguished from the Apamez, by their small size, nearly concolorous postericr stigmata on the anterior wings, the smallness of their palpi, slenderness of body, and by the thorax not being anteriorly crested. { Miana, Steph.—Next to his genus Miana, Stephens has introduced another new Genus, Cetana, founded on four species, viz. Ce. renigera, Steph. (of which only three specimens are known); Ap. Haworthii, Curtis, VI. pl. 260;—Noct. hibernica, Haw. MSS. (a Dublin species) ; and, with a mark of doubt, No. dancea, Esper. The characters of this genus are, CreLzna, Steph, “ Palpi not very short, porrected obliquely, the two basal joints densely clothed with elongate scales, the terminal exposed, rather obtuse, sublinear: basal joint short, reniform, scarcely stouter than the se- cond, which is nearly linear, a little curved and slightly acute; terminal stouter than the first, elongate-ovate, obtuse: mawill@ elongate. An- tenne moderate, rather stout, pubescent beneath, and ciliated in the males: head with a dense tuft of scales on the crown: eyes naked: thorax large, somewhat downy, not crested: body rather short and slender, the sides and apex tufted, the apical tuft largest in the males : wings deflexed, entire ; anterior elongate-triangular, obtuse ; stigmata, especially the posterior, conspicuous, not concolorous.” — Steph. Ilust. Brit. Ent. Wil. p. 15. The Celzenz are nearly of the same size as the Mianze, but are distin- guished from them by their broader anterior wings, with very conspicuous posterior stigmata, and the adjoining nervures generally pale; the palpi are more densely scaly, and the terminal joint somewhat linear and obtuse, not subacuminate ; the thorax is stout, and not crested. § Hama, Steph. « Palpi short, subclavate, the basal joint clothed with elongate scales, the terminal exposed and conic, about as long as the first, subovate, com pressed, Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 103 Species. Icon. 12. Ap. Infesta, Treitsch. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXIX. f. 484. b. 13. — Cespitis, Fab.* .... Ernst, VIL. PlL.CCLXXX. f.459. Fam. D. 14. Ap. Leucographa,Hub.t Hubn.Noct.Tab. 88.f. 411. (mas.) Tab, 124. f. 572. (mas. ) 15. — Bella, Borkh...... Hiibn.Noct.Tab.101.f.477.(mas.) 16. — Umbrosa, Hiibn.t Hibn. Noct. Tab. 97.f.456.(mas.) f. 4.57. (foem.) 17. — Cuprea, Hubn.... Hubn. Noct. Tab.13. f.62. (foem.) 18. — Conflua, Treitsch.t 19. — Haworthii, Curtis. Curtis, Brit. Ent. pl. 260. Genus 61. MAMESTRA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stephens.) Wings slightly deflexed during repose, anterior obscurely den- ticulated on their hinder margin, posterior simple. Legs short, stout; femora and tibie very pilose interiorly ; tibial spurs moderate. Paipi short, triarticulate, densely clothed with elongate scales pressed, acute; the first short, rather bent, the second stout at the base, considerably attenuated at the apex: mazille scarcely as long as the antennz. Antenne moderate, rather stout, ciliated in the males, and sometimes subserrate, pubescent beneath, with a few bristles in the females: head small, densely pubescent in the forehead: eyes large, globose, naked: thorax stout, woolly, subquadrate, scarcely crested: wings deflexed during repose, not folded; anterior rather long, emarginate on the posterior edge; cilia nearly entire: body mo- derate, carinated, and sometimes with some short fascicles of scales on the back; the sides and apex tufted in the males, scarcely so in the females. Caterpillar naked: pupa subterranean.’’— Steph. Illust. Brit. Ent. Wl. 4. * CuHanzas, Steph. + Lyrza, Steph. “ Palpi slightly ascending, triarticulate, the two basal joints densely clothed with elongate, loose depending clavate scales, the terminal almost naked; the two basal joints of nearly equal length, the first slightly curved and very robust, the second more slender, gradually attenu- ated from the base to the apex; the terminal minute, ovate obtuse: maxille elongate. Antenne rather long, serrated internally in the males, and ciliated; simple in the females: head and thorax downy, the latter stout and not crested: body rather short, slender, very downy at the base, slender posteriorly and tufted at the apex, and on the sides : wings horizontal, entire, very glossy ; anterior considerably rounded at the base ; posterior scarcely emarginate on the hinder mar- gin ; with a dark fimbria, and a more or less distinct transverse dusky striga, with a central spot of similar hue. Larva radicivorous: pupa subterranean.” —Steph. Illust. Brit. Zint. I. 107, and 199, { Ap. alis anticis hepaticis, maculis ordinariis pallidioribus, strigis obso- letis confluentibus.—Ochs, T'reitsch. V1. pars 1. p. 405. at 104 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of at the base, the terminal joint not very distinctly exposed ; the basal joint the length of the terminal, subconic; the following as long again, more slender than the basal, sub- cylindric, a little bent, and slightly attenuated at the tip, which is obliquely truncate; terminal elongate-ovate: maxille rather long. Antenne elongate, rather slender, simple in both sexes, each joint producing a short bristle on each side, ciliated be- neath in the males. Head rather small, forehead densely crested : eyes rather large, globose, pubescent. Thorax subquadrate, with a bifid dorsal crest. Abdomen moderate, crested on the back, the apex with a small tuft. Larva naked, varied. Pupa subterranean.* Species. Tcon. 1. Mam. Pisz, Linn....... Ernst, VI.P].CCLX XX VII.f.477. 2. — Splendens, Hiibn. Hiibn.Noct.Tab. 85. f.400.(foem.) 3. — Oleracea, Linn..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLX XXVIII. f.4:79. 4. — Suasa, Hibn...... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXVII. f. 478. 5. — Aliena, Hiibn.+.... Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 94. f. 441. 6. — Nigricans, Vieweg. Hubn.Noct.Tab.116.f.539.(foem.) 7. — Chenopodii, Fab. Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 18. f. 86.(mas.) 8. — Albicolon, Hiibn. Hiubn.Noct.Tab.117.f.542.(mas.) 9. — Brassice, Linn.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLX XIX.£.456. 0) 10. — Furva, Hubn..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXXVI. f. 474. c. 11. — Persicaria, Linn. Ernst, VI. Pl.CCX XXII. f.335. 12. — Rubrirenat, Treitsch. _ — — Genus 62. THYATIRA, Ochs. Treitsch. (Curtis.) Legs, anterior ; tiie with a compressed spine on the inside; middle and posterior ¢/bz@ with a pair of spurs at their apex, one very small, the posterior pair with also two spurs below the middle. Wings, deflexed, superior slightly hooked at the posterior an- gle; inferior large. Antenne, alike in both sexes, rather short, clothed with scales above, with short hairs beneath. * Characters from Stephens.—Haust. II. 191. + Hama. Steph.— Haust. III. 4. { Mam. alis anticis nigris, maculis strigisque ordinariis rubescentibus ; posticis nigro-griseis.—Ochs., T'reitsch. V. pars Il. p. 159. Palpi -Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 105 Palpi, porrected obliquely, distant, triarticulate, longer than the head, covered with long hairy scales, the terminal joint clothed with short, close scales only ; first joint short, second long, attenuated, third as long as the first, slender, conical: maxille.as long as the antenne. Head, transverse. -Thoraz clothed with long, light scales, forming a transverse crest. Abdomen rather long and slender, with a small tuft of scales on the back near the base. Larva, with six pectoral, eight abdominal, and two anal feet*. Species. Icon. 1.. Thy. Batis, Linn...... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCX XXI. f. 333. Curtis, Brit. Ent. II. pl. 72. Imago et larva. 2. — Derasa, Linn. ... Ernst, VIII. Pl.CCCVII. f. 530. Genus 63. CALPE}, Ochs., Treitsch. Caryptra, Ochs. Wings deflexed and crossing over one another, when at rest; the usual reniform markings and maculz, indistinct, but the transverse bands well defined. Antenne, strongly pectinated in the male. Species. Icon. 1. Calp. Thalictri,Hiibn. Ernst,Suppl. Pl. VIII.£258.a.b.c. 2. — Libatriz, Linn.... Ernst, V. Pl. CXCV. f. 258. Genus 64. MYTHIMNA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stephens.) Legs, moderate; femora and tibia stout, and densely pilose in the males. Wings, slightly deflexed; anterior entire, acute at the apex, with the stigmata nearly or quite obliterated; posterior obsoletely emarginate on the hinder margin. Antenne moderate, shortest in the females; finely ciliated in both sexes, stoutest, and somewhat pubescent beneath in the males. Palpi short, ascending, densely enveloped in scales, the apical joint not exposed; triarticulate, the basal joint scarcely one-third as long as the second, bent; the second very long, slightly attenuated towards the apex, not so stout as the first, a little curved; terminal small, elongate-ovate, subacuminate, conic: mavzille as long as the antenne. * Characters from Curtis, Brit. Z2nt. IL. pl. 72. + Kaazn, Calpe, an urn ; from the peculiar hollows of the fore-wings. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 32, Aug. 1829. x Head 106 Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. Head small, with a tuft of scales: eyes large, pubescent. Thorax slightly crested anteriorly. Abdomen elongate, densely tufted at the apex, and laterally in the males ; somewhat obtuse in the females. Larva naked, with longitudinal streaks. Pupa subterranean*. The genus is divided by 'Treitschke into three families, ac- cording to the markings on the wings. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. Myth. Oxalina, Hiibn. Hiubn. Noct.Tab. 45. f:219.(mas.) 2. — Acetoselle, Fab.... Hubn. Noct.Tab. 45.f.220. (mas.) Fam. B. - Myth. Turca, Linn.... Ernst, VII. Pl. COXCIV. f. 497. . — Lithargyria,Hiibn. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCV. f. 499. . — Albipuncta, Fab... Ernst, VII. Pl.CCXCIV. f. 498. — Conigera, Fab. ... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCI. f. 492. . — Inbecilla, Fab. ... Hiibn.Noct.Tab. 120.f.555.(mas.) . — Neva, Hiibn....... Hiibn. Noct.Tab.84. f. 395.(mas.) Fam. C. 9. Myth. Xanthographa, Fab.} Ernst, VII.P].CCLXVIII.f£429. 10. — Neglecta, Hiibn.+.. Ernst, VIL Pl. CCLIX. f. 401. COnTD Or > OF Genus 65. ORTHOSIA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stephens, Curtis). Legs moderate. Wings slightly deflexed, entire; anterior elongate, the apex slightly rounded or somewhat acute; posterior short, ovate-triangular. Palpi nearly horizontal, densely clothed with elongate scales, the terminal joint scarcely projecting; triarticulate, basal joint a little bent, above half the length of the second, and more robust, second nearly straight, terminal about the length of the basal, obscurely pear-shaped: maville shorter than the antenne. * Characters from Stephens.— Haust. I. 149. + Srceria, Steph. “ Palpi slightly ascending, densely clothed with squamose hair; the ter- minal joint exposed, triarticulate ; the basal joint reniform, stouter than the following; the second as long again as the first, a little attenuated towards the apex; terminal minute, ovate, obtuse; mavi/le about the length of the antenne. Antenne moderate, stout and ciliated in the males, slender and simple in the females: head small: eyes naked : thorax stout, woolly, not crested: wings slightly deflexed, short ; an- terior obtuse and rounded posteriorly, with distinct stigmata: body rather short, the male with a tuft at the apex; the female with the apex acute: Jegs with the femora very pilose. Larva naked: pupa subterranean.’— Stephens’s Ilust, Brit, Ent. U. p. 153. Antenna Mr. Haworth’s Description of the Subgenus Epiphyllum. 107 Antenne simple in the females; bipectinated or ciliated in the males. Head small, with long scales above. Thorax not crested, stout, woolly. Abdomen short, tufted in the males, acute in the females. Species. Icon. 1. Orth. Cecimacula,Fab. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXIV. f. 415. c—f. 2. — Instabilis, Fab..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXIIL. fi 414. d—h. 3. — Munda, Fab....... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLVIII. f. 396. 4. — Ypsilon, Hiibn.... Hiibn. Noct.Tab.29. f. 136. (mas.) (4*.— Lunosa, Haworth, Curtis, Brit. Ent. Pl. 237.) 5. — Lota, Linn........ Ernst, VII. Pl.CCLIX. f.400. 6. — Macilenta, Hiibn. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXI. f. 409. 7. — Gracilis, Fab...... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXIIL. f. 414. a—c. 8. — Opinia, Hiibn. ... Hiibn. Noct.Tab.90. f.424. (mas.) 9. — Populeti,Fab...... Ernst, VI. Pl.CCLXII. f.412. b. 10. — Stabilis, Hiibn.... Ernst, VII. Pl.CCLXII.£412.c.d. 11. — Carnea, Thunb... Hiibn.Noct.Tab.81. £377. (foem.) 12. — Miniosa, Fab..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXIL. f. 411. 13. — Cruda, Gotze..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXII. f. 413. 14. — Levis, Hiibn...... Hiibn. Noct.Tab. 34. £163. (foem.) 15. — Nitida, Fab........ Hiibn. Noct.Tab. 38.180. (foem.) 16. — Humilis, Fab...... Ernst, VII. Pl.CCXCIX.f.508. c. 17. — Pistacina, Fab.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLVIII.f. 397. 18;..—., Liturd,, Lint. op: Ernst, VII.P].CCLVIIL.£399.a.b. [To be continued.] XVII. A Description of the Subgenus Epiphyllum. By A. H. Hawortn, Esq. FLL.S. &c. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. Gentlemen, PAYING just examined a new and specious plant of the subgenus Epiphyllum of the Cactean order, at Mr. Tate’s choice Nursery, in Sloane-street (where so many new tropical plants are found), I send you hereunder a full description of it. And in order to make the communication a little more accepta- ble to your botanical readers, I have added to it a monographi- cal sketch of all the other species of Epiphyllum, with new sec- tions and characters to elucidate the whole, as far as known to me, which are seven in number. ‘The new species is named + Characters from Stephens’s ust, Brit, Ent, Haust.W1.p. 139. P?2 Ackermanni, 108 Mr. Haworth’s Description of the Subgenus Epiphyllum Ackermanni, in compliment to the son of Mr. Ackermann in the Strand, London, its meritorious introducer into this country. I remain, &c. your old correspondent, A. H. Haworrta. Classis et Ordo. IcosanpriA MonoGynia. Ordo Nat. Cacrr®, DeCandolle Prod. Syst.Veg.3. 457. Cacti, Juss. 3c. Genus EripHyLLum.—Herman, Par. Bat. add.— Nob. Synops. Succ. 197.—Neck. elan. 1. p. 85. (ex DeCand.) SupGeneris CHARACTER. Corolle tubus longissimus, mediocris vel brevissimus, sparsim et remoté squamulosts inermis, e crenis ramulorum oriens, inter perpusillas et innocuas spinulas: limbus (corollze fu- gacis) alte multifidus vel quasi polypetaloideus rosaceus, aut subindé plus mints elegantissimé ringens. Suffrutices Americee calidioris ramosi graciles, sed vix scan- dentes, in scopulis rupibusve; vel insuper arborum truncos ; ramulis alatim compressissimis, tenuibus sed carnosulis, lobato-crenatis, viridibus laevibus, axe centrali gracili ligneo. Flores solitarii seepits magni speciosi, albi, rosei, coccineive, rarius suaveolentes. Obs. Radicem versus ramuli incipientes subindé pullulant angulati, qui denique, semper fortasse, sursum gradatim alati evadunt. Cereorum ceetera, et etiamsi genus vel sub- genus absque artificiali charactere, veré naturale est. * Nocrurna, corollis fugacibus suaveolentibus albis, noctu solum aperientibus tubo longissimo. SpecIERUM CHARACTERES. Phyllanthus. 5. (The long-tubed night-flowering) corolla parva 1. tubo feré pedali multoties longiore, stigmatibus decem. Epiphyllum Phyllanthus. Nob. in Synops. Succ. 197. excluso synon. Pluk. quod ad L. phyllanthoidem melius pertinet. Cactus Phyllanthus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1. 670. DeCand. Plant. Grasses, t. 145. Cereus Scolopendrifolio, &c. Dzll. lth. t. 64. f.'74. Habitat in America Meridionali. Hookeri. Ei. (The lesser-tubed-night flowering) corolla me- 2. diocri tubo subsemipedali, duplo longiore, stigmatibus subtredecim. Cactus Phyllanthus, Hook. in Bot. Mag. 2692. Obs. Flores non vidi, Hookeri figura solim examinavi. Habitat 00 ** DIURNA, Mr. Haworth’s Description of the Subgenus Epiphyllum. 109 ** Drurwa, corollis inodoris per dies noctesque constanter apertis, tubo mediocri vel brevissimo. Phyllanthoides. E. (Rosy-flowered) corolla magna rosacea, 3: tubo mediocri, petalis oblongo-lanceolatis breviore : stigmatibus septem. Cactus phyllanthoides. DeCand. Prod. Syst. Veg. 3. 469.—Bot. Mag. 2092. Cactus speciosus. B. Reg. 304. Epiphyllum speciosum. Nob. Suppl. Pl. Succ. p. 84. oxypetalum. E. (Acute, red and white flowered) tubo longi- 4, tudine loborum acuminatorum; floribus_ sessilibus, fructibus longitudinaliter nervato-angulatis. Cactus oxypetalus. DeCand. Prod. Syst.Veg. 3. 470. Habitat in Mexico. ices Flores 4-pollicares longi, extus fusco-rubentes, intts albidi. Bacca rubra oblonga, costata, utrinque atte- nuata. Rami C. phyllanthoidis, DeCand. 1. c. Non vidi, neque figuram. alatum. E. (small green-white-flowered) corolla parva viridi- 5. alba, tubo brevissimo, bacca nigricante. Cactus alatus. DeCand. Prod. Syst. Veg. 3. 470. Epiphyllum alatum. Nod. Suppl. Pl. Succ. 84. Habitat in Jamaica calidiore. Flores apertos non vidi. Descriptio ex DeCand. I. c. Ackermanni. E. (Ackermann’s large scarlet-flowered) corolla 6. maxima obsoletissimé ringente ante florescentiam as- surgente, apice acuto; quam tubo feré quadruplo lon- iore. Habitat in Mexico, ubi invenit Dom. Ackermann, et Domino Tate multis aliis communicavit : in cujus horto nunc copiosé floret. R. Obs. Antecedenti fortasse nimis affinis. Facies EL. phyllanthoidis, at ramorum lobi pauciores, obtusi- ores, et feré auriculiformes: et in eorum axillis spinulis ordinariis forté conspicuioribus. Fores solitarii sed numerosi, et affinium more, directione feré horizontali, tubo cum germine plusquam unciali, sordidé viridi, et quasi 5-angulari e decursione squamularum paucarum seu remotarum et calycinarum. Pe/ala imbricata acu- minata nitentia, inferiora longé minora, canaliculatim carinata, apice recurvula: summa (petala) quasi bi- serialia semiexpansa lanceolata coccinea, horum coelum versus oblonga et lanceolata, et caetera terram spectantia oblonga et angustiora. Genitalia ut in affinibus, co- roll breviora, declinata rosea, sed apicem versus ele- ganter 110 Notice of the Arrival of some of the Winter Birds ganter curvatim adscendentia, stylo bumiliora, stig- matibus circiter septem. Obs. Petala extus linea costali paululum protube- rantia, aurora pulchra colore nitentia. Anthere et stigmata tinctura formosa roseo-mutabiliter violas- cente. truncatum. E. (The reflexing ringent flowered) corollis re- 7. flexis valdé ringentibus, tubo brevissimo, ramulis di- chotomis apice truncatis. Epiphyllum truncatum. Nob. Suppl. Pl. Succ. 85. et in Phil. Mag. vol. 4. p. 188. : “Cactus truncatus. Bot. Mag. 696. Habitat in Brasilia. hi Floret autumno in caldario. P.S. Please to note the following errata in my last com- munication :— Page 262, line 8, for subdistantibus, read subdistantes. 264, line 22, for polyphyllum, read polyanthum. XVIII. Notice of the Arrival of some of the Winter Birds of Passage, as well as of a few of the occasional Visitants in the Neighbourhood of Carlisle, during the Winter of 1828— 1829; with Observations, §&c. By A CorrEsponDENT. No, | English Specific Latin Specific Names. When first Names, observed. Redwing Thrush; Turdus WIACUS ccoseoeses(e Cee, be Fieldfare Thrush Pilaris....o0cevee Snow Bunting...| Emberiza nivalis........| Nov. Mountain Finch | Fringilla montefringilla| Oct. Siskin s..eeseeceees — SPINUS eeeeseeee Green Sandpiper} Totanus ochropus ......| July Woodcock.......| Scolopax rusticola......| Aug. Rough-legged Buzzard (Buteo Lagopus).—A very fine spe- cimen of this rare Buzzard was killed in the neighbourhood of Bewcastle the latter end of February, where another was seen. This is only the second instance of this species having been captured in this part of the county: the other was shot near Wreay in November 1824. Cinereous Shrike (Lanius excubitor).— For the last five or six years the Cinereous Shrike has visited this neighbourhood pretty regularly, scarcely a winter passing without one or more having been either seen or obtained. Its arrival, however, is apparently of Passage in the Neighbourhood of Carlisle. 111 apparently very irregular, as it has occurred during the above period in almost every month from October to April. On the eleventh of April 1828, I saw one near Stainton; and on the seventh of March it was observed close to Brugh-by-Sands, and pursued nearly the whole day, but without success. Bohemian Chatterer (Bombycilla garrula).—Several spe- cimens of this beautiful species were killed in the month of January, two of which were brought to me. It would appear that these birds feed greedily upon the fruit of the wild briar Rosa canina), as well as upon the berries of the mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia), the thorn (Crategus oxyacantha), &c. The stomach of one was completely filled with these berries (I. ca- nina), and I was somewhat surprised to find that several had been swallowed quite whole, although very large. ‘The other had been also feeding upon the same fruit, although killed after an interval of several days and in a different part of the county. Both these birds proved to be males; yet one had but five, and the other only four waxen appendages attached to the se- condary quills of each wing. Temminck, and indeed almost all writers on ornithology, state that the number of these ap- pendages is one of the characteristics by which the sexes may be distinguished; yet I have reason to think they are a very doubtful criterion, and will in all probability eventually prove to be more indicative of age than of sex.—As the following ob- servations upon this subject are but little known, I have been induced to extract them from Hutchinson’s History of Cum- berland, a work only in the possession of few individuals*. “This beautiful bird (Bohemian Chatterer) only visits Cum- berland occasionally, and then only in the winter season. In the beginning of the year 1787 great numbers were killed in the north of England. What distinguishes this from all other birds, are horny appendages from the tips of the secondary feathers, of the colour of the very finest red sealing-wax. The females are said to be distinguished from the males by the want of the appendages and yellow marks in the wing feathers ; which, however, is not the case, as will appear from the fol- lowing account. One of these birds was found dead, in Fe- bruary 1784, near Brugh-on-the-Sands: it had six crimson appendages at the end of the secondary quills; the tips of the quill feathers rather a dirty white than yellow. I could not distinguish, upon dissection, whether it was male or female. On the eighth of February 1787, Mr. Story sent me a speci- men, which was killed near Keswick: on the right wing were six of the horny appendages, on the left only five: five of the * See Catalogue of Cumberland Animals, vol, i. page 11. quill 112 Notice of the Arrival of some of the Winter Birds quill feathers, and one of the secondaries on each, were tipped on the outer margin with a fine yellow: on dissection this proved to be a female. On the same day a flock of five or six of these birds were seen feeding on the fruit of the hawthorn, near Blackwell, a mile and a half from Carlisle. —Two of them were shot, and sent to me; one had seven red appendages on the right wing, and six on the left; the other had six on each wing: only four of the quill feathers had yellow tips, and the yellow in both was much paler than in the last. They both proved to be males. On the fourteenth of February 1787, Mr. Harrison of Penrith sent me another, which was killed near Temple-Sowerby. On each wing were seven appendages, much larger than in the former. Five of the quill feathers, and one of the secondaries in each wing (as was the case of the female sent by Mr. Story), were tipped with yellow: the appendages were much larger than in the four preceding speci- mens, and the four nearest the body were the largest: this bird was a male. On the twenty-second of March, in the same year, I received another, which was killed at Ravensworth, and sent to me by Sir Henry Liddell, bart.; on the right wing there were eight, on the left seven appendages, which were large. The two extreme ones, viz. the nearest and furthest from the body, were the smallest. ‘The second, third, fourth, and fifth from the body were the largest: six of the wing feathers were tipped with yellow. In this bird all the tail feathers had also horny appendages at the ends of the shafts, which however were much smaller than those in the wings. The person by whom it was sent neglected to deliver it for near three weeks, by which the intestines, &c. were become so putrid that I could not, after the most accurate examination, ascertain whether it was male or female. ‘The red appendages and yellow tips on the wings do therefore not depend upon the sex, but most probably on the age of the bird: and the sex, I am persuaded, can only be ascertained by dissection.” I have been given to understand that a second specimen, with waxen appendages attached to the end of the tail feathers, is in the collection of A. H. Haworth, Esq. F.L.S. &c. of Chel- sea, the learned author of the Lepidoptera Britannica, &c. &c. Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra)—A flock of these birds were seen near Cumwhitton, the last week in November, several of which were killed. The Crossbill very rarely occurs in this part of the county, and is the only instance of its having been met with in this vicinity for very many years. From the num- ber of specimens said to have been killed in various parts during the present winter, it must have visited the northern counties in considerable numbers. Snow of Passage in the Neighbourhood of Carlisle. 113 Snow Bunting.— Small flocks of Snow Buntings, I believe, annually resort to the salt marshes below Rock Cliff. During the remarkably fine mild weather in November and December last, I saw them repeatedly there; but as the major part are usually young birds, they are seldom recognized, I have little doubt they arrived much earlier than is stated in the above table. Mountain Finch.—Whether this bird ever breeds in the hilly districts in this county I have not been able to ascertain ; yet I think there cannot be the least doubt that a few occa- sionally remain during the summer. I observed one on the 27th of April, near Nunery ; and the late ingenious Mr. Bewick states that he has seen them on the Cumberland hills in the month of August. Siskin. —The Siskin has hitherto been considered only as an occasional and very irregular visitant in this country by, I believe almost all writers on British ornithology. 1 have however reason to think that if not a periodical visitant, it at least visits some districts more frequently than is generally supposed. During the last four or five years it has been regu- larly observed in this neighbourhood, arriving in flocks vary- ing in numbers from twenty to forty or more, and was seen last autumn on the 26th of October teeding upon the larch, to which tree it appears to be quite as partial as to either the alder or the birch: they continued to frequent the same district the whole winter, although annoyed and materially reduced in numbers by bird-catchers and others. On the 26th of March some males were observed in full song, and repeatedly chasing the females; so that it is possible a few may occasionally re- main and breed. A few were seen on the 5th of April. Green Sandpiper.—This pretty species bas for some years past regularly resorted to a marshy piece of ground conti- guous to the village of Irthington, from which locality I have received two specimens, and where they are occasionally seen during the autumnal and winter months; but always exceed- ingly shy and difficult to approach. Iam not aware that they have been detected in any other situation in this vicinity. Woodcock.—It is probable that the Woodcock seen on the 26th of August may have remained during the summer. One was seen a few years ago in July; they however are rarely seen in this district before the middle or latter end of October. Wild Swan (Cygnus ferus), — Small flocks of wild Swans are seen almost every winter in Solway Frith, and generally one or two procured. On the 20th of February two were killed out of a flock of five in Brugh Marsh. Brent Goose (Anser Brenta).—A rather singular specimen N.S. Vol. 6. No. $2. Aug. 1829. Q of 114 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the of this species was shot near Crosby-upon-Eden, on the 11th of April. The lowest part of the white patch on each side of the neck was only clearly defined: above this were a few irregular longitudinal white streaks, more numerous and distinct on the left than on the right side. The Brent Goose is one of our rarest visitants here; whilst on the contrary the Bernacle (A. Bernicla) is a regular winter visitant, and occasionally seen in great numbers. Black-throated Diver (Colymbus arcticus). — A speckled Diver was killed in the river Eden about the 7th of February, which from its weight and size* was in all probability an im- mature bird of this species. I could not ascertain its sex: in the stomach were three small chubs or skellys (Leuciscus ce- phalus) recently swallowed. An old Red-throated Diver (C. septentrionalis) was killed on the same river on the 17th of April, 1823. Both are of rare occurrence here. Dr. Fleming, in his History of British Animals, appears to think that these two species may eventually prove to be the same; the latter being the female of the former. Carlisle, April 27, 1829. XIX. On the Construction and Applications of the improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope. By RoBERT Hare, M.D. of Philadelphiat. Description of an improved Mercurial Sliding-Rod Eudiometer. "HE aqueous sliding-rod hydro-oxygen eudiometer, (see Phil. Mag. vol. Ixvii. p. 21.) although perfectly well qua- lified for experiments in which water is employed, does not answer well when used over mercury. The great weight of this liquid causes the indications to vary during manipulation, in consequence of changes of position too slight to be avoided. The instrument represented in fig. 1, is furnished with a water-gauge OM, which, being appealed to, enables us to cause the pressure of any contained gas to be zn equilibrio with that of the external air, and consequently to measure it with ac- curacy. Excepting the gauge, the mechanism by which the measurement is effected is the same as that of the sliding-rod eudiometers for water above alluded to. However, in addition to the stuffing-box at A, there is in the mercurial eudiome- ters a collar of cotton wick soaked in oil, and packed by a screw B, which includes the cotton and compresses it about the rod. The object of this addition is to supply oil to the rod where it enters the collar of leather ; otherwise, they would soon become so dry as to allow air or mercury to pass. * Weight, 4 pounds 1 ounce; Length, 28 inches. + Communicated by the Author. Let improved Sliding- Rod Eudiometer and of theVolumescope. 115 Let us suppose that this eudiometer has been thoroughly filled with mercury, and that it is firmly fixed in the position ih =) fi te, - / eels dy HS ea eens) Se | _ me =\2 : - = rr eee — in which it is represented in the figure, so that the lower part may descend about an inch below the surface of some mercury Q?2 contained 116 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the contained in an iron cup. At C is a cock, the key of which, in addition to the perforation usual in cocks, has another at right angles to, and terminating in the ordinary perforation. When the lever D, attached to the key, is situated as it ap- pears in the figure, the tube containing the sliding-rod com- municates with the receiver, but not with the mercury in the cup. Supposing the lever moved through a quarter of a cir- cle to the other side of the glass, the tube in which the rod slides will communicate at the same time with the receiver E and the mercury. F is a steel spring, which has a disk of oiled leather let into it, so as to correspond with the surface of the apex of the receiver E, which is ground as true as possible. Hence, a slight pressure from the screw G renders the joint made between the apex of the receiver and the spring air- tight; while at the same time the bore of the cock H com- municates with the cavity of the receiver by means of a per- foration through the leather and spring. On the other hand the relaxation of the screw permitting the spring to rise, opens a communication between the cavity of the receiver and the external air. ‘The cock H, supported by the spring, carries a gallows with a screw I, which serves to fasten a small brass casting, so perforated and fitted as to produce a communica- tion between the cock H, and two others K L, with which the ends of the casting are severally furnished. The cock K serves to open or close the communication with the gauge M, and bell-glass within the jar N. The bell-glass is furnished with a cock, upon which the socket O of the gauge screws. Description of the Water-Gauge. The gauge consists of three tubes, the interstices between which are partially supplied with water. In the first place a larger and outer glass tube O M, open at the upper end, is at the lower end cemented into a socket attached to the cock O of the bell-glass. Secondly, a small tube of varnished copper, the axis of which is made to coincide with that of the larger tube, is inserted into the bore of the cock. Lastly, a glass tube, in size and situation intermediate between the tubes just mentioned, and open at the lower end, at the upper end en- ters the pipe Q, which communicates with the ‘bore of the cock K, and of course, when this is open, with the cavity of the receiver. When water is poured into the tube M, if the pressure within and without be zn equilibrio, it rises in the in- terstices between the three tubes to the same height; but when- ever there is any diversity of pressure between the air of the inter and outer glass tubes, it is indicated by a consequent difference in the height of the liquid columns included. Descrip- improved Sliding-Rod and of the Volumescope. 117 Description of the Contrivance for the removal of Carbonic Acid Jrom the Gas left after exploding Gaseous Mixtures, partly consisting of the Compounds of Carbon. The glass receptacle R fastens by means of a gallows screw to a knob at the end of a perforated cylindrical projection from the cock L, so as, with the aid of interposed leather, to make an air-tight juncture. Between the gallows screw and the re- ceptacle, another cock S is interposed, the bore of which com- municates by means of corresponding perforations with that of the cock L. Below the receptacle a caoutchouc bag is fastened, which, as well as the receptacle, must be filled with lime-water. Means of causing the Explosion of Gaseous Mixtures within the Receiver of the Sliding-Rod Eudiometer. A gaseous mixture, when contained in the sliding-rod eu- diometer, may be inflamed by galvanic ignition excited in a platina wire, in a mode analogous to that already described in the case of the barometer-gauge eudiometer. See Phil. Mag. and Annals, vol. iv. p. 130. The circuit is established by means of the leaden rods 2 2, one of which communicates with the mercury of the cistern, while the other is fastened to the insulated wire by means of the gallows zx. To the rod which communicates with the mercury, a piece of iron should be soldered so that the lead need not be immersed, and consequently corroded. The insulated wire, where it enters the cavity of the eudiometer, is made air-tight by means of a small stuffing-box. It is protected from the mercury within the receiver by a covering of twine, well soaked in and coated with shell lac varnish. Determination of the Quantity of Carbonic Oxide in a Gaseous Mixture, by the improved Mercurial Sliding-Rod Eudiometer. In the first place the mixture must be well washed with lime-water, or a caustic alkaline solution, in order to remove carbonic acid, if present. In the next place let us imagine the bell-glass O N, after being adequately supplied over the pneu- matic cistern with equal measures of the purified mixture and oxygen gas, has been transferred to the jar I, containing a sufficiency of water to displace the gaseous mixture as re- quired. In order to fill the receiver with gas, through the gauge-tube and the pipe Q, by which it communicates with the gaseous mix- wire in the bell-glass, the eudiometer must be filled with mercury to the total exclusion of air, and the sliding-rod wholly within its tube. Under these circumstances the spring being pressed upon 118 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the upon the apex of the receiver by the screw G, and the three cocks H K O being open; on drawing out the rod the receiver will be proportionally supplied from the bell-glass with the gaseous mixture. ‘The receiver being thus supplied, the cock O of the bell closed, and K and H being open, on pushing the rod home, the gaseous mixture, driving the air before it through the interstices between the gauge-tubes, will in part effect its escape, in part supply in the tubes the place of the air which it has expelled. This process may be repeated two or three times. After the atmospheric air has in this way been re- moved from the apparatus, the cocks between the bell and receiver being open, if the rod be drawn out 200 degrees, 200 measures of the mixture, consisting of 100 of each gas, will enter the eudiometer. ‘his being effected, the cock of the bell must be closed. In consequence of the hydrostatic pres- sure to which the gas will have been subjected in the bell, its density within the receiver will be unduly great. Hence the pressure of the screw on the spring must be relaxed until the gauge indicate that the gas within the receiver has, by the escape of a portion of it, become, with respect to pressure, 7 equilibrio with the atmosphere. The cock communicating with the gauge is then to be closed, the pressure on the spring re- stored, and an explosion effected. The communication with the gauge is now to be opened. The indicated deficit must be compensated and measured by pushing in the rod, until the columns of water in the interstices of the gauge are on a level. In the next place, close the cock K communicating with the gauge, and open the cocks H LS, which are between the re- ceiver and the receptacle R. Into this receptacle, by forcing the rod home, the gas is to be transferred. Being agitated with the lime-water, it is drawn back into the eudiometer, brought into equilibrium with the atmosphere, by appealing again to the gauge, and then measured by noticing the number of gradua- tions which the sliding-rod must enter, in order to effect its expulsion. This residual air, and the deficit produced by the explosion being deducted from 200, the remainder will be the quantity of the carbonic acid, and of course of carbonic oxide originally in the mixture; since carbonic oxide, in passing to the state of carbonic acid, absorbs half of its bulk of oxygen without any enlargement of volume. Analysis of Olefiant Gas. As a volume of this gas has been ascertained to be equiva- lent to two volumes of carbon and two volumes of hydrogen, it must require three volumes of pure oxygen for its complete combustion, and must leave, after the union, two volumes.of carbonic improved Sliding-Rod and of the Volumescope. 119 carbonic acid. In order to insure a competent supply of oxy- gen, four volumes of it may be mixed with one of the olefiant gas in the bell-glass, and the same manipulation resorted to as in the case of carbonic oxide, excepting that before the ex- plosion, the rod V must be drawn out to the greatest extent; and that as soon as the explosion has taken place, the rod must be returned into the tube, so as nearly to compensate the con- densation before resorting to the gauge. Fig. 2.—Subsidiary Eudiometer. Of the Use of the Sudsidiary Eudiometer. It may sometimes happen that the quantity of gas to be ex- amined may be too small to be measured into the bell-glass by - a volumeter, as above described. In that case, a subsidiary eudiometer is employed. Excepting that it is shorter, the rod in this instrument has precisely the same dimensions as in that described in the preceding article ; and the graduation in both is exactly the same. The use of the spring and lever, also the method of manipulation, has been described in Phil. Mag. vol. lxvii. page 21. Analysis of Cyanogen. Let us suppose it were an object to ascertain the products which result from the combustion of a volume of cyanogen. A quantity of oxygen gas amply sufficient for the intended experiments must be introduced into the bell-glass N, (fig. 1.) and two hundred measures drawn into the receiver of the prin- cipal eudiometer, the manipulation being the same as above described in the case of the mixture. In the next place the subsidiary eudiometer must be supplied with 100 measures of cyanogen, by introducing the apex into a bell-glass contain- ing the gas over mercury, and duly drawing out the rod, the orifice of the receiver being kept open by pressing on the lever, only while above the surface of the mercury, and inside of the bell. The gas thus taken into the subsidiary instru- ment is next to be transferred to the principal one, which must in this case be placed over the mercurial reservoir, and be filled with mercury, the rod V being half withdrawn from its tube. By 120 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the By moving the lever D, a communication must also be opened between the receiver E and the reservoir, and the apex of the subsidiary eudiometer must be introduced into a funnel- shaped cavity, with which the cock C is furnished. The rod of the subsidiary instrument being, under these circumstances, pushed home, the gas must pass from it into the funnel-shaped cavity, and thence rise into the receiver above it. When this object has been effected, close the communication with the re- servoir, and open that with the iron tube ¢¢; also open the cock H. Then appealing to the gauge, adjust the rod so that the pressure of the included gas may be in equilibrio with that of the atmosphere. Anexplosion is now to be effected ; after which on opening the gauge, if the cyanogen be pure, there will be no condensation*. The residual gas, by transfer to the re- ceptacle, may be deprived of carbonic acid; and the deficit thus arising may be measured by transferring what remains to the receiver, and ascertaining how many measures the rod must enter, in order to eject it into the air, or to return it into the receptacle. Modifications of the Eudiometer, described inthe preceding Article. The opposite figure represents another form of the sliding- rod eudiometer, in which the apparatus for the removal of carbonic acid is omitted. The gauge in this eudiometer is at- tached to the cock of the receiver, instead of surmounting the bell-glass. It answers equally well in either situation. If, instead of the bell and jar, a self-regulating reservoir of hydrogen were attached to the flexible pipe, a convenient ar- rangement would be obtained for ascertaining the proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere. In that case the mode of ope- rating would be as follows. The pipe and tubes of the gauge being filled with hydrogen, and the receiver with mercury, also the cocks H and O being open, draw out the sliding- rod 50 degrees. A quantity of hydrogen, in bulk equivalent to the part of the rod withdrawn, will pass from the reservoir through the flexible pipe into the cavity of the receiver. The cock O being shut, on appealing to the gauge it will be found that the hydrogen, in consequence of the hydrostatic pressure of the reservoir, will be a little denser than if zm equzlibrio with the atmosphere. By relaxing the pressure of the screw G upon the spring, as much hydrogen will escape as may be necessary to * Before the explosion, two volumes of oxygen and one of cyancgen are present; the latter comprising two volumes of carbon, and one of nitro- gen. During the inflammation, the carbon is transferred to the oxygen without altering it in bulk, while the nitrogen is set at liberty, uncondensed, so as to occupy as much space as the cyanogen did previously. produce improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope. 121 produce an equilibrium. If while the cavity of the receiver is thus in communication with the atmosphere, the cock H_ be- ¢ Ey St ing shut, the sliding-rod be drawn out 100 degrees further, so as to reach to 150 on the scale, 100 measures of air must en- N.S. Vol. 6. No. 32. Aug. 1829. R ter, 122 Improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and the Volumescope. ter. The pressure of the screw G upon the spring F being restored, and an explosion effected, agreeably to the directions already given, by returning the rod into its tube, more or less, and appealing to the gauge, the deficit may be ascertained. If no error shall have taken place, expelling the residual gas will just return the rod to the situation which it occupied when the experiment commenced. Of the deficit, of course one-third is due to oxygen. It may be proper to mention that some de- lay is necessary, in order to permit the residual gas to part ' with the heat acquired from the combustion of the hydrogen and oxygen. As for the analysis just described, the eudiometer may, as represented in the preceding figure, be seated in a cup of mer- cury, instead of being placed over a mercurial reservoir; and since the apparatus, when once put into operation, enables us to multiply experiments with great facility, it will be found peculiarly well calculated for a series of observations under circumstances in which access to a pneumatic cistern cannot be had. Eudiometrical Apparatus analogous to the preceding, excepting that it is constructed of Brass, used with Water, and that Ex- plosions are caused in it by an Electric Spark. In the analysis of atmospheric air, agreeably to the process last described, no gaseous product being generated which is absorbable by water, it is not necessary to employ mercury, and, consequently, to have the metallic part of the eudiometer of iron and steel. It is in fact preferable to have it of brass, as in that case it will not rust, and may be kept in operation for many months without requiring much adjustment. I have an apparatus thus made, and so contrived as to be ignited by an electric spark. Excepting the substitution of brass for iron, there is no material difference between that apparatus and the one represented by the figure, excepting that the receiver is exchanged for one of which there is a representation ni Phil. Mag. vol. |xvii. p. 22, fig. B. In the brass eudiometer last described, the cock C is omit- ted; while, at right angles to the receiver, a small cock is in- serted, which supports a glass vessel holding water. By these means, any excess or deficiency of this liquid is easily remedied, and the employment of the cup beneath the eudiometer ren- dered unnecessary. [To be continued.] XX. On fosibas. J XX. On the Integration of the General Equations of the Mo- tion of Incompressible Fluids. By J. Cuariis, Fellow of Trin. Coll. Cambridge, and of the Cam. Phil. Soc.* TI’HE theoretical investigation of the laws of motion of in- compressible fluids, conducted in the most general man- ner possible, leads to the equations, Mera NCGS SG) yea) dx teat eae (2) pO ol yin OP aa Tedz? v ~~ dy? yt) aaa (3) (Poisson, Traitée de Mécanique, tom. ii. p. 486.) g is the density of the fluid, p the pressure at any point, the co-ordinates of which are x, y, 2; %, v, ®, are the velocities in the directions of x, y, z, respectively; dV = Xdx +Ydy+ Zdz, X,Y,Z, being the accelerative forces impressed at the point ; and ¢ is a function of x, y, z, and ¢, such that (d¢) = udx + vdy + wdz. Consequently the above equations apply only to cases in which udxv + vdy + wdz is a complete differential of x, y, and z. Before any use can be made of equations (1) and (3), the function ¢ must be obtained from (2). This has been effected approximately by the method of series, and the equations have been made available in a few particular instances. It is however certain that an exact integral of (2) may be found by putting « + 7? + 2* = 7°; and as every integral must have a meaning, I propose to consider what is the meaning of the integral thus obtained. Mg fil tig 3 249 _d¢@ dr do zr As Pf H=P4+P4%7 = 5 - nan d’o do # dQ? /1 ad = se oe tt I eI a dz dr r dr\r 7 : io Po fo dao w+y+s? dg fs w+y'+:? Hence gates —~(-—-—,- ) af” ds. ar, - e=S() + eyo Ga for the equation oc “} a ale +2 = 0 is satisfied by this value of g. a, B, y, vary in general with the time, and depend, as well as the form of I’, on the given conditions of the problem to be solved. Also the differential equation is satisfied by F, (t) Fy (t) — Ll gr | mn eee tSO+ TeatU-M Gay! | Seee TOPIC + &c. toas many terms as we please. This equation is pire cable 126 Mr. Challis on the General Equations cable to the motion of a particle which is affected simultaneously by several independent causes, and it may be inferred that the motion is the resultant of the several motions due to the causes when they act separately. The equation applies, there- fore, to any motion whatever. Suppose now the fluid to be of two dimensions. The equa- ° os : ° - @¢ PO __ tion for determining ¢ in this case is sake hee 0. d@? d@ ft fo fo x 3 a Pap Ne Lai hc Eh AOE ae Let #+ y=. dz” dr’? Ga = qyenteath do/l ave o_o , do _ ar (> ~p) Hence ga + a= ap tear =? ef dr __d¢ rao But dr ThE dr? rdQ “dr Hence = rdr Wie: . 29 _ ft), dr =f (t); 7h ae aa ¢ =f (4) log.r + F (2). The meaning of the result, vel. =fQ, may be illustrated, as before, by conceiving the fluid to be contained in a cylinder capable of expansion in the direction of the radii, and a small cylinder of solid matter to be placed with its axis coincident with that of the other. Let r = the radius of the solid cylin- der, R of the fluid cylinder before the introduction of the solid, 8 its extension afterwards, h = the common height of the cylinders. Then 772k = 2% R48, r being very small; 2 P) = aR And if the translation of each of the particles be supposed to be effected by a uniform motion, 6 will represent the velocity at any distance R from the axis. As the general integral of aS + i = 0 is also @=Fiet+yV—1)4+f(e@-yV—1) it is important to show that this is equivalent to the integral above obtained. T= Pe tyV =) tf (e-yVv=1) =A+By—-1+A'-B Y=]; ; for of the Motion of Incompressible Fluids. 127 for it has been long ago proved that every impossible quantity may be put under the form a + b WW — 1. f= V—=1P (2+yV—1)— V—1f!(¢@ —yV=}) =A V/—1—B—Al/—=1— B. d and A = A’, that is, unless F’ and’ be the same functions. As the direction of the axes is quite arbitrary, suppose y = 0. Then “f = 2 F (2), and = =0. This proves that the velo- city is directed to or from the origin of coordinates, and is equal to twice a function of the distance of the same form as FE’. Hence, dg — = — 2 iy = V1(F' (2 t+yV7V¥—-1)-—F(z —yV—1)) = P(r). Let r+yV—1 =m x«r—y “—1=7; so that 2y=(n—m)V¥—1, ee Hence * and al cannot both be possible unless B = BY, “ Fi(m) — Pi (n) = 2 Pm) = /2.¥ (mn) — J” F(/nn). As this equation is identical, I’ (m) is the same as ae. < x F’(,/mn): hence F’(./ mn) must = ==. This form of mn the function evidently satisfies the equation. Hence g = 2 F" (r) 2 1 ‘ , = oa = — x an arbitrary function of ¢, the same result as before. When the motion is in space of one dimension, Te=% =SO=Gs e=fOet FO. Hence =f'(f)a4+ Fé) = at + F'(2). Substituting in the general equation (1), PMR os SEN se BY (HY, I proceed to apply this equation to a problem of consider- able interest. Suppose a vessel A BCD, formed by the reyo- lution of a line AEB, which may be either continuous or broken, about an axis ON, to contain fluid always retained at 128 Mr. Challis on the General Equations at a constant level AMD, and let the fluid issue from a cir- cular orifice BC, through the centre of which the axis pa sses. / a There must be a very slender column of fluid, having its axis coincident with MN, the particles in which move entirely in a vertical direction, because there can be no reason why they should move in one horizontal direction rather than an- other. To this column, even if it be supposed to be conti- nued out of the vessel, the preceding equation will apply with exactness, because g being = f(é), we need not have regard to the law of continuity in the values of g. This being pre- mised, let & = the area of the orifice BC, OP = 2, u = the velocity at N, g = that at P, and z an arbitrary function of IN ahicste n \ pe k x, such that g = = ; dq k du ku dz TED ee din feted seas ce du ku dz dz "ED x4 -at deat dz And a= oh alsodV=gdx, V=g2x Pid | kan du kw? G ay ! oo =e _-—- .—- - ——— i — —— 4 a @ ey sat Cd = zdax + Fé) Let 2! = the area of the upper surface of the fluid. Then : k i . at M the velocity = —*, because the vertical velocity at the surface must be less than that at the orifice in the ratio of k to of the Motion of Incompressible Fluids. 129 ktoz. Also if P = the atmospheric pressure, and OM = /’, P kr’ du ke u2 adv Be eee wcyagl xe Ree Ro meet eae = ! Sa igi cae ict FQ) x da’ ob Fu Spd ( 2 \ du =e 1 2adz", Q2'dz Saat p =a(z a) k Esai ahs 3 2 Net fe Sade” ed x At the orifice p = P without sensible error, and z =k. Let x =h, and for simplicity sake suppose 2! = 0, or the origin to be at M. Then, du #2 ke 2h. dz Omagh eae AED a) a ; ; (3) represents the value of oa when / is substituted for x. As the velocity of issuing must after a very short time become ; du. uniform, - will very soon after the commencement of the motion be = 0. Also * is very small when the orifice is small. This equation is sufficient to show that at the orifice the velocity is always less than that acquired by falling through /, d . : : for — (=); which, when the orifice is very small, expresses the rate of decrement of the section of the stream in passing through it, is always a positive quantity. The experiments of Venturi show that the value of — (3) is less as h is greater, for he found that by increasing the height of the surface of the fluid above the orifice, the distance of the vena contracta from the orifice was also increased. Suppose now & to be the area of the section of the stream at the vena contracta bnc, the depth of which Mz below the surface is #. For asmall distance on each side of the vena contracta the function z will be accurately equal to the section of the stream, and consequently will be a minimum at the vena contracta by the definition of it. Hence (3) ='0 and ue=2gh, exactly in conformity with experience. The above is, I believe, the most exact solution of the problem that has hitherto been given, as the velocity at the vena contracta has never before been a deduction from theory. It may not be amiss to show that our reasoning will lead to the solution in M. Poisson’s Treatise on Hydrostatics, if conducted upon the supposition that he makes, In general N.S. Vol. 6. No. $2, Aug. 1829. S 130 Mr. Challis on the General Equations p—p' _ igre ew \du Mutfl 1 aerdz 2rdx i rae #) ae Tera v de da) M. Poisson supposes the vessel to be such that the variation of z is small compared to the corresponding variation of 2. Hence if p and p! differ by a very small quantity, p= 7a t—2 du Fuw/l 1 San Sg (tonbimg) protest ent (4-5) very nearly, e and passing from differences to differentials, dp dz du ut 1 ai =gde—-k—-.7 a aed hay which is the equation in the Traité de Méc. tom. ii. p. 449. Upon the same principles as those by which the preceding problem was solved, it will be possible to find the velocity of the fluid issuing from a vessel of any shape, whatever be the nature and position of the orifice. Por let fluid be compelled to move through any canal, continuous or not, and lying in one or several planes, and at the same time let it be acted upon by gravity. Suppose the transverse section at every point to be a square. ‘Then every small portion of it may be considered a frustum of a pyramid; and if the pyramid, the frustum of which is terminated at a given point be completed, and + be the distance of its vertex from this point, by what has been proved, e=f(t)4+ 20, 22-20 =a. Now let the transverse sections of the tube be indefinitely diminished, their proportions remaining the same. In this case the motions of the particles perpendicularly to the axis of the canal, will be indefinitely small, and no error will be induced by making ,r infinite in the preceding expressions, that is in supposing each very small portion of the tube pris- s . , ; dQ matic. Hence since F (¢) is arbitrary, we may put — = x (¢). Again, if s be the distance measured along the axis, of the point under consideration, from a fixed point in the axis, d d : 3 ~ = = » because the line s touches all the lines 7. “? =x (2) p =f (?) + x (¢) 5, equations exactly like those for motion in space of one dimen- sion. dpe dt =/f' (t) +x’ (t)s md 2ags-¥s—f=7'(, x being of the Motion of Incompressible Fluids. 131 x being the distance of the point from a fixed horizontal plane. ku ° ° 5 Suppose g = —, z being an arbitrary function of s, not neces- sarily continuous, to which the transverse section of the tube is always proportional, and u the value of g when z = &. dq k dw ku dz ds '() = fe ha ced a rAd ie s'dt #8 'ds‘dt k du k9ue dz x" dt meds ? du ku? sdz Paget Gch) 0. Now as the shape of the tube and the function z are quite arbi- trary, the motion which is taking place at any instant along its axis, may be identical with the motion along a line drawn from a point in the surface of fluid, maintained at a constant height in any yessel whatever, to a point at the vena contracta, the line being so drawn that it shall always be coincident with the directions of the motions of the particles through which it passes. Let therefore « = the velocity at the vena contracta, k = the section of the stream at that point, 2! = the area of the upper surface of the fluid; then will = = the vertical ve- locity of a particle at any point of the surface, if the surface retain its parallelism to the horizon. And if é = the Z which the direction of the velocity of the particle makes with its k . : surface, aa ; = its actual velocity. Suppose that when p = P the atmospheric pressure, z = 0, s = 0, z= 2. P ia ur gn) | 24; Se ee Pee | Then e 2 x/2 sin? 6 - (2) .p-P i sk du kus G sdz __ ktue TY: ae, z “dt 2 aiael 2 x/2 sin? 0 At the vena contracta z =k, p= P, 7 = 0, because k is a minimum. Lets =c. du ur ka Hence 0 = gh —c7-—> (1 — —). For almost all the points of the surface @ will be very nearly 90°; so that if k be very small compared with 2! ere may be neglected. 9 2/2 sin? é And because the velocity of issuing must very soon be uni- form, after a very short time from the commencement of mo- . du tion — = 0. Therefore u@ = 2g h. It thus appears that independently of the motions of the particles in the interior of the vessel, (for they may be any S2 whatever 132 Mr. Challis on the General Equations whatever as z is an arbitrary function) the velocity at the vena contracta is that acquired by falling through its depth below the surface of the fluid, whatever be the shape of the vessel, or the nature and position of the orifice. ‘The exact con- formity of this result to experience is a proof of the justness of the reasoning from which it is deduced. F(t d F(t d In general g = f(¢) + =8; TE ae ¥’ d ¥ 2F d 1M 2 q? S472; ye ae + Ee es Ae - for d F’ (¢) d d og. Hence sf = —/-2¢, and 5? = f! (t) — rdq 3 PD] rdq 3q 77 — 29°. Therefore sine ath Saag toes cata i Gee equation which embraces every kind of motion, and in which ris a function of z, y, z, and ¢, always given by the given conditions of the problem to be solved. It would be easy to multiply examples: the preceding suffice to show that the integral we set out with is the proper general integral of the differential equations of the motion of incompressible fluids, and to give an idea of the mode of em- ploying it. This method of deducing the laws of physical action from the integrals of partial differential equations, is new, I believe, and at the same time, important, as it extends to the more interesting problem of the small vibrations of elastic mediums. By parity of reasoning Euler’s integral of the equation =$ ag a + i a - is the general inte- gral. This point I have considered in a paper lately sub- mitted to the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and have employed this integral in the solution of some problems hitherto not subjected to analysis. The foregoing discussion also throws considerable light upon the nature of the arbi- trary functions which occur in the integrals of partial diffe- rential equations. It may be inferred from it, that while we justly admit the discontinuity of these functions, that is, their changing abruptly from one form to another, it is neither necessary nor proper to suppose the existence of a new species of functions, discontinuous per se, and by this property of dis- continuity distinguished from every other. When Lagrange had shown that the vibratory motions of the particles of elastic mediums were not subject to any law of continuity, it was perhaps too hastily concluded that they must be given by a new order of functions ; for it is not logical to draw inferences about physical laws from functions, the existence of which cannot be proved by pure analytical reasoning. This ques- tion, Notices respecting New Books. 133 tion, as far as relates to motion in elastic mediums, I have considered in the paper above referred to. Trin. Coll., April 13th. J. CHALus. XXI. Notices respecting New Books. M. AvotrHE Broneniart’s History of Fossil Vegetables. pe second livraison of this most interesting and beautiful work has recently appeared, and contains figures and descriptions of upwards of thirty species of fossil plants, of the genera Fucozdes, Confervites, Muscites, Equisetum, Calamites, &c, We regret to learn that from the death of the publisher, the completion of the work will experience some delay; but the learned and indefatigable author has just published a “ Prodrome de Uhistoire des végétaux fossiles,” which ig intended as a compendium of the whole work; but it is without plates, or descriptions of species. This little publication is highly interesting; for it contains the author’s views of the deve- lopment of vegetation, and the characters thereby furnished to distinguish the different formations. From the increased and in~ creasing taste for. geology, we hope both the works now mentioned will meet with due encouragement from the literati of this country. We subjoin M. Brongniart’s list of the plants which characterize the secondary and tertiary formations, extracted from the “‘ Prodrome” alluded to. PLANTES CARACTERISTIQUES DES DIVERSES FORMATIONS. TERRAIN HOUILLER. Coal Measures. Calamites. Filices des genres Sphenopteris, Neuropteris, Pecopteris, et *Odon- topteris especes tres nombreuses. Lycopodites et *Lepidodendron. *Sphenophyllum, *Annularia, et *Asterophyllites. Les quatres derniers genres ne se trouvent que dans ces terrains. ZECHSTEIN et SCHISTES BITUMINEUX. Algee analogues 4 des Caulerpa, particuliérement *Fucoides sela- ginoides. GRE'S BIZARRE. Calamites. Filices des genres Sphenopteris, Neuropteris, et * Anomopteris. Coniféres du genre * Voltzia. Plusieurs plantes phanerogames monocotyledones. MUSCHELKALK. Neuropteris Gaillardati. Mantellia cylindrica. MARNES IRISE'ES. Keuper et Lias. *Equisetum columnare. Filices des genres *Clathropteris, Teniopteris. Cycadea des genres *Pterophyllum, *Nilsonia et Zamites; particuliérement le *Pterophyllum longifolium et les Zamites Bechii et Buck- Jandii. 134 Notices respecting New Books. OoLITHE INFERIEURE. Oolite of Whitby. Equisetum columnare, Filices des genres *Pachypteris, Sphenopteris, Pecopteris, et Te- niopteris. Cycadées du genre *Zamia (9 especes). Forrest MARBLE. (Stonesfield and Solenhofen.) Fucoides. Filices rares. Sphenopteris, Hymenophilloides. Zamia pectinata. Coniferze du genre Thuytes et *Taxites podocarpoides. CALCAIRE DE PoRTLAND. Mantellia nidiformis. (Cycadee.) Hastines SAND. *Lonchopteris Mantelli. (Pecopteris reticulata.) *Sphenopteris Mantelli. *Clathraria Lyellii. GREEN SAND. Fucoides, plusieurs espéces. *F. Targionii, strictus, et Brardii. Zosterites. Cycadites Nilsonii. CRAIE. Rien de determinables en plantes terrestres. Confervites, fucoides, rares. ARGILE PLASTIQUE, MOLASSE ET LIGNITES. Palmiers probablement du genre Cocos, &c. Conifer des genres Pinus, Thuya, Taxus, &c. Amentacez, Acerinee, Juglandez, et autres dicotyledones arbore- scentes. CALCAIRE GROSSIER. Palmiers. Rares. Coniferze. Rares. Pinus Defrancii, feuilles dicotyledones assez frequentes. Fucoides nombreuses 4 Monte Bolca. TERRAIN D’EAu DOUCE, GyPsEUX OU PALEOTHERIEN. Chara Lemani. Palmiers. Flabellaria Lamanonis. Conifer. Pinus pseudo-strobus. Taxites Tournalii, &c. Amentacezx, Carpinus; Betula et autres dicotyledones. TERRAIN MARIN SUPERIEUR. Pinus Cortesii; végétaux rares et peu connus. TERRAIN D’EAU DOUCE SUPERIEUR. (Meuliéres.) *Chara medicaginula. *Nymphea. * Cettes plantes qui ne sont propres qu’ une seule formation ou a deux formations trés voisines, sont marquées d'un *. XXII. Pro- [ 135 ] XXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. May 29.— PAPER was read On the nerves of the face; be- ing a second paper on that subject, by Charles Bell, Esq. After recapitulating the contents of his former paper, the author cited cases which have occurred since its publication in sup- port of his doctrine; Ist, That the sensibility of the head and face depends on the fifth pair of nerves; 2ndly, That the muscular branches of that pair are subservient to mastication ; and 3rdly, That the portio dura of the seventh pair controls those motions of the parts of the face, whether voluntary or involuntary, which are con- nected with respiration. Instances are given of lesions of the portio dura, from accident or from disease, followed by paralysis of the muscles on the same side of the face, while the sensibility remained. On the other hand, cases are related of injury to the fifth pair being attended with loss of sensibility in all the parts ‘receiving branches from the injured nerve, while the power of motion continued unim- paired. In one case of this description, where one half of the un- der lip had become insensible, on a tumbler being applied to the mouth, the patient imagined it was a broken glass that he touched. A similar delusion was experienced by another patient, in whom the half of the upper lip had been deprived of sensation by an in- jury to the suborbital branch on the same side. From these facts the author deduces the absurdity of the practice of cutting the portio dura for the relief of tic-douloureux. He next enters into an ana- tomical description of the course of that division of the fifth pair of nerves which is unconnected with the Gasserian ganglion, and passes under it, and which he considers the motor or manducatory portion of the fifth, being distributed to the temporal, masseter, pterygoid, and buccinator muscles: some branches of it supplying the muscles of the lips, and also the mylo-hyoideus and anterior belly of the di- gastricus, the action of which is to repress the jaw. In proof that this nerve is destined to manducation, the root of the fifth pair in an ass being exposed and irritated, the jaws closed with a snap; and, on its being divided, the jaw fell relaxed and powerless. The author next endeavours to show the necessity of an accordance between the motions of the lower jaw and those of the cheeks during masti- cation, and the probability that this connection of motions is brought about by means of the connections which exist among their respec- tive nerves, and between which a sympathy may in consequence be established. In one case violent spasms took place in the masseter and temporal muscles, while the motions of the features were free and unconstrained ; and in another the muscles of the jaw on one side were paralysed, with loss of sensibility on that side of the face. On the other hand, when the portio dura is paralysed, all the muscles of the face waste, except those supplied by the fifth pair. LINNEAN SOCIETY. May 5.— The paper read was “Some account of the Geo- logy and Botany of Swan River, Australia. By Mr. Charles Fraser, colonial botanist.” 136 Geological Society. May 25.—The Anniversary was held at the Society's House, A.B. Lambert, V.P. in the chair ; when the following were appointed officers. President; Edward Lord Stanley, M.P.— Vice-Presidents: A. B. Lambert, Esq. F.R.S.; W.G. Maton, M.D. F.R.S.; E. Forster, Esq. F.R.S.; and R. Brown, Esq. F.R.S. &c.— Treasurer: Edward Forster, Esq. F.R.S.—Secretary: J.E. Bicheno, Esq. F.R.S. Assis- tant Secretary: Richard Taylor, Esq. F.S.A. &c.—Also to fill the vacancies in the Council: Thomas, Marquis of Bath, F.S.A.; W. J. Broderip, Esq. F.R.S.; R.E. Grant, M.D. F.R.S. Ed.; John Lindley, Esq. F.R.S. &c.; and Nathaniel Wallich, M.D. F.R.S. &c. The annual dinner was enlivened by the presence of several much esteemed naturalists from various parts of the kingdom. June 2.—Read a communication by Wm. Yarrell, Esq. F.L.S. &c. «On the Organs of Voice in Birds.” The author here pursues the subject of his former paper on the Trachez of birds, and gives de- scriptions accompanied by figures of the numerous muscles by whose action the varied powers of the vocal organs of birds are governed. Their organs of voice consist of four parts: the glottis or superior larynx, the tude of the trachea, the inferior larynx, and the bronchie. Great difference exists in the relative length of tube, short ones producing shrill notes, as in singing birds, and vice vers@ in waders and swimmers, Strong broad cartilaginous rings give loud and monotonous voices, and slender rings with large space between admit variety of tone. Some of these varieties result from the dilatation and contraction of the membrana tympaniformis, and from the power of altering the form of the bronchiz, The mus- cles of the inferior larynx vary from one pair to five. June 16,—In the remainder of Mr. Yarrell’s paper, the reading of which was concluded at this meeting, a great many curious con- formations of the organs of voice in various birds were accurately described and compared. The author states that these are least complex in the Falconidz, some of the Insessores, almost all the Rasores, Grallatores, and Natatores ;—more complex in the Psitta- cide, who alone possess three pair of true muscles of voice ; but most complex in the Corvi, starling, larks, thrushes, finches, warblers, swallows, &c., which all have five. The convolutions in the trachea of some species are aptly compared to the additional crooks fixed to the French-horn in order to play in a lower key.—A part of a memoir by M. Dumortier was also read, intitled “ Récherches sur la Structure comparée et leDevelloppement des Animaus et des Vegetaux.” GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. June 19.—A. B. De Capel Brooke, Esq., of Lower Brooke Street ; James Morrison, Esq., of Portland Place ; and Daniel Sharpe, Esq., of New Ormond Street,—were elected Fellows of this Society. A paper ‘‘ On the occurrence of agates in the dolomitic strata of the new-red-sandstone formation in the Mendip Hills,” by the Rev. W. Buckland, D.D., V.P.G.S., F.RS., &c., &c., was read. These agates are ploughed out of the surface of the fields at Sandford, near Banwell, and are nearly allied to the potatoe-stones, which abound in the Geological Society. 137 the new-red-sandstone formation which surrounds the Mendip Hills. Their prevailing colours are various shades of gray; their internal structure resembles that of the bird’s-eye agate, presenting alternate bands of chalcedony, jasper, and hornstone, disposed in irregular and concentric curves : some specimens from Worle and Clevedon are of the nature of fine jasper-agates, and of a bright red colour. A shallow pit, from which the agates are extracted at Sandford, presents the following section. 1. Yellow clay, mixed with magnesia and carbonate of DARL a sliver ing Aner HEA: 2 CS PPR Pop cr 2. Yellow dolomite, used as firestone in limekilns ; it 6 inches. \ 6 inches. crumbles readily toa soft powder, and is filled with specks of manganese, and contains veins of small nodules of cha!cedony..........2----+s+--0: 3. Yellow clay falling to powder in water like Fuller’s earth, and containing much carbonate of lime and \ Bcebes magnesia. In this clay the agates are dispersed f - irregularly like nodules of flint in chalk ........ J 4, Yellow clay and earthy dolomite, to the bottom of of Uae sata Abed Hug fea nee Demers YP The author adduces a parallel example of beds and nodules of jas- per and jasper-agate in the mountains of dolomite, near Palermo, in a formation of the same age with the new-red-sandstone of the Mendip Hills. He also gives examples of agates formed in cavities of chert of the green-sand formation, near Lyme Regis, and in cavities of silicified wood and silicified corals and shells. ‘The most beautiful specimens of the two former are from the tertiary strata of Antigua. Shells converted into chalcedony, and containing agates in their cavities, occur near Exeter, in the whet stone-pits of the green- sand formation, at Black Down Hill ; and shells, entirely converted to red jasper, in sand of the same formation, occur at Little Haldon Hill. A paper was next read “ On the tertiary fresh-water formations of Aix in Provence, including the coal-field of Fuveau,” by Roderick Impey Murchison, Esq., Sec. G.S., F.R.S., &c., and Charles Lyell, Esq., For. Sec. G.S., F.R.S., &c.; with a description of fossil insects con- tained therein, by John Curtis, Esq., F.L.S. The oldest and fundamental rock of this district is a highly in- clined and contorted secondary limestone, containing Belemnites, Gryphites and Terebratule ; on which is unconformably deposited a vast fresh-water formation, the relations of which are shown in a section from N.E. to S.W.—The escarpment of white marl and lime- stone, N.E. of the town of Aix, is first described in a descending series. The upper beds, consisting of white calcareous marls and marlstone, calcareo-siliceous millstone and resinous flint, contain the Potamides Lamarckii, Bulinus terebra and B. pygmaeus, with a new species of Cyclas named C. gibbosa ; and the subjacent strata run out into a terrace, beneath which gypsum is extensively worked. Of these beds (minutely detailed), some are peculiarly character- ized by their abundance of fossil fish; and others by a profusion of plants, amongst which, Mr. Lindley has recognised Flabellaria N.S. Vol. 6. No. $2. Aug. 1829. Lama- 12 inches. 138 Geological Society. Lamanonis of M. Ad. Brongniart, and the leaves of Laurus dulcis ? Podocarpus macrophylla? and Buxus Balearica?—the terminal pinna of a leguminous plant, referrible to Lote or Phaseolez of De Candolle, the branch of a Thuya nearly related to T. articulata, and what appears to be the fruit of some unknown plant, &c., &c. In this upper system of gypsum the fossil insects occur, exclusively, in a finely laminated bed of about 2 inches thick ; and still lower are two other ranges of gypsum, the upper one of which alone is worked ; and the marls associated therewith, con- tain nearly as great a quantity of fossil fish as those of the upper zone. Beneath these are beds of white and pink-coloured marl- stone and marl, inclined at angles of from 25° to 30°, and distinguished by Potamides Lamarckii, and a new species of Cyclas, named C.Aquee Sextiz, and these pass downwards into a red-sandstone (Molasse) and a coarse conglomerate (Nagelfluh), the town of Aix being situated at the base of the whole of the above series. In continuing the sectional line to the S.W., all the district be- tween Aix and Fuveau is made up of parallel ridges of fresh-water rocks ; the most northerly containing red marl and fibrous gypsum, with Limnee and Planorbes (P. rotundatus): the intermediate range is of mere earthy limestone, containing Limnee and Gyrogonites, with micaceous sandstone and shale ; and lastly, the coal-field of Fuveau is described, as composed of gray, blue, and black compact lime- stone and shale, with stony bituminous coal of good quality; the united thickness of the different seams of which amounts to about 5 feet. The fossils characterizing the carboniferous strata are 2 new species of Cyclas, named C. cuneata and C. concinna, a Melania, named M. scalaris; Planorbis cornu, and a large species of Unio. Casts of Gyrogonites were observed even in the coal itself, and the charcoal seemed in some instances to be made up of a plant resem- bling Endogenites bacillare of Brongniart. P The authors remark that these lower members of this great tertiary deposit differ in character from any other fresh-water group examin- ed by them in Central France, and have so much the aspect of the most ancient secondary rocks, that the presence alone of fluviatile and lacustrine shells, with Gyrogonites, compelled them to recognise the comparatively recent date of the whole group. td This notice was accompanied by observations on the fossil insects mentioned in the preceding memoir, by John Curtis, Esq., F.L.S. These insects are all of European forms, and are most of them re- ferrible to existing genera. The greater portions belong to the orders Diptera and Hemiptera; the Coleoptera are next in number, there are only a few Hymenoptera, and there is but one Lepidopterous in- sect. ‘‘ Asa larger collection,” says Mr.Curtis, ‘‘ might greatly change the proportion of the different orders, no positive inference, as to climate, should be drawn from the present assemblage ; but there is nothing in the character of the insects to warrant the supposi- tion of a higher temperature than that of the South of France.” The greater portion of these remains were very probably brought together from different localities by floods, mountain-torrents, or rivers ; yet there Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. 139 there is no insect among them that might not be found in a moist wood. The antenne, tarsi, and other parts by which the characters would be best distinguished, are often wanting; yet enough cha- racters frequently remain even then to distinguish the genus. The sculpture, and even some degree of colouring, are preserved in several specimens, The wings of some beetles are extended beyond the elytra, showing that when they perished, they were flying, or attempt- ing to escape by flight. A collection of fossil vegetables, from the Northumberland and Dur- ham coal-field, was exhibited at this meeting, and presented to the Society by William Hutton, Esq., of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, F.G.S.; with a catalogue describing the plants, according to the systems of M. Ad. Brongniart and Mr. Artis. The collection consisted of spe- cimens of Calamites, Sagenaria, Filicites, Myriophyllites, Asterio- phyllites and Sphenophyllites. At the close of this Meeting, which terminated the session, the Society adjourned tiil Friday evening the 6th of November. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. August 4, 1828.—The Minister of the Interior sent the ordon- nance of the King, by which the Academy was authorized to accept the legacy of the fine library left by the late M. Gallois—M. Richard Vaux, of Toul, sent a memoir on nervous action.—M. Guilbert an- nounced his discovery of an instrument, by the assistance of which the size of stones contained in the bladder might be ascertained.—M. Bussy deposited a sealed packet. A commission consisting of MM. Vauquelin, Thenard, the Duke of Ragusa, Cordier, and Beudant, made the report desired by the Mi- nister of War, respecting M. Longchamp's theory of nitrification, This report, which was very long, was terminated by the following conclu- sions, which were adopted by the Academy. Ist. As to the theoretical part, we find that M. Longchamp has ex- pressed an idea long since announced, namely, that nitric acid is formed without the assistance of animal matter; but the facts which he has cited are not sufficient to establish it with certainty. We find also that the assertion which he has made, that nitric acid is formed entirely by the elements of the atmosphere, is not correct ; for it has been demon- strated that animal matter has great influence on this formation. 2dly. With respect to ceconomical considerations, we see nothing in the opinions of M. Longchamp which gives us any hope of obtain- ing nitre at a cheaper rate, even supposing it to be produced in the manner which he imagines. If new experiments are to be made, it ought to be done under less favourable circumstances, that is to say, without the assistance of those materials which are acknowledged to possess great influence, and without which we do find nitrates formed in our establishments. We are of opinion that theoretical considera- tions only would induce a repetition of the experiments proposed by M. Longchamp. It would certainly be a curious fact in science, to find that nitric acid is formed under the circumstances indicated by this chemist. 9 The 140 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. The Academy heard a memoir by M. Gerdry, on the mechanism of the walk of man ; and a work by M. Verniere, containing therapeutic processes applicable to all cases of poisoning. The sections of botany and rural ceconomy, afterwards presented, ex @quo, MM. Mirbel and Du Petit-Thouars, as candidates for the chair of rural ceconomy, va- cant in the Jardin du Roi, by the death of M. Bosc. In this sitting M. Raspail addressed another letter on the subject of what he had written respecting the microscopes of M. Amici. August 11.—Dr. Lusardi sent a memoir intitled Histoire de l' Opé- ration de la Cataracte, et paralléle des procédés mis en usage jusqu’a nos jours.—M. Huzard, jun. presented a manuscript work Sur les Haras de France.—The Academy elected M. Mirbel in the room of the late M. Bosc.—M. Bertrand-Geslin read a memor intitled, Con- sidérations Géognostiques Générales sur le Terrain de Transport en Italie.