oan Sa eee ee VoL. 67. Senator 1826. No. 333. ; WAVE MERE AAG) cg COE aa ke) THE ( IPHILOSCPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL: — : THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, i" » THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE. » ANG NUMBER CCCXXXIII. For JANUAR ¥ 1826, We) a y bas! a 1s By RICHARD TAYLOR, F.LS. epR> MEMEER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE METEOROLO- GICAL SOCIETY 5 AND OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 9, ALE RE 3 SP LAMAMAM. ‘ DESASENEL ESE 4 AX LONDON: PRINTED BY ‘RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE : y cated Longman, Reés, Orme, Brown, and Green; Baldwin, Gradack, > ley; Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper; Harding; Underwood 38 : ; London :--and, Py Constable and Co. aan ey S \/f an a VIR ate ae VGINY ie a iS J th. PRR ee ahaa ts Sh TO CORRESPONDENTS. We have to acknowledge the receipt of a Communication from Mr. Dowpgy. ———— PHARMACOPCIA LONDINENSIS, Iterum recognita et retractata, 1824, p. 6. “ ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS,” vel —S Sew oO ne ee “ Acidum Aceticum & Ligno destillatum.” URE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID, agreeable to the Sample P furnished at the request of the Committee of the Royal College of Physicians, may be had of the Manufacturers, BEAUFOY & CO. South Lambeth, London. This day is published, in One Volume Octave, Price 10s. 6d.’in boards, COMPARATIVE VIEW of the DIFFERENT INSTITUTIONS for the ASSURANCE of LIVES, By CHARLES BABBAGE, Esq. M.A. F.R.S. L. & E, &c. containing Remarks on the following Subjects: On the Tables of Mortality employed for calculating the Premiums of Assurances.—On the different Kinds of Societies for the Assurance of Lives.—On the Rates of ”remiums.—On the Proportion of Profits re- turned to the assured.—On the Mode of assigning the Bonus to the assured. —On the Periods at which Assurers become entitled to partici- pate in a Division of Profits. —With an Appendix, containing a variety of Tables, amongst which are a Table of Mortality amongst Assurers— the Premiums charged at all Ages by the various Offices—and a Table of the Profits made by each, &c. &c.—Printed for J. Mawman, Ludgate- street. pa ENGRAVINGS IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE, illustrative of the following Subjects: Vol. LIV. 1. Menai Bridge.—2. Mr. Lowe’s Mercurial Pendulum.— 8. Mr. Hare's Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument.—4. Capt, Sa- srne’s Illustration of Irregularities observed in the Direction of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander; and Mr, ScoresBy’s — Anomaly in the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. ro ae Vol. LV. 1, Comet’s Path of July 1819.—2. Annular EclipseoftheSun, Sept. 7.—3. Mr. Lane's Instrument, for gathering Fruit; Mr.Youne’s Mode of preparing Opium from the Papaver somniferum; and Captain For- MAN’s Essay on a Property in Light —4. Mr. Curusert’s Hydro-pne matic Apparatus, &c—5. Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, of Light; Mr, C. Bonnycasrve on the Influence of Masses of Iron 0 Compass. ae FEBRUARY 1820. Pie S34. & THE 1&3 PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE] AND JOURNAL: COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, * AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, ae AND COMMERCE, , VAI YSINY a eV4 We) Y| 8 AMA a , VARY GIRY We a ¥ LIV GEN aN NUMBER CCCXXXIV. For FEBRUARY 1826. WITH A PLATE Tiustrative of Prof. Hans’-._«’s Paper on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth, \ WAM » f = _ By RICHARD TAYLOR, F.LS. MEMBER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE METEOROLO- GICAL SOCIETY ; AND OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. i Bo Gn i : > ASO: Bi ree (\ oe MS ACY LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE: Id by Cadell; Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green; Baldwin, Cradock, ey; Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper; Harding; Underwood} 2 sa arshall; London :—and by Constable and Co. Edinburgh 3 | enman, Glasgow HEV ACY MEV ACY ACY Wes Var VAY AY AIEY TS aS V ai YY ‘\) 5 TO CORRESPONDENTS. Mr. Watsn’s Paper has been received, and is under consideration. j Mr. Gatsrartx’s Communication on the Figure of the Earth will appear in our next Number. PHARMACOPGIA LONDINENSIS, Iterum recognita et retractata, 1824, p. 6. “ ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS,” vel ** Acidum Aceticum & Ligno destillatum.” |B es CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID, agreeable to the Sample furnished at the request of the Committee of the Royal College of Physicians, may be had of the Manufacturers, BEAUFOY & CO. South Lambeth, London. CATON’S WORKS. This day was published, price 5s. PRACTICAL TREATISE on the SYMPTOMS, TREAT- MENT, and CURE of SYPHILIS; containing Observations on the Diseases © immediately or remotely connected with it, as Derangements of the Bladder, Urethra, ' Ulcerations, Eruptions of the Face and Skin, Gleets, &c. with Remarks on Mercury, and its Effects on the Constitution; interspersed with select Prescriptions. By T. M. CATON, Surgeon, late of the united Hospitals of St. Thomas and Guy’s. A POPULAR TREATISE on the PREVENTION and CURE of the DIF- FERENT STAGES of ASTHMA and WINTER COUGH, with new and suc- cessful Instructions for the Prevention and Treatment of Asthmatic Fits, 3s. POPULAR REMARKS, MEDICAL and LITERARY, on NERYOUS DE- BILITY, RELAXATION, HYPOCHONDRIAC and HYSTERICAL DIs- EASES, containing an Inquiry into the Nature, Prevention, and Treatment of those diseases called Nervous, Bilious, Stomachic, and Liver Complaints; with Observations on Low Spirits, and the Influence of Imagination on these acute and distressing Dis- eases, &c. 3s. 6d, A New Edition, price 3s, 6d. with Cases, PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS on the DEBILITIES, NATURAL and CONTRACTED, of the SYSTEM, in which the Force of Dangerous and Volup- tuous Habits are minutely investigated ; including copious Observations on the Theory of Generation, Fluor Albus, &c. &c. A TREATISE on INDIGESTION; to which are prefixed, some general Obser- vations on Serofulous and Cutaneous Diseases, price 3s. A PRACTICAL TREATISE on FEMALE DISEASES; exhibiting the Cha- racter, Symptoms, and Treatment of the most important Diseases to which the Female System is subject, at peculiar Periods of Life; comprising an elementary Work for Students, and a Guide to the general Reader, 3s. 6d. Printed for Messrs. Sherwood and Co, 20, Paternoster-row ; C, Chapple, 66, Pall- mall; and Bowen, $16, Oxford-street, London. ENGRAVINGS IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE, illustrative of the following Subjects: Vol. LV. 1. Comet’s Path of July 1819.—2. Annular Eclipse of the Sun, Sept. 7.—3. Mr. Lane's Instrument for gathering Fruit; Mr. Youne’s Mode of preparing Opium from Papaver somniferum; and Captain For-— mMAN’s Essay on a Property in Gg ae Mr. Curnsert’s Hydro-pneu- matic Apparatus, &c.—5, Capt. FormAn’s Essay on the Reflection, &c. of Light; Mr, C, Bonnycast ez on the Influence of Masses of Iron.on the Compass. jh oR Marcu 1826. No. 335. MAMA MEA ME AME AME MEA ME AME ME ME ANE S Published the Last Day of every Month.—Price 2s. 6d. Za = | =i PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE ‘ AND JOURNAL: = ‘SF COMPREHENDING >< a THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, _ THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE. NUMBER CCCXXXV. For MARCH 1826. CY ACY ACY At Vit Y j WITH AN ENGRAVED CHART Se Illustrative of Prof. Hanstzen’s Paper on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth, Br RICHARD TAYLOR, F.L.S. MEMBER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SQCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE METEOROLO- GICAL SOCIETY; AND OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, FAY ANY A VARY e) SCERS \wEamstant. : 7 ji ey Si G4 Rest LONDON: Ss PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE® gs Ts | ES _ Simpkin and Marshall; London :—and by Constable and Co, Edinburgh ; | 4] and Penman, Glasgow. f BY HEY MEY SEY AME Y HEY EY THCY ANE ACY TAC Y WEN TO CORRESPONDENTS, The Communications from Mr. Bevertry, Mr. Burns, and Mr. Moserey, will be -inserted probably in the next Number. J. Ns Demonstration “ that no part of a circle is a straight line” is ingenious and successful ; but this truth may be allowed to rest upon the terms of the defini- tion of a circle, of a curve, and a right line. Mr. Dition’s paper is not intended for insertion. Mr. MacLeay’s register of the Thermometer at Wick, in the North of Scotland, for last year, has been received.—Also, two Communications from Mr. MErkxe. eee PHARMACOPGIA LONDINENSIS, Iterum recognita et retractata, 1824, p. 6. «“ ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS,” vel «“ Acidum Aceticum @ Ligno destillatum.” URE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID, agreeable to the Sample furnished at the request of the Committee of the Royal College of Physicians, may be had of the Manufacturers, BEAUFOY & CO. Sout Lambeth, London, 4 ENGRAVINGS IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE, illustrative of the following Subjects: Vol. LIII. 1. Dr. Ure’s Experiments on Caloric, Mr. Luckcocx’s Paper on the Atomic Philosophy, and Mr. Botron’s on the Purification of Coal Gas.—2. Mr. Rennie’s Apparatus employed in his Experiments on the Strength of Materials; and the Marquis R1poLrut’s Improvement on the Gas Blowpipe—3. Mr. Merxxe’s Paper on Calorific Radiation ; Mr. Lowe's on the Purification of Coal Gas ; and Mr, Huegurs’s on ascér- taining Distances,—4. Dr. OLInTHUs Grecory’s Paper on the different Rates of PennincTon’s Astronomical Clock at the Island of Balta, and at Woolwich Common, Vol. LIV. 1. Menai Bridge.—2. Mr. Lowe's Mercurial Pendulum.— $. Mr. Hare’s Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument.—4. Capt. Sa- BINE’S Illustration of Irregularities observed in the Direction of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander; and Mr. Scoressy’s Anomaly in the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. Vol. LV. 1. Comet’s Path of July 1819.—2. Annular Eclipse of the Sun, Sept. 7.—3. Mr. Lane's Instrument for gathering Fruit; Mr. Youne’s Mode of preparing Opium from Papaver somniferum; and Captain For- man’s Essay on a Property in Light.—4. Mr. Curnpert’s Hydro-pneu- matic Apparatus, &c.—5, Capt. FormAn’s Essay on the Reflection, &c. of Light; Mr, C. BonnycAstLe on the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Compass. Vol. LVI. 1. Mrs. Isserson onthe Physiology of Botany.—2. Mr. Hat's Percussion Gun-Lock; Dr. Kircuener’s Pancratic Eye-Tube ; Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks—3, Sections of Mr. MaLam’s Gas-Meter. -~*, Discoveries of Captain Panny in the Polar Sea. or Vot. 67. May 1826. No. 337. SMA MEA MEA MEA MEA MEA MEAMEA NEA MEA MEME - pe 'h 22 =} Published the Last Day of every Month.—Price 2s. 6d. SS ~<— Ge. =} THE & eS PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINEG i AND JOURNAL: e <= $ , rat COMPREHENDING gone ee THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, baa ss) 2. = THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, Ss = AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, = s AND COMMERCE. B Ce a ie NUMBER CCCXXXVII. For MAY 1826. By RICHARD TAYLOR, F.S.A. F.L.S. MEMBER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE METEOROLO- : GICAL SOCIETY; AND OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. ACY HEY AEY HEY AAV AIC HEY ACY I W >> pa” € s) 2 =) LONDON: S ) PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE: yet ee J) Sold by Cadell; Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green ; Baldwin, Cradock; (J and Joy; Highley; Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper; Harding; Underwood; ¢ < d i 3 Simpkin aa x ron ; London :—and by Constable and Co, Edinburgh ; = = cr" TO CORRESPONDENTS. a , ed ad “Mancetxus’s difficulty arises from confounding the present value of a rever-- sionary annuity, with that of an equivalent reversionary swnt:—the former is at q worth one year’s purchase more than the latter, because both becoming due at _ the same period, the annuity is receivable at the commencement of the year, when | the corresponding sum (if invested) is only beginning to be productive, and on — which an annuity, equal in amount, will not become due until the end thereof.— For further information on the subject, we recommend M. to peruse with atten- ~ tion the whole of Prob. 23, chap. 6, and Questions 26 and 27, chap. 12, of Barty’s Doctrine of Life Annuities. PHARMACOPGIA LONDINENSIS, Iterum recognita et retractata, 1824, p. 6. “ ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS,” vel “ Acidum Aceticum 2 Ligno destillatum.” URE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID, agreeable to the Sample furnished at the request of the Committee of the Royal College of — Physicians, may be had of the Manufacturers, BEAUFOY & CO. South Lambeth, London. ENGRAVINGS IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE, illustrative of the following Subjects: Vol. LIII. 1. Dr. Ure’s Experiments on Caloric, Mr. Luckcocx’s Paper on the Atomic Philosophy, and Mr. Botron’s on the Purification of Coal Gas.—2. Mr, Rennir’s Apparatus employed in his Experiments on the Strength of Materials; and the Marquis R1poLpui’s Improvement on the Gas Plowpipe.-5. Mr. Merxte’s Paper on Calorific Radiation ; Mr. Lowe’s on the Purification of Coal Gas ; and Mr. Hugurs’s on ascer- taining Distances—4, Dr. OLinruus Grecory’s Paper on the different Rates of PennincTon’s Astronomical Clock at the Island of Balta, and at Woolwich Common, Vol. LIV. 1. Menai Bridge.—2. Mr. Lowe’s Mercurial Pendulum.— _ 3. Mr, Hare's Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument.—4. Capt. Sa- BINE’s Illustration of Irregularities observed in the Direction of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander; and Mr, ScorEsBy’s Anomaly in the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. Vol. LY. 1. Comet’s Path of July 1819.—2, Annular Eclipse of the Sun Sept. 7.—3. Mr. Lane’s Instrument for gathering Fruit; Mr. Young's - Mode of preparing Opium from Papaver somniferum; and Captain For- mMANn’s Essay on a Property in Light.—4. Mr. Curnserr’s Hydro-pneu- matic Apparatus, &c.—5. Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, &c. of Light ; Mr. C. Bonnycasrxe on the Influence of Masses of Iron. onthe — Compass. ; . Vol. LVI, 1, Mrs. Inserson on the Physiology of Botany.—2. Mr. : HA.v’s Percussion Gun-Lock; Dr, Krrcuener’s Pancratic poe Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks—3, Sections of Mr, MALAM’s 4. Discoveries df Captain Parry in the Polar Sea. . as-Meter. A Bee a Vou. Gi 8 eo uae 1 820, No. 338. SAMAMA WEA MEA MEA MEA MEA NEA MEA MEA ME) Published the Last’ Day of every Month.—Price 2s. 6d. aN 4 ry PS PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE aie AND JOURNAL: be) ‘é] ~ COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, | AND COMMERCE. a. 2 ee NUMBER CCCXXXVIII. For JUNE 1826. ARE RE RE RE RE RES Br RICHARD TAYLOR, F.S.A. F.LS. MEMEER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE METEOROLO- GICAL SOCIETY “AND OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, ; ; AUERD + a ‘ pte igs iA a — a 5 LONDON: PRINTED BY dicnanp TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE!: Sold by Cadell; ong ae, Orme, Brown, and Green; Baldwin, Cradock, | and Joy; Hie hley ; Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper; Harding; Underwood ; sat Simpkin and Marshall ; London :—and by Constable and Co, Edinburgh 5 |f 29) and Penman, Glasgow, TO CORRESPONDENTS. We have to acknowledge the receipt of the following communications ; On a new Property of the Circle; by T. S. Davizs, Esq. On the Lunar Observations ; by Tuomas BEvERtxy, Esq. BRITISH ORNITHOLOGY. July 1, 1826. This day is published, in royal Octavo, price 3s. 6d. the First Number of an entirely new Periodical Work, in elucidation of that very beautiful and interesting department of Science, HE NATURAL HISTORY of the NESTS and EGGS of BRITISH BIRDS; the Descriptions, which are calculated for the Naturalist as well as general Observer, are intended to comprehend every useful trait of Information respecting the Nidification, Eggs, and Incubation of the numerous Species of the Feathered Tribes that inhabit the British Isles ; and are throughout accompanied by a Series of elegantly-coloured Plates, comprehending Figures of the Eggs of every Species, with their most singular Varieties, so far as they can be correctly ascertained. The whole exclusively executed from Nature, and disposed according to their respective Genera, By E. DONOVAN, Esq. F.L.S. M.W.S. &c. Member of the Zoological Society of London; Author of the Natural History of British Birds, in Ten Volumes, and other approved Works in various branches of Zoology. London: Printed for the Author, and sold by all Booksellers. The manifest importance of this Work to every one interested in the study of Natural History must be obvious ; the undertaking is one of as much originality as beauty, and will, it is presumed, be considered an in- dispensable companicn to almost every work on the subject of European Ornithology, and to that of this Country in particular. Its more immediate design in the first instance was to constitute an appropriate Mantzssa that might be added with much advantage to the publication on British Birds by the same author, which has been so long favoured with public coun- tenance and encouragement. But the first outlines of this design have been since extended, and itis now presumed it may be consulted with advantage, as well by the readers of other Ornithological publications as by those ofthat Work in particular, to which it was at first in contemplation to be devoted. This undertaking will not be less than 24 or exceed 36 Numbers, and will be continued periodically from the commencement to the completion of the publication, To prevent disappointment, as the num. ber of copies provided will be in a material degree governed by the imme- diate demand, Subscribers are requested to forward their orders as early as possible to their respective Booksellers,—Orders are received by Messrs. Rivington, St. Paul’s Church-yard, Waterloo-place, and 148, Strand; Messrs. Longman and Co. Paternoster-row; Sherwood, Gilbert, and Co. Paternoster-row; Simpkin and Marshall, Stationers’ Court; and every other Bookseller in Town and Country. Subscribers desirous of plain Copies must give explicit orders for such. : NATURAL HISTORY of BRITISH BIRDS. A Series of Coloured Plates, with appropriate Descriptions of such rare species of the Feathered Tribes as inhabit the British Isles, and have been unavoidably omitted in the above-mentioned work, is also in a course of. preparation, and will shortly be produced in Parts or Numbers periodically. adi THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL: COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE. BY: BRACHARD: TAYEO fi, BLAS, MEMBER OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, OF THE METEORO- LOGICAL SOCIETY; AND OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. “Nec aranearum sane textus ideo melior quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.”” Just. Lips. Monit. Polit. lib. i. cap. 1. VOL. LXVII. FOR JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH, APRIL, MAY, and JUNE, 1826. LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE: AND SOLD BY CADELL; LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN; BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY; HIGHLEY; SHERWOOD, GILBERT, AND CO.; HARDING ; UNDERWOOD; SIMPKIN AND MARSHALL, LONDON :—AND BY CONSTABLE AND CO. EDINBURGH: AND PENMAN, GLASGOW. © 9 ALERC Oe Sb CONTENTS OF THE SIXTY-SEVENTH VOLUME. A NEW Catalogue of Meteoric Stones, Masses of Meteoric Iron, and other Substances, the Fall of which has been made known, down to the present Time. By E. F. F. Cutapnt Page 3 An Account of some Eudiometers of an improved Construction. By Rosert Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsyluania -. - + + + + sss 21 On the Theory of the Figure of the Planets contained in the Third Book of the Mécanique Céleste. By J. Ivory, Esq. PL SE Eee, ipsen ya eg ey \ ROR EE Ee ORS 5 ee eae | Sequel of the Memoir of M. AMPERE on a new Electro-dynamic Experiment, on its Application to the Formula representing the mutual Action of the two Elements of Voltaic Conductors, and on new Results deduced from that Formula . . . 37 On the Theory of Evaporation. By THos. TrepGoxn, Esq. 45 Reply to the Remarks of Mr. Rippie on the Double Altitude Problem. By James Burns, Esq. - + + + + + 47 Demonstration of Mr. Levy’s Property of the regular Octahe- dron ;—with a Postscript on P. Q’s Defence of Mr, Hena- patu’s Demonstration. By T.S. Davies, Esq. . . 52 On the Comet of 1825. By Tuomas Sguire, Esq. . « 55 On the Planet Saturn. By M. Smiru, Esq . - «© - 57 Further Researches on the Preservation of Metals by Electro- _ chemical Means. By Sir Humpury Davy, Bart. Pres. B.S. 89 Reply to Mr. Davtes’s Postscript on Mr. Herapatn’s De- - monstration. By P.Q.. - - + + +: 3 101 Notice of a Meteoric Stone which fell at Nanjemoy, in Mary- land, North America, on February 10, 1825. By Dr. Sam. D. Carver. Jn a Letter to Professor SuuuimaAN «+ 102 Analysis of the Maryland Aérolite. By Georcr CHILTON, Lecturer on Chemistry, 5c. » + + + + # © + 8 104 Vol. 67. . a CONTENTS. Essay on the Gales experienced in the Atlantic States of North America. By Rosery Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania... + + + Page 110 On the Number and Situation of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. By Professor CurisropHeR HanstEEN . . . 114, 167 On the Combinations of Antimon, y with Chlorine and Sulphur. By M. Henri Rose. . . . 2 ieee On Mr. Burns’s Communications plniciee the Double Alti- tude Problem. By E. Rippie, Esq... . « « « 131 On the same. By Mr.T. BeverLEy . . -) “ated On the Figure of the Earth. By Wm. Gitte Esq. M.A. 161 Continuation of the New Catalogue of Meteorites. By E. F. F- CHELADNI . 5. alley eae kes! (ii Some Account of the Dissection of a Simia Satyrus, Ourang Outang, or Wild Man of the Woods. Bi y JoHN JeFFRIES, VED. : be Ruan wm sts ey co e-3 Description of a eens eee of the ‘eis Condylura. By T. W. Harris, M.D. . . oA ney ee On the Volcanic Origin of the Rock-salt ene By Dr. J. N@GGERATH .. 5 sada hs On the Fossil Elk of Ir Hone By Toonas Vite Esq. MAA FIG SAS. ne ae . . 196 On the Ebullition of Water at Specift Tiioneee as the Measure of Altitude. By Joun Ae FSA. F.L.S. PAS: E.G GO. eae jit = (ao Report made to the Academy of eee oad of August 1825, on the Voyage of Discovery, performed in the Years 1822, 1823, 1824, and 1825, under the command of M. DurERREY, Lieutenant of the Navy. By M. Araco . 203, 280, 362 - List of Errata in the Mathematical Tables of Dr. Hutton and Dr.Grecory. By Mr. J. Urrinc. . . . . 210 On the Phenomena connected with some Trap Dykes in York- shire and Durham. By the Rev. ADAM Sepewick, M.A. F.R.S. M.G.S. Fellow of Trinity College, and Woodwardian Professor in the University of Cambridge. . . 211, 249 On the Properties of a Line of shortest Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate PERS Se B, y Ja pase Esq. M.A. F.RS. . «Al, S40 On the Determination “of the Gohoral Term of a New Class of Infinite Series. By Cuartes Banpace, Esg. M.A. Fellow CONTENTS. of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society . . - . Page 259 On the Application of the Sliding Rod Mssts ‘ement in Hydro- metry. By Roserr Hare, “M.D. Pr alesse of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania . . - « 266 On the Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus Weligbodoims discovered in the Lias at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, in the Collection of His Grace the Duke of Buckingham . . feattete, Die Note on the Genus he ah: pei of Illiger. by J. D. Gopmay, SED. . Sw, QRS On the Gace of the Mion eae By on EPHEN Groom- BRIDGE, Esq. FBS. Sc. Ge. 2 2 6 6 ewe whe 277 On Mr. Datrron’s Speculations respecting the Mixture of Gases, the Constitution of the i ey Kee By Tuomas Trep- GOLD, Se SO. ate eek On the Equilibri zum of ae Soncems Cur ve sie the String is extensible. By H. Moseury, Esg. B.A «wt. 324 On the mutuul Action of Sulphuric Acid and Naphthaline, and on a new Acid produced. By M. Faranay, Esq. F.R.S. Cor. Mem. Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, §c. 326, 397 Hydrographical Notices: —Remarks on the Method of investi- gating the Direction and Force of the Currents of the Ocean; Presence of the Water of the Gulf-Stream on the Coasts of Europe in January 1822; Summary of the Currents experi- - enced by His Majesty's Sh ip Pheasant, in a Voyage from Sierra Leone to Bahia, and thence to New York ; Stream of the River Amazons crossed, three hundred Miles from the Mouth of the River. By Captain Evwarp Sasine, R.A. ER. & LS. ce. 332, 421 Character and Description of Kingia, a new Genus of Plants found on the South-west Coast of New Holland: with Obser- vations on the Structure of its Unimpregnated Ovulum ; and on the Female Flower of Cycadee and Conifere. By Ro- BERT Brown, Esq., P.ASSL.G EL. PLS. . 352,409 On the Rectification of Curve Lines. By T. Brverzey, Esq. 393 On finding the Latitude, &c. from three Altitudes of the Sun and the elapsed Times. By James Burns, Esq. . . . 406 Notice relating to the Theory of the i cum ov Fluids. By J. Ivory, Esq. Ma Eim . : - . 489 Supplement to Mr. Herapatn’s: pe in the Philosophical Magazine for August 1825, on Functional Equations. By Jou Hxrraparn, PROMEEC aio = 2 oe sll} AD CONTENTS. On the Ignition of Gunpowder by the Electric Discharge; and on the. Transmission of iis through Water, has By Mr. W. SturGron. . . os let te, YAS Notices respecting New Books . . - + 60,219, 289 Proceedings of Learned Societies 67, 133, 221, 290, 373, 450 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles 72, 148, 225, 301, 387, 453 List of New Patents: .'. . . « 75, 156, 231, 317, 388 Meteorological Tables . . . « 80, 160, 240, 320, 392, 457 PLATES. I. & II. Prof. Hanstren’s Paper on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. IIf. Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus. ERRATUM: Page 301, line 5, for American read Amician. THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. SL’ ha N° UA Y. WSaG: I. A new Catalogue of Meteoric Stones, Masses of Meteoric Iron, and other Substances, the Fall of which has been made _ known, down to the present Time. By K. F. F. Cutapni.* § I. Introduction. ig is my intention to offer, in the present memoir, a com- plete and rectified catalogue of all the phenomena of this description that have been observed from the earliest ages down to the present time. Since the publication of my work on Igneous Meteors and the Substances that have fallen Jrom them+; in which I treated this subject as fully as I was able, new occurrences of the same description have taken place; and these I published, by way of appendices to my work, in vol. lxviii. p. 329, and in vol. Ixxi. p. 358, of Gilbert’s Annals. In the present catalogue, I shall, in order to avoid prolixity, forbear mentioning the sources of my information on such phzenomena as are treated of in the above-mentioned work ; but I shall cite them if the fact has not been inserted in it. I shall also omit all those phenomena which do not really be- long to this class (for instance, where hail has been mistaken * From Schweigger’s Neues Journal, B. vi. p. 87. In order to make this catalogue of meteorites (which is the latest that has been drawn up,) as complete as possible, we have inserted notices of a mass of meteoric iron, and the fall of some meteoric stones, which have lately been communicated to the same Journal by Prof. Neggerath ; and we have also appended to it some particulars of the various falls of meteorites that have taken place since Dec. 1822, when the catalogue was first published, as well as of some masses of iron subsequently discovered. Our additions are distinguished by insertion within brackets.——Epir. + Ueber Feuer-meteore und tiber die mit denselben herabgefallenen Massen, in one vol. 8vo; accompanied by an appendix with 10 lithographic prints by Schreibers, in folio; published at Vienna in 1819. Vol. 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826. A2 for 4 Dr. Chladni’s Catalogue of Meteoric Stones for the fall of meteoric stones); and where I cannot omit I shall insert them in parentheses, for the purpose of showing that they are extraneous. Ifuncertain, I shall prefix to them a note of interrogation. Those mentioned in my work are pre- ceded by an asterisk. § II. Falls of Meteoric Stones and Masses of Iron. A. Before the Christian Atira. Division 1.—Containing those the time of the fall of which can be indicated with some degree of certainty. ? 1478 B.C. In Crete, on the Cybeline mountain, the stone considered as the symbol of Cybele, with which Pythagoras was initiated into the mysteries of the Id@i Dactyli. (The narrative in the book of Joshua of stones having fallen from heayen probably alludes to a hail-storm.) ? 1403. Perhaps a mass of iron fell on Mount Ida in Crete. 1200. Stones preserved in the temple at Orchomenos. ? 705 or 704. The Ancyle: most probably a lump of iron somewhat flattened. 654. Stones on the Albanian mountain. 644. In China. 465. A large stone near Aigos-potamos. Not long before or after. A stone near Thebes. 211. A remarkable fall of a stone near Tong-Kien in China. During the period of the second Punic war, probably about 206 or 205. Fiery stones. 192. In China. 176. A stone in agro Crustumino in the Lake of Mars. 99 or 89. Lateribus coctis pluit, probably at Rome. 89. Stones in China. 56 or 52. In Lucania (a district which consisted of part of the present Abruzzo, Apulia, and Calabria), spongy iron. (I believe that I am in possession of a small fragment of this iron, as I shali have occasion to show in sect. iii. B.) ? Perhaps stones, perhaps hail, near Acilla. 38, 29, 22, 19, 12, 9, 6, in the first moon, and 6, in the ninth moon. Stones in China. Division 2.— The time of the fall of the following is indeter- minable. The stone which fell at Pessinus in Phrygia, which was considered as a symbol of the Mother of the Gods, and carried to Rome by Scipio Nasica. The stone considered as a symbol of Phoebus, and brought from Syria to Rome by Heliogabalus. ; A stone and Masses of Meteoric Tron, &c. 5 A stone preserved at Abydos, and another at Cassandria. ¢ Probably the symbol of Diana at Ephesus. ? Probably the black stone in the Caaba at Mecca, and an- other also preserved there. (The stone preserved in the coronation-chair of the kings of England, and which was considered as something remark- able at a very remote period, is, according to late accounts communicated to me, not a meteoric production.) B. After the Christian Atra. A stone fell in the Vocontorium agro, perhaps in the first half or about the middle of the first century. In the years 2, 106, 154, 310, and 333. Stones in China. (The pretended fall of a stone at Constantinople in the year 416, mentioned by Sethus Calvisius, originated in a misun- derstanding.) 452. Three very large stones in Thrace. During the sixth century. Stones on Mount Lebanon, and near Emesa in Syria. | ? 570 (or about that time). Stones near Beder in Arabia. 616. Stones in China. ? 648. A fiery stone at Constantinople. ? 839. Stones in Japan. 852, in July or August. A large stone in Tabaristan. 892 or 897 (or 908). At Ahmed-Dad, many stones. 951. A stone at Augsburg (not in Italy). 998. Two stones near Magdeburg. Not long after 1009, a large mass of iron, according to the description similar to that of Pallas, at Dschordschan. (Sub- sequently the name of the place has been falsely read and written Cordova, and Lurgea, and a Rex Torati made of the sultan of Khorasan). 1021. Stones in Africa. 1057. A stone in Corea. 1112. Stones, or perhaps iron, near Aquileja. 1135 or 1136. A stone near Oldisleben in ‘Thuringia. ? 1138, the 8th of March. Probably stones near Mosul. 1164, during Whitsuntide. Iron in the district of Misnia. (I pass over many accounts of that period, which are either fabulous, or relate perhaps to falls of hailstones). 1249, the 26th of July. Stones near Quedlinburg, &c. ? During the 13th century a stone is said to have fallen at Wiirzburg. (‘The specimen preserved there was nothing but an old battle-axe.) Between 1251 and 1360, many stones fell near Welikoi- Usting in Russia. 1280. 6 Dr. Chladni’s Catalogue of Meteoric Stones 1280. Near Alexandria in Egypt, a stone or mass of iron. 1304, 1st of October. Near Friedland or Friedburg, many red-hot stones and masses of iron. ? 1328, 9th of January. Perhaps stones, in Mortahiah and Dakhaliah. ? 1339, 13th of July. Perhaps stones, in Silesia. ? 1868. Perhaps iron, in Oldenburg. 1379, 26th of May. Stones near Minden in Hanover. 1425. A meteoric stone in the island of Java. ? 1438. Near Roa in Spain, a great many very light stones. 1474. Near Viterbo, two large stones.—Biblioteca Italiana, tom. xix. p. 461, Sept. 1820. ? During the same century a stone seems to have fallen near Lucca, accompanied by a substance takenfor coagulated blood. 1491, 22d of March. A stone near Rivolta de Bassi, not far from Crema. * 1492, 7th November. The well-known fall of a large stone near Ensisheim. F 1496, 26th or 28th of January. Stones between Cesena and Bertinoro, and in the vicinity of Forli. ? Perhaps during this century, or at the beginning of the fol- lowing, a stone near Brussels. (I forbear mentioning several accounts of that period in which the fall of hailstones seems to have been mistaken for that of meteorites.) 1511, 4th of September, or a few days after. A great fall of meteoric stones near Crema, not far from the river Adda. (Some authors, misunderstanding the words prope Abduam, have made Abdua of it.) 1516. In the province of Se-tschuan in China, six stones. 1520, in May. In Arragon, three stones. ? 1528, 29th of June. Large stones near Augsburg. ? 1540, 28th of April. A large stone and several smaller ones in Limousin. Between 1540 and 1550. A large mass of iron in the forest near Neunhof, between Leipzig and Grimma. (Some authors have changed Neunhof into Neuholem.) About the middle of the same century, iron in several parts of Piedmont. 1552, 19th May. A large fall of stones near Schleusingen, &c. (In several French and English periodicals Schleusingen has been confounded with Schleisheim near Munich.) 1559. Near Miskolz in Hungary, five large stones, or perhaps masses of iron. 1561, 17th May. Stones or masses of iron near Torgau and Eilenburg. (There and Masses of Meteoric Iron, &c. 7 (There is an account of a fall of stones in 1564, the Ist of March, between Mecheln and Brussels, which seems to be fabulous. ) ; ? 1572, 9th January. Perhaps a fall of stones near Thorn. 1580, 27th May. A large fall of stones near Norten, not far from Gottingen. 1581, 26th July. A stone at Niederreissen near Buttelstadt in Thuringia. 1583, 9th January. A stone or mass of iron near Castro- villari in Abruzzo. 1583, 2d March. A stone in Piedmont. 1596, 1st March. Stones at Crevalcore in Ferrara. Probably during the same century, a stone in the kingdom of Valencia in Spain. 1608, in the 2d half of August. In Styria, very large stones, together with a substance resembling blood. 1618. A metallic mass in Bohemia. 1621, 17th April. A mass of iron, near Lahore in India. 1622, 10th Jan. In Devonshire, a large stone. 1628, 9th April. In Berkshire, a stone. 1634, 27th October. In the county of Charollois, in the former duchy of Burgundy, a large fall of stones. ? 1635, 7th July. Perhaps a stone near Calcein the Vicentine. 1636, 6th March. A very large stone between Sagan and Dubrow, in Silesia. 1637 (not 1627), 29th November. A stone on Mount Vai- sier in Provence. 1642, 4th August. A stone in Suffolk. Between 164% and 1644. Stones on-board a ship in the In- dian Ocean. 1647, 18th Feb. A stone near Zwickau. 1647, in August. A fall of stones near Stolzenu in West- halia. t ? Between 1647 and 1654. A ball weighing eight pounds, and therefore probably a mass of iron, is said to have fallen on the deck of a vessel in the Indian Ocean, and to have killed two persons. 1650, 6th August. A stone at Dordrecht. 1654, 30th March. A large fall of stones on the island of Fuhnen. About the middle of the same century, a large stone at Warsaw. Likewise at Milan, a small stone which killed a Franciscan friar. (An account of stones said to have fallen in 1667 at Shiraz seems to be fabulous). 1668 8 Dr. Chaldni’s Catalogue of Meteorie Stones, 1668 (not 1662, 1663, nor 1672), the 19th or 21st June. Very large stones in the Veronese. 1671, 27th February. Stones in the Ortenau in Suabia. ?1673. Stones near Dietlingen in Baden, (Perhaps only the same event mistaken.) 1674, 6th October. Two large stones in the canton of Glarus. ? About 1675 or 1677. Near Copinsha, one of the Orkneys, a stone fell on a ship. (Perhaps a mistaken repetition of the former account.) 1677, 28th May. At Ermindorf near Grossenhain, stones differing from other meteoric stones, and which, according to their appearance, as well as to Balduin’s analysis, contained copper, which some other circumstances render still more probable. [The following instances are cited by Dr. Noeggerath in Schweigger’s Neues Journal, Band. xiv. p. 357, from Beccher’s Laboratorium, published in 1680: their dates are of course prior to that period. Petermann Eterlein relates, in his Swiss Chronicle, that in a great storm a mass of iron fell from the heavens, together with a number of stones; and that the iron measured sixteen feet in length, fifteen in width, and two in thickness. Paulus Merula says, in his Cosmographia, that six iron axes had fallen from heaven; upon which Beccher remarks that he does not believe them to have been really azes, but that they might have had the form of those weapons, as the stones which fall have, and whence they have received the name of Donneriixte, or thunder-azes, in the German language.—This relation seems doubtful, as the stone weapons of the aboriginal inhabitants of Europe have been called thunder-bolts, &c. in every language. Epir. ] (The account of the stones said to have fallen in 1686, the 18th of May, in London, near Gresham College, is to be erased from my work, page 239; since 1t appears from the work of Edward King, which I saw subsequently, at p. 20, that it was, like the event of 1791, nothing but hail. ‘This instance, to- gether with many others, proves how necessary it is not to trust to second-hand accounts, but always to refer to the first source.) 1697, 13th January. Stones near Siena. 1698, 19th May. A large stone near Waltring, canton of Bern. 1706, 7th June. A large stone near Larissa in Thessaly. - 1715, 11th April. Stones near Stargard in Pomerania. —Gilbert’s Annals, vol. Ixxi. (1822) p. 215. 1722, 5th June. Stones near the convent of Schefftlar in the district of I’reissingen. (The and Masses of Meteoric Iron, Sc. 9 (The pretended fall of metal in 1731, near Lessay, was no- thing but a misunderstanding of an electric phosphorescence of rain.) 1738, 18th October. A meteoric stone in the province of Avignon (badly described by a person ignorant of the sub- ject). ' 1740, 25th October. Stones near Rasgrad on the Danube. (The stone said to have fallen in Greenland, in the winter of 1740-41, was nothing but a piece of rock, which having detached itself from a hill, rolléd down into the valley.) 1750, 11th October. Stones near Coutances, in the de- partment de la Manche, or Normandy. *1751, 26th May. ‘The well-known mass of iron near Hradschina in the province of Agram. * 1753, 5th July. Stones near Tabor in Bohemia. 1753, in September. ‘Two stones near Laponas in Bresse. 1755, in July. A stone near Terranova in Calabria. 1766, in the middle of July. A stone near Alboreto, not far from Modena. ?1766, 15th August. Perhaps a stone near Novellara, * 1768. A stone near Lucé, department de la Sarthe. * 1768, 20th November. A stone near Maurkirchen in Bavaria. 1773, 19th September. A stone near Rodach in the duchy of Coburg. 1775 or 1776. Stones near Obruteza in Volhynia. About 1776 or 1777, in January or February. Stones near Fabbriano. 1779. A fall of stones near Petriswood in Ireland, in the county of Westmeath. 1780, 11th April. Stones near Beeston in England. 1782. A large stone near Turin. 1785, 19th February. A fall of stones in the vicinity of Eichstadt. * 1787, 1st October. Stones in the government of Char- cow. * 1790 (not 1789), 24th July. A very considerable fall of stones near Barbotan, Juliac, &c. 1791, 17th May. Stones near Castel-Berardenga in Tus- cany. (‘The account of a fall of stones on the 20th of October 1791, near Menabilly in Cornwall, mentioned in my work, page 261, must be expunged; since, according to the work of Ed. King, pp- 18 and 19, it was nothing but hail, as may also be seen by the drawing of some of the larger fragments.) Vol. 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826. B * 1794, 10 Dr. Chladni’s Catalogue of Meteoric Stones, * 1794, 16th June. A well-known fall of many stones near Sienna. 1795, 13th April. Stones in Ceylon. * 1795, 13th December. A stone near the Wold Cottage in Yorkshire. 1796, 4th January. A large stone near Belaja-Zerkwa in Southern Russia. * 1798, 8th or 12th March. A stone near Sales, depart- ment of the Rhone. 1798, 13th December. Stones near Krakhut in the vicinity of Benares, in Bengal. 1801. On the Isle de Tonnelliers near the Mauritius. 1802, inthe middleof September. Inthe Scotch Highlands+. * 1803, 26th April. The well-known great fall of stones near L’Aigle, in the department de Orne or Normandy. 1803, 4th July. A fall of stones at East Norton in Eng- land, which did some damage. 1803, 8th October. Stones near Apt, in the department of Vaucluse. * 1803, 13th December. Near Massing, district of Eggen- feld in Bavaria. 1804, 5th April. At High-Possil, near Glasgow, a stone. 1805, 25th March. Stones near Doroninsk in Siberia. 1805, in June. At Constantinople. * 1806, 15th March. At Alais in the department du Gard, two stones differing from others by their friability, and also by containing 2°5 per cent of carbon, in addition to the usual constituents of meteoric stones. “ 1806, 17th May. A stone near Basingstoke in Hampshire. * 1807, 13th March. A large stone near Timochin, in the government of Smolenskoi. i * 1807, 14th December. A fall of many stones near Weston in Connecticut. * 1808, 19th April. Stones near Borgo San Donino, and in the duchy of Parma. * 1808, 3rd September. Stones near Lissa in Bohemia. ?1809, 17th June. Upon a ship, and in the sea, near the coast of North America. 1810, 30th January. Fall of stones in the county of Cas- well in New Connecticut. 1810, about the middle of July. A stone near Shahabad + In a former catalogue of meteorites published in the Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. i. p.230, we find the following note on this passage: “ We have in- serted this notice from Chladni, though we believe that no stones fell in Scotland at the time here mentioned.” —Eprr. in and Masses of Meteoric Iron, &c. 11 in India. The meteor set five villages on fire, and injured se- veral persons. * 1810, in August. A stone in the county of Tipperary in Treland. * 1810, 23rd November. Three stones near Charsonville, near Orleans. 1811, between the 12th and 13th March. A stone in the government of Poltawa in Russia. * 1811, 8th July. Some stones near Berlanguillas in Spain. * 1812, 10th April. Stones near Toulouse. * 1812, 15th April. A stone near Erxleben, between Magde- burg and Helmstadt. * 1812, 5th August. A large stone near Chantonay, de- partment de la Vendée, which differs from others in having no crust, and in a few other particulars. 1813, 13th March. Meteoric stones near Cutro in Calabria, attended with a remarkable fall of red dust in several parts of Italy. 1815, in the summer. Stones are said to have fallen near Malpas in Cheshire. : * 1813, 10th September. Stones in the county of Limerick in Ireland. 1814, 3rd February. In the district of Bachmut in Russia, government of Ekaterinoslaw. 1814, about the middle of March (or 1813, 13th Decem- ber). Stonesnear Sawotaipola or Sawitaipal in Finland.— Vide my work, and Schweigger’s Neues Journ. Band i. p. 160. * 1814, 5th September. Many stones near Agen, depart- ment du Lot et Garonne. ‘ 1814, 5th November. Stones in the Doab in the East Indies. 1815, 18th February. A stone near Duralla in India.—Phil. Mag., August 1820, p. 156. Gilbert’s Amn., vol. lxviil. p. 333. * 1815, $rd October (not the 30th). A fall of stones near Chassigny, not far from Langres in Champaigne, or depart- ment de la Haute Marne. ‘They belong to that class of mete- orites which contain no nickel, and are further distinguished by their greater friability, greenish-yellow colour, glimmering appearance, and a crust as if varnished. A stone is said to have fallen a few years ago, in the Isle of Man, very ‘light and of a scoriaceous texture.—Phil. Mag. July 1819, p. 39. 1816. A stone near Glastonbury in Somersetshire. (I pass over several other accounts of pretended falls of stones, as being unfounded.) 1818. 10th August. A stone near Slobotka, government of Smolenskoi in Russia. B2 21819. 12 Dr. Chladni’s Catalogue of Meteoric Stones, ?1819. Towards the end of April a meteoric fall seems to have taken place near Massa Lubrense, in the Neapolitan duchy of Salerno, which appears not to have been sufficiently attended to. 1819, 13th June. Stones near Jonzac, department de la Charente inferieure.—Journ. de Phys. Fev. 1821, p. 136. Mém. du Museum @ Hist. Nat. tom. vi. p. 233. Thomson’s Ann. of Phil. Sept. 1820, p. 234. Neues Journ. f. Chem. u. Phys. vol. xxix. No. 4, p. 508. * 1819, 13th October. A stone near Politz, not far from Gera or K6stritz, in the principality of Reuss in Germany (not in Russia, as was stated in Thomson’s Annals, and repeated in several French publications).—Neues Journ. fur Chem. u. Phys. vol. xxvi. No. 3, p. 243. Gilbert’s Ann. vol. Ixiii. pp- 217 and 451. 21820. In the night between the 21st and 22d of May, a small stone is said to have fallen at Oedenburg in Hungary. Hesperus, vol. xxvii. No. 3, p. 94. * 1820, 12th (not 19th) July. A fall of stones in the circle of Dunaburg in Courland, of which an analytic account and a drawing Mes been given in Gilbert’s Ann. vol. Ixvii. No. 4, p- 337, by Baron Th. von Grotthuss; and I am indebted to the kindness of that gentleman for a fragment of this stone, which differs from others, in its possessing a larger proportion of iron. 1821, 15th June. Fall ofone large and several small stones ~ near Juvenas, in the department de |’Ardéche, of which an account made up from those that had been given in the Ann. de Chim., together with Vauquelin’s and Laugier’s analyses, appeared in Gilbert’s Annals, vol. lxix. p. 407, &c., and vol. Ixxi. pp. 201 and 203. 1822, 4th June. A fall of stones near Angers. [1822, 13th September. A stone fell in the vicinity of Epinal in the department of the Vosges, in France.—Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. xxi. p. 324. 1823, 7th August. Stones fell at Nobleborough in the state of Maine, U.S.—Phil. Mag. vol. lxiii. p. 16. 1824, 15th January. Stones fell in the commune of Re- nalzo, province .of Ferrara, in Italy.x—Ferrussac’s Bulletin, sect. 1. Sept. 1825, p. 183. ; 1824. Early in March, stones are said to have fallen near the village of Arenazo, in the legation of Bologna. Phil. Mag. vol. lxiii. p. 233.—Is this a mistaken notice of the preceding ? 1825, 10th February. A stone weighing sixteen pounds seven ounces fell at Nanjemoy in Maryland, U. S.—Annals of Philosophy, N.S. vol. x. p. 186.] § III. Masses and Masses of Meteoric Iron, &c. 13 § ILI. Masses of Native Iron containing Nickel, which are to be considered as meteoric. A. Spongy or cellular, the interstices being filled with a Sub- tance resembling Olivine. * The large mass found in Siberia, and made known by Pallas, whose meteoric origin was known to the natives, and in which the iron and olivine have the same constituents as are found in meteoric stones +. ? A fragment found between Eibenstock and Johann Georgenstadt. One in the imperial cabinet of natural history at Vienna, said to have been brought from Norway. * A mass weighing several pounds, found in a field, pro- bably at Grimma in Saxony, in the ducal cabinet of natural history at Gotha t. (The mass which fell in Dschordschan soon after the year 1009, according to the description must have been of this kind.) B. Solid Masses of Iron containing Nickel, and crystallized in Octahedrons. (The only mass yet in existence, whose fall may be consi- dered as being historically proved, is that which fell in the province of Agram in 1751, as mentioned above. ‘The fol- lowing, however, we conclude to be such, from their conformity with this and other circumstances.) * The mass preserved in Bohemia, from time immemorial, under the name of the Enchanted Burggraf, the greater part of which is now in the cabinet at Vienna. The name, as well as the remains of a tradition, in which a tyrannical nobleman is said to have been killed by it, in the suburbs of Hrabicz, lead us to suppose that its fall had actually been noticed. * The mass found near Lenarto in Hungary, on the bound- ary of Gallicia, in which on the surface, treated with acids, as well as in the fracture, the crystalline texture very distinctly appears. * One or several masses found at the Cape of Good Hope. Many masses, and among them several large ones; on the right bank of the Senegal. + Being unacquainted with any account of the crystallization of the olivine or peridot in this mass, it may not be improper to remark that I have one piece, of the size of a pea, beautifully crystallized in the form of a entagonal dodecahedron, besides several other pentagonal crystallized sur- aces being observable in it.