—M. Flourens yead a memoir of experiments on the semicircu- lar canals of the ears of birds——M. Cagniard-Latour presented a summary of a memoir on the action of whistling in man.—M. Moreau de Jonnés communicated Recherches de Géographie Botanique sur le Mais.—A notice respecting the variation of the barometer by M. Malbec was read. August 18.—An ordonnance of the King was read, approving the nomination of Dr. Serres, as a member of the Academy.—M. Dard sent a letter on the determination of the longitude at sea——M. Gré- goire presented a memoir on the theory of colours.—M. Griffith sent an account of experiments on the circular motion of certain bodies.— The Academy received two sealed packets: one from M. Cauchy ; the other from MM. Pinot and Fermin.—M. Pouillet read a memoir on the measure of electric currents, and on a method of determining the intensity of terrestrial magnetism. August 26.—The following manuscript works were presented: De- scription of an instrument for drawing in perspective, by M. Favret de Saint-Mesmin ;—A letter on the decomposition of water by perchloride of cyanogen, by M. Sérullas ;—A letter respecting an instrument for de- termining the size of a stone in the bladder, by M. Guilbert ;—Re- searches on the circulation,respiration, and reproduction of the branchi- ferous annellida, by M. Dugu, of Montpellier—M. Geoffroy an- nounced that satisfactory news had been received of the expedition commanded by M., Durville—M. Dumeril gave a verbal account of a work by M. Piorry, intitled, De la Percussion Médiate, et des Signes obtenus 2 l'aide de ce nouveau moyen d’exploration dans les maladies des organes thoraciques et abdominaux.—M. Du Petit-Thouars read a memoir on the origin of bark and of wood.—M. Girou continued the reading of his memoir on the reproduction of domestic animals.—— M. Ampere read a memoir on the determination of the curved surface of luminous waves, &c. Sept. 1.—The Minister at War thanked the Academy for its report respecting artificial nitre beds.—There were read a memoir on rail- roads by M. Masquelet ;—On cyanic acid by M. Sérullas ;—On the velocity of tight, &c. by M. Ampére.—M. Chevreul, in the name of a commission, gave a favourable account of M, Raymond’s memoir on the Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles, 141 the dyeing of wool by means of Prussian blue ;—M. Boyer gave a favourable report also respecting M. Delpech’s paper on the Résec- tion of the lower jaw.—M. Moreau de Jonnés continued the reading of his memoir on geographical botany.—The Academy, in a secret committee, agreed to the dedication of M. Brué’s new geographical atlas. Sept. 8—M. Baudelocque, nephew, announced two new processes in uterine hemorrhages and affections of the womb.—M. Marc Jadot sent a geographical table containing the laws of the population of France and of the city of Paris.—M. Say sent some reflections on the rela- tions of the exact sciences with political ceconomy.—M. Chevreul read a memoir on the fatty matter of wool.—M. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire read considerations on the vision of the mole—M. Mirbel gave a verbal account of the first Number of MM. Durville and Lesson’s work on cryptogamous plants. Sept. 15.—Several letters were read from MM. Durville, Quoy, and Gaymard. These travellers announced a great number of draw- ings and descriptions of animals——M. Cuvier read a favourable re- port respecting the experiments of M. Flourens.—M. Maurice gave a favourable account of M. Liouville’s memoir, on dynamic electricity in general, and particularly on the mutual action of the pole of the magnet and a conducting wire.—M. Sérullas read a memoir On the ac- tion of sulphuric acid on alcohol, and the resulting products. XXIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. DECEASE OF DR. YOUNG AND SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. i is is our melancholy duty to record the loss of two of our most distinguished cultivators of science, Dr. Thomas Young, and Sir Humphry Davy: Dr. Young died in London on May 10th, and Sir H. Davy, at Geneva, on May 29th. The most important of the discoveries and contributions to science of both, have been from time to time recorded or inserted in the Philosophical Magazine ; and we have commenced the present Number with the last produc- tion of Sir H. Davy, A paper on the Electricity of the Torpedo. SPONGY PLATINA. M. Pleischel recommends that a piece of paper be imbibed three times in succession with a solution of muriate of platina, and then burnt. The residue is the platina, he says, in its best state for effect- ing ignition. We have always found that, when prepared by heating a little pure ammonio-muriate of platina upon platina foil in a spirit- lamp, at a temperature as low as possible, so that it be sufficient to dissipate every thing volatile, then the platina would inflame a mix- ture of oxygen and hydrogen at the lowest possible temperature. —Royal Instit. Journal, April 1829. INDELIBLE INK: BY M. BRACONNOT, Dissolve 20 grammes of Dantzic potash in a sufficient quantity of boiling water, add 10 grammes of animal matter, such as the parings of 142 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. of tanned skins, and 5 grammes of flower of sulphur; boil the whole to dryness in a cast iron vessel ; afterwards heat the matter strongly and stir it continually until it softens, taking care that it does not burn; then having gradually added a small quantity of water, filter it through a coarse cloth. A deep coloured liquor runs through, which may be kept for any length of time in a bottle, but it must be kept well corked; a single pen-full of this ink is sufficient to write one or two quarto pages, and it possesses all the properties which can be expected in an indestructible ink ; it flows much better than com- mon ink, and does not clog the pen by any substances held in sus- pension ; it also resists the most powerful chemical agents, as will presently appear. A strip of paper written upon with this solution, was treated with a boiling solution of potash, and was almost entirely destroyed ; but the portions of paper remaining undestroyed, exhibited the writing perfectly. Paper written upon with the same solution, immersed for an instant in moderately strong sulphuric acid, was partly dis- solved, being converted into a glutinous substance; but upon the undissolved portions, though rendered very thin, the writing re- mained legible. Concentrated nitric acid had no effect upon writing with this ink in twenty-four hours, at a temperature below that for the complete destruction of the paper. Another piece of paper written upon with the same ink, was immersed for some time in a strong solution of chloride of lime, mixed with muriatic acid, and it was afterwards put into a solution of potash for twenty-four hours; after this it was boiled to dryness, and then dissolved in water, when only a small portion of paper remained, but upon this the letters were very distinct. M. Braconnot is of opinion that this solution may be advanta- geously employed in dyeing chesnut browns upon cotton, linen, and silk, or for darkening other colours.—Annales de Chim. et de Phys. Feb. 1829. M. Braconnot has published a notice in the Annales de Chimie for April, in which he states that this ink is not so indestructible as he at first imagined, for it was destroyed by successive digestions in chlorine and potash. PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF SOME BROMIDES, BY M. HENRY, JUN. PERBGROMIDE OF IRON. Take a quantity of pure bromine, and put it into a porcelain cap- sule, containing about twenty times its weight of distilled water, and add gradually, and stirring with a brass rod, iron filings until the © liquor ceases to emit bubbles; it is then to be gently heated, and when it has acquired a greenish tint, it is to be filtered. The solu- tion contains protobromide of iron, which is precipitated white by potash like the protosalts of iron, emitting a very peculiar smell ; then evaporate to dryness by exposure to the air. The residual mass is of an orange red colour; treated with water it does not entirely dissolve, there remain some portions of peroxide of iron derived Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 143 derived from the peroxidation ofa small portion of the iron of the pro- tobromide. When again evaporated, the red matter yields a deposit of a similar red colour, rather more of a brick red, which strongly attracts moisture from the air, and is soluble in alcohol ; when treated with sulphuric or muriatic acid, white acid vapours are disengaged. Itis composed of Iron . . . . ~ «+ - 15°27 Bromine *2 1.8 sl. en HTS 100 BROMIDE OF MAGNESIUM. An excess of calcined magnesia was added to a solution of proto- bromide of iron, and slightly boiled. The filtered liquor when evaporated to dryness yielded crystals, which when purified by so- lution, and dried in a stove, were small acicular prisms, very soluble both in water and alcohol, deliquescent, of a bitter sharp taste, and precipitated in a flocculent state by ammonia, and by heat decom- posed into acid and base. It is composed of Magnesium . - - . + + 7°760 Bromine . - . - . + - 92240 100. BROMIDE OF CALCIUM. The bromide of iron was decomposed by hydrate of lime; the liquor was filtered when the precipitate was become brick red. Bromide of calcium is very deliquescent, fuses into a whitish mass, and gives out a peculiar smell which has some resemblance to that of bromine, a small quantity of it appearing to suffer decompo- sition. This bromide crystallizes in acicular crystals, which are very soluble in water and alcohol; its taste resembles that of chlo- ride of calcium. Sulphuric acid disengages a white vapour of hydro- bromic acid, and towards the end, reddish vapours of bromine and sulphurous acid. When analysed by means of neutral oxalate of soda, it yielded such a quantity of oxalate of lime as showed that its composition was Calera) 03): Mvlox iy ls Yrev O74 Bromine» 00s leh gr vilyiet jee BG:026 100 BROMIDE OF BARIUM. Protobromide of iron was boiled with an excess of moist carbonate of barytes; when the precipitate became red, the liquor was fil- tered, evaporated, and calcined. The product, re-dissolved in pure water and carefully evaporated, yielded white rhombic prismatic crystals, slightly deliquescent, soluble in water and alcohol, dis- agreeably bitter in taste, undecomposable by heat, and giving with sulphuric acid, at first thick white vapours, and thin reddish vapours. When treated with sulphuric acid, it yielded such a proportion of sulphate of barytes as indicated its composition to be Bariunis 250s Sheree fe reds BATS Bromifies. 2s) elves «ll eee» OBS1 100:06 The 144 ~ Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. The bromide of barium when dissolved, serves for preparing by double decomposition the bromides of magnesium and zinc, by em- ploying the sulphates of these bases. BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM. This is prepared by decomposing protobromide of iron with car- bonate of potash ; when the saturation is perfect, the mixture is to be heated in the air to facilitate the peroxidation of the iron; the solution is to be filtered and evaporated, and by one or two crystal- lizations the pure bromide is obtained. This salt crystallizes very well in cubes ; it has a slightly saline taste, is slightly alterable by exposure to moisture, is soluble in alcohol, is decomposed by sulphuric acid, like the bromides of cal- cium and barium, and fuses without decomposing. When decom- posed by sulphuric acid and heat, a portion of sulphate of potash was obtained, which showed it to be composed of Potassium 000 0 Sey) o edyyall ee eee Broniine. fd en) Altes ed A sig Gs 100 BROMIDE OF SODIUM. Obtained as the last, substituting carbonate of soda for that of potash. This bromide crystallizes very well in groups of small acicular crystals, of a whitish colour. It slightly attracts moisture by exposure to the air; its taste is rather alkaline than saline, and it is very soluble in water and alcohol. It iscomposed of Sodium. . . . . . ~ 13°38 Bronnes 4/4 $f) bay eh hlencieit O@OS 100 Journ, de Pharmac. Feb. 1829. PROTOBROMIDE OF MERCURY, Pour a neutral solution of bromide of potassium, calcium, or mag- nesium, &c., into a very dilute solution of protonitrate of mercury ; an abundant flocculent precipitate is formed, which is of a yellowish white colour: when this is carefully washed, and dried in the shade, the residue may be volatilized by a strong heat, and it condenses in the state of an acicular crystalline mass, which is of a yellowish colour while hot, but becomes whiter on cooling. It fuses like the protochloride and perchloride of mercury. Reagents, such as potash, soda, and the hydrosulphurets, precipitate this bromide in the state of mercurial protosalts. ‘ It is probably composed of Mercury. . 57°36 Bromine. . 42°64 + 100 PERBROMIDE OF MERCURY. This compound may be prepared directly as proposed by M. Balard, by treating mercury with bromine, and subliming ,or by decom- posing persulphate of mercury with very dry bromide of potassium with Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 145 with the assistance of heat; equal quantities, sublimed with a strong heat, yielded a substance which was crystalline on the inner surface, and of a yellowish white colour ; it was partly soluble in water, and contained some insoluble protobromide. It may also be prepared by heating equal quantities of bromine and mercury under water. The mixture becomes pasty, and by evaporating the fluid, silky needles of perbromide are formed. Or the evaporation may be con- tinued to dryness, and the residue sublimed ; when purified by sub- limation, it has the form of very fine silky needles, which are very soluble, have a penetrating smell and are very volatile. It is pre- cipitated yellow by potash, and red by chromate of potash. It iscomposed of Mercury . . . . 59°47 Bromine... . 46°53 100 All the bromides above described readily give out bromine by the action of chlorine. ATOMIC CONSTITUTION OF CYANIDE OF MERCURY. Mr. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A., who supposed he had disco- vered that clorine is evolved, when carbonate of manganese is treated with diluted sulphuric acid, has published a memoir in Dr. Brewster’s Journal for the last month, the object of which is to « determine by experiment the atomic constitution” of cyanide of mercury. Mr. Johnston admits that the constituents of the compound in question have been “correctly made out ;’ and if this be the case, we would inquire whether experiment can go further? To us it appears, that when the analysis of a compound has been performed, theory is to determine its atomic constitution. Thus, Dr. Henry and Dr. Thomson agree, that the red oxide of copper consists of 64 copper, 8 oxygen; but while the former chemist considers it to be a compound of one atom of each of its elements, the latter regards it as constituted of two atoms of copper and one atom of oxygen. An examination of various authors would also have saved Mr. Johnston the trouble of an analysis; for he might have seen, that the conclusion at which he has arrived, that the compound in question is a bi-cyanide, but which he supposes is “nowhere to be found,” is to be met with in the following authors: Mr. Brande, Manual of Chemistry, 1819, p. 306; Mr. Brande, Tables of Definite Proportionals, 1828, p.63; Dr. Paris, Medical Chemistry, 1825, Appendix; Dr. Henry, Elements of Chemistry, 1826, vol. ii. p- 664; Dr. Turner, Elements of Chemistry, 1828, p. 519. RR. P. CARBAZOTATES OF COPPER AND LEAD. M. Liebig finds that carbazotate of copper crystallizes in long rhombic needles, of an emerald green colour. They are readily soluble in water, and losing water by exposure to the air they be- come yellow. Carbazotate of lead explodes when struck between two pieces of iron. It may be used with the same advantages, and with less dan- ger than fulminating mercury, for percussion guns, A concentrated solution of carbazotic acid is precipitated by di- N.S. Vol. 6, No. 32. Aug. 1829. U luted 146 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. luted nitric acid ; it possesses this property in common with urea; the acid may be separated from the precipitate by washing with water.— Hensman’s Repertoire, January 1829. ANALYSIS OF PLATINA ORES.-—-BY BERZELIUS. Platina ore from Nischne Tagilsk in the Uralian mountains.—This ore is of a dark gray colour, and contains many magnetic grains, some of which possess poles, and the larger are capable of raising small pieces of steel wire. The magnetic and non-magnetic grains were separately analysed, and the results showed that they are essen- tially and constantly different. Non Magnetic. Magnetic, Platina Mic toeiids We se eh-d dT 73°58 BRIGHT, joy ticte pipiece dis A he 4°97 2°35 HOA OMS Seas Ae ka Niele Sahat 0:86 115 Palladiaumiy Ai) 651420) «(pia ajsyoeo Ra 0:28 0°30 MRO AO Se een etanie eos, ike 11:04 12:98 ODDEN stemmehag ho) Ea aig shares el e's wets 0°70 5°20 Osmiuret of iridium in grains........ 1:00 os in scales:/.-/...) 0. 0:96 fasolnlie tiatter' $y ow. Oty 3122 2-30 98°75 97°86 The insoluble matter of the magnetic grains was a mixture of osmiuret of iridium in grains and scales, with some sard. Platina ore from Goroblagodat in the Uralian mountains.—This ore is remarkable on account of its being entirely non-magnetic, and because it contains no iridium, except that a trace of it was found in one specimen, Platina’): + vei)etasve siéjeleis ti ROO DO UDOGINM se, sil «ay eie icles le 1:15 Palladium............ he abs lO: RIG DET) id)» Siac) slays. aisisich 0°45 Dron ed eeg hh vy acaeys sce. 8°32 Osmiuret of iridium..... 1:40 98:92 In these three analyses a part of the loss consisted of osmium, which distils during the solution in the acid. Platina ore from Barbacoas in the province of Antioquia in Co- lombia.—This ore consists of grains which frequently weigh nearly a gramme (15-4 grains), mixed with a smaller quantity of smaller grains. ‘The larger grains consisted of Platina. ieee. os 84°30 PUROGIMIR Eee oe che Pikes 3°46 Hid. Meee Rs es 1°46 Palladivumé .daci5s they 1:06 Osmitim hy Ss kee ps8 1:03 SBOPET. S06 to theh's «eno 0°74 Aron! Anse, daelen ih. ; 531 Quiarty sac «ere ee 0:60 Bare seth als eR eile 0°12 98:08 Annales de Chim, et de Phus, April 1829. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 147 ROSACIC ACID IN HUMAN URINE. M. Henry, Jun., during an attack of acute rheumatism, accom- panied with nervous fever, observed that his urine became of a red colour, andon cooling, that it deposited a very abundant orange pre- cipitate. On examination he found that it contained much rosacic acid, phosphoric acid, and phosphate of lime, but that the uric acid had disappeared and been replaced by the rosacic acid.— Journal de Pharmac. xv. p. 228. SILICATE OF IRON FROM BODENMAIS. Professor Kobell of Munich reduced this ore to fine powder, and acted upon it with muriatic acid, and it yielded nearly BCE Nees > oot eee, alae 31-28 Wraterint. sh astacleda. hae? MOSLe, 101:26 It is therefore to be considered as an hydrated silicate of iron.— Annales de Chim. et de Phys. April 1829. CALCAREOUS CRYSTALS IN THE TISSUES OF LIVING VEGE- TABLES. M. Raspail, in a late memoir, shows that the crystals of the pan- dani, orchides, scillaz, &c., in short, all those which are about -2,th of amillimetre in length, and ;+,th in breadth, are hexahedral crystals of phosphate of lime; and that the crystals of the tubercles of the iris, which are 4rd of a millimetre in length, and jth in breadth, are rectangular crystals of oxalate of lime. It was by means of a magnifying power of from 1000 to 2000 diameters that these new researches were established. These crystals, it will be re- membered, were taken for microscopic hairs; and very recently an author imagined he saw them perforated in the middle of their length, and figured them as such.—Jameson’s Journal, July 1829. CHLORIDE AND IODIDE OF AMMONIA. M. Sérullas has announced to the French Academy, that the substances usually termed chloride and iodide of azote contain hydrogen ; or in other words, that they are chloride and iodide of ammonia.—He has promised a memoir on the subject.—Le Globe, April 11th & 18th. DECOMPOSITION OF AMMONIA BY METALS. M. Despretz, who first announced that metals when subjected to heat and ammoniacal gas, underwent a considerable change of density, has also discovered that the weight of iron is sometimes increased as much as 114 per cent, owing to its combining with azote ; but if the heat be too great, then the azote is again expelled. —Ibid. April 11. U2 \ 148 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. ANALYSES OF BATH WATER AND OF TWO MINERAL SPRINGS IN WINDSOR FOREST. Mr. Walcker of the Brighton German Spa finds that an imperial pint of Bath water contains Chloride of sodium...... .«-. 1°89031 grains ————-_ magnesium ...... 166744 Sulphate of potash.......... 0:36588 —— soda .......... 2°42145 Hae 9 (ee ern 10°20303 Carbonate of lime.......... 1-33339 Protocarbonate of iron ...... 0°03042 AIO ste eae Sela Gaeta we 0-01885 oT elk EE Sa gee 2... 0°40419 Extractive matter /T72. oor. a trace ote . 18:33496 5 ‘ arbonic acid gas 2 0-05 cubic inc Atmospheric di \ at 114° temp. 47.74 do. do. With respect to the mineral springs in Windsor Forest, it is stated that Captain F. Forbes of Winkfield-place, Windsor Forest, discovered them some time ago on his estate: one, the analysis of which is stated under A, in the immediate neighbourhood of his mansion ; the other, mentioned under B, at some distance. Both these mineral springs, belonging to the magnesio-saline class, have since been used by a great number of patients ; and the good effects which have been ob- served from their use have induced Captain Forbes to build a pump- room for the accommodation of the public, A pint of the waters contains as under: A Carbonate of lime ................ 6°0630 Sulphate Of [ime 0. nae tae s+ a - 98904 PORISH A sc bane e's «eo. 13549 og rad ae 2 SE bls 15°5779 —————- magnesia...... Sierenenc. 20-8704 Nitrate of magnesia .......... Wey. 4. 2 Oaoe Chloride of magnesium ...........- 19-6909 Silica tans. 4 ess Pca te eee. 0°5033 Alumina 2.02. see EY Hi e3 Tee 0°5721 Extractive matter .......cse...--. traces 77°1780 Carbonic acid gas ] at 51° at the temp. f 2°786 Atmospheric air of the wells 0-611 Specific gravity at 60° Fahr. ........ 1:00737 Royal Institution Journal, April 1829. B 82507 grains 83064 1°1382 17°1761 21°1920 traces 26°3169 09210 0°3938 traces 83'695 1 3°306 cubic inch, 0°658 do. do. 1:00897 ERRATUM IN MR. EWART’S PAPER, APRIL LAST, P. 254. Line 17, for low pressure read low temperature. ON Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 149 ON SODIUM: BY M. SERULLAS. If potassium is put on a mercury bath, the fragments remain for some time motionless ; they afterwards, during amalgamation, begin a movement, which gradually increases and becomes very rapid, ‘This movement depends upon the absorption and decomposition of the moisture of the atmosphere by the metal, from which results the evolution of hydrogen, which occasions the movement ; when potas- sium is placed in contact with mercury under a receiver containing dry air, the amalgamation goes on quietly. If on the other hand a particle of sodium be quickly thrown upon mercury, it is violently projected out of the bath, occasioning a slight explosion, accompanied with heat and light. MM. Gay Lussac and Thenard have already observed that during the amalgamation of sodium, heat and light were given out. It is also well known that potassium burns in contact with water, while sodium decomposes it without combustion. Thus the distinguishing characters of sodium and potassium are, that the first combines with mercury with heat and light, and the other merely with heat; that sodium decomposes water without burning, and that potassium under similar circumstances occasions vivid light. It will be observed that in these two cases, each metal possesses opposite properties. The last-mentioned effect is owing to the greater heat occasioned by potassium, which even reaches incan- descence, while with sodium the heat is not sufficient to occasion inflammation. The proof of this will be found in the following experiment, by which sodium may be made to burn by the contact of water. Make a moderately strong mucilage of gum-arabic, and the sodium when thrown upon it readily inflames. The fragments are retained by the density of the liquid, and fixed to a point, and then become suffi- ciently hot to ignite, and run over the surface of the liquid in the same manner as potassium. The flame is yellowish instead of blue- ish, as with potassium. This effect cannot be produced upon water or a moistened body, which by its nature abstracts the heat pro- duced by the decomposition of the liquid. Indeed if a piece of so- dium be fixed upon a piece of wood or other bad conductor, and then touched with a drop of water or two, it inflames and flies immediately; but this effect is not produced upon glass or porcelain. GEOLOGICAL ARRANGEMENT OF BRITISH FOSSIL SHELLS. In the sixth Number of the Magazine of Natural History, Mr. R, C. Taylor has published a series of approximate stratigraphical tables of British fossil testacea ; forming an abstract of a more extended index, constructed chiefly from Sowerby’s Mineral Conchology, and from authentic details, after essential corrections in the localities and formations. These tables exhibit the geognostical distribution of about thirteen hundred species ; and, from the caution employed in constructing them, this is probably considerably short of the actual number known to collectors, Mr. Taylor deduces various interesting results from his investiga- tions, 150 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. tions, a brief view of which we proceed to state, nearly in his own words. The following series of fossil shells are known to English naturalists :— Simple univalves 58 genera, which comprise 401 species. Simple bivalves 62 583 Complicated bivalves 3 51 Multilocular bivalves 12 230 : 135 1265 On making three principal divisions of the formations containing organic remains, and enumerating the shells they respectively con- tain, we have these results : The first, which is also the lowest or most ancient division, may be sub- divided into two series of formations. 1, Carboniferous order 2. From the carboniferous of Mr. Conybeare. to the lias, inclusive. Species 27 Simple univalves . . . 9 species. 34 Simple bivalves. . . . 33 46 Complicated bivalves. . 5 33 Multilocular univalves . 50 140 o7; The second, or middle, division, The ¢hird, or most recent, divi- from the lias upwards, includes the sion, comprises all the beds above entire oolite series, and the strata| the chalk, or the tertiary forma- up to the chalk, inclusive. tions, Simple univalves 106 species. | Simple univalves 259 species. Simple bivalves 375 Simple bivalves 41 Cecmplicated bivalves 0 Complicated bivalves 0 Multilocular univalves 139 Multilocular univalves 8 620 408 The numbers of each of the four classes of shells which existed during separate periods or geological intervals, are as follows : Second and Third Divisions. First Division. Remaining strata, above the Ancient strata, including lias. lias, up to diluvium. Species 36 Simple univalves . . . 365 species. 67. Simple bivalves. . . . 516 134 51 Complicated bivalves. . 0 , 147 83 Multilocular univalves . 147 237 1028 Here the number of complex species in the first division is nearly equal to those in the immense series of succeeding strata, 134 being peculiar to the lowest, and 147 to the remainder. But the individuals are greatly more numerous in the older strata than in the later, and give a more decided character to those formations than appears from a comparison of genera or species ; and the class of complicated bi- valves is wholly limited to this older division. The difference is yet more striking when we compare the first with the third division ; the simple univalyes in the former being to those in the latter in the pro- portion Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 151 portion of 1 to 7 ; but the complicated species, in the same divisions, are in the reverse ratio nearly of 17 to 1. On comparing the proportions which the classes of shells under each division bear to each other, differences equally remarkable are observable. Thus the univalves in the first division are to the com- plex species as 1 to 4; in the second, as 1 to 14rd only; and in the third, as 32 to 1. The ancient formations are characterized by complicated shells, the middle series by bivalves, and the upper by simple univalves. Mr. Taylor next illustrates from the Tables, Mr. Dillwyn’s remarks on the distribution of carnivorous and herbivorous Trachelipodes. He shows that, in the English formations, the Zoophages comprise 22 genera, and 171 species. They may be considered as appertaining to, if not as wholly characteristic of the tertiary formations ; and many of the genera are continued in our present seas. Of the Phyl- liphages, 22 genera and 168 species are distributed through the se- condary and tertiary formations. When the members of each of these classes are arranged according to the three geological divisions already mentioned, we find that the turbinated univalves of the older strata or rocks belong almost en- tirely to the herbivorous family, 12 genera having originated there, which have been perpetuated through all the successive strata, and still inhabit our waters ; that in the middle series of formations, this preponderance of animals possessing similar habits was preserved ; and that, in the last series, after the chalk was deposited, this order was suddenly reversed, in the proportion of 5 to 19. Mr. Dillwyn observed that all the marine Trachelipodes, of the herbivorous tribes, in the ancient strata, are furnished with an oper- culum, seemingly intended as a protection against the Cephalopodes, or carnivorous order of Nautili, Ammonites, &c., which, at that time, abounded in the seas. After the epoch of the extinction of this order (which terminated chiefly with the chalk), numerous unoperculated genera appear, as if no longer requiring such a shield to protect them from an extinct enemy. As carnivorous turbinated univalves were almost entirely absent from the strata which contained the Ammo- nites, the Nautilidiz, and the Belemnites, so the extinction of these immensely numerous tribes, being also carnivorous, or predaceous, was counterbalanced by the creation of a multitude of new gener possessed of similar appetences. Recurring again to our table for illustration of these positions, we observe that only 3 genera and 18 species of carnivorous turbinated univalves were coeval with the Cephalopodes, comprising 200 species, in the secondary formations ; but that the same strata contained 17 genera and 87 species of Phylliphages. When the Ceplialopodes ceased with the chalk, at the same time with the numerous families of fossil Echinidie, the Trigonia, and nearly all the Terrebratule, they were replaced by 19 genera and 153 new species of Zoophages. On comparing the existing classes of shells with correspond- ing 152 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. ing series in the antediluvian creation, we have the following numbers : Simple | Bivalves and | Multilocular Univalves. | Multivalyes,} Univalves. Testaceous Mollusca of the pre-| ‘Species. Species. Species. | Species. sent world, ascertained from the Index Testaceologicus of Mr. Wood, last edition . . . . 1961 874 58 2893 Species of British fossil shells, heretofore described, dispersed throughout the entire range of the formations. . ... .- 401 634 230 1265 In the aggregates thus exhibited, there is an apparent want of con- formity in the relative proportions of each class, This wholly arises from the extinct genera of the ancient strata; for, on making the comparison between the recent series and those of the latest group of deposits, no such difference will be perceived. On the contrary, a considerable agreement between the proportions of existing species and the several classes of fossil shells in the tertiary beds prevails ; the ayerage increase of numbers being about sevenfold, If we follow the investigation further, we may observe that the fossil multilocular and complicated Testacea, which characterize the oldest formations, and decidedly preponderate in that end of the series, form one-fifth part of the entire catalogue ; but, amongst the recent shells, this class constitutes less than a fortieth part, and in the tertiary series only a fiftieth part. The conclusion to be drawn from a summary of facts more nume- rous, and on a more extended scale than, until recently, has been attainable in this department of natural history, is, that in proportion as we descend the vast series of deposits that overspread this portion of the earth, so do we recede, step by step, from the circle of existing organized beings, and from the phenomena attendant on their struc- ture, their habits, and their adaptations. Total. NEW INVENTION FOR PROPELLING SHIPS, &e. Mr. Charles A. Orth, of Charles-street, Hatton Garden, No. 12, requests us to state,’that after the labour of five years he has suc- ceeded in rendering fully effective a new method of propelling ves- sels of all descriptions against wind and tide. The power is ob- tained by the application of weight, the mechanism is very simple, and it affords any horse-power acquired. Mr. Orth wishes to con- fer upon the subject with any gentleman who may be interested in the improvement of mechanical navigation. BROMINE AND BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM. These curious substances, which we believe have not been hi- therto prepared in this country, have been imported for sale by Messrs. Allen and Co. Plough-court, Lombard-street. We need, iperhaps, scarcely add our opinion that the quality of the articles n question may be fully depended upon.—Epir. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 153 ON THE VARIATION OF THE NEEDLE, AS OBSERVED DURING A VOYAGE TO AND FROM INDIA. BY W.H. WHITE, H.M.C.S. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. Gentlemen, Not having seen any thing lately on the variation of the mariner’s compass, and having just perused the private log of a gentleman recently returned from India, I have extracted a few observations, showing the variation at four nearly corresponding latitudes, out- ward and inward. Outward bound. Latitude. Longitude. Variation. 49° 30! N. 5° 30! W, 27° W. 10 S. 23 30. W. 10 W. 21 00 S. 37 00 W. 00 40 00 S. 31 00 E. 31 W. Homeward bound. Latitude. Longitude. Variation. 36° 30! S. 23°00! E. 28° W. 21 30 S. 2 51 E. 20 W. 40 N. 18 25 W. 11 W. 49 40 N. 5 40 W. 925 W. In the outward passage, it appears that the variation diminished as the latitude diminished and the longitude increased westward, till the ship reached latitude 21° S,, longitude 37° W., when it en- tirely ceased. A progressive increase again took place as the ship continued to sail southward, making E. longitude. In the homeward passage there is a regular diminution of varia- tion as the ship sails westward ; and as a proof that the compass is not influenced by latitude, at least in the torrid zone, we find in la- titude 21° 30! S. the variation was 20° W., whereas in 21° S. in the outward passage, having a difference of 39° 51' W. longitude, there was no variation. Hence it appears as the ship increases in E. lon- gitude from 37° W., the variation of the compass increases W., but to what extent I believe is not determined. Should these observations be worthy of insertion in your scienti- fic Journal, they may lead to a completion of facts that would highly benefit the science of navigation. I am, Gentlemen, yours, &c. Bedford, July 8, 1829, W. H. Wuire, H.M.C.S, ACTIVE MOLECULES IN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC BODIES. The peculiar and apparently inherent motion of these molecules discovered some time since by R, Brown, Esq. F.R.S.,* excites an increased interest in consequence of the difficulty of accounting for it satisfactorily. Mr. Holland, who has for some time closely ap- plied himself to microscopic researches, has found that the motion continues equally vivid, when the liquid containing the molecules * See Phil. Mag. and Annals, N.S. vol. iy. p. 161, : N.S. Vol. 6. No. 32. Aug. 1829. Xx is 15k New Patents. is covered with a thin piece of talc: he was induced to try this ex- periment in order to ascertain whether the motion might not be the result of external causes acting upon the surface of the fluid. On the 29th of June last, he carried the experiment further, by sealing hermetically the whole circumference of the talc, in order to pre- vent evaporation, which (although ten days have elapsed) has not taken place; and yet there is not the slightest alteration either in the molecules or their motion, and (should the sealing be perfect) most probably none will occur: this experiment proves that eva- poration is not the cause of the motion. , Mr. Cary, optician, 181 Strand, has the specimen in his posses- sion, ready for exhibition to those who may feel an interest on the subject. Mr, Hoiland used No. 2 of the deep power sold by Mr. Cary, the sidereal focus of which is the 1-30th of an inch, with a linear magnifying power of 300: this power developes the phzno- mena connected with these molecules in a most satisfactory manner. July 9, 1829. LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To H. R. Palmer, London Docks, for improvements in the con- struction of warehouses, sheds, and other buildings, intended for the protection of property.—Dated the 28th of April, 1828.—2 months allowed to enrol specification. To B. Cook, Birmingham, for an improved method of making rollers or cylinders of copper and other metals, or a mixture of metals, for printing of calicos, silks, cloths, and other articles—23d of April.— 6 months. To J. Wright, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for improvements in condens- ing the gas or gases produced by the decomposition of muriate of soda and certain other substances, which improvements may also be -applied to other purposes.—28th of April.—6 months. ToP. Pickering, Frodsham, Cheshire,and W. Pickering, Liverpool, merchants, for having invented an engine, or machinery, to be worked by means of fluids, gases, or air, on shore or at sea, and which they intend to denominate Pickering’s Engine.—28th of April.—6 months. To J. Davis, Lemon-street, sugar-refiner, for a certain improve- ment in the condenser used for boiling sugar in vacuo.—28th of April.—6 months, To G. W. Lee, Bagnio-court, Newgate-street, merchant, for cer- tain improvements in machinery for spinning cotton and other fibrous substances.—2d of May.—6 months. To H. Bock, Esq. Ludgate-hill, for improvements in machinery for embroidering or ornamenting cloths, stuffs, and other fabrics. —2d of May.—6 months. To J. Dutton, junior, Wotton Underedge, Gloucester, clothier, for certain improvements in propelling ships, boats, and other vessels or floating bodies by steam or other power.—19th of May.—6 months. To M. Dick, Irvine, Air, for an improved rail-road, and for propel- ling carriages thereon by machinery, for conveying passengers, letters, intelligence, packets and other goods, with great yelocity.—2Ist of May.—6 months. j To New Patents. 155 To T. R. Williams, Esq., Norfolk-street, Strand, for improvements in the manufacturing of felt, or a substance in the nature thereof, applicable to covering the bottoms of vessels, and other purposes.— 23d of May.—6 months. To T. Arnold, Hoxton, tin-plate worker, foran improved machine or gauge for the purpose of denoting the quality or strength of certain fluids or spirituous liquors, and for measuring or denoting the quantity of fluids or spirituous liquors withdrawn from the vessel in which the same are contained, and which machine or gauge may be so construct- ed as to effect either of the above objects without the other, if required. —26th of May.—6 months. To W. Poole, St. Michael on the Mount, Lincoln, smith, for im- provements in machinery for propelling vessels, and giving motion to mills and other machinery.—26th of May.—2 months. ToC. T. Sturtevant, Hackney, for improvements in the manufactur- ing of soap.—26th of May.—6 months. To J. C. Daniell, Limpley Stoke, Bradford, Wilts, clothier, for im- provements in machinery applicable to the dressing of woollen cloth.— 26th of May.—6 months. ’ To R. Winans, Vernon, Sussex, State of New Jersey, North Ame- rica, resident in London, for improvements in diminishing friction in wheeled-carriages to be used on rail and other roads, and which im- provements are applicable to other purposes—2Sth of May.—6 months. To W. Mann, Gent., Effra-road, Brixton, for having discovered that by the application of compressed air, power and motion can he communicated to fixed machinery, and to carriages and other locomo- tive machines, and to ships, vessels, and other floating bodies.—1 st of June.—6 months. To A. Gottlieb, Jubilee-place, Mile-end-road, for improvements on, or additions to, locks and keys.—1st of June.—6 menths. To J. Smith, Bradford, York, for improvements in machinery for dressing flour.—4th of June.—2 months. To C. Brook, Meltham Mills, near Huddersfield, York, for improve- ments in machinery for spinning cotton and other fibrous substances.— 4th of June —6 months. To R. Porter, Carlisle, Cumberland, for improvements in the manu- facture of iron heels and tips for boots and shoes.—13th of June.—2 months. To F. Day, Poultry, optician, and Auguste Munch, mechanic, of the same place, in consequence of a communication made them by a cer- tain foreigner residing abroad, and inventions by themselves, for im- provements on musical instruments.—1 9th of June.---6 months. To C. Wheatstone, Strand, for improvements in the construction of wind musical instruments.—1 9th of June.—6 months. To M.Poole, Gent., Lincoln’s-inn, in consequence of a communi- cation made to him by acertain foreigner residing abroad, for im- proved machinery for preparing or kneading dough.—19th of June.— 6 months. X.2 Results Meteorological Results for 1827.— Middlesex. 156 18-PS|9-06 |L-6P |Z-1S | 1-16] 06-19 | $2-6P | O6-LE | 96-6F \ZP-0S |1L.67 3168 096-62 €56-62 1096.62 |P6-6 O£1-T [868-62 |188-8% 602-0 | “toay 6L.br| 61 | gh | LE | So \oF-SP |91-P | 90.6h | O1-EF [99-FF| ¢.ch |Lz 85} S18-6z PL3-6c [08s-62 |€L8-62 | L89-1 $88-62 |ZP0-62 |62L-0€ | *29q 1v-Sh| 11 | 77 | BE | CL | LgPP |EL-EP | 98-gh | €9-ZP|S9-EP| 0-0F |0% 09] 600-08 $10.0€ |PF0-0€ |8c0-0€ | 670.1 (016-62 |98€-62 |SEF-0F | “aon IP-LS| bz | OS | OF | £6 | gS-E5 | ¥9.0S | F9.6¢ | S¥-0S |c8-ZS| 0-6P | 1 Lo} E8L-6z |L8L-6z |78L-62 |28L-62 | L2S-1 |\S8L-60 200-62 OFS-0F) 390 10-S9| z€ | SS | SO | 001) £6.69 | 01-4 | 00-99 | 04-95 90-65 | 0.99 jOV ZL} 110-0€ |L10-0€ |010-0€ |800.0€ | 188-0 €96-63 |€ 19-62 |F6E-0£ | “3dag cp-go| ve | LS | 89 | SI1ILE.€9 |L6-09 | £0-69 | OT-09 |06-09 | 0-¥9 |ZP/98]SE0-0€ C£0.0€ |0V0-0€ |€£0-0€ | 690-1 |L06-6z |€9E-66 ZSP.0€ ‘sony g6-£L| PE | 6S | ZL | IT] 6g-L9 |90-S9 | ZE-PL | 62-79 \ZE-S9 | S.o9 |PH/GS]S11-0€ S11-0€ }611-0€ |111-0€ | 9EL-0 LOI-0€ (682-62 |SLP-0€| Ayn IP-L9| of | SS | 29 | Sot! 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"paoeyd ysay seas qr yor 19A0 prnow ay) pue ‘fe ayy Jo ssouivou 94) WO. suOTeIPeA OY) Jo suvatu Lq porindd0 aavy ATpayqnopuN pynoar yoryas ‘suoIworpUt S}I UT 91njvsoduia} Jo asvaiour Aue a7eIAgo 0} ‘punois oy} Woy sayour OM} Jnoge ssvid 943 UO paoRid Aiou st yf puB $ WINIEI -oqiy oy} ur aovid azquzins oso v 0} ‘sAv1 suns ay} UL a.1nqe1oduua7 oY} SULUIe}A9ISv LOJ 19}9MOMTIOY 94} JO [BACT O43 st ‘sjuawnaysur ay} Jo UoIIsod oy} Ur opetU Useq sey VY} UOTZBIA3[e A[UO OYJ, ‘“suONwAsasqo ay} Surpso9as ut paydope sea ued aues ay} pue ‘vak Surpooa.d ay pasn asoy} s¥ owes oy} oie [eUINoL s,1vaX si) UI pasn syuoINaysUt Oy, g1-2o | POE | 18 | $9} 12} €9 ‘se of ze | Fe rls 11L-P glé-0 | 6L-LP Ca oT 196 0% 8Z£-0 ca-bh | LL-EP £96 GGL 9TE£-0 TEP | OF-ZP 76 16-1 TIP-0 99:1¢ | F8-6F 906 09-€ 767-0 1€-9¢ | 9°.¢9¢ 008 SLO ZOP-0 19-9¢ | Z€-L¢ SL 61-6 925-0 69-8S | £9.9¢ L6L 9L-9 O9F-0 LESS | SLPS oun arg 69-7 8eF-0 | 86-29 | L6.1¢ ABT 0Sg on ZSE-0 | 09-9F | OF-9F | tudy r68 £0-€ FOE-0 68:2P | F9.0P CL-ah-| qoseyy 298 ce-7 002-0 ZI-O€ | 96-0£ F9-8% “Pa £6 06:1 ZEt-0 SL-PE | 1S.FE go-£e “uve fo} “yout ° ° ° ; . I5IN dANISIOINT ee ssoudigy «mode, | pur WYSIN | ‘WOON | *MIOT | -sqpuopy ‘soyouy | *sheq jo jo 90190) aai8aq | aaadacq | JO 20g | ‘MOON no test: uvdIAT uea oe uvay *u10]T ‘a 3 jo uvoyy UIeyY *SpUIAA OT} JO avOg yulog Maq Suyvorpur szojowois APT 60-€ 90-1 90-7 LE-€ 99-1 1E-1 68:0 care 14.0 fool Land 09-3 6L.0 LS.0 ADAMAOMHMMOCO RIN CONTA Se HOO HO 1 COSLONMDAMAANMNID AMNAOSCOMWINDNYNAO WH Son oe ne ante tea AWDOAMYNMAOMWAS WMNOCORFMABMOAK OS moa COCO OHA “oy uIog MOQ UvaTy "(panuzuoo) ATAV J, 158 Meteorological Observations for June 1829. Note.—The accuracy and judicious arrangement of the instru- ments used, which are very essential to the purposes of meteorology, the able hands in which they are intrusted to register the observa- tions, and the opportunities that will be afforded the observer in so eligible a situation, to ascertain the effects of heat or cold, wind, rain, and drought, on the various fruits and vegetation, will ulti- mately be found beneficial to the Horticultural Society, by the ex- perience they will gain year after year in providing as much as pos- sible for the preservation of those things against the vicissitudes of a very changeable climate. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JUNE 1829. Gosport.— Numerical Results for the Month. Barom. Max. 30-37 June 11. Wind N.E.—Min. 29-36 June 27. Wind S.E. Range of the mercury 1-01. Mean barometrical pressure for the month .........ese0+8 svat nes saan 29-998 Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury............ 3-450 Greatest variation in 24 hours ():400.—Number of changes 15. Therm. Max. 76° June 3. Wind N.W.—Min. 42° June 6. Wind N.E. Range 34°.— Mean temp.of exter. air 619-02. For 31 days with © in TI 61°51 Max. var. in 24 hours 24°-00—-- Mean temp. of spring-water at 8 A.M. 51°-76 De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer. Greatest humidity of the atmosphere in the morning of the 29th... 86° Greatest dryness of the atmosphere in the afternoon of the 5th ... 35 agra C Lue INGER civces.ssveseechssevbnasetcsecaevueletecadudate scan ddaaens 51 Mean at 2 P.M. 50°2.—Mean at 8 A.M. 55°6.—Mean at 8 P.M. 59-6 of three observations each day at 8, 2, and 8 o’clock ......... 55:1 Evaporation for the month 4:35 inch. Rain in the pluviameter near the ground 2-270 inch. Prevailing wind, S.E. Summary of the Weather. A clear sky, 3; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 17; an over- cast sky without rain, 6; rain, 4.—Total 30 days. Clouds. Cirrus. Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus. 26 16 29 0 24 22 Scale of the prevailing Winds. N. N.E. E. _S.E.- 8S. -S.W.. - W. | UN. W... © Days. Qh QE! 2 8 2 4 3 6 30 General Observations.—The first part of this month the fruits and vegeta- tion made but little progress in growth, from the want of moisture; but the wheat, which came into ear the first week, preserved a verdant and luxuriant appearance ; it is now turning yellow, and will be fit for the sickle in this neighbourhood in three weeks, with genial weather: the last fort- night was contradistinguished by frequent intervals of warm showers of rain, the beneficial effects of which on the productions of the earth may be seen even by casual observers. On the Ist instant distant thunder was heard here, and light showers fell at a distance. On the 3rd the thermometer in the shade rose to summer- heat, when it showed the maximum temperature for the month. Early in the morning of the 7th a very white hear frost appeared in the grass fields, and was brought on by a cold N.E. wind under a clear blue sky, and a pretty high atmospheric pressure. In the evening of the 9th a large halo appeared round the moon, and set with it, which indicated a humid change in the state of the atmosphere. On Metcorological Observations for June 1829. 159 On the 13th a solar and a lunar halo appeared, and set with the sun and moon which they circumscribed. In the evening of the 16th, after another dry and dusty period of twenty-two days, very refreshing showers of rain came on by means of a change of wind to the S.W.; they were followed almost every day to the end of the month by gentle rain, and a tolerably uniform temperature. On the 20th and 29th, lightning and thunder occurred by the inoscula- tion of two currents of wind: and solar halos again presented themselves in beds of cirrostratus on the 23rd, 24th, 26th and 30th, and were followed by rain, mostly in the nights. The mean temperature of the atmosphere this month is nearly half a degree under the mean of June for many years past. It would be difficult to describe with any degree of accuracy the richness and beauty of the cclours that appeared in the clouds, and in the water about the shore here at sunrise and sunset in the early part of the month : the same gradation of colours which the condensed aqueous vapours and falling dews passed through at these times, was successively painted on the water beneath them, as yellow, orange, red, lake, light blue, &c. The red light is remarkable for its frequency in the clouds ; and in pass- ing through a prism it appears the least refrangible of any other, and makes the strongest impression on the retina of the eye; it forces its way through very dense media; hence it is that we see through a fog the discs of the sun and moon red, and also distant terrestrial lights, as was the case on the 16th of last month. The atmosphere a few miles high is permanently transparent and cloud- less, where solar light neither suffers alterations in its colours, nor obstruc- tion in its passage by aqueous vapours, and where it shows a cerulean tint of different shades from light to dark blue, according to the temperature and elasticity of the atmosphere at that height. These shades, unchanged in their transmission, penetrate the deep sea-water in high latitudes to some depth, and by strangers to marine views are looked upon with admiration, while the shallow water about the shores to some distance in the offing, preserves a varying green colour. The colours seen on the water are in the rays of light, not in the bodies that refract or reflect them. When wind and attenuated vapours prevail, the blue tint that appears on the wa- ter under an azure sky is changed to a variety of green shades, and even to a turbid colour, according to the density of the vapours above, and the quantity of solar light intercepted by them. A dark nimbus, for instance, has often the effect of producing a dark green on the sea-water, and other modifications of clouds produce other colours thereon, as they are co- loured. The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our observations this month, are two lunar and six solar halos, two meteors, three rainbows, lightning twice, thunder three times, and two gales of wind ; namely, one from the South-east, the other from the South-west. REMARKS, London. —June 1. Cloudy. 2—5. Very fine. 6.Fine. 7. Very fine. g. Cloudy, with slight rain at night: fine. 9. Cloudy morning: very fine. 10—15. Very fine. 16. Cloudy. 17, Sultry, with some thunder at noon. 18. Sultry, with heavy thunder showers in the afternoon, 19. Very fine. 20. Very fine; rain at night. 21. Overcast: very fine. 22. Cloudy and wet: fine at night. 23. Very fine: rain at night. 24, Very fine, 25. Fine, with showers; heavy rainat night. 26. Veryfine. 27.Rainy. 28, Sultry, with thunder showers. 29. Drizzly. 30, Rainy. 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XXIV. Additional Remarks on Active Molecules. By Ropenr Brown, -.B.S., Hon. M.R.S.E. & RL. Acad., V.P.LS., Cor- responding Member of the Royal Institutes of France and of the Netherlands, &c. &c.* A sour twelve months ago I printed an account of Mi- croscopical Observations made in the summer of 1827, on the Particles contained in the Pollen of Plants; and on the general Existence of active Molecules in Organic and Inor- ganic Bodies. In the present Supplement to that account, my objects are, to explain and modify a few of its statements, to advert to some of the remarks that have been made, either on the cor- rectness or originality of the observations, and to the causes that have been considered sufficient for the explanation of the phenomena. In the first place, I have to notice an erroneous asser- tion of more than one writer, namely, that I have stated the active Molecules to be animated. This mistake has probably arisen from my having communicated the facts in the same order in which they occurred, accompanied by the views which presented themselves in the different stages of the in- vestigation; and in one case, from my having adopted the language, in referring to the opinion, of another inquirer into the first branch of the subject. Although I endeavoured strictly to confine myself to the statement of the facts observed, yet in speaking of the active Molecules I have not been able, in all cases, to avoid the introduction of hypothesis; for such is the supposition, that the equally active particles of greater size, and frequently of very different form, are primary compounds of these Mole- .* Communicated by the Author :—Mr. Brown's former paper on this subject, will be found in Phil. Mag. and Annals, N.S. vol. iv. p. 161. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 33. Sept. 1829. b's cules, 162 Mr. Brown’s Additional Remarks on Active Molecules. cules,—a supposition which, though professedly conjectural, I regret having so much insisted on, especially as it may seem connected with the opinion of the absolute identity of the Molecules, from whatever source derived. On this latter subject, the only two points that I endea- voured to ascertain, were their size and figure: and al- though I was, upon the whole, inclined to think that in these respects the Molecules were similar from whatever sub- stances obtained, yet the evidence then adduced in support of the supposition was far from satisfactory; and I may add, that I am still less satisfied now that such is the fact. But even had the uniformity of the Molecules in those two points been absolutely established, it did not necessarily follow, nor have I any where stated, as has been imputed to me, that they also agreed in all their other properties and functions. I have remarked, that certain substances, namely, sulphur, resin, and wax, did not yield active particles, which, how- ever, proceeded merely from defective manipulation ; for I have since readily obtained them from all these bodies: at the same time I ought to notice that their existence in sulphur was previously mentioned to me by my friend Mr. Lister. In prosecuting the inquiry subsequent to the publication of my Observations, I have chiefly employed the simple micro- scope mentioned in the Pamphlet, as having been made for me by Mr. Dollond, and of which the three lenses that I have generally used, are ofa 40th, 60th, and 70th of an inch focus. Many of the observations have been repeated and con- firmed with other simple microscopes having lenses of similar powers, and also with the best achromatic compound micro- scopes, either in my own possession or belonging to my friends. The result of the inquiry at present essentially agrees with that which may be collected from my printed account, and may be here briefly stated in the following terms: namely, That extremely minute particles of solid matter, whether obtained from organic or inorganic substances, when suspended in pure water, or in some other aqueous fluids, exhibit motions for which I am unable to account, and which from their irre- gularity and seeming independence resemble in a remarkable degree the less rapid motions of some of the simplest animal- cules of infusions. That the smallest moving particles ob- served, and which I have termed Active Molecules, appear to be spherical, or nearly so, and to be between 1-20,000dth and 1-30,000dth of an inch in diameter; and that other par- ticles of considerably greater and various size, and either of similar or of very different figure, also present analogous mo- tions in like circumstances. I have Mr. Brown’s Additional Remarks on Active Molecules. 163 I have formerly stated my belief that these motions of the particles neither arose from currents in the fluid containing them, nor depended on that intestine motion which may be supposed to accompany its evaporation. These causes of motion, however, either singly or combined with others,—as, the attractions and repuisions among the particles themselves, their unstable equilibrium in the fluid in which they are suspended, their hygrometrical or capillary action, and in some cases the disengagement of volatile matter, or of minute air bubbles,—have been considered by several writers as sufficiently accounting for the appearances. Some of the alleged causes here stated, with others which I have considered it unnecessary to mention, are not likely to be over- looked or to deceive observers of any experience in micro- scopical researches: and the insufficiency of the most import- ant of those enumerated, may, I think, be satisfactorily shown by means of a very simple experiment. This experiment consists in reducing the drop of water containing the particles to microscopic minuteness, and pro- longing its existence by immersing it in a transparent fluid of inferior specific gravity, with which it is not miscible, and in which evaporation is extremely slow. If to almond-oil, which isa fluid having these properties, a considerably smaller proportion of water, duly impregnated with particles, be added, and the two fluids shaken or triturated together, drops of water of various sizes, from 1-50th to 1-2000dth of an inch in diame- ter, will be immediately produced. Of these, the most minute necessarily contain but few particles, and some may be occa- sionally observed with one particle only. In this manner minute drops, which if exposed to the air would be dissipated in less than a minute, may be retained for more than an hour. But in all the drops thus formed and protected, the motion of the particles takes place with undiminished activity, while the principal causes assigned for that motion, namely, evapora- tion, and their mutual attraction and repulsion, are either materially reduced or absolutely null. It may here be remarked, that those currents from centre to circumference, at first hardly perceptible, then more ob- vious, and at last very rapid, which constantly exist in drops exposed to the air, and disturb or entirely overcome the proper motion of the particles, are wholly prevented in drops of small size immersed in oil,—a fact which, however, is only apparent in those drops that are flattened, in consequence of being nearly or absolutely in contact with the stage of the microscope. That the motion of the particles is not produced by any cause acting on the surface of the drop, may be proved by an 2 inversion 164 Mr. Brown’s Additional Remarks on Active Molecules. inversion of the experiment; for by mixing a very small pro- portion of oil with the water containing the particles, micro- scopic drops of oil of extreme minuteness, some of them not exceeding in size the particles themselves, will be found on the surface of the drop of water, and nearly or altogether at rest ; while the particles in the centre or towards the bottom of the drop continue to move with their usual degree of activity. By means of the contrivance now described for reducing the size and prolonging the existence of the drops containing the particles, which, simple as it is, did not till very lately occur to me, a greater command of the subject is obtained, sufficient perhaps to enable us to ascertain the real cause of the motions in question. Of the few experiments which I have made since this man- ner of observing was adopted, some appear to me so curious, that I do not venture to state them until they are verified by frequent and careful repetition. I shall conclude these supplementary remarks to my former Observations, by noticing the degree in which I consider those observations to have been anticipated. That molecular was sometimes confounded with animaleular motion by several of the earlier microscopical observers, ap- pears extremely probable from various passages in the writings of Leeuwenhoek, as well as from a very remarkable Paper by Stephen Gray, published in the 19th volume of the Philoso- phical ‘Transactions. Needham also, and Buffon, with whom the hypothesis of organic particles originated, seem to have not unfrequently fallen into the same mistake. And I am inclined to believe that Spallanzani, notwithstanding one of his statements re- specting them, has under the head of Animaletti dultimo or- dine included the active Molecules as well as true Animalcules. I may next mention that Gleichen, the discoverer of the motions of the Particles of the Pollen, also observed similar motions in the particles of the ovulum of Zea Mays. Wrisberg and Muller, who adopted in part Buffon’s hypo- thesis, state the globules, of which they suppose all organic bodies formed, to be capable of motion; and Muller distin- guishes these moving organic globules from real Animalcules, with which, he adds, they have been confounded by some very respectable observers. In 1814 Dr. James Drummond, of Belfast, published in the 7th volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh, a valuable Paper, entitled ‘* On certain Appearances observed in the Dissection of the Eyes of Fishes.” In this Essay, which I regret I was entirely aka ere wit Mr. Brown’s Additional Remarks on Active Molecules. 165 with when I printed the account of my Observations, the au- thor gives an account of the very remarkable motions of the spicula which form the silvery part of the choroid coat of the eyes of fishes. These spicula were examined with a simple microscope, and as opake objects, a strong light being thrown upon the drop of water in which they were suspended. The appearances are minutely described, and very ingenious reasoning employed to show that, to account for the motions, the least improbable conjecture is to suppose the spicula animated. As these bodies were seen by reflected and not by trans- mitted light, a very correct idea of their actual motions could hardly be obtained; and with the low magnifying powers necessarily employed with the instrument and in the man- ner described, the more minute nearly spherical particles or active Molecules which, when higher powers were used, I have always found in abundance along with the spicula, en- tirely escaped observation. . Dr. Drummond’s researches were strictly limited to the spicula of the eyes and scales of fishes; and as he does not appear to have suspected that particles having analogous mo- tions might exist in other organized bodies, and far less in inorganic matter, I consider myself anticipated by this acute observer only to the same extent as by Gleichen, and in a much less degree than by Muller, whose statements have been already alluded to. All the observers now mentioned have confined themselves to the examination of the particles of organic bodies. In 1819, however, Mr. Bywater, of Liverpool, published an account of Microscopical Observations, in which it is stated that not only organic tissues, but also inorganic substances, consist of what he terms animated or irritable particles. A second edition of this Essay appeared in 1828, probably altered in some points, but it may be supposed agreeing es- sentially in its statements with the edition of 1819, which I have never seen, and of the existence of which I was ignorant when I published my pamphlet. From the edition of 1828, which I have but lately met with, it appears that Mr. Bywater employed a compound micro- scope of the construction called Culpepper’s, that the object was examined in a bright sunshine, and the light from the mirror thrown so obliquely on the stage as to give a blue colour to the infusion. The first experiment I here subjoin in his own words. ** A small portion of flour must be placed on a slip of glass, and mixed with a drop of water, then instantly applied to the microscope; 166 Mr. Prideaux on the Atomic Weight microscope; and if stirred and viewed by a bright sun, as al- ready described, it will appear evidently filled with innumer- able small linear bodies, writhing and twisting about with ex- treme activity.” Similar bodies, and equally in motion, were obtained from animal and vegetable tissues, from vegetable mould, from sand- stone after being made red hot, from coal, ashes, and other inorganic bodies. I believe that in thus stating the manner in which Mr. By- water’s experiments were conducted, I have enabled micro- scopical observers to judge of the extent and kind of optical illusion to which he was liable, and of which he does not seem to have been aware. I have only to add, that it is not here a question of priority; for if his observations are to be de- pended on, mine must be entirely set aside. July 28, 1829. XXV. On the Atomic Weight of Oxalic Acid and of Mercury. By Mr. Joun Pripeavx. ; To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. Gentlemen, [\ composing a scale of equivalents, now in course of publi- cation,—more extensive, and designed to be more practical, than the one now in use,—I had occasion to examine the atomic weight of mercury, which I fancied Dr. Thomson had doubled; and of oxalic acid in crystals, wherein Dr. Prout having found but three atoms of water, while Dr. Thomson had found four, the latter suggested the probability of more than one variety existing. Being accustomed to meet with two varieties of these crystals, one firm and transparent prisms, the other acicular, friable, and with the aspect of quadroxalate of potash; and happening to possess some of each, I thought they might verify this suggestion. 1st.—18 grains of the friable crystals were dissolved in dis- tilled water, and gradually mixed with a solution of 36 grains of dry transparent crystals of carbonate of soda. The mix- ture, boiled to drive off the carbonic acid, reddened litmus paper; and required for neutralization 5°15 grains of carbo- nate of soda. A minute portion more gave signs of alkali. 2nd.—9 grains of the same acid were neutralized with am- monia, and 6°25 grains of carbonate of lime, in clean rhombic crystals, were placed in a test tube with a little distilled water, adding muriatic acid, three drops at a time, until with the aid of heat it was dissolved, when it was washed out into the seg- ment of a Florence flask and slowly evaporated to dryness. Being of Oxalic Acid and of Mercury. 167 Being redissolved in distilled water, it was poured into the oxalate of ammonia, and thoroughly mixed. When the li- quid had become clear, a drop of it in a watch-glass became turbid with muriate of lime. 0°89 grains of carbonate of lime, treated as above, and gradually added, rendered the liquid insensible to either muriate of lime or oxalic acid. A very small additional portion of muriate made it answer to the latter. 3rd.—74 grains of the same acid, treated as above, with 63 grains carbonate of lime, the liquid was not affected by either the acid or the muriate. A portion of it was poured off, gently evaporated to dryness, and redissolved in a few drops of distilled water. Oxalic acid was added to it, at intervals, till the latter equalled the quantity of salt; but the liquid con- tinued pellucid throughout. 4th.—An ounce of the same acid was re-crystallized, in a solution as dilute as would readily form crystals. ‘They were still acicular, but firm and transparent. 9 grains treated as in Experiment 2, with 6°25 grains of carbonate of lime, required 0°89 grains additional to throw down the acid. 5th.—9 grains of short firm prisms, which I had crystal- lized three years ago, treated in the same way with 6°25 grains carbonate of lime, disappointed me, by still requiring 0°89 grains carbonate. In both these experiments exact satura- tion was ascertained by concentration as in Experiment 3, the tests being applied both before and after. In adopting, therefore, 73 as the number for oxalic acid in crystals, I do not mean any suspicion on Dr. Thomson’s accu- racy; but suppose that our Northern brethren of ceconomical renown have learned how to clear 124 per cent on the cry- stallization. With respect to mercury, as I do not think the case admits of positive decision, probabilities are all we have to expect. The inertness and dross-like aspect of the black oxide are somewhat indicative of a suboxide; calomel would seem to be a subchloride ; and the protonitrate and salts precipitated from it possess the characteristics of subsalts; being very analogous to those of copper, allowing for the difference of affinities and of the consequent tendency to decompose acids and water. Both are so classed by Dr. Wollaston and by Berzelius. Of the persalts of mercury, it does not appear in any che- mical book I possess, that since the establishment of the ato- mic theory they have undergone any examination on the plan of compound decomposition, so admirably employed by Dr. Thomson. They have been formed by pushing the solution of that metal, by heat, in sulphuric and nitric acids, as far as it 168 Mr. Prideaux on the Atomic Weight it would go,—a method by which definite proportions were not likely to be attained. It is to be remarked, however, that the nitric and sulphuric solutions thus made are decomposed by water into sub-” and “ bi-” salts: that red oxide is produced by the decomposition of sulphuric acid; and that silver and mercury yield analogous compounds by the action of nitric acid and alcohol, in which the former metal is in the state of protoxide, the latter of red oxide. ‘These facts lead to the in- ference, that red oxide is the oxide of 1 atom of each ingre- dient; that the “ super” sulphate and ‘‘ super” nitrate are de- ficient in acid; and the “ bi-” salts compounds of one atom acid and one oxide. The property of reddening vegetable blues belongs to the salts of copper and some others, as well as to these. The following experiments were conducted upon the sup- position that 17 represents the atom of corrosive sublimate, consisting of Mercury anssesisiss fen 225 Chlorine... ..s.ss0.8 0405 1st.—The “ bi-” sulphate is familiar to chemists, but I was disposed to obtain it by double decomposition. Solutions be- ing made in distilled water of 17 grains corrosive sublimate, and 153 grains crystallized sulphate of copper, were mixed hot and set to crystallize. Solutions also of 17 grains sublimate and 20} grains crystallized sulphate of soda were mixed, and gradually evaporated at about 200°. In both the muriate of mercury crystallized out, in the latter contrary to my ex- pectation; and as no other unexceptionable method occurred to me, and the salt was already known, this experiment was abandoned. 2nd.—Solutions of 17 grains corrosive sublimate and 21°5 grains crystallized nitrate of silver were mixed hot and well shaken together ; the chloride of silver fell rapidly, and the clear liquor reddened litmus paper. Alternately evaporated and set aside, it refused to crystallize till reduced to dryness. 3rd.—Solutions of 17 grains sublimate and 233 crystallized acetate of lead were mixed warm. Muriate of lead subsided, and the clear liquor smelt stronger of acetic acid, but did not affect test paper much more than the solution of acetate of lead. ‘Two of these mixtures were made: the first (@) evapo- rated at about 200°, and occasionally set aside; the other (0) left to spontaneous evaporation in the warm air over the sand- bath. (a) when reduced to about a drachm began to deposit nacreous follicules, striated as if fibrous; and the liquid dried away in the course of the night, leaving slender rhombic prisms. (b) began to crystallize whilst more than a drachm remained, and was removed to a cold place, where some opaque white crystals of Oxalic Acid and of Mercury. 169° crystals were deposited. Being afterwards reduced on a water- bath, and set aside to dry uway, it left prisms like the second crop of (2). None of these crystals were deliquescent. ‘hose produced by spontaneous evaporation readily dissolved quite clear in a small quantity of warm distilled water, and gave the characteristic orange-yellow with solution of potash. The prisms and follicules dissolved still more freely in their own weight of cold water; but left a white sediment, which was quickly taken up by a drop of acetic acid. The latter crystals retain their acid with great energy, giving, whether imperfectly dissolved alone, or perfectly by the aid of acetic acid, a white precipitate with solution of potash, unless concentrated; in which case the characteristic yellow appears. These acetates remain for further examination. 4th.—Solutions of 17 grains sublimate and 18 dry clear crystals of carbonate of soda were mixed cold, and a similar mixture afterwards made, boiling hot. Dull brick-red_preci- pitates fell, without effervescence, the liquor retaining a slight similar tinge. Poured off and set to evaporate, brick-red cry- stalline scales continued to form on the surface till reduced to dryness; and a minute portion redissolved with the muriate of soda, from which I did not succeed in completely sepa~ rating it. 5th.—Solutions of 17 grains sublimate and of 7% grains cry- stals of oxalic acid, neutralized with 18 grains carbonate of soda, were mixed warm:—no precipitate ensued. The mix- ture was evaporated nearly to dryness, during which a white powder subsided. Distilled water being poured on to dissolve the muriate of soda, the solution did not affect litmus paper. 6th.—Similar mixtures were made, containing 93 grains crystals of tartaric acid and 9} grains crystals of citric acid, similarly neutralized. No precipitates took place on mixing; nor did they redden litmus paper more than the solution of sublimate. Evaporating and setting by to crystallize, produced little effect on the citric solution; but the muriate of mercury crystallized out of the tartaric. They were then three times evaporated to dryness on a water-bath, adding two drachms of distilled water, to wash away the muriate of soda, after each desiccation : but the precipitates were not sufficiently insoluble to allow of an effectual separation ; and the liquid continued to redden litmus paper, particularly the tartaric, where the de- composition was least complete. All the precipitates of Ex- periments 5 and 6 became orange-coloured in solution of po-~ tash. I attempted to produce the oxalate, citrate and tartrate, by combining the acids in atomic proportions, with the red oxide and the precipitated carbonate; but after long digestion N.S. Vol. 6. No. 33. Sept. 1829. Z in 170 On the Atomic Weight of Oxalic Acid and of Mercury. in the cold, repeated desiccation on a gentle sand heat, and some hours boiling, the combination was incomplete in every instance. Dr. Thomson states (First Principles, vol. ii. p. 404) that pernitrate of mercury, which he had accidentally formed, con- sisted of Nitric acid). .éspsaccsseccsees 6°75 Peroxide of mercury...... 27° which he makes one atom of each. But on the affusion of water it was decomposed, peroxide remaining. The same happens with the “ super” sulphates and “super” nitrates produced by heat; except that the residual salts are subsulphates and sub- nitrates. Surely this decomposition indicates a deficiency, not an excess cf acid ; and it does not take place with the salts pro- duced by double decomposition from corrosive sublimate. The acetate which gave out some acid by heat in evaporation, de- composed in water, like the “super” nitrate, &c. and required a little additional acetic acid to complete the solution. That which crystallized by spontaneous evaporation dissolved per-~ fectly; as do the sulphate, nitrate and muriate, with the same equivalent of acid. In precipitating a metallic bicarbonate in a nearly boiling solution, some effervescence would be ex- pected; yet none occurred in Experiment 4, though part of the carbonate remained dissolved, and was subjected to the heat of a boiling water-bath. It would also be a curious cir- cumstance, if a metallic binoxalate should be so exactly pre- cipitated, that the supernatant liquor would not affect litmus paper, as in Experiment 5, more particularly where, as in that case, evaporation, or heat, was necessary to induce any preci- pitation at all. The inference follows, that these are not bi- salts; nor the others with the same equivalent of acid. ‘The results of the 6th Experiment do not bear upon the question, at least not favourably to my view of it; but it seemed fair to quote them. There is an objection to the inference above, that if the red be a deutoxide of mercury, it should require two atoms of acid; an objection equally applicable to the salts of copper. But these salts do not manifest the repugnance to crystallization which usually characterizes the salts of such peroxides; and I am not acquainted with any metallic bicarbonate capable of sup- porting the heat of boiling water. Cinnabar, the most inti- mate combination of mercury with sulphur, and which there- fore (without evidence to the contrary) should be regarded as atom to atom, consists of Sulphur... 2° Mercury... 12°5 Thus giving the same number for mercury as inferred above, and Dr. Hare on the Sliding-Rod Eudiometer, §c. 171 and which upon the whole appears to me the most probable. It nearly corresponds with that of Dr. Wollaston (12°55), and is much more convenient, on the scale, than its double as given by Dr. Thomson. I am, gentlemen, respectfully, &c. Joun PripEaux. P.S.—I shall, with your permission, send a description of the scale on another occasion: only adding here, that it is double ; containing nearly five hundred substances: so dis- posed as, with a little practice, to be as easy of reference as Dr. Wollaston’s, which in dimensions it nearly resembles. Plymouth, June 12, 1829. XXVI. On the Construction and Applications of the improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope. By RoBERt Hare, M.D. of Philadelphia. (Concluded from p. 122.] Description of the Volumescope. [N the following page there is an engraving of an instrument (fig. 5.) which I have advantageously employed, in order to illustrate the experimental basis of the theory of volumes, and some other eudiometric phenomena. As I find it very inconvenient not to have a name for every variety of apparatus, I shall call this instrument a Volume- scope. It consists of a very stout glass tube, of 36 inches in height, and tapering in diameter inside from 23 to 14 inches. ‘The least thickness of the glass is at the lower end, and is there about $ths of aninch. ‘There is an obvious increase in thick- ness towards the top within the space of about 6 inches. The tube is situated between the iron rods I I, which are riveted at their lower ends to a circular plate of the same metal let into the lower surface of a square piece of plank. ‘This piece of plank supports the tube so as to be concentric with an aper- ture corresponding with the bore of the tube, and constituting effectively its lower orifice. ‘The upper orifice of the tube is closed by a stout block of mahogany, which receives a disk of greased leather in a corresponding hollow, formed by means of a lathe, so as to be of the same diameter as the end of the tube. Into a perforation in the centre of the mahogany block communicating with the bore of the tube, a cock C, furnished with a gallows screw, is inserted. Through the block on each side of the perforation, wires are introduced so as to be air- tight. ‘To the upper end % these wires, gallows screws gg 2 are 172 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the are attached. The lower ends of the wires, within the tube, are made to communicate by means of a fine platina wire fastened to them by solder. Fig. 5. / i (« A VAS 2 ) The apparatus being so far prepared, let it be firmly fixed over the pneumatic cistern, so that the water may rise about an inch above the lower extremity of the tube. To the gallows screws gg, attach two leaden rods, severally proceeding from the poles of a calorimotor. By means of a leaden pipe, re duce a communication between the bore of the cock and an air-pump, so that by pumping the air from the cavity of the tube, the water of the cistern may be made to rise into the space thus exhausted of air. On each side of the tube, and between it and each iron rod, there is a strip of wood scored so improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope. 173 so as to graduate about four inches of the tube into eight equal parts. These parts were measured by introducing into the tube previously filled with water one hundred measures of air, from a sliding-rod gas measure, eight times, and marking the’ height of the water after each addition*. As each degree thus indicated by the strips will be equal to 100 of those of the sliding-rod, the whole may be considered either as comprising eight hundred measures of the latter, or as eight volumes, each divisible into 100 parts by means of the gas measure. The apparatus being so far prepared and the tube exhausted of air so as to become full of water, close the cock leading to the air-pump, introduce two volumes of pure hydrogen, and one volume of pure oxygen, which may be most conveniently and accurately effected by the sliding-rod gas measure. The plates of the calorimotor being in the next place excited by the acid, the ignition of the platina wire ensues, and causes the hydrogen and oxygen to explode. When they are pure, the subsequent condensation is so complete, that the'water will pro- | duce a concussion as it rises forcibly against the leathern disk, which, aided by the mahogany block, has been represented as closing the upper orifice of the tube. If the preceding experiment be repeated with an excess of either gas, it will be found that a quantity equal to the excess will remain after the explosion. ‘This is very evident when the excess is just equal to one volume, because in that case just one volume will remain uncondensed. By these means, a satisfactory illustration is afforded of the simple and invariable ratio in which the gaseous elements of water unite, when mixed and inflamed; which is a fact of great importance to the atomic theory, and to the theory of volumes. Application of the Volumescope to the Illustration of the Ratio, tn which Nitric Oxide, and the Oxygen in Atmospheric Air, are condensed by admizture. The tube being filled with water by exhausting it of air, as in the preceding experiment, let five volumes of atmospheric air be introduced into it. Afterwards by means of a volume- ter or sliding-rod gas measure, add at once three volumes of nitric oxide. In the next place fill the syphon S Y, (fig. 4.) and the caoutchouc bag attached to it, with water, and pass the leg Y up through the bore of the eudiometer-tube; then by al- ternate pressure and relaxation, the water may be propelled from the bag, through the syphon into the gaseous mixture, so as to accelerate the absorption. If in five volumes of atmospheric air there be one of oxygen * See Phil. Mag. and Annals, vol. vy. p. 129. gas, 174 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the gas, there will be just enough to condense two volumes of ni- Fig. 4. tric oxide by converting them into nitrous acid. Of course of the eight volumes in the tube, three will disappear and five re- main. Hence the gas after the absorption of the red fumes will occupy the same space as the air before the introduction of the ni- tric oxide. The extent of the deviation, from this result, may be measured by intro- ducing hydrogen by means of the sliding- rod gas measure, until the quantity added causes the gas to extend to the next gra- duation. By these means it is easy to as- certain how much the residue differs from five or six volumes. I have always found it rather less than five volumes. It is pleasing to observe the perfect co- incidence between the results, whether at- mospheric air be analysed in the volume- scope by explosion with hydrogen, or by its spontaneous reaction with nitric oxide, five volumes of air being in the one case mingled with three of nitric oxide, in the other with a like proportion of hydrogen. I am the more gratified at being enabled to make this state- ment, as the directions given by such eminent chemists as Dalton, Gay-Lussac, Henry, and Thomson, are discordant. Gay-Lussac has given a formula, agreeably to which one- fourth of the condensation produced by a mixture of equal parts of atmospheric air and nitric oxide, is to be assumed as the at- mospheric oxygen present. As nitric oxide consists of a vo- lume of nitrogen and a volume of oxygen, uncondensed ; to convert it into nitrous acid, which consists of a volume of nitrogen and two volumes of oxygen, would require one volume of oxygen: of course if nitrous acid be the product, one-third of the deficit produced would be the quantity of atmospheric oxygen present.’ This would be too much to cor- respond with the formula of Gay-Lussac. Supposing hypo-nitrous acid produced, only one-half as much oxygen would be required as is necessary to produce nitrous acid; so that instead of two volumes of nitric oxide taking one volume, they would take only a half volume. The ratio of } in 2} is the same as one in five or 3, which is too little for Gay-Lussac’s rule. The formula recommended by Dr. Thomson, agreeably to which, one-third of the deficit is to be ascribed to oxygen gas, is , improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope. 175 is perfectly consistent with the theory of volumes, and much more consonant with my experiments, than that recommended by the celebrated author of that admirable theory. The late Professor Dana ingeniously reconciled Gay-Lus- sac’s statement, with the theory of volumes, by suggesting that one half-volume of oxygen may take one volume of the nitric oxide, and another half-volume of oxygen two volumes. 4 vol. oxygen takes 1 vol. oxide, and forms nitrous acid. 2 — oxide,and forms hypo-nitrous acid. — Deficit due to oxygen gas as 1 to 3. This result is evidently dependent upon the contingencies which may prevent nitrous acid from being the predominant product. I have accordingly found it precarious in at least 100 experiments, accurately made with the sliding-rod eudiometer, of which an engraving and de- scription will be found in the Philosophical Magazine, vol, lxvil. page 29 *. Application of the Volumescope to the Analysis of Carbonic Oxide, or to that of Olefiant Gas, so as to show that the Re- sult confirms the Theory of Volumes. Carbonic oxide requiring for its saturation half its bulk of oxygen; in order to analyse it in the apparatus last described, , after the preliminary preparations mentioned as necessary, in case of the gaseous elements of water, introduce two volumes of carbonic oxide, and one of oxygen gas, and ignite the pla- tina wire. A feeble explosion will take place, and one volume will disappear. ‘To complete the analysis, by means of a fun- nel screwed on to the cock inserted into the perforation in the mahogany block at the top of the eudiometer, lime-water may be introduced, and thus all the carbonic acid, generated by * 1 will here mention the mode of operating with that instrument which I find preferable. The receiver being filled with water and immersed in the pneumatic cistern, the apex A being just even with the surface of the water, by drawing out the rod of the eudiometer, take into the tube 100 measures of atmospheric air and transfer them to the receiver. Next take 50 measures of nitric oxide from a bell as above described, andadd them to the air in the receiver, without allowing the gasto have any contact with the water, which is not inevitable. Wash the mixture with a jet of water, which is easily prortaced from the apex of the instrument, and draw the whole of the residual gas into the tube, continuing to draw out the rod till 150 gra- duations appear. In the next place eject the residual gas from the instru- ment; the number of graduations of the rod which remain on the outside of the tube shows the deficit produced by the absorption of the oxygen and nitric oxide in the state of nitrous acid. If of this deficit, one.third be ascribed to the atmospheric oxygen, the result will agree very nearly with those obtained by exploding atmospheric air and hydrogen, in the same proportion, in the sliding-rod eudiometer. the 176 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the the combustion of the carbonic oxide with the oxygen gas, - may be absorbed. Of course, if the gases be pure, the absorp- tion will be complete. It might perhaps be found preferable to introduce lime-water by means of the syphon and bag, fig. 4. Accordance of the Analysis of Olefiant Gas with the Theory of Volumes, illustrated by the Volumescope. As a volume of olefiant gas consists of two volumes of hy- drogen and two volumes of carbon vapour, if it be exploded with an excess of oxygen, say four volumes, all the hydrogen, and one volume of oxygen, will be converted into water. Mean- while two volumes of oxygen, uniting with two of carbon va- pour, will constitute two volumes of carbonic acid. ‘These may be absorbed by lime-water introduced as in the case of carbonic oxide. It follows that one volume of oxygen will remain. Analysis of a Mixture of Carbonic Oxide, with one or more of the Gaseous Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen. If olefiant gas be present, it may be condensed by mingling in any tall narrow vessel protected from light over water, 100 measures of the mixture, with 200 measures of chlorine; and at the end of about a quarter of an hour, agitating the residue with a caustic alkaline solution, to remove any excess of the last- mentioned gas*. ‘The measurement may be easily performed by means of the sliding-rod eudiometer (described in the Phil. Mag. vol. lxvii. p. 29), the residue being transferred into, and measured from the receiver, (fig. 2, same page,) agreeably to the instructions given in the case of nitric oxide, article 148. The bihydroguret of carbon, usually called carburetted hy- drogen}, consists of two volumes of hydrogen and one of car- bon condensed into one volume. ‘This gas not being conden- sible by chlorine, when light is excluded, a mixture of it with carbonic oxide should be analysed by the following process. Being mixed with three times its bulk of oxygen gas within the bell-glass ON, communicating with the receiver of the sliding- rod eudiometer (fig. 1. page 115 of last Number), an adequate quantity may be exploded, pursuant to the directions in the case of carbonic oxide and olefiant gas. More than half a cubic inch of the gaseous mixture, with the necessary addition of oxygen, cannot be safely exploded at once in any ordinary eudiometer: but by successive opera- tions a large quantity may be exploded, and inferences may be founded upon the accumulated result. * See Traité de Chimie, par 'Thenard, vol. v. page 34. + It is sometimes called light carburetted hydrogen. Let improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope. 177 Let it be imagined that the relative weights of the gaseous mixture in question, of the oxygen gas added to it, and of the carbonic acid produced, have been calculated by multiplying their respective quantities, as ascertained by the eudiometer, by their specific gravities. Since a mixture of carbonic oxide and bihydroguret of car- bon, by combustion with an excess of oxygen, must be wholly converted into water and carbonic acid, and since the carbonic acid is entirely absorbed by lime-water, it follows that the re- sidual gas must be the unconsumed portion of the oxygen gas added to the mixture. Deducting this residual oxygen from the whole quantity of this gas employed, the remainder is the quantity consumed. The weight of the oxygen consumed added to the weight of the gaseous mixture must constitute the whole weight of the products, consisting, according to the premises, of water and carbonic acid only, and deducting the latter, the remainder will be the whole weight of the water generated. Of this, agreeably to the table of equivalents, $ths must be oxygen, and }th hydrogen. And since the ratio of the carbon to the oxygen, in carbonic acid, is as 75 to 200, #,°-ths or 3,ths of the weight of the acid produced will be carbon, and 29°ths or ;8ths oxygen. If we add, therefore, 8ths of the weight of the water to {ths of that of the acid, we shall have the weight of all the oxygen in the products. If from the weight thus ascertained, we deduct that of all the oxygen gas consumed, the remainder will be the weight of oxygen in the mixture before the oxygen gas was added. This portion of oxygen is that which entered into the composition of the carbonic oxide, and must, agreeably to the table of equivalents, have been to the carbon in union with it, as 4 to $3. Deducting the weight of the carbon, thus ascer- tained to exist in the carbonic oxide, from that in the car- bonic acid, as above stated, the remainder will be the weight of carbon in the carburetted hydrogen. The rule may be thus briefly expressed. From the sum of the weights of the gaseous mixture, and oxygen gas consumed, deduct the carbonic acid generated. To 8ths of the remainder, add ,°;ths of the weight of the car- bonic acid, and deduct the weight of oxygen consumed. ‘The remainder will be the oxygen of the oxide. The carbon in it will be one-fourth less, and this carbon deducted from ;%;ths of the weight of the carbonic acid will give the weight of the carbon united to the hydrogen *. When * The problem may be stated algebraically as follows :— Let M be the weight of the gaseous mixture, O, of the oxygen gas consumed. C, of the carbonic acid generated and absorbed. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 33. Sept. 1829. 2A Then 178 Dr. Hare on the Construction and Applications of the When there is a copious supply of the gas to be examined, the barometer-gauge eudiometer may, be used advantageously; as much larger quantities of gas may be exploded in it than could be exploded in the same time in the sliding-rod eudio- meter. In order to render the process with the barometer-gauge eudiometer safe, the quantity introduced in the first instance should be as small as can be ignited. Afterwards successive portions may be introduced and exploded until the receiver be nearly full of the residual gas. That this operation may be still more secure, I propose to employ, as a receiver, an iron bottle (such as are used to hold mercury) surmounted by a very stout glass tube, in which the platina wire may be si- Then M + O will constitute the whole weight of the products. And M + O—C the whole weight of water. 8 Also 9 (M+0-C) = all the oxygen in the water. 8C f 4 FT Will be all the oxygen in the carbonic acid. Cc : a all the carbon in that acid, and consequently the whole con- tained in the products. = (M+O—C)+ ao will be all the oxygen in the products. And > (M+0—C)+ “<= 0 will be that portion of oxygen which existed previously in the gas, which call X. We have therefore the following equation, __ 8M480-8C —— ALLA hater + oo — O. Whichmaybethusreduced. J+88 O—88 C+72C Tee eae eo a 99 88 M+88 O—16C c= ——__—__——_—__— O. # 99 -__ 88 M488 O—16 C—99 O rhe 99 _ 88M—16C—110 Pees Ce ae It follows from the atomic weights, and the premises, that 3X xX é = the carbon in carbonic oxide. And X + = = weight of car- bonic oxide. Also sess = the carbon united to hydrogen. Y x M+0O-C A And aS — oe + =o = weight of carburetted hydrogen. tuated, improved Sliding-Rod Eudiometer and of the Volumescope. 179 tuated, which is to cause ignition. ‘This tube would be the only part of the apparatus which it would be desirable to have transparent. Indeed transparency may be dispensed with al- together, the explosion being perceptible from the noise, and the effect upon the gauge. Analysis of a Gaseous Mixture in which Bihydroguret of Car- bon, Carbonic Oxide, and either Hydrogen or Azote, or both the latter, are intermingled. When, as in the case under consideration in the preceding article, there is no azote present, the gas which remains after the action of the lime-water may be considered as oxygen; but if azote be present, the residual gas must be analysed in order to ascertain the quantity of oxygen which remains unconsumed. This is easily accomplished by propelling the residual gas into the receptacle for carbonic acid R, fig. 1, and substitu- ting a self-regulating reservoir of hydrogen for the bell-glass. Then having filled the gauge and pipes with the pure hydro- gen, by the manipulation already described in the case of oxy- gen, the residual gas may be drawn into the receiver, exploded, and the resulting deficit ascertained ; to one-third of which the oxygen is equivalent. Instead of resorting to the method just mentioned, the re- sidual gas, after being included in the receptacle, may be trans- ferred to the pneumatic cistern, and analysed by the aqueous sliding-rod eudiometer. If we subtract from the weight of the “ reszdual gas,” the weight of the oxygen found in it, the remainder being both in- combustible and insusceptible of absorption by lime-water, should be considered as the weight of the azote. This would have to be deducted from that of the gaseous mixture, the calculation being otherwise unaltered. If after having analysed a gaseous mixture, agreeably to the directions given in the last article, it be found that the quantity of hydrogen indicated exceed in weight, one-third of the carbon allotted to it, the excess must be considered as pure hydrogen; since, agreeably to the table of equivalents, the weight of the carbon in the bihydroguret is to the hydro- gen as 3 to 1*, * That is, putting H for the pure hydrogen, we should have fps MtOre trac aah 3 It 4 2A2 Method 180 Dr. Bache on the Analysis of certain Gaseous Mixtures, Method of ascertaining the Proportions of Bihydroguret of Car- bon and Carbonic Oxide in a Mixture of those Gases, provided no other inflammable Gas be present. By FRANKLIN Bache, M.D., &c. &c. Fe. I will here subjoin an excellent method of ascertaining the proportions of bihydroguret of carbon and carbonic oxide, in a mixture of those gases, which has been ingeniously and cor- rectly suggested by my friend Dr. Bache. ‘< ‘The proportion of carbonic oxide in a mixture of this gas and bihydroguret of carbon, may be calculated from the quan- tity of oxygen consumed by them when exploded, in the fol- lowing mannet. ‘* If we suppose a gas to be all bihydroguret of carbon, it will consume twice its volume of oxygen: if, on the other hand, it be all carbonic oxide, it will require half its volume for com- plete combustion. It must be evident, therefore, that a mix- ture of these gases will consume a volume of oxygen, inter- mediate between half the volume and twice the volume of the mixture; and that whatever may be the volume of the oxygen consumed, it will bear a constant proportion to the carbonic oxide present. * Reasoning from the analysis of the pure bihydroguret, which requires twice its volume for complete combustion, it must be apparent that the introduction of the least portion of carbonic oxide will necessarily diminish the quantity of the oxygen consumed. Now it will be found that this diminution of the quantity of the oxygen required, bears to the carbonic oxide present the constant ratio of 3 to 2. Hence we have this proportion :— * As 3 is to 2, So is the deficit of oxygen above alluded to, to the carbonic oxide present. “© This mode of calculating the carbonic oxide in the mix- ture supposed, may be expressed in an algebraic formula, as follows :— “ Let M = volume of the gaseous mixture, and O = volume of oxygen consumed. 2M—Ox2 : . Then = volume of carbonic oxide present. And as carbonic oxide contains half its volume of oxygen, then 2M—O = volume of oxygen in the carbonic oxide.” This methed is evidently preferable in the case of a mixture known to consist of pure bihydroguret and carbonic oxide: but unfortunately it is inapplicable if hydrogen be present in any . Prof. Encke on Hadley’s Sextant. 181 any other state than as a definite compound with carbon, re- quiring twice its volume of oxygen for saturation. The pro- cess of Dr. Bache is not competent to inform us what the gases are; but enables us, when their nature is known, to discover their proportions. XXVII. On Hadley’s Sextant. (From Prof. Encke’s Ephemeris for 1830, p. 285.) (Continued from p. 92.] [TX thus using the sextant as a heliotrope, the angle between the sun and the object must not much exceed 90°; but this defect may be easily remedied by using a large mirror for re- flecting the image of the sun. It will perhaps be useful to mention in this place a circumstance which at first sight may appear strange. If we measure the angles between objects in which parallel lines are visible, and whose angular distance is not very smail, these parallel lines will intersect each other at very sensible angles while bringing the images to coincidence whenever the plane of the sextant must be considerably in- clined to these lines. The doubly reflected image retains the same inclination towards the plane of the sextant taken in the same sense, after the double reflexion; but for this very reason the lines lose their parallelism. Let us designate, for brevity, the plane which the parallel lines intersect at right angles, by the name of horizon (from the case which most frequently occurs), and let us call the elevations of the objects above the horizon / and h', and next form the triangle between the zenith and the two objects. In this triangle, let the angle at the zenith = A, the interior angle at the direct image = C, and the exterior angle at the doubly reflected image = B; and the angle at which the vertical images will intersect each other will be = B—C. By Napier’s analogies, or Gauss’s formule, we obtain tang 3 (B—C) = gar tang 4 A and introducing the measured angle s 1—tan h'—h)? cot® 452 tang }(B—C)= tang }s.tang }(h! +h)V(- oe The quantity under the radical sign will seldom much differ from 1, so that the first two factors will be sufficient. Whoever possesses the proper astronomical apparatus will have no difficulty in determining the constants here required. Let it suffice here to suggest a method which requires only such simple apparatus as every body may easily procure. An instrument for determining the position of the plane of the sextant is indispensably requisite. For the use of the sextant 182 - Prof. Encke on Hadley’s Seatant. sextant it is only necessary to know it to the nearest mi- nute, which may be easily attained by a common level, or some other method. In fact, the equally high sight vanes, or the trial telescope which has been proposed for this pur- pose, come under the description of levels. . Besides the level, all that is absolutely required will be a detached telescope fur- nished with cross wires, whose magnifying power need not be greater than that of the telescope of the sextant, but which ought to have a large aperture; a sweeper will best answer this purpose. The telescopes of sextants have commonly two wires, between which the contact is to be observed. Fora more accurate determination of the line of collimation, cross wires are besides placed nearly in the middle between the two former wires. One may at first ascertain the distance of each wire from the intersection of the cross wires. For this pur- pose they are to be placed, as nearly as the eye can judge, per- pendicular to the plane of the sextant; then the direct image of a clear and distinct terrestrial object is to be placed in the intersection of the cross wires, while the image of the same object by double reflexion is bisected by one of the lateral wires. Let the angle read off after this operation be called s, which is to be taken as negative if it is on the arc of excess. The two images are next made to change places, so that the direct image is now on the lateral wire, and the doubly re- flected one on the intersection of the cross wires, and let the angle then be = s'. It will appear from fig. 1. (‘See above, p. 85.) that under these circumstances, calling the distance of the la- teral wire m (positive if to the right of the cross wire), we have s—Co =m— - sin 26 and s!—c,= — m— 2 sin 2 (8—m) whence m= 4(s—s') + L sin m .cos (2 B—m) co= 3 (st+s')+ f cos m. sin (28—m) The sign of m will without any uncertainty decide the po- sition of the lateral wire, if, agreeably to the rule constantly to be observed, we consider as negative such s’s as fall on the are of excess, These determinations serve for having in the field of vision an estimate of the errors still remaining. Let the wires now be placed parallel to the plane of the sextant, and let this plane be put into an exactly horizontal position while the telescope points to a clear terrestrial object having some distinct points on it. It will now be convenient to take away the small mirror which is in the way of seeing the object, as also the coloured screens, if they should be found to interfere with this operation. The Prof. Encke on Hadley’s Sextant. 183 The detached telescope is now to be placed behind the sex- tant, so that its line of collimation is as nearly as possible in the same level with that of the telescope of the sextant, and is to be directed to the same point. If the telescope has a large aperture, the intermediate position of the sextant will not be any great obstacle to distinct sight. The sextant is now turned 180°, and its plane is again brought into a horizontal position; if we now look into the detached telescope, the coincidence of the two points of intersection of the cross wires of both tele- scopes will prove that there is no error of inclination; if they do not coincide, the distance of the two points will be = 22. It will not be difficult to take one half of this distance, be- cause, on the above supposition, we see through the detached telescope, at the same time, the point previously determined, and the cross wires of the telescope of the sextant. If the te- lescope is therefore directed to the point of bisection of this distance, and if the position of the telescope of the sextant is then so corrected as to cover the intersection of the wires in their new position, we shall have at least nearly 7 = 0, as will be seen by repeating the operation by way of verification. ‘The ring into which the telescope of the sextant is screwed, is com- monly furnished with means of correction by turning about two points; otherwise the place in the field of vision is to be marked by a new cross wire; or, if the distance is small, taken by estimation from its relative position to the lateral wires. In some trials in this observatory with a sextant made by Troughton, in which at first very rough methods were applied, and afterwards in applying more accurate ones the terrestrial object was replaced by the cross wires of an altitude circle, a difference of 30" was found, the cause of which was entirely to be attributed to the deficient methods of levelling first used. With common care it will, however, be easy to ascertain z as accurately as the power of the telescope of the sextant will admit. By means of the sextant’s telescope thus adjusted, let the line of collimation of the detached telescope in a lateral position be made horizontal, the sextant being placed hori- zontally, and the position of the detached telescope bein changed until its cross wires cover that place of the field of the sextant’s telescope, for which i= 0. ‘The angle which the line of collimation in this new position makes with the former object, may be measured by the sextant; let it = p. If the sextant is now turned in the same horizontal plane until the image of the former object in the same horizontal plane, once reflected by the large mirror, is seen in the telescope, this will furnish the means of determining /. If the cross wires cover the object exactly in the various positions of the large mirror, 184 Prof. Encke on Hadley’s Sexrtant. mirror, 2 will = 0. If this be not possible, observe the ob- jects to which the telescope points, with the sextant’s telescope, and the known distance of the lateral wires will afford means of estimation sufficiently accurate for the present purpose. If the angular distance of this point (positive if north) from the one formerly determined be = q, we obtain by the solution of the right-angled triangle whose hypothenuse is bisected, sing 2cos Lp - a/(cos 3g? + sin § g? tang $ p*) for which we may always put l= 4q.sech p. Accordingly as the index has been placed on 0°, 60°, 120°, or other angles, /,, 7,5 /2 will be found; and hence it will be seen whether it is necessary to introduce the quantities 4, y, a For any good sextant this will hardly ever be necessary. For the sextant above referred to, it was found that ' p being 89° 25’ ands = 0° g was = + 11! 20" sin 2 = =| 60 = +11 20 =120 =e 1a +O whence dy ey 758" is at dey PS Ls est! Q7 These differences cannot be ascribed to the instrument. They arise partly from the inequality of the different operations of levelling, partly from the impossibility of obtaining a firm po- sition for the detached telescope on the unsteady floor of our observatory: at any rate, their influence is entirely evanescent. The small mirror is now to be replaced, and the sextant, in a firm position, directed to an object the images of which are made to coincide on the intersection of the wires by means of the adjusting screws of the small mirror. By this process the small mirror is made parallel to the large one, and the reading off will give c,. Next let us look with the detached telescope into the large mirror, and let the intersection of the wires be directed to the image of the same object once reflected. If we then measure with the sextant the angle between this inter- section and the object, we shall have $—¢, = 28 — ee sin26, but as = t, + if sin2 8, we have 28=s—c, In Troughton’s sextant 28 was found = 33° 46! 40"; in one made by Ramsden, in the observatory of Seeberg, = 31° 30; in the one by Cary, in the observatory at Gottingen, accord- ing to Bohnenberger, = 30°. In general it will not differ much from Prof. Encke on Hadley’s Sextant. 185 from 30°, as on the one hand its magnitude determines that of the greatest angle which it is possible to measure, and on the other is limited again by the dimensions and the distance of the two mirrors. The small correction of 6 arising from the inclination of the large mirror is entirely to be neglected. By means of this operation we obtain likewise the index- error of the instrument. It seems that it is erroneously sup~ posed, that this error cannot be as accurately determined by terrestrial objects as by the sun. In most cases it is easy to obtain with sufficient accuracy the data requisite for the small correction, which is to be applied in the former case. If the object is projected on the sky, we have the advantage of a per- fectly quiet observation, while the sextant is firmly at rest, and the contact of the images may be made with greater accuracy than the sextant can be read off. We have at the same time a means of determining the errors of the coloured glasses by comparing the index-error thus determined with that obtained by each coloured glass. ‘The correction is the same for all angles, as the path of the rays through the coloured glasses is under all circumstances the same. There is another method of determining the angle 6 with the sextant only, by a process with which Prof. Gauss made me acquainted when showing me the use of the sextant for heliotropical purposes. If the great mirror is turned back as far as is requisite for nearly the greatest angle which the sex- tant is capable of measuring, an image will be obtained, after a single reflexion from the small mirror of such luminous ob- jects as send their rays closely past the frame of the large mirror directly to the small mirror. These images will only be visible on the left side of the field of view, as the light to the middle of it is intercepted by the large mirror. It will be ad- vantageous to cover the back of the small mirror by the co- loured glasses or otherwise, in order to prevent the direct rays from rendering invisible the images produced by single and double reflexion. In order to compare the paths of these two rays, let us sup- pose that the sextant is placed in the plane of the objects whose images are thus seen by single and double reflexion. The line of vision we suppose to be fixed; let its direction be A, (fig. 1.p. 85.) If we now suppose that the image seen by one reflexion is observed on one of the lateral wires whose positive distance, according to the above-stated assumption in deter- mining the distances of the wires, is = m; and if we count the angles from p to A, the first path of the once reflected ray from the eye will be in the direction 8 — m, and after the reflexion its direction from O is through the point 180°—(8—m), in N.S. Vol, 6. No. 33. Sept. 1829. 2B which 186 Prof. Encke on Hadley’s Sextant. which direction the object (neglecting the parallax) is situated. If at the same time the doubly reflected image of another ob- ject is observed on the lateral wire whose distance is m’, this object lies with regard to O in the direction 2 «+ B—m’; and if in this position of the sextant the reading is = s, we have S—C, = 2a; the difference of these two directions is the real angular di- stance of the two objects. If this distance is now actually measured with the sextant, the reading of which must then be = s', we shall have this equation : s'—c, = 180°—(B—m)—(s—c, -+ B—m') whence 26 = 180°—(s+s'—m—m! —2c,). In this case m must always be negative. Should the construc- tion of the sextant and the brightness of the images permit their being brought into contact on the same wire, which like- wise depends on the number of objects from which a selection is to be made, we shall have, calling the absolute distance of the wire m, 2B = 180°—(s+s'+ 2m—2 c,). The process is therefore as follows: Near the left side of the field of vision a wire is to be fixed, the absolute distance of which, m, is to be determined as shown above. On this, if possible, two objects are brought into contact after single and double reflexion, as near as possible to the horizontal wire of the cross wires, and the sextant read off; let the reading be s. Then the real angle of the objects is to be measured, and if the reading of the sextant in this measurement is = s', and c, the index-error, we shall have the angle £ by the preceding formula. It is clear that all adjustments of the sextant are here supposed to have been made. ‘The former of these ope- rations cannot well be performed without a stand. In Troughton’s sextant the distances of the two lateral wires from the middle one were nearly equal, each 33!. With 1= + 8, which is a sufficiently accurate mean value, we ob- tain, —2/* tang is s —2ktangis 9) Fh 3g! ounre} vi — ol 7 45 —0°1 80 pl ite 761 —0°2 90 —0°9 7 58 —0"S 100 ee 8 4 —0°4 110 =—T2 ee 120 =o O26 130 sr Se To the lower lateral wire corresponds i = + 33!, to the upper one Prof, Encke on Hadley’s Sextant. 187 one i =— 33'. If 7 had not been made = 0 but equal to the mean value of z!, the deviation would be equal on both sides, and this would perhaps be most convenient for the observa- tion. If we designate however, in the present case, the place of the image, if on the lower wire, by L, if in the middle be- tween the lower and central cross wire, by 3 L, and if in the same manner 4 U, and U denote similar positions with re- gard to the upper wire, as also C with regard to the central cross wire,—we may calculate the following table for the sex- tant of this observatory. ° pees 1 2. 3 4: § 6 8 o TTS dSAMK HSA If the ring of the telescope be sufficiently steady, this table of errors will be applicable for a long period, because J may be considered as perfectly invariable, provided means are taken to insure the parallel position of the mirrors. It is apparent from this table how far from the middle the contact of the images may be observed without committing considerable errors; and it is likewise clear that it is hardly to be expected that any number of observations with a sextant, however great, will give a large angle within three or four seconds ; partly on account of the inferior power of the telescopes of the sextant, and partly because all errors of observation with sextants with- out a stand have always the same sign. It really appears, that when this instrument first became known in Germany, its powers were overrated. 2B2 XXVIII. An fifadB8 0] XXVIII. An Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe ; with a List of the Species of each Genus, and Reference to one or more of their respec- tive Icones. By J.G. Cuitpren, F.R.S. L. §& E. F.L.S. &c. {Continued from page 107.] Genus 66. CARADRINA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Steph.)* Legs rather short, not very stout: femora with moderate fas- cicles of hair. Wings slightly deflexed, entire, very glossy; anterior with strigze and distinct stigmata. Palpi rather short, somewhat porrect, a little ascending, squamose, the terminal joint exposed at the apex ; triar- ticulate, slender, basal joint reniform, about one-third the length of the second, which is very long, slightly bent, and a little narrowed towards the apex; terminal minute, ovate-obtuse: mazille not longer than the antenne. Antenne slender, more or less ciliated in both sexes. Head small, densely squamose: eyes small, naked: thorax moderately stout, obsoletely crested. Larva naked. Pupa subterranean +. This genus is divided into four families, by Treitschke, ac- cording to the markings on the wings. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. Car.Glareosa, Esp.... Ernst, VII. PI.CCLIYV. £416. * In his 29th Number, which had not appeared when our last went to press, Mr. Stephens has adopted Ochsenheimer’s genus Calyptra, (Calpe, ‘ Treitsch.) with the following characters : * Palpi elongate, ascending, clothed with short capitate scales, which are rather longest in front of the two basal joints; the terminal joint scarcely less robust than the preceding; the basal joint shorter than the apical, rather stouter than the second, which is twice the length of the first, and a little acuminated at the apex, terminal joint nearly as long as the second, linear, its apex a little turned: maville rather short. Antenne rather short, robust, bipectinated to the apex in the males, the pectinations very short at the tip, subserrated and pubescent in the females: head transverse, with a tuft of scales on the forehead : eyes rather small, globose, naked; thorax stout, with a short acute crest anteriorly; abdomen rather stout, somewhat depressed, obtuse at the apex, the male with a subquadrate tuft: wings deflexed during repose; anterior deeply emarginate, and dentate on the hinder margin ; posterior slightly denticulate : /egs stout, woolly; two basal joints of the posterior tarsi with long fascicles of scales, especially in the male. Caterpillar slender, naked: pupa folliculate.’— Steph. Illust. Brit. Ent. Haust. Ul. 49. Only one British species. No. libatriz, Linn. + Characters from Stephens. Haust. II. p. 154. 2. Car. Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 189 Species. Icon, 2.Car. Morpheus, Gotze.. Ernst, VIL. Pl.CCLX.£406. e. 3. — Cubicularis, Hiibn. Ernst, VII. PIl.CCLX. f.403. a. 4, — LExigua, Hubn.... Hiubn. Noct.Tab.78. £362. (foem.) Fam. B. 5. Car.Palustris, Hubn. Hiibn. Noct.Tab. 79. £367. (mas.) 6. — Lenta, Treitsch.* 7. — Stagnicola,Treitsch.+ Fam. C. 8. Car.Superstes, Ochs. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLX. ff 406. a. 9. — Ambigua, Fab.....Hubn.Noct.Tab.125.£.576. (mas.) 10, — Blanda, Fab....... Hiibn.Noct.Tab.125.f.575. (mas.) 11. — Alsines, Hubn.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLX. f. 406. b—d. 12. — Respersa, Hubn... Hubn. Noct.Tab. 34.f.164. (foom.) 13. — Imers, Treitscht. Fam. D. 14. Car. Trilinea, Hiibn.§ Ernst, VI. PLLCCXX XVI. f. 344. a—c, 15. — Bilinea, Hibn.§ Hubn.Noct.Tab.45. f.217.(mas.) 16. — Virens, Linn....... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCIII. £495. Genus 67. SIMYRA, Ochs., Treitsch. Wings deflexed ; marked with bright streaks and interspersed dark spots, without any transverse bandings. * Car. alis anticis cinereo nitidis, strigis ordinariis fascidque media ni- gricantibus, macula orbiculari minima, atra; posticis plumbeis. — Ochs. Treitsch. V. pars Il. p. 257. + Car. alis anticis czruleo plumbeis, maculis duabus dilutioribus, orbi- culari solito majore, obliqua; posticis albidis fusco adspersis. — Ochs. Treitsch. l. c. p. 258. t Car. alis anticis flavo albicantibus, atomis griseis adspersis, serie punc- torum nigrorum unicd; posticis maris albis——Ochs. Treitsch. V. pars II. p: 271. § Gramnesia *, Stephens. “ Palpi short, scarcely ascending; densely squamous, the terminal joint with its apex only exposed ; triarticulate, not very slender, the basal joint above half the length of the second, reniform, contracted at the base; the second subcylindric; terminal, elongdte-ovate, somewhat acuminated at the apex, about one-third as long as the second: maville as long as the antenna. Antenne rather long, serrated in the males, simple in the females: head and eyes small, the latter naked: thorax stout, woolly: wings slightly deflexed : anterior with transverse lines, stigmata obscure, or wanting; entire, rounded behind, the apex obtuse: legs rather short, stout; femora with dense fascicles of hair. Larva naked: pupa subterranean.” —Steph. Illust. Brit. ent. Haust. II, p. 151. * Veawpen linea. | Antenne 190 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Antenne bipectinate in the male. Body, with the back thickly covered with dense scales. Larva hairy; pupa inclosed in a white, gompact web. Species. Icon. 1. Sim. Venosa, Borkh.... Hiibn.Noct.Tab. 81.380. (foem.) 2. — Nervosa, Fab...... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXLVIL. f. 367. 3. — Musculosa, Hiibn. Ernst, VI.P1.CCXX XVII. f.346. 4, — Punctosa,Treitsch.* Genus 68. LEUCANIA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stephens, Curtis.) HEtiorHi1L#, Hubner. Wings incumbent during repose; anterior rather narrow, the hinder margin entire+, the apex acute; nervures distinct, apparently elevated. Antenne simple in both sexes, thickly ciliated beneath, espe- cially in the males. Paipi rather short, considerably bent upwards, approximating, the basal joints with elongate compact scales, the terminal exposed and nearly denuded, obtuse; basal joint slightly bent, horizontal, second vertical, as long again as the first, slightly bent at the! base, and a little attenuated at the apex; terminal slender, elongate-ovate: mawzlla mo- derate. Head small, subtrigonate: eyes globose, large, pubescent, rarely naked. Thorax rather stout, woolly, not crested. Abdomen slightly elongate, carinated, rather slender in the males, with a large tuft at the apex, stouter, and some- what conic in the females. Larva slightly pilose: pupa folliculated t. Species. Icon. 1.Leuc.Pallens, Linn. ... Ernst, VIL.P].CCXCVIII. £505. 1g 2. — Elymi, Treitsch.§ = she a4. 3, — Impura, Hiibn... Hiibn. Noct.Tab.85. f.396. (mas.) * Sim. alis anticis albido fuscis, linea baseos nigra, stria longitudinali cinerea, puncto medio albo; posticis albis.— Ochs. Treitsch. V. pars IJ. 287. + A distinguishing character, according to Stephens, between Leucania and Nonagria. ¢ Characters from Stephens.—Haust. III. p. 73. 4 Leue. alis anticis solito longioribus, pallide flavis, atomis fuscis ad- spersis, serie externa striolarum, fuscarum,—Ochs. T'reitsch. V. pars Ul. . 294. 3 4, Leuc. Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 191 Species. Icon. 4. Leuc.Straminea, Treits.*¥ © — es Les 5. — Pudorina, Hibn. Ernst, VII.P].CCXCVIII. £505. -a—c. 6. — Obsoleta, Hubn... Ernst, VIT.P].CCXCVILI.£.503.c¢. 7. — Comma, Linn..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCVIL. f.504. 8. — Lalbum, Linn.+ Ernst, VII. Pl.CCXCVIL f. 503. a. b. d. Genus 69. NONAGRIA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stephens.) Wings deflexed during repose: anterior elongate, narrow, slightly crenated on the hinder margin; posterior some- what triangular, faintly denticulate. Antenne rather short, stout, subserrated, sometimes slightly pectinated in the males, pubescent beneath. Palpi nearly vertical, very thickly clothed with elongate scales on the two basal joints, the terminal one exposed, with the scales rather elongated beneath; basal joint reniform, nearly horizontal, stouter than the following, and above half its length; the second rather elongate, straight, acu- minate; the terminal very short; ovate: mazill@ mode- rate. Head small, subtriangular, with a dense tuft of scales on the forehead: eyes large, globose, naked. Thorax rather stout, slightly crested anteriorly. Abdomen elongated, not very robust, with a large tuft at the apex, especially in the males t. Larva fleshy, lives within the stems of reeds and other plants, and feeds on their internal substance: pupa internal. Species. Icon. 1. Non. Ulve, Hiibn....... Hiibn. Noct.Tab.139.f635.(mas.) f. 636. (foem.) 2. — Despecta,Treitsch.§ - — —- 3. — Fluxa, Hubn.||... Htibn.Noct.Tab. 88. f. 413. (foem.) 4, — Extrema, Hiibn... Hiibn. Noct.Tab. 88.f.412. (foem.) 5. — Phragmitidis,Hibn. Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 47. f. 230, (on the plate 330) (mas.) * Leue. alis anticis pallidé stramineis, punctis tribus medio, pluribus ad marginem in seriem dispositis, nigris; posticis albis fusco venosis—Ochs. Treitsch. l. ce. p. - + Add, Leuc. Littoralis, (The Sea-shore Wainscot.) Curtis, Brit, Ent. vol. iv. Pl. 157. n Characters from Stephens. Haust. III. p. 71. Non. alis anticis micantibus fusco ferrugineis, margine anteriore dilu- tiore, fimbriis obscurioribus.— Ochs. T'reitsch. vol. v. pars IL. p. 311. || Levecasia, Steph, 6. Non. 192 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Species. Icon. 6.Non. Neurica, Hiibn.* - Hiibn.Noct.Tab. 82. f. 381.(mas.) —Tab. 144. f. 659 et 660. (mas.) f. 661. (foem.) 7. — Paludicola, Hiibn. Hibn.Noct.Tab.136.f.624.(foem.) —Tab. 137. f. 628. (mas.) f. 629. (foem.) Tab. 139. f. 637. (mas.) 8. — Sparganii, Hubn. Hiibn. Noct.Tab.118.f.549.(mas.) f. 550. (foem.) 9. — Canne, Treitsch. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCVI. f.501. 10. — Typha, Hibn.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCVI. f. 502. Genus 70. GORTYNA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stephens, Curtis.) Wings deflexed when at rest; anterior triangular, slightly emarginate at the apex ; cilia of all a little indented. Antenneé simple in both sexes, clothed with scales above, pubescent beneath. Palpi short, slightly ascending, the basal joints clothed with long hair-like scales, the terminal exposed, ovate obtuse ; the basal joint curved upwards and attenuated at the apex; the second elongated, somewhat attenuated, the terminal rather short, subovate, obtuse: mazille slender, and very short. Head rather small, with a dense tuft before the antennz: eyes globose, naked. Thorax subquadrate, with a compressed acute crest in front. Abdomen elongated, the sides producing fascicles of scales, ro- bust in the females,and obtuse at the apex, which is rather broad, and has a subquadrate tuft in the males. Larva fleshy, slightly hairy, radicivorous: pupa internalt. Species. Icon. 1.Gort. Leucostigma,Hub.t Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLV. f. 389. 2. — Micacea, Esper... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXI. fi 407. Curtis, Brit. Ent. VI. Pl. 252. 3. — Flavago, Hibn.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCIL f. 517. 4, — Luteago, Fab..... Ernst, VI. Pl.CCL. f. 372. Genus 71. XANTHIA#, Ochs., Treitsch. (Steph., Curtis.) Xantruiz, Hiibner. Wings entire, or crenulated, deflexed during repose : anterior subtriangular; posterior moderate. * Levcanta, Steph, ? + Characters chiefly from Stephens. Haust. III. 69. t Aramea, Steph. § Favdos, yellow. Antenne Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 193 Antenne rather stout, long, simple in both sexes, pubescent, ciliated transversely beneath in the males. Palpi rather short, obliquely porrected, thickly clothed with elongate scales; the terminal joint slightly exposed and obtuse, basal joint less than half the length of the second, rather slender at its base, curved upwards, second very long, attenuated and somewhat acute at the apex, ter- minal elongate, apex slightly conic: mawille as long as the antenne. Head, round, small: eyes naked. Thorax somewhat robust, slightly crested. Abdomen moderately stout, carinated in the males, cylindric and rather acute at the tip in the females, with a small tuft at the apex ; sometimes depressed in both sexes, with the sides slightly reflexed. Larva naked: pupa subterranean*. Ochsenheimer and Treitschke divide this genus into three families, according to the colours and markings of the an- terior wings. Fam. A.—Anterior wings brown-yellow, with darker confluent spots. Fam. i: flay Ce wings reddish-yellow, with distinct trans- verse bands. Fam. C.— Anterior wings bright yellow (schén gelbon) with reddish-brown transverse bands; posterior wings light coloured. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1.Xanth.Pulmonaris, Hub. Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 20. f. 98. (mas.) 2. — Echiz, Hubn...... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXC. f. 488. 3. — Ochroleuca,Hibn. Hiubn. Noct. Tab. 19. f. 92. Fam. B. 4.Xanth.Rufina, Linn.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXI.f. 410. 5. — Ferruginea,Hubn. Ernst, VIT.P].CCLXI.£.408. a. b. 6. — Evidens, Hiibn.... Hiibn. Noct.Tab.79. f. 369. (mas.) 7. — Rubecula, Esp.... Hiibn.Noct.'Tab.92. f.431. (mas.) A Ny” eiaiiocssaaaniial Hiibn. Noct.Tab.90. £421. (fcem.) ‘am. C, 9.Xanth.Vitellina, Hub. Ernst, VII.PIL.CCXCVILII. f. 506. 10. — Citrago, Linn...... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCV. f. 527. — Croceago, Fab..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCII. f. 518. 12. — Aurago, Fab....... Ernst, VIL. Pl. CCCILI. f. 520. — Sulphurago, Fab. Hiibn. Noct.’Tab.41. f. 194. (mas.) 14, — Silago, Hiibn...... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCIV. f. 524. * Characters from Stephens. T/ust. Brit. Ent. Haust. IIL. p. 68. " + Add, Xanth. Centrago, (‘The centre-barred Sallow,) Haw. Curtis Brit. Mnt. Il. Pl. 84, N.S. Vol. 6. No. 33. Sept. 1829. 2C 15. Xanth. 194 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Species. Icon. 15.Xanth.Cerago, Fab. ... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCIV. f. 523. a—d. 16.. — Gilvago, Fab...... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCIV. f. 523. e. 17. — Palleago,Hubn... Hiibn.Noct.Tab.94. f. 442. (mas.) Genus 72. COSMIA*, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stephens.) Cosmra, Hubner. Wings deflexed during repose ; anterior subtriangular, slightly truncate or obscurely emarginate on their hinder margin, with distinct angular strigee; posterior rather ample. Antenne short, rather slender, pubescent within, each articu- lation furnished with a bristle on each side, shortest in the females. Palpi moderate, ascending, densely clothed, with elongate scales on the two basal joints, the terminal exposed, some- what acute; basal joint elongate, nearly three-fourths the length of the second, arcuated, the second scarcely more slender than the first, linear, and somewhat bent at the base; terminal more slender, elongate, above half the length of the second, slightly attenuated at the apex, which is acute: mazille moderate. Head small, rounded: eyes large, globose, naked. Thorax stout, not crested. Abdomen rather slender, with tufts of hair on the sides, and a larger tuft atthe apex, especially in the males, of the fe- males gradually attenuated from the base to the apex, which is somewhat acute. Larva naked, with a few scattered hairs: pupa subterranean +t. Species. Icon. 1.Cosm.Fulvago, Huibn. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCV. f. 526. 2. — Abluta, Hibn..... Hiibn.Noct.Tab.76.f351. (foem.) $. — Trapexina, Linn. Ernst, VIII. PlL.CCC XIII. £546. 4. — Diffinis, Linn..... Ernst, VIII. PlLCCCXL. f. 543. 5. — Affinis, Linn....... Ernst, VIII. Pl. CCCXII. f. 544. 6. — Pyralina, Hiibn.. Ernst, VIII. Pl. CCCXII. f. 545. Genus 73. CERASTIS, Ochs., Treitsch. Giz", Hubner. Gua, Stephens, Curtis. Legs moderate ; femora not very pilose. Wings generally entire, incumbent; anterior more or less castaneous. Antenne rather long, stout, generally simple in both sexes, and ciliated; sometimes a little serrated in the males. * Kosesos, modestus. + Characters from Stephens. Haust. II, p. 59. Palpi Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 195 Palpi very short, porrect, horizontal, triarticulate, not very robust, clothed with elongate scales, the terminal joint concealed; the basal joint nearly as long as the second, a little bent, the second more slender than the first, slightly curved, and narrowed towards the tip; terminal joint ovate, obtuse: maville shorter than the antennz. Head small, with a dense tuft of hair between the antenne : eyes small, naked. Thorax stout, pilose, with an abbreviated dorsal tuft towards the front. . Body generally depressed, with the sides and apex considera- bly tufted. Larva naked, or slightly hairy: pupa subterranean *. Treitschke divides this genus into three families. Fam. A.—Larva naked, variegated. Fam. B.—Larva hairy, dark coloured. Fam. C.—Larva naked, body dark coloured, with generally lighter longitudinal lines. Both Stephens and Curtis have very properly restored Hib- ner’s name, Gla, to this genus, which Treitschke, for some unknown reason, has thought fit to change to Cerastis, a term already employed to designate a serpent. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1.Cer.Rubricosa, Fab.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCI. f. 513. Fam. B. 2.Cer.Rubiginea, Fab.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCC. f. 512. Fam. C. 3.Cer.Ruticilla, Esper... Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 104. f. 488. (mas.) f. 489. (foem.) 4. — Vaccinii, Linn.... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCI. f. 514. 5. — Erythrocephala, ¥ + Ernst, VII.P1.CC XCIX. f.507. a. 6. — Dolosa, Hiibn..... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCCI. f. 515. c. et 7 8 f. 516. a. . — Glabra, Hubn.... Ernst, VII. P1.CCXCIX. £510. a. . — Silene, Fab.. ove Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXYV. f. 417. 9. — Satellitia, Linn... Ernst, VII. Pl. CCC. f. 511. 0. — Serotina,Treitsch. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCLXXI. f. 434. —= Genus 74. XYLINA, Ochs., Treitsch. Xyirnam, Hubner. Xyzina, Carocampa, XyLopnasia, Perasta, DyPpTERIGIA, Hapena, Cuariciea, Stephens. Xyurna, Cuaniciea, Curtis. * Characters from Stephens. Haust. IL, p. 159. + Grarnirnona? Stephens, 2C2 Wings 196 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Wings very long and sublinear; superior with the cilia in- dented ; inferior rather large. Legs, anterior short, posterior long; femora very large and woolly: anterior tibie very short, with an internal scaly spine; posterior very long, terminated by spurs, and a pair above the apex: ¢arsz with series of spiny scales beneath, 5-jointed, anterior joint very short, basal the longest: claws distinct, slightly notched near the middle: pulvilli minute. Antenne setaceous, robust in the males, thickly clothed with obtuse scales above, each joint ci- liated with hairs beneath. Palpi short, robust, porrected obliquely, densely covered with scales, which conceal the apical joint; triarticulate, basal joint robust, 2nd long, slightly dilated in the middle, $rd oval-truncate. Head very short, closely united to the thorax, and densely covered with long scales: eyes small. Thorax quadrate, slightly crested. Abdomen short, depressed, the apex, in the males, triangular. Larva cylindrical, naked* : pupa folliculated, its apex uniden- tate. (Stephens.) Treitschke (whose concise definition of this genus, Mr. Ste- phens justly remarks, is so truly general and indefinite that it will includea host of species that he has placed elsewhere) has di- vided the insects included under his Xylina, into four families, Fam. A.—Anterior wings long, and narrow; body depressed. Larva green or brown; corrugated. Fam. B.—Anterior wings rather broader and shorter; body less depressed, Larva tuberculated. Fam, C.—Wings and body densely scaly, Antennze of the males pectinated. Larva green; the 11th segment of the body tuberculated. Fam. D.—Anterior wings marbled, the markings intersected longitudinally with brighter lines. Larva variegated, and like parchment! (pergamentartig.) Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. Xyl.Vetusta, Htibn.t.. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCX LIX.£.370. b. 2. — Exoleta, Linn.t.,. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXLIX. f. 370. : ates f. ei Curtis, Brit. Ent. Pl]. 256. Larva et Imago. 3. Xyl. * Characters from Curtis. Brit. Ent. VI. pl. 256. + Carocamra, Steph.* “ Palpi short, oblique, robust ; triarticulate, densely squamous, the terminal joint * Kaan pulchra, xeman eruca. 3. Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 197 Species. Icon. Xyl.Solidaginis, Hiibn. Noct. Tab. 53. f. 256. (foem.) — Conformis, Fab.... Ernst, V1. Pl1.CCXX XVI. £343. — inckenii, Treitsch.* — — — — Lapidea,Hiibn... Hubn. Noct.Tab. 82. f. 382. (mas.) . — Rhizolitha, Fab... Ernst, VI. PIL.CCXI. f. 284. — Petrificata,W.Verz. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCL. f. 371. — Conspicillaris,Linn. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLIII. f. 382. — Putris, Linn....... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLI. f. 376. — Erythroxylea,Treitscht — — a — Puta, Hubn.......Hubn. Noct.Tab. 52. f. 55. (foom.) Fam. B. 13.Xyl.Scolopacina, Hub.t Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLI. f. 377, 14, 15. 16, 17. 18, 19. — Rurea, Fab.t....... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCL. f, 373. — Hepatica, Fab...,. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLI. f. 375. — Polyodon, Linn.}.. Porat a f.245. a. b. — Lateritia, Esper... Hubn. Noct.Tab. 15. f. '74. (foem.) — Lithorylea, Fab.t Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLI. f. 378. — Petrorhiza, Borkh, Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXI. f. 283. joint concealed, basal much shorter than the second and more robust, terminal ovate truncate: mawille the length of the antennz. Antenne rather short, stout in the males and ciliated beneath : head small, with a dense frontal crest: eyes naked, small: thorax quadrate, with a small anterior crest: wings convoluted or incumbent; anterior elongate, sublinear, denticulated on the hinder margin: body short, depressed, the apex with a small tuft in the male. Larva smooth: pupa folli- culated, with two elongate spines at the apex.”—Steph. Illust. Brit. Ent. Haust. 11. p. 172. * Xyl. alis anticis cinereo albidoque marmoratis, lineola baseos atra, al- bo inducta, maculis ordinariis albicis, nigro cinctis, lined marginali inter. rupta.—Ochs,, Treitsch. V. pars Ul. p. 16. + Xyl. alis anticis ex flavo albidis, margine anteriori externoque rufes- centibus, macula reniformi obscuriore.—Ochs., Trreitsch. l.c. p. 31. ft Xyxorwasia, Steph. “ Palpi rather elongate, slightly ascending; triarticulate; the two basal joints densely clothed with elongate scales, the terminal considerably exposed; the basal joint rather shorter and more robust than the se- cond, the terminal elongate-ovate, somewhat acute: maville as long as the antennee. Antenne simple, more or less ciliated or pilose, in the males; thorax quadrate, with a small crest in front: wings de- flexed, anterior rather elongate, subtriangular,the base being narrowed; hinder margin more or less denticulated: ody elongated, stout, not depressed, the back carinated, each segment with a dorsal crest ; apex, in the male, with a large tuft, in the female, narrowed, sublinear, with a small tuft. Larva naked: pupa subterranean, with a spine at the apex.”—Steph. lust. Brit, Ent, Haust. \. p. 174, “ Bvnov lignum, Qaats apparilio. 20. Xyl. 198 Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. Species. Icon. 20. Xyl.Pulla, Hibn..,.... Hubn.Noct.'Tab.49. f.238. (mas.) Fam. C. Tab. 150. f. 692. 693. (foem.) 21.Xyl.Cassinia, Fab.*... Ernst, V. Pl. CXCIV. f. 255. 22. — Nubeculosa, Esper. Ernst, Suppl. Pl. I. f. 172. a—i. 23. — Pinastri,Linn.+... Ernst, VII. P1.CCLX XX. £458. 24. — Rectilinea, Hubnt. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLIV. f. 385. 25. — Ramosa, Hiibn... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCLIV. f. 384. 26. — Lithorhiza,Borkh.§ Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXIII. f. 290. 27. Xyl. * Perasia, Steph.* “ Palpi short, compressed, straight, very hairy, biarticulate, the terminal joint ovate, subacute: mawzille nearly obsolete. Antenne elongated, bipectinated to the apex in the males, subserrated and ciliated in the females: head moderate, hairy, with two fascicles of elongate scales at the base of each antenna: thorax not crested; abdomen slightly elongated, scarcely tufted at the apex :. anterior wings elongate, entire, with a patch of elongate scales in the middle of the interior edge: posterior subovate: breast and femora very downy; anterior tibia with a compressed lobe internally; and an acute, bent, glossy spine ex- teriorly; the posterior tibie with spurs at the apex. Larva naked, fleshy, with the anal segment gibbous: pupa subterranean.”’—Steph. Illust. Brit. Ent. Haust. Ul. p. 31. + Dyrteryeta, Steph. “ Palpi conspicuous, ascending, slender, triarticulate; the two basal joints clothed with elongate scales, the apical joint considerably exposed, covered with short scales, linear, and as long as the basal one, which is slightly bent and more robust than the second; the latter is about one halfas long again as the first, slightly attenuated towards the apex: mawille moderate. Antenne very short, rather stout, simple in both sexes, ciliated within and pubescent in the male: head slightly crested ; eyes small, naked: thorar robust, thick, crested on the back: wings incumbent ; anterior short, broad, subtriangular, subdentate ; posterior ample: Jody rather stout, crested on the back: /egs short; posterior tibie robust, compressed, with a fascicle of hair on the outer edge. Larva naked, with a conical protuberance on the anal segment: pupa folliculated, with four apical spines.” —Steph. Haust. II. p. 167. { Xyrornwasia, Steph. § Hapena, Steph. Although we have already given the genus Hadena (the 54th of Treitschke’s arrangement), we shall add in this place the characters as- signed to it by Stephens, which had not appeared when that part of our abstract containing this genus was published. Hapena.. “ Palpi short, rather slender, slightly ascending, clothed with hair and scales, triarticulate; terminal joint rather exposed, short, sub- ovate; the basal joint curved, in general rather shorter and stouter than the second, which is a little attenuated towards the apex ; ter- minal subovate, obliquely truncate: mazille about the length of the antennze. Antenne short, rather stout, in general simple, with the under side ciliated in the males, or obscurely subserrate, with a di- stinct fasciculus of hair on each joint within: head small, with a dense frontal crest; eyes large, globose, sometimes pubescent: thorax slightly crested: body stout, rather elongate, very acute in some fe- ae males: > Tleralw pando, Mr. MacLeay on Systems and Methods in Natural History. 199 Species. Icon. 27. Xyl.Hyperici, Fab..... Ernst, VI. Pl. CCXLIL f. 357. 28. — Perspicillaris, Linn. Ernst, VI. Pl. CCK XXVI.f.345. 29. — Platyptera, Esper. Ernst, VII. Pl. CCXCI. f. 490. 30. — Radiosa, Esper.... Hiibn.Noct.Tab.92.f. 434. (foem.) 31. — Antirrhini;Hiibn. Ernst, VI.Pl.CCX XX VII.f347. e. f. 32. — Linaria, Fab..... Ernst, VI.Pl.CCXXXVIL f. 347. a—d. 33. — Opalina, Hiibn... Hiibn.Noct.Tab. 81..376. (foem.) 34. — Delphinii, Linn.* Ernst, VIII. Pl. CCCX. f. 538. Curtis, Brit. Ent. II. Pl. 76. Larva et Imago. [To be continued.] XXIX. A Letter to J. E. Bicheno, Hsqg., F.R.S., in exa- mination of his Paper “ On Systems and Methods” in the Linnean Transactions. By W.S. MacLray, Esq., A.M., F.LS., §c.+ My dear Sir, i HAVE read your Paper “ On Systems and Methods,” in the Linnean Transactions}, with some degree of interest, as it derives no small importance from being, as every word shows, clearly written ex cathedrd. With a few exceptions, which I should hope have proceeded from inadvertency, it is, more- over, upon the whole, a liberal exposition of the opinions pre- males: wings slightly deflexed during repose; anterior obscurely den- ticulate on the hinder margin: in general of gay colours, sometimes with pale reticulations, and mostly with a pale undulated striga, in which is usually a conspicuous angulation, resembling the letter W, near the posterior margin ; stigmata distinct ; posterior wings with an obscure emargination towards the costa: /arva naked, generally of lively colour: pupa subterranean.”—Steph. Haust. Ul. p. 179. * Cuantcrea, Steph. Curtis. “ Antenne long setaceous, composed of numercus short joints covered with scales above, hairy beneath, Ist joint large, concealed by long, hairy scales. Labrum and mandibles attached to the clypeus. JMJaville nearly as long as the body, with a few glands like tentacula towards the apex. Labial palpi rather short, curved upward, covered entirely with long hairy scales, 3-jointed, Ist joint long, cylindric, 2nd shorter, some- what ovate, 3rd small ovate. JJead trigonate viewed from above. Abdomen without tufts of scales, apex of the male slightly bifid. Wings deflexed, superior somewhat lanceolate, inferior rather small. Cilia very long. Legs clothed with soft hair, anterior rather short. Tibia, anterior very short, trigonate, with 2 horny naked spines at the apex, the internal one being very long and curved. Tarsi 5-jointed, armed with rows of spines beneath, Ist being very long. Claws minute, bifid. Pulvilli distinct. Caterpillars with 6 pectoral, 8 abdominal and 2 anal feet.”’—Curtis, 1. c. + From the Zoological Journal, vol. iv. p. 402. t Vol. xv. p. 471.—See Phil. Mag. and Ann, vol. iii, p, 213. valent 200 Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s Examination of valent among the Naturalists of the old Linnean school. | True it is, you think it necessary to show your impartiality, and to bestow some censure en passant on this school, but it requires no great penetration to see that your Paper was intended for their peculiar circle, and I therefore earnestly trust that your labours may not go unrewarded, and that you may obtain all the honour and glory which you promised yourself from the staunch Linneans, by this publication. I know enough of you to be convinced, that although, from the style of your Paper, you seem to wish to lay down your “ principles of arrangement” oracularly, still, rather than that your laws should be wholly slighted, you would be most will- ing, nay, desirous to have them well sifted and examined. I am convinced, I repeat, that you have too firm an opinion of their soundness to believe for a moment, that they will not come like pure gold from any crucible in which they may be assayed. Perhaps other friends who have the pleasure of being nearer to you, have long ere this shown you your mis- take; but in case they have not, I am sure that you will not be surprised that I should have determined to state how far I feel myself called upon to agree with you in opinion. My review of your paper must be premised with the re- mark, that I do not pretend to combat the general conclusion to which it is your object to arrive; for I confess, that after having twice carefully read over your argument, I am not sure that I understand its drift, and much less am I certain, that if I did understand it, your sentiments would differ consider- ably from my own. If, however, the purport of your Paper be, as there is some reason to suspect, comprehended in the assertion, that “the danger to be now apprehended is, that those who adopt other arrangements” than the Linnean, “will forget the advantages to be derived from what is old in their love of that which is new,” then I would once for all observe, that there never was a time when Naturalists paid more atten- tion to the labours of their predecessors, whether ancient or modern, than ai present: and therein indeed consists a part of their diagnosis, as you would perhaps express it, from the school which you advocate; and which in its love and venera- tion for what is not old, but only Linnean, remains in a total and complete ignorance of whatever has not proceeded from the pens of the Swede and his most servile admirers. Still, nevertheless, since I remain in doubt as to this being the object you had in view in writing on Systems and Me- thods, I shall confine myself strictly to those of your propo- sitions which I think most difficult to assent to, leaving the general conclusion at which you would arrive, unless it be as above, Mr. Bicheno’s Paper on Systems and Methods. 201 above, untouched, until you shall have, at some future period, more clearly expressed it. You say that you are not yourself opposed to any particular system, but only intend in your Paper to lay down some “ first principles of arrangement,” to serve as a test by which Naturalists may try all systems. Let us, however, examine calmly these “first principles” themselves, before we apply them; for the test of a system ought surely to be proved good and true before we can allow it to regulate either our assent or dissent. 4 : In the first place, you propose to treat the subject metaphy- sically, as a Locke, not as a Linneeus. Now to this proposal no Naturalist ought to object, provided you found your me- taphysical arguments, and ‘ abstract reasoning,” on some lit- tle observation of Nature, and provided you illustrate your various positions by facts drawn from Natural History. How far your Paper is strictly logical or metaphysical, I will not now discuss; but I will venture to say that your abstract rea- soning would have carried much more weight with it, had you seasoned it a little more with illustrations drawn from ob- served facts. You are pleased, upon the authority of Mr. Roscoe and Sir J. Smith, which you very naturally esteem quite conclusive, to state 'to those who break up the old genera into many new ones, “ that the artificial and natural systems aim at two very distinct objects.” Although in these degenerate days it is not very usual to talk of the natural system as aiming at an olject, I imagine that I understand what you would say, in which case the information you would impart is not very original either from your botanical authorities or yourself; nor am I aware exactly for whom you are charitable enough to intend it, as I know of no Naturalist who does break up, at least in your sense of the words, the old orders and genera when he deems them good. I say in your sense of the words, for I must suppose you mean your advice for those who destroy or take no notice of the ancient groupes. You cannot surely, with your talents for abstract reasoning, mean to attack those who not merely preserve them, but by subdivision make us by the consequent analysis better acquainted with their inter- nal construction. A person who retains the groupes of the older Naturalists, and moreover shows us how these may be resolved again into others, evidently possesses a greater por- tion of that acquaintance with individual forms upon which our knowledge of the natural system must, as even you your- self allow, eventually be grounded. 1 cannot believe that you, who profess to understand the exact portion of merit that be- N. S. Vol. 6. No, 33. Sept. 1829. 2D longs 202 Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s Examination of longs respectively to the various schools of Naturalists, now require to be informed that those of the present day make it a rule to preserve the ancient groupes where they deem them good, and only differ from their predecessors in showing how these groupes may be subdivided. ‘This, in fact, is the real progress of Natural History; for on looking back at the mode for instance, in which Zoology has advanced, we find that Aristotle’s Genera were the Orders of Linnzeus, and that the Genera of Linnzeus are the Families of the present day. And not only the word genus, but even the word species, as you yourself say, has become more confined in its signification. To say that the word genus had originally any confined or de- terminate sense given to it by Linnzeus, or that any particular limits were assigned to it by him, beyond that perhaps of its being his smallest known groupe of species, is sufficiently dis- proved, not only by the impossibility of his making it to sig- nify any thing else than a groupe, but also by the fact, that the learned Swede was constantly, as his knowledge of indivi- duals increased, subdividing his early genera into new ones. But however this may be, I beg you may rest assured that every person who goes on increasing his acquaintance with the smaller natural groupes, whether they be called genera, or subgenera, or any thing else, must know but too well that ar- tificial systems aim at a different object from the natural sy- stem. I should have fancied, indeed, that so much was implied by the bare use of such terms as natural and artificial. An artificial system aims at facilitating the distinction and nomenclature of species, and not at the knowledge of how these species are connected together in the one great plan of creation, which in fact is the natural system. An artificial system, therefore, really aims at an object; but the natural system is itself the object aimed at by those, who truly know. the difference between the two, and how trivial and contemp- tible the most perfect acquaintance with the one is in compa- rison with the smallest glimpse of the other. But you state that the natural system has an object, namely, “to abridge the labour of reasoning!” If I know what is meant by the Natural System, it is as I have already stated, the original plan of the creation; and to say, therefore, that the object of the natural system, or rather of the Deity who devised it, was to abridge the labour of reasoning, is beyond my comprehension, and still less can I understand how it answers to the purpose thus assigned to it. I suspect, indeed, the longer you study it, the less you will find your labour abridged. At least such is the recorded experience of men who have dealt as much in the observation of facts as in abstract reasoning. - : ou Mr. Bicheno’s Paper on Systems and Methods. 203 You favour us with the Linnean definition of a species, and then think proper to throw doubt on its accuracy, because, as I conceive, you happened not at the moment to turn over a page or two more of the Philosophia Botanica. I am not suf- ficient Botanist, perhaps, to understand the difficulties which appear to have beset you in the particular department of Na- tural History which you have studied; but I may state, that when similar difficulties occur in Zoology, and species are as- certained ‘to run one into another,” we are accustomed to doubt the fact of their being distinct species ; we call.them va- rieties, and search for some general characteristic which will include and insulate the whole of these varieties, and then call that the specific character. If I may trust the evidence of my eyes, the White and Negro races of the human species “run into one another by imperceptible shades unappreciable by human sense, so as to render it impossible to circumscribe them.” Nay, there are ‘¢ empirical characters” which distin- guish even a Frenchman from an Englishman, and ‘ which can only be perceived by long and familiar experience, and cannot be described by words; yet no one hitherto has been bold enough to declare them distinct species. It seems, ne- vertheless, that there are certain persons “ who think it advi- sable to break up” the old species into many new ones; but you evidently consider such persons as angels in comparison to the wretches who would dare to subdivide a Linnean genus, a crime which you have ever held in the utmost abhorrence. Yet, as I understand the matter, if there be any groupe in Natural History more truly insulated than another, it is a species ; and the division of this natural groupe of individuals ought scarcely, therefore, to be less blamed than that of a genus which may have only rested on the good pleasure or _ignorance of Linnzeus, or on that of some blind worshipper of his infallibility. Not indeed that I would have those poor species-makers attacked ; for I care very little one way or the other about them, although for all that I know, even they may be doing good in their generation, by pointing out differences. By the bye,'on the subject of Species you settle the question by deciding that “ in cases of difficulty the assumed law ought to be brought to the test of experiment, or the species should be rejected.” Now I find it to be a case of some difficulty to understand this advice, since on looking back, the only * as- sumed law? 1 can perceive mentioned is as follows: ‘ A spe- cies shall be that distinct form originally so created, and pro- ducing, by certain laws of generation, others like itself;” and unfortunately you have forgotten to inform us how we are to ascertain by experiment, “a distinct form originally so cre- 2D2 ated,’ 204 Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s Examination of ated.” This, however, is clearly the essential characteristic laid down in the law, since a Negro “ produces by certain laws of generation others like himself,” and yet is not very generally accounted to be a distinct species. But I ought to recollect, that in spite of Mr. Wilberforce, you have your doubts on this particular point: that in fact it still remains with you “the most difficult problem of all.” You lay down as a “first principle of arrangement,” that *‘ in Botany the characters of a Genus should be taken from the parts of fructification, and in Zoology from such parts as are indicative of structure and habits.” Having myself, as you know, dabbled a little in Zoology, and being pleased with the sight of a really new definition, I am anxious to learn what other zoological parts remain, in order that I may avoid them. To clear up the fog in which our poor brains are enveloped when we attempt to distinguish a species from a genus, you next inform us that “there is the same difference between a genus and a species as instruments of reasoning, as between a definition and a proposition in geometry.” Now the differ- ence between the latter is, that the proposition requires de- monstration, and the definition not. I must therefore suppose that this mode of illustration is “at lucus a non lucendo,” for you have just before declared that species must “ be brought to the test of experiment,” in other words, must be demon- strated. It appears you do not regard genera as merely conven- tional, but as actually founded in nature, as well as species. I likewise consider genera when properly defined, to be founded in nature, as I have elsewhere said ;* but I have not found even these natural genera, upon the whole, to be so distinctly insu- lated from each other as species. I will now, however, go further than you, by stating that the groupes you object to, such as Class, Order, Tribe, Cohort, and Family, are, when properly defined, just as natural as Genera; and also that the higher we ascend in the scale, and the more comprehensive our groupes are, we may, in general, be assured, that in the same proportion they are perhaps even more natural. ‘Thus, who will assert that Animals form a less natural groupe than Vertebrata, Vertebrata than Mammalia, Mammalia than Ce- tacea, or these Jast than the genus Balena? Even Linnzus, the infallible Linneeus, speaks of natural classes and natural orders as distinct from artificial ones. No one, till now, has ventured to call the classes of Mammalia, Birds and Fishes, or the orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera, “ gratui- tous assumptions.” Your doctrine, therefore, is really original ; * See Hore Entomologice, page 490. but Mr. Bicheno’s Paper on Systems and Methods. 205 but at the same time it is rather surprising that the recognized organ of the Linnean Society should publicly, in the ‘Trans- actions of that learned body, state that the above “ different gradations are gratuitous assumptions with which Nature has nothing to do;” and that pursuing this doctrine, he should ob- ject, not merely to those who would “ attempt to express with more accuracy larger generalizations than they would do by employing a generic term,” but also bestow censure on those ‘who think it advisable to break up the old genera into new ones.” In short, we must remain stationary, according to you, with neither greater nor less groupes of species than the ge- nera of Linnzus and Sir James Smith. All other assem- blages of approximations, and approximations of assemblages, ‘ are rather predicated than proved ;” and in future we areonly to be permitted by you “ to point them out by mere signs, such as are used in printing,” by asterisks, forsooth, and obelisks, or a casual dagger. Such is the perfect vehicle which in future is to convey with precision the just relation of things ! I trust that you will favour us yourself with a specimen of it, and show that you know how, by example, to enforce your precepts. You do not seem to think those persons who regard genera subject to be broken down to suit their convenience, as enti- tled to make use of the word Genus. It is a downright rob- bery on their part. ‘They would do well to employ some other term, else one great object will be lost at which we are aiming ;—the keeping together under one common head those small assemblages of species which in some instances are so obvious and so important.” On this head I experience great pleasure in being able to allay your fears, and to assure you that they do keep together under a common head, all those small assemblages of species which they conceive to be ob- vious; and that they even go further (too far you will say), and keep together the large assemblages also. I now come to one of those illustrations with which you have so sparingly sprinkled your Paper, no doubt from reluc- tance to increase its bulk; and I find that “it would be the height of folly to give up the term of Genus for such insulated groups as Erica, Rosa, and Eriocaulon among plants, and Vespertilio, Strix, and Scarabeeus among animals.” If there be pleasure in being able to meet you on a known arena, I may also be expected to experience fear in having to defend myself against one who enters the lists so cavalierly. There is nothing like presenting an imposing front on the first attack where boldness,is often of more avail than strength of wea- pons. No doubt it was from contempt for a strong example, that you chose your present zoological weapons, and therefore it 206 Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s Exammation of it would be presumption in me to tell you that upon a little deeper acquaintance with Zoology, you will see that neither Vespertilio, Strix, nor Scarabzeus, as defined by Linneeus, are insulated groupes. As to Scarabzeus, indeed, I should be glad to know by what characters you would insulate it. I happen to have seen more than 2000 species of the Linnean genus Scarabeeus, when Linnzus himself saw little more than 80. I suspect, therefore, that I have given quite as much time and. attention to the consideration of this Linnean genus as you, although you, by a species of intuition, have got the start of me. ‘This must be my apology for daring still to brave your polite imputation of having arrived at the acme of folly, and for still imagining that I have done some service to Entomo- logy in helping to subdivide so immense a groupe. You are truly the first of naturalists, and I dare say will also have the honour of being the last, who has written on Scarabzeus, and pronounced it to be an insulated groupe. Perhaps it was from their being so little abstract, and their descending so low as to study the subject in nature, that those plodding entomo- logists, Fabricius and Latreille, have had such difficulty in finding a place for Sinodendron, Lethrus, &c., &c. As you profess, two or three pages after, to look at Entomology with the eye of a master, and to point out the difficulties and de- fects of the science, you could not surely be ignorant that Fa- bricius, whom Linnzeus called his master in Entomology, that Latreille, Olivier, and Kirby, that in short every modern En- tomologist who does not belong to what may be termed the defunct or dying Linnean school of England, has found it ne- cessary to subdivide the Linnean genus Scarabeeus. The chair, therefore, of the Secretary of the Linnean Society, must be placed on some peculiarly high eminence, when it entitles a gentleman on the strength of having described three species of Orchis, and perhaps twice as many Rushes, to dismiss all Entomologists subsequent to Linnzeus with the compliment of being a pack of fools. It is to be regretted, that so oracular an authority on Sy- stems and Methods should not have shown wherein they differ from each other. It only remains for me, therefore, in the in- vestigation of your “ first principles of arrangement,” to ascer- tain what distinction you, who are so apt to charge dissenters from your maxims with the height of folly, make between ar- tificial systems and the natural one. It would be curious, if he who blames others “ for not fully appreciating the difficulty of this subject,” should happen to have promulgated his prin- ciples before he had made himself acquainted with the above distinction. You Mr. Bicheno’s Paper on Systems and Methods. 