—[See Phil. Mag. vol. Ixvi. p. 356.—En:r.] t Ibid. p. 367. * Several 14 Dr. Chaldni’s Catalogue of Meteoric Stones, * Several large and small masses in Mexico and in the Bay of Honduras. * A very large mass near Otumpa in the district of Santiago del Estero, in South America}. Another, on the left bank of the Rio de la Plata, is said to be still larger. * A very large mass, about fifty Portuguese miles from Bahia in Brazil; respecting which maybe seen, besides the authorities mentioned in my own work, the account of the Bavarian na- turalists Martius and Spix. A mass found near the Red River in America, and brought to New York. Two masses on the northern coast of Baffin’s Bay. A mass found near Bitburg, to the north of Treves, which has been probably smelted. (I have mentioned it in my book, p. 253, as doubtful, not knowing then, as I have since learned from the American Mineral ogical Journal, vol. i. p. 218, that after an analysis by Colonel Gibbs, it was found to contain nickel, and to be in every respect similar to the mass at New York.) + A mass discovered by Professor Horodecki of Wilna, near Rockicky, district of Mozyrz, in the government of Minsk, in which Laugier found nickel and a little cobalt.—Gilbert’s Annals, vol. lxiii. p. 32. § [Many masses of different sizes, discovered about the year 1810, in the vicinity of Santa Rosa, in the eastern Cordillera of the Andes; and which probably belong to this division.— Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. xi. p. 120. Two masses discovered at Zipaquir4, in the same Cordillera. Ibid. p. 122.] . ? It is possible that the isolated rock of forty feet high, near the source of the Yellow River, in Eastern Asia (according to Abel-Remusat’s account in the Journ. de Phys. May 1819) is of this description. The Moguls say that it fell down from heaven; and they call it Khadasoutsilao, i. e. rock of the pole. * The oldest fragment of meteoric iron, the antiquity of which can be historically proved, is probably the antique men- tioned in my work, p. 390, for which I am indebted to Pro- fessor Rosel of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Berlin, in whose presence it was dug up at Pompeii, near the temple of Jupiter, and the Goldsmith’s-street, in 1817. Its external texture even shows it to be meteoric; and being protoxidated from its having lain so long in the damp volcanic sand, it is no longer attracted by the magnet, but still acts on the + See Phil. Mag. vol. Ixvi. p. 367.—Enrr. t Ibid. vol. Ixv. p. 401. -§ Ibid. p. 411. magnetic ‘and Masses of Meteoric Iron, &c. 15 magnetic needle. It is a rounded oval about a quarter of an inch long, and a little less in breadth, and seems intended to have been set in a ring. One end isa little broken off. One side is a little more convex than the other, on which a small. elliptic slab of jasper of a reddish brown is let in; and on this a star and a moon by the side of it are engraved. As the ancients considered substances fallen from heaven (Betylia) as something sacred (upon which subject see the works of Muin- ter and Fred. von Dalberg), and as on several coins, &c. the meteoric origin has been indicated by a start, it probably indicates that this iron féll down with a fiery meteor of the apparent size of the moon. Now it seems more probable that it is a part of the iron which fell in Lucania, about fifty-six or fifty-two years before Christ, as mentioned by Pliny, Hist. Nat. ii. 57, than of any other: Ist, because it was close to Pompeii; 2dly, because no other fall of iron is mentioned by any more ancient author ; and 3rdly, because the destruction of Pompeii occurred only about 135 years after that fall, which would therefore be still in the recollection of the people. C. Masses of Native Iron, the Origin of which is uncertain, being different in Texture from the former, and containing no Nickel. *'The large mass at Aix-la-Chapelle, containing a little arsenic, silicium, carbon, and sulphur. It may possibly be the produce of the furnace; against which hypothesis, however, many objections might be made. * A mass found in the Milanese, on the Collina di Brianza, near Villa, weighing between 200 and 300 pounds, of very pure iron, with a small trace of manganese and sulphur. ‘The tex- ture is spongy, and the iron whiter than usual, and exceed- ingly malleable; on which account it cannot be considered as a product of the furnace. A mass found near Gross-Kamsdorf, in 100 parts of which Klaproth found 6 of lead and 1°50 of copper. The frag- ment possessed by him (a part of which is now in the cabinet of natural history at Vienna), as well as the specimen in the mu- seum at Paris, may be considered genuine; but the fragments shown at Freiburg and Dresden are unquestionably spurious. Some other masses (for instance, that found near Florac) must be considered as products of artificial fusion. + To this method of indicating the fall of a fiery meteor, the Chinese ex- pression, “A star fell to the earth, and turned into a stone,” bears a close analogy. IV. Fallen 16 Dr. Chaldni’s Catalogue of Meteoric Stones, IV. Fallen Substances, not being Meteoric Stones or Native Iron, but which in every appearance and in the most essential points agree with Meteoric Stones. - (Livy iii. 10, mentions that about 459 years before our zra, flesh fell from the sky, which was partly caught up by birds in the air, and when on the ground, lay for many days without putrifying. If this story be not altogether an inven- tion, it is difficult to guess what could have given rise to it.) About the year 472 of our zra, on the 6th of November, or as some say, the 5th or 11th, there was, probably in the vici- nity of Constantinople, a fall of a great quantity of a mephitic black dust, accompanied by fiery meteors, which led people to apprehend the destruction of the world. 652. Also a fall of dust near Constantinople, which ex- cited terror. 743. A fall of dust in several places, accompanied by a meteor. During the middle of the ninth century, blood-coloured dust, in several places. 929. At Bagdad, a reddish sand, after a red appearance in the sky. 1056. In Armenia, red snow. 1110. In Armenia, the fall of a fiery meteor into the lake Van, with much noise, and by which the water turned toa blood-colour ; and deep rents were found in the earth. 1222. Red rain near Viterbo.— Brblioteca Italiana, tom. xix. p- 461. 1416. Red rain in Bohemia. ? Probably during the fifteenth century, at Lucerne, a li- quid like coagulated blood, and a stone with a fiery meteor. 1501. Red rain in several places. 1543. Red rain in Westphalia. 1548, 6th November. Probably in the district of Mansfeld, the fall of a substance, like congealed blood, attended by a fireball and great noise. 1557. Friday after Sexagesima, at Schlage in Pomerania, large pieces of a substance resembling congealed blood. 1560, or 1568, or 1571, at Whitsuntide. Red rain in the vicinities of Lowen and Emden. 1560, 24th December. At Littebonne, department de la Seine Inferieure, red rain with a fiery meteor. ? 1562, 5th July. At Stockhausen, a German mile from Erfurth, a fall of a substance resembling hair, attended by a commotion and extraordinary noise. i . 1586, and Masses of Meteoric Iron, &c. 17 1586, 3rd December. At Verden in Hanover, and other parts, a great quantity of a blood-red and blackish substance, by which a plank was burnt, attended by a thunder-storm: (meteors and reports). 1618, in the second half of August. A fall of large stones attended by a fiery meteor, and what is called a rain of blood, in Styria. 1623, 12th August. Rain of a blood-colour at Strasburg, eppemuent to the appearance of a thick red-smoke-coloured cloud. 1637, 6th December. From seven o’clock in the evening till two on the following day, a great fall of black dust in the Gulf of Volo, in the Archipelago, and near Acra in Syria. 1638. Red rain near Tournay. ? 1642, in June. At Magdeburg, Lohburg, &c., large lumps of sulphur. 1643, in January. Rain called a rain of blood, at Vaihin- gen and Weinsberg. 1645, between the 23d and 24th January. Red rain near Herzogenbusch. 1646, 6th October. At Brussels. 1652, in May. Between Siena and Rome, a transparent, slimy, and adhesive substance, in the place where a very bright meteor had been seen to fall. ? 1665, 23rd March. Near Laucha, not far from Naum- burg, a substance like dark blue silk threads, in great quan- tity. ? 1665, 19th May. In Norway, with an uncommon thun- der-storm (or a meteor mistaken for such), sulphureous dust. 1678, 19th March. Red snow near Genoa. * 1686, 31st January. Near Rauden in Courland, a black substance like paper, in great quantity: a similar substance is said to have fallen at the same time in Norway and Pomerania. Baron Th. von Grotthuss found a portion of it in an old ca- binet of natural curiosities, and has published his analysis of and interesting observations on it, in Schweigger’s Journal, Band xxvi. p. 332, &c. He has been kind enough to present me with a fragment of it. 1689. At Venice, and in the vicinity, red dust. 1691. Red rain at Orleans, 4 la Madelaine, according to Lemaire. ; 1711, 5th and 6th May. Red rain near Orsio in Schonen. 1781, 24th March. On the island of Lethy, a heap of a jelly-like substance on the spot where a fiery meteor had fallen with a report. 1719. A rain of dust with a radiant appearance, on the Vol. 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826. C . Atlantic 18 Dr. Chladni’s Catalogue of Meteoric Stones, Atlantic Ocean, under 45° N. latitude, and 322° 45’ longi- tude. 1721, in the middle of March. What was called rain of blood, at Stuttgard, with a meteor. 1737, 21st May. Fall of earth, which was entirely attracted by the magnet, on the Adriatic sea, between Monopoli and Lissa. —Giov. Jac. Zanichelli, in the sixteenth volume of the Opuscoli di Calogera. 1742. Red rain at San Pies d’Arena, near Genoa. 1755, in October and November. In a great many places at a great distance from one another, a fall of red and black dust, with or without rain. 1762, in October. At Detroit in North America, an ex- traordinary darkness from before daybreak till four o’clock in the afternoon, with rain containing sulphur and a black sub- stance.—Phil. Trans. vol. lili. p. 549. 1763, 9th October. Red rain in the duchy of Cleves, and near Utrecht. 1763, and likewise 1765, 14th January. Red rain in Picardy. 1781, 24th April. In the Campagna di Noto, in Sicily, a whitish dust, which was not volcanic. * 1796, 8th March. With an exploding fire-ball seen in a great part of North Germany, an adhesive gummy mass, in Upper Lusatia, not far from Bauzen. Without being able to fix the time. Near Crefeld, a jelly- like substance, after the fall of a mass of fire. 1803, from the 5th to the 6th of March. In Italy, red dust that was not volcanic, partly with rain or snow, and partly without, coming from the south-east, and exciting great terror. 1809. Red rain in the Venetian territory. 1810, 17th January. Near Piacenza, red snow, with light- ning and thunder-claps (probably a fiery meteor exploding). -1811, in July. Near Heidelberg, fall ofa slimy substance with an exploding fire-ball.—Gilbert’s Annals, vol. Ixvi. p. 329. 1813, 13th and 14th March. In Calabria, Tuscany, and Friuli, a great fall of red dust and red snow, with much noise, attended by fiery meteors and the fall of stones, near Cutro in Calabria. The component parts of this dust were nearly the same as in the meteoric stones that do not contain nickel. 1814, 3rd and 4th July. A great fall of black dust with appearances of fire, in Canada, near the mouth of the river St. Laurence. The event is very similar to that of the year 472. 1814, in the night between the 27th and the 28th October. In valley of Oneglia in the Genoese territory, a rain of red earth. 1814, and Masses of Meteorie Iron, &c. 19 1814, 5th November. Every meteoric stone that fell near the Doab in India was surrounded by a small heap of dust. ? 1815, towards the end of September. A probable fall of dust in the Southern Indian Ocean, an extent of more than 50 miles in diameter having been found covered with it. 1816, 15th April. Tile-red snow from red clouds, in some parts of Northern Italy. 1818. Captain Ross found red snow on the north coast of Baffin’s Bay. Notwithstanding the very defective analysis (in which it was supposed, from ignorance of the analyses pre- viously made of red meteoric dust, that the colouring matter must be the excrement of certain birds), they found, besides other substances, oxide of iron and silica, but which, owing to the false preconception, they considered as something adven- titious. ‘The oxide of iron seems to be the principal colouring substance; and the kind of mould called uwredo nivalis, which was found by the microscope in the long-preserved snow-water, was probably of an infusorial nature, and produced in it at a subsequent period. * Red snow was also found in 1817, on Mount Anceindaz in the south-east of Switzerland, by M. de Charpentier, di- rector of the salt-manufactory of Bex, who was so kind as to give me the residue he collected from a flat rock ; which, how- ever, seems to have been mixed with some fragments of lichen. Professor Steinmann in Prague, and Professor Ficinus in Dresden found in it (as had been found in other meteoric dust), besides a volatile substance which leads us to infer the presence of some organic matter, oxide of iron, manganese, silica, alumina, lime, and a little sulphur. Prof. F. discovered also a trace of lime, but no traces of nickel, chrome, or cobalt. I have given some accourt of this inGilbert’s Annals, vol. xviii. p- 356; also in my own work. Accounts and an analysis of red snow found on mount St. Bernard (the colouring of which might possibly have been effected by lichen or dust containing iron being carried there by the wind) may be found in Gilbert’s Annals, vol. Ixiv. p. 319, as extracted from the Bibliotheque Universelle, besides some other notices on red dust. (It is very desirable that black me- teoric dust should be accurately analysed.) 1819, 13th August. At Amherst in Massachusetts, the fall of a mephitic slimy substance attended by a fiery meteor. Silli- man’s Journal of Science, vol. ii. p. 335. (A more exact ana- lysis of this substance would, however, be very desirable). 1819, 5th September. At Studein in the lordship of Keltsch, in Moravia, a fall of dry earth from a bright cloud in a clear sky.— Hesperus, 1819. Nov. Beilage. No. 42. C2 1819, 20 Dr. Chladni’s Catalogue of Meteoric Stones, &c. 1819, 5th November. Red rain in Holland and Flanders, according to the dnn.Génér. des Sc.Phys. It is not surprising that cobalt and muriatic acid were found in it by analysis, since both these substances have been found in meteoric stones. 1819, in November. Near Montreal and in Maine, during an unusual darkness, black dust with an appearance of fire, and noise ; whence it may be seen that it was not, as some pretend, the result of the burning of a forest, but of a meteoric nature. Accounts of it are given in the American and English Journals, and repeated in Gilbert’s Annals, vol. lxvii. pp. 187 and 218, and vol. lxvili. p. 354. ? 1820, in the beginning of October. Near Pernambuco in Brasil, and on the sea, a substance like silk, in great quantities. —Vide Annales de Chim. tom. xv. p.427; where a chemical analysis is promised. 1821, 3rd May. Red rain at and near Giessen, during a calm, from a moderate-sized stratus, as detailed in the news- ‘papers. Professor Zimmermann of that town found it to con~ tain, upon a hasty analysis, chromic acid, oxide of iron, silica, lime, a trace of magnesia, carbon, and several volatile sub- stances, but no nickel. This gentleman, according to newspaper accounts, has found in the common rain which has fallen for some time past several substances which are found in meteoric stones; even iron con- taining nickel. However interesting these investigations may be, they furnish nothing decisive towards the hypothesis of fire-balls and other masses which have fallen on our earth being the produce of this planet, since it is very possible that the bodies contained in the rain were brought into the atmosphere by the uncommonly great number of fiery meteors that have lately appeared *. Even if the greater part of our atmosphere con- sisted of such substances, or could be transformed into such by some Deus ex machind, such meteors, as well as shooting stars, cannot be atmospherical; since their course and velocity, which have been so frequently determined by observations from different stations, and calculations of their parallax, are sufficient to evince their cosmical origin as mathematically proved. If therefore any one can yet doubt, it is like persons perfectly ignorant of the subject affecting to doubt the correct- ness of our astronomical and cosmological knowledge. It is however easier t® form a partial opinion of things, than to take proper notice of what has been done by others. I have as- * I have given all the observations I could obtain of the meteors which have lately appeared, especially those of last winter, in Gilbert’s Annals, vol. Ixxi. No. 4 (1822, No. 8). I regret that from many parts of the world similar accounts are withheld. sembled Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. 21 sembled the results of all existing observations on the height, velocity, and movement of fire-balls in the 2d, 3rd, and 4th division of my work, which ought to be known previously to a person’s forming an opinion on the origin of meteors. Be- sides, having mentioned with every phenomenon the sources whence I took my account, the further details may be easily found by referring to them; and finally, I have in the last di- vision of the work drawn together the results of them, by which the proofs of their cosmical origin, and of the impossi- bility of their being the produce of our earth or our atmo- sphere, are elucidated in the simplest and most natural man- ner. II. An Account of some Eudiometers of an improved Construc- tion. By Boxsert Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. N the second volume of the American Journal of Science I published an account of some eudiometers, operating by a mechanism which, previously, had not been employed in eudiometry. A graduated rod, sliding into a tube through a collar of leathers soaked in lard, and compressed by a screw so as to be perfectly air-tight, was employed to vary the capa- city of the tube, and at the same time to be a measure of the quantity of air, or of any other gas, consequently drawn in or expelled. About one-third of the tube was occupied by the sliding rod. The reniainder, being recurved and converging to a perforated apex, was of a form convenient for with- drawing measured portions of gas from vessels inverted over water or mercury. There were two forms of the sliding rod eudiometer: one designed to be used with nitric oxide, or with liquids absorb- ing oxygen; the other, with explosive mixtures. The latter differed from the eudiometerss for explosive mixtures previously invented, in the contrivance for exploding the gases, as well as in the mode for measuring them; a wire ignited by galvanism being substituted for the electric spark, as the means of in- flammation. I shall proceed to describe several eudiometers, operating upon the principle of those above alluded to, with some mo- difications suggested by experience. Fig. 1 represents a hydro-oxygen eudiometer, in which the measurements are made by a sliding rod, and the explosions are effected by the alvanic ignition of a platina wire, as in an instrument formerly escribed: excepting that the method then employed of ce- menting the platina wire, in holes made through = ee laving 22 Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. having proved insecure, a new and unobjectionable method has been adopted. In the instrument represented by the preceding cut, the ig- niting wire is soldered into the summits of the two brass wires (WW), which pass through the bottom of the socket (S), parallel to the axis of the glass recipient (G), within which they are seen. One of the wires is soldered to the socket; the other is fastened by means of a collar of leathers packed by a screw, so that it has no metallic communication with the other wire, unless through the filament of platina, by which they are visibly connected above, and which I have already called the igniting wire. The glass has a capillary orifice at the apex (A), which by means of a lever and spring (apparent in the drawing) is closed, unless when the pressure of the spring is counteracted by one of the fingers of the operator. The sliding rod (seen at R) is accurately graduated to about 320 degrees. So easy is it to manipulate with this instrument, that any number of experiments may be performed in as many minutes. The ignition of the platina wire is caused by either of four calorimotors, each consisting of four plates of zinc, and five of copper. ‘They are all suspended to one beam, as may be seen in fig. 2 following. Two furrows are made in the wood of the beam, one on each side. ‘These are filled by pouring into them melted solder, after having caused a metallic communication between one furrow and all the copper surfaces of all the four calorimo- tors: also between all their zine surfaces and the other furrow. The Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. 23 are, by repose, recovering their igniting power. Or by using a vessel (fig. 3) large enough to receive, and containing acid enough to excite two of the calorimotors at once, the igniting power may be doubled. ‘The vessels for holding the acid are made of copper, covered with a cement of resin rendered tough by an adequate admixture of mutton suet. In order to use the eudiometer, it must be full of water, and free from air-bubbles, and previously proved air-tight*, the rod * To prepare the instrument and prove it to be in order, depress the glass receiver below the surface of the water in the pneumatic cistern, the capillary orifice being uppermost and open; draw the rod out of its tube, and return it alternately, so that at each stroke a portion of water may pass in, and a portion of air may pass out.¢ During this operation, the in- strument should be occasionally held in such a posture as that all the air may rise into the glass recipient, without which its expulsion by the action of the rod is impracticable. Now close the orifice (at the apex A) and draw out a few inches of the rod, in order to see whether any air can enter at the junctures, or pass between the collar of leathers and the sliding rod, If the instrument be quite air-tight, the bubbles extricated in consequence of the vacuum produced by withdrawing the rod will disappear when it is restored to its place. This degree of tightness is easily sustained in a well- made instrument. being 24 Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. being introduced to its hilt, and the capillary orifice open, in consequence of the pressure of the finger on the lever by which it is usually closed. Being thus prepared, let us suppose that it were desirable to analyse the atmosphere. Draw out the rod 200 measures; a bulk of air, equivalent to the portion of the rod thus withdrawn, will of course enter at the capillary opening; after which the lever must be allowed to close it. Introduce the recipient into a bell-glass of hydrogen, and opening the orifice draw out the rod about 100 degrees; close the orifice, and withdraw the instrument from the water. Apply the projecting wires (WW) severally to the solder in the two furrows in the beam (fig. 2) communicating with the poles of the four calorimotors ; then raise the jug so as that it may receive one of them, and subject it to the acid. By the consequent ignition of the wire, the gas will explode. The instrument being plunged again into the water of the pneu- matic cistern, so that the capillary orifice, duly opened, may be just below the surface; the water will enter and fill up the vacuity caused by the condensation of the gases. The re- sidual air being excluded by the rod, the deficit will be equi- valent in bulk to the portion of the rod remaining without; and its ratio to the air subjected to analysis may be known by inspecting the graduation, In the case of the gaseous mixtures above described, the deficit has, in my experiments, been 126 measures. Whereas, according to the theory of volumes, it ought to be only 120. But I have not as yet operated with hydrogen purer than it may be obtained from the zinc of commerce; and some allow- ance must be made for the carbonic acid of the air, which may be condensed with the aqueous vapour produced by the oxy- gen and hydrogen. . In the invaluable work on the Principles of Chemistry, lately published by Dr. Thomson, it is suggested, that in order to obtain correct results in analysing the air with the hydro-oxy- gen eudiometer, more than 42 per cent of hydrogen should not enter into the mixture. I am not as well satisfied of the correctness of this impression, as I am generally with the re- sults of the wonderful industry and ingenuity displayed in the work above mentioned. If oxygen is to be examined by hydrogen, or hydrogen by oxygen, we must of course have a portion of each in vessels over the pneumatic cistern, and successively take the requisite portions of them, and proceed as in the case of atmospheric air. B (fig. 1) represents a glass with wires inserted through small tubulures, in the usual mode for passing the electric spark, should Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. 25 should this method of producing ignition be deemed desirable for the sake of varying the experiments, or for the purpose of illustration. This glass screws on to the socket (S), the other being removed. ‘The wires (WW) remain, but should be of - such a height as not to interfere with the passage of the elec- tric spark. ‘The instrument is operated with as usual, ex- cepting the employment of an electrical machine, or electro- phorus, to ignite the gaseous mixture, in lieu of a calorimotor. For the travelling chemist the last-mentioned mode of igni- tion may be preferable, because an electrophorus is more por- table than a galvanic apparatus. In damp weather, or in a laboratory where there is a pneu- matic cistern, or amid the moisture arising from the respira- tion of a large class, it is often impossible to accomplish ex- plosions by electricity. Of the Mercurial Sliding-Rod Eudiometer with a Water Gauge. The eudiometer which I have described, though satisfactory in its results, and in its conveniency, when used with water, has not been found so when used over mercury. The great weight of this fluid caused the indications to vary in conse- quence of variations of position, during manipulation, too slight to be avoided. The instrument represented in the following cut (fig. 4) is furnished with a water gauge, which being ap- pealed to, enables us to render the density of the gases within in equilibrio with the air without. Hence we can effect their measurement with great accuracy. Let us suppose that this eudiometer has been thoroughly filled with mercury, the sliding-rod being drawn out to its greatest extent, and that it is firmly fixed over a mercurial cistern in the position in which it is represented in the drawing, the little funnel-shaped part at the bottom descending into the fluid to the depth of half an inch. Above this part is seen a cock (C), the key of which, in addition to the perforation usual in cocks, has another, at right angles to, and terminating in, the ordinary perforation. When the lever (L) attached to the key of this cock is situated as it is seen in the drawing, the tube containing the sliding rod communicates with the re- cipient, but not with the mercury of the reservoir. Supposing the lever moved through a quarter of a circle, to the other side of the glass, the tube in which the rod slides will com- municate at the same time with the recipient and the reservoir. By means of the gauge-cock (C) the passage between the gauge and the recipient is opened or shut at pleasure. As subsidiary to this eudiometer, another is provided with Vol. 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826. D a rod Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. iS) o>) Fig. 4, W io 9] a rod and graduation exactly similar*, excepting its being shorter. (See fig. 5.) * Tn order to ensure accuracy in the measures of gas, made by the sub- sidiary eudiometer, it is necessary to attend to the following precautions. In the first place, the instrument must be proved air-tight, and free of air-bubbles, by the means prescribed already in the case of the eudiometer for water. (See note, page 23.) The presence of air-bubbles is always indicated by the extent of the vacuity which appears when the glass reci- pient is held uppermost, and which disappears when it is held lowermost : the weight of the mercury acting upon the elasticity of the tubes always causes a minute change; but by the smallest bubbles of air the effect is very much augmented. The eudiometer should be introduced into the vessel whence the gas is to be taken, and about ten per cent more than is necessary drawn in by opening the orifice and duly drawing out the rod. The eudiometer being lifted from the mercury with as little change of position as possible, the rod may be adjusted accurately to the point de- sired. A momentary opening of the orifice causes the excess to escape. The gas thus measured and included is then easily transferred to the prin- cipal eudiometer, by introducing the apex of the subsidiary instrument un- der the funnel (see F, fig. 4), opening the orifice, and forcing the sliding rod home. The The method of analysing atmospheric air by means of these instruments is as follows. Supply the subsidiary eudiometer with its complement of hydrogen gas, by introducing the apex of the glass recipient into a bell-glass containing, over mercury, the gas in question, and drawing out the sliding-rod, the ori- fice being kept open only while above the surface of the mer- cury and inside of the bell. The gauge-cock (C, fig. 4) of the principal eudiometer being closed, and that which opens a communication between the recipient and the funnel (I*) open, and the instrument having been previously thoroughly filled with mercury, and placed over the mercurial cistern, as already mentioned, introduce into it, through the funnel, the gas which had been included in the subsidiary instrument (fig. 5); next shut off the com- munication with the mercurial cistern, re-establish those be- tween the recipient and the rod and gauge, and push the rod into its tube up to the hilt. The re-entrance of the rod, by raising the mercury into the recipient, forces the hydrogen in bubbles through the water of the gauge, and displaces all the atmospheric air which it previously contained. Now shut the passage to the gauge, open that which communicates through the funnel with the mercurial cistern, and draw out the rod to its utmost extent. Into the eudiometer thus situated and pre- pared, introduce successively 100 measures of hydrogen and 200 measures of atmospheric air, by means of the subsidiary eudiometer: then closing the passage to the mercurial cistern, and opening the passage to the gauge, push in the rod until the water in the gauge indicates that the pressure on the gases included is equivalent to that of the external air. The gauge- cock being closed, the gases are ready to be exploded. The explosion is produced by galvanic ignition, as in the case of the eudiometer for water (fig. 1), excepting that instead of car- rying the eudiometer to the calorimotor, the circuit is esta- plished by lead rods severally attached to the galvanic poles by gallows and screws. (See g g, fig. 2.) One of the lead rods terminates in a piece of iron immersed in the mercury, the other is fastened to the insulated wire of the eudiometer, Un- D2 der 28 Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. der these circumstances, one of the calorimotors is surrounded with the acid contained in the jug, and an explosion almost invariably succeeds. Before effecting the explosion, the num- ber of the degrees of the sliding-rod which are out ofits tube should be noted; and it must afterwards be forced into the tube, in order to compensate the consequent condensation of the gases as nearly as it can be anticipated. A communication with the gauge must then be opened gradually. If the water is disturbed from its level, the equilibrium must be restored by duly moving the rod. Then deducting the degrees of the sliding-rod remaining out of the tube from those which it indicated before the explosion, the remainder is the deficit caused by it; one-third of which is the quantity of oxygen gas in the included air. Or, the residual air being expelled by the rod, and the quantity thus ascertained deducted from the amount included before the explosion, the difference will be the quantity condensed. It may be proper to mention, that as other metals are al- most universally acted upon by mercury, the cocks, sockets, screws, and sliding-rods of the mercurial eudiometers are made of cast steel. The tubes containing the rods are of iron. Since the drawings (figs. 1 and 4) were made, verniers have been attached to the screws through which thé sliding-rods pass; so that the measurements are made to one-tenth of a degree. I have alluded to the water-gauge without explaining its construction. It consists of three tubes. A small tube of varnished copper (which is fastened into the only perforation which communicates with the cock, and of course with the glass recipient) passes up in the axis of a glass tube (T, fig. 4), open at top, cemented into a socket (S, fig. 4), which screws on to the cock. A smaller glass tube is placed in the inter- stice between the external glass tube and the copper tube in its axis. This intermediate glass tube is open at its lower ter- mination, but at the upper one is closed or opened at pleasure by a screw. The interstices between the three tubes are par- tially supplied with water, as represented in the drawing (W, fig. 4). When the passage between the gauge and the recipient is open, if the pressure on the included air be more or less than that of the atmosphere, the water will rise in one of the gauge-tubes, and sink in the other. Other liquids may be substituted for water, in the gauge, when desirable. In addition to the principal collar of leathers, and screws for rendering that collar compact, there is in the mercurial eudiometers a small hollow cylinder (a piece of a gun-barrel), with Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. 29 with an additional collar of cork for confining oil about the rod where it enters the collar of leathers; otherwise, in ope- rating with mercury, the leathers soon become so dry as to permit air or mercury to pass by the rod. It may be proper to point out, that in operations with the hydro-oxygen eudiometer, accurate measurement is necessary only with respect to one of the gases. In analysing an inflam- mable gas by oxygen gas, or oxygen by hydrogen gas, it is only necessary that the quantity of the gas which is to be analysed, and the deficit caused by the explosion, should be ascertained with accuracy. The other gas, which must be used in excess, sometimes greater, sometimes less, must, in using the mer- curial eudiometer, be made to occupy the gauge. In analysing the air, or any mixture containing oxygen, the gauge is filled with hydrogen gas, as already stated; but, in examining in- flammable gas, the atmospheric air may be left in the gauge, as its only active qualities are those of oxygen gas. Figs. 6 and 7 represent those forms of the sliding-rod eu- diometer which I have found most serviceable for experiments with nitric oxide gas; with the solutions of sulphurets; or those of sulphate, or muriate of iron, saturated with nitric oxide. The receiver (fig. 8), shaped like the small end of an egg, is employed in these experiments, being mounted so as to slide up and down upon a wire. This 30 Dr. Hare’s improved Eudiometers. 3 I TM aT — = ETI ATT TR This vessel being filled with water, and immersed in the pneumatic cistern, the apex being just even with the surface of the water, one hundred measures of atmospheric air, and a like quantity of nitric oxide, are to be successively introduced. The residual air may then be drawn into the eudiometer, and ejected again into the receiver through the water, to promote the absorption of the nitrous acid produced. Lastly, it may be measured by drawing it into the instrument, and ejecting it into the ege-shaped receiver (fig. 8), or into the air, when the quantity of it will appear from the number of degrees which the sliding-rod enters during the ejection. That in this way gas may be measured with great accuracy may be de- monstrated by transferring any number of measures, taken separately, into the semi-oval receiver, and subsequently re- measuring them. The eudiometers (figs. 6 and 7), with the accompanying semi-oval glass vessel (fig. 8), may be employed with the dis- solved sulphurets, or with solutions of iron,.impregnated with nitric oxide in the following way. Let a small phial, with a mouth large enough freely to admit the point of the eudiome- ter, be filled with the solution to be used. Introduce into the bottle, over the pneumatic cistern, 300 measures of the air or gas to be examined. ‘Transfer the bottle, still inverted, to a small vessel containing water, or a quantity of the absorbing fluid used in the bottle, adequate to cover the mouth of the phial and compensate the absorption. When there has been time enough for the absorption to be completed, transfer the residuum to the receiver (fig. 8), and measure as in the case of nitric oxide. As soon as I can make a sufficient number of satisfactory observations with the various eudiometers of which I have now given an account, I will send them to you for publica- tion. III. On ee oo —" Ss Ill. On the Theory of the Figure of the Planets contained in the Third Book of the Mécanique Céleste. By J. Ivory; Esq. M.A. F.RS. (Continued from vol. Ixvi. p. 439.] GOME apology may perhaps be due from me to the readers of the Philosophical Magazine, for drawing their attention to a subject so much neglected in the present times as that which I have undertaken to discuss. It seems to be the ge- neral disposition to rest entirely contented with what has al- ready been accomplished in the theory of the figure of the planets. - But as all the useful and most important results had already been obtained by Clairaut, we ought, in order to be consistent, to go back to the luminous and elegant theory of that excellent geometer. It will be answered, that the theory in question is imperfect, inasmuch as it merely demonstrates the equilibrium of a planet when it is supposed to have the figure of an oblate spheroid of revolution. The objection is of great weight; and it never can be admitted that the suc- cessors of Newton have perfected his system, until the figure of a planet is clearly deduced from the laws of equilibrium without any adventitious supposition. The learned researches of Legendre and Laplace have generally been supposed to obviate the foregoing objection, at least when the bodies are nearly spherical, as is universally true of the planets. But an attentive examination will show that there is still something imperfect in the theory of the illustrious geometers we have named. ‘There is, in fact, involved in it a hidden principle which is equivalent to the gratuitous supposition of Clairaut. The perpendicularity of gravity to the outer surface is common to both; but, as this principle is alone insufficient, Clairaut assumes the figure of an oblate spheroid, while the analytical method employed by Legendre and Laplace dispenses with any such supposition in the particular case they have considered. But is it possible that the varying of an abstract method of calculation can in any respect alter the physical foundations of the problem? In order to solve this difficulty, it is to be observed that Legendre and Laplace proceed upon a deficient theory of equilibrium; a necessary condition is omitted; but it so happens that, in the particular circumstances of the pro- blem to which they have confined their attention, the omission may be made without leading to error in a first approximation, and in a first approximation only. This sufficiently explains why a result is obtained that agrees with the solution of Clai- raut. But if the result of a first approximation be correct, it is 32 Mr. Ivory on the Theory of the Figure of the Planets is not correctly obtained. In a legitimate investigation we must first know all the conditions of equilibrium: we must then demonstrate that in particular circumstances some of them to a certain extent become unnecessary ; and having thus obtained sure principles to proceed upon, we may employ mathematical reasoning and the operations of analysis to com- plete our purpose. A calculation cannot be unexceptionable, even although it lead to a result not erroneous, when a neces- sary principle has escaped the penetration of the analyst. We may add, that a theory can never be reduced to the utmost sim- plicity of which it is capable, unless the physical principles are completely separated from the mathematical processes. These observations will help to explain the purpose intended by the present discussion. It would be ridiculous and a want of common sense to object on slight grounds to any thing sanctioned by the name of Laplace, or to detract from a re- putation placed on such solid foundations, and which will al- ways derive part of its lustre from the theory to which our present attention is directed. But in an intricate and difficult investigation, every bay and creek that can possibly lead to error must be explored, before the right track is discovered, and before we can arrive at a successful termination. ‘The researches of Maclaurin and Clairaut were occasioned by the speculations of Newton; the labours of Legendre and Laplace were intended to perfect those of their predecessors; and, if some steps still remain to be made, there is a field fairly open to future inquirers. It follows from what has been shown in the last number of this Journal, that, in the theory of Laplace, the equation at the surface of the spheroid is always true when the molecules, or small masses of matter on the surface of the sphere, are placed at a distance from the assumed point. In these circumstances the thickness of the molecules may vary in any manner with- out being subject to the law of continuity. But the equation cannot be true for molecules indefinitely near the assumed point, unless their thickness be restricted to a certain class of functions. In his later writings Laplace, supposing the law of attraction to be as in nature, has limited the equation to the case when the thickness of the stratum near the point of con- tact of the sphere and spheroid decreases as the square of the distance from that point. With this limitation the equation is no doubt rigorously demonstrated: but we are still left in the same uncertainty as before; since we are not informed what kind of functions is comprehended under the hypothesis as- sumed. When this point is inquired into, it turns out that the theorem is now too much restricted for the use to be made of contained in the Third Book of the Mécanique Céleste. 38 of it. If we suppose that the thickness of the stratum is a finite and integral function of three rectangular co-ordinates, we embrace all the applications to the figure of the planets; the demonstrations are clear and effected by the usual pro- cesses; and near the point of contact the thickness is divisible by the distance from that point, which is much more general than the cases comprehended in the demonstration of Laplace. By substituting the value of V expanded in a series, in the equation that takes place at the surface of the spheroid, the author of the Mécanique Céleste proves that the function y in the value of the radius may always be expressed in a series of terms, each of which is determined by an equation in partial fluxions, to which it is subject. This is a fundamental point in the analytical theory; and as it is a consequence of the equa- tion at the surface, it can be considered as true only in the cases in which that equation is clearly proved. Yet in the whole course of the work the symbol y is considered as per- fectly general, and as standing for any function; which can- not fail to embarrass the reader, since the proof of the equa- tion is deficient and limited. Instead of deducing the develop- ment in question from the equation at the surface, it will be much more simple to deduce it from the same formula on which the equation itself has been shown to depend: by this means the whole theory will rest upon a single analytical proposition. Now, resume the second of the formule (2), J (P-@) x wee =i) and separate it into the two parts of which it consists, then, r2—a?) ds r—a2)y'ds y x ( “ ay a yas As f is a function of ), if we put ds = a? dy sind 4, it be- comes easy to find the integral on the left side of the equa- tion. For the arcs ) and ¢ are independent on one another ; and the integration being effected, first with regard to d¢, be- tween the limits ¢ = 0 and ¢ = Zz; and then with regard to dw, between the limits { = 0 and = 7, the result will be equal to 42a when r=a. The last equation will therefore become (r2—a?) yds | ee ; 4nay= and if we consider z/ as a function of the arcs 4 and a!, we shall have ds = a’ d# sin §'d a, and uipad (72—a®) ary! dé sin & da" hie 4ra f3 S (3) Vol. 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826. E Again, 34 Mr. Ivory on the Theory of the Figure of the Planets Again, for the sake of brevity in writing, let us put 1 1 @ a Ff Oe 5 then we shall have 1 d : , Y= [e+ 24 2). aty'dd sind da’. (4) For this latter formula is no more than the first one written differently, as will be manifest by performing the differentiation of g with respect to a. It is to be observed here, that Lagrange conceived that the formula (4) contained the whole of Laplace’s demonstration, without its being necessary to add any limitation whatever re- lating to the thickness of the molecules near the attracted point. For he says explicitly * that the function de e+2a7 "> is always identically equal to zero on account of the evanescent factor it contains ; whence it would follow that the integral Se + 2a <<) ay'd¥ sin da! must be equal to nothing, whatever y/ stand for, and not equal to 4a7ay as in the formula (3), and as he himself actually found to betrue. ‘There is therefore an inconsistency between the reasoning of Lagrange and the result of calculation ; and it is this which he calls wne difficulté singuliére, and a paradox in the integral calculus. Now all this arises from not observ- ing that the function mentioned is not in every case equal to zero. It is so, indeed, for every point of the surface of the sphere except one, when cos) = 1; in which case the function has an evanescent divisor which balances the evanescent factor and produces a finite value. If one element of an integral have | a finite value, the integral itself must be a finite quantity; and this is the plain and short solution of the difficulty. If La- grange’s attention had been directed to the formula Se + 2a <) a*(y'—y) di sini! da’; and if he had observed that Laplace limited his theorem to the case when y/—y is divisible by the evanescent factor which ap- pears in the denominator when the molecule is very near the point of contact of the two surfaces, there would have been neither difficulty nor paradox. But although he would in this manner have avoided inconsistency, he would not have ob- tained the most general demonstration of the theorem. For * Journ, de ? Ecole Polyt, tom. viii, p. 62. SS AV rt —2r a cos p+ a? this contained in the Third Book of the Mécanique Céleste. 35 this purpose we must recollect that the expression we are con- sidering is a double fluent depending on two variable quan- tities. Let the variable quantities be functions of and ¢; then the element of the surface of the sphere will be dy sin dg, and the expression may be thus written, i ; 3 Se +2a <<) dy sin fa’ (y'— y) d¢. Now, the integral {(y'— y) d¢ being taken between the limits ¢=0 and $ = 27, it will be a function of cos /; and it is sufficient for the demonstration that this function be divisibie by the evanescent divisor. By this procedure the utmost ex- tent possible is given to the theorem; and after all, it will be found that we have obtained nothing but what readily follows from usual rules of analysis. 