207 You say “division and separation is the end of the Artifi- cial System ;” and as I know not what particular artificial sy- stem you allude to, far be it from me to say that you may not possibly be in the right. But then you proceed as follows :— “‘ To establish agreements is the end of the Natural System.” Now that you who kindly offer to “ prevent young Naturalists from being prematurely embarrassed in this difficult subject,” should thus express yourself, surprises me not a little; for I had always understood that so far from the natural system having for its object to establish agreements, its agreements have remained established from the time of the creation. IL will not suppose that a writer “‘on systems and methods” could have forgotten to make himself master of the very key- stone of his subject, and that he can still remain ignorant of the Natural System itself being the end or object at which we aim, and not an instrument like any artificial system to arrive at an end. It is no doubt for the purpose of displaying your powers of abstract reasoning that you advance such positions as the above, or that you state that the Artificial System is a descending series, and the Natural System an ascending one. Nay, what is more extraordinary than all, you seem in an- other place to imagine, that there are more natural systems than one, and that a variety of them have been already attain- ed by the Linnean Society; for you advise us to “take any natural system, and see if this,” &c. Pray let me know where I shall find one of them, and I shall be content. It excites your surprise that “many modern Naturalists have not adopt- ed your truths,” but you ought to have recollected that the many are not so far advanced as yourself. They have been looking for one natural system, only one, and confined as their aim is, they have not as yet been able to attain it. “‘ It is the prevalent error of modern Naturalists to attempt to generalize where they ought to analyse, while their ar- rangements called natural, are almost all framed with a view to distinguish.” Metaphysically, perhaps, this passage is very clear; but what, in the name of plain sense, is the meaning of it? Modern Naturalists err in refraining to analyse, and also err, inasmuch as they are all busy distinguishing! Perhaps, however, after all, there is consistency in this paradox; for we have seen that you censure as well those who subdivide the Linnean genera as those who combine them into larger groupes. It was possible, nevertheless, for you to have ex- pressed yourself with greater clearness, if this be really the meaning of so contradictory and curious a sentence. You next draw “a diagnosis” between M.M. Brown and Decandolle, which, because perhaps I am no Botanist, I can- not 208 Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s Examination of not pretend altogether to understand ; for the latter is blamed for * attempting fresh combinations at every stage,” and the former praised “as his object is chiefly synthesis.” Iam the more sorry for my ignorance of the botanical difference be- tween combination and synthesis, not merely because I have myself the highest opinion of Mr. Brown’s science, but because I of course must feel interest in any eulogy of our friend by those who, as Botanists, must be best able to judge of his merits. I have already hinted, that your distinction between the natural and an artificial system, making the latter a descending series, and the former an ascending one, could have only been maintained by you from love of paradox; but as you return to this distinction, and may therefore possibly believe it cor- rect, I shall explain myself more fully. Both kinds of system afford ascending and descending series. It is clear, for in- stance, that the Linnean sexual system in Botany was in the first case founded as much on the examination of individuals ' as if it had been the natural system. In studying, therefore, any system, whether natural or artificial, we must always begin with individuals, and look upwards, discovering first the spe- cies, next the genus, and so on. It is true, indeed, that che genus may have been a more comprehensive groupe with early Naturalists than with modern; but however this may be, the above is the general process of investigation. Nay, it so hap- pens, that this system of combining has hitherto been pursued principally in various artificial systems, although the searchers after the natural system have no reluctance to apply the know- ledge of natural groupes, that happens sometimes to be thus acquired, to their own more particular object. In the same way the natural system is not essentially an ascending series, for it is equally true, whether it ascends or descends; being equally the plan of the Deity, however we may please to study it, whether by analysis or synthesis. Next you say, “ If we find a large genus agreeing in some well-marked characters of structure, form, station, and pro- perties, it appears contrary to the end proposed by the natural system to divide and subdivide the species into small groups, and to give each of these the same value as is now possessed by the whole. ‘This is frittering away characters which are essential to the use of a genus, and destroying our power over it when we wish to generalize.” On this passage I would first remark, for the third time, that the natural system pro- poses no end, but is itself the end proposed; next I would say, that no one, except yourself, ever indulged the idea of giving the same value to a part as to the whole; that neither you nor I can possibly know « prior? what characters are a sentia Mr. Bicheno’s Paper on Systems and Methods. 209 sential to the use of genera, so as to deny the propriety of their being subdivided; and lastly, that so fur from your power being thus destroyed when you wish to generalize, the genus remains, although possibly under another name, a groupe as much connected as before, and as much in your power for further combination, or even in a greater degree, inasmuch as by the more accurate examination of it in the process of sub- division, you must have become more definitely acquainted with its external limits, and its interior typical qualities. Allow me here to ask two questions. First, Have you in your voluminous investigation of genera never broken up a Linnean genus? Secondly, How is it ‘that you, who object to the combination of genera, should now complain of your power over them being destroyed when you wish to generalize? Entomologists have to regret, that you, who in so kind and polite a manner have pointed out their defects, should not have attempted to remedy them. The only specimen which as yet you have given of the depth of your researches in this branch of Natural History, is your declaration, that Entomo- logy is “a kingdom of Nature,” and that the Linnean genus Scarabzeus is an insulated groupe, which it would be the height of folly to subdivide! There is some merit in making your debut in a science with only two observations, and taking care that they should be both original and new. » Certainly the having proposed such two solitary improvements, not only denotes your acquaintance with the subject, but well entitles you to decide that ‘“* Entomology requires the most. skilful arrangement to enable the student to determine the multitude of species,” and that “it is, nevertheless, unquestionably the worst furnished with assistance in this way.” ‘This may, no doubt, be abstractedly quite correct; but there is no one who lays down “first principles of arrangement” in Entomology, excepting yourself, who will consider it ‘to be the height of folly to suudivide a groupe like Scarabzeus, of more than 2000 known species, and, in leaving the mass in chaotic confusion, thereby think that he is giving the most skilful arrangement for enabling. the student to determine them. Were you in- deed to take another glance at two common English insects, ‘viz. Cetonia aurata and Trox sabulosus, t should not be*sur- prised if you changed your opinion as to the best mode of enabling the student to'determine the species. I had long thought that there was but one Natural System in the world, and that every created being formed a part of it; but you say, “Take any natural system, and see if there is not always a remainder of unknown things.” But if the natural system be that of God, what is meant by a remainder N.S. Vol. 6. No. 33. Sept. 1829. QE of 210 Mr. W. S. MacLeay’s Examination of of unknown things? Not surely that He did not understand the relations subsisting between the things He created. And as to the Naturalists not understanding them, this only proves that we have not yet attained the knowledge of the natural system, and much less that of many of them. ‘ Weare con- stantly approximating to the truth, but never reaching it.” At the same time it must be allowed, we are sometimes too apt to forget that the real object of the Naturalist ought to be to come as near the truth as possible, and that this is not to be done by “abstract reasoning,” so much as by observing and arranging facts. We next have a rather novel proposition started; to wit, that “‘the mammiferous animals are arranged with more ease, according to a natural system, (again as if there were more than one, ) in consequence of their number being comparatively small, and their forms strongly marked.” ‘That is, in other words, the more widely the species are asunder, and the more distant they are in form, the more easily are they combined : just, perhaps, as a chain is more connected in proportion to the number of links that are wanting ! In order to prove that you have not confined your studies to the vegetable kingdom, you afterwards infer that the series of M. Cuvier in the Regne Animal, is the natural system. This author indeed says as much in his title-page; and you only think it necessary to criticize his groupes of Pachyder- mata and Passeres, and to prefer Jussieu’s method of haying for such unknown things a miscellaneous groupe at the end of . the work. As neither Passeres nor Pachydermata are much more “unknown” than other beings, it would perhaps save trouble, and give more satisfaction, to make one miscellaneous groupe of the whole of organized matter. You decide that ‘those persons, who imagine it to be neces- sary or advantageous to find a place for every thing, appear to lose sight of the chief object of the natural system, and to destroy its utility as an instrument of general reasoning.” So then, the Natural System, or plan by which the Deity re- gulated the Creation, is nothing more, in your opinion, than an instrument of general reasoning towards attaining a parti- cular object. You are constantly alluding to this object, but what it is you do not deign to state; nor do you explain how they who endeavour to find a place for every thing destroy the utility of your instrument of general reasoning. But the defect, without doubt, is on my side, and results from my being one of those practical Naturalists who would attempt to make accurnulations to science without the aid of such abs- tract reasoning. Your Mr. Bicheno’s Paper on Systems and Methods. 211 Your reflections on the French school are, no doubt, in- tended, by their severity, to give us all due warning. I much question, however, whether the present perverse generation will not continue with the French to observe and arrange facts, dividing and subdividing them, rather than take with you a free and lofty range by issuing forth “ first principles of arrangement” founded on abstract reasoning. Although I am, as you are aware, no Botanist, I am glad to acquire any information on plants, and I confess your as- sertion, that Parnassia and Linnea are as distinct as any of the classes of vegetables, is quite new to me. Still more am I interested by your observations, that “in many instances a class is equivalent to an order or genus,” and that ‘ the great division of Cotyledonous plants may only be equivalent to the Order of Grasses.” I do hot now wonder that in another part of your paper you should place Natural History in diame- trical opposition to Mathematics, for I recollect that Euclid begins with the fundamental axiom, that ‘ the whole must be greater than its part.” You are obliging enough to consent to the adoption of the terms species and genus in Natural History, but to these alone. All other terms for groupes are emea arepoevra, “ fleeting in- struments of thought.” But how the term genus, or even specics, is not equally objectionable, how it is not equally a fleeting instrument of thought, as well as the terms Class, Order, Family, &c., I cannot well discover. In the place of these last terms you would, in the natural method, employ the words Groupe, Section, and Division; but I have yet to learn the ground of preference. Groupe is a general word for all masses of individuals, of whatever degree ; and as to the words Section and Division, it surely requires explanation how they can express “ assemblages of approximations” better than the terms Tribes and Families. I have now gone through your Paper, of which, as I said at the beginning of my review, the object aimed at may, for all that I know, coincide with my own opinions. It is indeed the peculiar advantage of the style of argument you have chosen to adopt, that the purport and aim of your remarks remain enveloped in secure mystery, while the only visible points of your line of attack are detached and insulated pro- positions. Many of these detached propositions I am far from fighting with; many indeed are truisms; while many, such as those discussed above, will require some time, I sus- pect, before they can possibly triumph. But whether assent- ed to or denied, I confess [ do not perceive the use of any of them, and the novelty of but very few. Believe me, 1 do 22 not 212 Mr.MacLeay on Systems and Methods in Natural History. not say this in any spirit but that of good will. I do not feel indeed, except that I happen to have followed in the wake of such idiots as Fabricius and Latreille, and have subdivided Scarabzeus, that any one of your observations personally af- fects me; and I can never forget that you have always, in the most honourable way, been a friend to the free expression of opinion, and have of late most warmly patronized Zoology. Yet as every law-giver must, in these days, expect to have the goodness of his laws examined before they are adopted, and as it is the duty of every lover of truth to sift them well before he allows them to pass current, I have judged that you would not be displeased if I, although from a very remote quarter, should return them to you fora littleamendment. You know that the days of demigods and despotism in science have for ever gone by, and that by publishing your “principles,” you stipulated for criticism. Your object may possibly be to clear the way for the re- ception of a system of your own; for I observe that you find fault both with the Linnean and Jussieuan schools of Botany, although you appear to prefer the former. I observe, also, that no system of Zoology hitherto propounded, meets with your approbation. You have, therefore, with just confidence taken a wide range for your “ first principles of arrangement,” and I assure you I shall be glad to hear that your talents are employed in the application of them to observed facts. You must indeed be aware that such an application of your prin- ciples will tend more to give them weight in the eyes of Na- turalists than your most abstract reasoning or profound meta- physics; however to slight these last may argue the height of folly. It really, however, appears to me high time now to let every one have his own way in Natural History; and in the spirit of toleration to let the Linnean enjoy his twelve words, colons, and specific differences, while you publish your asterisk system, and the obstinate heretics continue to wallow in the mire of natural groupes and subdivisions. Persecution, I fear, only serves to wed these last unfortunate wretches to their guilt, and, moreover, is perfectly useless trouble, inas- much as we may be sure that the world will swim in the or- thodox channel at Jast. I remain, dear Sir, &c., W.S. MacLeay. XXX. Note f 213 ] XXX. Note on the Differences, either Original or consequent on Disturbance, which are observable in the Secondary Stratified Rocks. By Henry T. De 1a Becue, Esq. FBS. &c.* UMEROUS smaller variations in the mineralogical struc- ture of the secondary stratified rocks have been long ac- knowledged and pointed out by many geologists. The greater or less development of a limestone or sandstone formation, the want of certain beds in a given series, the alteration of rocks within short distances from masses or veins of trap, &c., have for some time been remarked, and the greater or less import- ance that should be attached to these circumstances, upon the whole, fairly appreciated: but the greater changes, such as the substitution of dark compact limestones and sandstones for the green-sand of England and the North of France, though long since noticed by M. Alex. Brongniart; the transforma- tion of the whole oolite system into compact dark-coloured limestones resembling those commonly called transition ; the occasional change ofall the limestones, from the chalk to those in the red sandstone formation inclusive, into dolomite, more or less crystalline according to circumstances, with other dif- ferences on the great scale,—have not generally met with that attention which the importance of the subject, in a geological point of view, seems to require. This inattention has probably in a great measure arisen from the value attached to the different mineralogical struc- tures which, it was supposed, characterized rocks deposited at different geological epochs. Thus all crystalline limestones were considered primitive; all dark-coloured limestones, very com- pact and with a certain mineralogical structure, transition ; and all sandstones, when of the necessary colour and hardness, grauwacke: and when contrary opinions were advanced, there was always supposed to be some error on the part of the ob- server. It is true, many geologists did not admit this depend- ence on mineralogical structure; but it is equally true, that the greater number were in favour of it. Geology, perhaps more than any science, requires a com- bination of observations; it is only from an accumulation of facts that any real progress can be made, and it is quite clear that this requires the labours of the many. Fortunately, in the present day there is no want of those who continually contri- bute to our stock of knowledge, more particularly in this quarter of the world; and we see that Europe, though no very large portion of the earth’s surface, is fruitful in examples of great * Communicated by the Author, differences 214. Mr. De la Beche on the Differences differences in the mineralogical structure of the same forma- tions. Such being the case, what still greater changes may we not expect in far distant countries ? New facts frequently lead to new opinions; and many of the Jatter, which were excellent in their time, and greatly tended to the advancement of geology, must be modified, should the former require it. Truth should be our only object. We search, in order to comprehend the structure of our planet’s crust; but how can we expect to accomplish this, if we imagine that Geo- logy in its infancy has attained maturity ? A change of opinions respecting the value attributable to mineralogical structure, by no means detracts from the merit of those who have been accustomed so strongly to insist on its importance. On the contrary, if districts have been well de- scribed with reference to this character,—as is, for instance, the Tarentaise by M. Brochant,—what difference does it make in the merit of such a description, whether the limestones there noticed be transition or lias, so long as we know, from a ge- neral examination of the Alps, to which formation they really should be referred? ‘The mineralogical detail still retains its original value. Without the labours of the many excellent ob- servers who have attached so much importance to the mineral character of formations, Geology could never have occupied the rank it now does among the sciences: these labours were as necessary to its development, as those of the present day are to clearer and more extended views. We can only reason from the facts in our possession; therefore those who come after us must have much more facility in arriving at just conclusions than we can ever expect to obtain. Werner is not the less entitled to our thanks, though his ideas respecting the forma- tion of rocks so little accord with those now most commonly received; and he is not the less, on this account, the cause of a great advancement in the science. The necessary limits of a note of this nature preclude any long detail. I shall therefore content myself for the present, with a few striking examples of the very great changes ob- servable in the mineralogical structure of the oolite formation (including the lias) in the Alps and Italy, which it is hoped will be sufficient to show the very little importance of this cha- racter, when we may be desirous of determining the geologi- cal epoch of a rock, and are unassisted by organic remains*. ‘Those accustomed to the oolite formation, as it occurs in England * Even when we have this assistance, it would seem safer, particularly in the case of the more modern rocks, to judge from the general nature of these remains, rather than from any particular species supposed to be cha- racteristic, observable in the Secondary Stratified Rocks. 215 England and France, supporting the great mass of green-sands, chalk and tertiary rocks, which constitute so large a portion of both these countries, would at first sight be little prepared to find this mass of light-coloured and often tender limestones, with their mixtures of clays or marls, connected, from some cause either original or from disturbance, into hard dark and compact limestones, resembling those commonly called transi- tion, sometimes mixed with gypsum and dolomite; in fact, in mineralogical structure very different from the same formation in England and the North of France, where it has suffered little _disturbance beyond the fractures called faults. M. Von Buch’s letter on the Dolomite of the Tyrol, is dated 1822, and his account of the Southern Tyrol, 1823. In these memoirs he states his opinion, that the dolomite mountains of that country, so remarkable for their forms and their frequent crystalline character, are probably the limestones of the country altered by the intrusion of the black or augite porphyry among them, which he supposes converted the compact limestone into a very crystalline rock, highly charged with magnesia. It would be here out of place to enter into a detail of the facts he has brought forward: I shall content myself with a reference to the map and sections, which will at least show the shattered and broken state of this part of the Alps. This ‘Tyrolese limestone, though commonly referred to the Jura limestone, has not yet been well determined ; but certainly a part at least of their continuation towards the lakes of Como, &c. is of that epoch. Those of the Tyrol are gray and shelly, and they may represent in part the chalk or green-sand series. In 1825, M. Von Buch visited the lakes of Orta, Maggiore and Lugano, for the purpose of more particularly examining the porphyries in those districts. The result was a note on the phzenomena presented by the relative position of the do- lomite, limestone, and porphyries of the Lago di Lugano, which appeared first, I believe, in a German Journal, and afterwards in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for February 1827. In this he took occasion to insist on the analogy observable in the phzenomena of this district and those of the Tyrol, point- ing out the dolomite mountain of San Salvador as an excellent example of the truth of his theory.—The following is his de- scription. Afier mentioning the red conglomerate of San Martino, con- racteristic. We may take as an example the nummulite rocks of the Alps. These, when examined partially, have been, and no doubt will be by many observers, considered as tertiary; but if they are examined on the large seale, and their connection with other districts carefully examined, we can scarcely refuse to consider them as referable to the green-sand series. taining 216 _ Mr. De la Beche on the Differences taining pieces of quartz and quartziferous porphyry, he adds : « These beds dip rapidly at 70° to the S. and form a promon- tory in the lake (of Lugano) on which the chapel of San Mar- tino is built. This rock appears in place for about ten mi- nutes walk, the dip of the beds diminishing to 60°. It is then covered by a compact smoke-gray limestone, in beds about a foot thick. These dip as the beds on which they rest, and have the same inclination on the side of the mountain; but in their prolongation towards the lake, the dip continually dimi- nishes, until at its level it is scarcely 20°. The beds, as they rise, describe a curve that somewhat resembles a parabola. The further we advance on the road, the more we find these beds traversed by small veins, the sides of which are covered by rhombs of dolomite. Similar crystals are also observable in small cavities of the rocks. As we advance, the rock appears divided into fissures, and the stratification ceases to be distinct. Lastly, where the face of the mountain becomes nearly per- pendicular, it is found to be entirely formed of dolomite. There is no marked separation between the limestone and the latter rock. By the increase of the veins and geodes, the cal- careous rock entirely disappears, and pure dolomite occurs in its stead.” ****#* ¢* As we advance along the high road, the purer we find the dolomite, and atthe same time the whiter and more granular.” . « The road cut out of this mass of dolomite is not half a league long. We then observe the rocks retreat, the Monte Salvadore fall rapidly tothe S., its sharp.crest becoming broader, and chesnut-trees covering the side of the mountain, which previously presented a mere mass of bare rocks. From hence to beyond Melide the mountains are composed of dark augite porphyry mixed with epidote, the same as it also appears at Campione, Bissone, and Rovio.” In the highly interesting geological map which M. Von Buch has had engraved at Paris within these few days*, and which comprehends the lake of Orta, the southern parts of the Lago Maggiore, and the Lago di Lugano, he represents a 5 ° small portion of mica-slate and red porphyry between the mass * This, like most of the other works of M. Von Buch, is intended merely for private distribution. It isto be regretted that this gentleman could not be prevailed upon to give publicity to at least a considerable portion of the mass of information, more particularly on geological subjects, which he has by so much labour and assiduity collected together. Those indeed who have the honour of M. Von Buch’s acquaintance have certainly no reason to complain, for to them he is most liberal. both of information and of his works; but for thewrogress. of science generally, it is much to be lamented that such productions as the physical description of the Canaries should not be accessible to all the world. of observable in the Secondary Stratified Rocks. 217 of dolomite and augite porphyry, close to the lake, but not ex- tending farinland. The map is one of considerable detail, and shows other masses of dolomite in contact either with the au- gite porphyry or the granite, which, if not changed limestone, occur at least singularly among it. ‘There will also be ob- served a very great connection between the granite and por-" phyry, more particularly as regards their line of direction, that of the great range of the Alps. The granite is of that kind commonly known as the granite of Baveno. Now be our opinion of M. Von Buch’s theory of the forma- tion of dolomite what it may, the fact of the passage of this gray compact stratified limestone into an unstratified crystal- Iine rock charged with magnesia, and the presence of a large mass of augite porphyry on the side of the crystalline rock, remains still the same. With the theory that has been con- nected with these appearances, I have nothing now to do; my present purpose is only to show that these compact gray lime- stones and dolomite may both belong to the oolite formation. Fortunately the neighbouring lakes of Como and Lecco, which J examined last May, are very instructive as regards the connection of these limestones and dolomite. If we proceed from Como by the lower lake of the same name to Bellaggio, we meet only, if we except gravels and transported blocks*, with gray compact and schistose limestones, on either side of the lake, until we reach either the side of a mountain named Croci Galle, or the opposite island of San Giovanni Battista, But if we proceed from Lecco by the lake of Lecco also to Bellaggio, the shores on both sides are formed of dolomite, if we except some gray schistose and compact limestones with anthracite at Olcio and Lierna, a few contorted beds of the same rocks opposite Abbadia, and a mass of gypsum included in the dolomite near Limonta. Now if the direction of the beds be worth any thing, part at least of the gray limestones of the Lago di Como are converted into dolomite in the Lago di Lecco, as indeed is better observed by ascending the Monte San Primo, situated between the two lakes, where looking along the line of direction of the limestone beds constituting its crest towards the lake of Como, we have limestone; towards the lake of Lecco, dolomite. Some of these limestones seem to represent the lias, for at Moltrasio and other places we find * These blocks are in great abundance in the vicinity of the Lago di Como; they occur at very great heights above the level of the lake, fre- quently of very considerable size; they are composed of granite, gneiss, mica slate, talcose slate, &c. &c., and may be considered as the records of the violent catastrophe which has torn them from the high Alps and. car- ried them into their present position. N.S. Vol: 6. No. 33. Sept. 1829. 2F belem~ 218 Mr. De la Beche on the Differences belemnites, ammonites, and other shells, among which are Ammonites Bucklandi, sometimes of very large size, A. hete- rophyllus, &c. A short distance south of Bellano, the general mass of lime- stones and dolomite is separated from the gneiss and mica-slate of the northern part of the lake of Como by conglomerates and sandstones, the former of which closely resemble the Rothe Todte Liegende. It contains pieces of gneiss, mica slate, &c. as also pieces of the ved quartziferous porphyry that appears on the lake of Lugano: the paste or cement often exhibits im- perfect felspar crystals; and the whole, in fact, strongly re- minds one of the Exeter red conglomerate, or Rothe ‘Todte Liegende. This rock traverses the lake, to the north of a little place named La Gaeta; the line thus separating the gneiss and mica slates from the dolomite and limestone, gives that of the general direction of the two latter; and it might be'supposed that the limestones and dolomite on each side would corre- spond, as do the gneiss and mica slates on the N.: this, how- ever, is not the case; for if from Bellano we follow the eastern shores of the lake of Como back to Bellaggio, we have a very different section from that obtained ‘by passing along from La Gaeta to the same place by the western coast. ‘To the red con- glomerate near Bellano succeeds dolomite for a short distance, and afterwards compact gray limestones to Varenna, near which are the celebrated black marble quarries: hence to the Fiume del Latto there is a continuation of the same limestones, in thinner beds, with schist containing anthracite, crowned near the cavern (out of which rushes the river high up the side of the mountain at the latter place) by dolomite, gradually de- scending to the level of the lake opposite Bellaggio. This section is then principally of gray compact limestone; while the whole of the section on the other sidé is dolomite, if we except the mass of gypsum included in it at Nobiallo, and a few beds of gray limestone south of Menaggio: there is therefore no cor- respondence between them, notwithstanding the general direc- tion of the rocks as shown by the red conglomerates, gneiss, and mica slates, which do correspond. . The limestones and dolomite, when stratification can be seen in the latter, are highly disturbed and contorted ; and igneous rocks which seem to have caused these appearances have pierced through them at the lake of Lugano. If there be more limestones than one on the lake of Como, it is difficult to trace them; lias at least forms a part, quite different, mineralogically, from what it appears in England : probably a considerable portion of these limestones may even- tually be found to represent the oolite formation generally. : n observable in the Secondary Stratified Rocks. 219 In a note on the geological position of the fossil plants and belemnites found at Petit Coeur near Moutiérs on the Taren- taise*, published in 1828, M. Elie de Beaumont observes, that the system of beds described by M. Brochant in his memoir on the Tarentaise, and which in many places contains consi- derable masses of granular limestone and micaceous quartz rock, as well as large masses of gypsum, belongs to the oolite formation. He founds this opinion on the circumstance, that the most ancient secondary rocks of that country, in which no fossils have been found that have not been also discovered in the lower part of the oolite system, can be traced to the en- virons of Digne and _Sisteron (department of the Basses Alpes), where they afford a great abundance of those fossils supposed to be characteristic of the lias. In a notice on the geological position of the fossil plants and graphite found at the Col du Chardonet + (department of the Hautes Alpes), published in 1828, the same gentleman re- marks, that as the traveller quitting the Bourg d’Oisans (Pied- mont) approaches the continuous range of primitive masses that extend from Monte Rosa towards the mountains on the west of Coni, he perceives that the secondary rocks gradually lose their original character, though certain distinguishing marks may still be traced, thus resembling a half-burnt piece of wood in which the ligneous fibres may be traced far beyond the part that remains wood, into that converted into charcoal. The quartz rocks of these countries appear to M. Elie de Beaumont to be an alteration of the anthracite sandstones, the variegated green and reddish schists that accompany them, a change from the schistose clay, and the gypsum a substitution for the limestone. He has also remarked the original difference that exists between these secondary rocks of the interior of the Alps, and the same formations of other countries ; and thence concludes that very little importance should be attached to the difference of mineralogical structure which exists between the beds above noticed, and that of the lower portions of the ovlite formation, occurring undisturbed in other parts of Europe, of which these Alpine rocks appear to him the enlarged prolongation. Without entering into the subject of all the changes which M. Elie de Beaumont considers he can trace even in the range of the Alps itself, it is enough for my present purpose that fossils characteristic of the lias are found in rocks which bear no mineralogical resemblance to it, as seen in England. On the contrary, we there find the mineralogical structure which was * Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tom, xiv, p. 113. + Ibid. tom, xy. p. 353. 2¥F2 once 220 ~ Mr. De'la Beche on the Differences - once considered as characteristic of the rocks commonly called transition. After having examined the environs of Nice in the win- ter of 1827—1828, I presented an account of the geology of that neighbourhood to the Geological Society, which it ap- pears by their Proceedings was read in November last. In it I described the two great secondary formations that occur near Nice: first, a marly arenaceous limestone, which, though un- like the green-sand mineralogically, is nevertheless the equiva- lent of that formation, and contains its characteristic fossils ; and secondly, a rock which, though it contains both crystal- line dolomite and gypsum, I referred to the Jura limestone, in consequence of its mineralogical structure so closely resem- bling the light-coloured compact limestones of that formation. I also took occasion to insist on the little value that could be at- tached to the presence of either gypsum or dolomite, and cited instances of their appearance in many formations. It appears by the Proceedings of the Geological Society as published in the Phil. Mag. and Annals for May last, that Dr. Buck- Jand has read an Appendix to this memoir, containing an ac- count of his journey by the high road from Nice towards the Col de Tende, in which he considers the inferior Nice lime- stones as his older alpine limestone, a supposed equivalent of the zechstein formation of Germany, in which a modification of limestone named rauchwacke constitutes one of the smaller divisions, and has been considered, erroneously in my opinion, characteristic of it*. This rauchwacke, however, does not oc- cur in the immediate vicinity of Nice; and as there is no zoo- logical evidence produced, J presume that the presence of the gypsum and dolomite is considered sufficient for referring the inferior Nice limestone to the zechstein. In my opinion there is but one limestone in the immediate vicinity of Nice beneath the green-sand, the almost constant mineralogical appearance of which is light-coloured and compact; it contains the gyp- sum, as is seen not far N. from the Col de Villefranche, and the dolomite is mixed with it in all ways, even the same range of beds appearing dolomitic in one place and limestone in an- other. It would appear therefore that Dr. Buckland’s objec- tion rests upon its mixture with the gypsum and dolomite. * That it is by no means safe to judge of the relative ages of rocks by this modification of limestone, a formation near La Spezia is no bad ex- ample. The most modern rock in the whole gulf, apparently tertiary, is a fair mineralogical rauchwacke, sometimes occurring as the cement to a conglomerate of pieces of all the rocks in the vicinity, such as is not uh- common on the shores of the Mediterranean, and sometimes in a few beds by itself. That observable in the Secondary Stratified Rocks. 221 “That dolomite is not characteristic of formations, even sup- posing it an unchanged rock, we have now abundant proof, as is stated by Dr. Buckland and others ; but I know of no more striking examples than are to be found in the neighbouring department of the Var, where M. Elie de Beaumont has found dolomite in the tertiary rocks (fresh-water limestone), dolo- mite in the green-sand, dolomite in the oolite formation, and dolomite in the muschelkalk ; and all these rocks are there well characterized, which is so far fortunate, as it prevents mistake. From the numerous observations that have been lately made, it would appear that the theory of the peculiarly dolomitic character of the limestones of the red sandstone formation, though useful in England, the North of France, and Germany, would lead to great error in the South of France, the Alps, and many parts of Italy, where so many formations above these rocks are charged with dolomite, and its frequent accompani- ment, gypsum. M. Elie de Beaumont has by a series of observations traced the various formations of the Jura and Savoy down to within .a few leagues of the high road section seen by Dr. Buckland; and it would appear from these, that the representatives of the oolite formation and green-sand continued to form the cal- careous Alps to within that distance. Judging from the sec- tion as described by Dr. Buckland, it would appear to be the ‘same as that of various parts of Dauphiny, where, fortunately, fossils enable us to form conclusions respecting the ages of the different rocks; and these would seem to place the lias as the lowest part of the series, notwithstanding the dolomite and gypsum sometimes contained in it. The limestones connected with the red sandstone formation at Toulon, and thence towards Frejus, belong to the muschel- alk, and contain the characteristic fossils of that formation ; indeed, if we are to look for other limestones in the Alps, be- ‘tween the lias and the red conglomerates, it is much more pro- bable that we should find the muschelkalk than any equiva- lent of the zechstein formation of Germany ; for the former rock is not far distant from the Alps both in Switzerland and Provence. As yet, however, no limestone containing the mus- chelkalk fossils have been discovered in these mountains. It would be curious, and all new observations seem to render it more probable, if in the end no Alpine limestone should be found to exist in the Alps; that is, no equivalent to the zech- stein formation of Germany, to which this name has been pe- culiarly applied. But to return to the Nice limestones.—It would aj)pear from the series of observations made by M., Elie de Beaumont, and above 222 Mr. De la Beche on the Differences above alluded to, that these light-coloured Jura-looking lime- stones containing dolomite and gypsum, either belong to some development of the lower part of the green-sand formation, or to the upper part of the oolite series*. As yet, however, we have no very good zoological evidence to show to which it should be referred, but it would not appear to be any equiva- lent of the zechstein formation of Germany. The only other example that I shall at present offer to the attention of the reader, is taken from the environs of La Spezia, which I examined in April last, and is fortunately very illus- trative of a great mineralogical change in the oolite forma~ tion. On the west side of the gulf of La Spezia there is a range of mountains extending along the coast nearly to Levanto, their breadth augmenting as they advance N.W. ‘The sec- tions afforded by various portions of these mountains are com- posed of the following rocks, easily observed up any of the cross valleys and along the coast from Porto Venere to Monte Rosso. 1. Limestone Series. a. Upper beds compact and gray, vary- (the upper rocks.) § ing in intensity of tint, more or less tra- versed by veins of calcareous spar; here and there in- terstratified with schistose beds, and even argillaceous slate. The beds most commonly thick. The variety with light-brown veins, so long known by the name of Porto Venere marbles, forms part of these. b. Dolomite; varying in appearance, not unfrequently pure and crystalline, when most so, nearly white, resem- bling, at a distance, statuary marble; in some places beds may be distinguished, in others stratification cannot be traced. c. Numerous thin beds of dark-gray compact limestone. * M. Elie de Beaumont is inclined to consider them as referable to the green-sand series. The following note shows the connection of the decided representative ofthe green-sand and the limestones in question.— Speaking of the rocks in the southern part of the Alps, M. Elie de Beaumont says: “ T have not mentioned the small portion of rocks containing nummulites which advance from the E. of the primitive mountains of L’Oisans to within a short distance of the Monestier de Briangon. This nummulitic system is intimately connected with the white compact limestone of Nice, of Provence, of the fountain of Vaucluse, of the summit of Mont Ventoux, of the departments of the Drome, the Isere, &c., in which are found num- mulites, milliolites, hippurites, &c., as well as very beautiful oolites. This same system is connected with the fossil deposits of Briangonnet (depart- ment of the Basses Alpes), of Villard le Lans (Isere), the mountains of the Grande Chartreuse, of the Mont du Chat, of the high longitudinal valleys of the Jara, of the Perte du Rhone, of Thonne, and of the Montagne des Fis.” —Annales des Sciences Naturelles, vol. xv. p. 380. 1 d. The observable in the Secondary Stratified Rocks. 223 d. The same kind of beds alternating with light-brown schist, containing a great abundance of ammonites, be- lemnites, and small nodules of iron pyrites. e. The same brown schist alternating with a few thin beds of light-coloured compact limestone. J. Light-brown schist alternating with dark-gray thin- bedded limestones as in d. 2. Brown Shale.-—This does not effervesce with acids. 3. Variegated Beds.—Greenish-blue and reddish argillo-cal- careous rocks, more or less schistose, the calcareous mat~ ter being often very small. 4. Brown Sandstone.—Principally siliceous, though some of it does contain calcareous matter; is sometimes mica- ceous; occurs in thick, thin, and schistose beds; has sometimes been called greywacke; is one of the ma- cignos of the Italians. 5. Gray Siliceo-calcareous Schist and Sandstone.—For the most part contains mica; may be considered as a mixture of calcareous, siliceous, and argillaceous matter, in which sometimes one predominates, sometimes the other; when the calcareous predominates there is a gray compact lime- stone. ‘The whole is much traversed by veins of calca- reous spar, and even, though rarely, by veins of quartz. Contains a large fusus at Vernazza. Such is the section afforded by these mountains, No. 1. being the upper most rock, and No. 5. the lowest. ‘To give, however, a clearer idea of this series, it should be stated, that it is covered, as may be seen near La Spezia, by a micaceous siliceo-cal- careous sandstone, the general colour of which is either brown or gray; it is mixed with schist, and even argillaceous shale. This is another of the rocks named macigno by the Italians. The mica is sometimes wanting. It is not my intention here to enter into a detailed account of the environs of La Spezia, which requires the necessary plans and sections, and is moreover intended for another place ; but it remains for me to show that at least a part of the above section may belong to the oolite formation, and this is done by the ammonites, which are of those species found in the lower parts of that series : indeed, as far as our knowledge respecting organic remains extends, the presence of the belemnites alone would seem to show that the limestones, notwithstanding their perfect mineralogical resemblance to what has been termed transition limestones, are of the date of the lias, or some more modern rock ; for as yet we have no well authenticated instance of belemnites having been discovered beneath it. ‘The change in 224. Mr. De la Beche on the Differences in the oolite formation would therefore appear to be as great here as in the Alps, and probably the cause that has effected the one produced the other. The dolomite in this range of mountains occurs singularly in.the midst of the other beds, like an enormous bed or accu- mulation of beds. As all the strata near it are nearly perpendi- cular, it might even be considered a vein, did not dolomite also occur in the same rocks on the other side of the gulf: the whole country has, however, been violently convulsed ap- parently by serpentine and diallage rock, which sometimes occur beneath and sometimes above the sanie beds, and_some- times may even be seen tocut them. In fact the diallage rock and serpentine of this part of Liguria seem to have acted precisely in the manner of trap rocks, and to have burst up through the stratified formations, after the epoch of the oolite series, and probably after that of a part of the tertiary rocks, for they also are violently disturbed. It is hoped that the examples above given, and which might easily be multiplied, of the great mineralogical differences ob- servable in rocks that would appear to have been formed at the same geological epoch, will be sufficient to show the im- portance of the subject, and induce those not inclined to assent to the theories that have been connected with part of them, at least to examine into the facts; as by so doing they may disco- ver others, which, either coupled with those before observed, or considered by themselves, may lead to new views, and to the general progress of Geology. We cannot expect that the same rocks should be developed in the same way over the whole surface of our globe; Europe alone proves the con- trary: yet although the parts of a group, like that of the oolite formation, may not be determinable, the whole as a mass may ; and to facilitate the study, rocks in countries distant from each other should first be considered on the large scale, leav- ing the minute divisions (perhaps very useful in one part of the world, but of comparatively little value out of that part,) for examination, till after the existence of the group of which they form a part has been fairly established. It moreover hap- pens, that in countries we may chance to visit, certain rocks may be better developed than in those where the smaller divi- sions have been first established, which would thus require very considerable modifications. Besides, rocks may, and do occur in one country and not in another: the muschelkalk is a case in point; its existence was long denied,—and why? merely be- cause it had not been observed or was not developed in those countries where its existence was so denied. Now if in one part Discovery of Fossil Bones in a Marl-Pit near North Cliff: 225 part of France there is a rock like the muschelkalk, not to be found in the same group in another part of the same country, what right have we to suppose that, in Europe alone, we pos- sess every formation which has been developed on the earth’s surface ? XXXI. On a Discovery of Fossil Bones ina Marl-Pit near North Clif: By the Rev. WM. V. Vernon, F.R.S. F.G.S. Pres. Y.P.S.* °. | WAS informed on the 30th of July by Mr. Phillips, the keeper of the Yorkshire Museum, that he had received from a scientific friend+ intelligence of a discovery of fossil bones in a marl-pit near North Cliff, accompanied by such a description of the situation in which they were found as ren- dered the subject worthy of the closest investigation. They were stated by the writer, who had examined the spot with great accuracy of observation, to be the bones of elephant, rhinoceros, deer, ox, horse, &c., and to have lain under dilu- vial chalk gravel, at a depth of from 15 to 20 feet, in a marl indented by the gravel in such a manner as to appear to have been deposited before it, and containing both land and fresh- water shells, Helix and Pupa, Lymnza, Planorbis and Cyclas; the conclusion drawn by him was, that this had been an ante- diluvian bog. On the following day I visited the place, accompanied by Mr. Phillips and by Mr. Salmond, whose former researches at Kirkdale gave him an additional interest in such a discovery. On the right of the road from Market Weighton to North Cliff, about a mile to the N.W. of the latter village there is a farm-house, marked in the large maps of Yorkshire as Biel beck house. Here we found the bones collected, and recognised the remains of all the animals enumerated above, with the ad- dition of a large species of Felis. An account of them, as am- ple as the time and circumstances permitted, was drawn up by Mr. Salmond, who has allowed me to subjoin it to this pa- per. I need here only remark, that as far as they have been identified they are of the usual fossil species. The marl-pit is situated near the house on a rabbit-warren, which is part of an extensive sandy plain extending westward to Holme, and southward nearly to Walling fen. Its geolo- gical position is on the eastern boundary: of the red marl, where that stratum approaches the low lias hills which skirt * Communicated by the Author. + Wm. H. Dikes, Esq. F.G.S. Curator of the Hull Lit. and Phil, Soc. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 33. Sept. 1829. 2G. > the 226 Rey. W. V. Vernon on a Discovery the south-western side of the Wolds. Two hundred yards to the south the red marl appears where a few feet of gravel are removed, and it is cut into by the Market Weighton canal a mile to the west. The section which the pit displayed was thus drawn by Mr. Phillips. Ft. In. 1. Black sand ..........cccccsccdacsecscsevcccssecscssecsessses O| 9 Je WENOW SANG sos has cov suvescces coqsvenshopuonacostetegssbegna LUO 3. White gravel consisting of small pebbles of chalk and angular fragments of flint, with a few pieces _ of Gryphzea incurva, and fewer pebbles of sand- SOME... cseccvececcrccccescescccvovcvccsscccccscssescovssss 2 G 4. Blue marl irregularly penetrated by the gravel, No. 3, and partially chequered by it.....seceeee 5 O 5. Commencement of a blacker marl. The lower part of the excavation was now concealed by water; but the black marl had been dug ten feet deeper: and in this the farmer, by whose intelligence the bones were preserved, informed us the greater part of them were found. The horns of the ox and the jaws of the Felis lay near the bottom of the excavation; the horn of the stag, the thigh-bone of the ele- phant, and one of the leg-bones of the rhinoceros, lay low in the upper marl: they occupied a:space of about twenty yards in length and eight in width. The pit has been worked two years, and a single bone had been noticed in 1828; the rest were dug out during the present summer. On examining the black marl which lay in heaps upon the ground, we found it full of shells, and of remains of decayed plants too indistinct to be made out. Many specimens of the shells were collected, and consigned to. Mr. Phillips for inves- tigation. He found them to include land, marsh, and fresh- water species; but the Lymnaa and Planorbis were most abundant, and of every size from the most minute to the full- grown of Fossil Bones in a Marl-Pit near North Cliff: 227 grown shell. It is not the first time that similar bones have been found with similar shells, but it is perhaps the first time that the shells have been minutely examined by so competent an observer. Mr. Phillips, after comparing the shells col- lected by Mr. Dikes and by ourselves, with the recent types, states, that the twelve species discovered in the marl agree in every respect, even in their accidental variations, with the same species now existing in Yorkshire. This fact has great weight in resolving the question whether the remains of elephant, rhinoceros, and lion, found in these regions under circumstances which leave no doubt that the creatures lived here, are proofs of a change of climate having taken place. There is much force in M. Cuvier’s argument to the contrary, drawn from the comparative anatomy of the animals themselves. We find together a fossil elephant and a fossil glutton ; the latter belonging to a genus which now in- habits a cold country, the former to one which lives in a hot climate; but the fossil elephant differs in its anatomy from the living elephant more than the fossil glutton differs from the living glutton: it is more probable then that that parti- cular species of elephant was adapted to a cold climate, than that the glutton was fitted for a hot one. But the argument is still stronger which may be derived from the circumstance of these fossil animals being found to have coexisted with a number of molluscous species absolutely the same as those which now inhabit our country, and to have coexisted also, we may justly infer, with a number of our present plants on which those species feed. The coexistence, it may be said, re- quires to be proved: but I think it would be very difficult to account for the manner in which the shells and bones are here intermingled, upon any other supposition ; and it must be re- membered that this is not a solitary instance of their inter- mixture: similar shells have been several times observed to ac- company the remains of elephant and rhinoceros, though the fact may not hitherto have been placed so distinctly in evi- dence. But I proceed to a question of more importance, the answer to which may perhaps be allowed to determine both this point and others of superior interest. At what period did these ani- mals live? Can we fix the epoch when the marl which enve- lops them was deposited ? To determine more fully the nature and direction of the deposit, | have had borings made which have furnished me with the following sections: 2G2 Irom 228 Rev. W. V. Vernon on a. Discovery From North to South. HE ORG 40 Yds. Ft. 20 Ft. Red Marl. From East to West. Ft. , 50 Yds. Ft. a. Sand (a pebble of quartz two inches in diameter). é. Chalk and white flint gravel. c. Blue marl, with some pebbles of chalk and flint. d. Black marl, with very few pebbles of chalk and black flint, but abundance of shells, chiefly Planorbis and decayed vegetable remains, including entire seeds. Near the bot- tom a piece of bone. e. Many pebbles of chalk and flint in blue marl without shells or vegetable remains. Hence the direction of the deep deposit appears to be from east to west. About a quarter of a mile to the east, by the side of the beck, I found another marl-pit, covered with five or six feet of chalk and flint gravel* ; and half a mile further in the same direction there is another, consisting of a stronger blue clay, in which much undecomposed shale may be per- ceived, enveloping in its upper part boulders of the chalk, blue oolite and lias of the neighbouring hills. When we consider the close proximity of these hills, in the nearest range of which (at Cliff) clay is dug from a bed of lias for the same agricul- tural purpose for which the mar]-pits are used, we can scarcely * It may be proper to state that I obtained from this gravel a portion of a rib which appears to me to be human, though no inference can be drawn from the fact. doubt of Fossil Bones in a Marl-Pit near North Cliff. 229 doubt from whence the materials which formed those pits are derived; and when we reflect upon the low level of this coun- try, not more than ten or twelve feet above the sea at high water, we shall] be inclined to regard the present beck, which has of late years been deepened to drain the land, as having been quite adequate to have deposited the marl, to have kept the pond, in which the Planorbes have lived, replenished with water, and to have washed into it the land shells and the bones of the animals which frequented its banks. The marly deposit itself, then, furnishes no precise indica~- tion of the time when these animals lived; but the gravel and sand which lie over it bear a very different character, and have undoubtedly been placed in that situation by different means. Some persons may conjecture that they have been accumulated there by high tides and ancient inundations of the Humber. I think otherwise, for the following reasons: The white flint and chalk gravel of this district not only extends at or near the surface nine miles from hence westward along the foot of the Wolds, as far as Barmby Moor, and is of such a depth as to be worked at several points for gravel, but further to the southward and westward it passes under the great diluvial deposit of the vale of York. At Sutton upon Derwent I find it to lie under sixty-six feet of this de- posit: at that place and at Elvington it contains the supply by which the wells are filled; and when it is penetrated into, the water rises more than fifty feet, and blows up a great abundance of the angular fragments of white flint. It may be traced along a line drawn from hence to North Cliff, and fol- lows the hills eastward to Hessle on the Humber, where it is seen lying again under the above-mentioned deposit: the beds are perfectly distinct; the one consisting of chalk and chalk- flints, mingled with Gryphaa incurya, where it comes near the lias; the other consisting of the sandstones and blue lime- stone of the west of Yorkshire, mixed with pebbles from the slate rocks, syenite and granite of Cumberland and West- moreland. Where it is in the form of gravel it is locally di- stinguished from the other by the name of the gray gravel ; and where it consists of cobbles of mountain limestone, &c. embedded in clay, it is called by the well-sinkers the black bed. The latter is the bed which lies upon the white gravel at Sutton and at Hessle. The mighty torrent which has last deluged this great plain has left the relics of the same rocks and fossils in the cliffs of Holderness as in the gravel hills at York and at Holme. Nor was the current which had previously covered the country under the chalk-hills with the fragments of that for- mation, 230 Rev. W. V. Vernon on a Discovery mation, one which had rolled less far or with less force and rapidity. At Middleton on the Wolds, upon ground of con- siderable height there is a vast accumulation of sand and chalk gravel worked to a depth of thirty or forty feet; in this are numerous blocks of porphyry, mixed with whinstone, lias, and sandstone; there are also pieces of cornelian and jasper, but I did not find the blue limestone or slate. Four or five miles south of this there is another deep gravel-pit, formed as I conceive by the same current after the deposition of the larger blocks; nothing is to be seen here among the chalk and flint rubble but some small pieces of sandstone and a few rounded pebbles of quartz, which are also found in the sand and gravel over the marl at Biel beck house. Since the bones then were buried in this marl, greater floods have passed over them than any inundations of the Humber. The facts which I have mentioned show that the country has been subsequently deluged by two consecutive currents from the north, the one setting probably more from the westward than the other; I say consecutive, for there is no reason to think that they followed at distant intervals. There are in the Yorkshire Museum remains of elephant and rhinoceros from the higher diluvium. I have lately received, from the Rev. R. Cooke, the grinder of an elephant found thirty feet deep in the white gravel of Middleton; and there are now discovered teeth of the elephant and rhinoceros from a still lower deposit: but all these remains belong not only to the same genera but to the same species of animals,—species different from any which are buried in the regular strata, and different from any which now exist, yet connected with the existing animal kingdom by the shells which accompany them. This marks at least a peculiar epoch; and no account of the phenomena can be given so simple as that which supposes the flood recorded by Moses to have occasioned the general wreck, to have destroyed the most formidable species which inhabited the temperate regions of the earth, to have mingled their remains with the gravel, and to have thrown an additional covering over them when already buried in the marl. If this be allowed, and if the facts given in this paper are correctly stated, it should seem probable that the deluge passed away without altering in any very considerable degree the condition of the earth; that the relative level of land and sea has undergone little alteration; that the climate is nearly the same, and that the species and varieties of plants and sta- tionary animals are absolutely identical with what they were more than four thousand years ago. Account of Fossil Bones in a Marl-Pit near North Cliff 231 Account of the Fossil Bones ; by Wm. Salmond, Esq. F.G.S. The bones of quadrupeds recently discovered in a marl-pit near North Cliff appear to belong to the following animals. The dimensions are given by the French metre, with a view of facilitating the comparison of their size with the plates and measurements of Baron Cuvier’s Ossemens Fossiles. Everuant.—2 Teeth of the lower jaw: one almost entire, having 15 plates used, 2 unused ; the other broken, having 14 plates: also 2 smaller fragments of teeth. The head of a Humerus or Femur, broken. Rutnoceros.—2 Teeth of the upper jaw. 2 Tibia; the epi- physes of one wanting, the other much mutilated; the former 0°28 long. 1 Rib. Larce QuapruPeD.—1 Vertebra, supposed to be an Axis, the apophyses injured ; the body 0°16 wide, 0°13 high. Ox.—Occipital bone, broken; breadth over the condyles 0°15; length of the basal surface 0:15. 2 Horns, broken ; one of them 0°14 in diameter at the base. 2 Vertebrea. 1 Radius, 0°40 long. 1 Metatarsal bone. 1 Astragalus. 1 Calcaneum. Srac.—Small portions of horn. Horse.—1 Metacarpal bone, 0°28 long. 1 Coronary, 0°85 long. Lion.—Upper jaw, a fragment containing the two great molar teeth. Lower jaw, broken on both sides near the articulations: length from the canine to the last molar tooth inclusive, 0°14; height below the last molar, 0°05: canine tooth 0:11 long. 1 Rib, broken. 1 Radius, broken, head of 0°05 x 0°35. 1 Femur, head of. 3 Metacarpal bones, 0°15, 0°14, and 0°12 long. Several other bones supposed to belong to this animal, but broken and not identified. The bones are in general well preserved, heavy, and seem to have lost very little of their substance, particularly those which were embedded in the lower marl. One bone shows marks of corrosion by running water, and some of them have been recently broken by the labourers at the pit; they are mostly of large dimensions. The elephant’s teeth indicate an animal of nine or ten years of age. ‘The teeth of the rhino- ceros are little worn by use. The astragalus and the calca- neum of the ox correspond in size with the largest from Kirk- dale in the Museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. The horn exceeds in diameter those in the same Museum, but agrees with one given by Cuvier, as does the measure of the occipital condyles. ‘The teeth of the lion are of the largest size, and extremely sharp. ‘The feet bones exceed in magni- tude those found at Kirkdale (which I consider as belonging to 232 Rev. W. V. Vernon on a Discovery to the lioness); and the other broken bones indicate a very powerful animal, the head of the radius being }th longer than that of a recent lion in the York Museum, Account of the Shells, (including those collected by Mr. Dikes,) by John Phillips, Esq. F.G.S., Keeper of the Museum of the York Philosophical Society. The series of shells discovered in the marl consists of 12 species, all perfectly identified with living types procured in the neighbouring country, viz: TERRESTRIAL SHELLS. Helix nemoralis,—4 specimens marked with bands, of which the rufous colour, though faded, is still distinguishable. I observe on 3 of them, three bands on the upper whorls, and on the other, two. Helix caperata, 2. Pupa marginata, 3. SWAMP SHELL, Succinea putris, 3. FRESH-WATER SHELLS. Lymneza limosa, 1, palustris, 15. Varying like the recent examples in proportion and degree of smoothness, but never beveled in the upper part of the volution; the twist on the pillar lip is perhaps a little more decided and prominent. There’ is one specimen of a very remarkable variety, shaped like L. longiscata of Lamarck, but corrugated like the other specimens of L. palustris. Planorbis complanatus, 23.—I can find no other difference between these and those now living near York, than the more frequent occurrence of spiral strize across the ines of growth. The same varieties as to flatness of whorls and situation of the keel as in fresh specimens. Planorbis vortex, 1. contortus, 2. nitidus. Valvata cristata, 1. Cyclas amnicus, 5, young and old. The shells are all white, never compressed, not particularly tender, and very entire. It is probable that the Lymnze and Planorbes inhabited the waters of a marsh, that the Succineze lived on the aquatic plants, and that the dead shells of Helices were transported thither by rains and streamlets, as happens in such situations at the present time. Two seeds were found in the marl by Mr. Dikes, which appear to me to belong, the one to an Umbellate plant, the other to a Juncus. XXXII. Queries [ 233] XXXII. Queries respecting Mr. Hall’s original Discovery of Achromatic Telescopes. By A CORRESPONDENT. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. Gentlemen, | HAVE for several years observed in the chronological table of the original construction of astronomical instru- ments, published in the valuable French Almanac, entitled “ Annuaire présenté au Roi par le Bureau des Longitudes,” that the first achromatic telescope is stated to have been con- structed by Mr. Hall in 1750; and the publication of the dis- covery of achromatic telescopes by Mr. Dollond is dated eight years subsequently, or in 17 58.—As few of our English writers on optics have ever mentioned the name of Hall, his merit, as the original inventor of the achromatic telescope, is almost unknown in the country where the discovery was first made. ‘The discovery is indeed faintly alluded to in a note by Dr. Young in his Lectures; and a reference is made to the Philosophical Magazine for November 1798, where I find a more ample account of Mr. Hall’s telescopes; but the infor- mation is still confined to a note, and very brief: it becomes, however, extremely valuable from the testimony of the late Mr. Ramsden, that it contains a true statement of the facts relating to the discovery. The attention of astronomers is at present directed to the improvements lately made by opticians on the continent in achromatic object-glasses, which are now constructed in a perfect manner, with apertures far exceeding any that have been made from English glass, and which will probably su- persede entirely the use of large reflecting telescopes. ‘The mirrors of the latter, beside their liability to tarnish, have their figure injured by their own weight when they exceed two feet in diameter. It will doubtless be acceptable to many of your readers to republish the few but decisive facts at present known respect- ing Mr. Hall’s important discovery, to which I shall subjoin some queries; the answers to which would gratify the astro- nomers of this country, and tend to render justice to a gentle- man whose merits have been unaccountably neglected. “The inventor was Chester More Hall, Esq. of More Hall, in Essex.” it appears from his papers, that he commenced his labours in the year 1729; and after many experiments, he had the good fortune to find two sorts of glass which had the requisite pro- perties for dispersing the rays of light in contrary directions =n formed into lenses, in order to show objects colour- ess. N.S. Vol. 6, No. 33. Sept. 1829. 2H “ About 234 Queries respecting the Discovery of Achromatic Telescopes. «* About 1733 he completed several achromatic object- glasses (though he did not give them that name), which bore an aperture of 24 inches, though the focal length did not exceed 20 inches; one of which is now in the possession of the Rev. Mr. Smith of Charlotte-street, Rathbone Place. This glass has been examined by several gentlemen of emi- nence and scientific abilities, and found to possess the pro- perties of the present achromatic glasses. “Mr. Hall used to employ working opticians to grind his lenses; at the same time he furnished them with the radii of surfaces, not only to correct the different refrangibility of the rays, but also the aberration arising from the spherical figures of lenses. Old Mr. Bass, who at that time lived in Bridewell precinct, was one of these working opticians, from whom Mr. Hall’s invention seems to have been obtained. “In the trial at Westminster Hall about the patent for making achromatic telescopes, Mr. Hall was allowed to be the inventor; but Lord Mansfield observed that ‘ it was not the person who locked up his invention in his scrutoire that ought to profit by a patent for such invention, but he who brought it forth for the benefit of the public.’ This might per- haps be said with some degree of justice, as Mr. Hall was a gentleman of property, and did not look to any pecuniary ad- vantage at the time from his discovery. ‘That Mr. Ayscough, optician on Ludgate Hill, was in possession of one of Mr. Hall’s telescopes in 1754, is a fact which at this time will not be dis- puted.” The note, of which the substance is here given from the Philosophical Magazine for November 1798, vol. ii. p. 177, is there stated to be taken from the Gentleman’s Magazine for October 1790; but it derives particular interest from Mr. Til- loch’s information, that the celebrated optician Mr. Ramsden confirmed the truth of the statement. Are any of Mr. Hall’s achromatic telescopes now in ex- istence ? Is any correct information now to be obtained respecting the performance of Mr. Hall’s telescopes ? Are any of Mr. Hall’s papers containing the principles of his discovery extant? Is any information to be obtained-from records of the trial in Westminster Hall, respecting the original discovery of achromatic telescopes ? Is any thing further known respecting the philosophical labours or the life of Mr. Hall ? These inquiries are, I conceive, not undeserving the atten- tion of the Astronomical Society. Florence preserves with reli- gious Discovery of Iodine and Bromine in Salt Springs, Sc. 235 gious care the original telescopes of Galileo: the original re- flecting telescope of Newton is carefully lodged in the British Museum ; yet the first achromatic telescope, which displays far more ingenuity and deeper philosophical research than either, has not hitherto been deemed worthy of notice or pre- servation by any scientific society in the country in which the discovery was made.—Youn’s, &c. R. B. P.S. The notices respecting the discovery of achromatic telescopes in the Annuaire are given as under: *¢ Hall construit une lunette achromatique......... 1750 Dollond publie la decouverte des lunettes achro- MAtiQUES cceccccesccevascccccsseccssecsccssesessens 1758.” It should appear, however, from the note above quoted, that Mr. Hall’s discovery was made about the year 1733. XXXIII. On the Discovery of Iodine and Bromine in certain Salt Springs and Mineral Waters in England. By Cuar.eEs Davzeny, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Oxford. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. R. DAUBENY, professor of Chemistry at Oxford, will feel obliged to the editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals, to announce among the other scientific notices in the next Number of their periodical, the discovery which he has made of iodine and bromine in several salt springs and mineral waters of this country. He has obtained the Jatter principle in a separate state from one of the Cheshire brine springs, and has fully satisfied him- self of the existence of the former in two or three; but as he has not yet had time to ascertain the proportions in which they occur, must content himself, for the present, with this simple announcement of the fact. He has found iodine not only in more than one of the Cheshire salt springs, but likewise in several waters con- taining purgative salts, such as those of Cheltenham, Lea- mington, Gloucester, and Tewkesbury; whilst bromine is of still more frequent occurrence, and is perhaps entirely absent from none of the English springs which contain much com- mon salt, except that of Droitwich in Worcestershire, al- though the proportion in which it exists seems to vary consi- rita oe Oxford, August 3, 1829. P.S. The discovery in question was first announced at a meeting of a scientific society in this place on I’riday, May 1. 2H2 XXXIV. In- [ 236 ] XXXIV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. ASPARTIC ACID AND ASPARTATES. M PLESSON has shown that the crystalline matters obtained e from the young shoots of the asparagus, the liquorice root, and the marshmallow, are identical, and have been described under the name of asparagine. When treated with hydrate of lead, an insoluble saline compound is obtained, which gives aspartic acid, when decom- posed by sulphuretted hydrogen ; the properties of this acid are the following: The aqueous solution deposits a fine crystalline brilliant powder, which consists of long quadrangular prisms with dihedral summits. It is inodorous, slightly acid, and reddens litmus. Water at 47° Fahr. dissolves 1-128th part of its weight, but it is more soluble in hot water. Alcohol does not dissolve it; and its specific gravity is 1°873. Heat decomposes it, yielding ammonia and hydrocyanic acid : sulphuric acid, if hot, decomposes it, but nitric acid has very little effect upon it. It expels carbonic acid, and by long ebullition, like sulphuric and kinic acids, it converts starch into sugar. This acid combines with most bases ; the resulting aspartates are all decomposed by heat: those which have a mineral alkali base are decomposed into ammonia, hydrocyanic acid, and metallic cyanide, &c. The soluble aspartates have a remarkable flavour of meat gravy; this flavour is most pure in neutral alkaline or earthy salts ; in the metallic salts it is followed by a styptic taste ; and in the salts con- taining a vegeto-alkaline base, it is overpowered ; oxygen being 8, its equivalent number is about 136. Aspartate of potash is an uncrystallizable salt, attracts moisture from the air, has the flavour already noticed with a slight degree of sweetness ; it is soluble in water, does not precipitate the muriates of barytes, lime, nickel, cobalt, gold, quina, cinchonia or morphia, corrosive sublimate, or tartar emetic. It does not precipitate sulphate of copper or permuriate of iron ; but with the former it produces a magnificent sky-blue colour, and the latter solution becomes of an intense red. With the acetates of lead, the protonitrate of mercury, and nitrate of silver, the aspartate of potash forms a more or less abundant white precipitate, soluble in nitric acid, and also in an excess of either of the two salts. Aspartate of soda crystallizes readily, possesses the peculiar flavour, with a saline taste. Aspartate of barytes is a friable mass, consisting of very small white opake crystals ; it has the flavour of the aspartates, without bitterness. Aspartate of lime: this is a gummy mass ; its taste resembles that of aspartate of soda, and is not at all like any other calcareous salt. It becomes sensibly alkaline by ebullition with carbonate of lime. Aspartate of magnesia greatly resembles that of lime. Aspartate of zinc crystallizes in small white opake grains, does not attract moisture from the air; possesses the peculiar aspartate flavour, which is soon followed by the stypticity of the salts of zinc. Aspartate of nickel by slow evaporation becomes a green fragile mass. Aspartate Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 237 Aspartate of quina is very soluble in water ; that of cinchonia cry- stallizes very readily in fine prismatic needles, while the aspartate of morphia yields a gummy mass, in the middle of which, numerous small brilliant crystals are readily distinguishable. All the soluble aspartates are obtainable directly, or by treating the aspartate of barytes with a proper sulphate ; those which are insolu- ble are procured in the direct mode, or still better by double decom- position.—Annales de Chim, et de Phys. xl. 309. ATOMIC WEIGHT OF IODINE AND BROMINE. Oxygen being 100, Berzelius has determined that the weight of iodine is 789°145; and the density of its vapour 8°7011, which differs only 0:0149 from the determination of Dumas. The atomic weight of bromine appears 489-15 and the density of its vapour 5°3933.—Ibid. xl. 430. PECTIC ACID AND THE JUICE OF CARROTS. M. Vauquelin has analysed the juice of carrots :—the following are the results of his examination. The juice of carrots contains albumen, mixed with a resinous fatty matter and mannite. ; A saccharine principle, which crystallizes with difficulty; an or- ganic matter held in solution by the agency of the saccharine prin- ciple; malic acid. The saline residuum yielded by the decomposition of the juice, is formed of lime and potash combined with phosphoric, muriatic, and carbonic acids; the latter results from the decomposi- tion of the organic substances. The residuum, insoluble in cold water, contains vegetable fibre, pectic acid, or the principle which yields it, supposing it not to exist ready formed ; the saline residuum yielded by combustion consists of phosphate and carbonate of lime. The saccharine matter, deprived of the insoluble principle, dissolved by its agency, is susceptible of the vinous fermentation, but loses this property by the influence of this principle, and is converted into mannite. Pectic acid when heated in a crucible with excess of potash, furnishes oxalic acid. Common water may be employed for washing the mare of the car- rots; if the carbonated are substituted for the caustic alkalies, the acid is obtained in greater plenty and purity.—Ibid. p- 41-46. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. Just Published. Numbers I. and II. of Mr. Strutt's Delicie Sylvarum ; or, Grand and Romantic Forest Scenery in England and Scotland. No. I. contains the following etchings: Windsor Forest ; Ep- ping Forest ; Marlborough Forest ; Banks of the Wye. No. I. contains : The Linn of Dee, Forest of Bremar ; the Burn- ham Beeches, Buckinghamshire ; Scene near Stoneleigh, Warwick- shire ; Cottage in the Forest of Arden. REMARK- 238 Meteorological Observations for July 1829. REMARKABLE COLDNESS OF THE LATE SPRING. The cold and backward spring which we have had in this country has been the subject of general remark. Our correspondent Dr. For- ster, who has recently returned from a tour on the Continent, has made a corresponding remark abroad. The crops, and particularly the garden productions and flowers, have been nearly a fortnight later than usual, almost all over Germany and the northern parts of France. At Spa, the season was so cold and unpleasant that most of the visitants had left it to travel elsewhere till there were some signs of summer ; and there wasice on the water near Liege, on the morning of the 8th of June. The thermometer during the day did not rise higher than 58° of Fahrenheit ; and a cold dry wind seemed to threaten a total destruction of vegetation. Paris however, we understand, was comparatively warm, and the climate seemed to change for the better on passing Arras into France. METEOKOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JULY 1829. Gosport.—Numerical Results for the Month. Barom. Max. 30-31 July 21. WindS.W.—Min. 29-36 July 3. Wind S.W. Range of the mercury 0-95. Mean barometrical pressure for the MONth .....sescerseeeeeeeeeeeeees 29-889 Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury.........++. 6-100 Greatest variation in 24 hours 0-470.—Number of changes 21. Therm. Max. 74° July 25. Wind S.W.—Min, 47° July 26. Wind N.E. Range 27°.—Mean temp. of exter. air 61°97. For 31 days with © in 62°39 Max. var. in 24 hours 21°-00 —Mean temp. of spring-water at 8 A.M. 53:15 De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer. Greatest humidity of the atmosphere in the evening of the 10th .... 88° Greatest dryness of the atmosphere in the afternoon of the 27th... 42 Range of the index .........cssesseeconseseccsceseeeceeneesseseecsesauanecsees 4G Mean at 2 P.M. 63°-5.—Mean at 8 A.M. 67°-2.—Mean at8 P.M. 74-6 of three observations each day at 8, 2, and 8 o’clock ......... 68-4 Evaporation for the month 3-30 inch. Rain in the pluviameter near the ground 5-385 inch. Preyailing wind, S.W. Summary of the Weather. A clear sky, 24; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 13; an over- cast sky without rain, 74; rain, 8,—Total 31 days. Clouds. Cirrus. Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus. 25 16 28 0 24 28 26 Scale of the prevailing Winds, NOONE.) EL Siu sous. h ew. | NW... Daves 1 1 IZ 2 4 13 6 24 31 General Observations.—This has been a very wet month, and the coldest July here since 1823; only five days have passed without rain, and the long continued winds from over the Western Ocean have blown at intervals unusually strong at this season of the year. In consequence of the humidity of the atmosphere, and the slow evapo- ration, several strata of clouds have generally prevailed, and often termi- nated, by the union of crossing winds, in thunder-storms, accompanied with destructive lightning in several parts of the country. ome Meteorological Observations for July 1829. 239 Some fields of wheat were partly lodged in the neighbourhood in the middle of the month, by the heavy showers of rain and hail ; but they re- covered their standing during the two or three following fine sunny days. The wheat harvest is becoming general here, and there will certainly be a good average crop. The barley is much improved by the rains, and pro- mises favourably, and beyond all expectation at the beginning of the month. Notwithstanding the continually wet weather, and the comparatively low temperature of the atmosphere, the corn and fruits, by means of interven- ing hot sunshine, have grown rapidly, and with the exception of wall-fruit, will yield abundant crops; so that a backward spring like the last, is not always ultimately disadvantageous to agriculturists. In the evening of the 3rd instant a very heavy gale passed over, and did much damage among the fruit-trees; but it was not felt so injurious a few miles distant. On the 5th, 14th, 16th, and 24th, distant thunder was heard here, and it lightened throughout the night of the 24th. In the afternoon of the 14th two parhelia appeared for a short time, the one on the south side cf the sun was observed to form and disappear. The nights of the 19th and 26th were cold, with N.W. and N.E. winds; and slight hoar frosts were observed in the grass fields at sunrise on the fol- lowing mornings. : The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our observations this month, are two parhelia, three solar halos, seven rainbows, thunder on four days, and lightning on one; and ten gales of wind, or days on which they have prevailed; namely, one from the North-east, one from the South-east, two from the South, and six from the South-west. REMARKS, London. — July 1. Stormy and wet. 2. Fine, with showers. 3. Stormy and wet: boisterous gale at night. 4. Fine morning: stormy and wet. 5. Cloudy, with heavy showers, 6. Veryfine. 7.Stormyand wet. 8. Very fine. 9. Cloudy: fine afternoon. 10. Very fine: cloudy, with rain at night. 11.Rainy. 12. Cloudy, with heavy showers. 18. Drizzly: cloudy, with some thunder in the evening. 14. Rainy. 15,16. Very fine. 17. Stormy andwet. 18. Stormy rain, with thunder and heavy shower of hail at 3 p.m. 19—23. Very fine. 24. Very fine: cloudy and sultry afternoon. 25. A vio- lent thunder-storm at 2 a.m., accompanied with much rain and hail. It continued only for about an hour, in the course of which not less than an inch of rain fell: cloudy. 26. Coldand cloudy. 27,28. Very fine. 29.Wet morning: showery. 30. Very fine: violent thunder-storm at 4P.m. 31. Fine. Penzance.—July 1. Rain. 2. Fair: showers. 3. Rain: stormy. 4—6. Fair; showers. 7. Rain: fair. 8. Fair. 9. Fair; ashower. 10,11. Rain: fair. 12,13.Showers. 14,15.Fair. 16. Clear, 17.Rain. 18. Fair: showers. 19. Showers: fair. 20,21. Clear. 22. Misty: fair. 23. Clear. 24. Fair: misty. 25. Fair. 26. Showers: fair. 27. Clear: a shower. 28. Heavyrain. 29. Clear: heavy showers. 30,Shower: clear. 31. Clear. Boston.—July 1. Cloudy: rain a.m. 2. Fine. $. Fine: rain and rainbow p.M. 4.Cloudy and stormy. 5. Cloudy. 6. Fine. 7. Cloudy: rain a.m. andp.m. 8—10. Fine. 11. Cloudy. 12. Fine: rain early a.m.: rain Bw. with thunder and lightning.. 13. Vine: raine.m. 14. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 15. Cloudy. 16. Fine: rain at night. 17. Fine: rain a.m. and p.m. 18. Cloudy; raine.m. 19—24. Fine. 25. Cloudy: rain, with thun- der, lightning, and wind, early a.m. At Sibsey and Brothertoft, a small distance from this place, this storm was attended with large hailstones, which did great damage to the standing corn, gardens, windows, &c. 26. Cloudy. 27. Fine. 28. 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XXXV. Notice on the Excavation of Valleys. By Henry T. De 1a BecueE, F.R.S. Sc.* [With a Plate.] WO opinions have been entertained by geologists, as to the causes that have excavated valleys: some contending that they have been produced by the rivers that now run in them, aided by the bursting of lakes and meteoric agents; while others consider that the greater proportion of such valleys have been formed by what has been called diluvial action, and by other causes operating at the bottom of ancient seas. It appears to me that these two rival theories may be reconciled with the facts presented by nature, and that both are, to a certain extent, correct. It would, I think, be almost impos- sible to deny that rivers, more particularly those discharged from the many lakes that probably once existed, have cut deeply into the land, and have formed gulleys, ravines, and gorges: but again, it seems utterly at variance with the rela- tions of cause and effect, to suppose that valleys, properly so called, could have been formed either by the discharge of la- custrine waters, or by the rivers that now run, or could ever have run, in them. In the discussion of this subject, we should consider only such valleys as, by the correspondence of horizontal or nearly horizontal strata on their opposite sides, show that the strata were once continuous, and that their continuity has been de- stroyed by the removal of the intermediate portions;—of course, the very numerous valleys formed by rents and contortions, and such as have been termed valleys of elevation and depres- sion, as well as those of original formation, do not enter into our present consideration. * Communicated by the Author. N.S. Vol. 6. No. $4, Oct. 1829. 2I It 242 Mr. De la Beche on the Excavation of Valleys. It seems to me that aqueous excavations are of two kinds: 1. ‘Lhose produced by vast and violent causes not now in ac- tion; and, 2. Those resulting from the continuous and gradual operation of lakes, rivers, and other agents that have been termed meteoric: the latter series of causes operating upon valleys that most frequently owe their prior existence to the former series, and both offering very distinct appearances. Excavations of the second kind, or those produced by actual streams, present cliffs, gorges, and ravines; while the first are marked by grand and extensively rounded outlines, and by valleys of a breadth and magnitude which would seem only referable to a voluminous mass of moving waters. I shall endeavour to illustrate my opinions by the following examples. ? I1.—Valleys of Excavation in Dorset and Devon. Valleys of the first class, which have been usually termed valleys of denudation, are very common in districts where rocks are not far removed from an horizontal position ; these, to take examples from our own country, are very abundant in Dorsetshire and the east of Devon. In these valleys, the former continuity of the strata on either side is most apparent, and neither elevations nor depressions could have caused them : they are exclusively due to the excavation of the materials by which their sides were connected. The question then arises, what has excavated them? At the bottoms of each of these valleys we find a small stream, the natural drain of the land. Could these streams have cut out such valleys as they now flow through? If there be any true relation between cause and effect, they could not. Fig. 1. (Plate II.) represents a general section of the valleys of Lyme Regis and Charmouth. The summits of the hills are chiefly composed, as has already been noticed by Professor Buckland, of angular flint and chert, the remains of the former superincumbent strata of chalk and green-sand, that have been partially dissolved in place. Be- neath this is green-sand, with an unequal upper surface, re- sulting from the causes that produced the gravel ; still lower is the lias in which the spacious valleys of Lyme and Charmouth ° have been principally scooped out: in the bottom of each val- Jey is a little stream, which I have necessarily represented in the section on a scale much too large. If I had confined my- self strictly to proportions, it would have been invisible; yet to such insignificant streamlets, and the rain-waters which acted in conjunction with them, the advocates for the excava- tion of valleys by actual causes would refer the whole. The most remarkable of these valleys is that of the Char at Char- mouth, Mr. De la Beche on the Excavation of Valleys. 243 mouth, which forms the sole channel of drainage to a district many miles in length. ‘The actual force of this stream, even with every assistance from floods and rains, has not accom- plished more than a cut varying from four to fifteen feet deep, bounded by perpendicular walls: these walls composed for the most part, not of the lias strata that have been widely exca- vated, but of flint and chert gravel, and drifted materials such as are strewed over the valley at all heights, from the bed of the actual river to the tops of the hills. The question may be asked, why, if some solvent power has been able to produce the unrolled gravel on the summits of the hills, it has not been able to cause the valleys themselves. If these valleys in the lias had been equally covered by a breche en place, composed of fragments of lias, it might be urged that they also were pro- duced by dissolution of the lias. No such breccia has been found in them; and the only remaining adequate agent seems to be a voluminous mass of moving waters, to the duration of which I will not venture to assign atime. This seems to have acted on the rocks in proportion to their hardness and com- position. Fs Such valleys as those of Lyme and Charmouth occur in all couniries where nearly horizontal strata have not been much disturbed ; and the causes that produced them seem to be the same with those that have also operated extensively upon the great escarpments of strata, leaving outliers and other marks of former continuity, which some great overwhelming force has interrupted*. Il.—Valleys of Excavation in Jamaica which cannot be referred to Rains or Rivers. Depressions on the earth’s surface existing when the present order of things commenced, would become channels of drain- age to rain-water accumulating into streams and rivers. ‘There are however depressions in which not even a rivulet at present flows, and of these we have examples in the white limestone districts of Jamaica, where the inhabitants are compelled to obtain water exclusively by collecting the rain in tanks; yet in these districts the natural inequalities of the land present the same forms of hill and dale as occur elsewhere ; and even the violent rains in this tropical climate form no continuous rivers, but are swallowed by numerous sink-holes or natural * This force seems to have been exerted very generally ; for in all coun, tries there are inequalities of surface, independent of stratification: and it is by no means uncommon to see the higher parts of curved and contorted strata removed, so that in sections strictly representing them, we are obliged to add imaginary dotted lines to render the curvatures intelligible to per- sons unaccustomed to geological investigations, 212 cavities 244 Mr. De la Beche on the Excavation of Valleys. cavities that pervade the white limestone of Jamaica. Oné great valley is remarkable; it is situated between the Carpen- ter and Santa Cruz mountains, and is excavated in a white limestone interstratified with a red sandstone. It continues inland some miles from the sea at Alligator Pond Bay. The bottom is in general an arid plain or savanna, here and there studded with insulated masses of rock bounded by broken cliffs ; these rocks are covered with vegetation, and resemble, in this respect, oases in a desert. ‘They consist of white limestone in nearly horizontal beds, varying from four to ten feet in thick- ness, and seem to be the remains of continuous strata, which have been nearly destroyed by some great force, but certainly not by that of the waters that now run in the valleys; for there is neither river nor rivulet throughout its whole extent. The river that rises suddenly near the sea, and flows but a short di- stance at the lower termination of this long and wide valley, is most probably derived, like many similar Jamaica streams, from waters swallowed by sink-holes in the interior of the island. IlI.—Valleys of Denudation subsequently cut into Ravines, and otherwise modified by existing Causes. As the smooth-sided valleys of denudation I have been de scribing form the present drain of pluvial waters, I proceed to consider what changes these waters, and the streams resulting from them, have effected in the original outline of such valleys. These changes are often very considerable, and sometimes so modify the valleys that their features derived from de- nudation are nearly obliterated. When the original valley has been scooped out of soft substances, such as soft sandstone or conglomerate, a river resulting from the drainage of the land will have cut a gorge or ravine with cliffs of greater or less height on either side according to circumstances. Of this modification of a valley, the Vallon Obscur, near Nice, will afford an example; a, a, fig. 2. are the sides of the original valley ; 4, b, the gorge or ravine formed by the torrent that has cut through the nearly horizontal strata of tertiary sandstone and conglomerate down to its present bed. ‘The same rocks in the same vicinity afford other examples of this modification of original valleys, so that in some cases it would be difficult to say whether they are original, or have been produced by actual meteoric causes. “These conglomerates and sandstones are generally of easy disintegration, and readily give way. 1V.— Action of Rivers in nearly level and spacious Valleys. Rivers when flowing through extensive and nearly level valleys seem to effect ‘little beyond an occasional change of bed; Mr. De la Beche on the Excavation of Valleys. 245 bed; but when a bank, a small hill, or the foot of a mountain, opposes their progress, they assail it, and form cliffs, the ma- terials of which, if soft, falhinto the stream, or make undercliffs, which are in time removed, and the work of destruction slowly continued (fig.4. @); or when the cliff thus formed is of harder materials, blocks are accumulated in a talus at its base, and the cliff is in a great measure secured from further attack (fig. 4. .). There is scarcely a river of any considerable length or breadth which does not afford examples of cliffs thus pro- duced; very frequently they overhang flat or gently sloping land, on which the river has flowed while employed in cutting the cliff. It is not a little curious to trace, in countries where rivers wind considerably, the various obstacles that have deter- mined the course of the stream, causing it to attack and de- stroy the original more or less rounded forms of the bases of the hills. V.— Rivers escaping from Plains through Gorges. It is by no means uncommon to find plains of greater or less extent bounded on all sides by high land, and through which a principal river meanders, entering at one end by a valley, and passing out through a gorge at the other, augmented by tributary streams from the surrounding hills; sometimes these plains have no principal river passing through them, but only numerous small streams descending from the heights, and which uniting in the plain, pass out of it also through a gorge. In such cases the plain often presents the appearance of a drained lake, and such as all beds of existing lakes, if deprived of their waters, would assume. Fig. 5. is intended to convey a general idea of the interior of such drained lakes; b. repre- senting the gorge through which the waters have passed du- ring the gradual cutting down of the hill. The lake of Geneva would appear once to have been much more extensive than at present, and to be only the remains of a greater lake which has been partly drained by the cutting down of the gorge at the Fort de l’Ecluse. The gorge at Narni seems to have let out the waters of a lake, the ancient bed of which now forms the plain of Terni. ‘These examples have principal rivers now running in them: the bed of the Rhone runs through the drained part of the ancient lake, the remainder of which constitutes the existing lake of Geneva, and the Nera flows through the plain of Terni; and if the re- spective gorges through which the waters escape were again closed, these rivers would again form lakes on the surface of the plains *. The * The great fertile plain of Florence seems once to have been the bed of 246 Mr. De la Beche on the Excavation of Valleys. The celebrated Rheingau may perhaps also be cited as an example of a gorge having drained a mass of waters behind it; for if closed, a lake would be formed over the plains of the Rhine back thence towards Basle. These appearances are not confined to one part of the world; it is very easy to see from the descriptions of intelligent tra- vellers, that they exist very commonly: I have myself observed examples in Jamaica. The district named St. Thomas in the Vale is a marked one: here. we have low land bounded on all sides by hills which would form the banks of a lake, were not the waters let out by the gorge through which the Rio Cobre flows. Luidas Vale, in the same island, is a district sur-. rounded on all sides by high land, and would form a lake, were not the waters, derived from heavy tropical rains, carried off by sink-holes in the low grounds. In consequence of this escape of the waters a lake cannot be formed, and therefore no dis- charging river, which should deliver tue excess of waters over the lowest lip of the high land. This vale therefore presents ho such gorge as would have resulted from the cutting power of a draining river, such as has taken place at St. Thomas in the Vale. It is needless at present to attempt a further enumeration of these appearances; they will readily present themselves to the minds of those who have attentively examined any large district, particularly a mountainous district: but the famous vorge of the Via Mala in the Grisons is too striking an ex- ample to be omitted. The valley of Domleschg, at the upper part of which stands Tusis, is separated from that of Schams by a lower cross range of mountain, which would bar the progress of the Rhine down the valley, and convert the valley of Schams into a lake, were it not for the opening of the Via eee which has been cut through the cross range. Upon entering the gorge of the Via Mala, ancient rounded gravel will be obser ved to compose the upper part of the cliff and to rest upon soft gray schist. It seems not to have been formed, but to have been cut through by the causes that exca- vated the gorge. ‘The same gravel forms terraces in the val- ley of Schams, also cut through at the upper extremity of the Via Mala. As we descend the gorge it will be observed in many places high above the river, reposing on the schist. The gorge itself is of considerable length, its “general breadth from fifty to seventy yards, and its depth several hundred feet. of a lake, the drainage of which was effected by a cut through the high Jand that bounds it on the west. If this outlet were closed, the waters of the Arno would again ceyer the plain and convert it inte the bed of a lake, The Mr. De la Beche on the Excavation of Valleys. 247 The road that passes through it may be said to be notched and tunnelled in its sides. ‘This place presents us with two epochs. 1, That when some great catastrophe broke away portions of the high Alps, with sufficient force to round the fragments, and lodge them above the margin of the gorge, as well as at the bottom of the ancient lake. 2. That in which the river has ex- cavated the narrow gorge, cutting through the gravel and through the rock beneath it. Fig. 3. will afford a general idea of this celebrated spot; the height of the gorge being there represented very considerably greater than its real proportion to its length: a@,a, the cross range cut through; 0,0, gorge of the Via Mala, excavated by the Rhine; c,c,c, bed of the actual river, which has cut through the bed of the ancient lake as well as the gorge; d,d, supposed surface of the ancient lake; g, 8, 8, 5 g, ancient gravel. It can I think be scarcely doubted that this gorge has been formed by the river that now rushes along it, and still continues its excavations. It has cut below the ancient bed of the lake, as may be seen where the gravel level has been destroyed and torn away at the higher extremity of the gorge. The same violent cause which has lodged the gravel in the higher parts of the Via Mala, has also deposited an immense abundance of the same rolled fragments between Tusis and Coire, which actual causes tend constantly to destroy and carry away. The accumulation of mountain detritus produced by actual meteoric influences upon this gravel is also seen on both sides of Coire; from different ravines the torrents throw out daily upon the valley of the Rhine the disintegrated fragments of the mountains, and these have arranged themselves in the form of a talus at the bottom of each ravine upon the more ancient gravel, in the same manner that sand poured through a notch in a block of wood would arrange itself upon a table on which the block rested ;—in this illustration the table re- presents the ancient gravel; the notch in the wood, the ra- vine in the mountain; and the sand, the modern detritus. This ancient gravel, between the junction of the two Rhines and Coire, is cut into cliffs and ravines, and undergoes daily dimi- nution from actual causes. It contains large blocks and boul- ders, which would seem to refer the epoch of its formation to that which scattered blocks from the Alps in all directions, The gravel upon the higher part of the Via Mala is the same as here mentioned, and is probably of the great block epoch, and it must have been subsequent to this that the gorge itself was cut out, gradually draining the lake behind it. The celebrated falls of Niagara afford an example of a river now 248 Mr. De la Beche on the Excavation of Valleys. now in the act of cutting a gorge, which, if time be allowed, may let out the waters of the lake above it. If this should ever be accomplished, the gorge will resemble those we have been describing, and show equally with them, that existing rivers may excavate gorges and precipitous channels, but that these excavations are entirely distinct from valleys of denudation. In all such cases as this, and in the minor effects of meteoric influence, we have gorges, ravines and gulleys, cliffs, taluses and landslips,—all tending to destroy the more or less rounded forms of anterior valleys which were excavated by a force act- ing generally and with enormous power ; a force scarcely re- ferable to any other cause than a voluminous mass of over- whelming waters. P.S. I admit that considerable changes have been and con- tinue to be effected on the earth’s surface by causes actually existing. In the time of hurricanes, tropical rains effect that which an inhabitant of milder regions would scarcely credit. In Jamaica, the great hurricane of 1815 produced numerous cliffs and landslips in the mountains of St. Andrew and Port Royal. The gulleys also in this island are very numerous and deep, particularly in the great gravel plains. This gravel the torrents do not produce, but only tend to cut up and destroy ; so also do the rivers which traverse it; the effect both of rivers and torrents being to make precipitous excavations not only in stratified rocks, but also in these beds of gravel, the origin of which must be referred to some more powerful, more ge- neral, and more ancient cause. Although I consider that many gorges have been cut by the gradual discharge of lakes, and by the rivers that now flow in them, I by no means suppose that all gorges or ravines have been thus formed: many evidently were not ; and of these, some have rivers now flowing through them, others contain no stream whatever. The gorge of Clifton near Bristol, through which the Avon passes, may be cited as an example of the first kind ; if this were closed, the resulting lake would be drained in the direction of Nailsea, and exert no action on the rocks of Clif- ton. The carboniferous limestone districts of England abound in examples of the second kind; viz. of gorges entirely dry, or through which the rills now passing are much too insignifi- cant to have caused them. XXXVI. On f249° Y XXXVI. On some Properties of Curves of the Second Order. By J. W. Luszock, Esg. FBS. § L.S.* NONE of the properties of the conic sections are more ele- gant than those which belong to the inscribed hexagon ; and it is to be regretted that they do not find a place in ele- mentary works on this subject. M. Brianchon has treated this question at some length in the 4th volume of the Journal de l’ Ecole Polytechnique, and also in the Correspondance de P Ecole Polytechnique, vol. i. p. 307, and vol. ii. p. 383; but he seems to think that it would be next to impossible to give a direct algebraical proof of the fundamental theorem. I have endea- voured to supply this; and the proof I have given will, I think, be found quite as simple as any which have been obtained by geometrical considerations. A geometrical proof is given by Mr. T. S. Davies, in the Philosophical Magazine for Nov. 1826. Let (2, 71); (2 Yo) (Ys) (4 Ya) (%5Ys) (Zee) be any six points in a parabola of which the equation is y*= pa, the cordinate axes being inclined to each other at any given angle; and let the construction be made, which is indicated by the figure @, B, being the coordinates of the point where the line , r, produced cuts the line 2,2, The points (a, B;), (#) Ba) (#3 8y) ave in the » same straight line. ae = — because by hypothesis «,, #, and a, are - 1-P1 “Sage eee in the same straight line. * Communicated by the Author. N. S. Vol. 6. No. 34. Oct. 1829. 2K #42 250 Mr. Lubbock on some Properties ® Yg—XyY —% (Ya—4,)— B, (@1— Fg) = O Yo: —By (Yot+y:)+ pe, = 0; and similarly ¥3Y2—Bo(Yst Yo) + pa, = 0 WwYs—Bs (Ys t+ Ys) + P 43 = O YsYs—Bi (Ys—Ys) + PH = O YYs—Po( Yet Ys) + P 4 = 0 AYs—Ps(H+ Ys) + P 4s = 0 eliminating y,, y3 and y;, (B2—Bs) YaYo2—(P 42— Bo Bs) Yat (P 43—By Bs) Yo + P (42 Bs =~ 2g &3 -—— (8; —B2) 7 es Ge Seek CORY dks Bo) Yat P (4 Be (8s; —B1) Yo ¥e—(P 43—B1 Bs) Yo+ (P 1 —Bs Bi) ¥e+ P (43 Pi ed 3 Ay = adding together these equations, and making for simplicity 6, = 0, which does not affect the generality of the solution, be- cause the coordinate axes x and y are supposed to be inclined at any given angle Bo Ya (Yo—Ys) + Bs Yo (Yo—Y4) + Be Bs (Ya—Yo) + P (42 B3— Be 4s +4 Po Ps %)) = and by the equations above B — 5447 2 0 B. — 4695-3 ¥2_ a TN _ 1 YstYs-"-—-N 7 2 ystys—ys—yo? ys t+ ¥s—Y1— Yo and substituting these values of 6, and @, in the three first terms of the last equation they disappear, and we have ty Bg —Po %3 +4, Bo—B3%, = 0, which equation of condition between the coordinates of the points a, 6,, a Po, «; 8; shows that they are in the same straight line. The same kind of proof might be applied step by step when the equation of the conic section is more complicated, but it is simpler to extend it at once by the theory of projections. Let the parabola (7? = px, z = D) be the base of a cone whose vertex coincides with the origin; the equation to the cone is Dy = pea, let this cone be intersected by a plane of which the equation is (z—D) sin §—2 cos 6 = 0. 6 being the angle which this plane makes with the plane zy. The equations to the curve of intersection of this plane, and the conical surface referred to axes Oz! and O7/, (O being the origin,) coinciding with the intersection of this plane and the planes zz, zy will be found by substituting 2 cos 4 + D for z, and z sin @ for 2 in the equation Dy? = pz z,. which substitution gives Dy? = p(x cos 6+ D)zvsiné. If this equation be identical with the equation 7° = p!« is q' x? P FP of Curves of the Second Order. 251 pe=psind gq =p sin 4 cos 6, and it is evident that any of the preceding equations which were true in the case of the parabola y? = px may be transformed so as to apply to the curve 7? = px +92” by substituting for the coordinates and y of any point in these equations Pus oe ; . ss ae , and (se ) respectively. In this way the equation JIi— Pi (~tM)t PA = 0 becomes pr yoyi p'? By ( P Yo Vy prey ——_—— See SS CS — —— pty * wtaeht pte and the final equation tty Bg— By ty + et B.—Bs¢, = 0 becomes _ Biv Poes ge Bg (p'+9! @2)(p' + #3) (a+! 1) (p'+9'42) (p' +4 #3) (v' +9! #1) which gives after reductions adhe thy Bg— By 43+ Pa—P 3% = 0, which shows that the theorem is true generally of all the conic sections. The preceding method of transformation may be applied to any problem which relates to the intersections only of lines. Thus the equation to the tangents drawn from the point (a, 8) to the parabola 7° = p 2, the point (a, 6) being without the curve is p (a@—a)—4 (Bx—ay) (y—B) = 93 therefore the equation to the tangents drawn from the point (a, 8) to the curve y? = px + qa is xp? ap 2? p*(Ba-ay) pet NS Petes pate a ete ied leennto as heer prqes or, p* (e—a)'—4 (Bax—ay) {p(y—P)—9(Bt—ay)} = 0 The property of the inscribed hexagon which has been proved leads to many very elegant geometrical constructions ; amongst others it furnishes the simplest method of finding any number of points in a curve of the second order when five are bia It is probably identical with that of Pascal’s mystic 1exagon, upon which he founded a theory of conic sections published in 1640: unfortunately no copy of this work is known to exist. The theorem in question is deduced by Carnot, from the following very elegant property of curves of the second order. If tangents A B, A C be drawn to any points B and C in any curve of the second order, if B and C be joined, and any line P Mqr be drawn in any given direction, cutting the chords BC in P the curve in M, and the tangents produced in g and >, PM?= A.Mq.Mr, A being a constant quantity—See Carnot’s Géométrie de Position, p. 446. 2K 2 Let 252 On some Properties of Curves of the Second Order. Lety? = px + ¢ 2° be the equation to any conic’section, the coordinate axes including any angle, but being such that the axis y coincides in direction with the line P Mqr. The equa- tion to the tangents A B, A C drawn from the point A, (a, 8) is pi(z—a)— 4 (B2—ay) {p(y—B)—g (Ba—ay)} = 0 and the equation to the chord BC is : a(p+2qu)—2By+ap=0 If these equations be transferred to the origin M, by put- ting 7+2! for z and y+y/ for y, 2! and y! being the coordinates of the point M, Mq and Mr will be the roots of the first equa- tion, considering y as the unknown quantity, when z is made = 0, similarly M P is the value of y in the second equation when z is made = 0; therefore since by the theory of equa- tions the product of the roots of y is equal to that part of the equation which is independent of y, _ P(e —2)"—4 (Ba —ay’) {p(y—8)—g (BY —ay)} M q x M r= TR RE gay he _ 6 (rp +2¢2) r+ ap—2By' 2 MP= jeri and since 7/* = pa' + g2'°, the truth of the equation pe ; pers} M qx Mris easily recognized. ° This theorem may be extended to curve surfaces of the se- cond order. If « By are the coordinates of the vertex of the conical sur- face which circumscribes the curve surface of which the equa- tion is np? x® + m> py? + mn? 2* = m*n® p® the equation to the plane of contact is npar+ mp? By +n? myz= mn? p* if P Mq~ be any straight line parallel to the axis y cutting the curve surface in M the circumscribing cone, of which the equation is (n? p?—p? Be—n* y’) (e—a)?+ (m? p? —m? fp a?) (y—B}? + (mn? n?—m? a? —n® Bt) (z—y) +2 p* a B (2—a) (y—B) +2 m® By (z—y) (y—B)+2 nay (z—y) (v—a) = 0, in g and r and the plane of contact in P 2 2 72 42 — m2 42 PM? = 2° (PoP) xM¢xMr. m? p? BX m2? p2— p? art—mry2\ . y \ : n?( F Lope? ~) is evidently independent of xy z, that is, of the position of the point M. XXXVH. On ae XXXVII. On the supposed Identity of Whitebait and Shad. By Wi111aM YarRrELL, Esq. F.L.S.* HAT the diminutive fishes called Whitebait are the young of the Shad (Clupea alosa) is a point so long considered to be settled, that I fear I shall be thought guilty of a crime little short of treason in Natural History by declaring for an opposite opinion; but having devoted considerable time and attention to this subject during the present season, I shall proceed to detail the facts, historical as well as anatomical, of which this investigation has placed me in possession, and which have led me to adopt a conclusion at variance with all the English authors on this point. Mr. Pennant in his British Zoology gives the Whitebait a place as an appendage to the Bleak (Cyprinus alburnus), rather, as he remarks, * than form a distinct article of a fish which it it impossible to class with certainty.” The editor of the edition published in 1812 says, * Mr. Pen- nant was either deceived in the specimens sent him as White- bait, or the branchiostegous rays were injured ; since he counted only three (genus Cyprinus) instead of eight (genus Clupea) of these rays, which number they certainly possess.” Dr. Shaw in his General Zoology follows Pennant, and de- scribes the Whitebait as a species of the Carp or Cyprinus enus. e Dr. Turton in his British Fauna, attached to his description ofthe Bleak, Cyprinus alburnus, has the following observation : ** The Whitebait which has hitherto been considered as a va- riety of this fish, appears by the judicious and accurate inves- tigation of the author of the Natural History of British Fishes, to be merely the young fry of the Clupea alosa or Shad.” Mr. Donovan, in his Natural History of British Fishes, treats this subject at some length, and considers that his examination affords incontrovertible evidence that the Whitebait is really the fry of the common Shad. Dr. Fleming, in his recently published History of British Animals, follows Mr. Donovan in considering the Whitebait as the fry of the Shad. To place this subject, upon which such different opinions have been entertained, in a clear point of view, it may be pro- per to commence with a short account of the habits of each of these two fishes. All English writers agree that the Shads enter our rivers in the month of May, for the purpose of depositing their spawn, and, this object accomplished, they return to sea by the end of July. ‘They appear during these three months in the greatest * From the Zoological Journal, vol. iv. p. 137. abundance 254 Mr. Yarrell on the supposed Identity abundance in the Thames, from the first point of land beyond Greenwich, opposite the Isle of Dogs, to the distance of a mile below, and immense quantities are taken every year. Formerly, great quantities of Shads were caught by fishermen at that part of the Thames opposite the present Penitentiary, but the state of the water has driven the fish higher up the stream, and the fishing for them at this point has been almost abandoned. Very considerable numbers of Shads were also taken in former seasons as high up the river as Hammersmith, but the deterioration which the quality of the water has suffered from various causes, has rendered the fishing for Shads in this part of the river an employment scarcely worth following: the quantity of fishes obtained in a season twenty years ago, com- pared with the produce of the present year, would be in the proportion of an hundred to one. By various acts of Parliament*, the conservation of the river Thames from Staines Bridge downwards, and of the waters of the Medway, is vested in the Lord Mayor and his Court for the time being, who, with the addition of certain other officers, make and enforce the execution of their own bye-laws for the preservation of the fishery. Their 23rd rule and order is as follows: ‘* Shads shall be only taken from the 10th day of May to the 30th of June in every year.” By making an arrangement both at Putney and Greenwich, I was constantly supplied with Shads twice in every week du- ring the whole, and even somewhat beyond the time they are allowed to be taken; and without going into a detail of weekly observations, it will be sufficient for the purpose to state, that not a single male or female Shad, examined during the months of May or June, had cast its milt or eggs, and this fact it is necessary to bear in mind. Two fishes examined on the 5th of July still retained their roes, but two others subjected to the same test on the 7th had passed their ova. It is the opinion of the fishermen, who have the best op- portunities for observation, that these adult fishes, having per- formed the office for which they visit the fresh water, take the centre of the current and return to sea. From their weak state, they may be said to drift, rather than swim, with the tide, and, as fishing against the stream is prohibited, they in this way proceed in safety to their destination. Of the young Shad, when vivification of the deposited ova has taken place, but few examples are caught, and these only by the unlawful mode of fishing for Whitebait. Like the young of Salmon, and the fry of other salt-water fishes, instinct di- rects the exertion of their first efforts towards gaining the sea. * 13 Edward I. c. 47. 17 Richard I. ¢. 9.; and 10 Anne. The of Whitebait and Shad. 255 The reason given by the fishermen why these young fishes are not caught in greater quantities, is, that immediately on their acquiring sufficient power of motion, they take the middle of the stream, and make for sea; and as no nets capable of stop- ping them are used in that part of the river, they escape until their return the next year as adult Shad. When the preceding winter has been mild, the Whitebait make their appearance early in spring. In the present year, I first observed them in a fishmonger’s shop at the west-end of the town, on Saturday the 29th of March. Knowing the habits of the Shads, and that they did not make their appear- ance in the Thames till May, it was this early exhibition of Whitebait which induced me to take up, and persevere in, an investigation, which I have pursued to the present time. I am. aware it may be urged, that the periodical visits of fishes as well as other animals are influenced and varied by the tem- perature of particular seasons and the condition of the animal, but as all the comparative observations I shall make on this subject will be confined to the fish of the same river, and du- ring the same season, this objection will not be valid. _White- bait continued to be procured in the month of April; more abundantly throughout May as the weather became warmer ; and with the exception of occasional interruptions to the fish- ing, from the activity of the Water Bailiff and his deputies, the taverns at Greenwich and Blackwall, as well as several fishmongers in London, have continued to receive a supply up to the present time. The same arrangement that produced me the Shads, produced me also constant supplies of small quan- tities of Whitebait for weekly examination, and the additional fee which I had promised the fishermen for every young Shad that was preserved for me, produced me, as I have reason to believe, every young fish of that species, as well as any por- tion I pleased of other fishes, neither Whitebait nor Shads, which the parties I engaged with caught in the pursuit of their avocation. The number of young Shads however did not ex- ceed a score, nor did I obtain one till the end of June, recog- niseable instantly from the Whitebait, and both species di- stinctly known to the fishermen. I may here also add, that no Whitebait are found in other rivers frequented by the Shad; not a single example of Whitebait is ever taken between Put- ney and Hammersmith, where the Shads deposit their spawn ; and although Shads abound in the Severn, which affords this fish in higher perfection than any other river, particularly near Gloucester where immense quantities are taken, the Whitebait are unknown; nor do I ever remember to have seen a notice of the appearance of this fish in any other river in England except the ‘Thames, But 256 Mr. Yarrell on the supposed Identity But it is not alone on such data as these, however conclu- sive they may appear, that I rely, for the distinction for which I contend. The best zoologists of the last fifty years have taught us the value as well as the necessity of searching for, and resorting to anatomical distinctions, as the best foundation for the separation of species, and I shall therefore proceed to de- tail the various differences that present themselves on a close examination of the external and internal characters of the Whitebait and Shad, premising, that in every instance I refer to the parts as they appear in a fish of each sort, correspond- ing exactly in size. The tongue of the Shad is smooth and dark in colour, the lower jaw has three strong teeth, the whole edge of the upper jaw, which from its shape forms two distinct portions, is also armed with strong teeth, the snout bifid, the eye small. The tongue in the Whitebait is rough and white, the lower jaw has no teeth on the outer edge, and differs in its form from the same part in the Shad; the upper jaw in the Whitebait possesses teeth on the lower’ portion only, the snout is not notched, the eye one third larger than that of the Shad, and there is also an appreciable difference in the form of the oper~ culum. Its dorsal line is less curved. / £ op Ra Edge of the mouth of Edge of the mouth of the the Shad, magnified. Whitebait, magnified. The dorsal fin of the Shad is placed nearer the head than in the Whitebait, and differs also in being less triangular in its form. The ventral fins of both are placed in a line imme- diately under that of the back. There are also differences in. the number of fin rays as the following comparative statement will show. Whitebait. D.17., P.15., V.7., A.15. Tail 20. Shad, according to Donovan. D. 20., P. 19., V.12,, A.21. Tail 26. But I place less confidence on these variations in the num- ber of the fin rays, as characters, than on others, not finding them of Whitebait and Shad. 257 them invariably uniform. The body of the Shad is much deeper in proportion to its length than the Whitebait, its pre- vailing colour on the back, blue, without any very apparent Jateral line. The colour of the back of the Whitebait is greenish ash, the lateral line impressed, distinct and straight. ‘The ser- rations on the abdominal edge also differ in shape, as a refer- ence to the accompanying magnified representations will de- JY) LLL Abdominal serrated | Abdominal serrated edge of the Shad. { edge of the Whitebait. monstrate. The form of the stomach is similar in both these fishes, as might be expected from their belonging to the same genus, but the czecal appendages are much more numerous in the Shad than in the Whitebait. The parietes of the abdo- men in the Shad are lined with a delicate silver-coloured mem- brane which also exists in the Whitebait, but in the latter fish this membrane is covered on the side next the viscera with a dark colouring matter resembling the nigrum pigmentum, not a vestige of which appears in the Shad. There is also another difference between the Shad and the Whitebait upon which I place greater reliance, in proof of specific distinction, than on any other single anatomical cha- racter. The number of vertebrz in the Shad, of whatever size the specimen may be, is invariably 55; the number in the Whitebait is uniformly 56, and even in a fish of two inches, with the assistance of a lens, this exact number may be di- stinetly made out. The value of this character as a specific distinction may be presumed by the following quotation from Dr. Fleming’s ex- cellent work on the Philosophy of Zoology, vol. ii. p. 311. ** The number of the bones of the vertebral column in dif- ferent species of fishes, being exceedingly various, suggested to Artedi the use of this character in the separation of nearly allied species. Among the species of the genus Cyprinus, for example, a difference in the number of vertebra has been ob- served to the amount of 14, In ascertaining this character Artedi recommends the greatest circumspection. ‘The fish should be boiled, the fleshy parts separated, and the vertebree detached from one another, and these counted two or three times in succession to prevent mistakes. This character is of great use, as it is not liable to variation, individuals of the same species exhibiting the same number of vertebrae in all the stages of their growth.” From the observations made by Mr. Donovan in his History N.S. Vol. 6. No. 34. Oct. 1829. 2L of 258 Mr. Yarrell on the supposed Identity of British Fishes, it would be inferred, that the Shads visiting the ‘Thames in the months of May and June, and appearing in immense quantities, heavy in roe, about Greenwich and Black- wall, there deposit their ova, which on vivification become the well-known Whitebait. It seems not to be generally known that the Whitebait, though often caught as high up the river as Blackwall, are as frequently taken as low down the river as Erith. The situation they are found in by the fishermen depends entirely on the state of the water. Always occupying a station which affords a mixture of the water of the sea and river, they are a salt-water fish rather than otherwise, coming upwards with the first part of every flood-tide, swimming always near the surface, avoiding the strong current, preferring the slack water at the sides of the stream that they may not be carried too far up, and returning towards the sea with the first of the ebb-tide. The net used by the fishermen for the taking of Whitebait is illegal on more accounts than one; the mode of fishing, which is against the stream, is also illegal; the fish float with the tide, and only about two hours of each ebb and flow can be employed to advantage. ‘The fish are most plentiful when the weather is warm, and can only be taken during day-light. It would probably be difficult to ascertain the fact, but I have reason to believe that the ova which produce these swarms are deposited in shallow water on the flat shores about and below Gravesend, as I have almost uniformly received the smallest Whitebait from the lower part of the river. The evidence pritited in the Report from the commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of the supply of water to this city, contains a sentence in point on this subject, commu- nicated by Mr. Goldham, the clerk of the fish-market at Bil- lingsgate, a gentleman who has made fish and fisheries his particular study. “ Whitebait are certainly obtained in greater abundance than formerly, by poachers (viz. fishermen who have been thrown out of their former employ) using unlawful nets: it should however be observed, that Whitebait are taken at par- ticular times of the tide; as they are a salt-water fish, and come and retire with the water, which is partially salt; on this account they are never known above Blackwall.” See Re- port, page 72. From the train of circumstances here detailed, it will be ob- vious that I consider the Whitebait as distinct from the Shad. I have now before me, preserved in a weak mixture of alcohol and distilled water, both young and old Shads, and nearly one hundred specimens of Whitebait of all sizes, the latter ‘sas 1 inc of Whitebait and Shad. 259 1 inch in length to 44; all taken this season, and all, as I be- ‘lieve, young fish of this year. By this it will be evident that ‘their size has been much under-rated by those authors who have described the length as not exceeding 2 inches. I have also before me a fine specimen of 42 inches in length, an adult ‘fish with roe, and as the fishing for Whitebait will probably continue till October, I have little doubt of obtaining others in a more advanced state as the season proceeds. I believe that these fishes deposit their spawn during the winter, that the young are slow in their first development, as well as in their subsequent growth, and probably never attain any con- siderable size. ‘The food found in their stomachs most distin- guishable, consisted of very minute shrimps. To show that my expectations of obtaining other adult spe- cimens of Whitebait with roe as the winter approaches, have some foundation, I quote from Mr. Pennant’s editor the fol- lowing sentence, ‘ the accurate Duhamel asserts that the Franc Blanquet (of the identity of which with the Whitebait we en- tertain little doubt) is full of eggs and milt in November and December.” . The slow development of the ova of fishes which spawn in winter may principally be referred to temperature. From the spawn of Salmon, deposited in December and January, the young fry do not come forth till March and April, while the ova of some other species, deposited in the midst of summer, become living fishes on the ninth day. Believing that the more closely this subject is examined, the more evident the true distinction between the Whitebait and Shad will appear, I venture to propose the term alba for the former species, the characters of which have been already no- ticed in detail*. The name given by Mr. Donovan to his White- bait (Clupea alosa junior) may still be retained without incon- venience, since the fishes represented by that gentleman in his 98th plate, are in reality young Shads, and not Whitebait; and I have entered thus fully into the investigation with the hope of clearing up the confusion and errors at present existing on this subject, in most of, if not all, our Zoological works. Ryder-street, St. James’s, August 1828, Additions to the foregoing Remarks t. The season for Whitebait fishing having expired soon after the sending my former remarks on that subject for inser- tion in the 14th Number of the Zoological Journal, I waited with some anxiety for the period when nets of small meshes might legally be worked at the mouth of the Thames for Sinelts * A correct figure by Mr, James Sowerby is given in the Zoological Journal. } From the Zoological Journal, vol. iv. p. 465, 2L2 and 260 Mr. Yarrell on the supposed Identity and Sprats, in the hope of obtaining further evidence of the distinction between Whitebait and Shads; and in this expec- tation I was not disappointed. I obtained, but in small num- bers only, both adult Whitebait in roe, and some young ones; but it appeared that the large shoals of this fish, like all those which visit the fresh water for the purpose of depositing their spawn, had, with their fry of the year, quitted the river and re- turned tothedeep. As late as the month of November I obtained several small Shads, only 24 inches in length, which illustrated another point in the history of that fish. We are told by Baron Cuvier and M. Valenciennes, in the second volume of their work on the Natural History of Fishes (p. 25), that a Perch of 7 inches is in his third year; and I therefore felt convinced that these young Shads, only 23 inches in length when taken in November, were in reality young fishes of the same year, and that the young Shads of 4 inches in length, obtained in the months of July and August preceding, were the young fishes of the year before, the greater part of them having ar- rived at the length of 4 inches at or very soon.after the time the adult fishes had shed their ova. ‘There was also this ob- vious and invariable distinction between young Shads and Whitebait: the latter never exhibited any trace of the spots on the sides, so conspicuous in the Shads. The Shads, on the contrary, were never without some indication of these peculiar spots, though their number and intensity of colour appeared to depend on the strength and condition of the fish. The first spot immediately behind the operculum however is never wanting; some of the young Shads taken in July and August exhibited as many as five spots, but the youngest as well as the weakest invariably possess one spot behind the upper part of the edge of the operculum; even the young Shads of 2 inches only, taken in November, the smallest I have been able to procure, have this distinction, and in this state most resemble ‘Whitebait; but I may add in conclusion, as an invariable point of distinction between the two fishes, that I have never seen a Whitebait of any age or size with this spot, or a Shad without it. On showing a series of specimens of these two fishes to M. Valenciennes during his late visit to London, that gentle- man, who has made this branch of Natural History his parti- cular study, stated that he considered them decidedly dif- ferent. In proposing the term alba as a specific distinction for the Whitebait, in a former paper, I by no means intended to be understood as supposing that this fish had remained as yet undescribed by continental naturalists, I only desired to claim: for this distinct species an appropriate appellation in our list of British of Whitebait and Shad. 261 British Fishes. It maybe ‘Le Prétre ou Spret deCalais,le Franc- Blaquet ou Franche Blanche,” four names given by Duhamel to one small species of Clupea, though his figure is not like our fish; yet as the Whitebait frequents the Thames every summer, it is not unlikely that it should be taken at Calais. Sir Everard Home, in his recently published additional vo- lumes on Comparative Anatomy (vol. v. c. 4. sect. 1. page 232, and vol. vi. plate 28) has inferred, from certain resemblances in the ova and serrated abdominal edges of four fishes of the genus Clupea, that the Whitebait is a young Shad, and the Sprat a young Herring. Dr. Fleming in his History of British Animals, published in 1828, does not allow the Sprat a place among his fishes; and at page 183, after giving the specific characters of the Pilchard (Clupea Pilcardus), the following sentences occur: “ The fry of the Herring and Pilchard are confounded together under the epithet Spra¢. ‘The position of the dorsal fin, in reference to gravity, furnishes, however, an obvious mark of distinction.” ‘The differences already detailed as existing in the anatomy and habits of Whitebait and Shads render any further observations on that subject unnecessary, while between the Sprat and Herring the distinctions are still more decided. On comparing a Sprat with a young Herring of the same length, at which age they are called by the fisher- men Yawlings, the Sprat will be found to be considerably deeper, and the scales much larger; in this latter circumstance the Sprat resembles the Pilchard, but the Pilchard on the other hand is not so deep a fish as the Herring. ‘The Sprat and Herring differ also in the number of rays in three of their fins out of the four they possess, and also in the tail, as the follow- ing numbers exhibit. ; Ey ba, C. Sprat...... 17 15 7 18 19 Herring... 17 14 9 14 20 There is also one other most material difference, the vertebre in the Sprat are 48 in number, in the Herring there are 56, as I have ascertained upon many examples of both species. The number of vertebrae in the Whitebait and Herring being the same might suggest the idea that the Whitebait were young Herrings, but the ceconomy of the species prevents this conclusion, The Whitebait are unknown on the shores of our various Northern islands, where the Herrings in myriads de- posit their spawn; and on the other hand, the Thames pro- duces Whitebait in abundance during the summer, remaining with us till August, when the Herrings are heavy with roe which they do not deposit till October. XXXVIII. On [ 262 ] XXXVIII. On a Property possessed in common by the Primi- tives and Derivatives of the Product of two Monome Functions. By Mr. Enwarp Sane*. HE idea expounded by Lagrange, of regarding the suc- cessive differential coefiicients of a function of one variable, as similar functions derived from each other, according to a given law, materially changes the aspect of the fluxional cal- culus. His confined notation, however, which is almost a return to the inconvenient method of Newton, prevents the advantages of his system from being generally appreciated, and divests it of that perspicuity which ought always to be the characteristic of algebraic notation. ‘The elegance of his me- thods, as well as their great power, interested me in procuring amore convenient notation,—one which might enable me to pass from one primary to another without being distracted by the confusion which arises from his varied accents. In denoting a derived function it is evidently necessary to indicate both the number of times the derivation has been re- peated, and the quantity which, in these operations, has been regarded as the independent or primary variable. Of the three notations which have been employed, that of Leibnitz alone serves/both of these purposes ; but from its complexity, as well as from its fractional appearance, it is any thing but convenient in complex operations. The particular theorem, which it is my intention in this paper to expound, I have been unable to express by the no- tation either of Lagrange or Leibnitz, without introducing an extension of signification too far-fetched to be admissible; and am therefore compelled to explain the particular algorithm which conducted me to the result in question. If « be a function of z I propose to denote the differential : d mg ; ; coefficient — of Leibnitz or the “fonction prime u'” of La- grange by the expression , v3 the second differential coeffi- . du a a . 7] cient = or the fonction seconde u by ,,% and so on. This notation, in the first place, enables us to express in a very clear manner those complex derivatives which are ob- o. ae : Hu * scurely indicated by such expressions as >—;—, which from analogy one would be very apt to suppose equivalent to Bw (dz 2 pore (4) . In fact the quantity intended by the first of these expressions, being obtained by deriving three times with 2 as * Communicated by the Author. a primary Mr. Sang on the Product of two Monome Functions. 263 a primary and twice with the primary z, may be easily ex-' pressed by ,, 5,7; while that indicated by the second can be denoted by 52u(, .v)’ or . 4 , 2°. The series of quantities Uy lly gels .tly 4s &c. being similarly derived, each from that which precedes, the derivatives of any one of them may be found by increasing its numerical subponent. ‘Thus the second derivative of 3 xl Is 5x? and in general nelt ) = (t-+n)z” Again, each member of the series being the derivative of that which precedes, may in turn be regarded as the primi- tive of that which follows, so that the second primitive of 5,% is 5.4 The operation of integrating or going back in the series, may therefore be conveniently expressed by prefixing the negative sign to the subponent, so that _, means the primitive of the function w, the primary variable being x; _ ants the second primitive, and so on. We have thus in general sinw(ee) ia (t—n) x” and also pelt = Ue In this manner an advantage accrues to the notation similar to that which follows from the employ- ment of negative exponents. The quantities 1 EP gas tls yells Uy lly olla 5.%y &e. thus form an uninterrupted series, any one of which may be regarded as the original from which the others were deduced ; thus, if ,,u = v, the same quantities might have been written BCH. 420? 92> 029 Us Vy 4,U 9.0 &e. This resemblance of primitive and derivative functions is. not the mere consequence of an artificial notation ; they possess properties in common, one of the most remarkable, and at the same time most easily investigated of which, I proceed to de- monstrate. It has been shown (Bossut, Trazté de Calcul, page 103; . . d Lacroix, Diff: Cal. Transl. p. 11) that : 2 oh u = +v = z an ak or (Lagrange, Theorie des Fonctions, page 26) that (uv) = wv + uv, which theorem, in our notation, is expressed by p(@V) = uv + u yD Taking 264 Mr. Sang on a Property of the Primitives and Taking the first derivative of each member of this equation, we obtain (uv) = 1(12@4 v) + 1,(%,,v); but, by the same theorem = lz (12 0) = guv+ Vuyv and 1e(% 122) = 1 429 + %o,t, wherefore on(t 0) = ats UD 1,010 + U ov. Applying the same method repeatedly to this equation we ob- tain 3.(t v)= att vt 3 att ,0+3 1% g,0tU 05 g (U0) = gots, ut) V+6 oy V4 | U, V+U 1D; &c. &e. Where the order of the subponents is exactly similar to that of the exponents of the integer positive powers of a binomial,» and where the numerical coefficients are formed in the same manner. Hence in general, 2 being a whole positive number, n n n—l nit?) = ne Ut nH YF OT 2 (m2): 9,” +&e. And it is my object to show that the same theorem applies when 7 is a negative integer. But before proceeding to that part of my subject, I may notice a very simple extension of the above theorem. a 1 As such expressions as are of very fre- Woe Pi ae ee quent occurrence in investigations of this kind, they may con- veniently be denoted by gilt and zl ; this premised, the above equation, dividing each side by 1.2.3....., becomes nxt = nv a8 (n—1)24 122 wv (n—2)x% 9.0 + Xe. = z-,,u Extending the same reasoning to a product of three functions, we have (n—a)z¥ nt VW =z. axl b2¥ (n—a—b) 2% 5 also nl OWT = Be git p20 ce (n—a-b—c)e® in which expressions a, b, c, &c. must receive, combined in all possible ways, every integer value from 0 to x. Resuming the original equation ;.(Uv) = ;,Uv + Uj,, and supposing U = _.,#, and consequently 1sU = w, we have 12(~1,%?) = uv + 4% 4,0 whence Derivatives of the Product of two Monome Functions. 265 whence taking the first primitive, and transposing —1,(% v) = _1,¢0 — _1,(-1.% 1.2) but in the very same manner Ta 18 1.2) = —22Ul 1,0— wiz 23% 220) —12(—2: 2,0) = 32! o,0- ~1:( —324 3:0) &e. whence by the substitution of these values 1 (42) = _),“o— ant 1,0 + 3% 9,0— _ 4c 30+ ke. Taking again the first primitive of each member of this equation, expanding the partial results, and adding, we find —o(%@U) = _9.¢@v—-2 _ 4.) 0+3 _4lbo0—4 _p 20 + &e. By treating this repeatedly in the same manner, we should arrive at expressions closely resembling the expansions of the negative powers of a binomial, and should obtain in general m m m+i mT a Ty ai Gables deol dl 2 ons ee ais where, if we change m into —”, we have v—&e. n nat ) om gig, Tie be- 1S + &c. exactly the expression which we before found for derivatives. In the investigation of the formula for primitives no no- tice has been taken of the arbitrary constants which at each step enter into the calculation, and it therefore becomes neces- sary to examine whether the omission has not vitiated the re- sult, it being a well known fact that the equality of two func- tions does not necessarily imply that of their primitives. The arbitrary part of a first primitive being of the form a, that of a second primitive must be az +0; of a third primi- tive az?+bz+c; ofa fourth a2 +b2%+ cz +d; and, in ge- neral, of a primitive of the mth order the arbitrary part is az’ * oe 1 idee fle spa + Kew. + petty. If in the value of _,,(wv) we annex to the successive pri- mitives of w these arbitrary parts, the former value of this pri- mitive will be increased by the following quantity : afo— ,vz+ guz— ,02 + vz — &e.} + O[— yo ape gpF + ye? — &e) + ec {+ a20 — 3.0% + 402° — &e.} +d{— 30 + 4,02 — &e.y +e{+ 40 — &c.} N.S. Vol. 6. No. 34. Oct. 1829. 2M which 266 Mr. Sang on the Product of two Monome Functions. which at first sight appears to involve not only every positive integer power of z, but even, since v is any function of z, its fractional powers. We have, however, ¢(z+dz) = 24+ 1G 2AZ+ 2G zdz+ &c. in which if we make dz =—z, and change ¢ z into », we obtain $(z—-z) = d¢0=0— ,ve+ q202°— 4.0% + &e. and by changing ¢z into ,.v i? (=—2) sm 1:° vd ape ats eg 302 — Xe. Now all such expressions as $0 being constant quantities, it follows that, by the addition of an arbitrary constant at each integration of w, a constant quantity only has been annexed to the first primitive of wv, and therefore the superior primitives cannot be affected by powers of z so high as the order of the primitive. Having thus shown that the omission of the arbitrary parts has not rendered our result Jess general, I may proceed to il- lustrate its utility by a single example. Let the 7th primitive of 2. sin z be required. Here making 2 = v, sin z = wu, we have (2? sin z) = _,sinz.2%—7_ .sinz.32°+7 3 _9,5in 2. 62 —4 3 _10,8inz.6. Or, since _,(sin 2) = co wn z3 _g sinz = sinz; _9.sinz = —cosz; and _,)sinz = — sin _7.(% sin 2) = cos z. z7— 21 sin z.2°—168 cos z.z+504 sin z. And it appears from this example that, of the functions z and v, whenever the primitives of the one are known and the number of derivatives of the other finite, the integral of the product will be obtained in finite terms; in all other cases the result will be in the form of an interminate series. It may also be noticed that two distinct expressions may be obtained, the one combining the primitives of u with the derivatives of v, and the other the derivatives of « with the primitives of v. When the expression to be integrated cannot be separated into two factors, it may have the multiplier z° supplied, which artifice would give med = mlY 2) Sy a ye BBE MT ye. § =” m+ xm+2 % Tn 1pe ha OPO gan well Tt aeee: ete &e. } Formule for calculating the Places of Stars. 267 which may be regarded as a general formula for the integra- tion of functions of all kinds. 32, St. Andrew-square, Edinburgh, Epwarp Sane. August 7, 1829. XXXIX. Formule and Tables for calculating the Apparent Places of Fixed Stars, as given by Professor BEssEL. (From Prof. Encke’s Ephemeris for 1830, p. 158-198.) General precession. ....dsessssceeeneese sane i ghtseldemee tadces 50"*231 A =t— 0°02652 sin 2© —0°33216 sin 8 +0:'00401 sin2 Q B= — 0"580 cos2@©—8"-977 cos 8 +0088 cos28 C = —20°255 cos_ecos © D= —20°255 sin © a = 46053 + 20"-057 tg 6 sin « b =tg dcosa c = secécosa d = sec? sin « a’ = 20"°057 cos a U! = — sin a ce! = tg « cos § — sin 8 sine d' = sin é cos a m proper motion right in ascension. m! proper motion in declination. t days from the beginning of the year expressed in parts of the year. App. R = R 1830 + Aa + Bb+Cce+ Dd +itm App. Decl. = Decl. 1830 + Ad’ + Bol + Ce + Dd! + tm! If we assume A 20!:057 = g cos G D=hcos H B = gsinG C=/A sn H A 46-053 =a C tge= z We shall have App. R = M1830 + f+itm + g sin(G+a) tgé + 4 sin(H + a) secé. App. Decl. = Decl. 1830 + icosé + tm! +gcos(G+a) +h cos(H+a) sing The following Tables contain the values of « and @ for the beginning of the year, together with the values of the constants here introduced, or their logarithms, for every 10th day of the year : 2M2 Mean 268 M. Bessel’s Tables for calculating Mean Places of the principal Stars for 1830, according to Prof. Bessel’s Determination. Names, a Can, maj... e« Gemin.* ... « Corone.... a Serpent. ... # Scorpil e# Herculis.... y Aquile...... a Aquile...... 6 Aquilz....,.. lw Capric. ... 2x Capric. ... « Cygni.. a Androm. ...|2¢ * In « Gemin. the Right Ascension is the mean of that of both stars; the Declination that of the one which follows. Mean A 1830. h i “ 0 4 29-455 -| 0 30 54-657 1 57 36-404 24-030 13-766 > 10-416 8-595 22-224 33-058 58-190 39-268 44-061 23-907 54-069 13-891 18-576 9-761 22-910 50-365 51-166 14-849 50-026 54-573 17:870 29-250 17-597 29-506 53-992 59-827 53-940 2-704 39-741 10-981 10-646 29-280 57-776 13-160 37-014 5 38-294 30-988 26 26-099 57 3-000 48 14-510 56 17-880 59 36-906 Annual Variation 1830. +3-0795 43-3389 +3-3576 +3-1237 +4-2299 +3°4303 4+4-4148 +2-8787 +3-7861 4+3-2455 +2-6441 +3-8424 +3:1469 +3°6845 +2:9473 +3+2045 +3-7963 +3-0663 +3°1244 +3:2092 +3-1465 42-3778 4+2:7324 +3-3008 +3-3028 —0-2915 42-5365 42.9494 +3-6624 42-7308 +2-7773 +1-3929 42-0301 42-8549 42-9285 +2-9500 4-3-3327 +3-3371 +2-0412 +1-4404 +0-8131 43-0836 43-3391 42-9815 43-0786 Mean Declination 1830. Annual Variation 1830. + 20-026 +19-828 +17-325 +14-459 +13-357 7:809 ° 4-415 4-620 3:658 1-220 4-521 7:243 8-779 — 8-136 — 15-300 —17:333 —19-305 —20-087 — 20-292 —20-035 —19-012 —18-172 —18-987 —15-374 —15-343 415-658 +17-218 418851 +19-270 +19-906 the Places of Fixed Stars. 269 Constants for the Sidereal Days in 1830. 0°9796 0°9743 09664 0°9567 0°9462 0°9362 0°9277 0°9219 0°9194 0°9205 0°9248 0°9316 0°9398 0°9484 0°9563 0°9626 0°9665 0°9677 0°9659 0°9610 0°9536 0°9441 0°9332 0°9221 0°9117 0°9031 0°8974 0°8952 0°8966 0°9014 0°9085 0°9171 0°9258 0°9333 0°9386 0°9407 0°9394 0°9345 0'0741n 0°6474n 0°5625n 0°8445, 1:0047, 11113, 1'1861,, 1:2391,, 1:2751, 1:2969,, 1°3061,, 1:3033,, 1-2882,, 1:2660, 1-2168,, 1°1550,, 1-0682,, 0°9432,, 0°7469,, 03459 0:0903 0°6687 0:9018 1:0442 11413 1°2098 1°2573 12880 1*3037 1*3057 12938 k. —1'178 n means, as usual, that the quantity whose log, is given is negative. The 270 M. Bessel’s Tables for calculating The argument of the preceding table for sidereal days is found as follows. If we call §... the sidereal time of the observation expressed in parts of a day. 1... the longitude of the place of observation counted from the meridian of Berlin, expressed in parts of a day, and negative if east, positive if west ; 1. For § <18' 40! from the beginning of the year to the day on which RO=4. Argument = date +9+4+4/+4+1 from that day to the end of the year Argument = date ++$+4+142 2. For 6 > 185 40! from the beginning of the year to the day on which R© = 6. Argument = date + 9+ 4417 from that day to the end of the year Argument = date +4+44/+1 In the following table for the mean days it is simply mean time. Constants for the Mean Days in 1830. 1830. f g G h H i a“ “ fe} Z “ ’ “ Jan. O|—1°50|+9°57| 93 541+20°21|351 11} —1°34 10|\—0°01| 9:°43/90 O| 20°07|341 44] 2°72 20\+1°39| 9:28|86 15} 19°85|332 7| 4°02 380i 2°64! 9°13|82 44) 19°58|322 17] 5:20 Feb. 9] 3°76] 8°99|79 28] 19°28|312 10} 6°20 19| 4°73] 8°88|76 34| 19°00}301 48| 7:01 March 1] 5°57| 8°81|73 59} 18°78|291 12] 7°60 11| 6:32] 8°80|71 45] 18°63/280 26} 7:95 21| 7:02| 8°85|69 46] 18°58|269 37| 8:06 31| 7°73) 898167 58| 18°64/258 51] 7:94 April 10}4+8:49|+9°19|66 15)+18°79 |248 aT or oe 20| 9:34| 946164 31] 19°01|237 58 6°99 30| 10°32| 9°80|62 40| 19°281227 59| 6°22 May 10| 11°43] 10°18|60 42) 19°56 |218 20 5°26 20| 12°68! 10°60| 58 34} 19°S2|}208 59) 4°17 30) 14°05} 11°03|}56 17] 20°04)199 53} 2°96 June 9} 15°51} 11°46/53 52} 20°19|191 0 1°67 19} 17°03| 11°88] 51 22} 20°25|182 13 | —0°34 29| 18°55| 12°281}48 50; 20°23)173 27|+1:00 July 9} 20°04! 12°64/46 19] 20°12/164 39| 2°31 the Places of Fixed Stars. 271 TaBLe (continued). a“ “ ° ‘ “ July 19|4+21-45]-+19-97/43 51 |+19-94/155 42/4+3°56 29} 29°77| 1326/41 32) 19°70|146 33| 4°71 Aug. 8| 23°95| 13°51/39 23| 19°43|137 8] 5°74 18| 25-00| 13°73/37 28| 19°15|127 25| 6°60 98) 25-93] 13-94/35 49| 18-90|117 22} 7-28 Sept. 7 26°75| 1414/34 27| 18-71|107 8] 7-76 17} 27-49] 1435/33 23| 18°60| 96 30| 8-02 27| 28-20| 14°59'32 35| 18'59| 85 50| 8-05 Oct. 7) 2893| 1487/32 1| 1868| 75 9| 7-84 17; 29°72) 1521/81 37| 18-86| 64 33] 7:39 27\ + 30°62|+15°62| 31 17)419°11| 54 8)4+6°72 Nov. 6| 31°65) 16°08\30 57| 19°39} 43 58) 5°84 16| 32°83| 16°61|30 32| 19°68| 34 2) 4°78 26| 34°17| 17°19|29 58| 19°94] 24 Dec. 6) 35°62} 17°79|29 14| 20°13} 14 16| 37°14) 18°39}28 20| 20°24) 5 96| 38°71] 18°98}27 17| 20°25 |356 36} 40°25, 19°53 20°16 |346 The places of the stars ought strictly to be corrected for the daily aberration, before they are compared with the observa- tions. If + ¢ is the eastern hour angle, ¢ the altitude of the pole, 8 the declination of a star; cos @.cost . The correction in right ascension is + 0-021 ae time. The correction of the declination is —0'-31 cos ¢.sin é.sin é in seconds of a degree. For the superior culmination we have da= + 0"-021 cos >. sec 2 in time, d8 = 0 For the inferior culmination we have da= — 0-021 cos ¢.sec 6 in time, d? = 0 that is to say, the observations must be thus corrected : Sup. Culm. — 0-021 cos ¢. sec 8 Inf. Culm. + 0-021 cos ¢. sec 8. {Having now given whatever is susceptible of translation in Prof. Encke’s Ephemeris for 1830; we hope in some future Number to be able to give what is interesting from the volume for 1831, which has lately been pub- lished, —Ebit. | XL. Some XL. Some Remarks on an Article in the * Bulletin des Sci- ences Mathematiques” for June 1829, § 269. By James Ivory, Esq. M.A. F.RS. §e.* As I am preparing a treatise on the Theory of the Figure of the Earth, I had resolved to take no notice of the ob- jections advanced against the physical conditions I had found necessary for the equilibrium of a planet supposed fluid and homogeneous: the observations in the Bulletin have induced me to depart a little from the resolution I had adopted. I shall use the symbols C and A to denote, respectively, the whole mass of the planet, and any interior portion bounded by a continuous surface. We shall succeed best in throwing light on this subject if we begin with estimating the forces that act upon a molecule of the fluid in the surface of A. I shall demonstrate that, when all that is implied in the hypothesis of the-problem is taken into account, there are three distinct forces which act upon every such molecule; whereas, accord- ing to Clairaut’s theory, there are only two of the same forces in action, the third being omitted. But, it may be observed, this is not to be ascribed to any imperfection of the theory mentioned ; for the force neglected cannot possibly be in- cluded in any general theory, because it is a consequence of the particular hypothesis of the problem. In the surface of A assume a molecule of the fluid which I shall call m. As the author in the Bulletin has estimated the forces acting upon m, which he represents by R, R’, R", I shall borrow trom him. The first force R is the resultant of the centrifugal force and the attraction of A. The second force R! is the action upon m of the stratum C—A, caused by all the forces that urge the particles ofthe stratum. The third force R" is the action upon m, caused by the attraction of the stratum C—A upon the particles of A. According to the hypothesis of the problem all the matter of C—A will at- tract every particle of A; and these attractive forces must produce pressures which, being propagated from particle to particle, will urge m, and every molecule in the surface of A, to move from its place. Suppose that the centre of gravity of C—A falls within A, and conduct a canal from that centre to m: then the effect of R" perpendicular to the surface of A is equal to the hydrostatic pressure caused by the attraction of C—A upon the fluid in the canal. The force R" is therefore per- fectly well defined ; and, from what is said, it is easy to find the analytical expressions of the partial forces, parallel to the co- * Communicated by the Author. ordinates, Mr. Ivory on an Article in the Bulletin des Sciences. 273 ordinates, of which R” is the resultant. Now the equations of Clairaut’s theory comprehend only the two forces R and R/, and omit the third force R". For that theory computes only the accelerating forces that act directly upon any particle of the fluid; whereas R” is a secondary force caused by the attraction between two portions of the mass of fluid. The least attention is sufficient to show that the same force cannot possibly be included in any general theory applicable in all cases; because it is the effect of a particular hypothesis. What has just been said demonstrates the insufficiency of Clairaut’s theory for solving the problem of the equilibrium of a planet in a fluid state. It is not a mathematical difficulty that has obstructed the progress of this research since the time of Newton; it is the want of a clear conception of the physical conditions of the problem, and the omitting of some of the forces required for the equilibrium. Clairaut’s theory, al- though perfectly just when properly applied, has occasioned geometers to waste their labour in attempting to solve analy- tical equations which do not comprehend all that is necessary to determine the question. It would serve no good purpose to reply to the objections of the author in the Bulletin. His arguments, as well as those formerly advanced by M. Poisson, are chargeable with incon- sistency: for both these writers admit the attraction of C—A upon the particles of A, and estimate its effects; and although that attraction is left out in Clairaut’s theory, yet they uphold the sufficiency of his equations for solving the problem*. If A be similar to C and similarly posited about the centre of gravity of the planet, I have proved that A will be zn equz- librio separately, supposing the exterior matter is taken away or annihilated. In this case, therefore, the force R will be per- pendicular to the surface of A; and as the three forces that urge m must be zn equilibrio, it follows that the resultant of R! and R”’ must be perpendicular to the same surface. And be- cause the resultant of the two forces is perpendicular to the surface of A, their joint action will produce the same inten- sity of pressure upon every point of the surface, which is therefore one of equable pressure. This has been proved before, and it mostly removes the difficulty of solving the pro- blem. For, these surfaces of equable pressure being all de- * In particular M. Poisson has estimated the pressure upon m caused by the attraction of C—A upon a canal within A. Now this pressure co- exists with the centrifugal force and the attraction of all the matter of the planet upon m: and, as the two latter forces alone are included in Clair- aut’s equations, it is evident that his theory is insufficient to solve the problem. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 34. Oct. 1829. 2N rived 274 Mr. Ivory on an Article in the Bulletin des Sciences. rived from the surface of the planet by the same determinate construction, it only remains to find the figure that will re- concile them with the forces that prevail in the interior of the fluid. It will be found that the condition, R= 0, is indis- pensably required; which limits the figure of equilibrium to the elliptical spheroid. Whenever the resultant of the forces R! and R" is perpen- dicular to the surface of A, that surface will be one of equa- ble pressure. Now there are two ways in which this may happen: each force may be separately perpendicular to the surface, as when A is similar to the planet and similarly po- sited about the centre of gravity, which requires the condi- tion R" = 0; or the resultant may be perpendicular to the surface, although both the forces be oblique to it. When the forces are computed, the analytical investigation will be found to bring out the same equation of the surface of A in both cases; but this equation admits of two solutions, which deter- mine the two surfaces of equable pressure. ‘Thus in every el- liptical spheroid in equilibrio there are two sorts of surfaces of equabie pressure, both elliptical but differing in their figure. Further, the planet being 2m equilibrio, any interior body, as A, bounded by a surface of equable pressure, will be z2 equz- librio separately, the stratum C—A being taken away; and hence we learn the reason why, the data of the problem heing the same, there are two, and only two, different figures of equilibrium. Clairaut’s theory may be reconciled with one of the sets of surfaces of equable pressure, because the force R! which that theory leaves out, disappears on account of the condition R! = 0: but the co-existence of two different surfaces of equable pressure in the same mass of fluid 2” eqguilibrio is en- tirely incompatible with the theory in question. What has been said proves that all the researches founded on Clairaut’s theory, which makes the perpendicularity of gravity to the surface of the planet the sole condition of equi- librium, must fail in leading to an exact solution of the pro- blem ; although in some cases they may bring out an approxi- mation. Of all the possible figures possessing the property mentioned, the oblate elliptical spheroid is the only one which at the same time fulfils all the conditions that are true in na- ture. On the whole, there is, in reality, no part of the theory of the equilibrium of a planet perfectly established on exact principles except the synthetic demonstration given long ago by Maclaurin with all the elegance and rigour of the ancient geometry. These observations may suffice at present on this subject, which requires to be reviewed and treated anew from first principles. The Mr. Ivory on an Article in the Bulletin des Sciences. 