1 1 1 = 2 p= s=—+5- Co + <=. C°?) + &e. Let @ or — be expanded into a series, viz, the symbols C\), C\*), &c. being functions of cos : then by substituting this series in the function on the right-hand side of the formula (4), that function will become =: {= /y di sinflda! += .3 (Cy di sin de! + &e. (5) and by making a =r, we shall obtain y= Z x } fyas sin fda! +3f Cy'di sin fda’ +&e.t (6) Now the series (5) converges when a is less than 7; and therefore, even when it goes on ad infinitum, it may represent a finite quantity to any degree of approximation. But when a =7, the principle of convergency disappears, and no exact notion can be formed of the value of any finite number of the terms. It cannot therefore be said, with any precision of ideas, that such a series, consisting of an infinite number of terms without convergency, will represent any finite quantity. The mind cannot take in the whole series; it must be content with a definite portion of it; and no portion can be considered as equal to the quantity from which the whole is derived. It is only when the series breaks off, and consists of an assignable number of terms, that it can be said to represent a given quan- tity in the extreme case when a =7. Now this happens only when 7/ belongs to a certain class of functions ; namely, when it is a finite and rational function of three rectangular co- ordinates, which likewise comprehends every case in which the formula (4) is strictly demonstrated. For all such functions the equation (6) is exact, the two sides being identical, and differing from one another in nothing, except in the arrange- E2 ment 36 Mr. Ivory on the Theory of the Figure of the Planets. ment of the quantities of which they consist. The equations in partial fluxions to which the terms on the right-hand side are subject, are derived from the expressions C‘!), C(®, &e.3 and they are such as to determine each term separately when the aggregate of the whole is given. I have now examined particularly the fundamental points of the analysis of Laplace. Such an examination was required in a theory which in other respects is not unexceptionable. In intricate cases, in which there occur difficulties of different kinds, it seems best to acquire correct notions on one part before we proceed to the other parts. If such discussions (but little calculated to make a brilliant display in the eyes of the public) be ill suited to the prevailing taste of the present times, it must be acknowledged that they are necessary, unless we would entirely neglect a branch of knowledge that has always been reckoned of great value. But it would be improper to pass on to the second branch of my subject without noticing a demonstration of the equation at the surface of the spheroid, which we owe to M. Poisson*. This celebrated mathematician, who has particularly studied this branch of analysis, considers the formulee (3) and (4); and he proposes to demonstrate their truth, supposing that y stands for any function whatever of the two arcs 4 and o. We are not therefore left in any uncertainty about the extent of the proposition to be proved. He observes, that on account of the evanescent factor the element of the integral is equal to zero, in all positions of the molecule, except when it is ins finitely near the point of contact of the two surfaces, when the denominator is infinitely small. Now, at the point of contact, _ we have 7/= y, '= 6, a’! = @; wherefore, if we put #= 6 +f, o'=a + k, we shall obtain the value of the double fluent by extending the integration to infinitely small values, positive or negative, of h and &. But while the arcs 4 and @ acquire the infinitely small variations / and /, the thickness of the mole- cule z/ may be supposed to remain constant; or, which is the same thing, we may put the equation (3) in this form, viz. LPS (7? —a?) ay’ dé sin&g da ‘bed 2 aif" eaen Toe He then finds the value of the integral in the manner he pro- posed; but as the same value may likewise be found by the ordinary rules, this part of the process adds nothing to the main argument. The force of the demonstration turns en- tirely on the assertion, that we may integrate on the supposi- tion that the thickness of the molecule remains constant. * Journal de? Ecole Polyt, tom. xii. p. 145. To M. Ampére on @ new Electro-dynamic Experiment. 37 To enable us to judge of the validity of this supposition, put y =y + (7—,y) m the formula (3); then y (P—a)adé sind da’ Y= oe f3 —— 1 (r?#—a?) a(y/—y) dé sin’ da LAF Laas ergata Now, the first term in the value of y is what results from M. Poisson’s supposition, that the thickness of the molecule femains constant. ‘That supposition therefore virtually ad- mits the equality of the second term to zero. It is very plain that, if the second term be not equal to zero, we shall not ob- tain the exact value of the double fluent by integrating on the supposition that the thickness of the molecule is constant. Now it is to prove that the second term in the foregoing value of y is evanescent, that Laplace has taken so much pains with- out having given a satisfactory demonstration of it. It has likewise been shown above, that the evanescence of the same quantity is in reality the foundation of the whole analytical theory. It would be superfluous to add another word re- specting M. Poisson’s demonstration, which affords no addi- tional evidence of the proposition to be proved. An attentive reader who considers the foregoing observa- tions must allow that some material inadvertencies and inac- curacies have originally slipt into the analysis of Laplace. But the theory having been published, it has been deemed advisa- ble to repel all objections, and to defend it to the utterance. Jan. 6, 1826. JAMES Ivory. [To be continued.] IV. Sequel of the Memoir of M. AMPERE on a@ new Electro- dynamic Experiment, on its Application to the Formula re- presenting the mutual Action of the two Elements of Voltaic Conductors, and on new Results deduced from that Formula. (Concluded from vol. Ixvi. p. 387.] WE have found, in the applications which we have just made of the formula which expresses the mutual action of two infinitely small portions of voltaic conductors, (see page 385 of this memoir in the preceding volume of the Philo- sophical Magazine) dM Y : 1 25, dé == aii (cos # —sin#) ( sin? é cos* @ + jong ti)ds sin é cosé for the differential momentum of rotation in virtue of which a rectilinear conductor, of which the length is 2a, moveable around 38 _ Sequel of M. Ampéere’s Memoir around its centre, oscillates from side to side of its situation of equilibrium, when it is submitted to the action of two fixed conductors, each of which has one of its extremities at this centre, and whose length is a. In the instrument which I have contrived for verifying this result of my formula, it is not only these two conductors which act on that which is move- able, but also the circular portion of the voltaic circuit which joins the two other extremities of the fixed conductors: as the action which results from this portion is exerted in a contrary direction, a momentum is obtained of which the sign is opposed to that of the momentum of which we have just obtained the value, it must be added to the first; and what is very remark- able, the total momentum takes aform much more simple. In short, in naming M! the momentum of rotation produced by this arc, that which must be added to 2 — dé is evidently 2 —~ dé; as the radius of the arc s! is equal to a, we have s! = 2a6+C, ds/ whence dj = d ™’ dM’ dé But the tangential force in the direction of the element ds! and, consequently, 2 r Isat qaqa cost B being 277 ds'd ——, and its momentum of causing this element to turn round its cen- tre being equal, and of a sign contrary to that whose value we are seeking, we have d2 M’ 54 cos? B — f— 1 Idol | a aay dsds'= — fZaids'd —_, aM’ » y (008? B" 2 whence a 1s! =_— tail (= P me ait B as. id r Observing that it is necessary to integrate in the same man- ner in relation to the direction of the current as for recti- linear fixed conductors, we find cos 6! = — cos 6, 7’ = 2 asin 6, cos 6" = sin 4, r'= 2a cos 6, thus dM’ «+ /Cos? é sin? 6 1 ee ee eT fobs) sind ee ds’ 4 cS cos 6 =g!u (cos 6 sin 6)(Sat 1), mee +1)dé. sin 4 cos 6 dM’ ar 4 and 4077 44 = aii! (cosé — sin 6) ( Uniting this momentum with that which we have called dM 2--dé, on a new Electro-dynamic Experiment. 39 aii’ (cosé — sin @) ages Aaiir/ 2sink» we have sin? @ cos? cos? 4 dé, because, besides the equation sin# cos § = 4 cos 44 which we have deduced (page 394 of the former portion of this memoir) from the value of 6, §@=t2e=4 (+ —n)s we obtain also from this same value cos §— sing = V2 siniy. The action which causes the moveable conductor to oscillate is then proportionate to the sine of the quarter of the angle comprised between the directions of the two fixed rectilinear conductors, divided by the square of the cosine of the half of the same angle; it becomes null with this angle, as it ought to be, and infinite when they are directed following the same right r line, because then 1,=>: In the instrument intended for the measurement of these oscillations, the two extremities of the moveable conductor are also joined by a conductor forming a semi-circumference ; but account is only to be taken of the action exercised on its recti- linear portion; since the circuit formed by the two fixedre cti- linear conductors, and by the arc which joins the extremities of it, is a closed circle which cannot act on the circular por- tion of the moveable conductor. The value which we have found for the elementary momentum dM’ pa 2 Bil 2 pI yds = —haiay =" — Se tae ds’ expresses generally the action impressed by the little are d s! on a conductor of any form whatever, so as to make it turn round an axis elevated by the centre of this are perpendicularly to its plane: this action is then independent of the form of this conductor, and only depends on the situation of its two extremities relatively to the little are ds’; it is equal, as it ought to be, to the produce of the radius a by the value which we have obtained (see vol. Ixvi. p. 378) for the force which is exercised on the same moveable conductor by a small por- tion equal to ds! of a rectilinear conductor directed ac- cording to this are ds'. When we wish to see the action of an arc terminated, we must integrate afresh with relation to s', and this second integration generally gives a different result in the two cases; but this result is the same when the move- able conductor has one of its extremities in the axis, and the other on the circumference of which the arc s! makes a part. The only sign of the value which is obtained becomes changed, because ~ 40 Sequel of M. Ampére’s Memoir because in one case 8 augments with s', and diminishes in the other; for then the angle ! is a right angle, and the angle 6" is comprised between a chord and a tangent formed by the extremity, whence it is easy to conclude r=2asnf, J=c—2af,ds= —2ad8, ; : dy dg which gives Penis —F anpe and for the value of the momentum sought 1aayl cost? 6d eee Kf sng ? which is precisely the same form as that of the force in the case of the rectilinear conductor, and is integrated precisely in the same manner. The reason of this analogy between these two cases, otherwise so different, is found in this circum- stance,—that in that of the rectilinear conductor we had Bats ee oPag pe r= spss —acotf,ds' = sat whence we obtain avy _ 46 r sing? which differs only by the signs of the value of — in the case of. the circular conductor; which ought to be so, because in the first, 8 diminishes when s’ augments, and because it aug- ments with s’ in the second. Let us now consider two rectilinear conductors the direc- tions of which form a right angle, but may not be situated in the same plane, by naming a the right line which measures the distance of these directions, and by taking the points where they are met by the right line a for the origin of s and of s', we Z d have P= 4S EST = ds’= sds’, dr s and csf=—- a= - > But we have seen (vol. Ixvi. page 381) that the mutual action of the two elements ds and ds! is generally equal to T gine Os: cos? 6 azz 1 3 cos 6 r it may then be written thus, iiilrs dsid—; and as this force must be multiplied by — to haye its com- ponent parallel to the right line a, the value of this component is found to be —taitsdsd—, by - on anew Electro-dynamic Experiment. 41 by integrating it with relation to s between two points whose distances to the element ds! may be 1’ and 7, we have * 1 1 —failsds! a ar) which may be written thus ifs 1 dx’ 1 dw — ! FTE tae 20. yet bai (— ae ds eas ee) of which the integral, taken for the first term of r/' to r,|', and for the second of 7/ to 7;/, gives I y ZF ( a a a + a ) 2? Tr ee pe: Rey) r 4 nf! rf! ry rj so that the action sought is precisely the same as if it were produced by four forces equal to 47 7', directed according to the right lines which join two by two the extremities of the con- ductors, two of these forces being attractive and the other two repulsive. : If there be required the momentum of rotation impressed in the case which we are here examining, by ore of the two rectilinear conductors on the other conductor around an axis parallel to the first, and whose shortest distance to the line which we have named a be represented by , it will be ne- cessary to multiply the component parallel to a of the mutual action of the two elements by s'— 4, and then integrate in the same manner: as s' is constant in the first integration, it will suffice to perform this multiplication after it has been executed ; thus we shall have two terms of the same form to integrate anew, the first will be —Laii — : = diss and there will come, by integrating partially, rear. s'—b Gas yok ds’ zit! —— pail [” So But it is easy to see that by naming c the value of s which corresponds to 7’, and which is a constant in the actual inte- gration, we have gi MAE, ee V a+c cot B", ds'= Bree dp", sin B! ? sin? p// ds Gh" _ 7 tanga’ , = Te oy) ih. ohadued oY the second term will be integrated in the same manner, and we shall have at last, for the momentum of rotation sought, 7 ‘rt —t ‘—b fane + Bit B a 8/—b — s,/—b a, 5, y fang + B/' tang. 4 B/ ny Ts Mir ey ig tang b} vf tang t B,/ j In the case where the axis of rotation parallel to the right line s passes by the point of intersection of the two right lines Vol. 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826. F a and 42 Sequel of M. Ampére’s Memoir a and s', we have b = 0; and if we suppose, besides, that the current which flows along s' departs from this point of inter- section, we shall moreover have yas ped Ras tet s/= 0, B/ = ->> B)' = => so that the value of the momentum of rotation will be reduced mn Si a tang $6," to 1qit(4- —-*— gs -). r r tang 3G, “ “ We have just seen that when the directions of the two rec- tilinear conductors of which we seek the mutual action, form a right angle, that of the two elements of s and s' becomes r-. Be 1 duced to —iitrsdsid —s and that we have, in the same case, La @ PS aes then this elementary action may be thus written, —lLitsdd Vf a@+ s+ s%d (a+ s+ s!t)73 2 ss'dsds’ ; = 527 ——— ‘ 2 (a2+ st si2)2 As it acts in the direction of the right line 7, it is necessary, to find the momentum of rotation which results from it around the right line a, to multiply it by the sine of the angle contained be- tween its direction and that of this right line, which is equal to Jerse /ets+se and by the shortest distance ss’ Sep s? that is to say, that the force must be multiplied by the quantity ss! Japs + se which I shall represent by g, which gives d?M -. Ss2dsds pees woe eg ee dsdsi= 3% (ope eyy dsds’ This value at first does not appear easy to integrate; but if we distinguish the value of g once with relation to s, and the other by varying s', we have a7 so ples 2 s’ st - a?s' + s'3 ds A at} st + 52 (a+ s+ s2)3 (ats? s)3? . ja q me a? + 3s'2 7 3(a? + s’%) 52 dsds (a? + s? +#9)3 (a? + s?-+ s'2)5 a at 352 32 + @+eF EE @ TET ou on anew Electro-dynamic Experiment. 43 d* M ye d2q adsds’ : qray dsds'= $22 arg dsds' @perayy |? adsds’ (a2 + s? + s*)3 integrated first with relation to s, so that the integral becomes null with s, gives so that the quantity atsds’ @+s)yaepers that it remains to integrate by only varying s', the most simple means to come there is to make VY@+s+s*=/u—s, which gives ae u—a?—s? ds’ mn Balan eee 2 2 (u-a?—s*)?+4atu _ (w+ at — s*)?+ 4a®s? a +s ——) ee ha Be mei — 4u , and changes the quantity to integrate into adu 2as (u+a2— s2)29 1 a7 4a? s® of which the integral, taken so that it vanishes when s= 0 is (+ fe PPB ta—s 2Qas a arc tang — arc tang = 9 which becomes reduced, by executing the indicated operations and in calculating by the formula known the tangent of the difference of the two arcs, to : ss af a+ s+ 8? We have then for the value of the momentum M of rotation, in the case where the two electric currents, of which the lengths are s and s', depart from points where their directions meet the right line which measures the shortest distance from it, M= Lil(q-a arc tang +), q a arc tang = a arc tang —- when a =0, we have evidently M = 377'q, that which agrees with the value M = 427'p which we have already found (page 382), because then g becomes the perpendicular which was then distinguished by p. If we suppose a infinite, M becomes null, as it should be, because that in this case a arc tang 7 = 9, If we name z the angle of which the tangent is ss! a Japeps™ EK? we 44 M. Ampére on a new Electro-dynamic Experiment. ~ é as 19 cat SUNS we shall have M = $72 g(a aes) it is the value of the momentum of rotation which would be produced by a force equal to Tech — z ze? (a ape? acting according to the right line which joins the two extremi- ties of the conductors opposed to those where they are met by the right line which measures the shortest distance of it. It is, for the rest, easy to see that if, instead of supposing that the two currents depart from the point where they meet the right, we had made the calculations for what limits soever, we should have found a value of M composed of four terms of the form of that which we have obtained in this particular case, two of these terms being positive and two negative. By combining the last result which we have just obtained with that which we found immediately before, it is easy to cal- culate the momentum of rotation resulting from the action of a conductor having for its form the perimeter of a rectangle, and acting on a moveable conductor around one of the sides of a rectangle, when the direction of this conductor is perpendi- cular to the plane of the rectangle, whatever in otherrespects be its distance from the other sides of the rectangle, and the di- mensions of this one. In determining by experiment the in- stant when the moveable conductor is in equilibrium between the opposed actions of the two rectangles situated in the same plane, but of different sizes and at different distances of the moveable conductor, we have a very simple means of pro- curing verifications of my formula susceptible of great preci- sion: it is that which we may easily make with the instrument of which I spoke above, by conveniently modifying the fixed conductors which make a part of it. The same calculations may be made for any value whatso- ever of the angle of the directions of the two rectilinear con- ductors: by naming this angle «, we have r= Vaiss + s?— ss! cose, . . . $$ and in always rae gpoe. 5 by g the ny —, we find that the force parallel to the right line a is equal to ri (% fee) 2 (- + a cose ff" = ~ The momentum of rotation around the right line a is then equal If). to 1 74! i : z sit \(qsme—rcote — — a sin: As Mr. Tredgold on the Theory of Evaporation. _ 45 As to the integral which enters into these expressions dsds' (s—s' cose) ds’ ves 73 Se pret af @ + st +82 —2s5' cose? we may obtain by the known method of integration of dif- ferentials which comprise a radix of the second order, and more easily by a particular process which I shall explain else- where. V. On the Fheory of Evaporation. By Tuos. Trepveoxrp, Esq. : To Mr. R. Taylor. Sir, BYAPORATION has been considerably attended to, but rather as a matter of experimental research than with the object of finding those first principles which are essential to the process. In the following inquiry it is not intended to limit it to a particular case, but simply for illustration the vapour is supposed to be from the surface of water. When the air in contact with water is saturated with vapour, evaporation ceases, or there is an equilibrium between the powers which produce and retard the formation of vapour. Now conceive a portion of the vapour to be abstracted from the air, then the equilibrium will be destroyed; and all other circumstances being the same, the tendency to restore the equilibrium must be proportional to the quantity of vapour removed from the previously saturated air; for no other cir- cumstance than the weight of vapour in a given portion of air is altered. But, the equilibrium being destroyed, evaporation commences, and the vapour cannot be formed without a constant supply of heat; therefore, to obtain this supply of heat when there is no other source than the surrounding bodies of the same temperature, the temperature of the surface where the vapour forms must be depressed, in order that heat may flow to it from the adjoining bodies, or parts of the same body; and as the heat required is proportional to the quantity of vapour formed in a given time, the depression of temperature will be proportional to that quantity. It will also be obvious that the vapour formed will be of the elasticity corresponding to the temperature of the sur- face producing it, and therefore will correspond to the de- pressed temperature of the evaporating surface. Let T be the general temperature, ¢ the tempevature of the evaporating surface at its ultimate depression, and w the weight of vapour in grains that would saturate a cubic foot of air ‘e the 46 Mr. Tredgold on the Theory of Evaporation. the temperature ¢. Then, if it be ascertained by experiment that the evaporation per minute, from a surface of one foot, is a when w= 1; we have 1:a::w:aw = the evaporation when the weight of vapour required for saturation, at the tem- perature ¢, is w. Again: Let e be the evaporation in grains that produces a aw depression of one degree of temperature, then T —¢ = ——; or T=ft+ <= . This is, however, not strictly accurate, un- less the specific heat of bodies be equal at all temperatures. The weight of a cubic foot of vapour at the temperature 60°, and pressure 30 inches, is 329°4 grains, and if f be any other 990° is force, 30: f:: 329°4: aM = 10°98 f = the weight of a cubic foot of the force f and temperature 60°. And at the 1-98 x510f _ 500F yearly. That is, the temperature ¢, 450+¢t — 450+¢ weight of a cubic foot of vapour at the pressure f and tempera- . 5600 , ture z 1s oye grains. The expansion of dry air by saturating it with moisture ap- pears to-be equal to the addition of the same volume of vapour, of the force it would have in a vacuum at the same tempera- ture, but both reduced to the same pressure. Therefore, if p be the greater pressure or force, and p! the less, the spaces being inversely as the forces ‘ py P = the volume of the rarer fluid PSE A yh LCS corresponding to the greater pressure, consequentl rae) + p g g p ’ q Y. Bip U vs, (7) = the volume as increased by expansion. If the air be so rare that its force is less than that of steam of the same temperature, then p! indicates the force of the air ; but whenever the elastic force of the air exceeds the force of steam for the same temperature, then p = the force of the air. When the forces are the same, or p' = p, the volume is doubled by expansion. General Roy’s experiments, as far as they go, accord very well with this formula. The comparison of these experiments made by Mr. Daniell is not, however, quite correct. The volume of the air ought to be its volume at the same tempera~ ture as the vapour, and not increased after the operation for expansion, as he has done in his Essays, p.176. An example will render this more clear; and taking Mr. Daniell’s case (which ? Double Altitude Problem. 47 (which is to find the volume of saturated air at 32°, that of dry air at zero being unity), he has, 30: 30°216:: 1: 1:0072, which, added to the expansion = ‘07802, gives 1:08522. The process ought to be 30: 30°216:: 107802: 1:08578. In my own comparison I assumed that the air was saturated at zero; and though the formula gives all the numbers a little in excess, they are nearer than those resulting from Mr. Daniell’s calculations. If these principles of the mixture of vapour with air be cor- rect, a cubic foot of dry air, of the temperature 7, will be sa- turated by a grains of vapour of the same temperature. Hence, if 2 be the temperature of the point of deposition, and ¢ the temperature of the evaporating surface, we shall have £ FRE IN pF, 2 abe ( 450+ ¢ pope) Pay & St = ‘ 5600 a ( Feoeca as a) = E, or the evapo- tion from a surface one foot square in grains per minute. As ¢ is only the temperature of the evaporating surface, the E general temperature will be T=¢ + —. The dynamical question respecting the velocity with which vapour will rise from the evaporating surface remains to be considered, and will most likely give employment to some of yous eaders. Tuomas TREDGOLD. P.S. My thanks are due to Canpour for his references to the preceding corrections of Dr. Ure’s results: I had over- looked them in the one Journal, and the other I do not regu- larly see. VI. Reply to the Remarks of Mr. Rippxe on the Double Al- titude Problem. By James Burns, Esq.* To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Sir, R. Riddle in his concluding remarks on my solutions of the problem of double altitudes, takes it for granted that “ we are perfectly agreed,” though there is not a single sylla- ble in my communication (nor has he furnished a single proof) * [We had hoped that this controversy would have been concluded in our preceding volume, and shall be well pleased if our correspondents will now allow it to terminate.—-Ep1r.] ba a 48 Mr. Burns on the Double Altitude Problem. that should induce him to think so. I have there asserted that Mr. R. misunderstood the foundation of my method; and I think he has. proved that he knew nothing further of the de- monstration, which he attempted to advocate, than the mecha- nical computations derived from it. I shall now, therefore, notice more in detail those solutions of the problem to which I objected, than I had originally intended. The equations which I first gave are, __ cos. 4 (A +a) .sin. 3 (A — a) C085 hFS Tawe (+ + ka). sin. Fi. cos. 9 (1) ae cos.4(A + a).sin.} (A — a) (2) sin. 3(T + 7) sin. 4 (T— 7). cos. 3 Now the second of these is identical with cos. 3 (A +a) .sin. $(A — a) (3) sin. $i. sin. (Zi — +) . cos. 3 since, T+r=2; 4(T +.7) = 42; also, T —7t.=i —2r, &e. The only unknown quantity in the equations (1) and (3) is tr, * or the time nearest noon: if that could be ¢rzly deter- mined, the question could be rigorously and easily solved. But it is plain that + cannot be so determined by means of the middle time (as in Douwe’s method), which is itself deter- mined by means of the latitude by account,—a quantity that maybe very far from the truth. Hence the method of Douwe’s is no other than a pure paralogism. ‘The more probable way, therefore, of arriving near the truth, would be to take from the * Horary Tables” the angle corresponding to the latitude by account, the greater altitude, and the declination, and substitute it, in one of the above formule according to the case; and if the greater altitude were near the meridian, the probable error would be diminished. Mr. R. will now pro- bably understand what is meant by * all that is necessary to be known is, the time, the interval, and the altitudes,” which before appeared to him so inexplicable.—Now, Dr, Brinkley’s method is professedly a correction of the latitude computed by Douwe’s method, which, by the by, will be often further from the true latitude, than that by account. Let us now see how this correction is derived. ‘lhe Doctor first deduces the fun- damental equation (see Nautical Almanac) cos.A = dl (vers.t — sin.¢. tan. m) ~"T Stan, D.cot.2 _— _1— tan. D.cot./ ei vers. ¢ — sin. ¢ .tan. m dc= ; or, dl: dce::n: 1, making . The quantity x, therefore (on which * The time 7 could be rigorously deduced by means of a third altitude and preceding interval; but that being a distinct problem, may be consider- ed on another occasion. the in reply to Mr. Riddle. 49 the whole demonstration hinges) is a function of the latitude by account, of the time nearest noon, determined by means of that latitude and of the middle time connected with it; and must evidently partake, in any future combination, of the in- exactness to which each of these quantities may be subject ; and that inexactness, we have seen, may be very considerable. Weask then, how is it possible that any combination or trans- formation of 7 can lead to an exact result, or to the correction of an inexact one? But to prop this, it is gratuitously sup- posed that, t—rit—c:i:nel, Or, t—c:ec—r:i:lin—1], Or, t-c= ree n—i Now, this implicitly supposes that a certain fixed relation must always subsist between t, r, and c, and that they will con- stantly bear the same invariable relation to x, With such an order of latitudes, the correction certainly may sometimes suc- ceed; but is such order to be always expected in practice? We may with as much truth suppose, Pmt ti—creg: 1, Or t~c:r+ec—2t::lin—1, Oy sOrps LOH Ewe" oT mit 2 Or ¢= ~7+"£*; which would considerably n+l change the Doctor’s final equations, ¢ = ¢ + = - , &e. Ke. It is evident, therefore, that the correction derived from the Doctor’s reasoning will be conditionally true, and at best but very uncertain in practice. Hence J am not at all surprised that this mode of correction has imposed on Mr. R. Even Douwe’s solution, simple as it is, seems to have presented stumbling blocks, which he has not been able to get over. In his first paper, explaining what he calls the times A.M. and p.M., he says “ they are not 7ntended to represent the true ap- parent times of observation, but to determine the elapsed in- terval !—and to find with the aid of the estimated longitude the approximate Greenwich time for determining the declina- tion.” Now, without meaning any disrespect, was it possible he did not know that the times A.M. and P.M. do really repre- sent the true apparent times, not in the latitude sought, but * Hence would arise some curious paradoxes; as when xn = 0, (=r; as < , &c. Vol. 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826. G in and if n=1, t= 50 Mr. Burns on the Double Altitude Problem, in the latitude by account ;—that a chronometer has been ge- nerally the only means used to determine the interval ;—and that the declination must enter the computation before the times A.M. and P.M. could be determined? From this we might have said at first, Zx uno disce omnes; but we were willing to hear all that Mr. R. could say. In his last remarks is given a curious explanation of the assertion, ‘* He assumes as known, not only the interval of time between the observations, but the true apparent time at each observation ;” for it is said, “ I noted the assumption in 7¢alics.” Now we are to understand from this, henceforth, that “ noting a passage in italics” must clear one of the charge of misconception or misconstruction! My having changed the order of the words does not make the least change in the sense of the passage certainly. In Mr. R.’s last paragraph, where he says, “ I failed in giving any solution of the problem,” his language is not only inaccurate but uncan- did; for only one method had been proposed when his first remarks appeared; and hence the phrase “ any solution” is inapplicable: and before his last, two other solutions had been given. The first of these latter, however, Mr. R. does not seem to approve of, though originally proposed by no less an astronomer than Lalande; and the second he passes over in silence, without a single word, for reasons best known to him- self. And to show Mr. R. that our resources are not so con- fined as he imagined, we shall now present him with a fourth solution, with an example calculated at full length, lest he may doubt the truth of the formula itself. It is, perhaps, the most convenient of the four, and shorter by nearly half than Dr. Brinkley’s correction alone. The four following equations very simply and briefly solve the problem. As I have not seen the method which Mr. R. has deduced from Mr. Ivory’s investigations, I cannot judge whether it is “ the simplest so- lution of this useful problem that has yet been given.” Let first polar distance = @ second, dittqy 2.) . ==20 first zenith distance = z Second ditto Ss" 5.= == = VES gc Se re ieee 7 The rest as in the third method, page 345. Then, vers. c = sin? a. vers. m (1) sities sin. be Sipe m (2) sin. c sin? 2 fo sin.5 (x ahora) sin: h(v=—2+c) (3) 2 sin.¢. SIN. & vers. y = sin. a.sin. z. vers. C + vers.(2—2) — (4) Example. mm reply to Mr. Riddle. 51 Example.—Leta = 76° 0! oO! b =1'76r 41480 z= =48 26 45 z! = 39 58 45 VW) ie 22 30 0 2log. sin.a . . . 19°97380 vers. 22 °30! . - - 8'88150 21°49! = vers. c = 8°85530 Lato ao! 7 eee . 9°58284 Cin AA 9:98694 ar.cO.sin.c ...-. 0.42972 A = 87° 16) sin. = 9:99950 sin. 3 (2 +2/—c) . 9°73959 sin. $(23— z+). 9°06589 ar.co.sin.c ... 0°42972 ar. co.sin.z .... 0°12591 2)19°36111 = = 28° 38) sin, = 9:68055 2 57 16 = B 87 16= A 30 0 =C.. vers. 9°12702 sin. @ 9°98690 sin. z 9°87409 11342 nat. vers.(a—z) 8°98801 .. log. 9727 y = 37° 53! nat. vers. = 21069 ole Tit. 516257 The demonstrations of the third and fourth methods (which methods, I believe, have been given for the first time) we must, for the sake of brevity, omit for the present; but they cannot create any difficulty to those who understand the prin- ciples of spherical trigonometry, as delivered in Woodhouse’s or Legendre’s treatises. We must notice, however, that the change in declination is not considered in the first equation given above, which will seldom make a difference of more than 1! on the final result. The latitude deduced by the third method, which is rigorously exact, is 52° 5' 20". Thus the candour and truth of Mr. Riddle’s statements are apparent. I cannot but acknowledge, however, that there G2 Ig 52. On Mr. Levy’s Property of the regular Octahedron. is some wit in his concluding paragraph; but wit is a poor substitute for argument. Yet it is, perhaps, the best resource in the absence of the latter, as it frequently makes a man ap- pear, on quitting the field, equal, though seldom superior to his adversary. I remain, sir, your obedient servant, Gloucester Place, Hackney Road, JAMES Burns. January 4, 1826. . < : c = c Errata in the formule, page 345 : For sin. rE read sin.2 as and for sin. 3 y, read sin.? 4 y. VII. Demonstration of Mr. Levy’s Property of the regular Octahedron ;—with a Postscript on P. Q’s Defence of Mr. Herapatn’s Demonstration. By T.S. Daviss, Esq. "Pus very neat but simple A theorem was given by its discoverer (unaccompanied how- ever by the demonstration) to Mr. Brooke. The latter gen- tleman’s proof (Crystallography, pp- 317, 318) is unnecessarily complicated; and is, besides, effected by means not strictly mathematical. The following one, it is presumed, is liable to neither of these objections. Theorem.—Let ABCD be a plane cutting off one of the solid angles E of a regular octahe- dron ; then l i 1 1 ae + De =p + Ee’ Demonstration.— We assume the truth of the following well-known elementary properties: 1. The diagonals AD, BC of the plane of section intersect in some point F in that diameter of the octahedron which passes through E. 2. The angles AED, BEC are right angles. $. The line EF bisects these right angles. Then, if 2 EDA = ¢, we have, by trigonometry, BB+ 5{ sing cia EGF} |i _s{=e [eos 1g DE 7 singS°+tp@ EA cin45°+o° EF EF i ‘ _— whence abl a ORME ERED Ut Ah Ang DE AE: sin 45° 25 Q the lower sien, ** —,” referring to the position D!A’. 5 8 p I n Mr. Davies on Mr. Herapath’s Demonstration. 53 «25> ; EF EF — In a similar manner we find amie vain icsmeeh teed and therefore, dividing by EF we get L Symorsbnd ee gel 1 AE DE EB. [oodkGs Tse Cor. AE+ED:EB+EC:: AE. ED: EB. EC. Postscript on P. Q.’s Second Defence of * Mr. Herapatu’s Demonstration.” —(Phil. Mag. vol. \xvi. p. 354.) I cannot close this short paper without rectifying a slight mistake into which your learned correspondent P. Q. has fallen ' respecting one or two points in my last communication. In the first place, I did not “‘ abandon” the arguments em- ployed in my first paper on Mr. Herapath’s demonstration. They still remain opposed to the view which I then took of the process in question: and my second paper was intended to show the inefficiency of that demonstration, also under P. Q.’s interpretation of it; and to prove that under “ either view the same fallacy was involved, the same gratuitous’ as- sumption employed.” It could only be by an oversight that P. Q. could call my second paper an abandonment of the principles of the first. They are totally distinct arguments, and are directed against the two distinct views which I con- ceive may be taken of Mr. Herapath’s meaning. Secondly, the objection to my magical “ comparison be- tween the independence of 7 and v, and that.of an angle and its complement” appears also to have been too hastily made. For the addition of an indeterminate number of units to the Jraction in Mr. Herapath’s demonstration is exactly similar to the addition of an zndeterminate number of circumferences to any fractional portion of a circumference. The truth is, that the inquiry does not call for the consideration of indeterminate integers: these may be dropped; and the question would be stripped of its ambiguity by the adoption of two proper frac- tions as the values of r and v. If, however, the indeterminate integers be still contended for, I must still submit that an in- determinate number of circumferences will afford a complete parallel. As subjects of analytical investigation they are of precisely the same character. I own I was surprised to see so much confidence placed in the argument of P. Q. to establish the triple condition of Mr. Herapath’s equation, p. 354. When 7 + v =” = indeter- minate integer [7 = const. ], it cannot be for a moment dis- puted that Av = An. But are we therefore to admit that gentleman’s interpretation of the consequences which flow fi pea this 54 Mr. Davies on Mr. Herapath’s Demonstration. this admission? Does not P. Q. perceive, so long as 7 yaries by integer values only, that v varies through a system of fractions whose common difference is an integer, and is altogether inca- pable of any other system of values whatever ? Does it need to be urged whilst ; Av = An, and : i aoe ae An = integer : that Av is also = integer? Take, for “ example,” r = 4, and n = integer: then v = 2 — 1; and so long as 2 retains its integral character, v can never become 7! + 2, nor 2"! +/—1. The only system of values which it admits, is comprised in the expression m + + [7, n' and m being integers]; and so of other values of 7. These ‘independent variables” are therefore mutually depen- dent during their variation! Thus I have shown by an ex- ample,' which I thought too simple to need particularly in- stancing in my last paper, the fallacy of ohe of those principles which precede the application of P. Q.’s very elegant functional theorem, and have ‘therefore completely overturned the in- genious structure raised upon that principle. It will be recollected that I made no objection to the reason- ing in Mr. Herapath’s subsequent equations, so long as r and v were really independent variables ; but wished to show that as r and v were not independent variables in the case before us, the conclusions derived on the assumption of that non-existing independence were inadmissible as a demonstration of the binomial theorem. By tracing the process and finding that the independence of r and v was essential to the truth of those subsequent equations, I conceive that a complete neutraliza- tion was given to the evidence so obtained. The passage alluded to by P. Q. in his last paragraph cer- tainly was intended as an objection to Mr. Herapath’s mode of establishing some theorems in periodical functions, where the indices of the characteristic were fractional, that mode being founded on the assumed independence of two fractions whose sum is an integer. I have not the Number at hand, nor had I then; but I think I can depend upon my memory respecting the method. If I erred, let this circumstance apo- logize for me: but if I have not mistaken the method, and the preceding reasoning be admitted, the fallacy of such a method is apparent. I can assure Mr. Herapath (in conclusion of a reply which has expanded much further than I intended when I sat down to write), that were I convinced of the accuracy of his method I should “ not be backward to acknowledge it.” I trust I shall ever feel too sincere a regard for truth to contend upon any ; question Mr. Squire on the Comet of 1825. 55 question merely for the sake of victory, and too candid to hesitate a single moment in expressing my conviction, what- ever may have been my previous opinions, or however my credit may seem to be pledged in their support. Bath, Dec. 5, 1825. VIII. On the Comet of 1825. By Tuomas Sguire, Esq. To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Sir, ITHOUT entering into the nature of those chaotic com- pounds of elementary substances, or rather incipient worlds called comets, of which we, perhaps, are less acquainted. than with their motions; yet, nevertheless,,I think it may truly be said that no part of astronomy is more in its. infancy than that which relates to the eccentric and anomalous mo- tions of these erratic bodies, which are occasionally and at very uncertain periods observed to visit the bounds of our solar vata when passing through the perihelion parts of their orbits. Should you, Mr. Editor, think the. following computations and remarks, which relate to the comet of 1825 (that first ap- peared about the beginning of September), entitled to a place in your scientific Journal, they are truly at your service. On the supposition of a parabolic orbit, this comet must have passed from the northern to the southern side of the ecliptic about the 22d of August; but it was not visible to the naked eye until the 7th of September, when it was seen in the constellation Taurus, near Aldebaran and the Hyades ; at which time its distance from the sun was 1°871, and from the earth 1-407. On the 12th of the same month at 1 A.M. its anomaly was 69° 34! 38, its distance from the sun 1:8229, and from the earth 1-2391, having also a geocentric longitude of 60° 40! 19", and a southern latitude of 6° 34/ 29". Again, on the 17th, the comet’s distance from the sun was 1°767, and from the earth 1105. It continued thus to approach the earth in a lateral di- rection till the 12th of October, when by computation it ap- pears to have come nearest to the earth, at which time it was a very conspicuous object in the heavens; when, at midnight, its distance from the sun was 1°525756, and from the earth only 61471: its geocentric longitude was 35° 8! 11", and lati- tude 35° 51' 35" south. Hence it was then in the southern part of the constellation Cetus. Therefore at this time it must have been vertical between the parallels of 20 and 21 degrees south, a little before two o’clock that morning, according se the 56 Mr. Squire on the Comet of 1825. the respective meridians. From this it is clear that the comet must have been a very striking object to all the known parts of the southern hemisphere and the low northern latitudes. After the 12th of October the earth and comet gradually receded from each other, so that on or about the 17th of November the comet must have been too far from the earth to be visible, even under the most favourable circumstances of southern latitude. Although the relative motions of the earth and comet were now such as rapidly to increase their lineal distance, yet the comet continued to approach the sun till the 11th of December, when it passed its perihelion point at a distance of 1°2295 from that body. The earth and comet will continue to recede from each other till about the 20th of January; and as the heliocentric motion of the latter body is retrograde, and being at the same time in an opposite part of the heavens in respect to the earth, the two bodies will for some time move nearly parallel to each other, and towards the same infinite distant point in space, when the comet’s distance from the sun will be 1°4, and from the earth 2-28, the latter distance being equal to 21660 millions of miles. ‘Though the orbicular motion of the comet will now carry it rapidly from the sun, yet it will again gradually ap- proach the earth, or more properly, the earth may be said in’ the race to gain upon the comet till about the 22d of April; and on that day, at 5" 49™ 12° M.T. its distance from the sun will be 227056, and from the earth 1°37183, having at the same time a geocentric longitude of 243° 49! 46", and a southern latitude of 15° 27! 56": hence it will be near the star 3 in the neck of the constellation Lupus; at which time, and for a few days before and after, it may again be expected to be visible to the southern parts of the world, but its altitude above our horizon will be too small] for it to be seen from our northern position ; and by the beginning of May it will be too far from the sun and from the earth to admit of its being any longer visible to the inhabitants of our globe. On the second appearance of this comet it will, properly speaking, be divested of its tail ; in which case the nucleus will only be surrounded by a nebulous light. Yours respectfully, Epping, Jan. 1, 1826. THomas SQumRE. P.S. It is a little remarkable that the comet of 1823 passed . its perihelion about the same time in December as that of 1825; but the fermer when in that point of its orbit was nearly at the same distance from the sun, as the latter was beyond the sphere of the earth’s orbit, their relative perihelion di- stances being *228944 and 122950 respectively. IX. On IX. On the Planet Saturn. By M. Smiru, Esq. To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Sir, OBSERVING in a very excellent work just published on telescopes, by Dr. Kitchener, an account of a singular appearance which the planet Saturn presented in the years 1805 and 1818 (for which appearance no reason has been as- signed), and conceiving that the phenomenon admits of an easy explanation, I beg leave to trouble you with the following re- marks on it. The passage in Dr. Kitchener’s book to which I allude is the following, at page 349. ** The singular figure of which the body of Saturn was ob- served by Sir William Herschel on April 19, 1805, when he says ‘the figure of Saturn is somewhat like a parallelogram, with the four corners rounded off deeply, but not so much as to bring it to a spheroid,’ is very like the appearance which the planet presented in September 1818, when I made a sketch of it, which is like to Sir W. H.’s.. I have occasionally ob- served this planet for nearly 30 years, and I do not remember to have seen the body of it of this singular form, except for a few months at the time I have mentioned.” Now, sir, if we consider that in the year 1818 the earth was in the plane of Saturn’s equator, and that it is only in that plane once in fifteen years, we shall easily comprehend the reason of this phenomenon. The true figure of Saturn can never be observed except on such occasions, because it is only then that the visible disc of the planet is bounded by a meri- dian; for it is evident, that whatever be the true figure of the planet (provided it be a solid of revolution), it must to an eye placed vertically over its pole appear a perfect sphere; conse- quently, as we recede from the plane of its equator it must ap- proximate to the spherical figure :—on this principle we may expect to see the planet again in its true shape in the year 1833. It may here be proper to remark, that when we are in the plane of Saturn’s equator we are also in the plane of his ring ; and therefore that in making a diagram of the planet it would be improper to draw it of its true shape, except when the ring is represented edgewise, or as a straight line bisecting the body of the planet ; for when the ring appears open, the figure of the planet will not sensibly vary from a sphere. The manner in which the ring of Saturn is balanced, so that the planet shall always occupy its centre, has been thought wonderful even by some celebrated astronomers. To me it ap- Vol. 67. No. 383. Jan, 1826. H pears 58 Mr. Smith on the Planet Saturn. pears the simplest thing imaginable; for I think it self-evident that if the ring were removed to a distance of two or three millions of miles from the planet and left at liberty, it must by its own gravity fall towards the planet ; and after perhaps im- pinging thereon, it must continue to fall until its centre of gra- vity coincides with that of the planet: in which case the planet must of course occupy its centre. Now, if Saturn were a sphere, the ring might assume any accidental position with respect to the equator of the planet; but by reason of the spheroidal figure of Saturn occasioning an excess of gravity towards its equa- torial regions, the plane of the ring must be drawn into the plane of Saturn’s equator, which is exactly the situation in which we find it: the rotation of the ring on its axis is, there- fore, unnecessary to its support. A very curious subject for speculation, which does not ap- pear to have hitherto suggested itself to the inquiry of astrono- mers, is the following: What is the use of this stupendous ring, which for extent of surface and solidity of structure (as we may infer from its superior brightness) surpasses even the planet itself? Can it be a habitable world ? Certainly it may; for the velocity with which the ring revolves on its axis may be so adjusted as to produce a centrifugal force which shall be an exact counterpoise to the force of gravity towards the planet: and in such case the surface of the ring must appear to the annularians as a horizontal plane; while the body of the planet is seen in the distance like an immense mountain, be- hind which the sun disappears for about one or two hours (according to circumstances) out of every ten hours, or one re- volution of the ring. The edges of the ring are probably rounded off, although our instruments will not enable us to verify this fact by observation ; and in such case the annularians may travel either by land or water from one surface of the ring to the other without observing any remarkable appear- ance, except that on passing round the edge of the ring the heavenly bodies will change their altitudes rapidly within a comparatively small space. To those who may be on the in- ner edge of the ring the body of the planet probably appears as a circular plane directly over their heads, and supported by - ps eae pillars rising from opposite points of the horizon. The satellites of Saturn are probably never seen by the annularians, except by those who may be near the outer edge of the ring ; for as they revolve in the plane of the ring, they are always in the horizon: the seventh satellite is, perhaps, an exception ; for as it deviates from the plane of the ring, it may occasionally appear a few degrees above the horizon. It has been conjectured by some who have thought but slightly Mr. Smith on the Planet Saturn. 