275 The article in the Bulletin likewise slightly touches upon Laplace’s development, with respect to which M. Poisson has inserted a note in the Conn. des Tems, 1831. ‘The last re- searches of M. Poisson coincide entirely with what I have all along asserted; namely, that the development is applicable only to rational functions of cos 4, sin § cos Y, sin @ sin; and of this they, in reality, furnish a clear demonstration. He has proved that the development converges, when y = f (4, Y), has the meaning he affixes to it; so that taking » equal to a finite, although perhaps a very great number, we shall have with sufficient exactness, ¥y = Yo -+ yo + Yo eoccecoces + Ym, Now it is certain that every term of this series 1s, necessarily by its very structure, a rational function of cos 4, sin 6 cos y, sin § sin; and therefore the aggregate of any number of such terms is a function of the same kind. And this conclu- sion does not rest upon M. Poisson’s demonstrations; it de- pends upon the convergency of the series, that is, upon its ca- pability of expressing a determinate value. No proposition can possibly be more clearly proved than this, That / (6, )) cannot be developed according to the method of Laplace in a series of converging terms, unless it be equal, either exactly or approximately, to a rational expression of cos 6, sin @ cos , sin 4 sin y. Every function f (6, ) may be reduced by the ordinary rules of algebra to a rational expression, convergent or not, of cos 4, sin § cos f, sin @ sin Y; but it is only when the expression con- verges that Laplace’s development can be applied with geo- metrical accuracy. The development adds nothing to the to- tality of the reduced expression, nor takes one iota away from it; it merely breaks every coefficient into many parts so as to allow a new arrangement in parcels, every one of which satis- fies the fundamental equation in partial fluxions. The subjects treated in this article are of considerable im- portance, and I may occasionally return to them, in order to remove every difficulty. They have given rise to a long con- testation, actively carried on; and if I mistake not, the doc- trine I have advanced has not always engaged the attention only of such authors as J have alluded to, who labour to improve science, but has sometimes been made a handle. Sept. 13, 1829. J. Ivory. 2N2 XLI. Notice f- 276. J XLI. Notice of the Arrival of Twenty-four of the Summer Birds of Passage in the Neighbourhood of Carlisle, during the Year 1829; with Observations, §c. By A Corre- SPONDENT. Latin Generic and When first No. | English Specific Names. Specific Names. observed, 1g LGA EE Mp SR RS Coturnix vulgaris .....| May 2 Pep WALOWM sec etereinis «5 ss 5 Hirundo rustica .......| April 9 3 | House Martin.......... -— urbita’.. 3.2% 27 4 | Sand or River Martin .. - Viparia.......| —— 5 Dec WOWIEL: phice nicveiseneyee pas Cypselus apus. ........ 27 6 | Goatsucker......006.5: Caprimulgus europeus. . May 12 7 | Pied Flycatcher, male..| Muscicapa atricapilla...| April 17 —, female 27 8 | Spotted Flycatcher ....] —————-Grisola...... May 12 9,.,|\ Wheatear, [NEW SERIES.] NOVEMBER 1829. LI. On the Deviation of a Falling Body from the Vertical to the Earths Surface. By Wi11asm Garsraira, Esq. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. Gentlemen, PPE problem of determining the deviation of a body from the vertical to the earth’s surface at a given point when let fall from another given point above it, has exercised the talents of the greatest mathematicians. Emerson in this country, and Laplace in France, have successively considered it, and given solutions ;—the former in his Algebra, problem 198; the latter in the Bulletin des Sciences, No. 75. The solutions are obtained on the supposition of the earth being a sphere, which may be considered sufficiently accurate ; since the difference for the spheroidal figure would in this case be quite insensible. Indeed, the difference of the effect arising from the centrifugal force being derived from the ordinate to the polar axis of a spheroid of small eccentricity, such as the earth, instead of the cosine of the latitude to radius unity, must be very slight. The ratio of the centrifugal to gravity at the equator is expressed by -<—= Js (Phil. Mag. Old Series, r+(z) P vol. lxiv. p. 163). Now if r be the radius of the equator, it will be (Phil. Mag, vol. ii. New Series, p. 54.) 20921178 feet. But if r be the radius of the inscribed sphere, it will be 20853184 feet: and taking p, the length of the pendulum, at $°2511 feet, we should have = 0:003455 in the one case, and J' = 0'003444 in the other, or about ; d —_ res tivel 2895 an 290 respec lve y: N.S. Vol. 6. No. 35. Nov. 1829. erly Hence 822 Mr. Galbraith on the Deviation of a Falling Body Hence the difference of the effects of centrifugal force in the case of the earth being a spheroid instead of a sphere is very small. The effect of the centrifugal force at the equator being about 53, of that of gravity, it decreases on approach- ing the poles upon the whole, though the direction becomes most favourable at 45° for thowing a body towards the poles, thus making it deviate slightly from a due east course. Let P Ep Q be a section of the earth considered a sphere, P p the polar axis, and EQ the equator ; then OQ: ab:: the centrifugal force at Beh) tel Q: to the centrifugal force at d. But fe OE ee Se OQ:ab:: radius: cosine of the Jati- i Pe tude, or the centrifugal force at the #|/——, Q equator is to the centrifugal force at any ak latitude as radius is to the cosine of that latitude. abxbe Again, Ob: ab::be:bd= ai bd variesasabxbc. But bc varies as ab; therefore 6 d, that part of the centrifugal acting in opposition to gravity, varies as ab’, or as the square of the cosine of the latitude. — In like Oaxbe manner O08: Oa::bc:cd= we and since O 0 is con- stant, cd varies as Oaxbc. But dc varies as ab, or as the cosine of the latitude, and Oa as the sine; consequently that part of the centrifugal force, at right angles to the direction of gravity, tending to move the body nearer the poles than the point directly under that from which it was dropt, varies as the product of the sine into the cosine of the latitude. . As O43 is constant, Let x be the sine, then ”1—z* is the cosine, therefore : . i, ie . ed will be a maximum when z(1—z2’)? is a maximum, or when the latitude is 45°, and then sin x cos = 0°5 or 4. But 1 1 ‘ ; Y 1 . : ; 4 4X see, aie therefore the maximum effect of centrifugal : 1 force to throw the body towards the poles is only rch of the effect of gravity. Hence if A denote the deviation directly eastward arising from the earth’s rotation combined with the action of gravity, then the deviation northward or southward from the effects of centrifugal force will be expressed by LA. X FX SIMA XK COSA ceccrecescacscessesscscrcosccscscvesees (B) in which A is the latitude. Let d= A x fx sin A x cosa, then by the composition of forces D = VY A*+d’, as the triangle so formed, having the hypothenuse the diagonal of the parallelogram, is a right-an- gled Jrom the Vertical to the Earth’s Surface. 323 gled plane triangle, and consequently the amplitude towards the north or south of east may be readily obtained. If the heavy body fall an English mile or 5280 feet in the latitude of London, A will be 2°89 feet only, and sin a x cos A = 0°4872; whence d = 2°89 x 0°4872 X 0:0035 = 0:0049 or 0:005 nearly, and D = 83521 +0:000025 = 2°8900045. Consequently d? has almost no effect to increase D, while the direction must like- wise be nearly due east, and therefore both these corrections may in every case be omitted. 2dmp 3r +m in which D is the deviation, d = Emerson gives D = V3 m, the given height fallen through; p, the cosine of the latitude; 7, the radius of the earth; c, 3°141593, the circumference of a circle to diameter unity; ¢, the time of the rotation of the earth about it saxis; and f = 4 ¢ = 16°1 feet; consequently if the formula be written at full length it becomes 2 2re m Dan oe ean te Ge abies, Seele © aheke (2) which evidently is far from being convenient in practice. Since the quantity m must in general be very small in com- parison with 37, it may be neglected without sensible error, and then D= px i xmxpJ evs as schitenl ti) If in this formula we write A for D, h for m, sin § for DP and 7 for =, equation (3) becomes A = = nhsing J => Se ye sepeye de etete cs (4%) which is the formula of Laplace given in the Bulletin des Sciences, No. 75, and is therefore almost identical with that of Emerson published in his Algebra many years before. It appears that the formula may be very simply obtained in the following manner. Let a be the altitude in feet from which the body is let fall, the radius of the equator, or even the mean radius of the earth, and z the circumference of a circle to diameter unity. The circumference of a circle at the height a is Qar(r+a)=2ar+2ra at the surface...... Quxr = Bier Difference, or A. .siceees. = 2ma....(5) the distance which a point at the height a describes more than at the surface during one rotation of the earth. 2T2 By 324 Mr. Galbraith on the Deviation of Falling Bodies. By dynamics s = 3 g7°, or in this case a = }¢2, there- fore PR Coats re ag 0 ethos Wye gaa nae (6) The earth performs a rotation about its axis in 23> 56™ 45 or 86,164 seconds. Let this be represented by g; whence a Q¢ a Q4 a3 Ls i 2:3 = —a ee ah —— a =e reine omit g Nee g 38 ¢ 28 (7) the difference between the arcs in the time of fall. But the body in falling describes a small portion of an ellipse, which on account of its minuteness may be considered parabolic, as shown in our ordinary treatises on Natural Philosophy, (Leslie’s, vol. i. p. 128.) of which the contained area is two- thirds of the circumscribing rectangle; wherefore, 2 3 D= 2x vz x J = gts ladle of ta siege This formula gives the deviation at the equator. In a given latitude A from what precedes, = 27 as 4x as i —— on OC A ae eee A —— eve ee : VR aves VF (9) Let = = k, and formula (9) becomes D = k cos an/ = . oi bh dtehoderteqeta alee As it requires a fall of a considerable number of feet to pro- duce a sensible change in the deviation, 4g may be taken at 16 feet, which introduced into formula (9) gives D = — cosaa 3e 2 Now, calling = = K, we shall have, finally, BD SSR COS A Gee oo ao ogonagn wie ee (B) an expression remarkably simple. This formula is well adapted for logarithmic calculation, in which case it will become Log. D = const. log. 5084702 + log. cos A+} log. a «.. (C) Let Emerson’s example be solved by this formula, in which @ is 5280 feet, and A is 51° 30!. Constant logarithm ...... . 5°084702 A = 51° 30! N. log. cosine. . . 9°794150 a = 5280 feet logarithm. . . . 3°722634 half same log... . . 1°861317 D= 2°9026 feet (Sum). . . . . 0°462803 This result differs in a slight degree from Emerson’s, which is 2°88 feet; but the difference may be accounted for by his taking Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 825 taking 21,000,000 feet for the radius of the earth, instead of 20,920,000. This is involved in his solution, as well as the assumption that the earth performs a rotation in twenty-four hours instead of 235 56" 45, which in conjunction will pro- duce the slight effect just noticed. Iam yours, &c. Edinburgh, Oct. 1, 1829. Witiiam GALBraiTH. LII. An Abstract of the Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe ; with a List of the Species of each Genus, and Reference to one or more of their respec- tive Icones. By J.G. Cuitpren, F.R.S. L. & E. F.L.S. §c. [Continued from page 296.] Genus 88. ENNOMOS, Ochs., Treitsch. (Ennomos, Grometra, PericaLiia, Brapyperes, Macaria, Stephens. Macaria, Curtis. Ennomos, AVENTIA, PuiLopia, Timanpra, Epionr, EuryMene, Rumia, ANGERoNnA, Duponchel.) Wings not, or scarcely at all, deflexed when at rest; the in- Jerior with a prominent angle at the posterior margin; the underside generally ornamented, with lively colours.— Larva, with the body tubercular, tapering towards the head, which is prominent, rather broad, and depressed.—Pupa follicu- lated, not subterranean; generally changes in a slight web attached to the leaves of plants. Obs. The preceding long list of synonyms shows sufficiently the concurrent opinions of many authors as to the neces- sity of breaking down this genus into several new ones; and M. Treitschke himself seems to admit their accuracy, since he has adopted no less than five families or subdivisions to receive the species, according to the form of the wings, their markings, &c. demonstrating how inefficient, even in his own estimation, are the very meagre characters which (as above) he has prefixed to the genus. Fam. A. — Fore wings horizontally extended,—hind wings rounded. I'am. B.—Fore wings extended,—hind wings angular. Fam. C.—All the wings indented. I'am. D.—Crescent-shaped markings or macule on the disc of the fore wings. I'am. E.—AII the wings indented,—the dentations of the fore wings particularly strong. We shall, as usual, give the characters of the new genera (if published) in foot-notes, as the respective species ia oe whic 326 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of which they have been established; and as we are now en- tering on the PHaLzZNID&, (PHAaLENITEs, Latr.) we shall also in this place insert the characters of that tribe, as given - in the beautiful and eminently useful work begun by the late M. Godart, and, since his death, continued with in~ creasing ability and excellence by his successor M. Dupon- chel. PHALENIDE. This tribe was originally composed of the true Phalzne, or Geometree, and those species which M. Latreille has since separated from them under Laspeyre’s genus Platypteryx : the following characters apply therefore solely to the former. Wings entire, or without fissures, generally of a slighter tex- ture, and larger in proportion to the body than those of the Bompycip# or Nocruip#, horizontally extended, or scarcely deflexed, when at rest; no orbicular or reniform spots (the usual distinguishing markings of the Noctuidz) on the upper wings; the lower wings very little folded at the internal margin when hid by the upper.— Antenne se- taceous, sometimes simple* in both sexes, sometimes pecti- nated or ciliated, in the males.— Lower palpi always cover- ing the upper, in form pretty constant, often very velvety, and very little, or not at all porrected beyond the head.— Mazille more frequently membranous than horny, in the greater part of the species more or less projecting, but al- most or altogether wanting in the rest.— Thorar more fre- quently velvety than squamous, never crested, nor tufted.— Abdomen generally long and slender, except in certain fe- males.—Larva naked or only furnished with a few short hairs; always loopers, whatever the number of feet, which varies from ten to fourteen, including the anal, which are never wanting; the six anterior, and four posterior feet only, used in walking.— Metamorphosis very various.—Duponch. Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. ii. p. 97. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1.Enn. Flexularia, Hiibn...Ernst, V. pl. cex. f. 280. a. b. 2.—Cordiaria, Hubn.......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 8. f. 38. (mas.) tab. 66. f. 342. (foem.) 3.—Adspersaria, Hiibn.... Hiibn. Geom. tab.39. f.206.(mas.) Fam. B 4.Enn. Notataria, Hiibn.+.Hiibn. Geom. tab. 11. f. 53.(mas.) tab. 61. f. 316. (foem.) 5. Enn. a As seen by the naked eye: ‘examined with a lens they never appear simple or filiform.—Dup. + Puitosta, Duponch.—“ Antenne slightly pectinated in the males, and simple Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 327 Species. Icon, 5.Enn.Lituraria, Hiibn.*..Hiibn. Geom. tab. 11.f. 54. (mas.) tab. 61. f. 314. (foem.) Curtis, Brit. Ent. III. pl. 132. 6.—Signaria, Hiibn. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab.61. f. 313. (feem.) 7.—Alternaria, Hiibn. ...Hiibn.Geom. tab.61. f. 315. (foem.) 8.—Zistimaria, Hiibn.....Hiibn. Geom. tab.64. £333. (foem.) 9.—Amataria, Linn.+...... Hiibn. Geom. tab. 10. f. 52. (mas.) 10.—JImitaria, Hiibn.+......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 10. f. 51. (mas.) 11.—Strigillata, Lasp. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab. 20.f:109. (foem.) 12.—Emutaria, Hiibn.+.....Hiibn. Geom. tab.63. £323. (mas.) Fam. C. 13.Enn. Emarginaria, Hiib.t Hiibn.Geom. tab.20. f. 107. (mas.) 14.—Flavicaria, Hiibn......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 8. f. 40. (mas.) 15.—Parallelaria, Hiibn....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 9. f. 43. (mas.) f. 44. (foem.) simple in the females. — Thorar narrow, but slightly velvety.—Anterior wings slightly emarginate below the superior angle; middle of the margin of the lower wings forming a more or less acute angle.— Palpi convergent at the extremity, porrected beyond the head.— Larva smooth, not tuber- culated, somewhat attenuated anteriorly; head small, cordiform.—Meta- morphosis occurs amongst leaves or moss at the foot of trees, according to the season.” — Duponchel, Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. ii. p. 195. Duponchel refers seven species (all taken from Treitschke’s genus En- nomos,) to his genus Philobia, grouping them according to the ground co- lour of the wings, and the upper being with or without emarginations.— Ground yellow, Ph. flavicaria.—Ground gray, with the upper wings di- stinctly emarginate.—Cordiaria, notataria, alternaria, lituraria,—Gray, with no emargination in the upper wings,—signaria, estimaria. * Macarra, Curtis.—Curtis suggests the propriety of dividing the Pha- lenidz into two families, calling those species whose males have the an- tennz pectinated Geometride, and the rest, or those with simple antennz in both sexes, Phalenide. His genus Macaria belongs to the latter group. + Timanpra, Duponch.—* Antenne in the males pectinated, in the fe- males simple.— Thorax narrow, slightly velvety. Superior angle of the upper wings very acute; middle of the margin of the lower projecting to a point. Palpi porrected beyond the head, last joint very slender and acu- minated.—Mavwill@ rather long.—Larva not tuberculated, anteriorly cla- vate.— Pupa angular, enveloped in a slight web amongst leaves.” —Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. il. p. 224. The three species composing this genus, are readily known by the band which traverses all the wings diagonally, and by the well defined angle formed by the middle of the lower wings. { Errone, Duponch.— Antenne pectinated or ciliated in the males, simple in the females.—Thorax narrow, slightly velvety.—Lower wings with the terminal margin more or less emarginate, or sinuous.— Palpi very distinct, porrected beyond the head.— Mawville long.—Larva covered with fine, insulated hairs, not tuberculated, attenuated anteriorly from the sixth segment ; head small, square.— Metamorphosis in leaves united by silken threads,” — Lep.de France, tom. vii. part. ii. p.211.—Four species are penne to this genus by its author; apiciaria and parallelaria, which have al the wings terminated by a broad band,—and advenaria and emarginaria, which want the terminal band. 16. Enn. 328 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Species. Icon. 16.Enn. Apiciaria, Hiibn....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 9. f. 47. (mas.) 17.—Advenaria, Hiibn......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 9. f. 45. (mas.) 18.—Dolabraria, Linn.*. ...Hiibn. Geom. tab. 8. f. 42. (foem.) Fam. D. 19.Enn.Crategata, Linn. +..Hiibn. Geom. tab. 6. f. 32. (foem.) 20.—Prunaria, Linn..{...... Hiibn.Geom. tab.23.f:122. (foem.) f. 123. (mas.) 21.—Syringaria, Linn. §.....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 6. £29. (foem.) 22.—Lunaria, Fab.§ .........Hubn. Geom. tab. 7. f. 33.(mas.) f. 34. (foem.) 23.—Illunaria, Hiibn.§ ....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 7. f. 36. (mas.) f. 37. (foem.) 24.—TIllustraria, Hiibn.§ ...Hiibn. Geom. tab. 7. f. 35. (mas.) 25.—Pectinaria, Hubn.§ ...Hiibn. Geom. tab. 6. f. 30. (mas.) Fam. E. 26.Enn.Evonymaria, Hiibn.{Hiibn. Geom. tab. 6. f. 31. (mas.) tab. 83. f. 428. (foem.) 27.—Angularia, Hiibn.{..... Hibn., Geom. tab. 5. f. 22. (mas.) 28.-—Erosaria, Hiibn.§ ...... Hubn. Geom. tab. 5. f. 25. (mas.) 29.—Dentaria, Hiibn.§......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 3. f. 12. (foem.) 30.—Alniaria, Linn.§........Htbn. Geom. tab. 5. f. 26. (foem.) 31.—Tiliaria, Hibn.§ .....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 5. f. 23. (mas.) Genus * Evrymene, Duponchel.—* Antenne pectinated in the males, simple in the females.—Tvorax narrow, slightly velvety.— Upper wings narrow in proportion to the lower, square at the extremity.—Palpi thick, scarcely porrected beyond the head.— Mazille long.—Larva with the second and eighth segments tuberculated ; head slightly emarginate superiorly.— Meta- morphosis ina slight web amongst leaves.” —Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. il. p- 185.—One species only. + Ruma, Duponch.—“ Antenne simple in both sexes.—Terminal margin of the lower wings obtusely angular in the middle.—Palpi with the last joint very short, scarcely extending beyond the head.— Mazille long, rather thick at the base.—Larva elongate, cylindrical; head round; a very pro- jecting tubercle on the sixth segment.—Metamorphosis in a slight web - amongst leaves.” —Lep. de Fran. tom. vii. part. ii. p.117.—Only one species. { Ancerona, Duponch.—“ Thorax narrow, slightly velvety—Lower wings only slightly denticulated, with the terminal margin emarginate.— Palpi very slender, not extended to the forehead.—Maville long.— An- tenne in the males strongly pectinated, simple in the females.—Larva at- tenuated anteriorly; head small, prominent, fourth and eighth segments tuberculated.— Metamorphosis in a slight web amongst leaves.” —Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. ii. p. 180.—Only one species. § Ennomos, Duponch.—* Antenne pectinated in the males, simple in the females.— Thorax broad and very velvety.—Wings indented.—Palpi somewhat inclined, and extending beyond the forehead.—Mazille slender, scarcely exceeding the palpi.Larva more or less elongated, and resem- bling, in form and colour, the twigs of a tree, their body being covered at Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 329 Genus 89. ACAINA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Ovurarteryx, Leach, Samouelle, Stephens, Duponchel. Unarreryx, Kirby.) Wings, upper angle of the superior very acute; inferior with the middle of the terminal margin truncato-caudate.—Palpi, last joint very small, not surpassing the forehead, which is broad and velvety—Mazille very long*. Species. Icon. 1.Ac.Sambucaria, Linn. ...Hub. Geom. tab. 6. f. 28. (fcem.) Genus 90. ELLOPIA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Ex.topra, Parana, Stephens. Mertrocampesr, Latreille, Duponchel.) Wings angular or rounded; the upper always with two trans- verse bands, and the lower with a single one, exactly cor- responding with that nearest the terminal margin on the upper.— Antenne pectinated in the males, simple in the fe- males.—Palpi slender, scarcely surpassing the forehead.— Mazille \ong.—Larva naked, occasionally with a few scat- tered short hairs; body elongate, flattened beneath; head obtuse, rounded,—Metamorphosis in a thin web on the ground, under the surface on trees, or amongst leaves*. Both Treitschke and Duponchel divide the four species of ° which this genus consists into two groups: the first having the wings angular (Fam. A. Treztsch.); the second rounded (Fam. B. Treztsch.\—Duponchel states that M. Latreille formed this genus, under the name of Metrocampe, two years before M. Treitschke gave it that of Ellopia. He at intervals with excrescences like knots or buds.—Head depressed, slightly emarginate on the upper part, and not surpassing the first segment.—Me- tamorphosis usually in a slight web amongst leaves.” —Lep. de Iran. tom. vii. part. ii. p. 136. M. Duponchel adds that the species of this genus are generally fulvous- yellow, rather large, and carry their wings vertically, when at rest, like the diurnal Lepidoptera, exhibiting distinctly the underside, which is more vividly coloured than the upper. The larvee are principally found in May and June: in July and August the perfect insect comes forth, and is prin- cipally met with in woods, but the species Syringaria and Evonymaria pre- fer cultivated gardens, The females are heavy and sluggish, and seldom quit the tree on which they came forth; the males are very active, and in con- tinual flight, even during the day-time. Duponchel divides the species into three groups: Ist group, all the wings denticulated; no crescent-shaped marking at the summit of the upper; alniaria, tiliaria, angularia, erosaria, dentaria.—2nd group, all the wings denticulated ; a crescent at the summit of the upper; dunaria, illunaria, illustraria.— 3rd group, the wings rather sinuated than denticulated ; syringaria, evonymaria, pectinaria, * Characters from Duponchel. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 35. Nov. 1829. 2U con- $30 . Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of consequently very properly retains the former, and rejects the latter appellation. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1.Ell.Honoraria, Hiibn.....Hubn. Geom. tab. 3. f. 16. (mas.) 2.—Margaritaria, Hibn...Hiibn. Geom. tab. 3. f. 13. (foem. ) Fam. B. 3.Ell.Prasinaria, Hubn.... Hubn. Geom. tab. 1. f. 4. (mas.) 4,.—Hasciaria, Linn.........Eubn. Geom. tab. 1, f. ‘5. (mas.) tab. 87. f. 447. (foem.) Genus 91. GEOMETRA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Hirparcuus, Stephens. Hemituea, Gromerra, Duponchel.) Wings with one or more transverse, wavy, white lines or bands; generally of a very light green, or whitish green colour.—Larva usually green, sometimes mixed with red- dish-brown; head and first segment of the body with two small reddish tubercles— Metamorphosis in a thin, trans- parent web. Fam. A.—Posterior wings angular. Fam. B.— Posterior wings rounded. Obs. Such are M. Treitschke’s generic characters by which his Geometrz are to be distinguished, the chief of which consists in the- ground-colour of the wings being green ! — Well may M. Duponchel exclaim (Lep. de Fran. tom. vii. part. ii. p. 256) “how could he establish a genus on a character which is not even specific? for we see species varying from green to red. It is not so as to the principal markings of the wings (putting their colour out of the ques- tion), for their relation to the rest of the organization has always appeared to us to be constant ; and we have not he- sitated to adopt them as generic characters, whenever we have been unable to discover others in the perfect insect.” We are not quite sure that we agree with M. Duponchel in the latter part of his observation ; but whatever comes from the pen of such distinguished authority, must at least com- mand attention and respect. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1.Geom.Vernaria, Linn.* Hubn. Geom. tab. 2. f. 7. (foem.) 2. Geom. * Hemrrnea, Duponch.— Antenne pectinated in the males, simple in the females.—Thorar narrow, slightly velyety.—Upper angle of the anterior wings more or less acute; middle of the terminal margin of the posterior in most species, pointed.— Palpi slender, extending beyond the forehead. —Mazillz prominent.—Larva smooth, elongated ; head deeply bifurcate ; i anterior Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 331 Species. Icon. 2.Geom. Papilionaria, Linn.* Hiibn. Geom. tab. 2. f. 6.(foem.) 3.—Viridata, Linn.........Htibn. Geom. tab. 2. f. 11. (mas. ) 4.—/Eruginaria, Hiubn....Hiibn. Geom, tab. 9. f. 46. (mas.) 5.—Putataria, Linn........Hubn. Geom. tab. 2. £. 10. (foem.) 6.— Bupleuraria, Hubn....Hbn. Geom. tab. 2. f. §. (mas.) 7.—Aistivaria, Hubn......Hubn. Geom. tab. 2. f. 9. (foem.) Fam. B. 8.Geom.Cythisaria, Hiibn..Hiibn. Geom. tab. 1. f. 2. (mas.) 9.—Byularia, Hubn.......Hiibn, Geom. tab. 1. f. 3. (mas.) 10.—Smaragdaria, Fab. ....Hiibn. Geom, tab. 1. f. 1. (foem.) (11.—Agrestaria, Duponch.Duponch. Lep. de Fr. vii. pl. 152. f. 4.) (foem.) Genus 92. ASPILATES, Ochs., Treitsch. (Aspitatrs, Puasranr, Duponchel. AspiLatTes, Purpatapreryx, LozocramMa, Stephens. ) Wings, anterior with three almost straight, transverse, diago- nal bands, dividing the area into as many nearly equal com- partments: posterzor with faint traces of the outer bands.— Larva, not tubercular, except two small elevations on the last segment, somewhat attenuated anteriorly.— Metamor- phosis above ground. anterior margin of the first segment with one or two points inclined to- wards the head.— Metamorphosis in a slight web amongst leaves.” —Lep. de Fran, tom. vii. part. ii. p. 233. M. Duponchel adds that these insects are at once distinguished by their delicate green colour and the two white bands on the wings, which how- ever are only secondary characters. It was the peculiar form of the larvze that determined him to create the genus Hemithea, for those species which he places in it, and which he arranges in three groups: 1. Lower wings angular ; fringe of two alternating colours; buplevraria, estivaria— 2. Lower wings angular, fringe of one colour; putataria, e@ruginaria, viri- daria, vernaria.—3. Lower wings rounded ; smaragdaria, genistaria, coro- nillaria, agrestaria. The following caution of M. Duponchel may be useful to young col- lectors:—“ Be careful to set all the species of this genus before they become rigid; for their fine green colour becomes white or yellowish by damping.” * Geometra, Duponch.—“ Antenne pectinated in the males, simple in the females.— Thorax narrow, slightly velvety.—Lower wings only, slightly denticulated.— Palpi straight, extending beyond the forehead; last joint naked, very distinct.— Maville not prominent.—Larva short, cylindrical ; head rounded ; the middle segments tubercular.— Metamorphosis in a trans- parent cocoon, amongst leaves.” —Duponch, Lep. de Fran, tom. vii. part. ii. ». 259. The species papillionaria and bajularia are the only ones which M. Du- ponchel includes in this genus, 2U 2 1. Asp 332 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Species. Icon. 1.Asp.Purpuraria, Linn.* Hubn. Geom. tab. 38. £198. (mas.) f. 199. (foem.) 2,.—Mundataria, Cram. ...Hiibn.Geom. tab. 72. f.375.(mas.) 3.—Sacraria, Linn.......... Hubn.Geom. tab. 38. f.200.(mas.) 4.—Gilvaria, Fab.+.........Hitibn.Geom. tab.38.f201.(foem.) 5.—Arenacearia, Hiibn....Hiibn.Geom. tab. 21. f.114.(mas.) 6.—Cruentaria, Hiibn......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 10. f. 48.(mas.) 7.—Vespertaria, Linn...... Htibn.Geom. tab. 45. £226. (mas.) 8.—Citraria, Hiubn......... Hiibn. Geom. tab. 40. f.212.(mas.) 9.—Artesiaria, Fab.........Hiibn. Geom. tab. 3. f. 15. (foom.) 10.—Coarctata, Fab.......... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 42. f.219.(foem.) 11.—Lineolata, Hiibn.t .... Htibn.Geom. tab. 60. f. 311.(mas.) 12.—Palumbaria, Fab.§ ..... Hibn.Geom. tab. 42.f.221.(foem.) 13.—Petraria, Hiibn.|| ...... Hiibn.Geom. tab.21. f. 113.(mas.) Genus 93. CROCALLIS, Ochs., Treitsch. (Crocatuis, Himera, Duponchel. Crocatuis, Mrrra, Stephens.) Antenne in the males strongly pectinated, nearly plumose.— Anterior wings with two transverse bands, converging to- wards the interior margin. — Abdomen remarkably stout, especially in the females.—Zarva very thick in proportion to its length.— Metamorphosis above ground, or just under the surface in a slight web. Species. Icon. 1.Croc.Eatimaria, Hibn.{Hubn. Geom. tab. 4. f. 21. (mas.) * Aspitates, Stephens. + Aspitates, Duponch.—“ Anterior wings traversed diagonally by one or two lines springing from the superior angle; posterior wings of nearly the same form as the anterior.—Pa/pi pointed, extending beyond the fore- head.— Legs very long. —Mawille very distinct.’”—Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. li. p. 108. ¢ Puisatarreryx, Stephens. Asritates, Stephens. Puastanr, Duponch.—* Ph, Anterior wings with a dot between two transverse, nearly straight, and almost parallel lines.— Palpi pointed, extending beyond the forehead.— Mazille long.” — Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. ii. p. 109. || Lozocramma, Stephens. § Crocatsis, Duponch.— All the wings slightly indented, with a point’ in the centre of each, two transverse, diverging lines on the anterior, and a single line on the posterior.— Palpi with the last joint pointed, extending beyond the forehead.— Mawille none.— Thorax wide, very velvety.—An- tenne pectinated in the males; simple in the females.—Larva rugose, of equal thickness through its whole length, not tubercular, but with a few short, scattered hairs: head as large as the first segments, slightly de- pressed anteriorly.”—Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. ii. p. 174. 2. Croc. Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoplera of Europe. $33 Species. Icon. 2.Cro. Elinguaria, Linn.*... Hiibn. Geom. tab. 4. f. 20. (feem.) 3.—Pennaria, Linn. +......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 3. f. 14. (mas.) Genus 94. GNOPHOS, Ochs., Trettsch. (Gnopnos, Hemrruea, Duponchel. Cuanissa, Curtis, Stephens.) Wings dusky, blackish or cinereous, with indistinct transverse bands; posterior slightly indented.—Larva smooth, cylin- drical.— Metamorphosis subterranean. Species. Icon. 1.Gnop.Furvata, Fab.f.....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 27. f.144.(mas.) 2.— Dumetata, Treitsch.§ — — — 3.—Obfuscata, Wien. Verz.Hiibn. Geom.tab.27. £142. (foem.) 4.—Perspersata, Treitsch.. Hiibn.Geom. tab. 79. f.406.(foem.) 5.—Obscurata, Wien. Ver. || Hiibn. Geom. tab. 27.f.146.(mas.) 6.—Coronillaria, Hibn.{ Hiibn. Geom. tab. 93. f. 479. 480. (mas.) f. 481. 482. (foem.) 7.—Serotinaria, Hubn.||... Hibn.Geom. tab.28. f.147. (foem.) 8.—Dilucidaria, Hiibn. ...Hubn.Geom. tab. 27. f.143.(mas.) (8*—Operaria, Hiibn.||...... Hiibn. Geom. tab. 69. f. 359. Curtis, Brit. Ent. iii. pl. 105.) * Crocatiis, Duponchel, Stephens. , + Merra, Stephens. Himera, Duponch.—“ Thorax and wings as in Cnrocattis.—Palpi very velvety, not extending beyond the forehead.— Mazxille very distinct, though slender——Antenne plumose in the male, simple in the female.—Larva smooth, cylindrical, not tubercular: head small, rounded; two fleshy points, inclined towards the anus, on the pe- nultimate segment.” —Lep. de France, l. c. supra, p. 169 ¢ Gwyornos, Duponch.—“ Fringe of all the wings more or less indented or festooned ; superior traversed by two indented lines, the inferior by only one; an orbicular spot in the centre of each wing—Body long and slender.—Palpi short, obtuse.—Mazwille long.” —Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. ii. p. 110. § Gnop. alis dentatis ceruleo-fuscis, margine externo obscuriore, striis punctatis nigris—Ochs. T'reitsch. tom. vi. pars i. p. 163. || Cuanissa, Curtis—“ Antenne arising from the back part of the head, rather robust, long, attenuated at both ends, composed of numerous trans- verse joints, with a few short scales above, hairy beneath, compressed and produced internally in the males, slender and setaceous in the females.— Labrum and mandibles minute, the latter ciliated internally.—Mavwille long, ciliated towards their extremity.—Labial palpi not so long as the head, nearly straight, not projecting like a beak, nor contiguous, sparingly co- vered with scales, 3-jointed.— Head small, covered with short close scales. —Wings, superior trigonate, apex acute, margins indented, especially in the inferior.—Abdomen long, slender and obtuse in the males, shorter and subcouie in the females.’—.Brit, Ent. lc. supra. © Hemiruua, Duponch, (vide supra,Genus 91. Geometra vernaria; note.) 9, Gnop. 334 Mr, Children’s Aédstract of the Characters of Species, Icon. 9.Gnop.Sartata, ‘Treitsch.* — — — 10.—Glaucinata, ‘Treitsch. Hiibn.Geom. tab. 28. f.150.(mas.) 11.—Pullata, Wien. Verz.... Hubn.Geom. tab. 27. f.145.(mas. ) 12.—Punctulata, Wien. Ver.+Hiibn.Geom. tab.61.f.317.(foem.) 13.—Mucidata, ‘Treitsch.... Hitibn. Geom. tab.28. f.148.(foem.) 14.—Carbonaria, Linn......Hubn. Geom. tab.28. f.151.(mas.) Genus 95. BOARMIA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Boarmria, Duponchel. Creora, Atcis, Boarmra, Curtis, Stephens.) Wings broad, dusky, with transverse, indented lines, and a dark spot near the centre of the disc; posterior margin with a dark, interrupted transverse line, or row of spots.— Body proportionally small and slender.—Zarva cylindrical; head nearly concealed by the first segment of the body.—Meta- morphosis subterranean. Species. Tcon. 1.Boa.Cinctaria, Hiibn.t... Hubn.Geom.tab.31. £166. (foem.) Curtis, Brit. Ent. ii. pl. 88. 2.—Crepuscularia, Hubn.§ Hibn.Geom. tab.50. f.158.(foem.) 3.—Selenaria, Hiibn. ......Hubn. Geom. tab.31.f.163.(foem.) 4. Boa. * Gnop. alis cinereis nebulosis, striis obsoletis obscurioribus, margine externo maculis albis.—Ochs. T'reitsch. vi. pars 1. p. 175. + Boarmia, Curtis. { Creora, Curtis, Stephens.—“ Antenne setaceous, long and slender. — Mazille slender, not so long as the antenna.— Labial palpi projecting a little beyond the head, obtuse, thickly covered with scales, which extend considerably beyond the apex.— Wings undivided, slightly indented.—4d- domen robust, conical in the females.—Legs rather stout.’—(Extract)— Brit. Ent. ii. pl. 88. ) The genus Cleora was established some years since by Curtis, at which time he had never seen a male of the species he has so very beautifully figured in his 88th plate: but having lately received one, he finds that its antenne are pectinated like those of the genus Alcis; whilst in Boarmia they are ciliated, or pilose beneath. In consequence of this recently ac-' quired information, Curtis has removed the six species with which he ori- ginally supposed that Cleora cinctaria should be associated (on the pro- bable, but, as it has proved, erroneous, assumption that the male insect would be found to have ciliated, not pectinated, antenne) to the genus Boarmia. It does not distinctly appear whether Curtis proposes to abolish the Genus Cleora altogether, and transfer cinctaria to that of Alcis or not. Stephens however, at all events, retains it, including in it Treitschke’s Geometra bajularia, and his Boarmia lichenaria, viduaria; glabraria (tene- varia, Steph.) and einctaria, and Thunberg’s Geometra pictaria—(See Syst. Cat. part ii. p. 123.) § Boanrmra, Curtis, Stephens.—‘ Antenne inserted on the crown of the head, setaceous, clothed with scales above, composed of numerous joints, each Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 335 Species. see Rcons 4.Boa.Roboraria, Fab.* + Hiibn. Geom. tab.32.f.169.(mas.) 5.—Consortaria, Fab.+...... Hiibn.Geom. tab.32. £168. (mas.) 6.—Hortaria, Fab..........Hiibn. Geom. tab.29.-f.153.(mas.) 7.—Abictaria, Hubn.t § ...Hiibn. Geom. tab. 30. f.160.(mas.) - §.—Lividaria, Hibn....... Hubn.Geom. tab. 26. f.141.(mas.) 9.—Repandaria, Hiibn.+...Hiibn.Geom. tab.30. £161. (mas.) 10.—Rhomboidaria, Hiibn.t Hiibn. Geom. tab. 29.f.154.(foem.) tab. 32. f. 170. (mas.) 11.—Sociaria, Hiibn..,....... Hiibn. Geom. tab. 29.f.155.(mas.) tab. 82. f. 424. (foem.) 12.—Evtersaria, Hiibn.||... Hiibn.Geom. tab, 30.f.159.(foem.) -13.—Secundaria, Hubn...... Hiibn. Geom. tab.29. f.156.(mas.) 14.—Lichenaria, Fab.4...... Hiibn. Geom. tab.31.f.164.(mas.) 15.—Viduaria, Hiibn.{ ..... Hiibn. Geom. tab.31.f.165.(mas.) tab. 70. f. 364. (foem.) 16.—Glabraria, Hibn.f....Hubn.Geom. tab.31. f.162.(foem.) tab. 65. f. 339. (mas.) 17.—Cineraria, Fab.........Htibn. Geom. tab.32. f. 171.(mas.) [To be continued. ] each producing a series of long curved hairs in the males ; simple in the females.—Mawzillg not so long as the antennze.—Labial palpi short, por- rected horizontally, thickly clothed with short scales.— Head small.— Thorax not large.—Abdomen rather long, slender and attenuated in the males, shorter, subconical or acuminated in the females.— Upper wings trigonate, _lower with the margin deeply indented.’”— Brit. Ent, vi. pl. 280, in which Curtis has given a lovely figure of the female B. tetragonaria,—a species not known to Treitschke. In his enumeration of the British species of Boar- mia, Curtis remarks that B. abietaria, (Geometra abietaria, Haw. 276. 14.) is not the G. abietaria of Hiibner, “ which is not only differently marked, but has the antennz strongly pectinated, and is probably my Alcis au- stralaria.” — Haworth (J. ¢. swpra,) refers to Hiibner’s G. adietaria, as iden- tical with his own species, though with a mark of doubt; but Stephens (Syst. Cat. part ii. p. 125) gives the abietaria of Hiibner, Treitschke, Ha- worth and Curtis, as identical, without any mark of doubt at all. * Boarmia, Duponchel, + Atcis, Curtis, Stephens.— ‘‘ Antenne inserted between the eyes, fili- form; bipectinated in the males, simple towards the apex ; branches ciliated, arising near the centre of the joint: simple, hairy beneath, with a bristle arising from each joint in the females.—Labrum and mandibles larger than usual.—Mazwille long, slender, furnished with distinct tentacula towards the apex. — Labial palpi porrected, visible viewed from above, not hairy, thickly covered with broad scales, very much lengthened beneath, terminal joint not quite concealed.— Wings ample, extended horizontally, superior trigonate, inferior slightly indented.— Abdomen long, linear, somewhat trun- cated in the males, shorter and conical in the females.—Legs rather long and slender.” — Curtis, Brit. Ent. iii. pl. 118, giving an excellent figure of A, sericearia, Curtis,—a species not mentioned by Treitschke. ft Atcis australaria, Curtis? § A. abietaria, Haw., Steph. || Boanmia, Curtis, Stephens. 4 Creora, Stephens. LIII. On Puys886. J LIII. On the Calculations requisite for predicting Occultations of Stars by the Moon. By Professor Bressrx*. 1. rom eet observer of occultations must be aware how desirable or even necessary it is to know approxi- mately the times of disappearance and reappearance of a star, as also the place on the moon’s disk where the latter takes place; in order that the attention may not be weakened by being too long on the stretch, or diverted by the uncertainty of the place. To me, at least, it has always been necessary to calculate be- forehand the occultation which I intended to observe, for my place of observation. I do not find anywhere an explanation of the most convenient method of conducting this calculation ; although Lagrange’s paper in the Berlin Ephemeris for 1782 contains its essential points, which have since been adopted in various works. The columns of ®. and Decl. of the moon for every twelve hours of apparent time, which are to be found in the Conn. des Tems, as well as in the Nautical Almanac, greatly facilitate this calculation ; but it is still more simplified by the same data, for every mean noon and midnight, which are given in the ex- cellent Ephemeris of Encke, with the accuracy of the tables themselves. I shall first solve the problem with strict exactness, and next point out such an approximation as will be sufficient for the purpose of making the observation; and, lastly, I shall show what data the Ephemeris ought to contain, in order that the same quantities for other places may be deduced from the re- sults of the calculations thus instituted for one place. 2. The symbols which I shall employ are as follow: rent AR. # ae SE ae Tact of the occulted star. a hi EL Reese's elt eters SF} Dele nehh SEMEL SES ae mw. ee» equatorial parallax: ..,../e'.'. Qrseeee horizontal semidiameter ..... $ of the moon. a!.e++e- apparent MR. ......e eens Ss Sem 2 — Decl. eeoevervreeveevre ol. ...+. apparent semidiameter ..... Hd FL EA ERAEALTITIC 2 «lena iencye pafens oka, avs) «che alban nis =| | Aare a ae ee g...... corrected latitude.........+.- 2 ree 7 .... distance from the centre of the earth : If we now draw a great circle through the star and the cen- * From Schumacher’s Astr. Nachr. vol. vii. p. 1; also in Encke’s Ephe- meris for 1831, p. 257. tre On the Occultations of Stars by the Moon. 337 tre of the moon, and denote the distance of both measured on it by X, and the angle formed by this circle and the circle of declination passing through the star to the north pole by P, which is to be counted from 0° to 360°, so that P is between 0° and 180°, when a! A, we shall have sin ¥ sin P = — cos? sin («!—A) (1) Ji cos P = sin 8! cos D — cos @ sin D cos (a!— A) cos & = sin 8! sin D + cos @ cos D cos (a! —A) The apparent place of the moon is expressed by the true one by means of these formulz: A cos # sin ae! = cos sna —7cos¢' sing sin pw A cos 2! cos a! = cosdcos 2 — 7 cos ¢@! sin 7 COs & A sin @! = sin?—rsin@' sinz A being the distance of the moon from the place of observa- tion. If we substitute these quantities in (1), we obtain Asin S sin P= — cos8 sin (2— A) +7 cos ¢! sin 7 sin(u.— A) Asin S cos P= sin § cos D— cos @ sin D cos (2— A) (2) — rsinz [sin ¢' cos D— cos ¢' sin D cos (u— A)] Acos x = sing sin D+ cos8cos D cos (42g—Aj —r sin z [sin 9! sin D+ cos 9! cos D cos (u—A) ] which are the formule given by Lagrange, but referred to the equator. 3. For the beginning and the end of an occultation, we have. > = ¢! and as A sing! = sing, we have likewise A sin ¥ = sin g; by which the apparent radius of the moon disappears from the first two of the for- mul (2), if applied for calculating the occultation or emer- sion. We have, therefore, for these cases sin gsin P = — cos@ sin (2—A)+7 cos ¢! sin m sin(u— A) (3)< singcos P= sin 8cos D— cos 8 sin D cos(a—A) —rsinz [sin ¢! cos D— cos ¢! sin D cos (u—A)] and the third formula is of no further use, as it only decides whether the distance is ¢' or 180°—g', which is never doubtful. If we divide these formule by sin 7 and assume sin g@ = k sin z, where the constant quantity / is according to Burck- hardt’s Tables =0°2725, and its logarithm = 9°4353665, they will be changed into the following ones: ksinP =— C8 @—A) 1 > cos gf sin (yp —A) (4) sin + , Fwd sin 3 cos D— cos 3 sin D cos («— A) —r [sing cos D— cos ¢! sin D cos (zh — A) ] N.S. Vol. 6. No. 35. Nov. 1829. 2X which 338 Prof. Bessel on the Calculations requisite for predicting which consist of two separate parts; one of which depends only on the place of the moon, while the other depends on the place of observation only. The sum of the squares of both gives this equation: (5) yee cos 3 sin («—A) t sin + — 7 cos ¢! sin (#— A) a g sin 3. cos D — cos 3 sin Dos (a— A) e sin + —r[sin $’ cos D— cos ¢! sin D cos (u—A)] ig As the parts which are to be squared may be considered as functions of the time, these formulz contain no other unknown quantity but the time of occultation or emersion. 4. The times of innumerable occultations and emersions will be contained in this equation if taken without restriction, and it is consequently a transcendental one and cannot be solved by a direct process; it is only to be solved by trials or by successive approximations. ‘The latter proceeding appears to me to be more convenient. I assume, therefore, «, 8, 7, ~ as known for a time T, which is so near to the time of occul- tation or emersion T+ ¢ which is required, that the terms on the right of the sign of equality may be converted into rapidly converging series. On this supposition we assume cos 3 sin (a—: A) j och Pyerie ici irae sin 7 sin 8 cos D — cos8 sin D cos (a2—A).... =qtqit f cos @ bin (W— A) ps ee ee es Pee r sin g' cos D — 7 cos ¢! sin D cos (u«—A) = v+ v'F, and p, g, u, vare the values corresponding to the time T; while p,q’, u,v are functions of ¢, in which, however, agreeably to our supposition, the terms dependent on ¢ and its higher powers are very small. If we suppose that ¢ is approximately known as far as it has influence on the value of these quantities, the solution of equation (5), or what it will be after making the above subtitutions, viz. (6)euk? = [p—u + (pw) A)? + [g—v4-(¢'—v) P will produce a greater approximation for ¢; by means of which values for p'—w! and g'—v’, more accurate than those assumed in the calculation, will be obtained, which substituted in the formula will again lead to a closer approximation to the value of ¢#, and so on. The solution of equation (6) will be facilitated by making p—u=msnM, + pi—ud =nsnN ) q—v=mcos M, gq’ —v = ncos N; by Occultations of Stars by the Moon, 339 by the substitution of these values it becomes 2 = m? sin (M—N)? + [m cos(M—N) + ndP and if we suppose a sin (M—N) = cos, we have Wy Bie ok sect =. cos (M—N) + = sin where the upper sign is to be used for an occultation, and the lower one for an emersion, provided y has been taken be- low < 180°, which may always be done. If we find, however, ~ sin (M —N) >1, there will be no occultation, but the moon will pass by the star without occultation. It is evident, how- ever, that this is only necessarily the case after the approxima- tion has been pushed far enough, and that an error in N may produce the appearance of the impossibility of an occultation, which really will take place, and vice versd. If cos ) be found >1, ¢ is, notwithstanding, to be calculated by the formula i= — —~ cos (M—N) and with this value the approximation is to be continued ; it will then appear whether cos } is really greater than J. “In like manner a , which a rough approximation would show to be possible, might prove impossible by a greater approxi- mation. These cases, however, if T is not too distant from the time of occultation, will only occur when the star remains very near the limb of the moon. The formula (4) will be converted into the following one, by introducing the symbols adopted in this section, ksin P= —msinM—nsinN.¢ kcosP= mcosM+ncosN.¢ and hence by substituting the value of ¢ we obtain these: ik sin P = — msin (M—N) cosN + /& sin N sinh k cos P = — msin(M—N) sinN ¥ & cos N sin and, as m sin(M—N) = & cos , we have sin P= — cos(N+); cosP = — sin (N+¥) and (8) ..5..P=270° —-NF¥ If we choose to describe the place of occultation or emer sion by the angle which is inclosed by the great circles drawn from the moon’s centre through the star and the north pole, beginning from the north and counting to the left, we shall very nearly have this angle Q = 180°— P = N+P—90°. 5. The quantities p, g, p', g' which depend on the motion 9X2 of 340 Prof. Besse] on the Calculations requisite for predicting of the moon, may be most conveniently found by calculating the values of cos 3 sin (#— A) sin 3 cos D— cos3 sin D cos (a— A) ee sin + sing or different times, for which purpose the latter may be thus expressed : sin (0—D) cos $ {a 4)? he a (ar a) He aD) sin 5 Maen It will be most convenient to assume for T the full hour of the place for which the Ephemeris has been calculated, nearest to the middle of the occultation, and for the other times the full hours next preceding and following it: by this arrange- ment it will be possible to perform the interpolation from the Ephemeris with coefficients, which once calculated will serve for ever. In order to place together every thing requisite for this calculation, I shall here communicate a table for these co- efficients, which will be illustrated by the following arrange~ ment of the quantities to which they refer. Times. Places. 1Diffi 2Diffi 3Difi 4 Diff. “t a b 4d LR where a, a! denote the places of the moon contained in the Ephemeris corresponding to the beginning r, and the end 7! of the 12 hours in which the times T, T'15, T+ 2), .... are con- tained, and 4, c, d, &c. the successive differences. If we as- sume a,+ a’=2a;¢ +c = 2c3e,+e =2e;... wehave the place of the moon corresponding to the time a(t, +7) +2 by this formula a+ X.b4 X.c+ X".d4+ &a... in which the coefficients have the following values : Ff 12x| 288 X! |10368 X| 497664 X//P log X log X// log X/// —8h| —8| +28 | —224] — 728019-82391n| 8-98777 | 8°33455n| 8°16520n —7 | —-7) +13} — 91) — 35754 9°76! 8°65455 | 7°94336n| 7°85634n —6|—6 0 (0) 0 —00 —oo —o —5 |—5} —11}+ 55}+ 3289/9: 8:58200p| 7°72467 | 782013 —4}—4| —20]-+ 80]+ 6160}9- 8°841647| 7°88740 | 8:09264 —3|—3| —27|+ 81) + 850549: 8:97197,| 789279 | 8-23274 —2 |—2| —32]-+ 64] +10240]9- 9:04576n| 7°79048 | 8°31336 —1 | —-1}) —35 |} + 35] +1130548- 9-08468;| 7°52837 | 8°35633 o| 0O| —36 0| +11664 9:0969ln} —co | 836991 +1}+4+1}] —35 | — 35] 41130598: 9:08468n| 7°528372| 8°35633 +21+2] —32|— 64] +10240f9- 9°04576n| 7'79048n| 8°31336 +3}|+3| —27|— 81] + 8505}9- 8:97197n| 7°89279n| 8°23274 +4|+4] —20}]— 80] + 6160) 9°522 8°84164n| 7°88740n| 8°09264 +5 )/+5] —11] — 55] + 328049: 8:58200n] 7°72467n| 7°82013 +6 | +6 0 0 O19: y.) —0 +7|+7) +13 | + 91} — 35751 9°76 +8 | +8) +28 | +224] — 7280 Occultations of Stars by the Moon. 341 6. For the example given by Professor Encke, viz. the occultation of 82 Leonis, 5th of April 1830, we have from the Ephemeris the right ascension of the moon on April 4. 0"/153°41! $1!"8 12 |159. 31 52 °9 5. O {165 17 48 °7 12 |171 0 14°7 , 6. 0 1176 40 8-1? sea]? 12 {182 18 260; ~ hence a = 168° 9!) 1-7 b= +5 42 26°0 aoe pee Mae +57 °2 + 0°8 In the same manner we have for the declination @ = +4°52! 4555 5°50! 21"1 5 45 55 °8|_ +55""5 5 42 26-0) __ s&s ou il 6 =—1 48 44.°7 PS —2 $3 °25 d= A i rag Re e= —1°0 and for parallax a = 54! 19/9 SR ET c= +1°8 Hence we derive for 5", 6", 7", 8, 94 mean time of Berlin : a 3 rT 5") 167°40! 51-76 |+5° 2! 8-09 | 54) 13'-00 6/1168 9 24°37 4 53 4°69 12 *43 7-4 168.387 55°72 4 44 0 +29 11 *84 8 | 169 6 25°83 4 34 54 °73 Lies 9 | 169 34 54°75 4 25 48 *24 10 °62. If we assume, agreeably to Encke, for the position of the star A = 169° 14' 66; D = + 4° 14! 4!-8, we obtain the following values of pot sip Cr A) sin + ; a b c d 5"|—1-71312 |, 6 | —1-18998 | +52384 | 4 19 re 2ouee | 4.59396 —2 i | —0°66532 +10 R + 52406 —6 8 | —0°14126 + 52410 + 4 9 | —0°38284 %, and these valaeeet sin (3—1)). pan one a ee (6+D). + D). sin 4 (@— A)? 342 Mr. Henhell on the Mutual Action 54! +0°88807 an 6 | +0-72029 | ~ 16778 | yy f — 16789 A 7 | be 0:652800b TF pengg | m4 ‘ 8 (¥F0°38447 | engl ry A 9 | +0°21650 4 If we have calculated for an odd hour in which the term T is contained, the formula for the interpolation of the column a is att.b+— icp oP dt &. = att{o—- dt Sct edin } whence we obtain for our example p = — 0°66532 pl = + 0°524017 + ¢.0°00005 — /.0°000007 g = + 0°55240 g' = — 0°167904 —#.0°00002 + 7Z .0°000006 But I do not believe that one can ever have an object in going beyond the second differences, or in making the calcu- lation for more than three hours: if the accuracy were to be pushed to a greater degree, it would likewise be necessary to apply a greater number of decimals than is here done. [To be continued.] LIV. On the Mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid and Alcohol, and on the Nature of the Process by which Aither is formed. By Henry Hewneut, Esg. Communicated by WiLL1aM Tuomas Branpe, Esq. F.L.S.* 1. J WAS some time since engaged in an investigation of the nature of oil of wine and of the salts called sulpho- vinates: the results I obtained were considered of sufficient importance to be honoured with a place in the Philosophical Transactions}. The oil of wine and sulphovinic acid are sub-, stances produced during the mutual action of sulphuric acid and alcohol in the well-known process adopted for the pre- paration of ether; and an important point with me, during the above investigations and since that time, has been to deve- lop the particular changes which take place when ether is formed from sulphuric acid and alcohol. I perceive by the Annales de Chimie for November last, that MM. Dumas and Boullay have been engaged on the same subject, and have ex~ perimented on and considered, not only the formation of zther, * From the Philosophical Transactions for 1828. Part I. + Phil. Trans, 1826. Part UI. but of Sulphuric Acid and Alcohol. 8343 but also the nature of sulphovinates, and, as they supposed, though incorrectly, of oil of wine*. That our results with re- gard to sulphovinates and oil of wine differ, may be seen from the published accounts; and there is not less difference be- tween their conclusions with regard to zetherification, and the results I have obtained, which I have now to describe. 2. When alcohol and sulphuric acid in equal weights are put together without the application of any heat beyond that generated during the mixture, the most abundant and im- portant product is sulphovinic acid, above one half of the sul- phuric acid being converted into that peculiar acid by union with hydro-carbon+. But when such a mixture containing so Jarge a proportion of sulphovinic acid is distilled, the most important product is a new substance, namely zther, and the sulphovinic acid disappears. The questions which then arose were, whether the ether was formed altogether from the di- rect action of the remaining alcohol and sulphuric acid in the mixture, or whether the sulphovinic acid might not also assist, or whether it might not be an essential state of the elements intermediate between the mixture of the acid and alcohol and the development of the perfectly formed zether. MM. Dumas and Boullay, .who have considered the same questions, or at least some of them,—decide, that the portions of materials which form ether, are altogether independent of those which produce sulphovinic acid: but the following facts prove in my opinion the contrary of this conclusion. 3. A portion of oil of vitriol was selected for some compa- rative experiments, and also some alcohol of specific gravity 0°820: five hundred grains of the oil of vitriol precipitated by acetate of lead, gave 1500 grains of sulphate of lead. 4. Five hundred grains of the oil of vitriol were mixed with five hundred grains of the alcohol, and after forty-eight hours, diluted and precipitated by acetate of lead; only 616 grains of sulphate of lead were produced; so that very nearly three- fifths of the sulphuric acid had become sulphovinic acid by the effect of mixture, and little more than two-fifths remained to act as sulphuric acid upon the remaining alcohol, full two- thirds of the quantity employed. 5. Another mixture of acid and alcohol in the same propor- tions, and made at the same time as the above, was then di- * The substance which these’ gentlemen operated upon appears, from their own account of its preparation, to have been the hydro-carbon sepa- rable from oil of wine by the action of alkalies, and not that peculiar sub- stance which has hitherto been called oil of wine. + The sulphuric acid loses half its saturating power by the union, and all the salts formed by the new acid are soluble, stilled 344 Mr. Hennell on the Mutual Action stilled until 117 grains had passed over, consisting of water, alcohol, and a portion of zxther. The residue in the retort had not undergone any charring effect; and being diluted, was precipitated by the acetate of lead: the quantity of sul- phate of lead obtained, amounted to 804 grains, indicating an increase in the quantity of sulphuric acid equivalent to 188 grains of sulphate of lead. 6. A similar mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid, made at the time and in the same proportions as the two former, was then distilled until two hundred grains had been received, the greater part of which was ether; the uncharred residual matter in the retort being then diluted, was precipitated by acetate of lead as before; 986 grains of sulphate of lead were obtained. This contained nearly two-thirds of the sulphuric acid first added, and the increase by distillation had been much more than one-half of that which existed before the ap- plication of heat: so that during the distillation, and simul- taneously with the formation of zther, a quantity of sulpho- vinic acid had been re-converted into sulphuric acid, and the latter appeared to increase in quantity in proportion to the in- crease of zther in the distilled products. 7. A similar mixture of alcohol and acid, made at the same time and in the same proportions as the three former, was then distilled until two hundred grains had passed over. Two hundred grains of water were added to the contents of the re- tort; 160 grains were distilled off; a second addition of two hundred grains of water was made, and the distillation con- tinued: a further addition of five hundred grains of water was made, and the operation continued until as much product had been separated as equalled the water added ;—the object was to separate all the ether and alcohol possible, for the purpose of ascertaining to what extent the conversion of sulphovinic acid into sulphuric could be carried. No smell of sulphurous acid was produced during the operation, nor did any charring of the contents of the retort occur; when precipitated by ace- tate of lead, 1480 grains of sulphate of lead were obtained. This is very little short of the 1500 given by the acid when un- acted upon by alcohol, and shows that nearly the whole of the sulphovinic acid had been changed back into the state of sul- phuric acid; and is completely at variance with the opinion, that when sulphuric acid and alcohol act upon each other, hypo-sulphuric acid is formed. 8. From these experiments it appeared probable that the zether was the product of the decomposition of the sulphovinic acid: but a mixture of equal weights of alcohol and sulphuric acid contains, besides the sulphovinie acid, a considerable quantity ae of Sulphuric Acid. and Alcohol. . 845 quantity of unaltered acid and alcohol ; for in such a mixture three-fifths (4) of the sulphuric acid would be converted into sulphovinic acid by combination with the hydro-carbon of less than one-third of the alcohol employed. I next proceeded to ascertain, whether, when no alcohol was present, zther would be produced. A quantity of the sulphovinate of potash was therefore prepared. ‘The composition of this salt has been given in the paper in the Philosophical Transactions before referred to, and one hundred parts contain 28°84 of potash. Five hundred grains were mixed with 150 grains of sulphuric acid, being nearly the equivalent of the potash in the salt, and then heat applied. The experiment therefore may be consi= dered as the distillation of sulphovinic acid mixed with sul- phate of potash, which it may be presumed remained inert during the process, and also with the water of the acid and of the salt. The proportion of water, it is found, has an import- ant influence; but in the present experiment about a drachm of fluid distilled over, and left a blackened and acid salt in the retort, having the smell of sulphurous acid. A few grains of carbonate of potash being added to the distilled product, abs- tracted a little water: the clear decanted liquor was then mixed with a little dry muriate of lime, and by agitation separated into two portions; the upper one being decanted, amounted to nearly half a drachm, and was found to be pure zether. This result proves that «ther may be formed from a sulpho- yinate or sulphovinic acid when no alcohol is present. g. An experiment similar to the last in the nature and pro- portions of the substances used, was made, except that the sulphovinate was dissolved in its own weight of water previous to the addition of the sulphuric acid. The experiment is one therefore of the distillation of dilute sulphovinous acid, in place of that which is concentrated. The distilled product had no smell of ther, nor could any be discovered in it. About nine fluid drachms were obtained; to these, carbonate of potash was added, which separated the water, and left three drachms of a supernatant liquid, appearing by taste, smell and flame, to be alcohol: this was decanted, and poured upon muriate of lime; no wther separated, but the whole formed one solution ; being distilled from the muriate it was evidently alcohol ; and being mixed with its weight of sulphuric acid, gave sulphuric ether or sulphovinic acid again. In this experiment there was no charring of the contents of the retort; and by precipitation by acetate of lead, the whole of the sulphuric acid was obtained ;—not only the portion added to decompose the salt, but the double portion evolved N.S. Vol. 6. No. 35. Nov. 1829. 2Y from 8346 Mr. Hennell on the Mutual Action from the sulphovinic acid upon the separation and re-arrange- ment of the hydrocarbon. 10. In the former paper it was shown that oil of wine when heated in water is resolved into hydrocarbon and sulphovinic acid: an experiment was therefore made upon it. Two hun- dred grains of oil of wine were placed in a retort, a little water added, and heat applied: about a drachm was received, which being redistilled from carbonate of potash the product ap- peared to be principally alcohol, but the presence of zther was very evident.—This experiment proves the formation of ether from sulphovinic acid when no sulphuric acid was pre- sent as such at the commencement of the distillation. With regard to the questions at the commencement of this paper, it appears to me from the facts detailed, that in the ‘usual process for obtaining zther, the ether is not formed al- together from the direct action of the alcohol and sulphuric acid considered independently of the sulphovinic acid present ; for the quantity of free sulphuric acid is small compared to the ‘quantity of alcohol present, two-fifths only of the acid remain- ing, while of the alcohol more than two-thirds remain; and further, sulphovinic acid alone is readily converted into ether and sulphuric acid, (see 8.) and during the distillation of aether in the ordinary way the sulphovinic acid is always re-con- verted more or less completely into sulphuric acid (4. 5.6.) it probably therefore assists mnch in the process. With regard to the third question, the opinion may be supported that the formation of sulphovinic acid is a necessary and intermediate step to the production of zther from alcohol and sulphuric acid; and although I do not mean to assert this view, yet it deserves a few remarks. In no manner which has yet been devised can sether be formed from alcohol and sulphuric acid without the presence of sul- phovinic acid. Whenever ether has been formed, sulphovinic acid has been present; whenever the sulphuric acid is diluted so far as not to form sulphovinic acid with alcohol, it also re- fuses to form ether with alcohol. Sulphovinic acid will pro- ‘duce zther without the assistance of alcohol. And although the ether produced when a mixture of equal weights of alco- hol and sulphuric acid are distilled, appears to be in greater quantity than can arise from the decomposition of the sul- phovinic acid existing in the mixture previous to the action of ‘heat, it is not I think inconsistent to suppose, that at the same time that one portion of sulphovinic acid is resolved into sul- phuric acid and ether, another may be formed from alcohol and sulphuric acid; and that sulphovinic acid is formed in a mixture of Sulphuric Acid and Alcohol. 347 mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol by heat, is proved by the following experiment. Iive hundred grains of oil of vitriol were diluted by five hundred grains of water; when cold, to the dilute acid was added two thousand grains of alcohol, spe- cific gravity 0°820. The following day this mixture was ex- amined for sulphovinic acid, but none had been formed: it was placed in a retort, and a quantity distilled off nearly equal to the weight of the alcohol employed: this had a specific gra- vity of 0°842, Carbonate of potash separated a considerable portion of water, the original alcohol would not even moisten that salt; the residue in the retort was examined, and now sulphovinic acid was found; the evidence of which was, car- bonate of lead being dissolved in considerable quantity; here sulphovinic acid had been formed by heat, where it did not previously exist. This result appears also opposed to the opi- nion, that in the formation of «ther the sulphuric acid acts simply by abstracting water from the alcohol; for the dilute acid here gave up a portion of its water during the distillation, and separated from the alcohol a portion of hydrocarbon. It has already been shown (9.) that the production of aether is materially influenced by the quantity of water present, and that the same sulphovinic acid will yield either ether or al- cohol, as it is in a concentrated or dilute state. ‘The hydro- carbon which, as was shown in the former paper, has the ex- traordinary power in oil of wine of neutralizing the whole of the acid properties of sulphuric acid, and in sulphovinic acid of neutralizing the half of them, being in the latter body in so peculiar a condition that it will unite either with that pro- portion of water necessary to form ether, or with the larger proportion requisite to form alcohol, according to circum- stances. In the experiments (8. 9.), in the production by distillation of ether or alcohol from sulphovinic acid more or less diluted, it appeared that sulphovinic acid might easily have its proxi- mate elements separated and restored to their original state of sulphuric acid and alcohol. The following experiment was made with a view to illustrate this point. Five hundred grains of acid and five hundred grains of alcohol were mixed as be- fore, and left for several days: by previous experiment it is known that more than half the sulphuric acid in this way be- comes sulphovinic acid (4). By distillation and dilution at proper periods this would have given ether and alcohol, and nearly the whole of the sulphuric acid (7.): but instead of doing this, it was mixed with one thousand grains of water, and then distilled until 1400 grains had passed over. No charring or decomposition of the sulphuric acid took place ; no 2Y2 ether $48 Opinion of M. Cuvier zether was formed; but nearly the whole of the original al- cohol and sulphuric acid were recovered. It may be a ques- tion whether the production of alcohol and ether in those and similar experiments is altogether determined by the proportion of water present, or whether the difference of temperature consequent upon its variation may not have an effect. When ether and sulphuric acid are heated together, oil of wine and sulphovinic acid are amongst the products obtained ; and as this sulphovinic acid is readily converted when diluted into alcohol and sulphuric acid, so it affords a method of converting ether into alcohol: thus ether may be formed from alcohol, and alcohol from zther at pleasure, by throwing the hydrocarbon of these bodies into that peculiar state which it assumes when combined with sulphuric acid in sulphovinic acid. We may even proceed beyond this, and form either alcohol or zther, using olefiant gas as the hydro-carbon base: for I have shown in my last paper, that olefiant gas by com- bining with sulphuric acid, forms sulphovinic acid, and the acid so produced forms either ether or alcohol, according to circumstances which are under perfect command. It can hardly be necessary to refer to the extraordinary re- mark at the end of MM. Dumas and Boullay’s second paper, except to state that it is singularly at variance with the facts and opinions given throughout the former part of that and the preceding paper by the same authors. Those persons who read both papers, and also those of Mr. Faraday and myself, which were published long before the appearance of the former, will be able to decide without further comment from whom the particular views contained in those papers first emanated. . Apothecaries’ Hall. H. Henne tt. LV. On the right Use of Generic Names in Natural History ; according to the Opinions of MM. Cuvier and DeCandolle. To the Editors of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. Gentlemen, {TN the discussion, respecting the introduction and use of the generic names in Zoology, which has lately occupied some pages of your Magazine*, and which has been termed the breaking up the established genera of the older naturalists, especially of those of Linnzeus; it appears to me that the parties to this controversy have entirely overlooked the purposes for which the new names were invented, and to which they were intended to be applied. * Vol. iii, p. 213, and.vol. vi. p. 199, - M. Cuvier, on Generic Names in Natural History. 349 M. Cuvier, the great inventor of this new nomenclature, and on whose authority I presume the use of it is supposed to be sanctioned, I believe never intended they should be applied in the manner now adopted. The extract which I annex from the Preface to the first edition of his Régne Animal, and which he has repeated in that lately published, seems to me conclu- sive on this point. The names of the grand genera are alone on his authority to be used in speaking of the species, whilst those of the sub- genera or sections are to be applied solely in the exhibition of any systematic arrangement of the genera. In making these observations, pray let it be understood that I am not advocating the preservation of any genus of animals, which evidently requires the separation of individuals united with it from want of sufficient knowledge of the species by the original framers of the genus. It is against the sub-division only of those genera which are acknowledged by naturalists to be perfect, but which have been formed into sections with particular objects in view by M. Cuvier and others. As the specific names of all the individuals belonging to the sub-genera of any one grand genus in the higher orders of the animal kingdom are different, what but confusion can result from substituting as generic appellations the various sub- generic names instead of that of the grand genus which in- cludes the whole? M. DeCandolle’s use and adoption of sub-genera in the vegetable kingdom seem entirely to accord with the rule laid down by M. Cuvier; for although he has in numerous in- stances given names to his sections, neither he nor his cotem- poraries have ever attempted to designate the species by any of the inferior appellations: the grand generic names are in- variably used. I am, Gentlemen, yours, &c. London, Oct. 23, 1829. J. 8S. Extract from the Preface to the First Edition of Cuvier’s * Réegne Animal.” “ J] m’a fallu malheureusement introduire beaucoup de noms nouveaux, quoique j’aie mis une grande attention a conserver ceux de mes devanciers ; mais les nombreux sous-genres que jai etablis exigeaient ces denominations; car dans des choses si variées, la memoire ne se contente pas d’indications nu- meriques. Je les ai choisies, soit de manicre a indiquer quelque caractére, soit dans les denominations usuelles que j’ai Jatiniscées, soit enfin, a ’exemple de Linnaeus, parmi les noms de la mythologie, qui sont en general agréables a Poreille, et que l’on est loin avoir epuises. “ec Je 350 #£M. Cuvier on Generic Names in Natural History. “« Je conseille neanmoins, quand on nommera les espéces, de n’employer que le substantif du grand genre, et le nom tri- vial. Les noms de sous-genres ne sont destinées qu’a soula- ger la mémoire, quand on voudra indiquer ces subdivisions en particulier. Autrement, comme les sous-genres, déja trés multipliés, se multiplieront beaucoup plus par la suite, a force d’avoir des substantifs 4 retenir continuellement, en sera ex- posé a perdre les avantages de cette nomenclature binaire, si heureusement imaginée par Linnzeus. ‘« C’est pour la mieux consacrer, que j’ai demembré le moins quil m’a été possible les grands genres de cet illustre refor- mateur de la science. Toutes les fois que les sous-genres dans lesquels je les divise n’ont pas du aller a des familles differentes, je les ai laissés ensemble sous Jeur ancien nom generique. C’etait non seulement un egard que je devais 4 la mémoire de Linnzeus, mais c’etait aussi une attention nécessaire pour con- server la tradition et Vintelligence mutuelle des naturalistes des differents pays.” [The importance which must be attached to the opinion of M. Cuvier on the subject of our correspondent’s letter, in- duces us to take the liberty of subjoining a translation of the passage quoted.—Ep. ] « 5 as XUN) CH [SU] OH XU yey Sg] “TN | XW su | xen | cong | oxeW an] an’ e|g 8 =a iets oi|s|aje2 wWodsoy |‘a0uvzuag| ‘uopuo'y |uojsog. ~~ qa0ds05 *o0uBzZU9T “uopuo’y /*y qwuoyy pote 5 A a aa ———___ jo skeqy Ivy COAG pula, “I9JOWIOULIDY J, *AIJIWIOIVET / NE U0sOT IV TIFAA PY pun uodsoyH yw XANUAT “CT ‘aounzury wxaary py fg SuopuorT anau ‘yornsiyg yo hjaroog younygnoyaopy 241 fo uapavy ay] JD HLOOg “Jy 49 app suornascasgg orTopo«orpayy -" sew [390.15 3297 41n09 uory p aay pure aurzeSezy peorydosopryg ays Jo aa4jQ a ou ‘sje , ‘wa [ {f oung Soeisy—y] sep Suonnyysuy [e{oxy — wd Eg Zl] ‘qogq ‘eotmtouo.sy—"n'd | “GT “92,7 ‘[VIISojoaN—"w'd | “GS udy ‘fya10g wohojooz—"gg judy ‘oanqeseyy] jo Aaioog jeAoy—'y Avy *[BANg[NITLOF[F—"GS “AON “qui jwoSojooz—w'a | “Fe AvP, ‘uvounJ—"Wa | “ES [dy ‘sauenbyuy—i'v [TT 0g “AON ‘eAoy—'saINvsuTAINNy’ ‘0S-668T "yoa.1]G-UOYwA) Lt ‘6 Aqng| 61 alt grit LI 6 02 ‘9 02 ‘9 91 % 61 *¢ ss [wa g ‘Cupanqeg) onvisy peAoy “‘4Q-a,Ieuraq) y IL % |9a1sF1'L,| 06 ‘6a | 9B ‘6 “SI'S |9BEI ‘SI ‘2) 6B “GS Sy ve ‘wa §g ‘epg nqsuy pesoy "spy, UUy-s UjooUurT II FI 1 "psaupa A al ¥6L 8 II SI ‘Wd 8 ‘epi | [Rotwouajsy “ASUOF{-JOSLOWIOS 81“ 13 ‘L 91% 61 ‘S x61 6G SLT SI “F 02 ‘9 | ‘wa Sg ‘fupraq] * * Jeotsojoax *499.19G-U0JLIG +++ {19100 & 9 “G0 ‘L v v L g g ‘Wd I ‘— [NEW SERIES.] DECEMBER 1829. LXII. On the Plans, Arrangements and Methods, proposed and used by Mr. F. R. Hassler, with a view to an accurate Survey of the Coast of the United States. By the Chevalier F. W. Bessex, Professor in the University of Konigsberg*. N 1807, Mr. Hassler, then in Philadelphia, was requested, on the part of the Government of the United States, to fur- nish a plan for the survey of the whole coast of that country. This was done in a letter to Mr. Gallatin, which proves great insight into the nature of such operations. It is evident from it, that the survey was to have been a work of great extent, and such as should satisfy the requisites both of geography and of navigation. In consequence of this plan, Mr. Hassler went to England to procure the necessary instruments, &c. A most complete apparatus was brought together, consisting principally, of in- struments constructed upon Mr. Hassler’s own ideas; and in the year 1816 the operation itself began. It appears to have been interrupted soon after, and therefore not to have given the expected results +. * This paper is a translation from Professor Schumacher’s Astronomische Nachrichten, No, 137, by Professor Renwick of Columbia College, New York, and is extracted from Silliman’s Journal. ‘The Notes are those of . the translator. The suspension of the operations for the survey of the coast of the United States, begun in so admirable a manner by Mr. Hassler, may be considered as a national misfortune. It is such in truth, not so much from the loss of the previous expenditures, in consequence of the delay, or from the deferring of its advantages to a future period, as from the fact, that the rinciples and methods proposed, and some of them actually used by Mr. Srades, were in advance of the science of Kurope at the period. As these principles and metheds require the highest proficiency in mathematical and physical science, their application to practice originally in the United States would have redounded to the national honour. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 36. Dec. 1829. 3 F But 402 Prof. Bessel’s Remarks on Mr. Hassler’s plan for an But Mr. Hassler describes his arrangements and methods in a paper which has also been printed, as an extract from the Philosophical Transactions of Philadelphia, which contains so many new views in relation to instruments, that I believe I shall make an agreeable communication to the readers of this jour: nal by an extract from this paper, which has probably not be« come very extensively known (in Germany)*. Mr. Hassler appears by it as a man who would rather think for himself than imitate others, and whose arrangements, therefore, al- ways bear an independent character. It is to be lamented that circumstances should have oc~- curred which hindered the complete execution of the work. To judge from the contents of the publication, not only com- plete success in reaching the intended object would have been obtained, but also many other useful results.+. According to Mr. Hassler’s plan, two observatories were to be established, one in Washington, and one in New Orleans}: these were calculated not only for the purposes of the survey, but also to subserve the general objects of astronomy. Of the observatory for Washington, the whole plan is given, which appears to me very appropriate; it recommends itself by a minute attention to all that can secure the accuracy of the observations; we miss in it none of those arrangements which on this side of the Atlantic have been made in the most modern observatories; in its special arrangements this observatory often agrees with the most modern one in Germany, that of Altona§. ‘The instruments are, a ¢ransit, of five feet, by * (And*we may say iz England also: as we believe not more than two or three copies of that paper ever reached this country.—Enrr. Phil. Mag.] + The opinion thus expressed by Mr. Bessel, is praise of the highest de- scription; for no man has ever stood higher as an astronomer than that di- stinguished Professor. { According to Mr. Hassler’s original plan, one of the observatories was to have been established in the State of Maine, near the north-eastern frontier, the other in Louisiana near the south-western boundary of the United States. Circumstances led to the choice of Washington for one; the exact place of the other, although it must have been near New Orleans, was not decided. § The close coincidence between the plan proposed by Mr. Hassler, for the observatory at Washington, and that erected under the superintendence of Schumacher at Altona, is very remarkable. This last is unquestionably the best in Europe, as well as the most modern. Mr. Hassler’s plans were presented to our Government in 1816, but his papers were not published until 1826. The observatory at Altona was finished in the last-named year. Thus it appears that these two astronomers deduced from obvious principles two plans of the closest similitude, each without any knowledge of the other’s proceedings, while the American project is prior in point of date by several years.