59 slightly on the subject, that the ring was constructed for the purpose of enlightening the planet in the absence of the sun. ‘To those who advance this opinion it may be replied, that for the purpose of illumination the ring is worse than useless, in- asmuch as that it intercepts more of the sun’s light from the planet than it reflects towards it. To exemplify this, let us as- sume any particular spot on the surface of Saturn. Suppose a spot whose latitude is equal to that of London. Now by duly considering that the plane of the ring is inclined thirty degrees to the plane of Saturn’s orbit, it will be perfectly evident, that to the assumed spot the ring can only appear enlightened by the sun during one half of the year, and that the summer half; to which may be added, that all the portion of the ring which at midnight is near the meridian, must be eclipsed by the body of the planet. The phanomena actually observed will there- fore be as follows; viz. Immediately after sunset an arm of the ring will appear in the west,. which will gradually shorten and finally set; but before it entirely disappears, another si- milar arm will rise in the east, and gradually lengthen until the superior brilliance of the ascending sun supersedes its use as an object of illumination. About the period of the summer solstice these two arms of the ring will unite so as to form an entire arch intersecting the horizon in the east and west, and inclined thereto at an angle equal to the co-latitude of the place, at which time there will certainly by considerable illu- mination. Still it may be remarked that the illumination is most perfect when least wanted. This therefore, as well as the fact that the planet is furnished with seven moons, is demonstra~ tive proof that the ring was not constructed for the purpose of illumination; and no other supposition remains than that it was formed to be a habitable world. It may further be re- marked, that although the ring cannot usefully enlighten the planet, yet the planet reflects a very strong light on the ring for about half of each period of ten hours; and therefore the annularians have no reason to regret that the satellites do not rise above their horizon, because the planet reflects them, per- haps, ten times more light than would be the united effect of all the satellites. The ring of Saturn is now known to be double, or to be in fact two concentric rings ; but this circumstance does not affect the justness of any of the foregoing arguments. Perhaps this di- vision may be advantageous to the inhabitants, as affording them a short cut from one surface of it to the opposite; or per- haps the adjustment of centrifugal force before alluded to, may require that the velocity of rotation should in a small degree differ in the two rings, in order to produce an equilibrium, or H 2 counterpoise 60 Notices respecting New Books. counterpoise to the force of gravity towards the planet; for unless this equilibrium be effected, the surface of the ring could not appear to the inhabitants perfectly horigontal. - It has been remarked by Sir William Herschel, that “ the ring of Saturn reflects more light than the body of the planet.” The natural inference is, that it is formed of materials of greater specific density; and it seems advantageous that it should be so: for otherwise, on account of its comparative thinness, it could not produce an adequate force of gravity perpendicular to its surface, which we must suppose essential to its being inha- bited. . The annularians in their systems of geography can only estimate their latitude by the observed altitude of ‘Saturn’s pole; for the sun and all the other heavenly bodies have the same altitude viewed from every part of the flat surface of the ring. As for their longitude, I have not hitherto been able to decide how they ascertain it. Should the foregoing remarks be thought to merit a place in your Journal, the insertion will much oblige, sir, Your most obedient servant, Noy. 17, 1825. 5 M. Situ. X. Notices respecting New Books. The English Flora, Vol. Ill. By Sir J. E. Smitn, M.D.F.R.S. President of the Linn. Soc., §c. §c. §¢., 1825. HERE is a knowledge acquired by practice and expe- rience, which carries us much further into an acquaintance with sensible objects than the best instruction and informa- tion can do. This is a familiar observation when applied to such occupations as have to do with an article of trade. The farmer for instance, besides the obvious practice of his business, has a great deal of knowledge; the result of long experience, which is incapable of being communicated, even if his vocabulary were richer than it is; and he could no more acquaint a pupil with all the rules by which he judges of the goodness of his samples of grain, than he could convey to him b words an idea of the looks and expressions by which he knows his neighbour’s countenance. Thesame thingis seen inother oc- cupations. We have beensurprised at the dexterity with which a wool-sorter selects from a pack containing different sam- ples, at a single glimpse, the locks of wool of the same quality, ‘while to our unpractised eye there was little or no difference among them. It is this empirical knowledge which gives the prac- tical tradesman such advantage, and far outweighs the superior intellect Notices respecting New Books. - 61 intellect and acquirements which a theoretical competitor may have. The truth seems to be, that sensible objects have many characters which make so slight an impression on the mind, that they do not in passing through it become the sub- jects of examination. They are to the eye and to the touch what the various flavours are to the taste,—too delicate and evanescent to be detected and examined as they pass. Hence the nicer qualities of things are long before they are observed, and it is not till they are observed with attention that terms are invented to express them. Here then is an impediment to the progress of knowledge, when no words are capable of ex- pressing the character of an object in consequence ofits trans- jent nature; and it is an impediment not likely to be overcome by the practisers of art, but must be left to such as are habi- thated to watch their own impressions and practised in arrest- ing them. But the reader will begin to say, how does all this lead to a notice of the English Flora? We come now to the applica- tion of our remarks. It cannot but have struck even the unbo- tanical observer, how much more difficult the science of botany has become by the vast multiplication of species, and by the minute differences which are relied on as sufficient to afford a character. Among European plants, indeed, the science has been followed up with such analytic severity, that naturalists have, in many instances, resorted to the empirical characters which experience has pointed out, but which are either untech- nical, and hence cannot be employed ina specific description, or are of such a nature that the mind, though it acts upon the impression, cannot discover it so as to describe it to another. Thus they speak of one species differing from another in habit, appearance, touch, &c.; by which they oftentimes mean that it has some undescribable peculiarities about it, which point it out to a practised observer as distinct. ‘The astutest botanists of the age are all running into this extreme mi- nuteness of distinction; and it can only be explained, we think, by attributing it to the cause we have assigned. It is no re- flection upon them that there should be this tendency. On the contrary, it is to their honour that they have carried the ana- lysis as far’as their present technical language will assist them. he botany of the old herbalists was, from the want of this lan- guage, almost entirely empirical ; and we are fast losing our- selves in the same difficulty. In order to be rescued, some new Linneus must spring up, who shall be’ possessed of a mind for seizing hold of and describing these subtile characters; and thus we shall artificially be carried on another stage : but what- , ; ever 62 Notices respecting New Books. ever depends upon language for its communication and exten- sion must have its bounds. To illustrate our subject, we refer the reader to Weihe and Nee’s Rubi Germanici, where he will find the descrip- tions carried to a minuteness which could only have been pro- duced by the most laborious investigation; and yet, after all (with the exception of a few well-known species), this minute detail does not enable the reader to make out the plant, even with the aid of well executed figures (which mode of re- presentation delineates some of the characters of natural ob- jects far better than words); and in most instances we gain no more information than this,—that the authors saw something different which they are unable to describe. The English have not been behind their neighbours the Germans in the scrutiny to which they have subjected some genera. Take for instance Juncus, Rosa, Myosotis, Saxifraga, with some scores of species in other genera. How many of the new ones are purely empirical! In many instances no doubt the distinc- tion is perceived, but it is so minute and fluctuating that it is impossible to reduce it to a specific character, and seldom can be intrusted even to general description. If any one wishes to acquire information on these obscure species, about which books will not assist him, he must not be content with a single lesson: he must have “line upon line, and precept upon precept.” We have ourselves attempted some of them under the most skilful preceptors; and regret that the dark hints and general terms which they are used to employ do not enable us to profit much by their instruction. Undoubtedly a rich vocabulary and ample command of illustra- tion will do something; but this only applies to the quantity. The point we are attempting to make is, that, after all, there is a limit to the communication of knowledge respecting the ob- jects of Natural History, created not only by the imperfect na- ture of language, but by the evanescent impression which cer- tain sensible characters leave upon the mind, thus furnishing materials for its own use, but which leave nothing behind that can be communicated to others. Let us not be misunderstood. We are not blaming modern botanists for the course they have been taking. The results are only such as all minute analysis is necessarily subject to. It is an inconvenience produced by the imperfection of the instru- ments of thought, and until they are improved it is in vain to blame the naturalist for the consequences. It is however a question for his consideration, whether he cannot remedy part of the evil by some mark, or name, or arrangement of his type, which he might adopt for such species as are capable of being ~ distinctly Notices respecting New Books. 63 distinctly characterized by words, and such as are only known by habit and growth. To raise them all to the same rank is, in many genera, to involve them all in the same obscurity. The old species, so well known to our ancestors, are in danger of being lost, to be superseded by others which are obscure and undefinable. Students are frightened from the study by the difficulty they find in detecting any species; and the science is left in the hands of an eclectic number, who can only trans- mit it to their descendants by uncertain tradition; and if the tendency should be to restrict it to the few, instead of throwing it open to the many, we may be assured our mode of pursuing it is erroneous. ‘This subject is important, and needs illustra- tion to some extent ; but we only hint at it here as introductory to our notice. Sir James Edward Smith in his English Flora has from ne- cessity adopted a great number of these recent obscure species, and which are not found in his Flora Britannica; not how- ever without regretting the multiplication, yet finding it impos- sible to reject them, in consequence of the high credit on which they rested. The third volume does not contain so many as the two previous *; and, with some exceptions as to genera, the species are pretty much as the author’s former works had left them. We will just notice the most prominent changes which have taken place. The Nuphar minima of Engl. Bot. is here very properly called pumila, a name which had been given by Hoffman previously to the publication of the figure in that work. ‘The genus Tilia, which has been greatly confused, is revised thus: 7. Europea and parvifolia remain as before. T. grandi- Jfolia Ehrh. is adopted ; and the T. platyphyllos of Ventenat, and the T. ulmifolia semine hexagono of Dillenius, are quoted un- der it, while the 7. corallina of Rees’s Qyclopzedia, and Ray’s Red-twigged Lime, are considered as a variety of it. 7. parvi- folia appears to us to be the only species found undoubtedly wild, the rest having been probably introduced as ornaments to our pleasure-grounds. The stations in Stoken Church Woods in Oxfordshire, it appears, cannot be relied on as wild, as many of the species now found there have the appearance of having been planted. Merrett’s station for 7. grandifolia in Surrey is in the same predicament: it is not found there in anatural wood. Aconitum Napellus is now first introduced as English; but it should, we apprehend, with the ‘ Lark- spur,” have been marked with an asterisk, to indicate its doubtful claim to be indigenous. Under Caltha palustris is introduced a var. 8, which DeCandolle has noticed, and which * The first and second volumes were noticed by us in vol. Ixiii. pp. 219 and 284, Miller 64 Notices respecting New Books. Miller had called C. minor. “We have found it repeatedly on the mountains in Cumberland, and have seen it in herbaria mistaken for the C. radicans, which is a strongly marked and totally distinct species. Recent and authentic specimens of this last plant are, however, desiderata to the London botanists. The descendants of Dickson’s original plants still survive; but whatever might be the authority of the finder, it is still desi- rable to have it confirmed. i Lamium maculatum wants confirmation even as an English plant: much more then does it need to be authenticated as found wild in woods in Scotland. Stachys ambigua appears to be confined to the North. It is but imperfectly. known among Southern botanists ; and that knowledge is derived from dried specimens, which in such difficult species are but unsatis- factory. The Rhinanthus major is entirely new. For this addition we are indebted to a very active and successful bo- tanist, Mr. James Backhouse of York, who distinguishes it at first sight by its greater size, being two feet high, much branched and bushy; its much denser spikes; and its yellow- ish bracteas, each of which terminates in an elongated green point. The segments of the upper lip of the corolla are wedge- shaped and purple. Germen narrower and more tumid than in R. Crista-galli. Style prominent. Nectary heart-shaped, more spreading, and greenish. The seeds are thick at the edge, and not quite destitute of a membranous margin; but this is . much narrower than in the former. Ehrhart and Richardson, in Dillenius, had previously distinguished the species. The Lin- nea borealis seems to be more frequent in Scotland than had been imagined, though a single station for it has been discovered in England, by Miss Emma Trevelyan, at Hart- burn in Northumberland, and recorded in the thirteenth volume of the Linnzan Transactions. The most considerable alteration throughout the volume is to be found in the recasting the genera of the class Tetra- dynamia. In this the learned author has in part followed Mr. Brown, who was the first to point out the important cha- racters afforded by the cotyledons; that is, whether they are flat, or folded, or spiral; whether incumbent, lying upon the embryo laterally, or, accumbent, their edges on one side meet- ing the embryo longitudinally. This Linnean class, which comprehends one of the most natural orders throughout the vegetable kingdom, furnishes in consequence very obscure characters for subdivision. Linnzeus was driven to rely upon the nectariferous glands for generic characters, and which, after all, did not enable the technical botanist to determine his plant; nor did it associate such species as were most nearly ‘ allied Notices respecting New Books. 65 allied in habit. The characters employed by Mr. Brown are said to be easy of detection as soon as the skin of the seed is removed, there being no separate albumen ; and these afford the most natural, and indeed absolute, primary characters of these plants. ‘‘ They serve,” says our author, “ to divide the whole into great natural sections, liable, as far as I can find, to no exception; the genera under each section being easily characterized, and proving much more natural, in habit and fructification, than those found by Linnzeus.” Whatever objection may, at first sight, appear against the ‘use of these characters in the cotyledons, as furnishing little artificial assistance to the tyro, they are invaluable in the ab- sence of more obvious marks, and confirm the empirical knowledge of habit and look, which we pointed out at the commencement of this paper as so much needed when we can no longer detect characters which can be described by bota- nical terms. Maithiola incana is admitted here; but surely it is an es- cape from the gardens. At Hastings even double flowers may be observed. The Malva pusilla of Engl. Bot. is here reduced to a variety of rotundifolia. ‘The Orobus tenuifolius of Roth, which Mr. D. Don had found in Scotland, Mr. Peete in Kent, and to these may be added, by ourselves in Glamor- ganshire, is regarded (and we think rightly) only as a variety of tuberosus. Vicia angustifolia of Sibthorp and others is in- troduced, and is no doubt a well-marked species. Lotus de- cumbens, an addition of Mr. 'T. F. Forster’s in his Flora Tonbridgensis, is also new; while LZ. diffusus turns out to be angustifolius of Linneeus. Medicago maculata, muricata, and minima, first noticed by our author in the Cyclopzedia, were before included in M. polymorpha. In Syngenesia all the old Hedypnoides are placed under the genus Apargia.. The Linnean and Jussieuian genus Cnicus embraces many of our Cardui: but the author thinks the se- paration of these two genera justifiable only on the ground of convenience, and that they are not naturally separate. Cnicus Forsteri, (another discovery of our late estimable friend T. F. Forster, Esq., whose inquisitive eye seldom suffered a good plant to escape him,) if not absolutely distinct, is a sin- gular hybrid, perhaps between palustris and pratensis. San- tolina is now Diotis, upon the authority of Desfontaines and De Candolle. Under Doronicum Pardalianches our author does not quote the figure in the new series of the Flora Lon- dinensis ; ond in this we think he is right, the plant there re- presented being plantagineum, which is, with the other, an oc- casional escape from gardens, as we have evidence from the Vol. 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826, I very 66 Analysis of Periodical Works on Natural History. very deserving and industrious botanist Mr. Baxter of the Ox- ford botanic garden, who received it a year or two. ago from Brightwell in Berkshire, where it was found naturalized. We lay down the volume, under a sense of the highest re- spect for its excellent author, and will venture again to express our earnest hope that he will not remit in his labour until he has completed the Flora of Great Britain, and thus supplied us with a text-book worthy of the advanced state of science. Just published. New Tables of Life Contingencies ; containing the rate of mortality among the members of the Equitable Society, and the values of life annuities, reversions, &c. computed therefrom ; together with extensive tables deduced from the Northampton rate of mortality, exhibiting the single and annual premiums for assurances on the joint existence, or last survivor, of two lives, or on one life against another, and the values of policies on single lives. ‘To which are prefixed, a number of practical examples, illustrative of the application of the tables; and a new method of deducing the values of life annuities, &c. | By Griffith Davies, actuary to the Guardian Assurance Company. ANALYSIS OF PERIODICAL WORKS ON NATURAL HISTORY. Zoological Journal. No. VII. This number contains the following articles :— Descriptions of thirteen Species of Formica, and three of Culex, found in the Environs of Nice, by Dr. Leach.— Descriptions of Neotoma Floridana, and Sigmodon hispidum, new mammiferous animals, of the order Glires, by Messrs. Say and Ord: from the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy.— Monograph of the Box Tor- toises, by Mr. Bell: a new genus, Sternotherus, is described in this monograph, which is thus characterized: ‘* Sternum uni- valve : lobus anterior mobilis, lobi duo posteriores connexi, im- mobiles.”—On two Genera and several Species of Crinoidea, by Mr. Say: from the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy.— Additions to Mr. Say’s paper on Crinoidea; Notice of a Fossil belonging to the Class Radiaria, found by Dr. Bigsby in Canada ; and Descriptions of two new Species of the Genus Orbicula; by Mr. G. B. Sowerby.—On Leptophina, a group of Serpents com- prising the Genus Dryinus of Merrem, and a newly formed Genus named Leptophis, by Mr. Bell.—Generic and Specific Characters of Ophidian, Chelonian, and Batrachian Reptilia, discovered by M. Spix in Brazil: from the splendid works on the Brazilian Reptiles by Spix and Wagler.—On the Genus Psaris of Cuvier, with an account of two new Species, P. crista- tus Royal Society.— Linnean Society. 67 tus and P. niger, by Mr. Swainson.—On the Isocardia Cor of the Irish Seas, by the Rev. J. Bulwer, F.L.S.—Description of some new British Shells, by Dr. Turton: one of the shells described in this paper is generically new, and called Gale- omma; being characterized as follows: ‘Testa bivalvis, aequi- valyis, zequilateralis, transversa; margine antico ovato-hiante. Cardo edentulus. Ligamentum internum.” ‘The single spe- cies described by Dr. 'T., to which the conductors of the Jour- nal have assigned the’specific appellation Turtonz, was dredged up in the English Channel during a gale of wind; but Mr. Sowerby is stated to have two other species, one from the Mauritius and the other from Van Diemen’s Land.—Sketches in Ornithology, by Mr. Vigors, comprising these sections,— On the groups of the Vulturide—On a new genus of Falco- nida—On a new genus of Psittacide, and On the arrangement of the genera of Birds : the last section consists of a list of the genera of Birds as they arrange themselves under their orders and families, in consonance with the views exhibited in the author’s paper “ On the Affinities of Birds,” lately published in the Linnean Transactions.— Analytical Notices of Books.— The subjects described in the Number are illustrated by four plates, three of which are coloured. XI. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Jan. 12.7 PHE following papers were read: Observatioris on the heat of July 1825, together with some remarks on sensible cold, by W. Heberden, M.D. F.R.S.— Account of a series of observations to determine the difference of longitude between the national observatories of Greenwich and Paris, by J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. Sec. R.S.;. commu- nicated by the Board of Longitude. Jan. 19.—On the Cambridge transit instrument, in a sup- plement to a former paper, by Robert Woodhouse, Esq. M.A. F.R.S. Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the Univer- sity of Cambridge-—On the magnetic influence of-the solar rays, by S. H. Chaanine Esq. M.A. F-.R.S. Jan. 26.—On the barometer, by J. F. Daniell, Esq. F.R.S. LINNEHAN SOCIETY. Jan. 17.—Read a paper on some Cornish species of the genus Labrus, by Mr. Jonathan Couch, ¥'.L.S. Ame 12 the 68 Geological Society. ‘ the species noticed were Labrus Sulis; Tinea (Common Wrasse); cornubiensis (Goldsinny); mzcrostoma (Corkwring); trimaculatus ; Comber; Perca inermis. = GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Noy. 18, 1825.—A notice was read respecting the appear- ance of fossil timber on the Norfolk coast, by Richard ‘Taylor, Esq. of Norwich. In consequence of an extraordinary high tide which visited the coast of Norfolk on the 5th of February last, large por- tions of the cliffs, sometimes exceeding 200 feet in height, were precipitated into the sea, and an opportunity was af- forded of examining the site of a stratum containing a num- ber of fossil trees exposed on the east and west sides of the town of Cromer. In this singular stratum, composed of laminz of ‘clay, sand, and vegetable matter, and about four feet in thickness, the trunks were found standing as thickly as is usual in woods, the stumps being firmly rooted in what ap- pears to be the soi] in which they grew. They are invariably broken off about a foot and a half from the base. The stem and branches lie scattered horizontally ; and amongst them’ are thin layers of decomposed leaves, but no fruits or seed- vessels. The species of timber appear to be chiefly of the Pine tribe, with occasional specimens of elm and oak: they are flattened by the pressure of the overlying alluvial strata. Mr. Taylor has not observed any animal remains in the stra- tum, except a skull of one of the Deer tribe ; but he supposes that the bones of elephants and other herbivorous animals found near this site may have been washed out of the same bed. An extract of a letter from the Right Hon. Earl Compton, F.G.S., to the President, was read, On the discovery of granite with green felspar found in excavations at Tivoli. In exca- vations made during the spring of 1825 at Tivoli, on the spot where the villa of Manlius Vopiscus stood, fragments of gra- nite were discovered, the felspar of which is of a green colour, exactly resembling that which is called Amazonian stone. ‘ As this rock was never before known to be among those employed by the ancients, it becomes a curious point,” observes the au- thor, “‘to ascertain whence they derived it, since the modern localities of the Amazonian stone are confined to Siberia and the continent of America.” As Egyptian hieroglyphics appear on the original surface of some of these fragments, Lord Comp- ton supposes the green granite to have been found, though a very rare substance, in Egypt. A paper was also read entitled Notice of traces of a subma- rine Geological Society. 69 rine forest at Charmouth, Dorset, by H. T. Dela Beche, Esq. F.R.S., G.S., &c.—A circumstance, seeming to indicate the existence of the remains of a submarine forest near the mouth of the Char, was lately pointed out to Mr. De la Beche by Miss Mary Anning. Upon a flat of some extent, stretching into the sea in front of the beach, only visible at low water, and composed of lias, patches of a blue clay show themselves, im- bedding pieces of blackened wood lying horizontally, similar in appearance to those usually met with in submarine forests : some of them are large, but the greater number must have been derived from small trees. Mixed with these are a few hazel-nuts, and abundant remains of plants, chiefly such as are found in marshy grounds. Angular and blackened pieces of chert and flint, precisely resembling those which occur in the diluvium on either side of the Char, form the substratum of this clay, which has been worn away in most places by the rolling of the large pebbles thrown up by the action of the sea upon the beach. Dec. 2.—A paper entitled Remarks on the geology of Ja- maica, by H. T. Dela Beche, Esq. F.G.S., was read in part, &c. A paper was also read entitled An account of an undescribed fossil animal from the Yorkshire Coal-field, by John Atkin- son, F.L.S., and Edward Sanderson George, F'.L.S. Dec. 16.—A paper was read, On the chalk and sands be- neath it (usually termed Green-sand), in the vicinity of Lyme Regis, by H. T. De la Beche, Esq. F.G.S. &c. Mr. De la Beche observes, that we ought not to suppose that the sands, marles, and clays which are immediately subja- cent to the chalk in the East of England, can be traced into other and distant countries, where however these sands, &Xc., as a mass, may be easily recognised. ‘That this cannot be done even at comparatively short distances it is the object of this communication to prove, by examples derived from the cliffs at Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire, and Beer in Devonshire ; detailed sections of which are given, and the succession of the strata and the organic remains which they contain fully de- scribed. The author first treats of the chalk, and the sands and sandstone usually called green-sand, as they occur be- tween Lyme Regis and Axmouth, and then notices the same formations as they are exhibited in the vicinity of Beer. From this examination it appears, that though there is a great correspondence in the organic remains, considerable changes take place in the shied wonspositicn: and characters of the beds both of chalk and underlying sands, in short di- stances. Mr. De la Beche considers it probable that the Beer- stone is the equivalent of the Malm-rock of Western Sussex. A paper 70 Medico- Botanical Society of London. A paper was also read, entitled, A geological sketch of part of the West of Sussex, and the N.E. of Hants, &c., by R. J. Murchison, Esq. F.G.S. &c. In this memoir Mr. Murchison describes the geological relations, distribution, and characteristic fossils of the strata of. that part of the west of Sussex which is bounded on the south by the chalk escarpment of the South Downs, and that part of: Hampshire which is included by the Alton chalk hills. These strata, commencing below the chalk, in a descending series, are, 1. Malm-rock, or upper green-sand.—2. Gault.— 3. Ferruginous green-sand.—4. Weald clay. The Weald clay in the valley of Harting Combe may be regarded as the central nucleus of this district; mantling round which, and ex- tending up to either chalk range, the other formations are de- veloped in regular succession: the breadth and boundaries of each are laid down by the author on a coloured portion of the Ordnance Map, to which a section is annexed. The Malm-rock of Western Sussex is identical with the stone of Merstham: it is characterized by constituting terraces which afford a rich soil favourable to wheat. It sometimes furnishes a building-stone, contains occasionally a calcareous blue chert, and abounds in organic remains. The Gault of this district has been cut through to the depth of 120 feet, at Alice Holt, and iridescent Ammonites and other fossils are found in it. This clay is marked by fertile water- meadows ; and the timber, presenting a green belt, clearly dis- tinguishes it from the rich wheat land of the malm-rock above, and the arid expanse of the ferruginous green-sand below it. : Of this latter formation the upper beds consist of pure white sand, and in some places compact ironstone and. iron- stone in large cellular tubes are found in it. In the middle beds occurs a calcareo-siliceous grit, called Bargate-stone; in the lower, a siliceous yellow building-stone containing casts of Am- monites, Terebratule, &c.—The Weald clay includes in its middle beds the compact Petworth marble; and in lower beds of clayin which tabular calcareous grit occurs, Mr. Murchison has discovered, together with scattered shells of the Vivipara Fluviorum, the bones of a large unknown vertebrated animal, specimens and drawings of which accompany this memoir. Jan. 6, 1826.—The reading of Mr. De la Beche’s paper on the geology of Jamaica, was continued. MEDICO-BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. On Monday the 16th Jan. this Society held its anniversary meeting, when the following Officers and Council, were elect- ed for the present year:—President, Sir James M‘Gregor, Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. 71 M.D.F.R.S.—Vice-Presidents, William Thomas Brande, Esq.; Sir Astley Cooper, Bart. F.R.S. ; Sir Alex. Crichton, F.R.S. ; Sir William Franklin, F.R.S.; Edward Thomas Munro, M.D.; John Ayrton Paris, M.D. F.R.S.— Treasurer, Henry Drummond, Esq. F.S.A.—Secretary, Richard Morris, Esq. ¥.L.S.— Director, John Frost, Esq. F.S.A.—Auditor of Ac- counts, William Newman, Esq-—Council, The President, Vice-Presidents, and other officers ; together with Thomas Gibbs, Esq. F.HLS. ; Theodore Gordon, M.D. M.R.A.S.; Thomas Jones, Esq.; George H. Roe, M.D.; John Gordon Smith, M.D.; William Yarrell, Esq. F.L.S. The gold medal of this Society was awarded to. Matthew Curling Friend, Esq. Lieutenant in the Royal Navy and F.R.S., for his communication respecting certain articles of Materia Medica used in Africa: and the silver medal to James Hunter, Esq. F.H.S. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. Aug. 8.—M. de Monferrand, professor at the Royal Col- lege of Versailles, wrote to the Academy with the design of showing that the properties of curves of the second degree, re- specting which M. Hachette had communicated a paper, were already known.—M. Dupetit-Thouars read a notice on the di- latation which slips of the White Poplar sometimes undergo. —A memoir by MM. Quoy and Gaimard was read, entitled Observations on certain Crustacea, considered with regard to their habits and geographical distribution ; succeeded by the description of some new species discovered during M. Frey- cinet’s circumnavigation of the globe.—Dr. Lassis read a no- tice on the epizooty of 1815, and on that of the present year ; and also the continuation of another notice on the causes of epidemics. Aug. 16.—M. Dupin read a notice on a new precept in geometry and mechanics, applied to the arts.—MM. Vau- -quelin and Thenard made a favourable report on the memoir of MM. Bussy and Lecanu, entitled On the action of heat on the fatty bodies; and on that by M. Dupuy, On the distil- lation of those substances.—M. de Lacépéde presented the new statutes of the University of New York, together with some ‘meteorological observations made at Albany in that state. —M. Moreau de Jonnés read a note on the official in- quiries respecting the contagion of the yellow fever and the plague.—M. Marion read a memoir on cauterization in small- pox and other eruptive disorders. Aug. 22.—M. Bressy, a physician at Arpajon, transmitted to 72 Natural Formation of various Metallic Oxides and Salts. to the Academy two pairs of spectacles which he calls rostral spectacles.—Drs. Laserre and Costa communicated some cri- tical remarks on M. Moreau de Jonnés’s note read as above.— M. Arago communicated extracts from two letters relative to the late appearance of two comets.—M. Mathieu, in the name of a committee, read a favourable report on a memoir of per- spective geometry, or a new method of describing bodies geo- metrically, by M. Cousinéry—M. Lonchamp read a memoir on the effects of a high temperature applied to the evapora- tion of liquids.—M. Julia-Fontanelle read a memoir on the native hydrate of sulphur discovered in the department of the Aude.—M. Arago, in the name of a committee, gave a favourable report on the voyage of discovery made from 1822 to 1825 under the command of Lieut. Duperrey. Aug. 29.—M. Berard, of Briangon, communicated a new memoir on the theorem of Fermat.—Dr. Lassis addressed a letter to the Academy on the contagion of Typhus.—M. Ma- gendie presented a memoir on Hydrophobia, by Dr. Maro- chetti—_M™M. Cuvier and Duméril made a favourable report on M. Barry’s memoir rélative to the action of the atmo- sphere on respiration.—M. Civiale read a memoir on Jithon- éripty, or the new method of breaking the stone in the bladder. XII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. NATURAL FORMATION OF VARIOUS METALLIC OXIDES AND SALTS. PoE following is an abstract of a paper on this interesting subject, read before the Royal Society on the 17th of No- vember last : several other cases of the same nature will be found in our last volume, pp. 153 and 395. On the Changes that have taken place in some ancient Alloys of Copper; in a letter from John Davy, M.D. F.R.S., to Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. Pres. R.S.—In this letter Dr. Davy, who is pursuing a train of scientific researches in the Mediterranean, describes the effects which time and the ele- ments have produced on various Grecian antiquities. The first he examined was a helmet of the antique form found in a shallow part of the sea between the citadel of Corfu and the village of Castrades, which was partly covered with shells and with an incrustation of carbonate of lime. Its entire surface, as well where invested with these bodies as where they were absent, presented a mottled appearance of green, white, and red. The green portion consisted of the submuriate and the : carbonate Magnetic Rotation. 73 « carbonate of copper, the white chiefly of oxide of tin, and the red of protoxide of copper in octahedral crystals, mingled with octahedrons of pure metallic copper. Beneath these substances the metal was quite bright, and it was found by analysis to consist of copper and 18°5 per cent of tin. A nail of a simi- lar alloy from a tomb at Ithaca, and a mirror from a tomb at Samos, in Cephalonia, presented the same appearances, but in less distinct crystallization: the mirror was composed of cop- per alloyed with about six per cent of tin, and minute portions of arsenic and zinc. A variety of ancient coins, from the ca- binet of a celebrated collector at Santa Maura, presented si- milar appearances, and afforded corresponding results; the white incrustations being oxide of tin, the green consisting of carbonate and submuriate of copper, and the red of the prot- oxide of the same metal; some having a dingy appearance ari- sing from the presence of black oxide of copper mingled with portions of the protoxide. Dr. Davy was unable to detect any relation between the composition of the respective coins and their state of preservation, the variation in this respect which they presented appearing to arise rather from the cir- cumstances under which they had been exposed to the mine- ralizing agents. In conclusion, Dr. Davy observed, that as the substance from which these crystalline compounds had been produced could not be imagined to have been im solution, their formation must be referred to an intimate motion of its particles, effected by the conjoint agency of chemical affinities, electro- chemical attraction, and the attraction of aggregation. He sug- gested the application of this inference to explain various phz- nomena in mineralogy and geology.— Annals of Philosophy. MAGNETIC ROTATION. M. Arago’s beautiful experiment is now well known, and, as it deserves, attracts attention every where. The following are some results obtained by MM. Prevost and Colladon, which, as they vary slightly in certain points from those as yet pub- lished in this country, will be interesting to such as pursue this branch of science. A disc formed of a thick copper wire rolled in a spiral, pro- duced much less effect than a perfect disc of the metal of the same weight and size. A disc of glass covered with lead, or a single leaf of tin glued on to wood, sensibly deviated the needle. Wood alone, or es or a disc of peroxide of iron, had no appretiable ef- ect. A disc of hammered copper deviated the needJe more strongly than the same disc annealed. Vol, 67. No. 333. Jan. 1826. K A screen 74 Necessity of Water in the Preparation of Lead-plaster. A screen of copper, or copper and zinc interposed, dimi- nished the effect without destroying it. The diminution was greater as the screen was thicker, or placed nearer to the needle. A screen of glass had no influence. If the interposed metallic screen were pierced by an aperture equal in diameter to the length of the needle, its effect was very nearly the same. A vertical magnet suspended in the centre of a cylinder of copper remained unmoved, whatever the direction or rapidity of rotation of the ring. When two needles were fixed together in a similar direc- tion, the effect increased; when they were placed with their opposite poles together, it ceased entirely. A needle magnetized, so as to have similar poles at its two extremities, was the apparatus most sensible to the motion of the discs. It was one of this kind which the authors used in their delicate experiments. The conclusion arrived at by MM. Prevost and Colladon is, that the effects are due to a transient magnetization of the discs, which, not being able to modify itself with a rapidity proportional to that by which the different points of the disc are displaced by rotation, are transported to a small angular distance from the needle before they are changed, and draw it after them. This is the same explanation in effect as that of MM. Herschel and Babbage. Experiments made with care to determine the influence of the velocity and the distance of the discs, indicated that the angles of deviation, and not their sines, augmented proportion- ally with the velocity, at least, within certain limits, and that the sines of the angles of deviation increased in an inverse ratio of the power 2,4; of the distance. They were careful to employ, in this determination, discs having diameters very great in comparison to the length of the needle.— Bzb. Univ. xxix. 316. NECESSITY OF WATER IN THE PREPARATION OF LEAD-PLASTER. Attempting to form lead-plaster, the Emplastrum Plumbi of the Pharmacopeia, without the use of water, steam being the source of heat, I was surprised to find after several hours, du- — ring which time the litharge and oil had been kept at a tem- perature of 220°, or thereabout, and constantly stirred, not the slightest appearance of combination ; upon the addition of a small quantity of boiling water, the oil and oxide imme- diately saponified : water appeared, therefore, to be essential to the formation of the plaster. It also appeared probable the oxide might be in thestate of hydrate. To ascertain if such were the case, I precipitated, by potash, the oxide from a quantity of acetate; the precipitate, when washed, was dried by a ro Ce) List of New Patents. 75 of 220° until it ceased to lose weight. 100 grains, heated to redness in a tube, gave off nearly 8 grains of water, and as- sumed the orange-colour of litharge: the recently precipitated oxide was no doubt, therefore, an hydrate; part of which, with somewhat less than two parts of olive oil, without any addi- tion of water, at a temperature of 212°, formed, in half an hour, perfect plaster. Each of these experiments has been repeated with precisely the same results. I am induced to mention this fact, because all pharmaceutical writers limit the action of the water to that of keeping down the temperature. H.H.—Journal of Science, LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To John M‘Curdy, of Cecil-street, Strand, esquire, for. improvements in generating steam.—Dated 27th Dec. 1825.—6 months to enrol specifi- cation. To James Ogston and James Thomas Bell, of Davies-street, Berkley- square, watchmakers, for improvements in the construction or manufac- ture of watches, communicated from abroad.—6th January, 1826.—2 months. To Richard Evans, of Bread-street and Queen-street, Cheapside, for improvements in the apparatus for and process of distillation,— 7th Jan.— 6 months, To Henry Houldsworth junior, of Manchester, for improvements in machinery for giving the taking-up or winding-on motion to spools or bobbins; &c. on which the roving or thread is wound in roving, spinning, and twisting machines,—16th Jan.—6 months. To Benjamin Newmarch, of Cheltenham, esquire, for his improved me- thod of exploding: fire-arms. — 16th Jan.—6 months. To John Rothwell, of Manchester, tape-manufacturer, for his improved heald or harness for weaving purposes.—16th Jan.—-2 months, To Henry Anthony Koymans, of Warnford-court, Throgmorton-street, for improvements, communicated from abroad, in the construction and use of apparatus and works for inland navigation.— 16th Jan.—6 months. To John Frederick Smith, of Dunston Hall, Chesterfield, Derbyshire, esquire, for an improvement in drawing, roving, spinning and doubling wool, cotton, &c.—19th Jan.—6 months. To William Whitfield, of Birmingham, for improvements in making of handles for saucepans, kettles, &c.—19th Jan.—6 months. To Benjamin Cook, of Birmingham, brass-founder, for improvements in making hinges.—19th Jan.—6 months, To Abraham Robert Loreut, of Gottenburg, Sweden, merchant, at pre- sent residing in King-street, Cheapside, for a method of applying steam without pressure to pans, boilers, coppers, stills, pipes, and machinery, in order to producé, transmit, and regulate various temperatures of heat in the processes of boiling, distilling, evaporating, inspissating, drying, and warming, and also to produce power.—19th Jan.—6 months, To Sir Robert Seppings, knight, a commissioner and surveyor of the navy, of Somerset House, for his improved construction of such masts and bow- sprits as are generally known.—19th Jan.—2 months. To Robert Stephenson, of Bridge Town, Stratford, Warwickshire, en- gineer, for axletrees to remedy the extra friction on curves to carriages used on rail-roads, train-ways, and other public roads.—23d Jan.—6 months. K Summaries re. ter for 1825.—N. R. 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Fla) PbS el | | , ie | 218 g, saoedg | © | p “19 TV!I MA “SPU “yOJOWIOULIIY T, “1OOULOAL ET “CRI *punoAy dy} WOT Joo} G LOJOWLOULIOYT, BY} pu 6) St asnv9-uley] oY} JO JoUUN YT YT, "492} ZH BIG AY} JO [AAI] OY} 9AOQ AdJOUIOAV UTBJUNOJT IY} JO ULO}STC) OY} JO WSO] “MA ih AF 00 OpnysuoyT */§ 8 ob OPN] ‘209 "Jay “wayyy *40Q “bs ‘NOLMOOLG SINV( hg “GZ8l “pax ays ut Sauiysys4ox Jo "yy *N yp U2 “uozwp Many 70 7day wagsisay poaisojo.oajapyy v Jo synsayy [Ld *ax] ‘Joa wo panuyuo0D) ‘ SUVA LSVd IHL UOT SNOILVAUTSAG, TVIINOTOUOALIP, JO SAUVNINAS ANNUAL Meteorological Register for 1825.—N. R. Yorkshire. 77 ANNUAL RESULTS. Barometer. Highest observation, Jan. 9th. Wind N. Lowest observation, Noy. 3d. Wind N.W, Range of the mercury... ses see wee wee Mean annual barometrical pressure... «ss Greatest range of the mercury in January ... Least range of the mercury in July... « Mean monthly range of the mercury ... ... Spaces described by the different oscillations Total number of changes inthe year... ... Srx’s Thermometer. Greatest observation, July 18th. Wind N. Least observation, December 31st.Wind N. Range of the mercury in the thermometer Mean annual temperature - ...0 ... se es SS TEPMERE LBORe WT AIY janes, su=- faan. haar | ee Least range in February and November _... Masi-mionthly Tange —s,, nce, nen l'ht RUS TUMEEL oe osnth Sey ilastd . “ars ode. -ines' chess BIBYE OL Sean ecgue Wine vde) fn ¢e,) iaaes bendy ose New Malton, January 6, 1826. Inches. 30°800 28°550 2°250 29°878 1:790 *550 1°:200 64040 156:000 88°000 18 000 70 000 48 171 46 000 29 000 35 500 Inches, &c. 3°Z80 0°420 27°370 92°000 4000 12-000 J..Ss Summary 78. Meteorological Register for 1825.— Westmoreland. Summary for the Year 1825, of the State of the Barometers Thermometer, &c.in Kendal. By S. Marswatt, Esq. Barometer. Thermometer. [Quantity |No. of ee See See —— ‘of Rain | rainy Max.| Min. |Mean-!Max,|Min.| Mean.fin Inches. Days. |, —— | ae 1825. Prevalent. oy Rain, Ist Month | 30:38) 28°52) 29°61 2d Month | 30-14) 28°88) 29°57} 3d Month | 3038} 29°03) 29°87 4th Month | 30°25] 29:09) 29°76] 65 5th Month | 30°10) 29:30) 29-71 6th Month | 30°14) 29:08) 29-70}. 7th Month | 30:09} 29:29/ 29:8 8th: Month | 30-08} 29:05) 29:65) 9th Month | 30-10} 29:23} 29-59} - 10th Month) 30-07] 28-86) 29:6 11th’ Month] 29-98) 28-45] 29°41 12th Month| 29-69] 28-76] 29:28 29°6: 47°49} 59°973 Average. Remarks.—The mean height of the barometer during the pre- sent year was greatest in the month of March (though in this part of the country that is usually the case in January), and least in December. ‘The mean temperature exceeds that of 1824 merely by half a degree. During the summer months the. heat greatly exceeded that of last year; but towards the be- ginning and end of this, the weather has been more severe, which has tended nearly to equalize the annual means of 1824 and 1825. ; The quantity of rain has fallen short of the last three years by nearly three inches, though it is still above the average for Kendal. In July, which is generally a wet month, there fell only *701 inch, and in November and December 14030 inches. In these two months of 1824, 26°640 inches were taken, which is an unusually large quantity. The number of wet days in the present has fallen short of those in the last year, being 169; but in 1824 there were 187. For eight months the prevalent wind was SW., which ma be concluded, from preceding observations, to be decidedly the prevalent wind of Kendal, S. M. METEORO- Meteorological Register for 1825.—Scotland. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. 79 Extracted from the Register kept at Kinfauns Castle, N. Bri- tain. Morning, 10 o'clock. 1825. : Barom. Ther. January . . \(29°961 39°87 | February. . | 29°912 39°928 4 March ... .|29°992 41°742 29-854 47°300 29°873 51°322 5 29-785 '57°566 4 July.....5 30010 63°097 August . . .|29°733 61°322 September . | 29-715 58-600 October. . . |29°678 51°322 November . | 29-451/41-400 December . | 29°412|40°677 29°781 49°742 eeeee Average of the year. Evening, 10 o'clock. Mean height of |Mean height of Barom.| Ther. 29°936 |39°935 29-893 |39°250 29-978 |40°161 40°355 40°071 29°897 |47°097 29°764 |53°000 30-020 |58°129 29°725 |57°485 29°701 |54-866 29°671 |48-903 29°417 |39°833 29-437 |40°484 29°73 |46-895, . ANNUAL RESULTS. Lat. 56° 23’ 30”.—Above the level of the Sea 140 feet. 129 (236 MORNING. Barometer. Thermometer. Observations. Wind. Wind. Highest, 9th Jan. SW. 30°80 16th June, SW. 71° Lowest, 18th Jan. E. 28°66 3ist December. W. . . 25° EVENING. : Highest, 9th Jan. SW. 30°75 80th July, SE. *. 66° Lowest, 5th Nov. SE. 2864 31st December, W. 26° Weather. Days. Wind. Times, Fair 3 236 N.andNE... . pare 9 RainorSnow . .. . 129 Evang Sid sas tt ase 189 — Se a) 9 Se eee 205 365 Wand NW)... 0) "sks 142 , 365 Extreme Cold and Heat, by Six’s Thermometer, Coldest, 31st December Wind. W.. . aH 2 te Hottest, 18th July BM An dW fee. 'ar > BOL Mean Temperature for 1825 . ives alg: ve ae OES. RESULT OF TWO Rain GAUGES. In. 100 of.the Sea. . : 1. Centre of Kinfauns Garden, about 20 feet above the sR 23-90 2. Square Tower, Kinfauns Castle, about 140 feet . 23°45 METEORO- METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS im London, and of Dr. BURNEY at Gosport, omitted in the Number for November. Q 8 q 1] gf London| Gosport, at half-past Eight o’ Clock, a.m. =| Gen) 3 : - Dajsofl ich te te Te 2) B a .| 82 | leletalgelg Month, |BS2|e2/e |ee|&| E [88] £8 (2/8/8/slalale 1sas, |S 28/82) 8 | EF) S| B ee) SS BEES S S18 Rem Ae |e ja S| o cs 2 PBS @dI5/4 © Oct.26) 30-02 |30:10| 40 55-00; 70 | NW O45). jee) Wdacclee] 1 27|-29°90 | 30:00} 49 |...... 72 | Ne} cee] ceceeelene Tae 1 28] 29:94 | 30°00] 53 |.....- 76 | NW, | O15) -¥es-+]-0- LP Pee 1) 1 29} 29°92 | 30°06] 56 |...... 80 105}...| ¥ I), 30} 29:90 | 30°05! 52 |...... 72) W se} 020} 1} 1] 1 31) 29°80 | 30°02| 48 '55:00) 76) W. 15] sesnae Uap Wat Nov. 1) 29°87 | 30°00} 55 |...... SEN Wat | ecclanense yee Ua 2} 29:72 | 29°85) 48 |...... 82 | W. 100] 1) 1} 1). © |-3): 2898 | 20:11 | 54. | <2... 72) SW 30} °025 1) 1h. 4) 29:45 | 29°62] 41 }...... 72 | NW. | ooo] eeovee 11 is 5| 29°90 | 29°95) 36 |...... 73 | NW 165) 1) 1) 1).. 6} 29°15 | 29°29| 55 |.....| 87 | SW 20} °110] 1) 1] I|.. 7| 29:20 | 29°26] 41 |...... 71 | NW. | evel evens false 8) 29:32 | 29°36| 40 |54:60] 67 | E .-.| *820 seal Q) 29:02 | 29°19} 44 |...... 69 | W. 10] 1°170) 1) 1) 11. © 10) 28°76 | 28-60) 42 |...... 100 | NE. | «..| *510).../.+2) L.. 11| 29°32 | 29:34] 38 85 Ne | etal oeeess -| 1). 12} 29°75 | 29°77 | 37 | eeore- 71 N LPI veave aseho les 13} 29°85 | 29°88} 31 |...... 82| N } See 1 14) 29°80 | 29-88} 43 |...... 74 | NW 010 1). 15} 30°00 | 30°05| 38 {54:10} 75 | N ic ween Dj sseluenteue 16| 30-11 | 30°17] 37 |... 81 | NW 010). > 17] 30:04 | 30:08] 40 |...... 86| E 020). c|ee-[esatsos 18} 29:90 | 29°97) 44 |... 90; §S 09| -030)...|... 19) 29°80 | 29°88| 45 |...... g2 | W. 010)... 20| 30°10 | 30:27! 38 |53°70| 88 | W. alee es 1 21) 29-70 | 29°90} 51 |...... 91 | NW. | .:13} -080) 1)... 22) 29:82 | 29°95! 40 |...... 87. NWA gaca||fes seeclecaites 23} 30°12 | 30°30; 40 |...... 86 | W. cee! O85. aloes 24) 30:11 | 30:20 49 |..... 90 | SW. Lad apt: valees © 25| 30:16 | 30-22) 42 [53:15] 88 | NW. | 0-15) ...... ie 1, Aver. : | 29°21 | 29-817 44:10 54:26 80:2 1:56 3575 12/11/97 pliniction OBSERVATIONS in Gosport, London, and Boston; continued from the last Number to the end of 1825. Gosport, at half-past Eight o’Clock, a.m. es Ge ' a3 = ale Days of | *" 3 6 |e3| & } S |S 8lalEleiaislsie Mons, (de |e |ae|&| 2 iSg) eclelsisigiaieis isos, | 25 |S 1B" e| EB IES acOlelé EEE\E ge |& jag= | * BFS eerese Dec. 26) 20°95 | 40 (51°60| 90 | W. |... 0:030) 1] 1 iff ‘V1 29°87 | 30 | Ape 90 | NW. |....-|..00- bet Tichaclastta 28| 29°70 | 26 |...... 86 | NW. | 0°12)...... NO aS Nr Pel 29| 29°56 | 32 |...... | NIE, |s.cesalecscea | Polis 1S ee 30] 29°60 | 29 |...... Bee VIN Wiewlessocehecse's Like} ok 29°76 | 26 51:35] 84 | NW. | 14) 229...) 1) 1 Aver: |29°740 |30:5051-47.87°8 ‘ Height of ee Rain. Barometer, in WEATHER, Days of | Inches, &c. Lonpox,| ,; 2 = r= SM): ) 31S Month, Lond B ale a a < E z : 1825. ond.| Bost. | 4 8 $2 Hie faa) Le.m.|8a.a1. | i O14 |= Ro} 4 Londen. niga’ Wind, Dec. 26| 29°82 | 29°55 |38)42/40/38°5| ... | ... |Fair 27| 29°89 | 29:42 |30/32/28/ 33 |... | ... |Snow 28] 29°70 | 29°42 |32/38)34) 33 |... | ... |Cloudy 29} 29°66 | 29°40 |33/34)/34) 31°5| ... | ... |Foggy 30| 29°75 | 29°45 |30'33/29] 31°5| ... | <.. |Fair 31} 29°79 | 29°50 |28)32/33! 32 17 | Fair Snow p.m. Snow p.?. Ww. SEGMENT,. of the YORTHERN HEMISPHERE OF TELE KAR TH, Exchibiting the situation of the Magnetic pow of vonvergence, BY C,.HANSTEEN. 40° —| Nimbus. | SECMENT, of the SVORTHERN JENISPHERE OF THE EARTH, Exhibiting the situation of the Maynete pomnt of Convergetce C,. HANS TEEN, 40° PIL Mag ToLENVIL PL I THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE. AND JOURNAL. 23h FEBRUARY 1826. XIII. On the Theory of the Figure of the Planets contained in the Third Book of the Mécanique Céleste. By J. Ivory, Esq. M.A. F.R.S. [Concluded from p. 37.] II. "(HERE can be no other apology for the observations which I have made on the analysis of Laplace, ex- cept that they are true and rigorously proved. ‘And as this is the best apology that can be made, so I am not aware that any other is necessary. ‘To avoid as much as possible all objection and cavil, I have employed in the proof the author’s own mode of investigation. Speculations of this kind are at present entirely out of fashion, or rather they are discouraged and tindervalued as much as possible. ‘They seem even to be excluded from what is popularly called the inductive philo- sophy, forgetting that they form a part of the noblest and ‘ most successful induction that, we may venture to predict, will ever do honour to the human intellect. What has occu- pied the attention of Maclaurin and Simpson, of D’ Alembert, Lagrange and Laplace, is now utterly condemned as useless, with a degree of levity that will not easily be believed. But the exclusive spirit which reigns so powerfully at present, whether it proceeds from particular interests or from narrow views. of science, will at length spend its force; and the dis- cussion I have undertaken may then contribute to place an important branch of the philosophy of Newton on a solid foundation. It follows from what has been shown, that the method of Laplace, when freed from series withou! con- vergency, and reduced to what is strictly demonstrative, + confined to a class of spheroids first proposed by D’Alem- bert. We cannot, therefore, allow that the method is per- fectly general, unless it were proved that the class of spheroid: mentioned comprehends every case in which the conditions of equilibrium can possibly be fulfilled. But it is greatly to be wished that so important a part of the system of the world as the theory of the figure of the planets, were deduced from Vol. 67. No. 334. Feb, 1826, L sure 82 Mr. Ivory on the Theory of the Figure of the Planets sure principles, by a process of reasoning not depending upon any dubious or intricate point of analysis. In treating of the figure of the planets there are three dif- ferent cases that principally engage attention. We may con- sider the equilibrium of a fluid mass that is homogeneous; or of one composed of strata varying in density according to any law; or we may suppose a solid nucleus wholly or partially covered with a fluid. Although the principles on which I proceed are equally applicable in every case, yet for the sake of brevity and simplicity I here confine myself to the first case only; namely, the equilibrium of a homogeneous mass of fluid. Such is the intimate connexion which binds together the different parts of the same theory, that if we can fairly overcome the difficulties which obstruct our progress in one case, every other case will readily be brought within our power. Now the principles by which Laplace has determined the equilibrium of a homogeneous fluid mass are these two: first, the direction of gravity must be every where perpendicular to the outer surface; secondly, the radius 7 of the spheroid must come under this formula, viz. 7 = a(1 + ay), y being a func- tion of the angles which determine the position of the radius, and « a small coefficient of which the square and higher powers are to be neglected. In the theory of Laplace, the equilibrium of a fluid of uniform density is a necessary conse- quence of the two conditions mentioned. Of these the first is entirely mathematical; the only purpose it can serve is to al- low the rejecting of certain quantities which would otherwise embarrass calculation; but it can in no respect contribute to make out the proof of the equilibrium, which must be deduced from hydrostatical principles alone. Whether there be an equilibrium. or not must depend entirely on the first condition. If that is sufficient, Laplace’s solution will be exact; otherwise we must conclude that it is defective, and we can consider it only as a method of calculation which accidentally leads to a result that we know to be true from other considerations. We have now then to inquire what are the conditions ne- cessary to the equilibrium of a homogeneous fluid. ‘The whole received doctrine on this head is contained in the single pro- position following. Conceive a homogeneous fluid contained within a continuous surface, and let x, y, z denote the rect- angular co-ordinates of a point in the surface drawn to three planes intersecting in the centre of gravity of the mass; then, $ denoting a function of x, y, z, if the equation of the outer surface be gia Cy; the fluid will be in equilibrio, if every molecule, whether si- tuated contained in the Third Book of the Mécanique Céleste. 83 tuated in the surface or any where in the interior of the fluid, is urged by the forces sf. re = ordinates and tending to shorten them, it being always under- stood that the co-ordinates of the molecule are to be substi- tuted in the expressions of the forces. In order to demonstrate this proposition take the differential of the equation of the surface ; then in the direction of the co- dQ dg eg, = ee dx + ay dy + Te dz= now 4, oe : = are the forces which act upon a molecule in the surface at the point of which a, y, z are the co-ordinates ; and if we put x i Nizni Udinsk. . . | Irkntske'S S34 eal cl slelsk-b-b-olelelole > CSW AD —/H Ww TH HATO MO WO 69 69 NOoOonNDONDTOANS be bet be Thence we see that the western declination entirely disap- peared in 1805, before we arrive at Casan; from Casan to * The observations for the year ]805 are by the counsellor of state Schu- bert, and are found in Bode’s Astron. Jahrb. 1309: the others are by dif- ferent literati who resided in various parts of Siberia in order to observe the transit of Venus through the Sun in the years 1761] and 1769, and are given in Bode’s Jahrbuche for 1779.—H. Tobolsk of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. 121 Tobolsk the eastern declination increased; and again decreased towards Irkutsk, where it was only = 3°. Further east it must vanish entirely; for in Jakutskoi, Billings found in 1788, a westerly declination of 2°. Further east from Jakutskoi this western declination disappears again, and becomes in Kamtschatka, and the whole ‘of north-western America, again easterly. Thus we see that there are round the north pole four places where no declination is found: viz. 1st, on the west coast of Hudson’s Bay; 2dly, in the line between the White Sea and Casan; $rdly, alittle eastward of Irkutsk; and 4thly, a little eastward of Jakutsk. Between the first and se- cond distance, z.e. in north-eastern America, the Atlantic Ocean, and all Europe, the declination is westerly; between the 2d and 3rd, i. e. in the greater part of Siberia, it is easterly ; between the 3rd and 4th, 7. e. in eastern Siberia, it is westerly ; and between the 4th and Ist, z. ¢. in Kamtschatka, the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, and the north-west part of America, it is again easterly. If we continue the arrows which point out the direction of the magnetic needle in Siberia in the year 1805; for instance, in Tobolsk, Tara and Udinsk, we see them converge ‘in one point, situated about 5° from the pole, and between the meri- dians 110° and 120° E. of Greenwich. Ifwe combine the ob- servations, by pairs, and thereby calculate the position of the _ Magnetic point of convergence, we have the following results : Distance from | Longit. from From Nos. the Pole. Ferro. ° ° i 13 and 15 4 Q7 134 7 6 — 15 4 50 133 31 6 — 14 $ “51 155 54 6 — 16 5 16 124 58 Mean .. 4°36") 137 7% Thus the mean of all gives the distance from the pole at 4° 36', and the longitude from Ferro =137° 7'3: but a mean of the two first which agree best, gives the distance from the pole at = 4° 38! 30", and the longitude from Ferro = 133° 49’, or 116° 9! from Greenwich. From the above observations it appears that the declination in Siberia has changed every where from 1761 to1805. Thus at Casan, it was in the year 1761 = 2° 25' W., in the year 1805 = 2° 2' 30" E., or in forty-four years it had a change of = 4° 27’ 30", or 61 per annum. The change in Catha- Vol. 67. No. 334. Feb. 1826. Q rinenburg 122 Prof. Hansteen on the Number and Situation rinenburg during the same period is = 4° 37’, or 63 per annum; in Tobolsk = 3° 23/, or. = 46 per annum; in Jakutskoi, from 1768 to 1788, = 3° 15', or-= 9'"7 per ann. Thence we find by interpolation, that in 1770 the declination in Jakutskoi was = 4° 50! W., in Tobolsk = 4° 27! E., and at Barnaul 2° 45!.. If we pair these declinations in the usual manner, we find the situation of the point in 1770: According to the Observations Distance from | Longit. from the Poles. Ferro. — | In Tobolsk and Jakutskoi 4 In Barnaul and Jakutskoi 4. i ° U 4 117 31 4 2 120 48 Mean... 4 14* {119° 9! 30" If we compare with this the above result for the year 18035, we find the distance from the pole to have remained nearly the same, but that the longitude of this point increased from 1770 to 1805; the change during these 35 years having been = 133° 49! — 119° 9! 30" = 14° 39' 30", or 25/128 per annum. Thus this magnetic pole has a motion from west to east. Whether its course be a circle round the terrestrial pole, or a differently curved line, or whether it be merely an oscil- lation, must be learned from the experience of future ages. If we assume a uniformly circular motion, the period of the revolution, according to the degree of velocity found above, would be 860 years. Whether the magnetic point of convergence found above in North America be also moveable, must be determined by cal- culating its position from older observations, and comparing it with that of the year 1769. The following observations of declinations, made at the Fort Prince of Wales, distinctly show that this point has a percep- tible motion towards the east: By Chr. Middleton in 1725=21° 0! W. | annual change. wed ae See 1738=18 0O 13/9 we? eal Bas eel e177 150°. By W. Wales ... 1769= 9 41 163 1798=1 0E. | 221 1813= 6 OF. | port From * Tn the original, as well as in the work on the magnetism of the earth, p. 94, it is stated by mistake at 4° 17’ instead of 4° 14’. + These two observations are from the MS. journal, entitled His Majesty’s sloop of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. 123 From these observations it would appear.that the declina- tion in Fort Prince of Wales in the year 1795, was =0; that therefore the magnetic converging point lay north of it, viz. in the meridian 265° 48’. We have seen above that in the year 1769 it lay in 209° 58’; and consequently that from 1769 till 1795, z.e. in the space of 26 years, this point moved 5° 50! from west to east, by which the annual variation would amount to 1345. The following observations made in Hudson’s Bay in1813, and which are also extracted from the above-quoted log-book, will determine the point more exactly. Long. W. from : Declination. Greenwich, 1813. | North Lat. ° U ° i j Aug. 1] 6216 | 70 17 OW. TE}. 62 A7 80 17 c@) Sept. 3] 58 48 94 16 60E. 23| 58 18 88 50 10 0 W. 60 35 81 30 36 0 W. Calculating these observations by pairs, in the usual man- ner, we find the following situation of the American point of convergence : According to some older observations by Chr. Middleton, I have Jaid down the situation of this point for the year 1730, in my work on the magnetism of the earth, (p. 90, 91,) as fol- lows. Distance from the pole = 19° 43’, and eastern longitude sloop Brazen’s Remark-book between the 31st of June and 24th of Novem- ber 1813, in Hudson’s Bay; which I read in the year 1819, together with a great many other ship-journals and log-books in the Marine Chart Office of the Admiralty in London.—H, Q 2 from 124 M. Rose on the Combinations of from Greenwich = 108° 6’. If now we place these three de- terminations together, we obtain : Distance from Long. W. from . the Pole. Greenwich. 1730 19°15! 108° 6! 1769 19 43 100 2 1813 22 50 92 24 Which distinctly shows that this magnetic pole has also a per- ceptible motion towards the east; and it seems also to follow that it moves away from the terrestrial pole. From the year 1730 to 1796, z.e. within 39 years, it has moved 8° 4’, or 12/41 in every year more east; from 1769 to 1813, z.e. within 44 years, this motion amounted to 7° 38', or 10!41 annually. Whether this difference arises from an inequality in the motion or an error in the observation, we must leave to the decision of future generations. As the northern pole of the magnetic needle is directed to- wards this point in the whole of North America, we seem to be justified in concluding, that if we were to travel round it with a compass, the needle would in that time make a com- plete revolution. If then we are south of this point, the northern pole of the needle will point due north, or in other words, there will be no variation at all on this spot: to the north of it the northern pole would point to the south, or the declination would be 180°; to the east of it the declination would be 90° W., and to the west it would be 90° E. The justness of this conclusion is proved from the observations of Captains Ross and Parry in the years 1818, 1819 and 1820, some of which are marked on the chart. Most of these arrows, as may be seen, are directed to one point; and the situation of it in the year 1820 might be determined in the manner described above. As these observations are very important for the theory, and we may probably have no speedy opportunity of making observations in these inaccessible parts, I shall proceed to give the most remarkable of them. [To be continued.] XX. On the Combinations of Antimony with Chlorine and Sul- phur. By M. Henn Rose*. I, Combinations of Antimony and Chlorine. W HEN pulverized antimony is distilled with an excess of c orrosive sublimate, it is known that there is obtained a solid compound of antimony and chlorine, which melts at a very * From the Annales de Chimie, tom. xxix. moderate _ Antimony with Chlorine and Sulphur. 125 moderate heat. It attracts the humidity of the air, and is con- verted into a liquid similar to an emulsion *: Treated with water it changes, without giving out heat, into hydrochloric acid and a compound of the oxide and chlo- ride of antimony. This white powder, which is precipitated by mixing the chloride with water, is entirely yolatilized when heated by a blowpipe in a little matrass; it Contains therefore, neither antimonious acid nor antimonic acid: but as this chlo- ride of antimony is converted by water into hydrochloric acid and oxide of antimony, it must correspond to them in compo- sition; and as oxide of antimony contains 3 atoms of oxygen, the antimony must be combined with 3 atoms of chlorine in the solid chloride of antimony, or contain Antimony .. 2... 5485 Chlorine ...... 45°15 100-00 Yet as Dr. John Davy’s analysis of this solid chloride of an- timony gives a different result+, I analysed it in the following manner. I poured water ona quantity of the chloride, and added tartaric acid, until the liquid was perfectly clear and ceased to become milky by adding afresh a large quantity of water. I then passed a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through the liquid, till sulphuret of antimony was-no longer precipitated. This sulphuret, which was orange-coloured, was washed on the filtre, weighed and dried, then melted in a glass tube ; it gave a black sulphuret of antimony, and only traces of sulphur: it was therefore the sulphuret of antimony con- taining 3 atoms of sulphur, or precisely what ought to be formed under these circumstances. As, however, it contained traces of an excess of sulphur, in consequence of the sulphu- retted hydrogen which had been passed for a very long time through the liquid, I heated a part of this sulphuret in a bulb blown in the middle of a glass tube, and passed over it a cur- rent of hydrogen dried by chloride of calcium. The sulphu- ret of antimony was decomposed; and there was obtained an- timony, sulphuretted hydrogen, and traces of sulphur. he liquor, separated from the sulphuret of antimony, was slowly heated, to drive off the sulphuretted hydrogen, but not * The ordinary butter of antimony in pharmacy, which forms a clear liquid, is not a solution of the solid chloride of antimony in a small quantity of water, but in muriatic acid; for the Pharmacopeeias prescribe for its pre- paration a greater quantity of acid than is necessary for the formation of the solid chloride, + According to Dr. Davy, the chloride contains : Antimony... ... 60°42 Chlorine ...... 39°58 the 126 M. Rose on the Combinations of the hydrochloric acid, which cannot be separated from water by heat when it is mixed with it in small proportion. The hydrochloric acid was then precipitated by nitrate of silver. The chloride of silver obtained had notwithstanding a black- ish colour, from a slight mixture of sulphuret of silver. The results of this analysis were: Antimony 1:937 gramme (29°9 grs.), and chloride of silver 6°886 grammes (106°3 grs.), equi- valent to 1699 gramme (24°7 grs.) of chlorine. The chloride of antimony then is composed of Antimony ...... 53°27 Chiorimne. at... ce. 3 LOWS 100:00 If I had obtained the chloride of silver quite free from sul- phuret of silver, this result would agree much more with the calculation. - Ifa current of dry chlorine is made to pass over heated metallic antimony, another chloride of antimony is ob- tained. The antimony burns vividly in the gas, emitting sparks, whilst a very volatile liquid is formed. ‘This liquid is white, or of a very light yellowish tint; it also contains chlo- ride of iron, if the antimony employed contained a portion of this metal.. The chloride nevertheless remains at the bottom of the vessel, and does not dissolve in the liquid. This resem- bles, in all its external characters, the fuming spirit of Liba- vius ; it has a strong and disagreeable smell, and fumes in the atmosphere. When exposed to the air, it attracts water and changes into a white mass, in which white crystals form, which afterwards dissolve without rendering the solution milky. - This phenomenon is caused by a property of the liquid chlo- ride of antimony, (which it possesses in common with the fuming spirit of Labavius,) of forming a crystalline mass when mixed with a little water. The liquid chloride of antimony heats strongly when mixed with a greater quantity of water ;. it becomes milky, and a pre- cipitate is formed having the properties of hydrated antimonic acid. Heated gently, it gives off water and becomes yellow- ish; but at an elevated temperature it becomes white. The liquid contains hydrochloric acid. As the liquid chloride of an- timony is changed by water into the hydrochloric and antimo- nic acids, which last contains 5 atoms of oxygen to 1 of anti- mony, it follows that this chloride contains 5 atoms of chlo- rine to 1 of antimony, or Antimony ..... - 42°15 Chigmme 3... 57°85 100°00 I analysed Antimony with Chlorine and Sulphur. 127 I analysed the liquid chloride of antimony exactly in the same manner as the solid chloride. By sulphuretted hydro- gen I obtained sulphuret of antimony; also orange-coloured, ut a little paler than the sulphuret obtained in analysing the solid chloride. It contained 5 atoms of sulphur to 1 of anti- mony. Treated with dry hydrogen, it is converted into me- tallic antimony and sulphur, and sulphuretted hydrogen is dis- engaged. I obtained 1:980 grammes (30°6 ers.) of metallic anti- mony; and the liquid, separated from the sulphuret and preci- pitated by nitrate of silver, gave 11°764 grammes (181°6 grs.) of chloride of silver, equivalent to 2-902 grammes (44°8 ors.) of chlorine. The chloride of silver, however, contained a little more sulphuret of silver than that obtained in the analysis of the solid chloride. The result of this analysis is, then, 40°56 of antimony, and 59°44 of chlorine; which differs from the cal- culated result: ‘but the difference is produced solely by the sulphuret of silver which is left mixed with the chloride. It is not the liquid chloride of antimony that is obtained when dry chlorine is passed over sulphuret of antimony con- taining 8 atoms of sulphur, but it is the solid chloride of anti- mony and -the chloride of sulphur which are formed. The chloride of sulphur may be separated from the chloride of an- timony by gently heating them in a very narrow-mouthed ma- trass: there remains then only chloride of antimony. This is the same product which is formed when gray copper is ana- lysed by chlorine ; chloride of antimony containing 3 atoms of chlorine, and chloride of sulphur containing 2 atoms of chlorine only are obtained. There is no double chloride formed, the chloride of sulphur remains on the solid chloride of antimony. Heated gently, so as merely to fuse the chloride of antimony, the latter dissolves completely in the chloride of sulphur, and forms with it a homogeneous liquid; but the chlo- ride of antimony is precipitated in crystals on cooling. This is one way of obtaining large crystals of this chloride; but it must be filtered quickly through blotting-paper, to separate them as much as possible from the adhering chloride of sulphur. It is remarkable that the liquid chloride of antimony is pro- duced only by the action of chlorine on metallic antimony, but that none is formed if the chlorine is made to act on the sulphuret of antimony.* II. Com- * I several times passed chlorine over sulphuret of antimony, and always found the same result, I imagined, for reasons which I shall hereafter state, that chloride of antimony with 5 atoms of chlorine was formed. Yet I only obtained chloride with 3 atoms, if I drove off the chloride of sulphur. I was then induced to believe that 2 atoms of chlorine were separated from the chloride of antimony, and had combined with the chloride of pire ; with 128 M. Rose on the Combinations of II. Combinations of Antimony and Sulphur. I have made many experiments on the sulphurets of antimo- ny, and only found three which correspond with the oxides of that metal. The sulphuret of antimony with 3 atoms of sulphur has dif ferent colours. That which is found native is of a lead-gray. Its composition has been made known by Berzelius. It is analogous to the oxide of antimony, with 3 atoms of oxygen ; for it dissolves without residuum in hydrochloric acid, disen- gaging only sulphuretted hydrogen. ) The same sulphuret of antimony is obtained by passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution contain- ing oxide of antimony; but it is of an orange colour, nearly similar to that of the golden sulphuret. It becomes brownish by drying, and then takes an aspect more like kermes. This same sulphuret is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of tartar emetic, or through a solution of butter of antimony in water and tartaric acid. ; The kermes mineral is, as M. Berzelius first showed, of a composition exactly similar. Its colour, however, is brownish red *, The deuto-sulphuret of antimony with 4 atoms of sulphur is of an orange colour, very like that of the golden sulphuret. It is formed, if sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a solution of antimonious acid. Nevertheless, tartaric acid must not be added to enable the liquid to be diluted with water, but hydrochloric acid only+. The best way to obtain a solution of antimonious acid, is to dissolve antimony in aqua regia, and to evaporate the solution to dryness. ‘Then the antimonic acid which is formed is changed into antimonious acid by a red heat; this is fused with caustic potash, and the melted. mass is treated with hydrochloric acid and water till a clear. liquor is obtained. I precipitated this solution by sulphuretted with which they had perhaps formed a chloride with 4 atoms of chlorine. I therefore passed some chlorine over chloride of sulphur, and carefully pu- rified it by distillation from the sulphur dissolved, in order to detect such a chloride of sulphur. The chloride of sulphur indeed took a little darker, colour ; but there was no other change, although I made the chlorine pass over it for a long time. * I analysed a kermes that I had prepared by digesting black sulphuret of antimony with a solution of carbonate of potash. | dried it at a mode- rate temperature, until it contained no more hygroscopic moisture, and de- composed it by hydrogen. 0°719 gramme (11°] grs.) of kermes gave me 0°520 gramme (8 grs.) of antimony : its composition then was 72°32 antimony and 27°68 sulphur. + Very remarkable results are obtained if tartaric acid is added to anti- monious acid. —I shall make it the subject of a separate memoir. hydrogen : Antimony with Chlorine and Sulphur. 129 hydrogen: the sulphuret obtained, after being carefully dried, was decomposed by hydrogen. I obtained in one trial 1°305 _ gramme (20°1 grs.) of antimony from 1:973 gramme (30°5 grs.) of sulphuret, and in another 0°977 gramme (15:1 grs.) of anti- mony from 1-468 gramme (22°7 grs.) of sulphuret. It is then composed, according to the first trial, of Antimony ..++++- 66°14 Sulphur ...-++-- 33°86 and, according to the other, of Antimony ....+. . + 66°55 Sulphur ....-+--+- 33°45 100:00 The composition, when calculated, is Antimony .....+ ++ 66°72 Sulphur ....-++-- 33°28 100°00 The sulphuret of antimony with 5 atoms of sulphur to 1 of metal, which corresponds to antimonic acid, and which, by calculation, contains 61:59 of antimony and 38°41 of sulphur, is realized in the golden sulphuret of the shops. The different methods of its preparation are well known. It is also obtained if a current of sulphuretted hydrogen be passed through so- Iitions which contain antimonic acid: as, for example, that of the liquid chloride of antimony in water, to which tartaric acid has been added. The precipitate obtained is of an orange colour, paler than the precipitate from solutions of oxide of antimony, and does not change colour in drying, I analysed the golden sulphuret in two ways: I dried it at a heat insufficient to decompose it, till it no longer lost weight. It had then lost all its hygroscopic moisture. I generally made the analysis by passing a current of dry hydrogen over the heated golden sulphuret. Sulphuretted hydrogen was formed, but never water: sulphur was sublimated, and metallic anti- mony remained. I also analysed it by aqua regia, to which I added tartaric acid. I separated the undissolved sulphur, and precipitated the sulphuric acid by muriate of barytes: this method, however, is slower than’ that with hydrogen. An exact result is not obtained by fusing the golden sulphuret in a small matrass to convert it into sulphuret of antimony with 3 atoms of sulphur, and calculating the composition of the former from the weight of the latter ; not only because the sul- phuret of antimony is not absolutely fixed, but also because some oxide of antimony is formed by the air in the matrass, Vol. 67. No. 334. Feb. 1826. R which 130 =©6M. Rose on the Combinations of Antimony, Sc. which produces a crocus antimonii with the sulphur sublimated in its neck. I do not give the results of the analyses that I made of this sulphuret of antimony at a maximum, because they differ very little from the calculated result. II. Combinations of the Sulphuret of Antimony with Oxide of Antimony. In the Pharmacopeeias, as is generally known, the names of crocus and nitrum antimonii are given to the compounds in which sulphuret of antimony combined with oxide of an- timony in various proportions. Kermes has also been taken for such acompound. M.- Berzelius, however, has shown that it does not differ in its composition from the sulphuret of anti- mony with 3 atoms of sulphur, and the analysis of kermes above given confirms this. There exists, however, a combination of sulphuret of anti- mony with the oxide in a definite proportion, and that is the native kermes of mineralogists (rothspiesglanzerz). The result of the analysis which I made differs a great deal from Klap- roth’s, from his having supposed that the whole quantity of the antimony was both oxidated and sulphuretted, and from his having determined the quantity of antimony only*. I ana- lysed the rothspiesglanzerz from Braunsdorf, near Freiberg in Saxony, which M, Weiss obligingly gaye me for this pur- pose. The analysis was made by hydrogen, in the same man- ner as those of the different sulphurets of antimony. I added, however, to the apparatus a weighed tube containing chloride of calcium, to absorb the water formed. I obtained in one experiment 0°676 gramme (10°4 grs.) of antimony, and 0:054 gramme (0°84 grs.) of water, from 0°908 gramme (14 grs.) of the mineral, or 74°45 per cent of antimony and 5°29 of oxygen; and in another, from 0°978 gramme (15°1 grs.) of the mineral, 0-740 gramme (11°4 grs.) of antimony, and 0°047 gramme (0°73 grs.) of water, or 75°66 per cent of antimony and 4°27 of oxy- gen. I then dissolved 0°340 gramme (5:24 grs.) of the mineral in aqua regia; I added to the solution tartaric acid, and pre- cipitated by muriate of barytes. I obtained 0°517 gramme (8 grs.) of sulphate of barytes, equivalent to 20:47 per cent of sulphur. If the mean be taken of the oxygen of the first two analyses, * Beitrage, t. iii. p. 182. The composition of this mineral is, according to him, Antimony ..... 67°80 Oxypenty eS". 10°80 Sulphur...... 19-70 98°30 that Mr. Riddle on the Double Altitude Problem. 131 that is, 4°78 per cent, and the quantity of antimony required to form the oxide be added to it, the remaining quantity of metal is sufficient (slight errors of observation being neglected) to form with the sulphur the sulphuret of antimony with 3 atoms of sul- phur. It will moreover be found, that the quantity of the oxide of antimony is to the quantity of sulphuret as the weight of an atom of the first is to the weight of 2 atoms of the second ; so that the native kermes consists of 1 atom of oxide of antimony and 2 atoms of sulphuret of antimony, or of Sulphuret of antimony . . . 69°86 Oxide of antimony .,... 30°14 The chemical formula is then Sd +2 85s’, which M. Ber- zelius had already assigned for the composition of the native kermes. This composition is remarkable, as it offers the only example of a native crystallized oxy-sulphuret. XXI. On Mr. Burns’s Communications respecting the Double Altitude Problem. To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Sir, CERTAINLY did not intend to notice further the com- munications of your correspondent Mr. Burns; but I must request you to point out a most singular misquotation which he makes from my last letter. I stated that “I noted the mis- take in his assumption in italics ;” Mr. B. quotes the remark thus, “I noted the assumption in italics.” No person acquainted with what has been done on the dou- ble altitude problem, will expect any notice to be taken of Mr. B’s third and fourth solutions, as there is nothing new either in the principles of the solution or the formule employed. Your obedient servant, Greenwich Hospital, Feb. 18, 1826. E. RipDLe. To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Sir, Havrine, with a little surprise, noticed a paper in your very useful work, No. 329, entitled “ A short Method of finding the Latitude at Sea by Double Altitudes and the Time between,” by James Burns, B.A., I beg leave to say that, though it certainly is a kind of double altitude, which he has investi- gated, it is not the problem that generally goes under that name, and which is so very puzzling to navigators in general: R2 neither 132 Mr. Beverley on the Double Altitude Problem. neither has he, in that paper, given a solution to the problem which he professes to solve. The observations of Messrs. Riddle and Henderson are well founded; and I wonder you have not heard from more of your correspondents on the same subject: for after all he has ad- vanced or may advance in its favour, it is evident he has proposed one problem and solved another. I do not hesitate a moment in saying, in the words of Mr. Riddle, that in his first paper «he has altogether misapprehended the nature of the pro- blem.” And though he has been practising it these six months, we have not yet received from him a direct analytical solution of a double altitude. The one he has given us at page 50, vol. Ixvii., which is identical to the one at page 345, vol. Ixvi., is the same in substance as those given in Kelly’s Spheroids, Bonnycastle’s Trigonometry, &c. &c.—as it represents no more than the several trigonometrical operations in algebraical terms. The horary angles cannot be determined by any less la- borious an investigation than the latitude itself; neither do the “ Horary Tables” show those horary angles at all. They only show the horary angle when the latitude, altitude, and declination are given, or the latitude when the horary angle is given. They might, however, be of excellent use in single altitudes, if they were about sixty times as extensive as they are. In Mr. B.’s first paper, I cannot see how far he can con- ceive himself justified in endeavouring to depretiate the very valuable labours of Mr. Douwes and Dr. Brinkley, while at the same time he is pursuing a problem of a quite different and inferior nature, and which is no more than the declination, two altitudes of the sun, and the times from noon when those altitudes were taken, given to find the latitude. Yours, &c. Brompton, near Scarborough, Tuomas BEVERLEY. Feb. 13, 1826, (Mr. Beverley proceeds at great length to the discussion of this problem, and states the mode of its solution as given in his forthcoming Mariner’s Celestial Guide: but as so much has been said already upon the subject, we are desirous of bring- ing it to a close. We shall have great pleasure in hearing from Mr. Beverley on any other scientific subject, and are sure that he will not attribute our shortening his communica- tion to any want of respect for the talent with which he has treated the subject.—Ebir. ] XXII. Pro- [4 Weary XXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies, ROYAL SOCIETY. Feb. 2.— A PAPER was read On the magnetizing power of the more refrangible rays of light; by Mrs. es Somerville: communicated by William Somerville, M.D. The reading was commenced of a paper On the action of sulphuric acid upon naphthaline ; by M. Faraday, Esq. F.R.S. Feb. 9.—The reading of Mr. Faraday’s paper was con- tinued. : Feb. 16.—Mr. Faraday’s paper was concluded: anda paper was read, On the circle of nerves which connects the voluntary muscles with the brain; by Charles Bell, Esq. F.R.S. E. LINNZAN SOCIETY. Feb. 6.—Read, A description of the Plectrophanes Lap- ponica, a species lately discovered in the British Islands: by Prideaux John Selby, Esq. F.L.S. M.W.S. Ed. &c.* Lapland Bunting (Fringilla Lapponica Linn.), Emberiza calcarata Temminck ;— found in Leadenhall-market among Larks from Cambridgeshire. Fam. Fringillide V igors, Gen. Plectrophanes Meyer. This genus Mr. Selby states to be in- termediate between Alauda and Emberiza. It approaches the former in the thickness of the bill, and in the form of the feet and production of the hinder claw. Its affinity to Emberiza is shown in the peculiar form of the bill characteristic of that genus: it differs, however, in having the first and second quill- feathers nearly equal in length, and the longest in the wing. Read also, Some account of a collection of Cryptogamic Plants formed in the Ionian Islands, and brought to this coun- try by Lord Guildford. By Robert Kaye Greville, LL.D. I'.R.S. E. &c.—Among the species described in this paper the following are new:—Bysso1pEx; Sporotrichum badium, Thallus cespitosus, badius; filis tenuissimis, confervoideis, implexis, sporidiis concoloribus, ovalibus, acervulis distinctis coacervatis.—Gastromycr; Sclerotium gyrosum; parvum, ni- grum, erumpens, plano-convexum, sulcis gyrosis rugosum, intus albidum,—Atcm; Delesseria tenerrima, fronde tenuis- sima, avenia, lineari, dichotoma, rosea, apice obtus4, soris spo- ridiorum sparsis—FucoipE®; Zonaria rubra, fronde reni- formi, plana, subintegerrima, fragili, nitida, rubra, lineis mi- nutissimis longitudinaliter densissimé notaté.—Muscr; Tor- * Author of Illustrations of British Ornithology, a work of great merit ; the very accurate plates of which are beautifully executed by Mr. Selby. : lula. 134 Geological Society. tula Northiana. Caulis brevis simplex, foliis erecto-patentibus, lineari-lanceolatis, acutis, siccitate tortuosis, theca subcylin- drica (named after LordGuildford.)—Bryum elegans.—B. Don- ianum.—Hypnum Leskea. Feb. 21.—The Reading of Dr. F. Hamilton’s Commentary on the Hortus Malabaricus, Part IV., was begun. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Jan. 20.—A paper was read On the Geology of Jamaica, by H. T. Dela Beche, Esq., F.R.S. &c. Mr. De la Beche’s observations are confined to the eastern half of Jamaica, which includes the whole range of the Blue Mountains, the highest eminences of the island, those of Port- Royal, Spanish-Town, the Mocko Mountains, and other ridges of inferior elevation. These heights often mclude or are con- nected with extensive plains, the principal of which are those of Liguanea, Vere, and Lower Clarendon, Luidas Vale, and St. Thomas’s. The rocks of oldest formation which presented themselves to the author, within this district, he refers to the submedial or transition series. They compose the greater part of the Blue Mountain range, and consist of, 1. Gray-wacke, both foliated and compact, coarse and fine; presenting in short the usual variations common to this rock in Europe, and ap- pearing, on some points, to pass into old red sandstone: 2. Transition limestone, apparently destitute of organic remains, compact, of a dark blueish gray colour, and traversed by veins of calcareous spar; occasionally associated with argillaceous slate, and its upper beds much intermixed with sandstones. These stratified rocks throughout the Blue Mountains gene- rally dip towards the N.E. and E.N.E. at a considerable angle ; but there are frequent exceptions to this rule, and the strata are on the whole much contorted. They are occasionally as- sociated with trap rocks, viz. syenites, greenstones, and clay- stone porphyry. The author observed on one point, viz. the southern slope of St. Catherine’s hill, a series of strata which he conceives to represent the coal measures; the old red sandstone is however developed on a larger scale, and in more numerous localities: so that the medial or carboniferous series is certainly not wanting in Jamaica. Resting upon this ap- pears, on many points, a porphyritic conglomerate, associated with porphyry, and occasionally with greenstone and syenite. Similar trap rocks, intermixed in the most varied manner, show themselves very extensively, composing the greater part of the St. John’s Mountains, and the district bordering on the Agua Alta. One variety of porphyry met with by the author is composed of nodular coneretions, separated by a a argil- aceous Geological Society. 135 laceous substance, among which strings of chalcedony are some- times found. It is remarkable, that the only instance of a similar structure which has occurred to the author, is in an amygdaloidal rock, decidedly of volcanic origin, at Black Hill, - on another part of the island. . These trap rocks are found, generally, supporting the great white limestone formation, which occupies a very large portion of the whole island. This formation, from the fossils it con- tains, is referred by Mr. De la Beche to the tertiary series. It is principally composed of white limestone, most frequently very compact, and then strongly resembling the compact va- rieties of Jura limestone. The strata are usually very thick, varying from 3 to 20 feet in breadth. In some districts, this rock is interstratified with thick beds of red marle, and sand- stone, and white chalky marle. The compact limestone con- stitutes the middle part of the formation: the lower beds con- sist, chiefly, of sands and marles, sometimes associated with blueish gray compact limestones, at others with beds of earthy yellowish white limestone, containing an abundance of organic remains, viz. Eichinites, Ostree, and a particularly large species of Cerithium. 'The upper beds of the formation are rather chalky, sandy, and marly, and contain numerous remains of the genera Conus, Cerithium, Astarte, Natica, &c.; and near the sea coast a great quantity of corals, which, frequently, have almost a recent appearance. Above the white limestone formation, beds of conglomerate and sandstone are visible on many points, particularly on the edges of the savannahs; whence the author calls them the Savannah sandstones. The upper beds of all visible in the island, consist of Dz- luvium and Alluvium. ‘The former shows itself on a very large scale, covering the surface of the principal plains, par- ticularly that of Liguanea. It consists of rounded fragments of the rocks which compose the neighbouring mountains. The Hope river, which has cut its channel through the plain of Liguanea, has exposed sections of these diluvial gravel-beds, from 200 to 300 feet in thickness. The greater part of the large plain of Vere and Clarendon is also composed of dilu- vium. The pebbles of these beds consist chiefly of trap rocks ; those of white limestone are comparatively rare, this rock ap- pearing to have failed in resistance to the force of attrition by which its fragments were attacked. The separation between _ the diluvium and alluvium is not very decided ; but deposits ’ of the latter class have certainly been produced, in consider- able quantities, along the course of many of the rivers; and on parts of the shore, particularly between Kingston and Port Henderson, 136 Astronomical Society. Henderson, in front of which extends a long sand-bank, called the Palisades. Mr. De la Beche’s paper concludes with an interesting com- parison of the Jamaica formations with those of Mexico and South America, as described by M. de Humboldt. The gray- wacke of Jamaica would seem to be continued in Mexico, with its accompanying trap rocks, and dark-coloured limestones. In South America it is absent; and its place is supplied solely by porphyries, syenites, and greenstones, which are developed there ona very large scale. ‘The red sandstone which is found in Jamaica occurs very extensively in the neighbouring parts of the American continent. A formation analogous to the white limestone of Jamaica, seems, from M. de Humboldt’s description, to occur both in Mexico and Venezuela. Feb. 3.—A paper was read, entitled Remarks on some parts of the Taunus Mountains, in the duchy of Nassau; by Sir A; Crichton, V.P. G.S. &c. [An abstract of this paper will be given in our next. | Feb. 17.—At the Anniversary Meeting of the Society held this day, the following gentlemen were elected Officers and Council for the year ensuing: President; John Bostock, M.D. F.R.S.—Vice-Presidents : Sir Alexander Crichton, M.D. F.R. & L.S. Hon. Memb. Imp. | Acad. St. Petersburgh ; Rey. W. D. Conybeare, F.R.S.; Wm. Henry Fitton, M.D. I'.R.S.; Cha. Stokes, Esq. F.R.A. & L.S, —Secretaries: W.J.Broderip, Esq.. F.L.S. ; R. J. Murchison, Esq.; Tho. Webster, Esq.— Foreign Secretary: Hen. Heuland, Esq.— Treasurer: John Taylor, Esq. F.R.S.—Council: Arthur Aikin, Esq. F.L.S.; Henry Thomas De la Beche, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S.; J. E. Bicheno, Esq. Sec. L.S.; Henry Thomas Cole- brooke, Esq. F.R.S. L. & E. F.L. & Asiat. Soc.; Sir Charles Henry Colvil; George Bellas Greenough, Esq. F.R. & L.S. ; Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. F.R.S.; Armand Levy, Esq.; Cha. Lyell, Esq. F.R. & L.S.; William Hasledine Pepys, Esq. F.R.S. L.S. & H.S.; George Poulett Scrope, Esq. ; J. F. Van- dercom, Esq.; Henry Warburton, Esq. F.R.S. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. Jan. 13.—There was read a paper by Stephen Groom- bridge, Esq., F.R.S., on the co-latitude of his observatory at Blackheath, as determined from his own observations, ‘The author first describes a simple method of bringing the transit- instrument into the meridian, by the observations of Polaris and other circumpolar stars, and then by comparisons of high and low stars. He next describes the method of ascertaining the true zenith point, and thence the elevation of the pole, by observations Astronomical Society. 137 observations of circumpolar stars in zenith-distance above and below the pole, from which twice the co-latitude becomes known. Employing his own constant of refraction, he obtains from observations of 32 circumpolar stars above and below the pole 77° 3! 