—{ A drawing of the plan of Schumacher’s observatory is in the possession of the Astronomical Society of London.—Enrr. Phil. Mag. ] Troughton ; accurate Survey of the United States of America. 403 Troughton; a clock by Hardy; and an eighteen-inch repeating circle; there were also to be placed in it, finally, a zenith sector and a meridian (mural) circle, &c. I cannot describe the building in detail, but I will remark that it was to be surrounded by a ditch, in order the better to avoid the oscillations of the ground, by the passage of waggons, &c. ‘The pillars of the instruments were to be placed upon solid bases six feet thick, standing ina cellar of five feet depth, and to pass through the floor of the observatory, which was to be supported indepen- dent of them. The axis of the transit is thirty-three inches long, which also corresponds to the views of Reichenbach, who considers long axes as not advantageous; the cylindrical parts are of bell-metal, as usual with the English artists. The sup- ports are not between the pillars, but upon them; a strong metal plate is fixed upon the middle of the pillar, bearing the parts which move the Ys, and these are moved in the direction of the meridian by screws, by which the adjustment to that direction is made; the usual vertical screw is not in the ar- rangement; instead of this, the piece bearing the Ys is formed like an arch, the middle of which is supported by a screw, the higher or lower position of which elevates or depresses it by the different degree of tension of the metal which is produced by the action of the screw and its own elasticity. This me- thod promises to secure complete stability: but it is supposed that the two pillars have the same altitude, and also that no remarkable change should take place in them. The counter- poising apparatus is placed about five inches from the end, and consists of springs, which press rollers under the axis, per- forming what Reichenbach effects by levers and weights. By Mr. Hassler’s arrangement, this counterpoising apparatus occupies the place on the pillars, which the supports formerly did; this arrangement, likewise, appears tome good: whether it would be applicable to very heavy instruments, remains still to be tried*. The two conical axes are not joined by a cube in the centre, but by a zone of a sphere of eight inches diame- ter, to which the two parts of the telescope tube are screwed ; this arrangement is made with a view to greater stability. Of the other instruments of Mr. Hassler it will not be pos- sible to give an adequate description without drawings, but I may however indicate some of their peculiarities. ‘The theo~ * The transit of the observatory at Greenwich is adjusted in this man- ner; and as it is ten feet in length, the doubt whether the plan be applicable to laige instruments is settled by actual experience.—[The transit instru- ment at Greenwich is not counterpoised.—Eprr, Phil. Mag.] 3F2 dolite 404 Prof. Bessel’s Remarks on Mr. Hassler’s plan for an dolite of two feet, not constructed for repetition, appears to me to possess a peculiarly good construction. From a hexagonal centre-piece emanate six horizontal conical arms, whose bases are three inches, and ends one inch and a half in diameter. Upon these arms the two-feet horizontal circle is made fast ; three of these cones are longer; these contain at their ends the screw-work for the stands by which the instrument rests upon three vertical cones of brass, fastened to the wooden stand of the instrument; between this and the six horizontal conical arms there is room for the verification telescope, which has precisely the arrangement of a transit, and hangs in its Ys, which are fastened underneath to two opposite radii. ‘This telescope has no lateral motion, but the wires in the focus are directed by means of a screw, to the object which is taken as the point of comparison during an observation. In the same hexagonal centre-piece is fastened the vertical axis, eleven inches long, and two inches in diameter. Upon this revolves a drum nine inches in diameter, and five inches and a halfhigh ; upon the upper surface of this, stand two columns bearing the Ys for the transit telescope by which the observations are made; this is a complete transit, and the columns are sufficiently ele- vated to allow its passage through the zenith. The horizontal angles are measured hy the revolution of this upper part of the instrument upon the vertical axis, and are read off by three microscopes, which are fixed at the end of as many conical arms, coming from the central drum, each having a microme- ter screw. The illumination is made through the axis of the telescope, the one side of which is perforated, the other has an altitude circle of six inches diameter. ‘The axis is about twelve inches long, which is more than the interval between the co- lumns. Its supports are therefore set upon pieces of brass, elevated above the columns, and extending outwards; they have the same kind of vertical adjustment as the large transit described above. In relation to the observations with this instrument, Mr. Hassler properly remarks: that the eccentricity is equally cor- rected by means of three equidistant readings, as by two, four, or so on; he also shows that when the vertical axis is not per- pendicular to the plane of the horizontal circle, the errors of the angle will be corrected if the position of the instrument’s place is alternately changed to the three truncated cones of the stand, so as to give the three regularly succeeding posi- tions of a full revolution. These three observations, each made in the two diametrically opposite positions of the telescope, and by a half revolution of the instrument, give a mean nee is ree accurate Survey of the United States of America. 405 free from eccentricity, from any error arising from the incli- nation of the circle towards the axis, or from any inequality in the supports of the axis, the readings being besides made upon twelve different parts of the division. This two-feet theo- dolite is very properly considered as the main instrument for the survey. For the other observations, repeating circles of eighteen inches, repeating theodolites of twelve inches, and re- peatiag reflecting circles of ten inches diameter, smaller theo- dolites, needles, plane-tables, &c. are provided. To the most of these instruments Mr. Hassler has given a peculiar con- struction, but it would be too long, and perhaps without figures not sufficiently intelligible, to give a description of them here. As signals Mr. Hassler employed truncated cones of block- tin, about nineteen inches high, seventeen inches diameter at bottom and fourteen at top; these were erected upon poles eight feet high, and rendered the best services. At a distance of about forty (English) miles they appeared as a luminous point, when the sun stood so that the rays of it were reflected towards the observer, which lasted during a sufficient length of time. At shorter distances the light was so strong, that a dark glass was often required for the observation. Here the same principle is made use of which in Mr. Gauss’s heliotrope produces such a decided effect; but the advantages of the different arrangements are very unequal, because the cones of Mr. Hassler do not constantly reflect an image of the sun to the observer, while the heliotrope is constantly kept in the proper position to produce this effect. If the angle of the cone is represented by 2m, then the cosine of half the azimuthal angle, when light shall be reflected to the observer, must be equal to the sine of half the sun’s altitude divided by the sine of m. This would take place only during a moment if the sun had no diameter, and generally speaking, one signal would be invisible, when the other is visible; but as m is only a small angle, in the cones used by Mr. Hassler it is only 4° 38/, and as from the altitude of the sun, on account of the magnitude of its disk, two limits may be assumed which are at 32' distance from each other, the azimuthal distance corresponding to the altitudes of the sun, which admit of a reflection to the ob- server in a direction nearly horizontal, has a considerable magnitude within these limits. Yet it can have rarely hap- pened, that both the signals needed for the measurement of an angle, could have shown at the same time an equally well re- flected image of the sun; it seems therefore that the use of these signals might rather be recommended in particular cases than generally. However, Mr. Hassler says, that even with- out 406 Prof. Bessel’s Remarks on Mr. Hassler’s plan for an out the direct light of the sun, they also rendered good ser- vice, and were visible at great distances*. Mr. Hassler has also communicated his methods for the comparison of the standard measures of length, aud the re- sults of their application; we gain by this a new comparison of the French and English measures, which I shall quote more in particular. There were three meters present. One of iron, which was one of those made by the committee of weights and measures in Paris 1799, and distributed as authentic among the foreign deputies; the two others, the one brass, the other iron, were Lenoir’s, but not compared directly with the original, they therefore were not considered as principal in the results of comparison. ‘These meters were compared with a scale of Troughton, of eighty-two inches in length, divided upon silver to tenths of inches, to which is added a microme- tric apparatus to take off measures from the scale. Instead of the usual method in comparing a meter @ bouts with one @ traits, to place butting pieces with lines drawn near to the end of them, the distances of which are measured by the micro- scopes when these pieces are laid together, Mr. Hassler em- ployed the end planes themselves; for that purpose he con- structed the butting pieces exactly of the same thickness as the meters, and obtained, by the close juxtaposition of both, a line, which presented itself like a division line of the scale. By means of several experiments (reduced to 32° Fahr. and adopting the expansion of the iron and the brass, as Mr. Hass- ler determined it by his own experiments, namely between the point of melting ice and the boiling heat of water ;) iron = 0:0012534363 brass = 0°0018916254 * To use the helictrope, two conditions are indispensable; the atten- dance of an assistant at each signal station to direct it to the observer, and its actual illumination by the rays of the sun. Had Mr. Hassler’s operation been intended to include no more than a net-work of great triangles, the heliotrope might perhaps have been used, as no more than two signals need have been observed from each station, and two assistants weuld have suf- ficed for their management. But the survey being necessarily conducted with a view to its immediate application to geographical and hydrographi- cal purposes, it would have been necessary to multiply the signals to such an extent as to have rendered it impossible to employ so many separate attendants. Mr. Hassler’s signals also answer well even in a cloudy state of the atmosphere, if the other circumstances be favourable, as frequently hap- pens. The objection that two signals could rarely have shown an equally well-defined image cf the sun does not hold good, when a fixed instru- ment observing without repetition is employed. We cannot therefore but think, that for all general purposes the signals of Mr. Hassler are prefer- able to the heliotrope of Gauss. f the accurate Survey of the United States of America. 407 the length of the meter was determined to be 39°381022708 inches of the scale, which, as the standard temperature of the English measure is 62° Fahr., gives the length of the meter in English inches __ 39°381022708 = OMSLaTOR Th oe English inches. The two other copies of meters give less (0°001inch); but these were compared both with the scale of Troughton in Ame- rica and that which this artist himself uses in London, and had upon both very nearly the same length; whence it may be concluded, that both English scales agreed very nearly. Thus according to Mr. Hassler’s comparison the meter is 39°36861 English inches: according to the comparison of two other copies by Kater = 39°37079. According to vol. ili. of Base du Systéme Metrique, page 469, the meter of platinum was = 39°382755; that of iron = 39°382649: both measured upon the brass scale of Mr. Pictet, reduced to the temperature of melting ice; at a mean = 39°3827, which, according to Borda’s expansion for brass (0°001783, by which the experi- ments made in Paris were reduced to the point of melting ice, from a temperature = 12°°75 Centigrade, at which they were made) gives 39°37100.” ‘The two last comparisons agree very nearly, and their difference lies entirely within the limits of the uncertainty of thermometrical influence. ‘The authentic meter of Mr. Hassler appears, however, really to be shorter, though it could be brought nearer to the others, by adopting other proportions for the expansion of metals*. ‘This, however, ap- pears not to be allowable, when the results of different com- parisons are to be collected; for the determination of the ex- pansion is as important as the comparison itself; therefore, each observer must remain answerable for that one which he adopts. I think it should be inquired whether two metals of the same chemical composition have the same proportion of expansion; or if a small chemical difference may not have a remarkable influence upon it; this investigation is more easy than that of the absolute expansion itself. It can be known only after a previous experiment of this kind, whether the results of the two observers must agree in the same metal; or whether it is really necessary to determine the expansion of each piece * The meter used by Mr. Hassler in his comparisons, and which the Chevalier Bessel suspects to have been too short, was an original issued by the French commission, and is therefore far more authentic than the copies used by Kater. We are happy, however, to be able to state, that Mr. Hass- ler has recently been engaged at Washington in further comparisons, and will probably make his results public in a short time, They are said fully to confirm his former experiments, ¢ 0 408 Prof. Bessel’s Remarks on Mr. Hassler’s plan for an of metal in particular; I fear that without this inquiry there must always remain an uncertainty in respect to the compari- sons of standard measures *. Among the various copies of the toise, which Mr. Hassler compared with the English scale, that constructed by Lenoir and compared by Messrs. Bouvard and Arrago appears worthy of being accepted as authentic. When both measures are at the temperature of melting ice, this toise measures 76°74192710 inches of the scale of Troughton. By the normal tempera~ ture of both, = 76°74192710 20070343 _ 76.73936 English 1:0003152709 inches. As the meter is = 443-296 lines of the toise (Base Metrique, tom. ili, page 433), the proportion between the English and French feet, according to Mr. Hassler, will be by. the PW NGDGEBOL inh nit meter = ~ F596 12 = 1:0657063, toise = es = 1:0657411. According to Kater’s comparison it is = 1:0657652. It appears then, that the different copies of the meter do not always agree together. Mr. Hassler deduced from several comparisons the value of the meter in parts of the toise, but this I consider is not allowable; for the ratio between the two is determined by a law, by which the meter has received its true definition; and the earlier one, that it shall be the ten- millionth part of the earth’s quadrant, was lost. If certain copies of these measures do not agree together, it shows only that the law is not exactly fulfilled by them; and as it is much more difficult to transfer to another metallic bar 443,296 lines of the toise than the whole length of the toise, the compari- son of the meter is a circuitous and unprofitable way, as long as the toise itself is yet obtainable as easily as it was at the time of the construction of the meter. The apparatus which Mr. Hassler had constructed for the measurement of the base line, differs essentially from all that are known to me; therefore I will describe it somewhat more particularly. ‘The ends of the bars are not planes, but cut out, so that viewed from above they present the form i over this middle excavation the hair of the spider’s web is stretched, which therefore indicates the end of the bar; over each of the * Copies of the meter have been made of platinum, but it will be ob- vious from these remarks of Bessel, that it is by no means a fit substance for such purposes, inasmuch as it is both difficult to work and to free from adventitious substances. ends accurate Survey of the United States of America. 409 ends a compound microscope is placed, which stands upon a separate support, and therefore does not change its place when the bar is moved or taken away. When this microscope is placed over the spider’s web, the place of the end of the bar is determined by it; the bar then can be taken away, and the other end of it can be made to coincide with the point where the first had been before seen to coincide with the cross strokes of the microscope, which in the mean time has retained its po- sition independently. The microscope has the following ar- rangement: the object-glass consists of two half lenses of dif- ferent foci, one of which makes, in the focus of the eye-glass, an image of the spider’s web of the bar, and the other an image of two rectangular crossing black lines, drawn upon an ivory plate, which is fastened to the microscope: this arrangement can be elevated and lowered, and moved in two horizontal di- rections at right angles to one another. In the use, the stand being first properly placed, the microscope is brought to that elevation in which the spider’s web thread is distinctly visible, then it is moved until this thread appears exactly to cut the cross upon the ivory plate; the bar is then removed and ad- vanced one length forwards, the end of it is next brought into the proper position by the mechanism of the bar, and it is moved by it until the spider’s web of this other end coincides again by an optical contact with the cross on the ivory plate. Of these microscopes there are three with all their arrange- ments; the last ones always remain standing during the next subsequent operation, that in case of any accident the work might be begun again from them. The bar itself is a junction of four pieces, each of two meters in length, held together by iron clamps; the inclination of this bar to the horizon is measured by a sector, nearly as in Delambre’s apparatus. When the work is interrupted during the night, the last position of the bar and the microscopes remain undisturbed in their position until morning. The arrangement of the boxes in which the bars are contained and the mechanism of the movements ap- pear to me very well planned. From what little I have quoted, it may be easily seen, that the paper of Mr. Hassler deserves the attention of those who take an interest in the mechanical arrangements necessary in practical astronomy and geodesy. It is to be lamented, that such a complete apparatus as that now on hand in America, has not been applied according to its intention and by its au- thor. I. W. Brsseu. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 36. Dec. 1829. 8G LXIII. On [ 410 ] LXIII. On the Calculations requisite for predicting Occulta- tions of Stars by the Moon. By Professor BrssEx. (Concluded from p. 342.] fis "THE quantities referring to the place of observation, viz. u,v, uv’, v', depend on the height of the pole and the sidereal time at that place. It is unnecessary to calculate e and ¢! separately, as we have cos @ A (1—e?) sing a/(1—e? sin 9?) ” A (1—e Bin $) where e denotes the eccentricity of the meridians of the earth. For Professor Encke’s example, we have ¢ = 52° 31'15", and the oblateness of the earth = . 4 log.7 cos ¢! = 9°78505 log .7 sin $! = 9°89752 If we denote by ! the sidereal time, corresponding to the mean time T expressed in degrees, &c., the sidereal time cor- responding to T+¢ will be e-= pl + 2. 54147'"84, and consequently sin(w—A)= sin (wu! —A)+2.sin[¢.27073"-92] .cos [w!—A +¢.27073""92] cos (u#—A) = cos (uz! —A)—2sin [¢.27073"-92]. sin[ x’ —A +¢.27073"-92] We have, therefore, u=r7.cos¢'.sin(y!—A) vy = rsin g'.cos D—r.cos 4 sin D cos (w'—A) ul'=r.cos@'. ee cos [w’—A+¢.27073'"92] rcos¢! = rsin ¢!= hence v= r.cos¢@ sinD. peo sin [u! —A+¢.27073"-92] For facilitating the calculation of u’ and v there is a Table at the end of this paper which contains the values of si f We log ob NAL UU — log A SH Gl t.27073""92 = x for values of ¢ between 0 and 1°5. 8. I shall now finish the example above adduced. For T = 7" the sidereal time will be 7" 54! 7'-264, and therefore ul = 118° 31' 49-0 wi —A = —50 42 17°6 We obtain, therefore, u = — 047177; v = +0°75914 and next - m sin M = p—u = —0°19355 m cos M = q—v = —0°20674 M = 223° 6! 46"; log m = 9'45210. i s Prof. Bessel on the Occultations of Stars by the Moon. 411 As a first approximation we assume the value of ¢ in the quantities p', q', a’, v = 0, and obtain pl = +0°5240 g' = —0°1679 : w= +0°1013 v = —0:0091 nsin N = +0°4227; ncos N = —0°1588 N = 110° 35! 26"; log n = 9°65470 t = +0°2402 + 0°1690 or, Immersion 75:0712; Emersion 75*4092. We next obtain for the second approximation by the for- mule of section 6. Immersion. Emersion. p ecco e +0°52402 +0°52404 q7' oeee » —0°16790 —0°16791 and by the Table at the end of this paper, Be ci BOQ + 3° 4! 38!"6 log A...» 941915 9°41895 by which we shall find next ul=....- +0°10250 +0°10780 =....- —0°00907 —0:00873 nsin N = -+40°42152 +0°41624 ncosN = —0'15883 —0°15918 N = 110° 38! 47! 110° 55! 4.1" log n = 9°65365 9°64898 Mast +0°24026 +0°23997 —0°16857 +0°16621 = +0°07169 +0°40618 The third approximation gives again the values of p! and q’ obtained in the second approximation ; and besides Hevees +32! 209 +3° 3! 16!-9 log A... 9°41915 9°41895 w= +0°10251 +0°10774 wv = —0°00907 —0:'00873 nsin N = +0°42151 +0°41630 ncos N = —0°15883 —0°15918 N = 110° 38! 49" 110° 55! 30" log n = 9°65364 9°64904 Pe { +0°24026 +0°23996 ™ § —0°16857 —0°16625 = +0°07169 +0°40621 and as these results differ very little from the preceding ones, we may here conclude the calculation. We have therefore the times of the two phenomena = 7" 4! 18!1, and 7 24! 22!4, and the angle denoted by Q = 36° 49'6, and 5° 9'°2. 3G2 9. Such 412 Prof. Bessel on the Calculations requisite for predicting 9. Such an accurate calculation is, however, not required when the circumstances of the occultation are only wanted for the purpose of making the observation ; in that case an error of one minute is of no consequence; and if every thing requi- site for this purpose only is wanted, it will be sufficient, ‘pro- vided ¢ falls below, or at least does not much exceed one hour* to apply the following much shorter calculation. In place of cos 3. sin (z— A) dia sin 3. cos D—cos 3. sin D cos (a— A) sin + sin + we put cos 6 and == T and neglecting the variations of cos 3 and z, so as to designate the right ascension and declination of the moon at the time i. by « and 8 and their hourly variations by 4e and 48, we have a—A Aa tt a Wiggles : p = —— cos8; pl = — cos 0; 3—D a3 as : fs = q=-- We next neglect ¢ in the expressions for w and v and obtain u =rcos@'. sin (u!/—A) v =rsin g’. cos D—7r cos g'. sin D. cos (u!—A) w = rcos¢g’.acos (p/—A) v7 =rcosg!.asin(z/—A) sin D For the place to which the calculations refer, the logarithms of r cos g! and r sin g! are to be considered as known. If we write a for r cos ¢! sin (u!—A); 4 for 7 cos g! cos (p!—A) ; c for r sin g' cos D, we have usa; w=b.aA; v=c—bsnD v7 =a.asin D: where log A = 974192 and c may be taken from a small table which exhibits the value of this quantity for every degree of D with sufficient accuracy to four figures of decimals. The solution of equation (6) remains the same. In order to have a clear view of the calculation, I sub- join here the whole detail of it: 1830, April 5. 82 Leonis. T= 7; p= 118° 32; ui—A = —50° 42!; 7 = 5418 a = 168° 37'-93; 8 = 4° 44/00; da = 28'50 = 169 1411 D=4 1408 di =—9:08 — 36°18 + 29°92 * Should this supposition not be justified at the end of the calculation, or for other reasons a greater accuracy be desired, it may be obtained by a second approximation for « and v’ without changing p’ and 7, It is easily seen that the error of the first approximation increases with the di- stance of the star from the path of the moon’s centre, and that its limits cannot be unconditionally assigned. Occultations of Stars by the Moon. 413 cos 0 1.(a@—A) = 1°5585n —0-0015 4,.Ae =1:4548 —0-0015 !.(8—D)= 1-4760 l.r cos Q'= 9°7850 c= 0:7876 Z.sin(w!—A) = 9°8887n 4 sin D = 0:0285 l.cos(«%'—A) = 9°8017 2. A6= 0:9481n l.a= 9°6737n l.lz = 82662 1.6 = 9°5867 1.a = 9:4192 Z. sin D = 8°8683 p =—0°6656 =—04717 d.msinM = 9:2876n g =+0°5523 v=+0°7591 I.mcosM = 9°3156n pl=+0°5242 wu’ =+0°1014 I.nsin N = 9°6261 g' =—0°1638 v =—0:0092 1.ncosN = 9°1892n M = 223° 9';1m = 9:4525; N = 110° 5';ln = 9°6533 1.* =o00171 1.—-™ =9-7992n 1. — =9-7821 .sin(M—N)=9:9638 /.cos(M—N)=9°5931n — 1. sin Y =9-4626 Y= 16°52! + 0247 0176 Immersion 7° 4/*3 ; Emersion 7° 25!*4 OQ) str = 8220 FAL ariee® eC B29 10. The method of calculating which Mr. Encke has fol- lowed in constructing his Ephemeris for 1820, is perhaps as easy as the one here given; but it requires the previous cal- culation of some tables. The use of such tables not being required for the method here given, it will be easy for ob- servers in other places to calculate every occultation for their horizons if the values of p, g, p!, q! and the hour-angle of the star at the time T, viz. »/— A, which I will now denote by 4, are given. These data referring to the moon alone remain unchanged in the calculations for other places; only ’ is to be changed into 4+d, where the positive d denotes eastern longitude from Berlin. For such a place we have a =r cos ¢' sin (h+d) 6 = rcos ¢g' cos (h+d) “=a; w=b.a v=c—b.snD, v=a.asinD; hence m, M, n, N, and lastly, the two values of ¢, which will show the mean time at Berlin, at the two moments in which the disappearance and reappearance will happen at the place for which the calculation has been made. This process will like- wise be illustrated by calculating the occultation of 82 Leonis for Altona. We assume as given : Tarn {[P =—06656, p= +0'5242 ="" VU =+0'5523, 7’ = —0'1638 lt tl ti = —50° 42! For 414 Prof. Besse] on the Calculations requisite for predicting For Altona we have l.rcos g'= 9°77485, J.rsin g' = 9:90349, d=—3° 27! l.rcos@'= 9°7749 Z.sin(d+d)= 9°9088n l.cos(h+d)= 9°7677 u =—0°4827 ¢ = 0°7986 v =+0°7728 bsin D = 0:0258 a uw! = +0°0916 l.a=9°6837n v' =—0°'0094 1.6 = 9°5426 L1.A = 9°4192 Z.sin D = 8°8683 l.m sin M = 9:2622n M = 219°40', 1.m = 9°4571 Z.mcosM = 9°3434n Z.nsin N = 96361 N = 109° 39’, 1.n = 9°6621 Z.ncos N = 9:1887n m m k $< hae 0°0217 Ve = 9°7950n ll. — = 9°7733 nm Z.sin(M—N)=9°9729 J.cos(M—N)=9°5344n = 7, sin p = 91951 parr + 0214 F 0-093 Immersion 7" 73; Emersion 7" 184 Berlin time. = 6 53 5) “eeee 7 4: 6 Altona time. Q= 28°71... . 10° Auxiliary TaBxe for the Calculations requisite for predicting Occultations of Stars. t log a 0-00|9:41916 |6 6 0-0] 019|9-41911 | 1 25 44-1 0-01 916 |0 4 30°7| 0-20 91111 30 148 0-02 916/0 9 1:5| 0-21 910 | 1 34 4555 0-03 915 | 0 13 323] 0-22 910 | 1 39 163 0-04 915/018 30] 0-23 909 | 1 43 47:0 0-05 915 | 0 22 33-7] 0-24 908 | 1 48 17-7 0-06] 9151027 44] 0-25 908 | 1 52 48-5 0-07 915 | 0 31 35-2] 0-26 907 | 1 57 19:2 0-08 915 |0 36 59] 0-27 90712 1 500 0:09 915 | O 40 36:7} 0-28 906|2 6 20°7 0-10 914|0 45 7:4) 0-29 905 |2 10 51-4 O-11 914|0 49 3811030] 904] 2 15 229 0-12 91410 54 89/031 904 | 2 19 52:9 0-13 913 | 0 58 39°6| 0-32 903 | 2 24 23-7 0-14 913 |/1 3 10-4] 0-33 902 | 2 28 54-4 0-15 9131/1 7 411/034] 901] 2 33 251 0°16 912 | 1 12 11°8| 0-35 900 | 2 37 55-9 0-17 912 | 1 16 42:6| 0-36 899 | 2 42 26-6 0-18 912 | 1 21 13:3] 0°37 899 | 2 46 57-4 Occultations of Stars by the Moon. 415 Table continued. ° ° 2 6 2 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 ¢ 3 6 3 fie 3 6. 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 . 3 | ‘ 0°52 7 8 40°2 0°53 7 re 0:54 7:17 41°7 0:55 7 22 12°5 0:56 7 26 43:2 0°57 1a) io 0:58 7 35 44°79 0°59 7 40 15°4 0:60 7 44 46°1 0°61 7 49 16°9 0:62 7 53 47°6 0°63 7 58 18°4 0°64 8 2 49°1 0°65 S. 7-100 0:66 8 11 50°6 0°67 8 16 21°3 0°68 8 20 52°1 0°69 8 25 22°8 0°70 § 29 53°5 0°71 8 34 24°3 0°72 8 38 55°0 0°73 8 43 25°8 0:74 8 47 56°5 0°75 8 52 27°2 0:76 8 56 58'0 9 Q” 5*59°9 0°79 9 10 30°2 0:80 915 O9 Table 416 Dr. J. Stokes on some Optical Phenomena. Table concluded. t log a t log A x 1°24 | 9:41724 1-38 19:41678 |10 22 42:0 1-25 721 1-39 674 110 27 12:8 1-26 717 1-40 671 110 31 43:5 1-27 714 1:4] 667 |10 36 14-2 1-28 711 1:42 664 110 40 45-0 1-29 708 1-43 660 }10 45 15°7 1:30 705 1-44 657 |10 49 46:5 1:31 701 1°45 653. }10 54 17:2 1:32 698 1:46 649 110 58 47-9 1233 695 1:47 646 }11 3 18:7 1:34 691 1-48 642 111 7 49:4 1°35 688 1:49 638 |11 12 20°2 1-36 685 1-50 635 |11 16 50-9 137 681 F. W. BrssEt. LXIV. On some Optical Phenomena. By Dr. J. Stoxrs*. A® facts are the groundwork of science, and the commu- nication of facts to those that love it the only means of its advancement, I shall give a detail of several optical phzno- mena of very rare occurrence, and also of some experiments on the transmission of light through very small holes. On the 25th of August in this year, between 7 and 8 A.M., I witnessed the following: There was a westerly wind, and the sky was thickly strewed with light fleecy clouds, so small as to resemble flocculi, and so numerous as to form a continuous layer. These were moving with great rapidity towards the sun. In fig. 1, let the point a represent the zenith, and aa" a line passing from thence to the sun. This line appeared to me to pass through the points of contact that four arches 6c, de, fg, hi made with one another. They were rather faint, but exhibited prismatic colours; those of 6 c being the most perfect, those of hz the least :,fg cannot be properly called an arch. Its form possessed rather a striking analogy to that of a well-known curve; bc ap- peared to be an arc of 60° to a circle whose radius was in the zenith a, and its chord I think parallel to the horizon; its two extremities 8 and c were well defined: but those of d e were not so; one of them, d, extending indefinitely on that side. * Communicated by the Author. The Dr J. Stokes on some Optical Phenomena, 417 The extremities of the remaining two were well defined, the lines connecting them being also parallel to the horizon. The distance from the point of contact of 6c and d e to that of Jgand hi was about 20°. The radius of the circle bc about 10°. The air was rather damp, and the barometer also was in- constant, varying with great rapidity. I shall now mention the second of these phenomena.—In the month of July 1825, at 54 A.M., I had ascended Garry- Castle (one of the highest of the Dublin mountains) to the ele- vation of about 1200 feet above the sea, and 1000 above the bottom of a deep valley situated atits base. A dense cloud had been hanging on the summit the whole morning, and into its gloomy twilight I entered. It was sinking slowly down the mountain into the plain, partly hanging over the valley; in con- sequence of which I soon found the fog decreasing, and the tops of the surrounding mountains dimly revealing themselves. At this time I had my back to the valley; and my face being towards the sun, (which was now breaking through the mist, ) I happened to turn about, when I saw suspended over the former a brilliant semicircular arch of white light, exactly op- posite the sun, and with a radius of about 40°. The breadth of the bow could not be exactly guessed at, because the light was more brilliant at its central part than at the edges, to- wards which it gradually faded away. It could not, however, have exceeded about 5°. Its dissolution was caused in about five minutes, by the cloud sinking away into the valley and sailing into the plain. ‘To- wards the conclusion the band of light assumed a blueish hue towards the ground, the sun shining then more strongly. The cloud in which I was enveloped seemed to me to be composed of minute bubbles floating about, and apparently about one-fifth the size of a pin’s head. The reflection of the sun’s rays from the sea had a peculiar yellow colour, and that from the watery particles of the cloud caused him to be lost and confused in a surrounding blaze of light. ‘This was to- wards the end of the phenomenon, when the fog was becoming less dense than before. The arch was quite transparent. Some objects about twenty yards off were visible through it. No secondary bow was any where seen. Saussure, I believe, remarked that a cloud which surrounded him on the Alps, was composed of minute globules. I shall next describe the experiments on minute holes.—I punctured a minute hole in a card, and having held it up to the light and applied my eye to the hole, 1 placed a pin between them. Immediately I saw an enormous and indi- N.S. Vol. 6. No. 36. Dec. 1829. 3 stinct 418 Dr. J. Stokes on some Optical Phenomena. stinct image inverted apparently on the other side. When I moved the pin downwards, the image moved upwards ; and vice versd, showing that it was inverted. When the hole was oblong instead of circular, I found that if the pin was placed in a direction perpendicular to the shorter axis, the image as- sumed the appearance of z in the oblong delineated in fig. 2. When it was very oblong, and the pin placed perpendicularly to its longest axis, the image was like two indistinct lines. If it is in the form of a long rectangle, nearly the same phzeno- mena occur. But in that of an equilateral triangle, the image always appeared like indistinct lines. In fig. 3. let z represent a small lens, p a pin placed be- tween it and the point f its focus, and e a minute hole ina card placed beyond the point fat k. When all these things were in the above position, I looked through the lens and saw a magnified and pretty distinct image of the pin beyond the minute hole, and bordered with a bright fringe of light. The image is represented in the figure by the two concentric cir- cles z and ss', the annulus between being that fringe. When I moved the card further from the focus, the image became larger and more distinct ; and when the pin was moved nearer to that point, it became smaller and more confused. ‘The image was erect: but when doth the pin and the hole were placed de- tween the focus and lens, it became inverted and confused ; and the same phenomena followed on the removal of the lens : and when they were both deyond the focus, the image was erect, but greatly confused. When the diameter of the pin-hole is increased to more than one-fifth of an inch, all phenomena cease to be presented by it. A very peculiar kind of telescope may be constructed from a moistened piece of silver paper and a minute hole in a cir- cular piece of card both fitted up in a tube. It is represented in fig. 4, where an inverted and magnified image of. the ob- ject rz is depicted on the paper ss', and transmitted from thence to the eye at e. ‘The image is confused. The sun may be looked at through this instrument without the intervention of smoked glasses. When s' p is increased to the length of several feet, sa! con- tinuing stationary at four inches, if the observer looks through it at the sun, he will appear of increased size and of an oval form. An increase of the magnifying power (by increasing sp!) makes it more elliptical. A decrease makes it less until at length it reassumes the circular form. Dublin, Sept. 25, 1829. JoHN STOKES. Mr. Bevan’s Experiments on the Modulus of Torsion. 419 Zenith. t ab ds LXV. Experiments on the Modulus of Torsion. By BENJAMIN Bevan, Lsq.* UMEROUS experiments have already been published on the strength of wood and other substances, as far as regards their cohesion and elasticity; but I am not aware of any extensive table of the modulus of torsion of different spe- cies of wood, deduced from experiments conducted upon a proper scale, and with the necessary care. * From the Philosophical Transactions for 1829, Part I. 3H 2 To 420 Mr. Bevan’s Experiments on the Modulus of Torsion. To supply this defect, and to furnish the practical engineer and mechanic with useful data, and with rules for their appli- cation, is the object of the present communication, consisting of a copious table of the results of my experiments, made at various times, and upon substances of considerable variety of dimensions within the ordinary limits of practice. It is proper to observe, that the various specimens of wood upon which my experiments were made, were sound and dry, except it is otherwise expressed or described, and were in ge- neral free from all large knots. Considerable care was used to obtain correct dimensions of the specimens under experiment, by means of a simple instru- ment, which answers the purpose of improved callipers, by which the dimensions of the specimens were measured, and read off by a magnifying-glass to the 400dth part of an inch. Previous to trial, each specimen was brought to a prismatic form, as near as could be wrought by the ordinary means, and the dimensions afterwards taken by means of the improved callipers above mentioned, at equal distances; and the mean breadth and thickness thus obtained, were used in the calcula- tions for obtaining the modulus. My experiments were often repeated on the same species of wood, under considerable va- riations of length, breadth, and thickness; and always with the most satisfactory results; viz. from nine to ninety inches in length, and from three inches to three-tenths of an inch in thickness. Due care was observed to prevent any error in the apparent torsion or twist arising from compression at the ends of the prisms, both at the clamp by which they were fixed, - and at the radial lever at which the successive weights were applied; two sources of error which have materially affected former experiments on this subject, in other respects care- fully made. To every specimen under experiment I attached two in- dexes; one a few inches from the end fixed in the clamp or vice, and the other at a small distance from the attachment of the lever or wheel, where the weight or straining power was applied; and the distance between the two indexes was used as the length for calculating. Another error of less magni- tude I have been able to avoid by fixing a pivot or small gudgeon at the supported end, in the line of the axis of the prism, instead of making the lower side or angle of the prism at the supported end the revolving point. My experiments were made upon prisms of very different proportions as to breadth and depth, viz. from .1,th to equality. In general practice, the square or cylindrical shaft is usually adopted, pe Mr. Bevan’s Experiments on the Modulus of Torsion. 421 adopted, and as a cylindrical spindle or shaft of +th more in diameter than the side of a square shaft, will possess nearly the same stiffness in resisting a twisting force, it will, I pre- sume, be sufficient in this place to give the rule for calculating the deflection of a square prismatic shaft, to which I shall add one example by way of illustration. Rule.—To find the deflection 8 of a prismatic shaft of a given length 7 when strained by a given force w in pounds avoirdupoise acting at right angles to the axis of the prism, and by a leverage of given length = 7; the side of the square shaft = d. ‘T, being the modulus of torsion from the follow- ing table; J, 7, 8, and d, being in inches and decimals, slap yee 5 7 i.e. for a numerator, the square of the radius of the wheel or leverage multiplied into the length, and this product by the weight in pounds: and for a divisor, multiply the fourth power of the side of the square prism by the tabular modulus of tor- sion: divide the former by the latter, and the quotient will be the deflection or quantity of twisting in inches and decimals when measured at the end of the radius7. As an example, let there be a square* shaft of English oak 50 inches long and 6 inches by 6 inches, subject to a strain of 3000 lbs. at the cir- cumference of a wheel of 2 feet in diameter, or having a lever- age of 12 inches+. Baxeo — 30 12x 12 = 144 36 50 = length 1296 7200 20000 3000 = force "25920000 = 25920000)21600000(0°83 = deflection, * If the transverse section of the prism or shaft be not a square, but a parallelogram, let 6 = the breadth, and d the depth: the deflection will be obtained by the following formula: (d+ b)lr2w 2bd3T + If the measure of torsion should be required in degrees (A) l let ¢ = 57-29578 then “= A fy aH te gh rlw or let —*2% © \'then —7— =-A e dt hus f ht iron and steel ——~—— = A thus for wrought iron and stee 310000 4 rlw cast Iron A 166000" — or 422 Mr. Bevan’s Experiments on the Modulus of Torsion. or nearly 4ths of an inch. And as the deflection will be di- rectly as the force, a weight or force of 300lbs. would produce a deflection of 1,th of an inch. Table of the Modulus of Torsion. Species of Wood. Modulus oa Acacia (not quite dry)...... sp. grav. *795 28293 Alder (crossed-grained) ..... sp. grav. °*55 16221 YA ee eae eee sp. grav. *726 20397 Ash (of my own planting).......-. 20300 Ash (mountain) .......-. sp. grav. *449 13933 Bee rath nha diane none ¢ am Nir a8 ap Seg pias 21243 RGM ily Masih nicl eens s on ae eat + 17250 Box (old, and very dry). .... sp. grav. *99 30000 Brazil wood (old, and very dry) sp. grav. 1:05 37800 Cane (influenced by the hard surface)... 21500 Cedar (scented) .. ++. 22+ seeeee 12500 RELLY ins pipes 0699 i rues es es sp. grav. *71 22800 Chesnut (sweet) .. 222s e see eees 18360 Chesnut (horse) .....+-+.-- sp. grav. *615 22205 BD ie Da ia Re, och oie cl ps last n tial sp. grav. *763 22738 SO obs lies a “pyar sicesian ele pining ae 49s 23500 Deal (Christiana)......... sp. grav. °38 11220 BEE epee reise: Agios, om ysivennsie's sp. grav. "755 22285 Pa arcieteel ai vik oi sy niysn. no Me sheet «00 plea 13500 BEE ASOGECD oy oie caine Je geeVe sey sace en P= 13700 Hazel (not quite dry) ...... sp. grav. *83 26325 Ba gis te ee iepon > nlastypadonn (noi Je po pens 20543 Hornbeam (not quite dry). . . . sp. grav. *86 26411 Laburnum (green, or fresh cut). ..... 18000 DNCE-WOOM fos.2 > 2+ mise 2) sp. grav. 1:01 25245 Us ee en ee ee sp. grav. *58 18967 Lime or Linden......... sp. grav. *675 18309 Maple (partly cross-grained) . . sp. grav. *735 23947 Oak (English) . 2... 2 05 Hetiee wee 20000 Oak (Hamburgh) ........ sp. grav. *693 12000 Oak (Dantzic) ........-. sp. grav. *586 16500 Oak (from Bog) ........-. sp. grav. ‘67 14500 Ozier xcletebatin: ache fein jn oayw nate size 18700 Pear ss; syinlbeieaitatings hebie Bare yam; Lats sp. grav. *72 18115 Pine (St. Petersburgh, fresh) ....... 10500 Pine (St. Petersburgh, four or five years old) 13000 Pine (Meme) . s:.61. :0y0,/0 iano sss 2 ys 15000 Pine (American) .....+e++-++e-- 14750 Plane Mr. Bevan’s Experiments on the Modulus of Torsion, 423 Species of Wood Modulus of Torsion. Ibs. BME 6 a. 2) 3G as so Pie hs Ady 3 sp. grav. °59 17617 RTE ga neler sieue) o.4e\tats) elias = sp. grav. °79 23700 Poplar '. .» BM are oe eneh sp. grav. *333 9473 Batin-WOOd cians 5 6 os «is . « Sp. grav. 1:02 30000 SS ea ee BOT EL 18600 Syeamore..... aa a ial riba oak toulathe 22900 Teak (old, and partially decayed) .... 16800 Teak (African). .... PE i ER BOAR 2 ae 27300 aaa eee pe sp. grav. *572 19784 I have observed in a great number of my experiments, that the modulus of torsion bears a near relation to the weight of the wood when dry, whatever may be the species; and that for practical purposes we may obtain the deflection (3) from the specific gravity (s). Thus relw 30000dis vie Table of the Modulus of Torsion of Metals. Modulus of Torsion. lbs. Iron, English (wrought) .. 1810000 Iron, English (wrought). . 1740000 Iron, thin hooping .... 1916000 PS PT eS 1984000 Be aches aennniice we 1648000 Steel 25,07 ork aE ee 1618000 Iron cylinder ....... 1910000 Tron cylinder ....... 1700000 Iron square .....-+.. 1617000 Iron square ...+..+s-; 1667000 Iron square .....- ah 1951000 Mean of Iron and Steel 1779090 Tron(Cast) . 2. 22's. 940000 Iron (Cast) .....5.. 963000 Tron (Cast) ... +5256 952000 Mean of cast-iron sp. grav. 7°163 951600 —_————_- —_- Bell-metal ..... sp. grav. 8°531 818000 On comparing these numbers with the modulus of elasticity of the same substance, I find the modulus of torsion to be ;},th of the modulus of elasticity in metallic substances. LXVI. On [ 404 J LXVI. On the System of Prize Chronometers at Greenwich. By CaLeB Mainsprine. To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Annals. Sir, As your valuable Journal is open to all subjects of general interest and utility, I trust I may be favoured with an op- portunity, through you, of laying before the public some cir- cumstances affecting my own particular case, and which will, no doubt, sooner or later, equally affect many others in my situation. You must know then, Sir, that I am a watchmaker by trade, having recently attempted to set up for myself, after serving a seven years apprenticeship to one of the most celebrated in that line. But, unfortunately for me, I cannot succeed : not that there is not encouragement enough for articles of that kind, from the gilt bauble that hangs by the fair lady’s side, to the exquisite finish of the astronomer’s time-piece. But, then it is necessary to have a name, otherwise the trash which is made, even by the best of the trade, will never go off. Now, unfortunately for me, instead of being a Harrison, a Breguet or a Pennington, I am about one of the very worst mechanics that ever existed. I never yet could make a chro- nometer that was good for any thing: and I had almost in de- spair given up the trade altogether, and applied myself to some- thing else that does not require so much talent or genius, when I accidentally cast my eye over the list of Prizes offered by the Admiralty ‘ for chronometers that keep time agreeably to a * certain rule laid down by the late Board of Longitude.” Now, Sir, although I acknowledge that Iam a great bung- ler at the lathe and the file, at pivots and at rackwork, and all the other nice operations by which that beautiful piece of mechanism (the watch) is produced, yet I must confess (and I pride myself not a little on the acquisition) that I have some slight knowledge of figures, and of the various combinations of numbers; so that when a rule in arithmetic, however in- tricate and obscure, is laid before me, I can immediately see through all its various ramifications and bearings, and trace the result with great accuracy. I immediately fancied there- fore that I saw, in this patriotic plan of Government, a favour- able opportunity, not only of making, instanter, a little ready money, but also (like many others in the world) of gaining some notoriety and renown for points which, I have candidly confessed to you, I do not understand. The On the System of Prize Chronometers at Greenwich. 425 The trial number (as it is technically called), or the rule by which the prizes at Greenwich are distributed, is ascertained *‘ by taking the difference of the greater and lesser monthly * rates ofeach chronometer, multiplying that difference by 2, ** and adding thereto the mean of the monthly extreme varia~ * tions:” and that trial number which, by this process, comes out the /east, is entitled to the highest prize*. I shall not stop to examine the elegance of this enunciation, nor the accuracy of the reasoning on which it is founded, as its propriety and justness must and ought to be duly acknowledged and appre- tiated, when we learn that it was the deliberate result of a Committee of the late Board of Longitude, assembled for that express purpose, and signed in due form and order by five or six of the most distinguished members of that Board. And although some naughty folks have been bold enough lately to throw out insinuations against that Board, as if there was ale ways some interested motive mixed up with their proceedings, yet my motto is De mortuis nil nisi bonum: and, in this in- stance, I can have no reason to complain, since I mean to pro- fit so much by it myself:—and since the plan (as I shall now proceed to show) not only encourages the good workman, but also holds out a reward to those who, like myself, never could make a watch fit even for a lady’s toilet. By way of experiment I borrowed one of my late master’s very best chronometers (one that he proposed to deposit at the Observatory, as a candidate for the prize), and having compared it day by day, for two months, with one of my own ordinary watches (one, indeed, that had been hanging up a long time in my shop window without a chance of its ever being sold), I found that the scheme would succeed, and that my name would soon be sounded abroad as having run away with all the prizes at Greenwich. ‘The following is the result of my experiment: and I leave you to judge, Mr. Editor, of the de- light I experienced, as I watched from day to day (almost with a sneer upon my countenance) the slow and stupid progress of my master’s dull piece of mechanism, which did not vary for many days together: whilst mine, as if actually anticipating the high honours to which it was about to be raised, skipped about with an hilarity equal to my own, and could not be de- pended on for two days, or even for two hours together. * This is the official wording of the rule as translated for the benefit and convenience of the humble mechanic. The original document (which I may probably give at some future time) is very long, and much too sublime for our vulgar ears. . N.S. Vol. 6. No. 36. Dec. 1829. 3I 426 On the System of Prize Chronometers at Greenwich. My Master’s My own common Chronometer. Watch. Days. No. 1. No. 2. April. May. 1 +5°0 +6:0 2 5'0 5:7 3 5'0 60 4: 5:0 6°2 5 50 6°4 6 5:0 6°6 / 5:0 6'8 8 50 6°8 9 50 6°8 10 5:0 6'8 11 5:0 68 12 5'0 6'8 13 530 68 14 5:0 6'8 15 5:0 6'9 16 5:0 B39 17 5:0 6°8 18 5'0 68 19 571 6°9 20 5:2 6°8 21 bd 6°8 22 54 6'9 23 5°5 6°8 24: 5°6 6°9 25 57 6°9 26 5°8 6°9 27 5:9 6°8 28 6'6 68 29 6'1 6'9 30 6'2 6°9 Memon? 526 | 6.1 oF vest =120 | 120] 880 | $80 variation ... As my master’s chronometer, which I shall call No. 1, might be trusted, as to the regularity of its rate, for twelve months together; and as my own watch, which [I shall call No. 2, might also be equally depended upon for its zrregu- larity; I have taken these two months as a fair specimen of Yate wou —_* On the System of Prize Chronometers at Greenwich. 427 would be the issue at the end of the year, and as the test of my scheme. Now then for the result: ( Greatest mean Monthly rate...sercerccrceeees 6°70 Least ditto Jitwndelp ces divans COLE Difference......== 1°44 2 No. 1. 2 2-88 Mean eeeees =1°20 —_—_—— in April =1°20 in May =1:20 Greatest extreme i'=1a0! Trial number ...=4°08 Greatest mean monthly rate.....cccceceeseee 6°80 Least ditto mimldes acess setuates pele ons Difference......=0°00 No. 2. Greatest extreme variation in April =3°80 > Mean........=3°80 in May =3-80 Trial number ...= 3°80 And my trial number, being the least, consequently runs away with the prize. Now as I have several other watches that, by a little shaking or so, I could soon put into a proper training for this sort of prize-fighting, I already anticipate the whole of the rewards offered by Government. But now, Mr. Editor, here comes a difficulty which I did not at all foresee or contemplate. I had intended my scheme to be a profound secret. I meant to deposit my watches, with . all due solemnity, at the Observatory: and I already fancied that I saw Mr. Taylor (when he came, day after day, applying his Ithuriel’s spear to my miserable production) shake his head and advise me to withdraw it: whilst I, conscious of my success, would laugh in my sleeve and treat his honest inten- tions with unmerited disdain. But I could not keep the secret locked up in my own breast: and in the fullness of my heart I communicated it to my quondam fellow apprentice, a lad more conversant with the world than lam: and who has been recently admitted into the club of master clock-makers, that meet every Monday night at the “ Tippling Philosopher” in Liquorpond-street. He, alas! has thrown a damp on all my projects, and blighted all my hopes: and I fear that if his predictions be verified, all my schemes will be blown to atoms. He tells me that they are a cunning set of people at the Ad- miralty, who have a will of their own and will not be dictated to: that they snap their fingers at the Board of Longitude, 12 whom 4.28 Prof. Schultes on the whom they call a parcel of old women, for whose opinions they don’t care a fig, and whose cable (to use one of their own phrases) they cut, and set them adrift determined to direct their own vessel themselves. But, Sir, as my old master used often to say * A bargain is a bargain:” and if they have offered these rewards, and laid down a scale by which they are to be distributed, surely they cannot have the assurance (bold as they may be) to run contrary to their engagements. Besides, Sir, will they pretend to set up ¢hezr opinion in opposition to the late Board? will they venture to say that because the watch appears to go irregularly, it is a bit the worse for that ? What do they know about science? ‘“* What is science to ‘“‘ them, or they to science ?” And so little are they acquainted even with the elements of it, that my fellow ’prentice tells me that the club very often quiz them, and say that they are still in leading strings, and have three learned advisers at the public expense to keep them from going adrift when any thing difficult occurs. But this is not generally known, since it is kept snug and quiet to themselves, as if they were ashamed of it. What then should they know of the beautiful and sublime truths that are hidden in the guise of an analytical expression, or the obscure wording of an arithmetical rule? will they venture to oppose (except by a stretch of arbitrary power, which I now begin to dread) the solemn document of some of the first ma- thematicians of the age, who have declared and pledged them- selves that those watches, which fulfill the rule they have laid down, are deserving the highest reward? Under these circum- stances I trust that all bad watch-makers will make common cause with me, and resist the innovation which I have now too great reason to fear may be attempted. Trusting that these remarks will excite a little spirit of in- quiry into this subject, I remain your very obedient servant, Clerkenwell, Noy. 16, 1829. Cc. M. LXVII. On the Cultivation of Botany in England. By Pro- Jessor Scuutres, of Landshut. [Concluded from p. 366.] HE garden of the Horticultural Society at Turnham Green, scarcely half an hour’s distance from Kew, is of far greater importance to the art of gardening, which is indeed the proper design of the study of botany. This establishment, which is described in the Horticultural Transactions, is likely to prove of incalculable advantage to Britain and to all Europe: every branch of Horticulture except the ornamental, being here pursued to the greatest extent and according to the purest scientific OO Cultivation of Botany in England. 429 scientific principles; such as the cultivation of fruits and ve- getables, both forced and in the open air; and of flowers, whether abroad or under glass. No less than thirty-three acres of land are destined to the accomplishment of the neces- sary experiments, surrounded by a lofty wall, and again walled off into partitions. By this plan, however, the Society appears to have intentionally sacrificed the picturesque. About forty workmen are kept in this Vineyard of the Lord, who are un- der the superintendence of a very able gardener, Mr. Munro. At present there are five stoves, two of them built after the newest plan, with convex windows, which are found to be highly advantageous. A very large house is to be erected next year, and heated by steam. We of Germany must long want a great advantage which the English possess in their stoves ; namely, the very slender iron frame-work in which the panes of glass are inclosed, thus uniting durability with the advan- tage of admitting the greatest quantity of light. ‘he price of these iron frames in England, where every thing is six times as expensive as with us in Bavaria, amounts to no more than what we should pay for a frame of wood that would not last abovea year. The Horticultural stoves contain many valuable plants from China and Sierra Leone; brought by Mr. Don’s brother, who had resided there for some time. So fine a col- lection of Roses exists no where else; the celebrated Mr. Sa- bine, who is secretary to the Society, having been engaged in studying this tribe for almost thirty years. They are arranged in large squares ; one might almost say,in small groves of roses, native and foreign, single and double. On comparing this garden with those of the ancient universities of Cambridge and Oxford, one cannot for a moment hesitate in declaring the superior influence that this must have in benefiting the coun- try; although it has only been formed within these few years, by the joint exertions of a few private individuals. ‘The friend of mankind contemplates with pleasure how much more a well- directed Society of spirited men can effect in ten or twelve years, with the small sum of about 60,000 florins, raised among themselves, than has been performed by the two great learned bodies of the kingdom, with their millions. Whoever doubts the influence which the Horticultural Society has produced on the nation, or who thinks that our ideas of its value are over- rated, we would advise him to attend one of their sittings, and there to see what is done by the members of this institution ; and then, like that wisest of the Apostles, Thomas, when he shall have weighed in his hand what is sent thither, when he shall have tasted of the fruit, and inhaled the rich perfume diffused by pines, peaches and nectarines, he will perhaps sa- tisly 430 Prof. Schultes on the tisfy himself that it is not all a phantasmagoria.— We had the honour of being present at a meeting of the Society in Sep- tember 1824, and we must confess that although conversant with the rearing of fruit for almost forty years, we had never beheld finer peaches, nectarines, plums, melons, grapes and pine-apples, than we saw here. We had been much disap- pointed in the London fruit-markets, where we certainly saw uncommonly fine-looking fruit; but on tasting, found them to be acid or insipid, compared with the produce of our southern hemisphere, in Tyrol, the South of France, and Lower Hun- gary: but after having enjoyed the flavour of the fruit here presented to us, it was easier for us to abandon our prejudices against this kind of English produce, than to conceive how so northern and foggy a climate could have brought to perfection such rich fruit; how Art has thus overcome the omnipotence of Nature. The Horticultural Society possesses a very valuable pomo- logical and botanical library, with a beautiful collection of models in wax of fruits, and two volumes of drawings made in China of native plants. The well-known Mr. Lindley, to whose kindness we owed our admission to the Society’s collec- tions, superintends here the botanical business of this establish- ment, and resides therefore at TurnhamGreen. Mr. Lindley is also engaged in several botanical publications, among which is the Botanical Register, in which he executes the work of Mr. Bellender Ker, alias Mr. Gawler, whose very bad health has compelled him to reside for some time at Boulogne. In the same district with the two just-mentioned gardens,— namely at Chelsea, south-west of London,—is the celebrated Hortus Chelseanus, at one time under the direction of Miller, and particularly designed for the culture of officinal plants. Mr. Don was so obliging as to introduce us to the present curator, Mr. Anderson, a very amiable, open-hearted old man, who received us with Scottish kindness. Sloane’s statue orna- ments this garden, which possessing neither great size nor beauty, and still less elegance, yet includes, among the six thousand plants there cultivated, many very rare officinal vege- tables, some which are to be found nowhere else. He who would here study botany has a rich field open to him, its value enhanced by Mr. Anderson’s experienced remarks. There are standing in this garden, like twin brothers, two noble ce- dars planted by Miller’s own hand; a Prstacia Lentiscus grow- ing against a wall, and which he had raised from seed; and a Platanus, whose growth has made an increase of sixteen feet in circumference since the time of Miller. I saw here all the three species of Platanus, and was surprised at hearing that the Occidental Cultivation of Botany in England. 43) Occidental Plane does not thrive well in the mild climate of England, as it shoots too early in the spring, and then suffers severely from the late frosts. I observed also Sambucus nigra, “ foliis ternatis,” which grows wild on the ruins of an old Ro- man wall in Wiltshire, but without perfect stamens, which it equally wants in the Chelsea Garden. Among the Succulents, particularly the Aloes, are many that were in the possession of Miller.’ Banks has also left here a memento of his youth, in the invention of an experiment that will outlive him, much as its success was doubted at first. Mr. Anderson confirms it, by saying that when a tree or shrub is inoculated with a variegated-leafed variety, the foliage of the grafted stem be- comes also gradually variegated. He showed us a proof of it ina Jasmine,which was only budded with a variegated jasmine, and now covers a whole wall with its particoloured leaves. It is a question, whether this variegation may not be produced in the same way by inoculating variegated buds on any tree favourable to the development of the buds. Besides a small botanical library, existing at the time of Miller, the herbariums of Catesby, Rand and Nicholls, are also preserved here in well-closed cases; they appear, how- ever, to be but little used, for we found the top papers so co- vered with coal soot as to blacken our hands. It is sad to see how the coal smoke penetrates every where. There is a col- lection of seeds by the venerable Rand, whose beautiful ar- rangement may have suggested the leading idea of the work by the two Gertners. ‘The Chelsea Garden is continually receiving seeds from all parts of the world: a large collection, sent by Baron Field, who is a judge there, from New Holland, had just arrived. The liberal Mr. Anderson kindly offered us a portion of this valuable present, which we have divided again with other friends. Mr. Anderson related to us, not without painful feelings of just indignation, the history of the latter days of the immortal Miller. This zealous officer was dismissed in the most illiberal manner by one of the committee who then superintended the garden, as a reward for his un- remitting services to the institution, as well as his extensive knowledge in gardening. He soon after died of grief, and left—nothing! Fifteen gardeners united, and subscribed a guinea each for a gravestone ; but as just at that time the son of Miller returned from India with a fortune of 15,000, and it being naturally supposed that the opulent son would erect a monument to his parent, the simple stone was given up :— yet the son never thought of rearing a monument to his illus- trious father. Sir Joseph Banks then set on foot a new sub- scription, to which he himself contributed five pounds ; ca. the 432 Prof. Schultes on the the opulent nurseryman and others soon raised a considerable sum: nevertheless this plan came to nothing, as the son was thereby offended. However, the young Miller died soon after, and had a monumenterected for himself and his father together. We also visited the garden of the cheerful Haworth, at Queen’s Elms, near Chelsea, who indefatigably and exclusively studies the Succulent Plants, and possesses many extremely rare ones. More than 200 Aloes, 360 Mesembryanthema, and 90 Crassule, are in his coliection. Mr. Haworth seems a very communicative and kind-hearted little man: he has the happiness already of being a grandfather, though in the prime of his age. We had wished to see the respectable Mr. Salis- bury’s garden; but were told that he had sold it, and was living with a friend in the country during the fine weather. We were sorry to lose the opportunity of being acquainted with this celebrated botanist. Fortunately, we had the plea- sure of seeing in London the Nestor of the London botanists, who has already passed the eightieth degree of human latitude, —namely, the celebrated Dr.Sims, whom we found indefatiga- bly employed in the continuation of the Botanical Magazine, although with a trembling hand, and a head bowing down un- der the ponderous weight of the reverend silver crown of age. A no less venerable and highly amiable sage is the good old man of the mountains, (e monte Grampio,) Sir Archibald Menzies, of the Grampians, among which he was born, at Chapel Place, in the month ef March 1754. (!) Flora has pre- sented this valuable old man with a truly viridem senectutem, in reward for the homage which he cffered to her in his twice repeated voyage round the world. ‘ And were another ex- pedition going, I would immediately set off again,” said Sir Archibald to us. He has lately returned from an excursion to Scotland; when his countrymen on taking leave of him threw the Menziesia*, accompanied with a thousand blessings, into the coach. He is now as active as a person of forty, and is in great practice as a surgeon in London. A neater her- barium than that of Sir A. Menzies I never saw: the Cypera- cez and Graminese, as well as the Mosses and Ferns, (the * We must really beg leave to question the accuracy of this anecdote. We had the happiness of receiving Mr. Menzies at our house in his return from the Highlands, and heard nothing of the story of the Menziesia. Nor can Dr. Schultes be aware of the extreme rarity of this plant. Scarcely a single botanist has seen it on its native mountains, not even Mr, Menzies himself; so that we well believe that if our venerable friend had been greeted with sucha shower of his beautiful namesake, the day would have been one of the happiest of his life; and the freshly pulled specimens would have been at least as acceptable as the blessings which accompanied them.—Eb. latter Cultivation of Botany in England. 433 latter are his favourites,) are laid out with the utmost care in octavo papers, and packed in cases, so as to be ready to be taken on board ship again at a moment’s notice. Sir Archibald Menzies informed us, with evident pleasure, that two of his countrymen (of Scotland) are about to enjoy the same privilege of travelling as his own youth had received; —a Mr. MacGray having been sent as a botanist, in that ves- sel which carried home the remains of the king of the Sand- wich Islands, to the South Seas ; and another, Mr. Douglas, being gone, in a similar capacity, to the Columbia River. A Mr. Frost, also, has visited America. From Menzies, too, we learned that Brodie, lieutenant of the county of Nairn and member of parliament, has lately died. At Mr. Lambert’s Museum we had the great good fortune to become acquainted with Dr. Richardson, the celebrated com- panion of Capt. Franklin in his expedition to Arctic America. This gentleman, who lives at Chatham, was so obliging as to show us his herbarium, which contains many rarities, and a great number of new species, particularly belonging to the genera Ranunculus, Rubus, and Potentilla, Before starting on the voyage which he will undertake next year in the direction of the North Pole,—for not all the ice of those frozen regions has power to cool his ardour in the cause of science, —Dr. Rich- ardson will prepare a new edition of his Appendix. Mr. Andrews the botanist was not at home; he is preceed- ing with his works on the Erice and Gerania. At the British Museum we had expected to find a treasure of Natural History; but,—except Sloane’s collection of dried plants in thirty volumes, and an herbarium which belonged toa Mr. Van Moll, with a small but well preserved set of British birds,—we found nothing that interested us at all. The department of Minerals is beautifully arranged by the celebrated German, Mr. Konig; but except some very rare unique specimens, it is inferior to the two collections at Paris, belonging to the Museum and the Ecole des Mines, as well as that of the Academy at Munich. ‘Two tables that we saw here, covered with beautiful specimens of Carpolitha, would engage the attention of Count Sternberg for weeks; and he would be delighted to compare them with those treasures that he is him- self so well acquainted with, and has so liberally communi- cated to the public. An immense building is in progress; with the addition of which the British Museum, now of inconside- rable size, will fill an entire square of the city of London. But to render this institution as rich in subjects of Natural History as it is in antiques, or as the Muséum d’ Histoire Naturelle at Paris was, or as is the collection of Leyden in the department N. S. Vol. 6. No. 36. Dec. 1829. 3K of 434 Prof. Schultes on the of the animal creation, would be the work of half a century: It is really incredible that a nation, possessed of the greatest conquests, and making the most extended discoveries in all parts of the world, should have collected so scantily for its public Museum: and the more so, as England boasts of men of the most distinguished character in all branches of Natural History. How is it possible that the British can allow the two neighbouring nations whom they look down upon in many respects, to excel them in this way as much as they are out- done by them in others? ‘This enigma would be to me per- fectly inexplicable, if a solution to it were not afforded by the state of the two Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, where the science of Natural History is at so low an ebb. Except the periodical works on Botany, and the Second Part of the publication on the genus Pinus by Count Lambert, we neither saw nor heard of any novelties in this department ; except that we were informed that twenty sheets of Wallich’s and Carey’s Flora Coromandeliana had arrived in London. Mr. * * * * therefore was wrong, when he asserted with a haughty look three years ago, ‘A Second Part of this work will never appear !” We have visited the celebrated flower-market of London; of which no German who has not seen it, could form a pro- per idea. What chiefly struck us is, that the greatest rarities and most trifling articles are here exposed for sale together, and that both are eagerly bought. Were such things to be carried to the Marché aux Fleurs at Paris, not a pennyworth of them would be sold. But by the two flower-markets of these two principal cities of Europe, an estimate of the differ- ent character of their inhabitants may be formed. The wealthy and respectable Englishman, who is a connoisseur, will pur- chase nothing that is common; for if pretty, he has it already in his garden ;—and the poor Londoner who cannot afford to buy what is beautiful, will still obtain, if possible, something green to decorate the window of his dark little attic*, and give his last farthing for a bit of verdure. The opulent French- man, who values all objects only as they please the eye, with- out reference to their being common or scarce, is willing to * Perhaps from the custom of the ancient Romans (for the English still retain traces of the manners of that people): “ jam in fenestris suis plebs urbana in imagine hortorum quotidiana oculis ruris prebebant, antequam pre- %igi prospectiis omnes coegit multitudinis innumerate seva latrocinatio.”— Plin. Nat. Hist. xiv. cap. 4. By this “ praefigi prospecttis”’ is not that most shameful of all imposts, the window-tax comprehended, by which the people are ina measure deprived of that most universal of all Nature’s gifts —light ? , pay Cultivation of Botany in England. 435 pay a greater price for a lovely rose-bush, than for the rarest plant from New Holland or the Cape of Good Hope; and as to the poor artizan of the French capital, he only thinks of vegetable productions as they are fit for culinary uses ; and whether they be blue or green to look at, is the same to him. Hence it arises that the Parisian flower-market offers a much more delightful vista than that of London, though it is much smaller and more poorly stocked; as the French capital itself cannot compare with London for extent or wealth. If the French pave the squares of their city that they may afford a more agreeable promenade, the English change theirs into delightful lawns, which afford a prospect of verdure to every house in the square. In the larger squares, these green plots are planted with groups of trees; and in the smaller ones with clumps of flowering bushes and shrubs, often inter- spersed with trees. By this arrangement, these quadrangles, and the houses which surround them, have quite a rural and ro- mantic appearance. According to the capabilities of the situa- tion, these plots are sometimes square, sometimes oval or cir- cular; and they are railed in with a light tasteful palisade which does not injure the prospect. Where the streets are very wide, there is in front of every house a small garden, fenced in front, and generally containing a small green, and some tufts of elegant shrubs or beautiful flowering plants, which give to the whole street a cheerful, and to a certain degree a theatrical appearance. ‘The houses themselves are often co- vered as high as the second story with Jasmine, Roses (particu- larly Rosa semperflorens and Banksii), with Clematis, Corchorus japonicus, Bignonia radicans, and the like, or entwined with them asa beautiful garland. Camellias (?), Rhododendrons, and Dahlias, usually form the clumps on the green places before the houses, which are no where seen in such perfection as in England; for the beauty of these verdant lawns, which extend in front of the dwellings like a green velvet carpet, has often attracted my attention; and I have inquired of several gar- deners the names of the particular species of grass employed for this purpose. Agrostis alba, verticillata, and stolonifera, Poa pratensis, Lolium perenne, and Festuca pratensis, have all been indifferently named: almost every person has mentioned some other kind than has been recommended by my former informants; but all agree in this, that these grass plots re- quire to be mown carefully every fortnight,—some say even every week,—with the scythe ; in fact, to be close shaven. To the great frequency with which the grass is cut, the beauty of these lawns, or bowling-greens, seems to be chiefly owing ; their fine preservation is also aided by the mild and equable climate $K2 of 36 Prof. Schultes on the of England, where the winters are never so severe as to check vegetation for any long period, nor the summers so scorching as to burn up the tender roots; while the frequent fogs and constantly damp state of the atmosphere morning and evening are highly favourable to verdure. Were the lawns in our country to be mown so often and so close, they would infallibly be soon burnt up. The opulent Englishman is so partial to a garden, that if his house should chance to have a northern exposure where not a ray of sun can reach, he will yet plant it with evergreen shrubs, as the J/ex; and with such flowers as are found capable of enduring such an aspect. It is the general taste that prevails for plants, to which the number of nursery- grounds, and the astonishingly active business that they carry on, are owing. ‘The success of so many marchands des plantes continually encourages their increase; and I am told that not a year passes without the establishment of some new institu- tion of this kind. On the way to Hammersmith to see Ken- nedy and Lee’s Nursery, we met the proprietors of two others, Gray and Sons, and Malcolm and Co. at Kensington. The house of Lee and Kennedy, so well known with us on the con- tinent, has lately experienced great changes. Mr. Kennedy has withdrawn from the concern, and is gone to Amiens in France; and the old Lee died about two months ago. At present, the sons carry on the management of this large nur- sery, which they themselves say contains one hundred acres, and requires the labour of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred workmen. Although this estimate seems to me enor- mously large, yet thus much is certain, that it is one of the greatest nurseries in London, and carries on an extensive trade both at home and abroad. ‘The more common kinds of plants seem to be chiefly cultivated here; although there are three hundred species of Erica, and half of every day is allotted to the management of Camellias. The stoves are of the usual kind: there is no pond for the convenient watering of the plants; nor have the proprietors published a new Catalogue. Mr. Colville, on the road to Chelsea, certainly has the rarer kinds of plants in his collection. Messrs. Mackay and Co., Fraser, &c. have also gardens in this neighbourhood. We here became acquainted with Mr. Sweet, whose publications on the Gerania and Hortus Suburbanus are wellknown. Many unknown and rare vegetables from all parts of the world, par- ticularly Nepaul, New Holland, and New Zealand, and the tolerably well explored Cape of Good Hope, exist in Mr. Col- ville’s Nursery: but the establishment of this kind, which be- longs to Mr. Conrad Loddiges, appeared to us the largest and finest in England. It would be hard to say whether its great extent, Cultivation of Botany in England. 437 extent, the beautiful productions with which’ it is stocked, or the judgement, taste, and liberality with which it is conducted, are most worthy of admiration. With regard to the latter point, we will venture to say, that much as we have travelled and seen, we have met with no stoves, belonging to prince, king, or emperor, which can compare with those of Messrs. Loddiges, at Hackney, for the magnificence, convenience and elegance of their plan, and the value of their contents. Let my reader imagine a dome, eighty feet long and forty feet high, built in the form of a paraboloid, purely of glass, kept together by a delicate but strong frame of small iron ribs. ‘This dome is heated by steam, when the rays of the sun are found insufficient to warm it. In ascending to the upper part of it by an elegant stage thirty feet high, we thence enjoy a scene entirely novel to a native of Europe: the tropical plants of both hemispheres, the eastern and the western, are stretched below at our feet; and the prospect is similar to what might be presented on a hill clothed with tropical verdure, through an opening in which we might look at the scenery beyond. A slight touch with one finger suffices to bring down from the light roof of this dome a fine shower of rain, which sprinkles all the exotic vegetation among which you walk. ‘To this gentle and careful manner of watering the plants, (the nearest mode of imitating nature,) may be ascribed the rich luxuriance of the inmates of this stove. Besides this house, there are some twenty others, from one hundred and fifty to three hun- dred feet long, and greenhouses of yarious dimensions ; all si- tuated in two large gardens, containing about one hundred acres, divided by a wall, in which plantations are scattered. One of the houses, built after the newest plan with convex windows, is stocked with nearly four hundred kinds of Heath. I am spared the task of enumerating the rarities of this gar- den, by the 13th edition of its Catalogue, published in 1823; and the pretty work called the Botanical Cabinet, which ap- pears regularly.— As we were walking in the garden, through ranges of Camellia, Rhododendron, Azalea, &c. accompanied by one of the sons of Mr. Loddiges, we took the liberty of asking him what might be the value of the plants in the whole collection, supposing that every one in the Catalogue were sold according to its price as there marked? ‘* About 200,000/.” was the reply: that is 2,800,000 florins. ‘The cultivation of ardens cannot therefore be so paltry an occupation as some individuals at the University of Landshut would have us to believe, who, while they will spend 6000 florins in a beer cel- Jar, yet allow the botanical garden there, which might serve as a nursery-ground for the whole country, to fall to decay in ) a manner 438 Prof. Schultes on the a manner as useless as it is mean; and this too, when the gar- dens of the other Universities of Germany have been lately doubled and trebled in extent. As President of the Botanical Garden at Landshut, it becomes me thus publicly to declare this matter, in order that the disgrace which must accrue to the University, which is so far behind her German sisters, may not fall upon me, but on those who, contrary to the wishes of those wise promoters of good,—the Bavarian government,— have brought this stain upon Landshut, and whose names will be pronounced by posterity with the contempt they deserve. Let us only consider what a multitude of people are employed and maintained in London alone by these nurseries: not in labouring the ground and tending the plants only, but in making the millions of pots, of which the smallest costs a half- penny (a groschen of our money); in manufacturing the im- mense quantity of glass which is used ; in executing the smiths’ and carpenters’ work ;—and it must then be readily confessed, that the improvement of a people has attained a high pitch, when the most pure, noble, and innocent kind of pleasure and taste, namely the enjoyment of the beauties of vegetation, has become a necessary; and thereby bestows food, clothing, and comfort on thousands of individuals, who must otherwise be a burthen to society. ‘The nurserymen of London, from their great business, several of which annually return half a million, are obliged to have counting-houses of their own. Many of them keep travelling botanists in their pay, who from the most remote parts of the globe must send them seeds, roots, and living plants. In China, the East Indies, the Cape of Good Hope, at Sierra Leone, New Holland, New Zealand, Para- guay, Chili, Mexico, and the most northern parts of America and Siberia, many of these enterprising individuals have collec- tors; so that Geography is often improved by the trade of horticulture. How reprehensible therefore is the conduct of those who,—instead of promoting the culture of gardens and the love of plants, by which, according to the immortal Bacon, the mind and heart are alike improved,—endeavour to sup- press and stifle all industry; and whilst they instruct youth in such detestable maxims, as that “ sin alone is the road to God,” (!) corrupt the rich and demoralize the poor. In Ba- varia we have only one great person who possesses a garden that deserves the name (except that at Irlbach); and this no- bler personage than Bavaria ever numbered among her mag- nates, is also the friend of that first ruler of Bavaria under whose happy government Botany and Horticulture began to be known. Is it not mortifying to behold the nurserymen of England displaying more taste and wealth than our nobility ? Perhaps Cultivation of Botany in England. 