55",65 for the mean double co-latitude; thence 38° 31! 57",82, and 51° 28’ 2",18 for the latitude; a result which accords with his independent observations on the sol- Stices. ; Mr. Groombridge next proceeds to deduce from this, the co-latitude of the Royal Observatory. He determines the dif- ference of the zeniths of the two observatories at 35",25, which applied to the latitude of the Blackheath Observator Say addition, gives 51° 28! 37,43 for that of the Royal Obser- vatory, being less than Mr. Pond makes it by more than a se- cond. Mr. Groombridge imputes the difference to an erroneous constant of refraction. The author concludes his paper, by presenting some simple formule for finding the position of a transit instrument, from the observed transits of a high and low star, passing the meridian to thé south of the zenith ; or from the observed transit of a circumpolar star above and below the pole. : There was next read, a communication from Sir Thomas Brisbane, dated Paramatta, 2d July, 1825. The contents were, Ist. Observations with a repeating circle for the winter sol- stice 1825, extending from June 12 to J uly 1 inclusive. These are not yet reduced. 2dly. Observations on the inferior con- Junction of Venus and the Sun, May 1825, with the mural cir- cle, from May 1st to the 25th inclusive. 3dly. Observations on the dip of the magnetic needle, March 1825;—the mean of the whole was 62° 41! 35", 4thly. Observations on the declina- tion of the needle in March, April, and May, 1825 ;—the mean of the whole is 8° 59! 48", Lastly. An abstract of the mete- orological Journal kept at Paramatta, from April 1824 to April 1825. Feb. 10.—The Sixth Annual General Meeting of the Society was this day held at the Society’s rooms in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, for the purpose of receiving the Report of the Council upon the state of the Society’s affairs, electing Officers for the en- suing year, &c. &c. The President, F. Baily, Esq. in the chair. From the Report, which was read by Dr. Gregory, we give the following extracts : “« In meeting the Astronomical Society of London at its Sixth Anniversary, the Council have great pleasure in being enabled still to use the language of cordial congratulation : for not only does the number of. the Members and Associates of the So- Vol. 67. No. 334. Feb. 1826. Ss ciety 158 Astronomical Society. ciety continue to increase, and its affairs to prosper; but also the theory and practice of Astronomy (the extension of which was the sole object of the Society) have both been obviously promoted by the zeal and talent of many of its Members and friends.” » The Report proceeds to state that “ in 1822, the Members and Associates amounted to 188; in 1823, to 207; in 1824, to 210; in 1825, to 224; in February 1826, to 237 ;—a num- ber, in which are included several of the most eminent pro- moters of Astronomy, not only in Britain but in Europe. «* Amongst the few Members of whom the Society has been deprived by death, the Council think it proper to call your attention to the loss of Mr. Cary. As an artist of considera- ble eminence and high reputation he was well known in the scientific world. Amongst the many excellent instruments which he contrived and perfected, he was the maker of the 21-feet Altitude and Azimuth Instrument at Konigsberg, with which M. Bessel made his first observations at that celebrated Observatory. ** Among the duties, which it has devolved upon your Council to discharge, one of the most interesting has been the selection of papers (read at the ordinary Meetings) for publication in the volumes of the Memoirs of the Society. The Second Part of the First Volume, which was nearly ready for delivery at the Anniversary Meeting of 1825, was shortly afterwards laid before the public, and has been well received by Astronomers.—The First Part of the Second Volume is now nearly ready for publication ; and the Council trust that it will experience an equally favourable reception. Besides se- veral valuable papers tending to improve the theory of As- tronomy and of astronomical instruments, and others descri- bing instruments, which are entirely new; the several parts, here alluded to, contain tables, which tend very much to faci- litate the labours of the practical Astronomer. ‘Thus the se- cond part of Vol. I. terminates with subsidiary Tables for fa- cilitating the computation of annual tables of the apparent _ places of 46 principal fixed stars, computed by order of the Council; to which is prefixed a statement by the Foreign Secretary of the formulae employed, and the elements adopted in their construction. ‘These tables with their introduction occupy 76 pages. ‘* The Tables of precession, aberration, and nutation, serv- ing to determine the apparent places of about 3000 principal fixed stars, to which allusion was made in the Jast Report of the Council, have been completed to 180° of A, and written out for the press. ‘The remainder are in a state of conside- rable Astronomical Society. 139 rable forwardness. These tables, together with an ample in- troductory paper on their construction and use, by the Presi- dent of this Society, will constitute an appendix to the second volume of the Memoirs. *¢ Amongst the numerous communications which have been made from the Associates of this Society, the Council may specify a very interesting and elaborate paper, forwarded to the Foreign Secretary by M. Plana, on some important in- quiries in physical Astronomy, which will be found in the se- cond part of the second volume. The President also has received a letter from M. Bessel, requesting to know whether the Astronomical Society would patronize and promote a plan, which he had suggested, for making detached charts of the heavens. The President was requested by the Council to assure M. Bessel that the Astronomical Society would doubt- less promote so laudable and useful a measure, as much as lay in their power. ‘That active and indefatigable astronomer, pursuant to his general plan, now regularly observes all the smaller stars in zones, agreeably to the method suggested, and practised, by the late Rev. F. Wollaston. He has already com- pleted the zones within 15° on each side of the equator; and in that space has observed upwards of 30,000 stars. ‘The obser- vations are annually published by M. Bessel, with the other observations made at the Royal Observatory at Konigsberg. When they are reduced (as there is great reason to hope they will be), they will constitute a most valuable accession to the stores of Astronomy. ‘‘ The instrument made use of in this survey of the heavens, as well as that used by Mr. Wollaston, were both made by the late Mr. Cary. ** Others of the Associates have especially distinguished themselves, and have forwarded to this Society some very in- teresting communications, as the successive parts and volumes of the Memoirs will evince. In alluding to these distinguished characters, your Council cannot avoid noticing the indefati- gable labours of M. Schumacher, Professor of Astronomy at Copenhagen. His Astronomische Nachrichten, or Astronomi- cal Newspaper, has considerably facilitated the intercourse be- tween Astronomers in every part of the world; serving to re- cord the observations of various interesting phenomena, as well as to draw the attention of observers to other phanomena about to appear. He has also published several compendious collections of tables of great practical utility. Among these, your Council cannot omit a particular reference to the very important Tables, which constitute the second part of his Sammlung von Hiilfstafeln, and which have been prepared a ea the 140 Astronomical Society. the purpose of reducing the 50,000 stars contained in La- lande’s Histoire Céleste ; serving, indeed, to effect the reduc- tion of any one of those stars in the short space of two or three minutes. “© Thus, whilst M. Schumacher has laid all Astronomers under considerable obligations by. the publication of these tables, he has conferred a peculiar mark of his esteem upon the body now assembled, by dedicating this volume to the Astronomical Society; a distinction, which they, who know the talent and zeal of this our eminent Associate, will be able to appreciate in an adequate manner. “ Qne of our Associates, M. Struve, has devoted himself with great perseverance and success to the observation, and classification, of double stars; an important department of astronomical research, which was originally opened and pur- sued with his wonted assiduity and accuracy by our late re- vered president, Sir William Herschel. * This subject has been still more extensively pursued, and with considerable ardour and zeal, by two of our Members, Messrs. Herschel and South; whose labours on this very in- teresting branch of the science are contained in a paper read before the Royal Society, and which in itself forms the third part of the Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1824. Whoever has read that paper with attention, must be struck with the vast labour and perseverance, the great accuracy and uniformity of result, with which those delicate observations have been made. Such an immense mass of interesting facts cannot fail to open new views to the contemplative philosopher, and extend our knowledge of the true system of the universe: and Mr. Herschel himself has, in a communication about to be laid before the Royal Society, made a happy application thereof, as explanatory of some of the pheenomena connected with parallax. The indefatigable ardour of Mr. South in the cause of Astronomy, induced him to follow up his researches on the same subject whilst he was in France; and he has re- cently made a communication to the Royal Society, of some new observations, of equal, if not superior, importance; and which will appear in a subsequent volume of the Philosophical Transactions. : ** For these laborious and valuable researches and observa- tions relative to double stars, the Council have awarded to each of those distinguished Members and Associate, Mr. Her- schel, Mr. South, and M. Struve, the Gold Medal of the So- ciety, which will be presented to them at a General Meeting expressly called for that purpose, as soon as the medals can be prepared. *¢ Sir Se ee ee eee Astronomical Society. 141 «‘ Sir Thomas Brisbane, Governor of New South Wales, has devoted himself indefatigably to the practice of Astronomy, at Paramatta in that colony, having taken out with him some excellent instruments for that purpose. He and his assistants have already made several thousand observations, the records of which have been sent over to this country: and it is hoped that they will be published, either in their original shape, or. after they have been reduced to some appropriate epoch. Dr. Brinkley, of Dublin, one of the Vice- Presidents of this Society, has instituted a series of computations on Sir Thomas Bris- bane’s Observations, with a view to the comparison of the results thus furnished, with the results deduced from obser- vations made in the northern hemisphere. ‘This particular in- quiry has served to confirm the accuracy of the constant of retraction, formerly exhibited by that illustrious astronomer in his well-known formula for that species of reduction. Dr. Brinkley’s paper on this subject is printed, and will appear in Part I. Vol. ii. of the Memoirs of this Society. ‘¢ Another of the Members of the Astronomical Society, the Rey. Fearon Fallows, Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, has also made a great number of Observations of the southern stars; and the Royal Society has published his Approximate Catalogue of 273 of the principal stars observed by La Caille. «* The continuance of Observations, such as these, at two Observatories in the southern hemisphere, cannot but be pro- ductive of considerable benefit to the science of Astronomy. In order, however, that they may be rendered subservient, in the highest degree, to the extension of this branch of know- ledge, it is especially desirable that some efficient plan of co- operation should be arranged between the Astronomers at some of the northern Observatories, and those who are em- ployed at the two above-mentioned stations, south of the equa- tor. Those who are conversant with the history of Astronomy will recollect that when La Caille went to the Cape of Good Hope, in 1751, he addressed a circular letter to the principal Astronomers in Europe, enforcing the advantages of co-opera- tion ; and Lalande was in consequence sent to Berlin, to act in concert with him. Circumstances are now still more favour- able for the production of advantageous results, provided a judicious plan of mutual co-operation be agreed upon. For while there is the Observatory established by Sir T. Brisbane in New South Wales, and that occupied by Mr, Fallows at the Cape; there are also in the northern hemisphere, M. Bessel at Konigsberg, M. Struve at Dorpat, and M. Argelander at Abo (the meridians of the four latter-mentioned places differ- ing from each other but a very few degrees),—the respective Astronomers, 142 Astronomical Society. Astronomers, men of considerable science, activity and perse- verance, and possessing instruments far superior to those, which were in existence in the time of La Caille. The advan- tages of this kind of pre-arranged co-operation, to which your ~ Council here advert, are so well understood in the present ad- vanced state of Astronomy, that a mere hint will (it is hoped) suffice, to produce the desired concert.” The Report then adverts to the contributions and exertions of other scientific bodies. ‘* The erection of an Observatory at the University of Cambridge, and the still more recent an- nouncement of a prize of 75/. at Edinburgh, to be awarded to the two’ best essays on Comets *, cannot but be hailed as of auspicious tendency. in the developement of knowledge. In the same light, too, may doubtless be considered the deter- mination of the British Board of Longitude, to employ ade- quate computers on the reduction of Mr. Groombridge’s Ob- servations at Blackheath, as well as to devote a part of the funds, which are at its disposal, to the arrangement and pub- lication of the Observations of Tobias Mayer (so justly cele- brated for their importance and accuracy) from the original manuscripts, which have been forwarded to this country for that express purpose. * As another subject of congratulation, the Council cannot avoid noticing the interest which appears recently to have been excited in the United States of America to the subject of Astronomy. On the opening of the present Session of Con- gress, the President pointed out to them the propriety and advantage of constructing Observatories in various parts of their immense territory, and of establishing a system of co- operation between each other. A plan of this kind, under the direction of active and skilful Astronomers, cannot fail to advance the science, and is worthy of the patronage and pro- tection of a great and powerful nation. *¢ No less than five comets were discovered within the com- pass of as many months in the last year, and one of these has (as it was predicted) been seen again within the last fortnight. This is a natural result of the augmented attention, which has been lately paid to these bodies, and to the investigation of the laws, which their motions obey. “With respect to the Prize Questions proposed at the last general meeting of the Society, the Council report that they have received only one answer to the first question, which being just delivered in, is now under investigation. ‘The period allotted for the determination of the second question will not ~ * Open to all students who have attended that University during the last ten years. expire Astronomical Society. 143 expire till the-next Anniversary, and that allotted for the third question not till the Anniversary in 1828: prior to which time the Council trust that the subjects proposed will have excited the attention of Astronomers, and induced them to forward to. the Society the result of their inquiries and investigations. “It has frequently been a subject of regret with many Members of this Society, that there are so few particulars known relative to the different public Observatories in various parts of the world: such as the construction of the building, and the instruments with which it is furnished. ‘The cele- brated John Bernouilli in his Lettres Astronomiques, published at Berlin in 1771, attempted a description of some of those, which he had visited : but so many alterations have taken place since that period, not only in the Observatories themselves, (some of which no longer exist,) but also in the instruments, which are now of a totally new character, that but little infor- mation as to the present state of those establishments can be obtained from that source. The Council are of opinion that it would tend materially to the advancement of Astronomy, if an accurate description of every principal Observatory could be obtained, accompanied with a ground plan and elevation of the building; together with a description of the instruments employed, and drawings of such as are remarkable, either for their novelty or peculiar interest. It is well known that there are several instruments in constant use on the Continent, and much approved by Astronomers, which have not yet been seen in this country: and some in this country, which are not suf- ficiently known abroad; or even amongst ourselves. The Council would encourage every attempt to promote this spe- cies of information, by publishing in their Memoirs the ac- counts which they may from time to time receive on this sub- ject, and the drawings, with which they might be accom- panied. ° ** Your Council think it unnecessary to extend this Report to a greater length. It must be evident that many things, which (as far as regard the objects and labours of this Society) were six years ago only matters of hope and anticipation, have now become subjects of mutual congratulation. But it can only be by a cordial and zealous co-operation of all its Mem- bers, and by a continued course of perseverance, that the So- ciety can ever expect fully to attain the principal objects for which it was established; and which, as stated in their ori- ginal Address, are for the purpose of ‘ collecting, reducing, ‘and publishing useful Observations and ‘Tables :—for set- ‘ting on foot a minute and systematic examination of the ‘ Heavens : 144 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. ‘ Heavens :—for encouraging a general spirit .of inquiry in * practical Astronomy:—for establishing communications with ‘ foreign Observers:—for circulating Notices of all remarkable ‘ Phenomena about to happen:—for enabling the public to. ‘compare the merits of different artists, eminent in the con- ¢ struction of astronomical instruments:—for proposing Prizes ‘ for the improvement of particular departments, and. bestow- ‘ing Medals or rewards on successful research in all :—and ‘ finally, for acting, as far as possible, in:concert with every ‘ Institution both in England and abroad, whose objects have ‘ any thing in common with their own; but avoiding all inter- ‘ ference with the objects and interests of established scientific ‘bodies.’ Keeping these objects in view, as constant land- marks, the Council trust that the Society will insure the appro- bation and applause of every friend of science; and that it will not only prove a source of interest and information to the Mem- bers at large, but likewise tend to advance the progress of Astronomy in every habitable and civilized part of the globe.” After reading the Report and Treasurer’s accounts, the Members proceeded to ballot for the officers for the ensuing year, when the following were declared to have been duly elected. President: Francis Baily, Esq. F.R.S. L.S. & G.S.—Vice- Presidents: Rey. John Brinkley, D.D. F.R.S. Pres. R.I.As And. Prof. Ast. Univ.of Dubl. ; Capt. F. Beaufort, R.N. F.R.S.; Henry Thomas Colebrooke, Esq. F.R.S. L. & E. F.L.S. & G.S.; Davies Gilbert, Esq. M.P. V.P.R.S. F.L.S. & G.S.— Treasurer: Rey. William Pearson, LL.D. F.R.S.—Secreta- ries: Olinthus G. Gregory, LL.D. Prof. Math. Roy. Mil. Acad. Woolwich; Lieutenant William S. Stratford, R.N.— Foreign Sec.: J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. M.A. Sec. R.S. Lond. & F.R.S, Ed.—Council: Colonel Mark Beaufoy, F.R.S. & L.S.; Ben- jamin Gompertz, Esq. F.R.S.; Stephen Groombridge, Esq, F.R.S.; James Horsburgh, Esq. F.R.S.; Daniel Moore, Esq. F.R.S. S.A. L.S. & G.S.; John Pond, Esq. F.R.S. Ast. Roy.; Edward Riddle, Esq.; Richard Sheepshanks, Esq. M.A.; W.H. Fox Talbott, Esq. B.A.; Edward Troughton, Esq. F.R.S. L. & E.—The Society afterwards dined together at the “Freemason’s Tavern, to celebrate their sixth Anniversary. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. Sept. 5.—Doctors Sarmetaine, Flory, and Remonet, of Mar- seilles, announced, in‘a letter to the Academy, their intention of joining Dr. Costa and others, in submitting to all the ex- periments necessary to determine the question of the non-con- tagious Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. 145 tagious or contagious nature of yellow. feyer.—Capfain Véne communicated a memoir on circular faunctioys.2-M. Magendie presented some notes on the history of goitres,: by Dr.-Poulin of Santa-Fé-de-Bogoté.—_MM. Legendre: and Cauchy made a feport on M. Berard’s memoir in which he proposes to prove the truth of the only theorem of Fermet which has not yet been demonstrated. parts 2 Sept. 12.—M. Durville presented a MS.-memoir on tlie Flora of the Malouine Isles—M. Ampére communicated some new electro-dynamic experiments.—MM. Desfontaines and Labillardiére made a report on M. Ad. de Jussieu’s me+ moir on the family of the Rutacee.—M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire commenced the reading of a memoir entitledQirthe-beings of the intermediate degrees of the animal scalé.~vhich respire both in the air and under water, and which poSsess respiratory organs of two kinds, developed to a certain & "He pre- . sented a specimen of the Bireus Latro, in ,» besides branchia, there are organs which M.Geoffroy réval as lungs. Sept. 19.—M. Geoffroy read another menioir if’ ¢ontinua- tion, on the above subject.—M. Foulhious read a métoir on a law by which the arteries and nerves are governed ‘in their tespective relations. —M. Costa read a memoir on the epide- mic typhus which ravaged the commune of St. Laurent-des- Ardens and its environs, during six months of 1823.—A me- moir on the composition of new hydraulic morters, by M. Gi- rard, was referred to a Committee. sae Sept. 26.—M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire exhibited several living specimens of the common crab, C. m@nas, and detailed ver- bally the results of his researches on the respiration of the Crustacea. ° a Oct. 3.—M. Féburier read an account of his experinients on the electricity of oxygen gas.—M. Ch.Gemmellaro commu- nicated a memoir, in Italian, on the soil of Mount A&tna, with specimens in illustration —MM. Quoy and Gaymard read. some zoological observations on the Corals, made in the bay of Coupang, at Timor, and in the Isle of Guan, in the Mari- annes. Oct. 10.—M. Dulong read a memoir, entitled “* Researches on the refractive powers of elastic fluids.”—M. Lenoir, jun. read a memoir, by his father and himself, on the new instru- ments called Levelling-circles, which they have constructed. Oct. 17.—M. Damoiseau read a memoir on the comet with a short period.—M. Dupetit-Thouars read a report on M. Gaudichaud’s memgir respecting Cycas circinalis —M. Geof- ol. 67. No, 334. Feb. 1826. At Oct. 24. Fy St. Hilaire read 'a memoir on a foetal monster. ; z 146 Horticultural and Agriculturat Oct. 24.—MM. Vanquelin and Thenard made a report on M. Laugier’s memoir on the Fer résinite of Haiiy, from Frey- berg.—M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire read a memoir on the ol- factory organs of fishes.— _M. de Grandpré read a memoir on the means of sounding the ocean in order to discover the val- leys which give rise to currents. Oct. 31.—M. Serres communicated a work, in manuscript, on the comparative anatomy of animal monsters.—M. Moreau de Jonnés read some extracts from letters written from Mar- tinique, detailing the ravages of the yellow fever and those of the last hurricane. HORTICULTURAL AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF JAMAICA. _. We feel much pleasure in announcing the establishment, on Jan. 10, 1825, of “*The Society for the encouragement of Horticulture and of Agriculture, and of the arts connected with them, in Jamaica :”’—the first, we believe, that has yet been formed in the British West Indies. The following is a list of the Officers and Council of this Society. Patron: His Grace William, Duke of Manchester, &c. &c. —President: Edward Nathaniel Bancroft, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, &c.—Vice-Presidents: Ho- nourable John Mais ; Samuel Murphy, Esq.— Treasurer : Ro- bert Smith, Esq.—Secretary: John Miller, M.D.—Honorary Members of the Council: The Right Reverend the Lord Bi- shop of Jamaica; the Honourable William Anglin Scarlet, Chief Justice; the Honourable William Burge, Attorney- General.—Council: Honourable Joseph _Barnes; Honour- able Francis Smith; William Shand, Esq.; George Mills, Esq.; Edward Tichbone, Esq.; George Atkinson, Esq. ; William Brooks King, Esq.; William Lambie, Esq.; Charles Mackglashan, jun. M.D.; James Wier, M.D.; Jacob Adol- phus, MLD.: James Simpson, Esq.; Honourable James Laing; Sir M. B. Clare; John Lunan, Esq.; Stewart West, M.D. ; William Gordon, M.D.; John Ferguson, M.D.; J. R. Phil- lips, Esq.; Thomas Higson, Esq.; C. S. Cockburn, Esq. ; Rey. W. T. Paterson; Alexander M‘Intosh, Esq.; Robert Gray, Esq. , The more especial objects of this association will be best seen from Nos. XI. and XII. of its regulations, with their sub- ordinate heads, which are as follows: * XI. That the following be the subjects for information, upon Society of Jamaica. 147 upon which prizes shall be offered; the communications to be sent to the Secretary by the 15th of November 1826: “1. The progress and present state of agriculture in Ja- maica or in the other West India colonies. “2. The progress and present state of horticulture in Ja- maica or in the other West India colonies. «© 3. New methods by which the culture or preparation of the present staples of the island may be improved. “4. ‘The diseases of horses, mules, oxen, and sheep in the West Indies, and the means of curing them. “<5. The diseases of cultivated plants in this climate, and the modes of preventing and of checking them. “6. The natural history of the insects, birds, and other animals, most destructive to vegetation, and the most effec- tual means of hindering or counteracting their ravages. “*7. The most ceconomical modes of irrigating flat and mountainous lands, with the least waste of the nutritious par- ticles of the soil. . ** 8. The most ceconomical and effectual modes of draining marshy soils. ~ 9, Any valuable medical property in plants hitherto un- known. ‘10. The preparation of wine from the vine (Vitis vinifera), and of vinous liquors from other fruits, in the ‘Tropics. *© 11. Descriptions of plants not previously known, or known imperfectly, with their botanical characters, and with speci- mens of each plant described, if practicable. “12. The most advantageous modes of grafting in the Tro- pics, with an account of the plants on which these modes have been successful. ** The Society shall likewise offer prizes for the following ob- jects: **13. Improved specimens of esculent vegetables and fruits, whether native or foreign, raised in this island. **14, ‘The introduction of any new and valuable plants, or esculent vegetables, or fruit. Specimens of each to be accom- panied with an account of its history and cultivation. “15. The best specimens of wines made within the Tro- pics, from the vine or from other fruits. Not less than three bottles of each sort of wine to be sent. **16. To such persons of free condition, whether of colour or black, and male or female, as may, through his own indus- try, have put the cottage he has inhabited, with a garden at- tached to it, into the neatest condition, a premium not exceed- _ing two doubloons. : T2 17, To 48 Difference of Longitude.—Earthquake at Sea. 17, Toa slave of either sex, for the same, a similar pre- mium. «“ XII. That the prizes to be bestowed by the society shall consist of silver medals of two sizes, and of premiums in money.” XXIII. Intellience and Miscellaneous Articles. DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE BETWEEN GREENWICH AND fafRARAS. "PoE subjoined is a notice of Mr. Herschel’s paper on this subject, read before the Royal Society on the 12th of Ja- nuary. po ee set “An Account of a Series of Observations to determing the Difference of Longitude between the National Observa- tories of Greenwich and Paris; by J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. Sec. R.S.: communicated by the Board of Longitude.” In this paper, after stating the wish expressed by the French Ministry of War, that the above determination should be made, with the ready accession to their desire of our own Board of Longitude, and describing the method resorted to, Mr. Her- schel gives the observations in detail. They were made by’ himself and one French officer on this side of the Channel, and _ by Capt. Sabine and another French officer on the coast of, France. Their general result is 9! 21,55" for the difference: of longitude between the two Observatories; and though many of the observations had been rendered unavailable by un- toward circumstances which it was impossible to foresee or to obviate, ‘Mr.-H, stated that this determination was not likely. to require a correction exceeding 1-10th of a second, and ver unlikely to want one of twice that amount,—Anu. of Phil. -. - EARTHQUAKE FELP AT SEA; IN FEBRUARY 18265. : There are few observations of greater importance, in refer- ence to the theory of earthquakes, than the determination. of the exact time when they are felt at sea, The place where they have their origin,—the velocity with which they are pro- pagated,—and their probable depth beneath the surface, may be inferred from a series of accurate obseryations.on the effects. which they produce, and the. time when they.are felt. at dif- ferent points on the earth’s surface. _. oi a . The earthquake which was experienced at Lisbon, on the 2d February 1816, at five minutes past midnight, was felt at sea by the Portaguese vessel, the Marquis de Anggja, bound from Bengal to Lisbon, at the-distance of 270 leagues rom ey ; : at Sith. ewes .. pink, Gidding; sswatseidjbecis cae mer/ene, ssi 3a) <) 1st of Miele be purple, Fxg Vlolstia is At sip aristtiene, Wis toa 20s es odes purple. Mr. Harvey has described, in a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and which will soon be published, the case of a person now alive, and aged 60, who could distinguish with certainty only white, yellow, and gray. He could, how- ever, distinguish blues when they were Tight. ‘Dr. Nichols has recorded a case where a person who was in the navy purchased a blue uniform coat and waistcoat, with red breeches to match the blue; and he has mentioned one case in which the imper- fection is derived through the father, and another in which it descended from the mother. In the case of a young man in the prime of life, with whom the writer of this article is acquainted, only two colours were perceived in Dr. Wollaston’s spectrum of five colours, viz. red, green, blue, and violet. The colours which he saw were blue and orange or yellow, as he did not distinguish these two from one another.. When all the colours of the spectrum were ab- sorbed by a reddish glass, excepting red and dark green, he saw On the Poison of the common Toad. 155 saw only one colour, viz. yellow or orange. -When the mid- dle of the red space was absorbed by a blue glass, he saw the _black line with what he called the yellow on each side of it. We are acquainted with another gentleman who has a similar imperfection. In all the preceding cases there is one general fact, that red light; and colours in which it forms an ingredient, are not di- stinguishable by those who possess the peculiarity in question, Mr. Dalton thinks it probable that the red light is, in these ceases, absorbed by the vitreous humour, which he supposes may have a blue colour: but as this is a mere conjecture, which is not confirmed by the most minute examination of the eye, we cannot hold it as an explanation of the phenomena. Dr. Young thinks it much more simple to suppose the absence or paralysis of those fibrés of the retina which are calculated to perceive red; while’ Dr. Brewster conceives that the eye is, in these cases, insensible to the ‘colours at the one end of the spectrum, just as the ear of certain persons has been proved, by Dr. Wollaston, to be insensible to sounds at one extremity of the scale of musical notes, while it is perfectly sensible to all other sounds. If we suppose, what we think will ultimately be demon- strated, that the choroid coat is essential to vision, we may ascribe the loss of red light in certain eyes to the retina itself having a blue tint. If this should be the case; the light which falls upon the choroid coat will be deprived of its red rays, by the absorptive power of the blue retina, and consequently the impression conveyed back to the retina, by the choroid coat, will not contain that of red light—LZdin. Journ. of Science. ON THE POISON OF THE COMMON TOAD. BY DR. J. DAVY. The following is an abstract of Dr. Davy’s paper on. this subject, lately read before the Royal Society, : The popular belief in the venomous nature of the toad, Dr. Davy states, though of great antiquity, has been rejected as a vulgar prejudice by modern naturalists, decidedly so by Cu- vier; but like many other long received and prevalent opi- nions, it is a true one, and the denial of it by philosophers has resulted from superficial examination.» Dr. D. found the venomous matter to be contained in follicles, chiefly in the - cutis vera, and about the head and shoulders, hut also distri- buted generally over the body, and even on the extremities. On the application of pressure this fluid exudes, or even spirts out to a considerable distance, and may be collected in suffi- cient quantity for examination. It is extremely acrid when applied to the tongue, resembling the extract of aconite in this respect, 156 List of Patents for New Inventions. respect, and it even acts upon the hands. It is soluble, with a small residuum, in water and in alcohol, and the solutions are not affected by those of acetate of lead and corrosive sub- limate. On solution in ammonia, it continues acrid; it dis- solves in nitric acid, to which it imparts a purple colour. By combination with potash or soda it is rendered less acrid, ap- parently by. partial decomposition. As left by evaporation of its aqueous or alcoholic solutions, it is highly inflammable; and the residuary matter that appears to give it consistence seems to be albumen. Though more acrid than the poison of the most venomous serpents, it produces no ill effect on being in- troduced into the circulation; a chicken inoculated with it was not affected. . The author conjectures that this “ sweltered venom,” as it is correctly termed by our great dramatist, being distributed over the integuments, serves to defend the toad from the attacks of carnivorous animals ;—* to eata toad” has long been held as an opprobrious difficulty; and the animal is still further pro- tected in this respect by the horny nature of its cutis, which contains much phosphate of lime, &c. As the venom consists in part of an inflammable substance, it is probably excre- mentitious, and an auxiliary to the action of the lungs in de- carbouizing the blood. This view of its use is confirmed by the fact that one of the two branches of the pulmonary artery supplies the skin, its ramifications being most numerous where the follicles of venom are thickest. Dr. Davy has found the skin of the toad to contain pores of two kinds: the larger, chiefly confined to particular situations, and which, when the skin is held up to the light, appear as iridescent circles, and the smaller, more numerously and gene- rally distributed, which appear as luminous points of a yellowish colour. Externally these pores are covered with cuticle, and some of the larger ones even with rete mucosum; internally they are lined with delicate cellular tissue. By inflating the skin, Dr. D. ascertained that it was not furnished with spira- cula, the existence of which he had been led to suspect b some particular circumstances in the physiology of the eal —Ann. of Phil. —- LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To Robert Rigg, of Bowstead Hill, Cumberland, for a new condensing apparatus, to be used with the apparatus now in use for making vinegar.— Dated 4th February 1826.—6 months to enrol specification. To J. C. Gamble, of Liffeybank, in the county of Dublin, . chemist, for his apparatus for the concentration and crystalli- zation of aluminous and other saline and crystallizable solu- tions, Meteorological Journal for Jan. 1826. 157 tions, part of which may be applied to the purposes of evapo- ration, distillation, inspissation, and to the generation of steam. —7th February.—4 months. To William Mayhew, of Union-street, Southwark, and William White, of Cheapside, for their improvement in the manufacture of hats——7th February.—6 months. To Hugh Evans, Harbour-master, of Holyhead, for his method of rendering vessels, whether sailing or propelled by steam, more safe in cases of danger by leakage, &c.—7th Feb. —2 months. To William Chapman, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, for his im- proved machinery for loading or unloading of ships.—7th Fe- bruary.—2 months. To Benjamin Cook, of Birmingham, brass-founder, for im- provements in making files.—7th February.—6 months. ~ To William Warren, of Crown-street, Finsbury-square, for improvements (communicated from abroad) in the process of extracting from the Peruvian bark quinine and cinchonine, and preparing the various salts to which these substances may serve as a basis.—11th February.—6 months. To John Lane Higgins, of Oxford-street, for improvements in the construction of the masts, yards, sails, rigging of ships, and in the tackle used for navigating the same.—11th February. —6 months. To Benjamin Newmarch, of Cheltenham, and Charles Bon- ner, of Gloucester, for their invention for suspending and se- curing windows, gates, doors, shutters, blinds, and other ap- paratus.—18th February.—6 months. To Thomas Walter, of Luton, Bedfordshire, for improve- ments in straw plats, for making hats, &c.—18th February.— 6 months. To Charles Whitlaw, of Bayswater Terrace, Paddington, for his improvement in administering medicines by the agency of steam.—18th February.—6 months. To Arnold Buffum (late of Massachusetts, but now of Bridge- street, London), for improvements (in part communicated from abroad) in making and dyeing hats.—18th Feb.—6 months. Results of a Meteorological Journal for January 1826, kept at the Observatory of the Royal Academy, Gosport, Hants. General Observations. The first part of this month was fair and frosty, with the exception of two or three days; and the latter part very damp and humid, with variable winds from the east side of the me- ridian. ‘The frosty weather was ushered in bya N.E. wind, which blew strong from that point nearly seven days; : a shiftec 158 Meteorological Journal for Jan. 1826. shifted to the N. and N. W. with a low temperature till the 13th instant, which was the coldest day and night we had had since the 15th of January 1820. Here the thermometer in the ex- ternal air at 7 o’clock A.M. on the 14th, was as low as 17 de- grees: in London, on the morning of the 16th, it sank to 15 degrees; and.in Paris it was said to have: receded several de- grees lower. In the morning of the 8th all the pumps that were not under cover were ice-bound, and continued so nine or ten days. On the 9th, the skaters assembled upon the ice in Stoke’s Bay-Marsh, and upon the Moat round the Fortifi- cation of Gosport, where they amused themselves and the bystanders eight or nine days; as the calm, clear, and. frosty weather afforded a favourable opportunity. © In the morning of the 15th there was an apparent change in the atmosphere, when three winds prevailed simultaneously ; viz. the lower one from the E., the next from the S.E., and the upper one from N.W.., witha rising temperature, which continued till the 21st, when the external thermometer rose to 46 degrees: but the lower wind being dry, the barometer rose steadily till the even- ing of the 17th; and on the 18th: the frost went off, succeeded by drizzling rain. A more favourable thaw could not have been desired, as it was remarkably gradual, attended with scarcely sufficient rain to wet the ground; and the thick masses of ice had not entirely dissolved into a fluid state till the close of the month. Here we had not enough snow to cover the ground; but in the northern parts of the country it was se- veral feet in depth, so that the stage coaches could not pass for some days. In Paris too it was nearly a foot in depth, which was deeper than had been’ known there for some years past. The change in the atmosphere, from a very cold and dry state to a considerable increase of temperature and great dampness, was attended, ‘as usual, with colds, coughs, and rheumatism. The weather, however, was seasonable and healthy till the full of the moon. A few minutes after sunset on the 9th, there appeared round the horizon a dark purple haze with an even altitude of about 5 degrees; next to this was a band of red 24 degrees wide, surmounted by a band of yellow of the same width. The primitive colours thus forming contiguous bands near the ho- rizon, but brighter diametrically opposite to the sun, hada fine appearance, and were produced by reflection of the sun’s hori- zontal rays from the falling frozen dew or descending hoar frost. The atmospheric and meteoric pheenomena that have come within our observations this month are one parhelion, one so- lar and three lunar halos, two meteors, and six gales of wind, or days on which they have prevailed, from the N.E. Numerical —. Meteorological Journal for Jan. 1826. 159 Numerical Results for the Month. Inches. Maximum 31°51, January 17th—Wind S. Minimum 29°54, Ditto 6th—Ditto N.E. Range of the mercury. . 0°97. _ Inches Mean barometrical pressure for the month...... 29980 —— for the lunar period ending the 8th inst.. . 29-693 for 14 days, with the Moon in North declin. 29°671 - for 16 days, with the Moon in South declin. 29°715 Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury 3°550 Greatest variation in 24 hours......... € SMR Se 0°340 Number of changes «26 ee eee eee eee 21 _.§ Maximum 49°, January 31st—Wind S.W. A hermnometer ; Minimum 17 Ditto” 14th—Ditto E. Range 2 2s ee ee BD Mean temp. of the external air 35°56 for 29 days with the : Sun in Capricornus .. . tes Greatest variation in 24 hours 17°00 Mean temp. of spring water Y 50.19 at 8 o'clock A.M. ... De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer. 5 Degrees. ° - Greatest humidity of the air . 93 in the evening of the 30th. Greatest dryness of ditto ... 59 in the afternoon of the 9th. Range of the index ......- 34 Mean at 2 o’clock P.M. ... 74°0 at 8 o'clock A.M. ... 80°1 at $8 o'clock P.M. ... 78°9 of three observations each ee day at 8, 2, and 8 o’clock \ Evaporation for the month .....-+:- 1-000 inch. Rain in the pluviameter near the ground . 0°890 Rain in ditto 23 feet high. ...... CREO 25 Prevailing winds, N.E. A Summary of the Weather. A clear sky, 5; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 10; an overcast sky without rain, 12; foggy, 1; rain, 3.— Total 31 days. _ Barometer Clouds. Cirrus. Cirrocumulus, Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr. Nimbus. ll 8 Q7 1 9 20 13 A Scale of the prevailing Winds. N. NE. E. SE. S. SW. W. N.W. * Days. a. 16) See ae ea LSE A METERORO- a oe eee ‘Ss 4pnojg} Apnoyg “AS | “wed urear—Apnojy| Apnoyp ‘Ss oun ey “M Apnojg UB “M Apnolg eq ‘AN Apnojj| Apnoyg “AL Apnojg| Apnojg “AA aurq] ABS0q “MS Apnoj) uley “AA aurq| Spnojg Ss Apnojg uley “AA auly| Apnoyo “M oul Ria | ‘Ss Apno[9 A § 's Apnojg weg ‘MN eury] Ass0q “MN Apnolo A330q “MN oul, ey “MN oun Ue) ‘N oun tA | ‘N Apnojg moug “ON oul Rie | “AS Apnojg Ie “Mud mous— Apnojg Ire] ‘aN Apnoy)} Apnojo “AN Auni0jg) Apnoyo “AN uley 3201S “MS Apnoj9| Apnoya “AN ouny sade! “as eoM ABH] “AS Apnojg| _Apnorg PUrAL *u01sOgg ‘uopuory *MAHLVA MA 8:0 SS a ee a ee Tee. Ce|SE oe WVEQ) Wd 1 *T}OULOULIOY J, “ysoq |‘puo'y “a2 ‘saqouy UI ‘AaJoWIOLe Jo WSF] . . ——— IN [7 3 ysopnumng | ~ 7 “snjnuing “STIRS *I}SOLUIQ “snqut Irau uley “punory 9413 . a a D ° A o 09-0S) OOS so 3 o T ‘ure »)} | -viodeaq “9E8T “quo “U0 "WV oT) 0 1yS1q Ised-jyey 4B ‘uHoasoy “wosog JO TIVIA “YY pun ‘UopuoTy uw AUK "LAT ‘wodsop jv AINUN “qT fo suoyvasasgg ay}; Fuistsduoa : FTG, L TVOIDO'1OUONLAW V THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. SEM ARCH : 1896; XXIV. On the Figure of the Earth. By Wuu1am Gat- BRAITH, Esq. M.A. To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Sir, [NX some of the previous Numbers of your Journal I was in- duced to make a few remarks on several of the most ac- curate systems of experiments by the pendulums hitherto exe- cuted for the purpose of determining the figure of the earth. Since that time Captain Sabine’s work on that subject has ap- peared, containing an extensive series of experiments in the northern hemisphere, reaching from the equator to about 30° north latitude, embracing the longest arc of the meridian yet attempted ; and executed, it is believed, with an accuracy which cannot easily be surpassed. Capt. Sabine has also reconsidered some of the experiments of others, particularly those made b the French mathematicians on the arc passing chiefly through France ; and, by applying corrections analogous to those em- ployed by himself, has by that means rendered them more consistent, and comparable with each other, and with his own. By the French experiments it appeared from the character of the errors,—Phil. Mag. vol. Ixiv. p. 167, but more especially from vol. Ixy. p. 15,—that the gravitating force at about 45° N, was less from experiment than theory required, so far as the accuracy of these experinients could be depended upon; or in other words, that the pendulum was more distant from the centre of the earth than could have been anticipated : and this conclusion seemed to derive some support from the compres- sion obtained from the measurement of arcs near the mean parallel. Whether this conclusion, which it must be admitted is not very natural, is to be ranked among those views which the early French mathematicians entertained, in opposition to Newton, remains to be determined. Perhaps the nature of the ground over which the are passed, when properly examined, Vol. 67. No. 335. March 1826. would 162 Mr. Galbraith on the Figure of the Earth. would, in part at least, explain the irregularity in question ; since at Formentera the pendulum was not much above the level of the sea, in the interior of France it was considerably elevated, and again at Dunkirk it descended nearly to the level of the ocean. Now it is obvious, that if the experimental re- sults were not properly reduced to what they would have been at the level of the sea, the configuration of the country would have, generally speaking, produced the irregularity we have endeavoured to point out. May net this also have its effect on the compression derived from the measurement of arcs ? It is probable it would to a certain extent. Indeed it appears certain, that irregularities of this nature must be expected, un- less regularity of ground, and similarity of geological charac- ter, be selected for either of these series of experiments; and this, it must be granted, cannot easily be obtained, though it should be attended to as far as circumstances will permit. The truth of these remarks will be obvious from a comparison of Captain Sabine’s observations at St. Thomas and Ascension, with those at Maranham and Trinidad. Captain Sabine has combined all his own observations with some of those of Captain Kater and of the French, and allows . each to have its proper share in determining the coefficients of the theoretic formula, as well as the compression; and in general this method is to be recommended, where solid objec- tions cannot be made to some particular observations. Now in the present case, we think strong objections may be urged against some of them; particularly those on basaltic or vol- canic bases, as those at St. Thomas, Ascension, Galapagos, &c. being combined with others on alluvial soils. It is true we have three determinations of the length of the pendulum, when nearly on the equator: one at Galapagos, one at St. Thomas, and another at Java; though the temperature at which this last was determined is not mentioned in the source whence we obtained it. A mean of all these would give about 39:02 inches for the length of the equatorial pendulum ; but, unfortunately, two of them at least were obtained on rocky bases, and may therefore be considerably more than when de- termined on a basis of an ordinary state of geological charac- ter. Under these circumstances it would perhaps be prudent to reject those which are obviously affected by such a cause, and by means of the usual formule to reduce a considerable number of observations near the point where we wish to ob- tain it with great precision, to that point exactly. The ob- servations are recommended to be near it, in order, as much as possible, to avoid an error arising from any small error in the coefficients of the general formula. Proceeding on these principles, Mr. Galbraith on the Figure of the Earth. 163 principles, it may be supposed that the deviation from the truth would be nearly insensible. But accurate observations on the length of the pendulum at stations selected with judgement, are not of themselves the only data necessary to determine the compression. If there is any error in the fundamental formula employed for this purpose, a corresponding error will be communicated to the amount of compression. It is true that the deductions hitherto given have the appearance of great accuracy ; for when expressed by a fraction of which the numerator is unit, the denominator is frequently carried to one or two places of decimals. This, however, is a mere deception, if it can be shown that the denominator of that fraction is by the or- dinary formula erroneous to the amount of several units. The formula first demonstrated by Clairaut has been ac- quiesced in by Laplace, Delambre, Borda and Biot in France, and by Kater and Sabine in England. Now it is well known that it is but an approximation obtained in course of the ana- lysis by omitting the powers greater than the first.‘ At the present time,” says Mr. Ivory (Phil. Mag. vol. lxvi. p. 432), one of the ablest geometers of the age, “ when so much has been done, and is still doing, to determine the figure of the earth experimentally, it seems proper likewise to reconsider the theory.” With these sentiments our opinion perfectly coincides. The failure of Clairaut’s first attempts to integrate a differential equation in the solution of the famous problem of the three bodies in his theory of the moon, is well known to geometers, and might have suggested the propriety of ex- amining this celebrated theorem, and to determine the degree of its accuracy by taking in at least another term compre- hending the squares in the series expressing the ratio of the centrifugal force to gravity. We intended originally to have given a complete analysis of this theorem from first principles ; but since the time which we are enabled to devote to such speculations is but limited, we shall content ourselves by re- ferring to a very masterly paper by Mr. Ivory in the Philoso- phical Transactions for 1824. It is there demonstrated that ® sine Qh svi q =; sin’? + =, sin* ¢ ik She pleat an Se Now when the oblate spheroids do not differ very considera- bly from spheres, as in the case of the planets; a, which is equal to the eccentricity of the meridian divided by half the polar axis is so small that we may consider A* as equal to sin® of Silas 2 2 &c., and in this case =~ al has Miiritsy . . (2) . ‘ 25 Now by reversion of series = 2. Gir a5 (3) 164 Mr. Galbraith on the Figure of the Earth. But the polar axis is to the equatorial diameter as 1 to / 1-+A%, aiid 1 : or ltol + >N— 7a‘ &c. And by substituting for a° its value from equation (3) we have » ae Bis Cig 20. a0 78 5 275 vTER= /i+3q as Slt 7d gf &e 5 278 1 1 Hence 1 + Ta te g=1lt+ gS a‘, and conse- 2 1 quently 2 — ee g=Hanw— Zr Butra= -\ nearly, ve 1 : therefore a about sFoo000000? Which may be safely neg- lected. And finally, ae, ie ioe as 55 N= se¢=FqU- By)... (#) - tt SE ace . apne ee As qis aor nearly, =5 7 = 0°0033936: therefore 7 = — (1— 0:003396) = 2°491516 g very nearly = p. But Phil. Mag. vol. lxiv. page 163, ee OL cif eau DALE: MAUS Se Oo Vi And taking the radius of the equator and time of rotation as formerly stated, we have 5212458 y © = 30919576+18500020352 2 77" * (6) From Captain Sabine’s observations combined with the French in page 351 of his work, he obtains / = 39:01520 + 0°20245 sin? A; and adopting this, we can on the principles formerly laid down, (that is, rejecting those at St. Thomas and Ascen- sion, as on basaltic bases,) deduce the length of the equatorial pendulum from observations at Maranham .... = 39:01175 Sierra Leone. . . = 39°01556 Prinidad 20.45. = 39°01193 Bahia Mr. Galbraith on the Figure of the Earth. 165 Also we have from several others, as Formentera ... . 39°01303: Madras’ °F 2°28) ys 39°01275 San\Blas}i2)4) 4.253 39°01311 Rio Janeiro ... . 39°01447 Paramatta .... . 39°01250 Mean ..... 39°01254 As these means are tolerably consistent, we may group them all thus: ie. S9°O1332.* 2)" 29:01 19 F « R 8. 39°01254 Mean of the whole, or z = 39°01259 inches = 3°25105 feet. Substituting this value of z in formula (6), it will become a: 52127458 _y — “20919576 +.6034152420 = or, ¢ = 0008608 — bc. (7) Hence from Captain Sabine’s book, page 351, 20245 ; Byer gt id: ¢ = 0'008608 — “ag0Ine 0:003419, or org Instead of x as he has found it. He also gives the ellipticity for the lengths of several equa- torial pendulums, page 352, such as 39°0152 and 39°01,-and finds the difference inconsiderable. But when he changes the equatorial pendulum from 39°0152 to 39:01*, he retains the same total increase from gravitation, or 0°20245, with which we are by no means satisfied. For if the equatorial pendulum be....... 39:01520 Total increase to the pole .......--- - 0°20245 The polar pendulum would be . . ....+ + « 39°21765 Now if the polar pendulum remained the f same and the equatorial became .... . i a the total increase would be ....--.-+++-- 0°20765 These substituted in equation (7) would give an ellipticity l Eee ) however, still remains,—are we at liberty to make such changes in either? It is at least unsafe. The better way would, in our opinion, be to determine the equatorial and polar pendu- ; t- _ ® In fact, the ratios of *20245 to 39°0152 and of -20245 to 39:01 are nearly ratios of equality, as their value only differs about a unit in the sixth place of decimals! How then could there be any difference in the re- sulting compression ? , differing little from Laplace’s estimate. ‘The question, lums 166 Mr. Galbraith on the Figure of the Earth. lums by the means of a number of observations near those points; so that any small change or error of the total variation from the equator to the pole, when substituted in the formula may have little effect on their absolute lengths when reduced through a small are by that formula. Thus at 70° N. Cap- tain Sabine finds 39'"*19452 for the length of the pendulum by grouping those within 10° on each side of it. Now by re- ducing this to the pole, it becomes 39°21816, differing little from what we have already found it. The equatorial pendulum has, by nearly a similar manner, been found to be 39:01259, though Captain Sabine’s group gives 39:01604. But if those at St. Thomas and Ascension he rejected as being on a ba- saltic basis, it will be 39°01308, differing little from the general mean of a number of places and different observers, and which we regard as the more decisive. Taking the polar pendulum at 39:21816, and the equatorial at 39:01259, the excess of the polar above the equatorial will be 0°20557, and hence the ellip- ticity will become 0-008608 —0:005270 = = very nearly. Hence, if we set out from the equator, the formula for the length of the pendulum at any latitude will be 1 = 39:01260 + 0°20557 sin?'a .... (A) or, commencing at the parallel of 45° N. 1 = 39°11540 — 0°102785 cos2A.... (B) From the foregoing results it appears that even if the quan- tities determined by Captain Sabine himself be substituted in the corrected formula for deducing the compression, it be- comes considerably different from the fraction expressing the ratio of the centrifugal force to gravity at the equator, and still more so if the quantities which we have selected be adopted, as in our opinion best entitled to confidence. By these remarks, it is by no means intended to set a light value upon Captain Sabine’s labours. They will be highly estimated by all capable of appretiating their merit; but so much we are afraid cannot be said for the formule he has em- ployed for deducing his final results. Approximations which might have been supposed sufficiently correct about a century ago, cannot now receive that appellation. What we have said is therefore rather intended to direct the attention of mathe- maticians to this subject, and to reconsider the degree of ac~ curacy which may be conceded to the usual formulae, than a critique on the labours of this distinguished officer, whose abilities and acquirements do so much honour to himself, and credit to his profession. It is hoped Mr. Ivory, who is now examining with so much ability Prof. Hansteen on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. 167 ability the Mécanique Céleste, will not allow this part of his sub- ject to pass without receiving decided improvement at his hands. Indeed the problem of the determination of the figure of the earth has now arrived at that point, (as Captain Sabine has re- marked to me,) that no results from experiments on the pen- dulum should be admitted which are not of the accurate de- scription ; and I may add, that the requisite formule em- ployed in making the usual deductions should also possess all the accuracy that the present state of science can give them. I am, sir, yours, &c. Edinburgh, Feb. 9, 1826. Witiiam GaLBRAITH. XXV. On the Number and Situation of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. By Professor CuristopHER HansTEEn. [Concluded from p. 124.] I. Observations of Declinations by Captain Sabine, in the voyage of Captain Ross in the year 1818. Extracted from ‘the Philos. Trans. for the year 1819. Long. W. from} Declination. Greenwich. West. ° 53 * Observations on Hare Island, + On the 3 Baffin’s Islands, Lah 168 Prof. Hansteen on the Number and Situation II. Observations of Declinations by Captain Parry. Extracted from Brewster’s Philos. Journ. July 1821. Long. W. from| Declination. Greenwich. From these observations (which, for the purpose of avoiding the influence of the iron on board the vessels, were all made on shore, or om icebergs) it appears, that in Baflin’s Bay and near 64° of longitude the declination already amounts to 90°, * In Possession Bay. + East coast of Regent’s Island. {[ Cape Riley. 4 South-east point of Byam Martin’s Island. || In Winter Harbour on Melville’s Island. All the observations from 2d September 1819 to 25th August 1821, were made on this island, for the most part during an excursion in the interior. a an of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. 169 and thence increases westward; that Capt. Parry found it on the 22d of August 1819, in latitude 74° 40' and longitude 91° 47' = 128° 58’ W.; and on the 28th of August in latitude 75° 9' and longitude 103° 45’, = 165° 50! Ey During the six days’ interval (those in which no observations were made), the western declination must have risen to 180° before it be- came easterly, as it was found on the 28th of August. Dr. Brewster thence concludes, that between the 23d and 28th of August the expedition must have been several degrees north of the great magnetic pole; adding, that this circumstance fully agrees with the position given to it for that year in my in- vestigation of the magnetism of the earth. Ifin these investigations we also consider the dip of the needle, it is evident that above the pole the dipping needle must assume a vertical position,—that here therefore the dip is 90°; that the same must decrease the further we remove from this point, that it disappears entirely somewhere near the equator, and at last becomes southerly. Thus, for instance, the northern dip in Paris is = 68° 38’, in Copenhagen = 70° 37’, in Go- thenburg = 72° 1', in Christiania = 72° 45, in Bergen = 74° 3! &c. ‘Therefore the observations on the dip may also be referred to, if we wish to ascertain the position of the mag- netic pole of the earth.—The observations made on this sub- ject by the two English north polar expeditions are contained in the two following tables : I. Observations made during the voyage of Captain Ross. a 1818. pa Long. W. from A North Lat. rah bear Dip. / 51 April June July August Sept. Nov. 3 1819. March * Regent’s Park, London, + Island of Brassa, Shetland. ‘{ Hare Island, § Onthe three Baffin’s Islands. || Island of Brassa. 1 Regent’s Park, London. Vol, 67. No. 335. March 1826. x II. Ob- 170 Prof. Hansteen on the Number and Situation II. Observations made by Captain Parry. North Lat, Long. W. from ‘| Greenwich. September 6 11 1820. July 18 September17 28 From these observations it would appear, that the greatest dip was found by-Captain Ross on the 20th of August 1818, near the entrance of Sir James Lancaster’s Sound, into which he did not venture to penetrate; but that Captain Parry, after having proceeded up that sound, found a regular increase of the dip, till on the 11th of September 1819 it had risen to 88° 37’, leaving the needle only 1° 23! from the vertical posi- tion. We may then conclude from this increase cf the dip, that the expedition was about 3° north of the point where the dip is 90°, which also agrees pretty nearly with the point of convergence which we have deduced before from the observed declinations. Thus then, according to the indication of both instruments a magnetic pole exists in that vicinity. If we consider the southern segment of the globe (Plate IT.), we see that between the meridians 50° and 140° all the ar- rows are directed to one point, which is about 20° distant from the antarctic pole, and 137° east of Greenwich. ‘To the east of the meridian of 140°, and to the west of that of 40°, the arrows begin to deviate from this point; and in the vicinity of Terra del Fuego, between 240° and 300° of longitude, they are again directed to another point, distant about 32° from the pole, and situated in 237° longitude. Thus the southern hemisphere has, like the northern, two different points of * Regent’s Park, London. + Possession Bay. } East coast of Regent’s Island. § North side of Barrow’s Strait. || Byam Martin’s Island. { Melville Island. ** Observatory in Winter Harbour. +f Near London. . magnetic of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. 171 magnetic attraction. For the calculation of the position of the first, I have made use of the following observations : 1773. _| Sout Lar. |U90g-E- fom] Deginaton | no Cook. s- § Savy i February 20 | 58 46 91 58 40 31 1 March 3 | 60 12 110 52 39 15 2 6 | 59 56 LIG2: 7 $2 11 3 7—8 59 44 121 19 28 44 4 1777. Jan: 8 | 47 37 99 21 25 29 5 14 | 47 19 115 28 17 34 6 Fourneaux1773. February 20 | 52 20 99 23 30 11 21) 52 8 100 6 29 11 27 | 50 34 118 51 15.37 28 | 49 30 124 17 11 18 owonn~r = From these observations we find the position of the point of convergence thus: Distance from Longitude East From No. the Pole. from Greenwich. 138 140 135 132 2 ] 2 2 7 8 2 5 9 3 20 14!°6 136 53!*4 If we reject the results of 1 and 4 and 9 and 10, which differ most from the others, we find Distance from the pole == -Z0".55"5 Longitude E. fromGreenwich = 136 15 °4 "Y¥"2 The 172 Prof. Hansteen on the Number and Situation The following are the observations from which I deter- mined the point of convergence south of Terra del Fuego. Long. E. from} Declination Greenwich. East. —— | ———-s —___ 1774. South Lat. Cook. ony oF January ¢ 252 6 22 Al 29 253 3 24 39 December 13 270 30 13 23 29 293 55 23) 52 Fourneaux. January 256 2 12 59 O71" 50: | * 22.59 276 45 24 281 57 25 13 288 10 26 6 Distance from | Long. E. from _ the Pole. Greenwich. 237 8 237 39 239 18 235 53 236 12 249 33 247 21 Mean 12 50 237 14 Omitting the two last, we find : Distance from the pole a Aad E. longitude from Greenwich = 236 43 These two magnetic poles of the southern hemisphere also alter their position. From the observations made by Abel Jansen Tasman, who, proceeding from the Mauritius, dis- covered the islands of Van Diemen’s Land and New Zealand, in the year 1643, I have determined the position of the mag- netic point of convergence south of New Holland, for the year 1642, as follows: Distance from the pole =»))18%55! E. longitude from Greenwich = 146 59 The of the Magitétic Poles of the Earth. 173 The distance we found above for the year 1773 was Distance from the pole = 20° 39 E. longitude from Greenwich = 136 15 It is possible that the determinations for the year 1642 may not be quite correct, since at that period they had no means of giving the exact longitude; nevertheless I do not believe that the uncertainty with respect to the longitude of this point amounts to one degree. Thus then this magnetic pole has moved within 131 years, 10° 14’; or 469 per annum west- ward. The situation of the other magnetic pole south of the continent, I have fixed for the year 1670, from some ob- servations mentioned by Halley in his table of variations of the magnetic needle (Philos. Trans. No. 148), as follows: Distance from the pole =, 15° 53! E. longitude from Greenwich = 265 263 We have found the situation of this pole for the year 1774: Distance from the pole =e ey E. longitude from Greenwich = Thus this pole has moved within 104 years 28° 43/1, or 16'°57 annually, westward. Whence we see that the two magnetic poles in the northern hemisphere move eastward, while those in the southern hemi= sphere move westward. For the sake of abbreviation we will designate the south- eastern pole below New Holland, by A; the south-western below Terra del Fuego, by a; the north-westerly in America, by B; and the north-easterly in Siberia, by 4. Thus A and B are very nearly diametrically opposed to each other: for the distance of both from the pole is about 20°; and A lies in the meridian 136°, and B in that of 260° E. of Greenwich, which makes a difference in longitude of about 125°. The case is similar, although with greater deviations, with the points a and b; the distance of the former from the antarctic pole being 13°, and of the latter from the arctic pole a little above 4°; and the longitude of the former being = 237°, and that of the latter 116°; thus giving a difference in longitude of = 121°. Experience, however, teaches us that there are no magnets with one or three poles, 7. e. with any odd number of poles; a result which might have been found @ priori, as the magnetic force only arises from a destruction of the equilibrium in the opposite powers; whilst one power prevails in one part of the body, the other must be forced into the opposite extremity. Therefore a magnet of several poles must be considered as an assemblage of magnets each of which has its 174 Prof. Hansteen on the Number and Situation its two poles. Thence we must consider the four magnetic points found above, as the ends of two magnetic axes:—which of them belong to one another, can only be ascertained by a combination of the declinations and dips calculated from theory with those found by observation. ‘That hypothesis must be correct, in which theory and experience agree. The poles A and B are at about the same distance from the terrestrial poles, and therefore very nearly diametrically opposed: besides, they are much stronger than the poles a and 6; whence it seems natural to assume that A and B are the terminating points of one magnetic axis,and a and b those of the other, ‘Therefore these two magnetic axes cross one another without intersecting each other, or passing through the centre of the earth: the centres of both lie much nearer the surface in the South Sea, than on our side of the earth. R This naturally produces several questions, which we cannot yet answer satisfactorily: What is tt that produces these two magnetic axes in the earth? What is the cause of their motion ? How are we to imagine the possibility of this motion within the solid mass of the earth? Concerning the first question, we have to consider that the magnetic powers are incorporeal essences, which, like the light, penetrate the densest bodies without be- ing subject to the laws of gravitation. A magnetic axis, there- fore, is nothing but a direction in a physical body in which these powers act. Ina prismatic piece of steel these powers may be separated by simply passing a magnet over it; they may be destroyed by rubbing in a contrary direction; or they may even be inverted, so that a northern pole be changed into a southern, and vice versa, without the internal position or me- chanical connexion of the material particles being in the least altered. If then the interior mass of the earth consists of a material in which magnetic powers may be excited (and the above experience compels us to assume this hypothesis), the same causes which have excited the magnetic power may, under different circumstances, produce a different direction in the position of the axes, without there being any necessity of having recourse to an internal mechanical motion. Thus then the answer to the first question will probably also include that to the second. That to the third is of no difficulty. Light is the active principle of nature. The effect produced by the solar light, and the warmth excited by it, on the surface and atmosphere of the earth, is sufficiently known. The develop- ment and precipitation of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere, and the electricity which is thereby excited, are the effects of light and heat most generally known. The essential difference between electricity and magnetism, which was assumed ac- cording of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. 175 cording to former experiments, but in spite of philosophical misgivings has been removed by Ciérsted’s discovery. It is possible that the various illumination and heating of the earth during the period of one revolution on its axis, may produce a magnetic tension, as well as it produces the electrical powers, and that the altered position of the magnetic axes may be explained from an altered position of the terrestrial axis to- wards its orbit. Let it however be understood, that I ad- vance these positions merely as suppositions. It is proved then that the earth has two magnetic axes; and, consequently, four magnetic poles, of which the two northern turn from west to east, and the two southern from east to west, but with great difference in their motion. Let us see whether the variation in the declination may be ex- plained from this. In the beginning of the 17th century the declination throughout all Europe was eastward; then it de- creased, and disappeared a short time after the middle of that century; then became westward, increasing till within the late years, when it began to become invariable, and even to de- crease.—Thus the declination in Paris was in 1541 = 7° O'E. 1667 = 0°15' W. 1550 8 O 167a. dap 1580 11 30 1680 2 40 1603 8-45 1683 _ 3 50 1630 4 30 1700 7 40 1640 3 0 1800 22 12 1659 2 0 1807 22.34 1664 0 40 1814 22 54 1666 0 0 1894 22 931% From the motions of the two northern magnetic poles found before, it appears that in the year 1580 the Siberian pole 4, was about 40° E. of Greenwich, z.e. north of the White Sea; whilst the American B, was in about 224° E. from Greenwich, and thus somewhat above 30° east from Behring’s Straits. Thus the former lay much nearer Europe than now; and the latter was further off:—thence the effect of the former was greater in Europe than that of the latter, and the needle turned towards the east. In the mean time the first removed towards the Siberian Ocean; and as the second approached Europe, although rather slowly, its effect became stronger, and the needle turned westward, till it has now attained its greatest declination, and will probably again approach the * I have added this declination from the Annales de Chimie, tom. xxvii. p. 436.—K. ea meridian, 176 Prof. Hansteen on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. meridian. In the same manner it may be explained why the eastern declination was less before the year 1580. The changes in the southern hemisphere may also be ex- plained from the above-mentioned motions of the magnetic poles. Thus, for instance, at the Cape of Good Hope and in the different bays of the adjoining sea, the declination, during the time of Vasco de Gama was easterly (i.e. the northern pole of the needle pointed to the east, the southern to the west); but subsequently it became westerly, and that by more than 25°. It was in the year 1605 = 0°30! E. 1724 = 16°27! W. 1609 OTF Wa OL 75e ro oD 1614 Ts 1768 19 30 1667 ye 1775 Q1 14 1675 8 30 1791 25 40 1702 12 50 1804 25 4 But in the year 1605 the position of the South American magnetic pole a was 283°3 E. 7. e. nearly south of Terra del Fuego; and the New Holland magnetic pole A lay about 150° E. from Greenwich. ‘The first point lay therefore much nearer the Cape of Good Hope, which is about 18° E. from Greenwich, than it does now, whilst the latter was further from it. ‘Thence the effect of the former on the needle was stronger than at present, whilst that of the latter was weaker ; and the southern pole of the needle moved more towards the west, and the northern more towards the east. But as the American southern point went further off, and that of New Holland approached, the southern pole of the needle turned more and more towards the latter, whereby the declination became westerly. The dip also varies on different parts of the surface of the earth, increasing in some, and diminishing in others. Thus it was in Paris: in 1671 = 71° .0 1798 = 69°26! 1754 7215 1806 69 12 1780 71 48 1814 68 36 In eastern Siberia and at Kamtschatka it increases. Both are the results of the motion of the Siberian magnetic pole towards the east, in which it is removing from Europe, and approaching Kamtschatka. In the whole of South America the southern dip decreases, and that in consequence of the motion of the south-western magnetic pole, towards the west. APPEN- Prof. Hansteen on the Aurora Borealis. 177 APPENDIX. On the Noise attending the Aurora borealis*; in a Letter Srom M. Ramm, Royal Inspector of Forests at Térset, to Pro- Jessor Hansteen. I. I have been much pleased with several Numbers of the Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, but particularly so by your article on the magnetism of the earth. On reading Scoresby’s voyage for the re-discovery of the east coast of Greenland, I thought to observe that neither he nor anybody else had noticed the noise attending the motions of the northern lights. I believe, however, that I have heard it repeatedly during a space of several hours, when a boy of ten or eleven years old (it was in the year 1766, 1767 or 1768); I was then crossing a meadow, near which was no forest, in winter, and saw for the first time the sky over me glowing with the most brilliant light playing in beautiful colours, in a manner I have never seen since. The colours showed themselves very distinctly on the plain, which was covered with snow or hoar-frost, and I heard several times a quick whispering sound simultaneously with the motion of the rays over my head. However clear this event is, and always has been, in my memory, it would be unjust to expect it to be received as dn apodictical truth ; but should others have made similar observations, it would be important for the inquirer into the nature of the aurora borealis. Ramsmoen in Térset, March 1825. Postscript to the above; by Professor HANsTEEN. II. I feel indebted to M.Ramm for the above communication. The polar regions are in reality the native country of the polar light; wherefore we ought to be peculiarly interested in obtaining any additional information on the natural history of this remarkable phenomenon; and we have so many certain accounts of the noise attending it, that the negative experience of southern nations cannot be brought in opposition to our positive knowledge. Unfortunately, we live, since the beginning of this century, in-one of the great pauses of this phanomenon, so that the present generation knows but little of it from per- sonal observation. It would therefore be very agreeable to the editors of the Magazin, to receive from older people simi- lar experiences from the time of their youth, when the aurora borealis yet showed itself in its full splendour. It can be proved mathematically, that the rays of the northern lights ascend * From the Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, for the year 1825, parti. p- 171—176, translated into German by L. F. Keemtz. Vol. 67. No. 335. March 1826. Z from 178 Prof. Hansteen on the Aurora Borealis. from the surface of the earth, in a direction inclining towards the south (an inclination which with us forms an angle of about 73°). If then this light occupies the whole northern sky, rising more than 17° above the zenith, the rays must pro- ceed from under the feet of the observer, although they do not receive their reflecting power till they have reached a consi- derable elevation, perhaps beyond our atmosphere. It is therefore conceivable why we should frequently hear a noise attending the northern lights, when the znhabitants of southern countries, who see these phzenomena at a distance of several hundred miles, hear no report whatever. Wargentin, in the 15th volume of the Trans. of the Swed. Acad., says that Dr. Gisler and Mr. Hellant, two scholars who had resided for some time in the north of Sweden, having been so requested by the Academy, made a report of their observations on the aurora borealis. The following is an extract from Dr. Gisler’s account: ‘«‘ The most remarkable circumstance attending the northern lights is, that although they seem to be very high in the air, per- haps higher than our common clouds, there are yet convincing proofs that they are connected with the atmosphere, and often descend so low init, that at times they seem to touch the earth it- self, and on the highest monntains they produce an effect like @ wind round the face of the traveller.” He also says that he himself as well as other credible persons, ‘* had often heard the rushing of them, just as if a strong wind had been blowing (al- though there was a perfect calm at the time), or like the whizzing heard in the decomposition of certain bodies during a chemical process.” It also seemed to him that he noticed “a smell of smoke or burned salt.” ‘ I must yet add,” says Gisler, “ that people who had travelled in Norway, informed me they had sometimes been overtaken on the top of mountains by a thin fog, very similar to the northern lights, and which set the air in motion; they called it Sz/debleket (Haring’s lightning), and said that it was attended by a piercing cold, and rendered breathing difficult.” Dr. Gisler also affirms that he heard re- peatedly “ofa whitish gray cold fog with a greenish tint, which, although it did not prevent the mountains from being seen, yet . somewhat obscured the sky, rising from the earth, and changing itself at last intoa northern light; at least such a fog was fre- quently the forerunner of this pheenomenon.” Capt. Abrahamson, in the publications of the Scandinavian Literary Society, has also collected several observations of noises that were heard with the northern lights. I know my- self several persons who have witnessed it, and shall make use of their observations on the first opportunity. XXVI. Con- © Gacwon] XXVI. Continuation of the New Catalogue of Meteorites. By KE. F. F. Caiapni*. J. Additions to the Catalogue of Falls of Meteoric Stones and Masses of Iron. BESIDES the meteoric stones preserved at Abydos and Cassandria, as mentioned by Pliny, Hist. Nat. ii. 58, Joh. Laurentius Lydus, in his work de Ostentis, mentions after Apuleius (probably from some MS. of this author since lost), a similar stone preserved at Cyzicus, and of which it was thought that if it ever perished, the town would perish with it. During the consulate of Cn. Calvinus and M. Messala, 2. e. about fifty-two years before our era, there were, according to Dio Cassius, xl. 47, falls of earth and stone. During the consulate of Aimilius, 3 Kalend. April, a fall of stones took place at Vejae, according to an account taken from an ancient publication in the form of a newspaper (Acta diurna, Acta urbis populique), and communicated in the Roman newspaper called Notizie del giorno 1822. (As it is not said which Aimilius it was, it is impossible to point out the precise year.) In the year 921, some stones fell near Narni, in the vicinity of Rome, which were considered infernal productions; one in particular which fell into the river Narnus, and which is said to have projected two feet above the surface of the water, according to a MS. chronicle by the friar Benedictus de St. Andrea, in the library of prince Chigi at Rome. ?1201. Probably stones with a fiery meteor, according to a passage of Cardanus mentioned in Lubienicii theatr. comet. ii. p- 226, but which I have not been able to find in his own works. Not long before 1349, in Arragon, three large stones, ac-_ cording to a MS. continuation of the Chronicle of Martinus Polonus, in the Hungarian National Museum at Pesth. ~ About the year 1780, in North America, in the territory of Kingsdale, in New-England, between West River Mountain and Connecticut, masses of iron.—Quarterly Review, No. 59. April 1824. | 1818, 11th of June (or 30th of May, O.S.). Stones near Zaborzyca, in Volhynia, according to Laugier, in the Bulletin de la Soc. Philomat. June 1823, p. 86; and Mém. du Muséum, 17 Année, t. xvi. des Annales, cah. 2. - ? 1822, 10th of September. Probably meteoric stones, near Carlstadt in Sweden+. * From Schweigger’s Journal, N. H. Band xiv. p. 475. + We omit the accounts which here follow in the original, of the recent falls of meteorites we have already incorporated with Dr. Chladni’s former Catalogue ;—see our present volume, p. 12.—Enprr. Z2 1824, 180 Dr. Chladni’s Continuation 1824, about February. At some distance from Irkutsk, a large stone, according to newspaper accounts from St. Peters- burg. 1824, 14th of October. Near Zebrak, in the circle of Beraun, in Bohemia, a stone, according to Hallaschka, in Schumacher’s Astron. Nachr. No. 70. ? Small crystalline stones, or perhaps small pieces of mag- netic pyrites, which (according to an account of Dr. Evers- mann, communicated by Professor John, in the Annalen der Physik, v. \xxvi. p. 340; and in Kastner’s Archiv fiir Natur- kunde, v.iv. p. 2. p. 196) fell at Sterlitamansk in the govern- ment of Orenburg. It is however doubtful whether they be- long to the class of meteoric stones, or whether they form a concretion of a peculiar kind. (The pretended rain of stones mentioned in the newspapers as having fallen near Torresilla de Carneros in Spain, the 25th of July 1825, seems to have been nothing but common hail, of which pieces weighed as much as from 5 to 16 ounces.) II. Additions to the List of solid Masses of Iron containing Nickel. A. Cellular Masses of solid Iron, with Portions of Olivine in the Interstices. The analyses of the olivine.contained in such masses made by Counsellor Stromeyer are very remarkable, since they establish: 1. that the olivine of such masses contains no nickel; 2. but that, on the contrary, all other olivine and chrysolite contains nickel; 3. that olivine, chrysolite, and the species of stone of such solid masses of iron, belong to the same class*, To these masses we have to add one found in the year 1809, in the vicinity of Brahin and Rzeczyca, in the government of Minsk, which seemed to have failen a short time previously. Further particulars of it are given in the Journal fiir Chemia, &c. new series, vol. xiil. h. 1. p. 25+. B. Solid Masses of Iron containing Nickel. The mass found near Bitburg has been melted, through ignorance, and fragments of it have been again discovered by Professor Neeggerath : according to the analyses of Professor Bischof and Counsellor Karsten, they are of this kind f. Besides the masses of iron found in Louisiana near the Red River, and mentioned before, several more have been found, * See Phil. Mag. vol. lxvi. p. 357. t Ibid, vol. Ixy. p. 411. t Ibid. vol. Ixy. p. 401. c in - a of the new Catalogue of Meteorites. 181 in the same vicinity, according to the Minerva, p. 1. vol. 1. n. 12, 26th of June 1824, published at New York. III. Additions to the Catalogue of fallen Substances not being Meteoric Stones or solid Iron. 1792, the 27th, 28th, and 29th of August. A rain of dust for three days without intermission, in the vicinity of La Paz in Peru, which could not have proceeded from a volcano. At the same time explosions were heard, and the sky was seen inflamed.— Mercurio Peruano, t. vi. 7th December 1792. 1824, 23d of August. At Mendoza in South America, near the river Plate, from a black cloud, a rain of dust with which the whole city was covered. Forty miles from the city the same cloud discharged itself again.—From a Buenos Ayres newspaper, lst November 1824. 1824, 17th of December. About a quarter after six o’clock in the evening, at Neuhaus in Bohemia, a bituminous mass must have fallen, accompanied by a globe of fire (a pha:nomenon which has frequently happened before) which had been seen to descend there, since a part of the meteor remained burning against the church steeple for a quarter of an hour.—Haude und Spenersche Zeitung of Berlin, No. 7. 10th of January 1825*. On the Mechanical Structure of Meteoric Stones. Dr. G. Rose of Berlin has succeeded in separating crystals of pyroxene from a large fragment of the meteoric stone of Juvenas, the angles of which he has measured with a reflec- tive goniometer. One of these crystals is that modification of the octahedron which is represented in Haiiy’s Mineralogy, fig. 109. The same structure also includes microscopic ma- cled-crystals, which seem to be Labrador-spar. [? ] At the request of M. Humboldt, Dr. Rose has also ex- amined the meteoric mass of Pallas, and the trachytes of Chimboraco, and other volcanos of the Andes. He found the olivine of the Siberian mass perfectly crystalline; the trachytes contained for the most part inclosed crystals of al- bite and hornblende. This notice may serve as an explanation of the imperfect account given before. * I ought also to mention that we have lately had an analysis by M. Buchner, in Kastner’s Archiv. vol. y. p. 182, of a slimy meteor. It was found to be an organic substance like a mucus, containing meplitic matter. XXVII. Some (eee a XXVII. Some Account of the Dissection of a Simia Satyrus, Ourang Outang, or Wild Man of the Woods. By JouN JEFFRIES, M.D.* HE attention of the medical profession to comparative anatomy, and the interest which the naturalist feels in prosecuting this interesting study, are my inducements for of- fering the following account of an animal which forms, in. the chain of created beings, the connecting link of brutes to man. Many have been disposed to doubt the existence of such an animal as the Satyrus, and more have been incredulous of any remarkable similarity in structure to man. Such doubts, I think, must be removed, by an examination of the anatomical preparations I have been enabled to make of hin +. This animal is a native of Borneo, an Asiatic island under the equator, in longitude from 110° to 120° east. This indi- vidual was carried from Borneo to Batavia, and came into the possession of Mr. Forrestier of that place, where he remained some time. By him he was sent, consigned to Mr. Charles Thatcher, merchant, of this place, in the Octavia, Captain Blanchard. He died on the night of the second of June, the first after his arrival; disappointing the sanguine expectations of his owners of great pecuniary remuneration from his exhi- bition in public. In his external appearance, our subject resembled an Afri- can, with the neck somewhat shorter and the head projecting more forward. He was three feet and a half in height. He was covered with hair, except his face, the palms of the hands and feet, which were all of the colour of the negro. The hair was of a dun colour, inclining to black. It resembled the hair of the human body more than that of brutes, in consisting all of one kind, and not, as in quadrupeds, of two forms of plice. On the head the course of the hair was forward and upward ; before the ears it was downwards. ‘There was very little on the anterior part of the head, leaving him an extensive fore- head. On the arm, its course was down; on the fore arm, up. It was longest on the back of the arms and thighs, measuring from six to seven inches. His ears were thin, small, and handsome, lying close upon the head. His eyes were hazel-coloured, bright, and somewhat deep _* From Webster & Treadwell’s Boston Journal of Philosophy, vol. ii. p.570. + I cannot sufliciently regret the season of the year in which he fell into my hands, which has prevented that patient and slow dissection which alone could enable me to give a correct and full description of his internal struc- ture. The above is the best account I can offer, from a dissection prose- cuted with the temperature for several days from 88° to 94°. in Dr. Jeffries’s Dissection of an Ourang Outang. 183 in the sockets. His brow was prominent, to defend the eyes from injury in the woods. He had very little hair on the brow. His nose was flat. His lips were very large and thick, more so than those of any negro I ever saw. His chin was broad and projecting, as was likewise the upper jaw. His chest was round, full, and prominent. His shoulders were set well back. His scapulze were flat and close behind. His waist was small. His hips were flat and narrow. His arms were very long, the fingers reaching to the ancles. His lower extremities were short and small in proportion to the rest of the animal. He had the spiral lines like human, on the tips of the fingers, and the lines of palmistry on the hands, and also on the lower limbs. He had the bend of the spine above the sacrum. There was no projection of the coccyx. His nates were small, as -were also the calves of his legs, which had however some figure. His mamme and umbilicus were distinct. The scro- tum was very small, being merely a little laxity of the skin at this part. The account which I have learned from Captain Blanchard illustrates his habits and manners. He was put on board the Octavia, under the care of this gentleman, and had a house fitted for him, and was provided with poultry and rice sufficient for the voyage. Captain Blan- chard first saw him at Mr. Forrestier’s house in Batavia. While sitting at breakfast, he heard some one enter a door behind, and found a hand placed familiarly on his shoulder : on turning round, he was not a little surprised to find a hairy negro making such an unceremonious acquaintance. George, by which name he passed, seated himself at table by direction of Mr. Forrestier, and after partaking of coffee, &c. was dismissed. He kept his house on ship-board clean, and at all times in good order ; he cleared it out daily of rem- nants of food, &c. and frequently washed it, heing provided with water and a cloth for the purpose. He was very cleanly in his person and habits, washing his hands and face regularly, and in the same manner asa man. He was docile and obe- dient, fond of play and amusement; but would sometimes be- come so rough, although in good temper, as to require cor- rection from Captain Blanchard, on which occasions he would lie down and cry very much in the voice of a child, appearing sorry for having given offence. His food was rice paddy in eneral, but he would, and did, eat almost any thing provided for him. ‘The paddy he sometimes ate with molasses, and sometimes without. Tea, coffee, fruit, &c. he was fond of, and was in the habit of coming to the table at dinner, to par- take of wine; this was in general claret. His 184 Dr. Jeffries’s Dissection of an Ourang Outang. # His mode of sitting was on an elevated seat, and not on the floor. He was free from some of the peculiar propensities of monkeys. His bowels were in general regular. ‘The direc- tions given by Mr. Forrestier were, in case of sickness, to give him castor oil. It was administered to him once on the be- ginning of the passage, and produced full vomiting and free catharsis with effectual relief. He sickened a second time on the latter part of the voyage, and resisted the attempts of the captain and several strong men to get the oil into the stomach. He continued to fail gradually, losing his appetite and strength until he died, much emaciated, soon after the ship anchored. Obstruction of the bowels was no doubt the source of his sick- ness and cause of his death. Captain Blanchard used to feel his pulse at the radial artery, and describes it to be like the human. It was probably quicker. His mode of walking was always erect, unless when tired; he would then move or rest on all fours*. The skin was attached very closely to the body at all parts, particularly on the face, hands, elbows, and soles of the feet. He had no cutaneous muscles except the platisma myoides. This was not connected on its inner surface, but formed a large pouch extending from the chin to the sternum, con- tinuing round to the sides of the neck. It was supposed by those who saw him, to be a receptacle for food. This was not however its purpose ; for it communicated with the larynx and not with the pharynx, as will be described when speaking of those parts. The abdomen presented a view so similar to the human, that it required some attention to note any peculiarities. The omentum was small, lying high up the intestines, coloured with bile, as were the bowels generally. The peritoneal folds were very strong, particularly the ligaments of the liver, the mesentery, &c.; the caput coli was also strongly confined to its place. The spermatic cord received its parts, and passed obliquely under the muscles and came out at Poupart’s liga- ment, asin man. The proportion of the small to the large intestines was about the same as in the human subject. The arch and sigmoid flexure of the colon exceedingly resembled the human. He had the appendix vermiformis very long, measuring four inches. This I found full of small stones and some pieces of egg shell, together with liquid faeces. The large intestines were found loaded with indurated faeces from * This circumstance I was not informed of until after I had completed his dissection, aud made observations, which close this communication. It did not therefore influence me in judging from his anatomical structure of his natural mode of walking. the Dr. Jeffries’s Dissection of an Ourang Outang. 185 the caput coli to the extremity ot the rectum. The stomach, in situation and figure, was like a man’s; its cardiac orifice was perhaps smaller, and the pylorus larger; its dimensions were, when inflated, from one orifice to the other round the fundus, ten and ahalf inches; across it measured three inches. It was nine inches in circumference round the fundus. The spleen was attached by the vasa brevia, and in colour, size, and situation, accorded to man’s. The liver was very much like ours, of a deep red colour, and divided into two lobes, but the fissure was not quite so distinct. In connexion with the other viscera, it appeared exceedingly like the human. The gall-bladder was much longer and smaller round, and was found full of dark inspissated bile, which could with dif- ficulty be crowded along the duct. The pancreas laid upon the spine asin man. ‘These had all their orifices opening into the bowels in the same way as the human. The kidneys did not present any difference, except that the renal capsules were larger. The bladder was small, containing when full, about two gills. The urethra, prostate gland, vesicule, &c. were situated like the human. The prepuce, glans, &c. were like the human, but small. The organs of the chest resembled the human in size, figure and situation. The lungs did not pre- sent quite so much difference on the two sides as in man; that of the left being nearly of the same size with the right, carry- ing the heart more towards the centre of the thorax. The lungs were not so distinctly divided into lobes; they were very sound and healthy in appearance. The heart was conical like man’s, and in every respect resembled the human. The arch of the aorta and the descending aorta were small, in propor- tion to the size of the heart. The right subclavian, right and left carotid arteries, all arose from the arteria innominata; the left subclavian rose separately, near the base of this. The pericardium was connected extensively to the diaphragm, which was very large and strong. The chest was divided by the mediastinum, and the thymus gland laid between its sides. The mouth and fauces resembled the human, except in di- mensions; being much longer from front to rear. The velum palati was without the uvula, but broader and more lax. The body which answered the purpose of the uvula was situated on the posterior surface of the velum ; and when this was forced backwards, exactly closed the posterior entrance of the nose. The glottis and epiglottis resembled the human. The os hy- oides and cartilages of the larynx were much asin man. Be- tween the os hyoides and the thyroid cartilage, there were on each side two openings about a quarter of an incly in diameter, Vol. 67. No, 335. March 1826. 