439 Perhaps I shall be answered, “ It is only possible in England ; only the natives of that opulent isle could do so !”—I beg par- don: Mr. Loddiges, the celebrated gardener and botanist, is no Englishman; he is—a German, a Hanoverian. In his youth he came over to this country as a gardener, possessing no other fortune than industry, talent and worth; and he is now an old man of eighty-six; a millionnaire, the father of many hundred English citizens (!), who for almost half a century have afforded to others the maintenance, without which they might have starved. He has the felicity of seeing two of his sons grown up, and very much like him; and grand- sons who promise to be so too. His name will shine conspi- cuous in the annals of British Horticulture, and be pronounced with respect by all who honour virtue and good sense. ‘The respectable old Loddiges strongly reminded both my son and myself of my immortal friend the late Bertuch of Weimar. I have asked of many, I may say of very many Englishmen, why the great island in the west, called Ireland, is less known with respect to its botany, than Canada, Greenland, and Ice- land. From all of whom I have received, instead of an an- swer, the remark, “* That is a land of -’ Also I am as- sured that ‘it is safer to travel among savages than in the west coast of Ireland, where one is pestered by the Catholic clergy, and in momentary danger of being knocked down b the slaves.” ‘The exasperation of the English against the Irish is truly excessive, and can never be removed while so many causes of irritation remain. It appears to me that the black- guards must set the good neighbours together by the ears; and this coursing, as they say in England, will be kept up from the east and from the north-east with gold and silver ‘‘ tam-tams”(?). There are two large islands in Europe, of whose Flora we are totally ignorant;—one is Sardinia, the other Ireland: both belong to the Jnfallible Church: had they belonged to the other, we had long ere now been furnished with a history of their vegetable productions; for all botanists have hitherto been members of the Fallible Church. Since writing the above remark,—that Ireland and Sardinia are still terra prorsus incognite in the European T'lora,—I have received a letter from the very excellent Balbis, of Lyons, in which he informs me that his friend and former student, the active Bertero, has received orders from the Royal Sardinian Government to explore, with a botanical view, that hitherto unknown island, and to compile a Flora of it. He will be provided with all necessary assistance at the public expense: and thus we shall become acquainted with the vegetation of Sardinia, as we are with that of Sicily and Corsica, Much may be 440 Mr. Dela Beche’s Sketch of a Classification be expected from the energy and zeal of the indefatigable Bertero. I can also give you a piece of botanical intelligence from Paris. The celebrated Baron Bory de St. Vincent will in the course of this year proceed to the Antilles; there to examine that favourite tribe, the Ferns, of which he already possesses a very complete collection. He expects to be able to elucidate all the points which Plumier left doubtful. From the well- known liberality of mind which this enlightened naturalist pos- sesses, I should hope that it would be as agreeable to him as to our Germans who are partial to the Ferns, to have this in- formation communicated in these pages; and, whether before or after his voyage has taken place, to see them thus placed in connection will confer much pleasure on J. A. ScHULTES. LXVIII. Sketch of a Classification of the European Rocks. By Henry T. Dr 1a Becue, Esq. F.R.S, §c.* fs propose in the present state of geological science any classification of rocks which should pretend to more than temporary utility, would be to assume a more intimate ac- quaintance with the earth’s crust than we possess. Our know- ledge of this structure is in reality but small, and principally confined to certain portions of Europe; and even in many of these portions we are continually presented with new views and a detail of newly-discovered phzenomena by able observers, which so modify our previously received opinions as in many instances almost to amount to a change of them. Still, how- ever, a large mass of information has been gradually collected, particularly as respects this quarter of the world, tending to certain general and important conclusions; among which the principal are,—that rocks may be divided into two great classes, the stratified and the unstratified ;—that of the former some con- tain organic remains, and others do not;—and that the non-~ fossiliferous stratified rocks, as a mass, occupy an inferior place to the fossiliferous+ strata, also taken asa mass. ‘The next important conclusion is, that among the stratified fossiliferous rocks there is a certain order of superposition, marked by pe- culiar general accumulations of organic remains, though the mineralogical character varies materially. It has even been supposed that in the divisions termed formations, there are found certain species of shells, &c. characteristic of each. Of * Communicated by the Author. + The term fossiliferous is here confined to organic remains, this of the European Rocks. 441 this supposition, extended observation can alone prove the truth; and in order properly to investigate the subject, geo- logists must agree to what mass of rocks they should limit the term Formation: if, as some now do, they apply it to every ac- cumulation of ten or twenty beds, which may happen, in the district they have examined, to contain a few shells not found in the strata above and beneath, the investigation is not likely to lead to any extended conclusions. To suppose that all the formations into which it has been thought advisable to divide European rocks can be detected by the same organic remains in various distant points of the globe, is to assume that the vegetables and animals distributed over the surface of the world were always the same at the same time, and that they were all destroyed at the same moment to be replaced by a new creation, differing specifically if not ge- nerically from that which immediately preceded. ‘This theory would also infer that the whole surface of the world possessed an uniform temperature at the same given epoch. It has been considered, but yet remains to be proved, that the lowest fossiliferous rocks correspond generally in their fossil contents, in places far distant from each other. Let us for the moment suppose this assertion to be correct. To obtain this uni- form distribution of animal and vegetable life, it seems necessary, judging from the phenomena we now witness, that there should also have been an uniform temperature over the surface of our planet. To obtain this, solar influence, as it now exists, would be inadequate; we must therefore have recourse to internal heat to produce the effect required. In the present varied tem- perature of the earth’s surface, if we imagine a rock to be formed which should envelop every animal and plant now existing, the fossil contents of one district would differ from the fossil contents of another; if we except man, whose bones would more or less become the characteristic fossils of those portions of the rock which might overlie the present dry land. ‘The rock supposed to be now formed would present a strik- ing contrast with the old fossiliferous, and we should have two very distinct accumulations of organic remains. ‘The ques- tion arising on such phenomena would be, Has so great a change of organic character been effected gradually or sud- denly? ‘To suppose it sudden will not agree with the phseno- mena presented to us, even by the now known European rocks ; and if it be considered gradual, we cannot expect that rocks should every where contain the same organic remains, even in those that have been commonly called secondary: conse- quently the organic remains considered characteristic of any N.S. Vol. 6. No. 36. Dec. 1829. 3 L particular ° 442 Mr. De la Beche’s Sketch of a Classification particular formation in one part of the world, may not be found at all in an equivalent formation in another. Upon the theory that the world cooled in such a manner that solar heat, as now existing, gradually acquired its in- fluence, the warm climate vegetation would gradually be re- strained within narrower limits, until it became circumscribed as it now is; consequently all rocks formed within the tropics would probably contain warm climate plants, while these would gradually cease on the N. and S.; so that it would be by no means safe to deduce the kind of Flora that should be found in any given rock in the tropics from the fossil plants discovered in an equivalent rock in Europe. If vegetable life might under such circumstances so vary, there seems no good reason why animal life might not equally differ. ‘To what ex- tent the mass of organic fossils found in any particular Kuro- pean formation or group of formations may exist in equivalent rocks (of Africa or America for instance), remains to be seen. In the present state of our knowledge, it is only safe to state that certain remains have been discovered in a given rock, not that they are absent from it. The old divisions into primitive, transition, secondary, and tertiary, are now admitted by many persons to be founded on an erroneous view of nature; yet such is the force of habit, that many geologists, aware of the failacy of these di- visions, still continue to use the terms, and we hear nearly as much as ever of transition rocks. Would it not be ima- gined by a person first directing his attention to the study of geology, that there were three great marked periods, during each of which rocks of a peculiar character, distinct from each other, were formed, and that there was a trans- ition or passage only between the first and second of these. I appeal to those who have examined rocks in the field, and not merely in cabinets and museums, whether or not the stu- dent would entertain correct opinions. These divisions may be said to have been made in the infancy of the science, and doubtless contributed much to its present comparatively ad- vanced state ; but it should always be recollected that they were formed from limited observations, and were connected with particular theories, which recent and more accurate observa- tions have shown to be any thing but correct. If it shall be proved that there is an occasional passage between the old tertiary and secondary classes, there would appear to be more or less transition throughout the whole series of the stratified rocks, showing that the term transition, at least, is incorrect. A great mass of evidence is, indeed, in favour of a break at the of the European Rocks. 443 the epoch of the Exeter Red Conglomerate (Rothe Todte Liegende), resulting from a great derangement in the pre- viously existing rocks, and the grinding and rounding of de- tached portions of them into gravels, which when comparative tranquillity was restored, were deposited in horizontal beds on the disturbed strata. Yet able observers assert, that there is an occasional passage of these rocks into the coal-measures, upon which they so commonly rest in an unconformable man- ner. We have now so many instances of great differences in the mineralogical structure of the same formations, either ori- ginal or consequent on disturbance, that such structure is no longer a character of importance; and it yet remains to be seen how many of the strata supposed to belong to the primi- tive class are altered rocks. M. Brongniart’s division into “ Sediment Rocks” would be both natural and useful were it certain where such rocks com- menced, and that all those necessarily included in the class were so formed. This division has been much used in France of late, and would appear infinitely superior to the terms se- condary and tertiary. In offering the annexed sketch ofa classification of European rocks to the attention of the reader, it is merely my intention to show that divisions can be made for practical purposes, inde- pendent of the theoretical terms primitive, transition, secon- dary and tertiary; terms which not being founded on an en- larged view of nature, but grounded on peculiar views, now doubted, there would appear no good reason for preserving. It is not presumed that this classification will be adopted, and I am well aware that many just objections can be made to it; but it pretends to nothing beyond convenience: and if geolo- gists could be induced to use something of this kind, or any other that would better answer the purpose of relieving us from the old theoretical terms, I cannot but imagine that the science would derive benefit from the change. In the accompanying Table, rocks are first divided into stra- tified and unstratified, a natural division, or at all events one convenient for practical purposes, independent of the theore- tical opinions that may be connected with each of these two great classes of rocks. ‘The same may perhaps also be said of the next great division; viz. that of the stratified rocks into superior or fossiliferous, and inferior or non-fossiliferous. The superior stratified or fossiliferous rocks are divided into groups, nearly the same as those which I published in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for August last. 1 have myself found them useful in practice, more particularly in the examination of di- stricts distant from each other. 3L2 Srrati- 4A Mr. De la Beche’s Sketch of a Classification Srraviriep Rocks.—- Group 1. (Alluvial) seems at first sight natural and easily determined ; but in practice it is often very difficult to say where it commences. When we take into consideration the great depth of many ravines and gorges which appear to originate in the cutting power of ex- isting rivers, the cliffs even of the hardest rocks which more or less bound any extent of coast, and the immense accumu- lations of comparatively modern land, as for instance, those great flats on the western side of South America, there is a difficulty in referring these phenomena to the duration of a comparatively short period of time. Geologically speaking, the epoch is recent; but, according to our general ideas of time, it appears to be one that reaches back far beyond the dates usually assigned to the present order of things. Man and the monkey tribe seem to be the most marked new creation of this epoch. I would by no means be supposed to deny that they may not have previously existed, but at present the mass of evidence is against their prior appearance. ‘There seems, indeed, no good reason why man and the monkeys should not have lived as well as the bears and hyzenas at periods ante- cedent to this epoch; but until the remains of the two former be found in rocks proved to be formed previous to this period, it cannot be affirmed that they did*. The animals now existing, considered as a mass, appear to differ specifically from those whose remains are found entombed in the various rocks, gravels, clays, &c. formed previously to the existing order of things. There are indeed a few exceptions to this observa- tion, but the body of evidence seems to render a new creation presumable. Group 2. (Diiuvial) comprises those gravels so commonly oc- curring in situations where actual causes could not have placed them, but where, on the contrary, such causes tend to destroy them. ‘The most extraordinary feature of this group is the distribution of those enormous blocks or boulders found so singularly perched on mountains, or scattered over plains far distant from the rocks from whence they appear to have been broken. Many valleys appear to have been scooped out of horizontal or nearly horizontal strata at this epoch; the force which excavated them having acted often upon strata shat- * Should such observations as those lately made on the caverns of the department of the Gard by M. de Christol (Annales des Mines 1829) be multiplied, and should it be always shown that human bones and pottery are, as is stated to be the case, in these caverns, really of the same date as the hyzena’s bones, dung, &c. with which they are mixed,—we can scarcely refuse to admit that man existed previous to the alluvial epoch; sup- posing it in all cases proved that these cavern remains are of the same date as those considered of the diluvial period. tered of the European Rocks. . 445 tered and broken into faults. Of course a general modifica- tion of the previously existing forms of mountain and valley must have taken place, if we are to consider the catastrophe general. Much information is yet wanting respecting this group, which it is hoped those observers who have been more especially occupied with it, will soon afford us. Group 3. (Lowest Great Mammiferous) comprises the rocks commonly known as tertiary: they are exceedingly various, and contain an immense accumulation of organic remains, ter- restrial, fresh-water, and marine. The recent observations of some able geologists have shown that the upper members of this group approach more closely than was formerly supposed to the existing order of things. We yet require much infor- mation respecting even the European rocks composing this class, notwithstanding the labours of those who may almost be said to have devoted their exclusive attention to them. ‘The group is characterized by the first appearance, in the ascend- ing series, of any abundance of the mammiferous animals, many genera of which are now extinct. Group 4. (Cretaceous) contains the rocks which in En- gland and the North of France are characterized by chalk in the upper part, and sands and sandstones in the lower. ‘The term ‘cretaceous” is perhaps an indifferent one; for, pos- sibly, the mineralogical character of the upper portion whence the name is derived is local, that is, confined to a particular portion of Europe, and may be represented elsewhere by dark compact limestones or even sandstones. As however the geo- logists of the present day are perfectly agreed as to what rock is meant when we speak of “the chalk,” there seems no ob- jection to retain it for the present. The French geologists have long considered the sands beneath the chalk, known as green-sands, as belonging to the same formation with the chalk. That the fresh-water character of the shells contained in the Wealden rocks is more or less local it seems but rational to infer; for it cannot be imagined that all the waters of the globe became suddenly fresh in order that these rocks might be formed, and as suddenly salt again for the deposition of the green-sands and chalk. Some French geologists moreover consider that in France there is a marine equivalent of the Wealden rocks. As far as our observations of fossil organic remains have yet extended, it would seem probable that the ammonites and belemnites ceased to exist after the formation of this group; for, as yet, their remains have not been detected in Group 3. Should this, after a greater extent of the world has been ex- amined, be found generally true, it will be a most valuable guide in 446 Mr. De la Beche’s Sketch of a Classification in determining the relative ages of this and the previously no- ticed group in cases where the mineralogical structure is of no avail. Group 5. (Oolitic) comprises the various members of the oolite or Jura limestone formation, including lias. ‘The term oolitic has been retained upon the same principle as that of cretaceous : in point of fact even in England and the North of France the oolites, properly so called, form but an insignificant part of the mass of rocks known by the name of the oolite for- mation; this character is also not confined to the rocks in ques- tion, but is common to many others. In the Alps and Italy the oolite formation is replaced by dark and compact marble limestones, so that its mineralogical structure is of no value. Saurians would appear to have been abundant in some places. The prevailing fossil characteristic seems the extraordinary quantity of ammonites and belemnites, the remains of which are so numerous in this group. It is remarkable that the nautilus should have been continued down to the present time, and that the other camerated shells which swarmed at this epoch should not now be found. The belemnites do not ap- pear to occur beneath the lias, at least as yet we have no well authenticated instance of such occurrence. Group 6. (Zed Sandstone) contains the variegated marls (Marnes irisées, Keuper) the Muschelkalk, the New Red Sand- stone (Gres Bigarré, Bunter Sandstein), the Zechstein, and the Exeter Red Conglomerate (Rothe Todte Liegende). The whole is considered as a mass of conglomerates, sandstones, and marls, generally of a red colour, but most frequently variegated in the upper parts. The limestones may be considered subordi- nate. Sometimes only one occurs, sometimes the other, and sometimes both are wanting. ‘There seems no good reason for supposing that other limestones may not be developed in this group in other parts of the world. When the muschelkalk is very compact with broken stems of the lily encrinite *, one of its characteristic fossils, it might easily be mistaken for some of the varieties of the carboniferous limestone. In some places the new red sandstone contains an abundance of vegetable re- mains, at others none can be detected init. The saurians first appear in the ascending series, at least in any abundance, in this group. As I have before observed, the lower part of this group generally rests unconformably on the inferior rocks, and seems to have resulted from a very general upheaving and frac- ture of the preexisting strata, accompanied by the intrusion of trap rocks. * Encrinites moniliformis. Miller. Group of the European Rocks. 447 Group 7. (Carboniferous) Coal-measures.and carboniferous limestone. ‘The former would appear in the greater number of instances to be naturally divided from the group above it, but the latter would seem more allied to that beneath: there is however so much connection in this country between the coal-measures and the carboniferous limestone, that it would appear convenient for the present to keep them together. Judging from Europe, the coal-measures present us with the largest mass of fossil vegetables. Corals were common, but they occur in as great abundance, if not more plentifully, now; though the recent species, ge- nerally speaking, differ from the fossils. But Productee, the abundance of which characterizes this group, are now un- known; and the Crinoidea which occur in these rocks in multitudes are very rarely found in a living state. Group 8. (Grauwacke) This may be considered as a mass of sandstones, slates and limestones, in which sometimes one predominates, sometimes the other; the old red sandstones of the English geologists being the upper of its sandstones. Tri- lobites are the most remarkable and abundant fossils of this epoch, and corals and orthoceratites occur in great numbers. It is difficult to fix the inferior limits of this group. Group 9. (Lowest Fossiliferous) It is very difficult in the present state of our knowledge to say whether or not this con- stitutes a separate group from No. 8; and I have here intro- duced it more in accordance with the views of other geologists than with my own. A difference in mineralogical structure proves nothing; the changes in this respect are so various, that the different appearance of one slate from another, if not shown to occupy a different geological position, is of no value. It has indeed been supposed that the Snowdonian slates are older than the grauwacke series, but we yet require the proof of this. Inrerior or Non-FOSSILIFEROUS STRATIFIED Rocks. —It would be useless in a sketch of this nature to enumerate the vari- eties of slates and other rocks that enter into this division, they will readily present themselves to the mind of the geologist; re- cent observations show that many rocks to all appearance of this division may belong to the preceding. M. Elie de Beau- mont, in one of his late letters to me, states, that mounting the Val Bedretto from Airolo to the foot of the Col, which leads into the Haut Vallais, he found “an alternation many times re- peated of small beds of a compact and grey-black limestone, and a nearly black limestone mixed with clay slate thickly studded with crystals of garnets and staurotides. Both the one 448 Mr. De la Beche’s Sketch of a Classification one and the other of these rocks contain a considerable num- ber of belemnites transformed into white calcareous spar, but of which the general forms and alveoli are nevertheless very visible, and can leave no doubt as to the nature of the fossils. As these limestone beds are the prolongation of those in which the gypsum of the Val Canaria is found, and as these are the same with those in which the dolomite of Campo Longo oc- curs, we can assure ourselves that all the curious mineralogical phzenomena of the St. Gothard have been introduced into beds contemporaneous either with the oolite series or the green- sand.” Now when such important changes as those noticed by my friend M. Elie de Beaumont can be fairly traced, what may we not expect to find in the sequel, when geologists shall cease to be contented with referring a particular mineralogical structure to the old divisions transition and primitive, of which the former seems only to have been created as a geological trap. Unsrratiriep Rocxs.—This great natural division is one of considerable importance in the history of our globe. To the rocks composing it, and the forces which threw them up, may be attributed the dislocations and fractures in the strati- fied rocks every where so common, and in many instances their elevations into lofty mountain ranges. In many of the great chains the trap rocks are visible along their line of ele- vation, as was first observed by M. Von Buch in the Alps,—on the southern side of which they are exposed at intervals; and it is on this side that there is so much dolomite in the lime- stones. ‘To assert that igneous rocks cannot be present along the whole of this line because not every where visible on the surface, is like affirming that there is no table beneath a cloth spread on it except in the cases where there may be a few holes. We are too apt in judging of the mass and thickness of rocks to compare them with our own size, and imagine them enormous, expressing surprise at the immense forces which it must have required to raise such masses into mountains; when if they were compared, as they ought to be, with the mass of the world, the thickness becomes trifling, the highest moun- tains insignificant, and the forces required to raise them com- paratively small. That granitic, trappean, and serpentinous rocks have exer- cised a great influence on the present position of the stratified rocks, few geologists will doubt. The igneous origin of the two former is also very generally admitted; but though the third is not so generally referred to that origin, I know not how we can deny that it was produced by a cause somewhat similar of the European Rocks. 449 similar to that which produced the others, when we consider its mode of occurrence, more particularly in the Alps and in Italy. The geological dates of the elevations of mountains is a most important subject, and one on which M. Elie de Beaumont read a very interesting paper, in June last, before the Institute of France*. His recent observations have tended to confirm his previous remarks on four of these epochs. Ist. That the Ezgeberge, the Cote d’Or, &c. have been elevated between the epoch of the Jura limestone and the green-sand and chalk. (Groups 5 and 4 of the annexed Table.) 2nd. That the Py- renees and Apennines were thrown up between the epoch of the chalk and tertiary rocks (Groups 4 and 3). 3rd. That the Western Alps were raised between the tertiary epoch and the first “terrains de transport” (Groups 3 and 2). 4th. That still later, there was an elevation of mountains, in which were comprised some in Provence, the Central Alps, &e. How far the igneous rocks have been connected with these phznomena remains to be seen; but, as before stated, itis by no means fair to infer that because not seen on the surface they do not exist beneath. Volcanoes, properly so called, both existing and extinct, seem to have exerted a minor in- fluence in the elevation of strata compared with that exerted by the igneous rocks which were shot up previous to the ac- tion of these volcanoes. Elevations of land do however take place apparently from the causes that produce volcanoes ; and of these the rise of land noticed in Chili by Mrs. Maria Graham, in consequence of the earthquake of 1824, is a striking example. Should the annexed Table succeed in calling the attention of geologists to other divisions than those made in the infancy of the science, and grounded on particular theories, one sup- posing three great epochs and a transition between the first and second of these, another considering rocks divisible into two great classes, a primary and secondary, the primary con- taining organic remains in its upper part, —my object will, as I before stated, be fully answered. We are yet acquainted with so small a portion of the real structure of the earth’s exposed surface, that all general classifications of rocks are premature; and it seems useless to attempt any others than those which are comparatively local, calculated for temporary purposes, and of such a nature as not to impede by an assumption of more knowledge than we possess, the general advancement of ge- ology. * The first part of this paper has been published in the Annales des Sci- ences Naturelles for September. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 36. Dec. 1829. 83M CLA6- vv. of European Rocks. zon O, 450 Mr. Dela Beche’s Classificat ssooue}sqns aus oy} JO suoTjZOY!pour se AyUO pasapIs -u0d aq uajjo uzo Kay} VY} ‘49430 YoRa oul ssed os syI0I aiuess pue uvoddea3 ayy, *syoo1 payiyesys Jorrayur aq? JO aoueivadde ay} punsse ‘saduURIsUNIID snolIewA wo.ly ‘ Srrenia, Duponchel,—* All four wings marked with longitudinal and transverse lines, or reticulated.—Palpi very short.—Maville rather long.” —Duponch. l. c. supra, p. 112. 18. Fid. 454 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Species. Icon, . 18.Fid.Dilectaria, Hubn.....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 8. f. 39.(mas.) 19.—Cararia, Hubn.........Hiibn. Geom. tab. 8. f. 38. (foem.) 20.—Immorata, Linn.........Hiibn.Geom. tab. 25. £133.(mas.) 21.—Favillacearia, Hiibn.* Hiibn.Geom. tab. 26. f:139.(mas.) Curtis, Brit. Ent. i. pl. 33. ¢ et 2. 22.—Conspersaria, Fab......Hiibn.Geom. tab. 26. f.138.(mas.) 23.—Wavaria, Linn.+ t...... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 11. f. 55. (foem.) 24,—Capreolaria, Fab. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab. 39. f. 204.(mas.) f. 205. (foem.) : 25.—Plumaria, Hiubn. ...... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 23. f.124.(mas.) 26.—Pulveraria, Linn. § ||...Hiibn.Geom. tab. 39.f.203.(foem.) 27.—Aurantiaria, Hubn. §.. Hiibn.Geom.tab. 35.f.184. (mas.) 28.—Progemmaria, Hiibn.{ Hiibn.Geom. tab. 35. f.183.(mas.) 29.—Defoliaria, Linn.{ *.... Hubn.Geom. tab. 35.f. 182.(mas.) tab. 99. f. 510. (foem.) 30.—Aceraria, Hubn.........Hiibn.Geom. tab.35. £.185.(mas.) tab. 99. f. 514. (foem.) 31.—Fumidaria, Hiibn......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 101. f. 520. 521. (mas.) 32.—Bajaria, Hiibn......... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 37. £.194.(mas.) $3.—Leucophearia, Hubn.> Hiibn.Geom. tab. 37.f195.(mas.) 34.— Aiscularia, Hiibn. ».... Hiibn.Geom. tab.36.f.189. (mas.) 35.—Rupicapraria, Hubn.* Hiibn.Geom. tab. 42. f.222.(mas.) * Buratus, Stephens. Curtis. —“ Antenne setaceous, bipectinated in the males.—Mazille short, rather broad and flat.—Labdial palpi slightly hirsute, shorter than the head, scarcely projecting beyond the eyes.— Wings not angular, nor indented; very much deflexed when at rest.—Body slen- der.” —Curtis. Brit. Ent. i. pl. 33. (Extract.) + GrammatorHora, Stephens. { Hatta, Duponchel.—* All four wings pulverulent; the superior marked on the anterior margin with three or four spots, from each of which springs an indistinct line——Pa/pi scarcely projecting beyond the forehead. —Mazille long.” —Duponch. l.c. supra, p. 107. § AzinepHora, Stephens. || Numerra, Duponchel.—* All four wings pulverulent, with a trans- verse band on the middle of the upper.—Palpi acuminated, and some- what projecting beyond the forehead.—Mazille short.’—Duponch. l. ¢c. supra, p. 107. q Lameeria, Stephens. * Hisernia, Duponchel.—* Upper wings more coloured than the lower. —Palpi very short, not projecting as far forward as the forehead. —Mawille none or obsolete.—Legs very long.—Females apterous, or with only the rudiments of wings.”—Duporth. l. c. supra, p. 106. > AnisoprEeRYx, Stephens, © Cuemmatosra, Stephens. Genus Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 455 Genus 99. CHESIAS, Ochs., Treitsch. (Cuestas, Duponchel. Cuesias, Pacuycnemia, Stephens. Lozoruora, Stephens, Curtis.) Upper wings elliptical or lanceolate; lower oval. —Palpi long, depressed.— Mawille long. Species. Icon. 1.Ch.Spartiata, Fab.*......Hiibn.Geom. tab. 36. f.18'7.(mas.) 2.—Polycommata, Hiibn.t Hiibn.Geom. tab.36. f.190.(foem.) Curtis. Brit. Ent. ii. pl. 81. 3.—Variata, Hibn.........Hiibn.Geom. tab. 57. £293. (mas.) tab. 73. f. 380. (foem.) var. 4,—Juniperata, Linn. ...+..Hiibn.Geom. tab. 57. £294. (mas.) 5.—Obeliscata, Hiibn......Hiibn. Geom. tab.57. f:296.(mas.) 6.—Obliquata, Hiibn.......Hiibn.Geom. tab.43. f.225.(foem.) tab. 82. f. 423. (mas.) 71.— Hippocastanata, Hiib.t{Hiibn.Geom. tab. 36. f.186.(mas.) Genus 100. CABERA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Casera, Epuyra, Duponchel. Casera, CycLopHora, Stephens.) All the wings pulverulent, or spotted with multitudes of mi- nute dots, and traversed by from two to four bands. — Palpi scarcely projecting beyond the forehead.— Mazille long. F Species. Icon. 1.Cab.Pusaria, Linn.§......Hiibn. Geom. tab.17. £87. (foem.) 2,—Exanthemaria, Esper.§Hiibn. Geom. tab. 17. f. 88. (mas. tab. 98. f. 506. (foem.) 3.—Strigillaria, Hiibn.||... Hiibn.Geom. tab.23. f.125.(foem. ) 4.—Onoraria, Hiibn. ......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 18. f.93.(foem.) 5.—Punctaria, Linn. .....Esper.Schm. v. th. tab. vi. f. 5—7. tab. vii. f. 1. 2. 6.—Poraria, Treitsch.f....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 13. f.67. (mas. ) 7.—Omicronaria, Hiibn.4..Hiibn.Geom. tab. 13. f. 65.(mas.) 8.—Ocellaria, Hiibn. .....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 13. f.64. (mas.) * Cuestas, Duponchel, Stephens. + Lozornora, Stephens, Curtis.—“ Antenne rather short, setaceous.— Mazille not very long.—Labial palpi short, distant, incurved, thickly co- vered with scales.—Wéings entire, extended horizontally when at rest ; p- per long, somewhat lanceolate ; lower small in the males, with a lobe at- tached at the base of the abdominal margin.—Head small.— Abdomen and legs slender.” —Curtis. Brit. Ent, l.c. supra, (Extract.) | Pacuycnemia, Stephens. § Canena, Stephens. | Caszna, Duponchel. 4, CycLornora, Stephens. b ap. 456 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Species. Icon. © 9.Cab. Pendularia, Linn.* + Hiibn. Geom. tab. 13. f. 66.(mas.} 10.— Orbicularia, Hiibn.*...Htibn. Geom. tab. 12. f60.(mas.) 11.—Pupillaria, Hiibn......Hiibn. Geom. tab. 13.f.69. (mas.) 12.—Gyraria, Hiibn......... Htibn.Geom. tab.84. f.434.(mas.) 13.—Trilinearia, Bork.* ...Hiibn. Geom. tab. 13. f.68.(foem.) Genus 101. ACIDALIA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Acrpatia, Amatuta, Larentia, Duponchel. HeEMEROPHILA, YPSIPETES, PHIBALAPTERYX, SCOTOSTIA, TripHosa, CuErmatopia, LopopHora, EMMELEsIA, Pry- CHOPoDA, Stephens.) All the wings marked with numerous undulated, transverse parallel lines.—Zarva short, stout; generally of a green colour, with pale, longitudinal lines, or reddish streaks: segments of the body, distinct.—Metamorphosis subter- ranean. Species. Icon. 1.Acid. Ochrearia, Hiibn... Hiibn.Geom. tab.20. f. 110.(mas.) 2.—Rufaria, Hiibn......... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 21. f.112.(mas.) 3.—Rubricaria, Hiibn.. ... Hiibn.Geom. tab.21. f.111.(foem.) tab. 94. f.487. (mas.) 4.—Pygmearia, Hiibn.....Hiibu.Geom. tab.65.f.335. (mas.) f. 336. (foem.) 5.—Vittaria, Hiibn......... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 83. f.429.(mas.) 6.—Pusillaria, Hiibn......Hiibn.Geom. tab. 19. f.99.(foem.) 7.—Decolorata, Hiibn.t{ ...Htibn.Geom. tab.47. f.243.(foem.) 8.—Albulata, Hiibn........ Hitibn.Geom. tab.50.f.257. (foem.) 9.—Sylvata, Hiubn..........Hiibn.Geom. tab.44.f231.(foem.) 10.—Luteata, Fab............. Htibn.Geom. tab.19. f.103.(foem.) 11.—Alpestrata, Hiibn...... Hiibn.Geom. tab.62. f.320.(foem.) 12.—Scabraria, Hubn.......Hiibn.Geom. tab.44. f. 229. (mas.) 13.—Elutata, Hiibn.§........ Hibn.Geom. tab. 43.f224.(mas.) tab. 74. f. 385. (foem.) 14.—IJmpluviata, Hibn.§ ... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 43. £.223.(mas.) 15.—Brumata, Linn. ||....... Hiibn.Geom. tab.37. f. 191.(mas.) tab. 99. f. 509. (foem.) 16.—Dilutata, Hiibn.. ...... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 36. f.188.(mas.) 17.—Lobulata, Hiibn. .......Hiibn.Geom. tab. 70. £.562.(mas.) * Cyctornora, Stephens. + Erxyra, Duponchel.—“ Base of all the wings pulverulent, with a trans- verse line, and an omicron, more or less accurately defined, on the centre of the disc, in most of the species.—Palpi slender very much inclined, and not projecting beyond the forehead.—Mawille long.”"—Duponch, Lep. de France, ton. vii. part. ii. p. 108. { Emmetesra, Stephens. § Yrsireres, Stephens. || Cuermatonia, Stephens. 18. Acid. Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 457 Species. Icon. 18.Acid. Rupestrata, Fab. ... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 37.f. 192. (mas.) 19.—Candidata, Borkh...... Hibn.Geom. tab.19. f.101.(foem.) 20.—Osseata, Fab.*.......... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 19.f.102.(foem.) 21.—Pallidaria, Hubn...... Hubn.Geom. tab. 18. f. 96. (mas.) 22.—Strigaria, Hubn.+...... Htbn.Geom. tab. 18. f. 98. (mas.) 23.—Byssinata, 'Treitsch.} 24.—Sericeata, Hubn........ Hubn.Geom. tab. 78. f.404.(mas.) 25.—Hewxapterata, Fab.§.... Hibn.Geom. tab. 44. f.232.(mas.) 26.—Sexalata, Bork.||.....Hiubn.Geom. tab.44. ff 228.(mas.) 27.—Rivulata, Hiibn...... Hiubn.Geom. tab. 50. f. 259.(mas.) 28.—Blandiata, Hubn..... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 50. f. 258.(mas.) 29.—Rusticata, Fab. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab. 46. f.241.(mas.) 30.—Filicata, Hiibn..... .Hiibn.Geom. tab.46. f.238.(foem.) $1.—Salicaria, Treitsch....Hiibn.Geom. tab.53. f.273.(mas.) 32.—Scripturata, Hubn....Hubn.Geom. tab.53. f.274.(mas.) 33.—Coraciata, Hiibn. ....Hubn.Geom. tab.54. f. 278.(foem.) 34.—Frustata, Treitsch.f 35.—Viretata, Hubn. .....Hubn.Geom. tab. 44. f.230.(mas.) 36.—Riguata, Hubn. .....Htbn.Geom. tab.69.£358.(foem.) 37.—Undulata, Hiibn......Hiibn.Geom. tab. 51.f.262.(foem.) tab. 85. f. 436. (mas.) 38.—Vetulata, Hiibn.**. ...Htbn.Geom. tab.51. f.263.(mas.) 39.—Fluviata, Hiibn. ... .Hiibn. Geom. tab.54. £280.(foem.) f. 281. (mas.) 40.—Bilineata, Linn... . . .Hubn.Geom. tab.51. f.264.(foem.) 41.—Bistrigata, 'Treitsch.t+ 42.—Polygrammata, Hubn. Hubn.Geom. tab.54.f. 277. (mas.) 43.—Lignata, Hibn... . . .Hiibn.Geom. tab.52. f.270. (foem.) 44,.—Tersata, Hiibn.t{{... .Hubn.Geom. tab.52. f. 268. (mas.) tab. 87. f. 448. (foem.) * Prycuoropa, Stephens. + Aciwwatta, Duponchel. — “ All the wings traversed by parallel lines, sometimes straight, sometimes wavy or sinuated, and varying from three to five,on an uniform ground colour. A point in the middle of each wing, on most species.—Palpi very short—Mawille long.—Antenne ciliated in the males.”—Duponch. Lep. de France, tom. vii. part. ii. p. 108. { Acid. alis albo flavicantibus, strigis obscurioribus.— Ochs. Treitsch. vi. part. v. p. 36. § Lozornora, Stephens. || Amaruta, Duponchel.—“ Upper wings only traversed by very nu- merous parallel, wavy lines, separated by bands.—Palpi very short.— Mazille \ong.— Lower wings of the males, in many species, with an appen- dage resembling a third pair of rudimentary wings, near their base, on the inner side.”’—Duponch. l, c, p. 112. q Acid. alis anticis fusco virescentibus, fascia obsoleta alba, strigisque obscurioribus ; posticis cinereis.— Ochs. T'reitsch. 1. c. p. 50. ** Scorosia, Stephens, +t Acid. alis anticis albido ferrugineis, strigis dentatis fuscis ; posticis flavido ferrugineis, linea dentata fusca in medio.—Ochs. T'reitsch. vi. part. V. { Paratarreryx, Stephens. p- 59. N.S. Vol. 6. No. 36. Dec. 1829. 3N 45. Acid 458 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of Species. Icon. 45.Acid.Aquata, Hiibn. . . .Hitibn.Geom. tab.79. f. 410.(foem. ) 46.—Petrificaria, Hiib. . *Hiibn.Geom. tab.52. f. 267. (mas.) 47.—Vitalbata, Hiibn... . .Hubn.Geom. tab.52. £.269.(mas.) 48,.—Rhamnata, Fab... . ..Hiibn.Geom. tab. 52. f.271.(mas.) tab. 77. f. 400. (foem.) 49.—Dubitata, Linn.+ ....Hiubn.Geom. tab.51. f.265.(foem.) 50.—Certata, Hubn...... Hiubn.Geom. tab.51. £.266. (mas.) Genus 102. LARENTIA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Evpouia, Anartis, Duponchel. Larentia, ApLocera, Euprruecia, Stephens. EupitHecia, Curtis.) Anterior wings, like those of the preceding genus, with wavy, transverse lines, and frequently a dark transverse band near the centre of the disc.—Zarva short, stout, rugose, usually of a greenish colour, with spots or stripes.— Metamorphosis subterranean. Species. Icon. 1.La.Cervinaria, Treitsch.t Hiibn.Geom. tab. 62. f.318.(foem.) 2.— Mensuraria, Treitsch.§ Hubn.Geom. tab. 37. f.193.(mas.) 3.—Badiata, Hubn..... .Hiibn.Geom. tab. 56. f.291.(mas.) 4.—Plagiata, Linn.||.....Hiibn.Geom. tab.42.f. 220.(foem.) 5.—Cassiata, 'Treitsch.f 6.—Sororiata, Hubn.... .Hiibn. Geom. tab.68.f.355. (mas.) 7.—Bipunctaria, Fab. .. .Hiubn.Geom. tab.53. £276. (mas.) 8.—Cesiata, Hibn..... .Hiibn.Geom. tab.53.f:275. (mas.) 9—Sertata, Hibn.......Hiibn.Geom. tab.95.f.489. (mas.) 10.—Flavicinctata, Hiubn....Hiibn.Geom. tab.68.£354. (foem.) 11.—Molluginata, Hubn. . .Hubn.Geom. tab.71.f.371. (foem.) 12.—Psittacata, Fab. ....Hubn.Geom. tab.43. £227. (mas.) 13.—Cyanata, Hubn...... Hiubn.Geom. tab.62.f.319. (mas.) * Hemeroruita, Stephens. \ + Trirnosa, Stephens.—Larenria, Duponchel.—“ All the wings tra- versed by a great number of parallel lines, wavy, angular, or indented, and more distinct on the upper than on the dower.—Palpi long, projecting beyond the forehead.— Mazille long.” —Duponch. Lep. de France, tom. vii, part. ii. p. 111. 1 t Larentia, Stephens. § Evzotra, Duponchel.—“ Upper wings with a central transverse band, composed of several parallel lines, more or less undulated.— Palpi long, and pointed.— Mazille long.” — Duponch. Lep. de Fran. tom. vii. part. ii. p. 109. . || Arptocrra, Stephens.—Anartis, Duponchel. — “ Upper wings only traversed by a great number of angular, parallel lines, divided into bands of three lines each.— Forehead very prominent, but the palpi nevertheless projecting beyond it.—Mazille short.”—Duponch. l. c. p. 111. ‘ § Lar. alis anticis griseo glaucescentibus, aah duabus interruptis fusco ferrugineis ; posticis griseo albidis.—Ochs. Treitsch. vi. part. ii. p. 89. 7 14, La. Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 459 Species. Icon. 14.La.Rectangulata, Linn.* Hiibn.Geom. tab.45. f.255. foem.) tab. 72. f. 372. (mas.) 15.—TIsogrammata, Treitsch.+ 16.—Cydoniata, Borkh. . . .Rosel, Ins.i.th.3.cl.tab.viii. f. 1—3. 17.—Jnturbata, Hubn.. . . .Hiibn.Geom. tab.90. f.461. (foem.) 18.—Valerianata, Hiibn. . .Hiibn.Geom. tab.76. f.395. (mas. ) 19.—Residuata, Hubn. . . .Hubn.Geom. tab.91.f467. (foem.) 20.—Minutata, Hiibn.. .. .Hiibn.Geom. tab.88. f.4.54.(foem.) 21.— Austerata, Hiibn. . . . .Hiibn.Geom. tab.89. f.457. (mas.) 22.—Satyrata, Hubn. ....Hiibn.Geom. tab.85. £439. (mas.) 23.—Subnotata, Hiibn.. . . .Hubn.Geom. tab.89.f.458. (foem.) 24.—Strobilata, Hiibn..... Hubn.Geom. tab. 87. £449. (mas.) 4.50. (foem.) 25.—Sobrinata, Hiibn... . .Hiibn.Geom. tab.90. £465. (mas.) 26.—Subumbrata, Hubn. .. .Hiibn.Geom. tab.45.£.233.(foem.) 27.—Ozydata, Treitsch.t 28.—Pimpinellata, Hiibn. .Hubn.Geom. tab. 86. f.443.(mas.) 4.44. (foem.) 29.—Exiguata, Huibn. . ...Hibn.Geom. tab. 73. f.379.(foem.) 30.—Consignata, Hubn. . . .Htibn.Geom. tab.47. £:24.5.(foem.) 31.—Pusillata, Fab... ....Hutbn.Geom. tab.73. f.378.(foem.) 32.—Hospitata, Treitsch. . .Htbn.Geom. tab.45. f.236. (mas.) 33.—Linariata, Fab.§ ....Hutibn.Geom. tab.46. f.242.(mas. ) Curtis. Brit. Ent. ii. pl. 64. 34.—IJrriguata, Hibn. .. . .Hiibn.Geom. tab.77.f.397. (mas.) 35.—Innotata, Hiibn.... . .Huibn.Geom. tab.86.f.441. (mas.) 442. (foem.) 36.—Centaureata, Fab....... Hiibn.Geom. tab. 46. f. 240. (mas.) tab. 88. f. 452. (foem.) 37.—Succenturiata, Linn. ... Hiibn. Geom. tab.89. f. 459.(foem. ) 38.—Denticulata, Treitsch. || 39.—Sparsata, Hubn. ......Hiibn.Geom.tab. 77. f. 398. (foem.) 40.—Pygmeata, Hubn....... Hiibn.Geom.tab. 45. f. 234. (foem. ) 41.—Nanata, Hubn.........Hiibn.Geom.tab. 75. f. 387. (mas.) * Evriruecia, Stephens. + Lar. alis cinereo fuscis, lineis undato albidis.— Ochs. T’reitsch. l.c. p. 100. t Lar. alis anticis fuscis, area ferruginea, puncto medio nigro, strigis ob- soletis albidis; posticis cinereis, strigis interruptis albidis.— Ochs. T'reitsch. 4, c. p. 114 § Si miesbainn Curtis. —“ Antenne alike in both sexes, rather long, se- taceous.—Mavwille as long as the antennx, slender. — Palpi_ projecting obliquely, like a beak, beyond the head, thickly covered with long and broad scales.— Wings entire, horizontal when at rest, superior long, some- what lanceolate.—Abdomen short, slender.—Legs rather slender.” —(Ex- tract.) Curtis l. c. supra. || Lar. alis albis, limbo strigisque obsoletis fuscescentibus, puncto medio nigro.—Ocks, Treitsch. vi. part 11. p. 132. 3N2 42.La. 460 Mr. Children’s Abstract of the Characters of — Species. Icon. | 42.La. Caliginata, Treitsch.* 43.—Venosata, Fab. .....+«+.Hiibn.Geom.tab.47. f. 244.(foem.) Genus 103. CIDARIA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Crparta, Metanirre, Duponchel. Crparra, Harparicé, Erecrra, EMME esi, Stephens.) Wings superior with a dark coloured, transverse band, across the centre of the disc, with its external margin angular.— Larva short, thick, each segment with angular spots, the angle pointing towards the head.— Metamorphosis ina slight web, amongst leaves on the ground, or beneath the surface. Species, Icon. 1.Ci. Propugnaria, Treitsch. Hiibn.Geom. tab.55. f.286.(foem.) 2.— Aptata, Hiibn. .,.......Hiibn.Geom. tab.67. £.349.(foem.) 3.—Minorata, Treitsch.t 4,—Graphata, Treitsch.$ 5.—Quadrifasciaria, Linn.§ Hubn.Geom, tab.55. f.284.(foem.) 6.—Ferrugaria, Wien. Verz. Hiibn.Geom. tab.55.f:258. tab. 89. f. 460. (foem.) (mas.) 7.—Ligustraria, Hubn. ..Hibn.Geom. tab.55. £:282.(foem ) 8.—Ocellata, Linn.......... Hubn.Geom. tab.48. f.252.(foem.) 9.—Galiata, Hibn. ......Htubn.Geom. tab.53. f.272.(mas.) 10.—Olivaria, Treitsch. ...Htibn.Geom. tab.59. f.307.(foem.) 11.—Miaria, Bork. .........Hiibn.Geom. tab.57.f.292.(foem.) 12.—Tophaceata, Hubn. ...Hubn.Geom, tab.60. f.309.(mas.) 13.—iquata, Hibn. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab.68. f.353.(mas.) 14.—Nebulata, Treitsch.|| 15.—Populata, Linn. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab.58. £300. (mas.) 16.—Chenopodiata, Linn.... Hiibn.Geom, tab.58. £299. (mas.) 17.— Achatinata, Hubn. ...Hubn.Geom. tab.58. f.301. (mas.) 18.—Marmorata, Hibn. ...Hiibn.Geom. tab.54. £.279.(foem.) 19.—Meeniaria, Fab. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab.58. £.298.(foem. ) 20.—Fulvata, Hibn.? ......Hiibn.Geom. tab.57. f.297. (mas.) * Lar. alis plumbeis, atomis, strigisque fuscis—Ochs. Treitsch. 1. c. . 137. + Cid. alis albido griseis; anticis fasciis fuscis, albo marginatis, linea ex- terna denticulata alba, puncto medio nigro.— Ochs. Treitsch. vi. part. ii. . 143. “ ¢ Cid. alis cretaceis, atomis strigisque numerosis angulatis fuscis, puncto medio nigro.— Ochs. Treitsch. l.c. p. 144. § Crnarta, Stephens. |] Cid. alis cinereo albidis, atomis nigris, fascia media obsoleta,.—Ochs. Treitsch. l. c. p. 164. q Exzctra, Stephens. @ Ciparta, Duponchel.—‘ Upper Wings traversed across the middle of the disc by a more or less wide band, always bent into one or more salient angles on the outer side.—Palpi projecting beyond the forehead.— Mawille long.”’—Duponch, Lep. de France, vii. part. ii, p. 111. C ah Ci; Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 461 Species. Icon. 91.Ci.Pyropata, Hiibn. . ....Hiibn.Geom. tab.63. f.328.(foem.) 22.—Sagittata, Fab. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab.60. f.310.(foem.) 23.—Pyraliata, Fab...+...Hiibn.Geom. tab.58. £302. (mas. ) 24..— Derivuta, Hiibn. ....Hubn.Geom. tab.56. f.289.(foem.) 25.—Berberata, Fab. . .. «.Hiibn.Geom. tab.56. £287. (mas.) 26.—Rubidata, Fab. ....++Hiibn.Geom. tab.56. f.290.(mas.) 27.—Russata, Hiibn......+Hiibn.Geom. tab.59. £305. (foem.) 28.—Suffumata, Hiibn. ....Hiibn.Geom. tab.59. £306. (mas.) 29.—Picata, Hiibn. ..+.+»Hiibn.Geom. tab.84. £435. (foem.) 30.—Prunata, Linn.....++Hiibn.Geom. tab.59. f.304. (mas.) 31.—Silaceata, Hubn. ....Hibn.Geom. tab. 59. £.303.(mas.) tab. 93. f.477. 478. (foem.) 32.—Reticulata, Fab. ....Hiibn.Geom. tab.60. f.308.(foem.) 33.—Ruptata, Hiibn. ....Hiibn.Geom. tab.57.f.295.(foem.) 34.—Montanaria, Treitsch.Hiibn.Geom. tab.48. f.248.(foem.) 35.—Alchemillata, Linn.* . .Hiibn.Geom.tab.50. f.261 .(foem.) 36.—Hastata, Linn.t ....Hubn.Geom.tab.49. f.256.(foem.) 37.—Tristata, Linn. ,.....Hubn.Geom. tab.49. f.254. (mas.) tab. 50. f. 260. (fcem.) 38.—Rivata, Hiibn. ......Hiibn.Geom. tab.79. f.409. (foem.) 39.—Luctuata, Hiibn. ....Hiibn.Geom. tab.49. f.253.(mas.) 40.—Turbaria, Hiibn. ....Hubn.Geom. tab.49.f.255.(foem-) Genus 104. ZERENE, Ochs., Treitsch. (Meranruta, VeNILIA, ZERENE, Coryct, Duponchel. Xenene, Crparia, Hercyna, Apraxas, Bapra, Stephens.) Wings superior, with the ground colour nearly white, or yel- low, and a more or less interrupted, dark, transverse band. —Larva, thick in proportion to their length; back and sides marked with dots and lines ; motion sluggish.— Meta- morphosis in a slight web amongst leaves, or subterranean. Species. Icon, 1.Zer-Procellata, Fab.{§ ..Htbn.Geom. tab.48.f.251.(foem.) 2.—Fluctuata, Linn.|| ....Hiibn.Geom. tab.48. f.249.(mas.) 3.—Stragulata, Hiibn. ..Hiibn.Geom. tab.65. f:337.(foem.) 4.—Rubiginata, Fab. ....Hiibn.Geom. tab.48.f.250.(foem.) * Emmecezsia, Stephens. + Mexanterr, Duponchel.—“ All the wings terminated by a more or less interrupted band. Last joint of the palpi very pointed, searcely projecting beyond the forehead.—Mazille long.”—Duponch. Lep. de France, vii. part. ii. p. 111. ¢ Xenene, Stephens. § Mevanruia, Duponchel.—* Head, thorax, and base of the upper wings of a deeper colour than the rest.—Palpi very short,—Maville long.” — Duponch, Lep. de France, vii. part. ii, p. 111. || Crpaanta, Stephens, 5. Zer. 462 Mr. Children’s Adstract of the Characters of Species. Icon. 5.Zer.Adustata, Fab. ....Htbn.Geom. tab. 15. f. '75. (mas.) 6.—Suniata, Hiibn.......Hubn.Geom. tab.56. f.288.(mas.) 7.—Albicillata, Linn. ....Hubn.Geom. tab.15. f. '76.(foem.) 8.—Marginata, Linn. ...-Hiibn.Geom. tab. 15. 80. (mas.) 9.—Maculata, Fab.*} ....Hubn.Geom. tab.25. f.155.(mas.) 10.—Melanaria, Linn. ..++Hubn.Geom. tab.16. f. 86. (mas.) 11.—Grossulariata, Linn.t{{Htbn.Geom. tab. 16. £81. (foem.) 12.—Ulmaria, Treitsch.. ..Hiibn.Geom. tab. 16. f.85. (foem.) tab. 76. f. 391. (mas.) f. 392. (foem.) 13.—Pantaria, Linn. ..+sHubn.Geom. tab. 16. f. 84.(foem.) 14.—Cribrata, Treitsch. ,.Hiibn.Geom. tab. 16. f. 83. (mas.) 15.— Taminata, Wien. Verz.|| Hubn.Geom. tab. 17. f. 90.(foem.) 16.— Temerata, Wien. Verz.|\{{ Hubn.Geom. tab.17.f. 91.(mas.) tab. 73. f. 376. (mas.) f. 377. (fcem.) Genus 105. MINOA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Minoa, CieocEene, Tanacra, Duponchel. Mrnoa, Stephens.) Wings, both on the upper and under surfaces, of one colour.— Larva with the body tapering anteriorly, naked, and gene- rally of lively colours; head small—Metamorphosis in a slight web. Divided into two families. Fam. A.— With rounded wings. Fam. B.—With the anterior wings lanceolate, with faint traces, occasionally, of one or two transverse bands. Fam. A. Species. Icon. 1. Min. Euphorbiata, Fab.* Hubn. Geom.tab. 15. f.'78. (mas.) * Hercyna, Stephens. + Venta, Duponchel.—“ All the wings sprinkled with little irregular spots, both on the upper and under sides, on a light ground-colour. — Palpi long and velvety.— Mazille long.’—Duponch. l. c. p. 110. Asraxas, Stephens. Zenene, Duponchel.—* All the wings traversed across the middle by two rows of crowded spots, many of which form larger spots by their union. —Abdomen punctuated.—Palpi very short.—Mazille long, convolute only at the extremity.” —Duponch. l. c. p. 110. || Barra, Stephens. { Corcyrta, Duponchel.—* Independent of the rest of the markings, which vary with the species, each wing has a distinct spot in or near the centre of its disc.—Palpi very short.— Mazille very long.” —Duponch. l.c. . 110. Pre Minoa, Duponchel.—* All the wings of one colour, both on the upper and under sides; the second wings very much rounded.— Palpi short.— Maz- ille long.” —Duponch. I. c. p. 112. r 2. Min. Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. 463 prado} yi Species. Tcon. 2.Min. Lutearia, Fab.*. . . .Htbn. Geom. tab. 23.f.121.(mas.) $.—Cherophyllata, Linn.t+{Hubn. Geom.tab. 38. f.196.(mas. ) Fam. B..- 4,—Griseata, Wien. Verz...Hubn. Geom. tab. 41.f.216.(mas.) 5.—Niveata, Treitsch. . . .Htbn. Geom. tab.41.f.217.(foem.) 6.—Illibaria, Hubn. .. ..Hubn.Geom. tab. 40.f:207. (mas. ) Genus 106. ID/EA, Ochs., Treitsch. (Stona, Pettonia, DosiruEa, Duponchel. Ina, Prycuoropa, Stephens.) Obs. M. Duponchel, whose profound knowledge of the sub- ject entitles his remarks to more than common attention and respect, says of this genus;—“ prejudiced in favour of his (Treitschke’s) arrangement of the Phalenidz, I had intended to adopt it, unaltered, in this work; but on ap- plying it to my own collection, I found that the Author comprehends a host of species, in his genera, which do not possess the characters assigned respectively to them; and that his nineteenth and last genus, which he calls Idea, is composed of species the most incongruous, such as dealbata, calabraria, ornataria, &c.: so that one might imagine that he has here brought together all those species for which he could not find a place in either of his preceding eighteen genera, without troubling himself to consider whether or not any analogy exists between them. However, with the exception of this genus, which ought to be abolished, the others appear to rest on solid bases; and I have consequently adopted them, but with the restriction, of referring to each, those species only which really belong to it.”—As to the name Idea, Duponchel very justly observes that it cannot stand, having already been employed to denote an exotic genus of the Papilionide. All the wings with two or three dusky, somewhat arched, and undulated transverse bands, with, generally, between them a point or crescent-shaped spot.—Zarva very thin in pro- portion to their length, almost filiform.—Metamorphosis subterranean. * Creocene, Duponchel.—* All the wings of one colour, sometimes very light, sometimes very dark,—Pa/pi short, velvety —Mawille very long.” — Duponch, l.c. p. 109. + Minoa, Stephens. { Tanacra, Duponchel. “ Superior angle of the first wings, rounded.— Body long and thin.—Palpi short.—Mawille long.” —Duponch. 1. c. p. 1 ‘7 1. Id, 464 Ochsenheimer’s Genera of the Lepidoptera of Europe. Species. Icon. 1.Id. Dealbata, Linn.* ...Hubn.Geom.tab. 41.f214. (foem.) 2.— Decussata, Wien. Verz..Hubn.Geom. tab. 41. f. 213, (mas.) f. 215. (foem.) 3.—Calabraria, Hubn. ...Hubn. Geom. tab. 10. f.49. (foem.) 4.—Vibicaria, Linn.+ ...... Hiibn. Geom. tab. 10. f. 50. (mas.) 5.—Vincularia, Hubn. . . .Hubn. Geom. tab. 78. f. 402. (mas. ) 6.—Aureolaria, Fal. ....Hubn. Geom. tab. 12. f. 62. (mas.) 7.—Degenerata, Treitsch. Hubn. Geom. tab. 11. f. 57. (mas.) 8.—Aversata, Linn. .....Hubn. Geom. tab. 11. f. 56. (mas.) tab. 75. f. 389. (foem.) 9.—Suffusata, Treitsch.t 10.—Remutata, Linn. ....Hubn.Geom. tab. 18. f. 98. (foem.) 11.—Mutata, Treitsch... . .Rosel, I. th. 3. cl. tab. 11. f 1—3. 12.—Submutata, Treitsch.§ 13.—Immutata, Linn. ....Hutbn. Geom. tab. 20. f. 108. (mas.) 14.—Jncanata, Linn, ... ..Hibn. Geom. tab. 19.100. (mas.) tab. 20. f. 106. (foem.) 15.—Ornata, Fab.|| . .... .Hubn. Geom. tab. 14. f. 70. (mas.) 16.—Decorata, Wien. Verz.q Hubn. Geom. tab. 14. f. 71. (mas.) 17.—Reversata, Treitsch.* 18.—Bisetata, Borkh. ....Htibn. Geom. tab. 14. f. 73. (foem.) 19.—Scutulata, Borkh.....Hiibn. Geom. tab. 14. f. 72. (foem.) 20.—Moniliata, Fab. .. .. .Hubn. Geom. tab. 12. f. 59. (foem.) 21.—Levigata, Fab. .... .Hubn. Geom. tab.14. f.'74. (foem.) At length we have completed our extracts from the Schmet- terlinge Von Europa, as far as we have yet received the work. When the third part of the sixth volume shall reach us, we propose to resume our labours, in continuation. Till when, we heartily bid our entomological readers farewell. * Tpza, Stephens.—Scorta, Duponchel.—“ Nervures of the wings, very strong.—Abdomen long, linear.—Palpi with the last joint very acute, pro- jecting beyond the forehead.—Maville very long.”—Duponch. Lep. de Fran. tom. vii. part. 2. p. 112. t+ Prttonia, Duponchel.—“ All the wings traversed by a narrow band towards the centre of the disc,—the band often separating into two lines. — Antenne and legs very long.—Palpi obtuse, not projecting beyond the forehead.— Mazille \ong.’’—Duponch. l. c. p. 109. { Id. alis virescenti flavidis, lineis obsoletis fuscescentibus, puncto medio nigro.— Ochs. Treitsch. vi. part. 2. p. 272. § Id. alis albidis, atomis czerulescentibus ; anticis maculis cost lineisque obsoletis fuscis.— Ochs. Treitsch. l. c. p. 277. || Dosrruza, Duponchel.—All the wings with a point in the centre, on an uniform ground, and traversed near the extremity by a sinuous line, usually accompanied by confluent spots.—Pa/pi very short.— Mawille long. —Antenne in the males rather ciliated than pectinated,”’—Duponch. 1. c. p- 108. {| Prycuoropa, Stephens. * Id. alis pallide flavis, margine externo fusco, lineaque undata albida, puncto medio nigro.x—Qchs. Treitsch, 1. c. p. 286. LIST Patents.— Meteorological Observations for October 1829. 465 LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To T. Morgan, Tipton, Stafford, manufacturer of tin plates, for a method of manufacturing or preparing iron plates, or black plates for tinning.—Dated the 9th of September—6 months allowed to enrol specification. To R. Torrens, Croydon, Surrey, Lieutenant-Colonel in the royal marines, for an apparatus for the purpose of communicating power and motion.—9th of September.—6 months. To D. Laurence, Stroud, and J.C. Ashford, gun-makers, Kent, for their improvements in apparatus to be applied to fowling-pieces and other fire-arms, in place of locks.—15th of September.—6 months. To G. Harris, Brompton-crescent, Middlesex, captain in the royal navy, for his improvements in the manufacture of ropes and cordage, canvass and other fabrics or articles from substances hitherto unused for that purpose.—1 5th of September.—6 months. To J. Milne, Edinburgh, architect, for a machine or engine for dressing stones used in masonry, by the assistance of a steam-engine, a wind, a horse, or a water power, whereby a great quantity of manual labour will be saved.—15th of September.—6 months. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR OCTOBER 1829. Gosport.—Numerical Results for the Month. Barom. Max. 30-50. Oct.10. Wind W.—Min. 29-42 Oct.7. Wind N. Range of the mercury 1-08. Mean barometrical pressure for the Month ......++seseecseeeeeeeeees . 30-077 Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury...........- 7:170 Siete variation in 24 hours 0-770.—Number of changes 22. Therm. Max. 65° Oct. 2. Wind E.—Min. 30° Oct. 31. Wind N. Range 35°.—Mean temp.of exter. air 50°-77. For 31 days with © in «50°48 Max. var. in 24 hours 21°-00—Mean temp. of spring-water at 8 A.M, 94:38 De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer. Greatest humidity of the atmosphere in the evening of the 16th... 98° Greatest dryness of the atmosphere in the afternoon of the 6th... 52 Range of the index ......... sodasbpnsanedgideseneccessnt Secnighdes ss0taasoh sens 46 Mean at 2 P.M. 68°-7.—Mean at 8 A.M. 75°-8.—Mean at 8 P.M. 79°8 of three observations each day at 8, 2, and 8 o’clock .....+++. 748 Evaporation for the month 1-55 inch. Rain in the pluviameter near the ground 1-47 inch. Prevailing winds, S.W. and N.W. Summary of the Weather. A clear sky, 44; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 13}; an over- cast sky without rain, 8$; rain, 44.—Total 31 days. Clouds. Cirrus. Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus, Stratus. Cumulus, Cumulostr. Nimbus. 6 29 0 14 17 1D N.S. Vol. 6. No. $6. Dec. 1829. gO Scale 466 Meteorological Observations for October 1829. Scale of the prevailing Winds. NOE SE. WS ew. CIN ee 6 4 Jac, cRidinalhe” Wee 4 re General Observations. —The weather this month has been mostly fine, with occasional showers, which were often accompanied by heavy gales of wind. Onthe 3rd instant, the last flight of swallows departed for a warmer climate. In the evenings of the 6th and 15th lunar halos appeared, and were followed by rain and wind. On the mornings of the 7th, 8th, and 9th, ice appeared on the ground the first time this autumn, and the days were unusually cold: the maxi- mum temperatrue of the 8th did not exceed 48 degrees, and light showers of snow were seen at Horndean, and in other parts of Hampshire. The mean temperatnre of this day and night is about equal to the mean of Christmas-day and night for the last fourteen years ! On the 28th a fine coloured parhelion appeared on the northern side of the sun, with a faint solar halo. In the afternoon of the 30th two winds crossed each other from North and West, when the clouds between them showed an electrical appearance, and lightning emanated from them in the evening. The mean temperature of the external air this month, is two and a quar- ter degrees less than the mean of October for many years past. The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our observations this month, are, one parhelion, one solar and two lunar halos, five meteors, and thirteen gales of wind, or days on which they have pre- vailed; namely, three from the North, one from the North-east, six from the South-west, one from the West, and two from the North-west. REMARKS, London.— October 1. Very fine. 2. Drizzly: slight fog at night. 3. Stormy andwet. 4.Fine: drizzly in the afternoon. 5. Stormy, with showers : fine. 6. Fine. 7. Stermy rain: large flakes of snow fell in the afternoon and co- vered the ground a considerable thickness: strong gale at night. 8. Cold and stormy: snow lying onthe hills, 9. Fine. 10. Very fine. 11,12. Cloudy. 13, Fine morning: cloudy. 14. Stormy, but fair: heavy gale at night. 15. Clear andcold. 16.Cloudy. 17,18. Very fine. 19.Cloudy. 20. Fine: drizzly at night. 21. Stormy, but fair: rain at night. 22.Cloudy. 28—25. Very fine, with slight fugs in the morning, and at night. 26. Foggy: cloudy. 27. Dense fog: fine. 28. Stormy. 29.Very fine. 30. Cloudy’: drizzly atnight. 31. Fine. Penzance.—October 1. Fair. 2. Fair: rain. $3—7. Showery. 8. Clear. 9. Misty. 10. Fair. 11,12. Misty. 13. Fair:rainat night. 14.Showery. 15.Clear. 16,17. Misty. 18—21.Rain. 22.Showery. 23, 24. Clear. 25. Misty rain. 26,27. Clear. 28.Fair: showers. 29.Clear. 30, Fair: rain. 31. Fair. Boston.—October 1.Fine. 2.Cloudy. 3. Rain: rainearly a.m. 4. Fine. 5. Cloudy: rain early a.m. 6. Fine, 7, Cloudy: snow storm 11 P.M. 8. Stormy. 9. Fine. 10—13. Cloudy. 14, Cloudy: rain early a.m. 15. Fine. 16. Cloudy. 17, 18. Fine. 19. Cloudy. 20. Cloudy: rain at night. 21. Fine: rain at night. 22. Cloudy: raine.m. 23, 24. Fine. 25. Cloudy. 26. Misty. 27. Misty: ice this morning. 28.Fine. 29.Cloudy. 30. Cloudy: rainat night. $1. Fine, Meteoro- OI- |°"* jovo. | °** | 02: + loot. |" |oo. | °** vee fre dogg. fee | oot eee eae eee £0. 0Z- eee eee GLO. eee eee eee fee eee eee cl. €z 1060: lost: | °"* ase SI. JO9E- ooh" | II | OT: eee 090: oV79o’ co: eee wee tere logge [eee | ot *** 1030. jogo" | *** | OT: eee 0So- eee eee eee eee eee COZ. ees GI. 60. |0Z0- Joos. |“ | *** see oro. eee Lo. eee “loro. |e: | ot | OT eee coo: ee wee eee eee eee ee eee Cl. *** 1081: |OfT. 189. | ** ve [ates Ieog, | 2" | 08: €1. |S10- oor. | Lo. | *"* QI: |," Si00T: EMRIs $G.0]08£- 090.0 PP. | 0.0 eee 080-0, oe | 80.0 eee e] oo |e [cle a7 @|-k | tarhes “UIeyy [dea “N ‘AN | “HN “AUN | *ON “ON | “HN “AN | ‘AN "MN | ON “MS | "MN “AAS | “MAS "MS | ‘AMS "MS | "MS “mM | ‘MAS “MS | “MS "MN | °HS *N | “ON "MS | *AAS "mM | “A “ms | “MA “Mm | ON “MN | “AN "MN | ON *PULAL pce an an fe Ath ne, tanaae a OV-1/OLY- TiS€0-£) 09-1; GS-1 €1P-6% SSP-0F __|LLP| 0€ | $9 | oF | Zo | 6% | $9 | 6F-62 | Gh-6 | 05-08 | 09-62 | OF-0€ {820-00 | = AV ‘an| €F| of | 19 | gv | PS | 62 | 6F | SP.6z | 26-62 | FI-0€ | S0-0£ | 90-08 796-62 \801-0£ If -ms| 9710S | PS | OF | SS | zh | 9S | £9.62 | 80-08 | 61-08 | ST-0f | S1-08 176.6% \9Z1-0F Of ‘xn | oF| ACHROMATIC telescopes, on Mr. Hall’s discovery of, 233. Acids:—rosacic, in humanurine, 147 ; oxalic, the atomic weight of, 166 ; aspartic, 236; pectic, 237; muriatic and sulphuric acid, action of, upon hydrocyanic acid, $15; sulphuric acid and alcohol, mutual action of, 342; phosphoric, 395. 4&ther, on the process by which it is formed, 342; action of, on sul- phate of indigo, 393. Albumen, new principle from, $16. Alcohol and sulphuric acid, mutual action of, 342, Ammonia, on the crystals of bicarbo- nate of, 40; chloride and iodide of, 147; decomposition of, by me- tals, 147. Ammonites in Haytor, 315. Analyses :—of platina ores, 146; of Bath water and of mineral springs in Windsor Forest, 148; of the juice of carrots, 237; of arseniate of iron, 314; of bones, 393. Andrews (T.) on the action of a flame of the blowpipe on other flames, 366. Arseniate of iron, analysis of, 314, Aspartic acid and aspartates, 236. Astronomical Society, 66. Astronomy:—Prof.Encke onHadley’s Sextant, 84,181 ; queries respect- ing Mr. Hall’s discovery of achro- matic telescopes, 233: Bessel’s tables for calculating the places of the fixed stars, 267; his calcula- tions for predicting occultations of stars by the moon, 336, 410; historical éloge of the Marquis de Laplace, 370. Bache (Dr.) on the analysis of gase- ous mixtures, 180. Bakerian Lecture, by Dr. Wollas- ton, 1. Barium, on chloride of, 53 ; bromide of, 143. Bat, Mr. Gray on the genera of, 28. Bath water, analysis of, 148. caleedony from Beche, (H. T. De a) on the secon- dary stratified rocks, 213; on the excavation of valleys, 241; classi- fication of European rocks, 440. Bell (C.) on the nerves of the face, 135. : Berzelius’s analysis of platina ores, 146; on thorite, and thorina, 392. Bessel’s (Prof.) tables for calculating the places of fixed stars, 267 ; cal- culations for predicting occulta- tions of stars by the moon, 336, 410; on Mr. Hassler’s plans, &c. for a survey of the coast of the United States, 401. Bevan (B.) on measuring the force of pressure, 284; on the mo- dulus of torsion, 419. Bicarbonate of ammonia, on the cry- stal of, 40. Bicheno (J. E.), letter to, by W. S. MacLeay, on Systems and Me- thods in natural history, 199. Birds :—on the respiration of, 515 winter birds of passage, arrival of, during 1828-29, 110; summer birds of passage, arrival of, during 1829, 276; on the organs of voice in birds, 136. Blackburn (Rev. J.) on a parabolic sounding board, 21. Blowpipe, action of a flame of the, on, other flames, 366. Bones, fossil, Rev. W. V. Vernon on a discovery of, near North Cliff, 225; analysis of bones, 393. Books, new, 47, 133, 237, 305. Booth’s (W. B.) meteorological re- sults for 1827, 156. Botanic Garden sof England,—Prof. Schultes on the Cambridge, 357; Oxford, 358; Kew, 365; Horti- cultural, 428; Chelsea, 430. Botany :—Description of Epiphyl- lum, 107; fossil plants which cha- racterize the secondary and tere tiary formations, 133; new ac- count of Kalanchée, $01; on the cultivation of Botany in England, 351, 428. INDEX. Boyle's fuming liquor, on, 76. Brain, on the, 54. Brine-springs in North America, ori- gin of, 71; salt springs inEngland, discovery of iodine and bromine In, 235. Bromides, on, 142, 152; of carbon, 313. Bromine, discovery of, in the mine- ral waters of England, 235, 283; atomic weight of, 237. Brongniart’s (A.) list of plants which characterize the secondary and tertiary formations, 133. Brown (R.) on active molecules, 161. Buckland(Dr.):—Cole and Egerton’s account of the destruction of the cave of Kiihloch, 92; on the oc- currence of agates in the Mendip Hills, 136. Burney’s (Dr.) meteorological obser- vations, 78,158, 238, 318, 397,465. Bywater (Mr.) microscopical obser- vations, 165. nt Calcedony from Haytor, ammonites in, 315. Calcium, bromide of, 143. Cambridge Botanic Garden, Prof. Schultes’s description of, 357. Carbazotates of copper and lead,145. Carbon, bromide of, 313; combusti- bility of, increased by platina and copper, 394. Carrots, juice of, analysed, 237. Cave of Kiihloch, destruction of, 192. Challis (J.) on the equations of the motion of incompressible fluids, 123; on the arbitrary functions in integrals of partial differential equations, 296, Cheese, persons poisoned by eating, $12, Children’s (J. G.) abstract of Och- senheimer’s genera of the Lepido- ptera of Europe, 9, 99, 188, 286, 325, 451. Chloride and iodide of ammonia, 147; chloride of barium, 53. Chronometers, prize, system of, at Greenwich, 424. Clark (Dr.) on the influence of cli- mate, 305. Climate, on thé influence of, 305. Cole (Visc*.) and Kgerton’s account of the destruction of the cave of Kiihloch, 92, 469 Conybeare (Rey, W. D.) on the val- ley of the Thames, 61. Copper, carbazotates of, 145; copper and platina, combustibility of car- bon increased by, 394. Crystallography, 40, 147. Crystals, calcareous, in the tissues of vegetables, 147. Curves, Mr. Lubbock on, 249. Cuvier’s (M.) opinion on generic names in natural history, 348. Davy’s (Sir H.) experiments on the torpedo, 81. Daubeny (Dr.) on the discovery of iodine and bromine in the mine- ral waters of England, 235. Egerton and Visc‘. Cole on the de- struction of the cave of Kiihloch, 92. Earth, figure of the, 272; deviation of a falling body from the vertical to the earth’s surface, 321. Encke (Prof.) on Hadley’s Sextant, 84, 181. Epiphyllum, Mr. Haworth on, 107. Equations of the motion of incom- pressible fluids, 123; differential, on arbitrary functions in, 296. Eudiometer, sliding-rod, Dr. Hare on, 114, 171. Face, on the nerves of, 135. Falling bodies, deviaticn of, 321. Figure of the earth, on the, 272. Fish, fossil, of Seefeld, 36. Fluids, incompressible, on the equa- tions of the motion of, 123. Fossils :—fish, 36; vegetables, 133 ; insects, 188; shells, 149, 232; bones, discovery of, near North Cliff, 225. Fourier’s (le Baron) historical éloge of the Marq. de Laplace, 370. Fox (R. W.) on mineral veins, 17. Functions, monome, 262 ; arbitrary, 296. Galbraith (W.) on the deviation of falling bodies, 321. Galvanism, the electric and chemi- cal theories of, 52. Gaseous mixtures, analysis of, 180. Gay-Lussac (M.) on Boyle’s fuming liquor, 76; on the action of pot- ash on organic matter, 367; on phosphoric acid, $95. Genus, on the word, 202. GeologicalSocietyofLondon, 55,156. 470 Geology:—on mineral veins, 17 ; on the bituminous schist and fossil fish of Seefeld, 36; on the tertiary and secondary rocks of Bassano, 55; on the tertiary deposits of the Cantal, 58; fossil feces, 60; on the valley of the Thames, 61; on brine springs and rock salt of North America, and on the forma- tion of new red sandstone, 71; equivalent formation, in England, of the saliferous rock of North America, 75; destruction of the cave of Kiihloch, 92; list of plants which characterize the secondary and tertiary formations, 133; on the occurrence of agates in the Mendip Hills, 136; on the ter- tiary freshwater formations of Aix, 137; British fossil shells 149 ; on secondary stratified rocks, 213; discovery of fossil bones in a marl-pit, near North Cliff, 225; on the excavation of valleys, 241 ; classification of European rocks, 440. Geological Society, 55, 186. Greenwich, on the system of prize chronometers at, 424. Gray (J. E.) on the genera of bat, 28. Hadley’s sextant, 84, 181. Hall’s discovery of achromatic tele- scopes, queries respecting, 233. Hare (Dr.) on the sliding-rod eudio- meter and the volumescope, 114, 171. Hassler’s plans, &c. for a survey of the coast of the United States, Prof. Bessel on, 401. Haworth (A. H.) on Epiphyilum, 107; new account of Kalanchée, 301; Prof. Schultes on, 432. Ilaytor, ammonites in calcedony from, 315. Hennell (H.) on the mutual action of sulphuric acid and alcohol, and the process by which ether is formed, 342. Henry (M.) on bromides, 142; on urea, 312, Horticultural Society’s Garden,Prof. ‘Schultes’s description of, 428. Hydrocyanic acid, action of sulphu- ric and muriatic acid upon, 315. J.S. on generic names in natural history, 348. INDEX Indigo, sulphate of, action of zther on, 393. Ink, indelible, 141. Jodide and chloride cf ammonia,147. Iodine, discovery of, in salt springs, &c. in England, 235, 283 ; atomic weight of, 257. Iron, perbromide of, 142 ; silicate of, 147; arseniate of, 314. Ivory (J.) remarks on an article in the Bulletin des Sciences, 272. Kalanchée, new account of, 301. Kiihloch, destruction of the Cave of, 92. Laplace (Marg. de), historical éloge on, 370. Lead, carbazotates of, 145. Lepidoptera of Europe, Ochsenhei- mer’s genera of, 9,99, 188, 286, 325, 451. Linnean Society, 185; Herbarium, 353. Liquor, fuming, 76. Lubbock (J. W.) on curves of the second order, 249. Lyell and Murchison on the ter- tiary deposits of the Cantal, 58. MacLeay’s (W.S.) examination of Mr. Bicheno’s paper on Systems and Methods in natural history, 199. Magnesium, bromide of, 143. Mainspring (Caleb) on the system of prize chronometers at Greenwich, 424, Major’s (Mr.) analysis of British and foreign ships of war, 41, 94. anganese, purification of oxide of, 77; Mr. R. Phillips on the oxides of, 281. Mercury:—protobromide of, 144; per- bromide of, 144 ; cyanide of 145; the atomic weight of, 166; Orfila on Smithson’s mode of detecting, $94. Metals, decomposition of ammonia by, 147. Meteorological results for 1827, 156. Meteorological table of observations for May, 80; June, 160; July 240; August, 320; September, 399; October, 407. Meteorology, 78, 156, 238, 318, 397. 465. Microscopical observations, 153,161. INDE X. Miller (W. H.) on the crystalline form of bicarbonate of ammonia, 40. Mineral veins, Mr. Fox on, 17; mi- neral springs in Windsor Forest, analysis of, 148; mineral waters of England, discovery of iodine and bromine in, 235, 283; thorite, a new mineral, 392. Mines, Mr. John Taylor on the management of, $83. Molecules, active, Mr. Brown en, 153, 161. Monome functions, on the product of two, 262. Moon, calculations for predicting cccultations of stars by the, 336, 410. Murchison (R. I.) on the bituminous schist and fossil fish of Seefeld, 36; on the tertiary deposits of the Cantal, 58; on the fresh-water formations of Aix, 137. Muriatic and sulphuric acid, action of, upon hydrocyanic acid, 315. Murray (J) on the discovery of iodine and bromine in the mineral waters of England, 283. Natural history, Mr. W. S. Mac Leay on Systems and Methods in, 199; Cuvier and DeCandolle on Generic Names in, 348. Natural system in natural history asserted to be the system of the Deity, 202, 208, 210. Needle, on the variation of the, 153. Obituary :—Dr. Young and Sir H. Davy, 140. Occultations of stars by the moon, calculations for predicting, 336, 410. Ochsenheimer’s genera of the Lepi- doptera of Europe, 9, 99, 188, 286, 325, 451. Optical phenomena, Dr. Stokes on, 416. Ores, platina, analysis of, 146. Orfila (M.) on Smithson’s mode of detecting mercury, 394. Organic matter, active molecules in, 161; action of potash on, 367. Ornithology, 51, 110, 136, 276. Osmium, pure oxide of, how to ob- tain, 8. Oxalic acid, on the atomic weight of, 166. 471 Oxford Botanic Garden, Prof. Schultes’s description of, 358. Oxides of manganese, purification of, 77. Palladium, malleable, how to ob- tain, 7. Patents, 78, 154,317, 396,465. Pectic acid, 237. Phenomena, optical, 416. Phillips (Rich.) on cyanide of mer- cury, 145; on the oxides of man- ganese; 281. Phosphoric acid, 395. Piperine, preparation of, 314. Plants, which characterize the se- condary and tertiary formations, list of, 133. Platina, Dr.Wollaston on rendering malleable, 1 ; spongy platina, 141 ; platina ores, analysis of, 146; com- bustibility of carbon increased by copper and platina, 394. Poison in cheese, 312. Potash, action of, on organic matter, 367. Potassium, bromide of, 144; bromine and bromide of, 152. Pressure, Mr. Bevan on measuring the force of, 284. Prideaux (J.) on the atomic weight of oxalic acid and of mercury,166. Pyrometer, new, 312. Reviews of beoks :— Dr. Graham’s Chemical Catechism, 47; Dr. Clark on the Influence of Climate, $05. Rocks, saliferous, of North America, equivalent formation of, in En- gland, 75; secondary stratified rocks, on, 213; European rocks, classification of, 440. Rock-salt in the “ saliferous rock” of North America, 71. Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, 139, 309, 38°. Royal Institution, 69. Royal Society of London, 51, 135. Ritchie (W.) on the electric and chemical theories of galvanism, 52. Sandstone, new red, on the forma- tion of, 71. Sang (Edw.) on the product of two menome functions, 262. Schist, bituminous, of Seefeld, 36. Schultes (Prof.) on the cultivation of botany in England, 351, 428. s 472 Seefeld, bituminous schist and fossil fish of, 36. Serullas (M.) on sodium, 149; on bromide of carbon, 313. Sextant, Hadley’s, 84, 181. Shad and Whitebait, on the identity of, 2538. Shells, fossil, 149, 232. Ships of war, Mr. Major’s analysis of, 41, 94. Silicate ofiron from Bodenmais,147. Smith, Sir J. E., Prof. Schultes on, 352. Smithson’s mode of detecting mer- cury, M. Orfila on, 394. Societies, learned: Royal Society, 51, 135; Royal Academy of Sci- ences of Paris, 139, S09, 382; Linnean Society, 135; Geological Society, 55, 136; Astronomical Society, 66; Royal Institution, 69; Calendar of the Meetings of the Scientific Bodies of London for 1829-30, 400. Sodium, bromide of, 144; M. Se- rullas on sodium, 149. Sounding board, new, 21. Spurzheim (Dr.) on the brain, 54. Starch, sugar from, 314. Stars, fixed, Bessel’s tables for cal- culating the places of, 267 ; on the occultations of stars by the moon, 336. Steam-engine, 384- Stokes (Dr.) on some optical phzeno- mena, 416, Sugar from starch, $14, Sulphuric and muriatic acid, action of, upon hydrocyanie acid, $15. Sulphuric acid and alcohol, mutual action of, 342. Systems in natural history, artificial and natural, 200. INDEX. Taylor (J.) on the management of mines, 383. Taylor’s (R. C.) arrangement of Bri- tish fossil shells, 149. Telescopes,achromatic,on Mr. Hall’s discovery of, 233. Thames, Rev. W. D. Conybeare on the valley of the, 61. Thorina, a new earth, 392. Thorite, a new mineral, 392. Torpedo, Sir H. Davy’s experiments on, 81. Torsion, Mr. Bevan on the modulus of, 419. Turner (Dr.) on chloride of barium, 58; his letter to Mr. R. Phillips on the oxides of manganese, 283. United States, Hassler’s plans for a survey of the coast of, 401. Urea, preparation of, 312. Urine, human, rosacic acid in, 147. Valley of the Thames, 61. Valleys, Mr. Dela Beche on the ex- cavation of, 241. Vegetables, fossil, 183; calcareous crystals in the tissues of, 147. Veins, mineral, remarks on, 17. Vernon (Rev. W. D.) on a discovery of fossil bones nearNorthCliff, 225. Volumescope, Dr. Hare on the, 171. White (W. H.) on the variation of the needle, 153. Whitebait and Shad, on the identity of, 253. Windsor Forest, analysis of mineral springs in, 148. Wollaston (W. H.) on rendering platina malleable, 1; his present to the Astronomical Society, 66. Yarrell (W.) on the identity of Whitebait and Shad, 25s. Zoology, 28, 253, 348. END OF THE SIXTH VOLUME, LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, KED LION COURT, FLEET STKEFT,. 1829. PHIL. MAC, & ANNALS NS.VOLG PLL. NM°2, FRONT ViEW : Oho fat TClerhorn 0 SOUNLING BOARD IN ATTERCLIPFE CHURCH SHEITIVILD 4 Phil Mag &Annals NS VAGLL2. a aa Angular Gravel --- FEES Aq. A. Green Sand. --- SS, é laren, = ke z =p Sees or Elephant See i Ag.4. = “ : ESS > =e Sea, ~ te 7m TT Ang i, : iin, Ps Hine — ~ ae H Udo ta Beche det ' = Chas Phillips. si : Formation o Valley , _ ep ee othe s' Puy ae AF oe eee