2A leading 186 Dr. Jeffries’s Dissection and Description leading into the larynx and coming out at the base of this cartilage. A valve played at the inferior opening, preventing the passage of an instrument downward, but it passed easily upwards into the pouch on the neck, which has been mentioned. This pouch, the animal could inflate at pleasure; for what purpose I donot know. One use might be, when inflated, to assist in supporting him when swimming. The brain weighed nine ounces and three quarters. The nerves arose from this in the same manner as the human, and took their exit from the cranium in a similar way. ‘The po- sition of the brain differed by the anterior lobes being more raised in consequence of the projecting plates of the orbits in- ternally, and by the posterior lobes and cerebellum lying lower than the human, according to the form of the base of the cra- nium. This organ was not dissected. The muscles and blood- vessels could not be so minutely examined, in consequence of the warmth of the season, as to enable me to give a correct account of them. The muscles were in general very distinct, having their fasciculi of fibres remarkably strong. ‘The blood- vessels were small. ‘ Description of the Skeleton. The whole skeleton is three feet four inches high. From the first vertebra of the neck to the end of the coccyx, it Measures nineteen inches. ; From the head of the humerus to the end of the middle finger is thirty-one inches; the end of this finger reaches to the end of the fibula. From the top of the trochanter major, to the bottom of the os calcis, is seventeen inches. The length of the foot is nine inches and a half. The length of the hand is eight inches. A line drawn from the nose to the occipital protuberance, measures eight and a half inches. Round the cranium over the orbits to the occipital protu- berance is fourteen inches. From the meatus auditorius of one side to that of the other, over the coronary suture, is eight inches. The longitudinal diameter is four inches and an eighth. The lateral diameter is three inches and a half. The depth from the vertex to the foramen magnum is three and a quarter inches, The sutures are serrated, and resemble very much the human. It has the os triquetrum perfect. The orbitar ridges are very prominent. The styloid and mastoid processes are short. The of the Skeleton of an Ourang Outang. 187 The nasal bones are wanting, giving him that flat or simous appearance, from which is derived the term simza, to distin- guish the ape species. _ The maxilla superior and inferior are very prominent, which makes the facial angle more obtuse than the African. The frontis is somewhat high and projected. The inferior maxilla is closed at the mentum, which is a little angular and projecting. The teeth consist in each jaw of two dentes incisivi; the two middle of the upper jaw are very long and broad, mea- suring seven-eighths of an inch in length, and five-eighths in breadth. The two lateral have not yet fully grown; two cus- pidati, and four molar teeth; making in all, twenty-eight. The four incisores are new and permanent teeth; the cuspi- dati had not been shed. The first molar in each jaw was just giving place to the bi- cuspid. The last molar in each jaw are permanent teeth, the others were about being shed. I should judge from the teeth, that this individual was about five and a half years old. The spine consists of twenty-three vertebra, viz. seven of the neck, twelve of the back, and four of the loins. The neck is short, being but three and a quarter inches in length. The vertebrae composing it are flatter before, and not so round, having their spinous processes much longer and rounder than in man. The first vertebra of the neck has.no spinous process, being in this respect unlike the human, which has a small one; but anteriorly, it resembles man, and differs from the monkey, in having an eminence rather than a fissure. The second vertebra has the processus dentatus long, and partly cartilaginous; the transverse processes are so also. The vertebree of the back are like those of man; they mea- sure eight inches and three-quarters. The vertebrae of the loins are three inches in length. They have their transverse and spinous processes short and thick, like man’s. The ilea are very flat, and are articulated to the sacrum asin man. ‘The sacrum differs materially from the human, being more flat and narrow; it consists of five bones, con- nected by cartilage. Indeed, the whole pelvis exhibits a more striking difference from the human than any other part of the skeleton. ‘ The ileum measures from the anterior superior spinous pro- cess to its junction with the sacrum, three inches, 2A2 The 188 Dr. Jeffries on the Skeleton of an Ourang Outang. The ilea, ischia, and pubes, are distinct bones, connected by cartilage. The symphysis pubis is also cartilaginous. The lateral diameter of the pelvis is two and a half inches. The longitudinal diameter is three and a quarter inches. The pelvis is so joined to the spine as to project backward, and so flat, that a perpendicular line from the bodies of the dorsal vertebrz falls upon the pubis. The coccyx is cartilaginous, and resembles the human ; it is not so long, and has no appearance of a tail. The ribs are twelve in number, articulated and curved as much as the human, giving the animal a full chest. There were eight true ribs attached to the sternum by car- tilage, as in man, and four floating ribs. The sternum consists of four bones like man’s, but more cartilaginous; the ensiformis longer. The clavicle remarkably resembles the human; it is not - quite so much bent, and measures five and a half inches. The scapule likewise resemble those of man; the base is narrower and longer; the acromion and coracoid processes are more cartilaginous than those of a child. The chest gives the animal the greatest resemblance to man; the position of the shoulders, the articulations of the humerus, clavicle, and. scapula, the angle of the ribs, the prominent thorax, the situation of the arms, all so much resemble the human, that they might easily pass for such. The length of the humerus is eleven and a quarter inches ; the head of the bone is cartilaginous; it is articulated like the human; on the lower part it is thinner and flatter than man’s; the condyles are prominent and cartilaginous; the radius is eleven inches in length; it is somewhat curved anteriorly, in other respects it resembles the human. The ulna is eleven and a half inches long; it has a large curved projection at the lower-part for the insertion of mus- cles. The bones of the carpus are eight in number, and resemble the human, except that they are all longer and a little narrower, more cartilaginous, and admit of more free motion upon one another. The bones of the metacarpus are five in number, each about three inches in length, except that of the thumb, which is an inch and three quarters. The thumb has two bones, and is an inch and a half in length. The phalanx of the fore finger is four inches long, that of the middle and ring fingers, four and a half inches; the little finger is three and a half inches. The Dr. Jeffries on the Skeleton of an Ourang Outang. 189 The articulation of the femur with the acetabulum is almost exactly like man’s; the neck of this bone forms about the same angle. In quadrupeds, this forms a distinguishing character- istic, being in them nearly a right angle; the inspection of this joint is alone sufficient to satisfy the naturalist of at least the fa. cility, ifnot the natural disposition of the Satyrus to walk erect. The femur is eight and a half inches in length and two inches round; the trochanters and condyles are cartilaginous and prominent. The patella is one round piece like that of man; it is but little ossified in this individual; the tendon connecting it to the tibia is strong. The knee joint has the semilunar carti- Jages and is connected by the crucial and lateral ligaments as in man. The tibia is seven and three quarters inches long, and two inches round at the upper part. The fibula is seven and a half inches long, and an inch and a quarter round; the extremities of both bones of the leg are cartilaginous. The ankle joint is formed like man’s. The tarsus consists of seven bones like the human; these are mostly cartilaginous, and admit of free motion one upon another. The os calcis is broad, and sufficiently projects behind to support the erect posture. The metatarsus consists of four bones; for what answers to the great toe is a perfect thumb of two joints, but not on the range of the other toes; indeed the whole foot, except the os calcis, much more resembles a hand than a human foot, the phalanges being longer and consisting of bones similar to the hand. From the structure which has been thus cursorily described, I shall note those peculiarities which will enable us to form an opinion of the natural mode of his walking. First. Going on all fours, he would find inconvenience from the elbow joint; for when the hand is placed upon the ground flat, the flexion of the joint would be contrary to that of qua- drupeds, by bending back towards the body instead of for- wards, which would rather impede, than assist progression. It is not however as difficult for the Satyrus to turn the joint forwards, as it would be for man, on account of the curvature of the bones of the fore arm, and the free motion which ex- isted in all the joints. The roundness of the chest, and the scapulz setting so far back, would make it difficult for him to bear weight upon his hands; quadrupeds have the chest flat and the scapule far forward upon the ribs. The 190 Dr. Jeffries on the Skeleton of an Ourang Outang. The articulation of the hip would make it more easy for him to go erect, on account of the little angle made by the neck with the body of the femur. Secondly. In walking erect, he would derive advantage from the extension of the os calcis and the length of the foot; and also from the position of the arms so far back, and from their length, which would enable him to balance the body by them. ; Thirdly. From the structure of the viscera he seems to be peculiarly formed for an erect posture. The pericardium being united extensively with the dia- phragm, would prevent it from being drawn down by the weight of the liver and abdominal viscera. In quadrupeds this is not necessary, for the pressure of the abdominal contents assists expiration, ‘and if the pericardium was attached to the dia- phragm as in the Satyrus and in man, inspiration would be impeded. The exit of the spermatic cord is another difference from quadrupeds. It does not pass out directly from the abdomen, as in the dog, but perforates the peritoneum and muscles obliquely, as has been described, thereby giving that admira- ble structure to fortify the groin from rupture, which exists in man. The viscera of the abdomen were suspended to bear weight in the erect posture, particularly the liver, which had its liga- ments very strong. From these and other circumstances, apparent from an ex- amination of the skeleton, I think we must conclude the erect posture to have been most natural. At least, if it is humili- ating to dignify him with the title of a biped, he stands ac- quitted from that of a quadruped from the peculiar formation of his lower extremities. We must then denominate him, as some naturalists have done, a quadrumanus animal. Note.—The preparations which have been made from him are The skin stuffed and prepared to exhibit his external ap- pearance. His natural skeleton entire. The heart fully injected, with the aorta and other vessels, and the lungs 7m sééu, with a portion of the diaphragm. The tongue, larynx, pharynx, &c. exhibiting the peculiar structure of its connexion with the pouch, and its general re- semblance to man’s. Dried preparations of the stomach, caput coli, and its ap- pendix, and of the urinary and gall bladders. Boston, July 1, 1825. XXVIII. De- E toby XXVIII. Description of a nondescript Species of the Genus Condylura. By T. W. Harris, M.D.* "THE genus Condylura was constructed by Illiger for the reception of the Sorex cristatus of Linnzeus, the Radiated Mole of Pennant. This name, derived from xovSvaos a knot, and ovey the tail, is essentially bad, as it is founded on an exaggerated or cari- catured representation of the tail of the animal, and on a structure which does not exist, in the slightest degree, in the species to be here described. Desmarest, who has amended the characters of the genus, did not think it expedient to change the name, and thus embarrass nomenclature with a new synonym. Cuvier, in the Regne Animal, has suppressed the genus Con- dylura, being confident, he says, from an inspection of the teeth, that the radiated mole is a Talpa and not a Sorex. Des- marest + thinks that Cuvier must have examined, by mistake, the denuded‘head of a true Talpa, instead of that of the Con- dylura. He observes that a specimen of this animal, sent by Le Seuer from Philadelphia, presents characters peculiar to itself; that it cannot be united either with the Tulpe or Sorices, but holds an intermediate rank between these two tribes or families. In its form and habits it has an affinity to the for- mer, while its teeth closely resemble those of the latter. It is arranged in the family Soriciz and genus Scalops by the author of the article Mazoxoey, in Brewster’s Encyclopedia. The Sorex cristatus, with another animal of the same genus recently detected in Maine, might with propriety constitute a new family with the following characters. Upper and lower jaw each with twenty teeth; four incisors only in the lower jaw; nostrils carunculated; tail scaly, of moderate length; feet with five claws, the anterior ones broad, and formed for digging in the earth; the hind feet elongated, slender; eyes minute; and no external ears ts * FromWebster & Treadwell’s Boston Journal of Philosophy, vel.ii. p.580. t See article Taure; Nouveau Dictionnaire @ Histoire Naturelle, tom. xxxii. Paris, 1819. ft The essential characters of the Shrew-mice or Sorices, are six or eight cutting tecth in each jaw, the intermediate ones the longest; tail and exter- nal ears sometimes wanting, The family of the Moles, or Talpa, is characterized by having twenty-two teeth in each jaw; six incisors in the upper and eight in the lower jaw, equal to each other; no external ears; tail very short; eyes and feet as in the Condylure. The 192 Dr. Harris on a nondescript Species of Condylura. The animals of this family, like the moles and shrew-mice. burrow in the ground, and live upon insects. In March 1825, a small animal was discovered, near Ma- chias, in the state of Maine, which exbibits the characteristics of the genus Condylura, but which is evidently distinct from C. cristata, the type of that genus. These animals both have in the upper jaw six incisors implanted in the praemaxillary bone, the two intermediate ones large, their cutting edge oblique; the adjoining incisors resembling long canine teeth, slightly triangular at the base, where are situated two minute tubercles ; each external incisor isolated, very small, conic, and pointing backwards. Seven molares on each side; the three first re- sembling canine teeth, and may be considered as false molares ; they are smaller than the true molares, are isolated with two minute lobes at the base. ‘The four posterior molares large, formed of two layers of enamel, furrowed externally, and tuberculated within. The palate has seven transverse ridges between the incisors and the first two molares. ; Lower jaw with four flattened and projecting incisors; five false molares, separated from each other, the first the largest, and each of them with three or four small lobes; three true molares, composed of two layers of eriamel, channelled within, and tuberculated on the outside. Proboscis elongate, extensile; the nasal extremity naked, and bordered with about twenty cartilaginous, acuminated processes, disposed in a circle, the two superior ones united at the base, longer than the others, and situated a little in ad- vance of them. Neck indistinct; legs short, the hind ones placed far back ; feet five-toed, the anterior ones very broad and scaly, with a series of curved hairs on the external edge; the nails long and straight. The hind feet a third longer than the fore feet, scaly, narrow, with a warty excrescence on the inner part of the tarsus; nails slightly curved and short. Tail scaly, and thinly covered with coarse hairs. Eyes minute. No external ears. The species from Maine appears to be a nondescript, and may therefore receive the name of prasinata. It is clothed with a long and very fine fur of a green colour, with a few gray hairs at the extremity of the tail. The nose is naked, the caruncles, which surround it in a stellate manner, are twenty-two in number, and of a brownish hue. The eyes are exceedingly minute, and are entirely concealed by the fur. The fore feet greatly resemble hands; the palms are covered with a thick cuticle, and on the inside of each of the fingers, near Dr. J. Neeggerath on the Origin of the Rock-salt Formation. 193 near their origin, are three triangular acuminated scales, or cuticular processes. A large rounded warty excrescence is situated midway, on the inner and lower part of the foot. The specimen was a male. ‘The tail nearly three quarters the length of the body, very small, or strangulated at its insertion, becoming abruptly very large, and gradually tapering towards the extremity. ‘The caudal vertebrae were not distinguishable through the mass of fat with which they were enveloped, and of which the tail was principally composed. There were no transverse folds or ridges on the tail, its‘surface being perfectly uniform, nor were the hairs disposed in distinct whorls. The tail of this species therefore differs essentially from that of the eristata, as described by authors, and induces us to wish that Desmarest had changed the name of the genus for some one more expressive of the species which compose it. Length of the male Condylura prasinata, from the end of the snout to the origin of the tail, four and a half inches. Length of the tail three inches. Circumference of the body three inches and three quarters. Circumference of the tail, at the largest part, one and a halfinch. Average length of the nasal radii five-twentieths of an inch. Length of the hand eight-tenths of an inch. Length of the longest nail three- tenths of aninch. Length of the foot one-inch and one-tenth. Length of the longest nail of the foot five-twentieths of an inch. Distance between the eyes rather over three-tenths of an inch. From the end of the snout to the eyes seven-tenths of an inch. Milton, May 4, 1825. XXIX. On the Volcanic Origin of the Rock-salt Formation. By Dr. J. NecGERATH*. I HAVE read with pleasure M. de Charpentier’s letter of the 22d of March 1825, to M. L. de Buch, with the valu- able remarks of the latter meritorious naturalist attached to it, which have appeared in Poggendorf’s Annalen der Phys. und Chemie 1825, St. 1. It describes a great vein at Bex in Switzerland, which i between perpendicular strata of anhydrite, and rises from 80 to 40 feet, with fragments of anhydrite: this vein is filled with silicate of lime, and a considerable quantity of sand and dust of anhydrite, which are collectively combined together into a firm mass by a pure rock-salt, perfectly free from water: this mass is covered with a powder and has no cavities with crystals. All this indisputably evinces, that it is a fissure * From Schweigger’s Journal, N.S. Band xiv. p. 278. Vol. 67. No. 335. March 1826. 2B produced 194 Dr. J. Neeggerath on the Volcanic produced by volcanic power, into which the chloride of so- dium has entered by sublimation. L. de Buch proves this in a highly convincing manner. Guided by that fact, and sup- ported by other grounds, he further supposes that the rock~ salt formations in the floetz strata very probably have also a voleanic origin. But I had already ventured to propose the same theory of rock-salt formations before the vein at Bex was known. ‘The merit of this I must indeed acknowledge is not great: having the advantage of L. de Buch’s work, it was easy for me to ad- vance.one step further than he had gone; or perhaps, I only expressed more definitely what L. de B. had long conceived, and was a simple consequence of his comprehensive observa~ tions. But since my theory has the concurrence of so valuable an experience as that of M.de Charpentier, it will not be wholly uninteresting to make my early expositions better known. In the collection of foreign works published by me and M. D. Pauls on volcanos and the phenomena allied to them, the second volume of which (containing the volcanos at Java, by Sir T. S. Raffles; the Monte-somma by L, A. Necker, and the volcanos in Auvergne, by Dr. Daubeny) had already been printed at the end of February 1825, I put in a note a Ger- man translation of Humboldt’s treatise concerning the ap- pearance of sulphur in the primary rocks, according to Gay- Lussac and Arago, (Annales de Chimie et de Phys. 1824, Oct.) and I added the following remarks of my own. «‘ The excellent communications of A. von Humboldt afford us not only decisive proofs of the existence of sulphur in the primary rocks, but render it very probable also that they con- tain great masses of it. To ascertain the origin of the sul- phur and its combinations in the fixed, fluid, and gaseous pro- ducts of voleanos has hence lost the greater part of its diffi- culties. If on the one hand collective experience, and the theories that have been most recently raised on it, tend to establish Von Humboldt’s remark (Ueber der Bau und the Wirkungen der Vulkane), that ¢ the powers of volcanos operate simultaneously, not superficially from the outer crust of the earth, but profoundly from the interior of our planet, through caverns and vacant passages, on its remotest points,’ the ex- istence of sulphur in the newer rocks, and especially in those that are formed in horizontal strata, cannot account for the im- portant part which this mineral (sulphur) performs in voJcanos. Von Przystanowski (Ueber den Ursprung der Vulkane in Italie 1822) has indeed the merit of having indicated two great tracts in Italy, in which the sulphur (with iron-pyrites, sulphuret of antimony, asphaltum, anthracite, and rock-salt) is diffused in the Origin of the Rock-salt Formation. 195 the limestone, marl, and gypsum; and in regard to this fact, nothing more is requisite than to ascertain more exactly the relative ages of these formations. ** But if Von P. assumes that this sulphur is the cause of the existence and duration of the volcanos of Italy, we are by no means disposed to adopt his view ; although he has very clearly shown that the three active volcanos of Italy, (Vesuvius, Strom- boli, and tna); and moreover, the points which, according to history, have had only one vent (Ischia and the Monte-nuovo at Pozzuoli); and finally, those places of the Roman territory which display in the character of their mountains, traces of lava, and other effects of fire, as Valentano, Viterbo, Frescati, and perhaps Monte Rossi,—lie collectively in a floetz district which he has indicated (part of it lying at Solfaterra), and which contain sulphur and other inflammable substances. It is certainly not denied that in this tract a chemical agency displays itself in various ways; but it still seems to us very different from the proper volcanic agency. We dare not as- sume with Von P, that the former can rise to the height or vehemence of the latter. If it also is the fact that we cannot always distinguish on the surface of the earth, effects whose causes are deeply hid in the bowels of our planet, from those which are peculiar to the newer formations of the earth’s crust; and if, moreover, the earlier results of the chemical agency still operate in some places, it would be impossible to pass from the one class to the other, on account of the similarity between the weaker volcanic effects and the most striking phenomena, which are both produced on the surface of the earth by the same chemical process. ** Was then the coincidence of the locality of the Italian vol- canos with the existence of the sulphuriferous tract merely accidental? That is a question which one might not answer ex- actly with a negative. Although the rationale of the association of those phzenomena is not quite clearly before us, and we can only premise obscurely, only hint at what it is; still it is not impossible that time may completely prove it to us. Perhaps too what Von P. regards as a cause of volcanic powers, may be only an effect of them? Such a hypothesis can be viewed only as a geological heresy, since the illustrious L. de Buch has given a very credible explanation of former volcanic agency to so wide an extent. The proportionately limited presence of gypsum of all forms, and its accompaniments of rock-salt and sulphur in the various formations of limestone, had long ago been observed, and may indicate that the formation is in a state of decline. With a view to this question we venture to draw attention, particularly, to the interesting letter of L. de B. to M. Freisleben, concerning the Hartz. 2B2 “ The 196 Mr. Weaver on the Fossil Elk of Ireland. _ © The presence of rock-salt and of muriatic acid in volcanic productions of every kind has appeared hitherto less strange than the presence of sulphur, because the sea-water which is supposed to flow to the foot of the volcanos, and to occasion their activity, may explain it. But ifthe metals and metalloids in the bowels of the earth are to be considered only as in the state of chlorides, as Gay-Lussac has rendered very pro- bable *, the explanation would have still fewer difficulties. ‘“* The local limitation and the concurrence of gypsum and rock-salt in rock-formations of the changeable and secondary kind, is a phenomenon too striking not to lead our minds ne- cessarily to revert to them both, when we treat of the origin of the former. L. de Buch certainly has never made a remark to this extent in his essays; for he seems not to have made any general application even of his own theory of the formation of gypsum: as he only says, that it is freguently con- verted to limestone by the operation of internal causes upon it. But are not the products of the salt-formation actually produced from the salt-clays? We certainly are very well aware that the admission of the volcanic origin of rock-salt either by immediate or secondary agency, has’still many diffi- culties, and we therefore readily value the idea only asa gentle hint, such as may very well be tolerated in the province of geology, which has not yet advanced beyond the age of fiction and hypothesis. At least this idea is not wholly without foun- dation; and we shall not mourn over its fall, if more particu- lar experience should at some future time supplant it, or more correct conclusions be drawn from our present experience.” Four months ago I wrote this. Now, I should suggest the hypothesis still more boldly; for it has acquired important evidence, and its permanent confirmation has been rendered still more probable. XXX. On the Fossil Elk of Ireland. By 'Tuomas WEAVER, Esq. M.R.LA. F.G.S. §c.+ OTWITHSTANDING the frequent occurrence of the remains of the gigantic elk in Ireland, it is remarkable that precise accounts should not have been kept of all the peculiar circumstances under which they occur entombed in its super- ficial strata. To obtain an opportunity of examining these relations had long been my desire; and as fortunately, during * See Philosophical Magazine, vol. Ixii. p. 81. + From the Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part II. amy PPB ore Mr. Weaver on the Fossil Elk of Ireland. 197 my avocations last autumn in the north of Ireland, a discovery came to my knowledge that seemed likely to throw light on the subject, I proceeded to its investigation, intending, should the results be found deserving of attention, to place them on record. These results have proved the more interesting, as they apparently lead to the conclusion, that this magnificent animal lived in the countries in which its remains are now found, at a period of time which, in the history of the earth, can be considered only as modern. I had advanced thus far when I became apprised of an analogous discovery made last year in the west of Ireland, by the Rev. W. Wray Maunsell, archdeacon of Limerick ; which is not only confirmative of my own experience, but has the additional value of embracing particulars not hitherto noticed by any other observer. Mr. Maunsell’s researches, elucidated by the able assistance of Mr. John Hart, member of the Royal College of Surgeons, have been communicated from time to time to the Royal Dublin Society, in the form of letters, and have been entered upon their minutes; and it is to be hoped that a distinct publication on the subject may hereafter ap- pear, illustrated by a description of the splendid specimen of the skeleton of the animal, now deposited by the liberality of the reverend archdeacon in the museum of that Society. In the mean time I propose, after giving a concise account of my own inquiries, to refer briefly to the more prominent points in Mr. Maunsell’s discoveries, in as far as they bear immediately on the question of the ancient or modern origin of those re- mains. The spot which I examined is situated in the county of Down, about a mile and a half to the west of the village of Dundrum. That part of the country consists of an alternating series of beds of clay-slate and fine-grained grauwacké, with occasional subordinate rocks, which it is needless at present to mention; the whole distinguished by numerous small con- temporaneous veins of calcareous spar and quartz, and tra- versed in some places by true rake veins that are metalliferous. Hills of moderate elevation, from 150 to 300 feet high, are thus composed. In a concavity between two of these hills is placed the bog of Kilmegan, forming a narrow slip, which ex- tends about one mile in a nearly N. and S. direction. The natural hollow which it occupies appears formerly to have been a lake, which in, process of time became nearly filled by the continual growth and eet of marshy plants, and the consequent formation of peat. ‘The latter, however, from the flooded state of its surface, afforded little elegy as fuel, until the present marquis of Downshire caused a level to be brought 198 Mr. Weaver on the Fossil Elk of Ireland. brought up from the eastward (part of it being a tunnel), and thus laid the bog dry. This measure was attended with a two-fold benefit to the tenantry,—the provision of a valuable combustible, and the discovery of an excellent manure in the form of white marl beneath the peat. The latter extends from a few feet to twenty feet in depth; and the subjacent marl from one to three, four, and five feet in thickness. ‘The marl when fresh dug has partly a grayish tinge, but on losing its moisture it becomes white. In cutting down the peat to the bed of marl, the remains of the gigantic elk have frequently been met with; and in- variably, as I am assured by the concurrent testimony of the tenaniry, placed between the peat and the marl; or merely impressed in the latter. It is stated that at least a dozen heads with the branches, accompanied by other remains, have thus been found from time to time: but being unfortunately deemed of no value by the country-people, they have for the most part been scattered and destroyed. It is to be hoped, however, that a sufficient inducement will lead them to bestow greater care on the preservation of whatever remains may be hereafter discovered. ji The marl, upon examination, appears in a great measure composed of an earthy calcareous base, containing commi- nuted portions of shells; and.that these are all derived from fresh-water species, is proved by the myriads of these shells that remain in the marl, still preserving their perfect forms. They are however bleached, very brittle, and retain little of their animal matter; but in all other respects they have the characters of recent shells. After examining several masses of the marl, I found the whole of the shel}s referable to three species,—two univalves, and one bivalve; namely, 1. The Helix putris of Linnzus. See Donovan’s British Shells, pl. 168, fig. 1; and Lister, Conch, tab. 123, fig. 23.— N. B. Of the two, Lister’s figure is the more exact represen- tation of the shell. 2. The Turbo fontinalis. Donovan, pl. 102. 3. The Tellina cornea. Donovan, pl, 96. Of these shells some prevail more in one spot than in an- other; but generally speaking, they appear distributed through the upper portion of the marl in nearly equal quantities; in the lower portion they are less frequent, if not altogether absent. The circumstances which I have related seem to remove all idea of these remains of the Irish elk being of any other than comparatively recent origin. In seeking a cause for the nearly constant distribution of these remains in Ireland in swampy spots, may we not conjecture that this animal often sought the Mr. Weaver on the Fossil Elk of Ireland. 199 the waters and the marshy land as a place of refuge from its enemies, and thus not unfrequently found a grave where it had looked for protection ? The foregoing conjecture appears supported by the following details of circumstances, observed by the Rey. Mr. Maunsell in the peat bog of Rathcannon, situated about four miles to the west of the town of Bruff, in the county of Limerick. This bog covers a space of about twenty plantation acres, oc- cupying a small valley, surrounded on every side by a ridge of the carboniferous or mountain limestone, except on the S.W., where it opens into an extensive flat. The peat is from one to two feet thick ; and beneath this is a bed of white shell- marl, varying from one foot and a half to two feet and a half in thickness, succeeded below by blueish clay marl, of an un- ascertained depth, but in one place it was found to exceed twelve feet. This blueish clay marl becomes white, and falls to powder on being dried. Coarse gravel is said to occur, partially at least, below the marl. In this small valley portions of the skeletons of eight indi- viduals were found, seven of adult, and one of a young ani- mal, all belonging to the gigantic elk. With these also oc- curred the pelvis of an adult animal, probably referable to the red deer; and the skull of a dog, of the size of that of an ordinary water-spaniel. The bones that were first discovered were found at the depth of two or three feet below the surface; and Mr. Maunsell had the advantage of seeing them before they were displaced. Most of the above-mentioned remains were lodged in the shell- marl; many of them, however, appeared to rest on the clay marl, and to be merely covered by the shell-marl. But part of some of the bones were immersed in the peat also: these were tinged of a blackish colour, and were so extremely soft, in consequence of the moisture they had imbibed, that it was with difficulty the horns found in this situation could be pre- served entire; yet, when carefully handled and allowed to dry, they became as firm and hard as the rest. Some of the bones of the elk showed marks of having been diseased; and one rib had evidently been broken, and after- wards reunited. Another rib exhibited a remarkable per- foration of an oval form, about half an inch long and one- eighth of an inch broad, the longer axis being parallel to the side of the rib; the margin of this opening was depressed on the outer, and raised on the inner surface; while a bony point projected from the upper edge of the rib, which deviated from its natural line of direction to an extent equal to the length of the aperture. The only cause that could ice - duce 200 Mr. Weaver on the Fossil Elk of Ireland. duced this perforation is a wound by a sharp instrument, which did not penetrate deep enough to prove fatal, and between which event and the death of the animal a year at least must have elapsed, as the edges of the opening are quite smooth. The bones are so well preserved, that in a cavity of one shank-bone which was broken, marrow was found, having all the appearance of fresh rendered suet, and which blazed on the application of a lighted taper. They appear to contain all the prizciples to be found in fresh bones, with perhaps the addition of some carbonate of lime, imbibed with the moisture of the soft marl in which they had lain. The remains of the eight individuals were disposed in such a manner as to prevent the possibility of referring the com- ponent parts exactly to each skeleton; but all the heads with their branches were found; and one specimen is particularly fine, displaying the broad expanded palms, with almost every antler and projecting point in a perfect state. By joining this head to a selection from the other remains, a nearly perfect skeleton of the largest size has been formed by Mr. Hart; one rib, a few of the carpal and tarsal bones, and the bones of the tail being only wanting. Of the shells found in the white marl many are preserved entire; but the greater part are broken into small fragments. They are all univalves, and belong to fresh-water species, which exist at the present day. It is added, that so frequently have the remains of the fossil elk been discovered in the county of Limerick, that one gen- tleman enumerated thirty heads which had been dug up at different times within the space of the last twenty years. From Professor Henslow’s account of the curraghs, or peat bogs of the Isle of Man, it would appear that the remains of the gigantic elk are there also distributed in a manner analo- gous to that in which they are found in Ireland. That gen- tleman supposes a herd of elks to have perished there; and his description of the white, or grayish marl, in which their remains are found, answers in most respects to that of the white marl which so frequently forms the substratum of the peat bogs in Ireland. Upon the whole, the preceding details appear to justify the conclusion that the extinction of the gigantic species of elk is attributable rather to the continued persecution it endured from its enemies, accelerated perhaps by incidental natural local causes, than to a general catastrophe which overwhelmed the surface of the globe. In a word, it may be inferred that these remains are not of diluvian, but of post diluvian origin. Kenmare, April 12, 1825. T. WEAVER. XXXI. On [ 201 ] XXXI. On the Ebullition of Water at Specific Temperatures, as the Measure of Altitude. By Joun Murray, F.S.A. ELS. FILS. F.G.S. &c. &c.* i is known that water boils in the attenuated atmosphere of the air-pump, at an inferior temperature, and that this point and period of ebullition has some ratio comparatively with the density of the incumbent air. Theodore de Saussure found that water boiled on the summit of Mont Blanc at 187° Fahr. It was Fahrenheit that first proposed this application of the thermometric expression of boiling water as a measure of altitude. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1817, the Rev. Francis Wollaston has described an instrument for this purpose, most ingeniously constructed, and no doubt accurate. enough for minor elevations. During last summer, on my excursion in Switzerland, Italy, &c., I made several experiments on the ebullition of water at different elevations. A few of these I beg leave to submit to you. The thermometer was graduated by a diamond on the stem; the bulb was small, and the divisions only indicated the entire degree of Fahrenheit’s scale. At the Hospice of the Great St. Bernard, on the 30th of July 1825, at eight o’clock P.M., the barometer indicated 21°08 inches. Thermometer without, 52° Fahr., and within the Hospice 59° Fahr. Water boiled at 186° Fahr. At the village of Simplon on the Simplon, 13th of August, at ten o’clock P.M.; air 62°. Lxp. 1.—Water boiled, ball touching the surface 197° 5! Ditto, entirely immersed . 2 eg 202 tte motto nk as ke. Cie cf OS'S Exp. 2.—Ball touching the surface . . . . 197 5 Ball immersed and at the centre . , 203 5 Ditto at bottom . . . 205 3d of August. At Brieg, in the Valais, at 45 30' A.M.; air 56° Fahr. Water boiled at 204° 5! Fahr. 15th of August. At Sion in the Valais, at ten o’clock P.M.; air 69° Fahr. Water boiled at 206° 5! Fahr. 17th August. At Martigny in the Valais, six: o’clock A.M. ; air 57° Fahr. Water boiled at 110° Fahr. Ist of September. At the inn on the Mountain Righi, at 9" 45' A.M.; air 63° Fahr. Water boiled at 201° Fahr. Ist of September. At Lucerne, at 8" 15! P.M. 3; air 70° 5! Fahr. Water boiled at 206° Fahr. * Communicated by the Author. Vol. 67. No. 335. March 1826, 20 It ‘ 202 Mr. Murray on Ebullition of Water at different Altitudes. It will on proper calculation be seen that, though I pretend not to the niceties pointed out in Mr. Wollaston’s ingenious paper, (the circumstances under which the experiments were made precluding such accuracy, and I had not indeed the en- tire provision of apparatus constructed by this philosopher, ) ruder apparatus subserving my purpose,—that a distant ap- proximation to the altitude, as indicated by the barometer at three elevations, is only insured. In consequence of the capricious results indicated by my experiments on the ebullition of water at the village of Sim- poln on the Simplon, I made a series of experiments with the thermometer on hot water contained in a tumbler. I subjoin the results of five of these experiments. —_ . Ball of thermometer touching the surface . 131° Ditto completely immersed. . . . . . 135 Ditto touching the bottom of tumbler . . 131 2. Ball in contact with the surface. . . . . 131° Ditto immersed). 62) F ON on 20184808 Ditto bottom: 24h) Oise La ea PREG ScBallion-sumibces? f°. 3nes.. os te core a Wittasdmmensed 2.) 1°...2b Sh sciecia'o . japon et Dies :battonr Ss. etdacstiiw coletiounet. . dé Ai RL, GORPSBITARE tacit fas roleweciiie “co. aah eee Ditto-smme#rsed..< « gu. 1. Merlgen no be be Sekbie Olkeo Ditto bottom wiMeciog lier shisthoc ake kes Ee 5, Santon surmce: 2. ee Oe So Ooo eaam VITO TMMETSEC —s_ caL aces rare o Niece meets a ee Ditto bottom “Og oS AR RSS ee oe In one experiment I found a difference of 1° 5! Fahr. be- tween the centre portion of the superior surface of the water and the sides. . In another experiment, the difference amounted to 2° 5! Fahr. The following I presume to be the conditions that must in- terfere with anything like accuracy in thermo-barometrical indications of this kind in elevated regions. 1. The hygrometric state of the incumbent atmosphere at the time the observation is taken. 2. The attenuated pressure on the bulb of the thermometer, by which its form and dimensions must necessarily be altered. 3. The water used must be more expanded in volume at great altitudes, than on the level of the sea, its density being therefore Report of the Voyage of the Coquille. 203 therefore reduced in the ratio of the attenuated atmosphere. This density would be modified too by its saline contents. 4. The depth to which the ball of the thermometer is plunged in the water, and the place it occupies in the cylinder. 5. The evolving steam or heated vapour will also affect the stem of the instrument, and with it disturb the results. 6. The form, size, and material of the vessel will also con- tribute their share in modifying the indication. 7. The depth of the vessel containing the boiling water. 8. If made in the house, the difference between the internal and external temperature will be a modification of the phe- nomena. 9. A gust of wind, wafted from the glacier, avalanche, or other cooling surface, will disturb and change the density of the incumbent air; and therefore irregularities such as these must be provided for. 10. The greater or less rapid escape of the steam will ne- cessarily render capricious the observed temperature. 11. The period of the day or night, strength of the sun- beams, &c.—all concur in varying the results. It will, I apprehend, be very difficult to maintain a success- ful struggle against all these combining ‘circumstances; and they thus render this instrument, certainly ingeniously applied by Mr. Wollaston, nearly useless for considerable elevations. Captain Hall’s experiments corroborate the inference; and at those he made at the village of Simpoln on the Simplon, (with an instrument constructed under the immediate sanction of Mr. Wollaston,) in 1818, I had the satisfaction and pleasure of being present. January 27, 1826. J. Murray. XXXII. Report made to the Academy of Sciences, 22d of August 1825, on the Voyage of Discovery, performed in the Years 1822, 1823, 1824, and 1825, under the command of M. Dourrrrey, Lieutenant of the Navy*. (Commissioners: MM. pr Humsotocrt, Cuvier, DESFONTAINES, CorpiER, LATREILLE, DE RosseL; and Araco, Reporter.) GINCE the return of peace, many voyages have been per- formed for the advancement of the sciences and of naviga- tion. Captain Gauttier’s maps of the Mediterranean and of the Black Sea; Captain Roussin’s labours on the coasts of Africa and of Brazil; the expedition of Captain Freycinet ; the hydrographic operations directed by our colleague Beau- tems-Beaupré, will be durable monuments of the enlightened * From the Annales de Chimie, tom. xxx. p. 397. : 2C2 protection 204 Report of the Voyage of Discovery protection which the minister of the marine affords to useful enterprises. ° The plan of the new voyage, an account of which the Aca- demy has charged us to give them, was presented to the mar- quis de Clermont-Tonnerre, then minister of the marine, by MM. Duperrey and Durville, towards the end of 1821. His Excellency approved of it, and placed the corvette Coquille at the disposal of these young officers. The zeal and skill of which they had given repeated proofs,—the one during the cir- cumnayigation of the Uranie, the other as fellow-labourer of Captain Gauttier,—afforded every pledge that could be desired. The Academy will find, at least in our opinion, in the analysis which we have to lay before it of the numerous labours per- formed on board the Coquille, that the hopes of government and of men of science have been completely realized. Itinerary. The Coquille set sail from Toulon the 11th of August 1822. The 22d of the same month she anchored in the roads of St. Croix at Teneriffe, which she quitted the 1st of September, making for the coast of Brazil. In her passage, M. Duperrey - observed, the 5th of October, the small isles of Martin- Vaz and of the Trinity ; on the 16th, the Coquille was moored at the an- chorage of the isle of Saint-Catherine: she staid there till the 30th. The 18th of November she reached Port Louis of the Malouines, situated at the bottom of the bay Francaise, from whence she sailed the 18th of December, to double Cape Horn: she then visited, on the western coast of America, the port Con- ception at Chili; that of Callao at Peru; and afterwards the port of Payta, situated between the magnetic equator and the terrestrial equator. The want of any fiploniath relation be- between France and the republican governments of South America did not occasion any obstacle to the proceedings of M. Duperrey: on the coasts of Chili, as at Peru, the autho- rities eagerly complied with their slightest wishes. The Coquille set sail from Payta the 22d of March 1823: | in her course she coasted along the Dangerous archipelago, and first put in at Otaheite the 3d of May, and then at Bora- bora, which also makes part of the Society Isles. Quitting this last point, the expedition took a westerly course; ob- served, successively, the Salvage Isles, Eoa (in the group of the Friendly Islands), Santa-Cruz, Bougainville, Bouka, and reached New Ireland, where she anchored in the bay of Praslin the 11th of August. After a stay of nine days, the expedition left the port of Praslin, to make for Waigiou. We shall presently speak of the made in the Coquille by M. Duperrey. 205 the observations which she made in her passage, and during her stay in the harbour of Offak, which she left on the 16th of September. On the 23d, M. Duperrey cast anchor at Cajeli, (Boron island); the 4th of October he landed at Amboina, where he received from M. Merkus, governor of the Moluc- cas, the most cordial reception, and all the assistance which he needed. On the 27th of October the Coquille again set sail, steering her course from north to south; she observed the isle of the Volcano; crossed the strait of Ombay; coasted the isles situated to the west of Timor; observed Savu, Benjoar, and finally left this latitude to make Port Jackson. Contrary winds did not allow M. Duperrey to range the western coast of New Holland, as he meant to have done: it was only on the 10th of January 1824 that he doubled the southern point of Van Diemen’s land; the 17th, the corvette was moored in Sydney Cove. Sir T. Brisbane, governor of New Holland and corresponding member of the Academy, received our tra- vellers with the most amiable eagerness, ‘and put into their hands all that could contribute to the success of the opera- tions with which they were entrusted. In leaving Sydney the 20th of March 1824, after resting for two months, the expedition sailed for New Zealand, where it arrived the 3d of April, in the Bay of Isles. The works which were to be done there were terminated the 17th. During the first days of May, the Coquille had already surveyed in every direction the archipelago of the Carolines. The monsoon from the west obliged her to abandon these roads towards the end of June 1824; she then went to the northern extremity of New Guinea, ascertaining during the voyage the geography of a considerable number of islands little known or badly placed, and reached the haven of Dory the 26th of July; a fortnight afterwards she again sailed, to arrive, by crossing the Moluccas, at Java. She cast anchor in the port of Sourabaya the 29th of August; went from it the 11th of September; and arrived the following month at the Isle of France, where her operations detained her from the 31st of October to the 16th of Novem- ber ; she remained at Bourbon from the 17th-to the 23d of the same month, and then made sail for Saint Helena. The stay of M. Duperrey in this island lasted a week. He went from it on the 11th of January 1825, cast anchor at Ascension the 18th, rapidly executed there the observations of the pendulum and of the magnetic pheenomena, and finally quitted these En- glish establishments on the 27th, after having received from the commanders and from the officers of the two garrisons every assistance that could be desired. At last, on the 24th of April, M. Duperrey entered the road of Marseilles. During 206 Report of the Voyage of Discovery During this voyage, of thirty-one months and thirteen days, the Coquille sailed 25,000 leagues. She came to the place of her departure without having lost one man, without illness, and without damage. M. Duperrey attributes for the most part the good health which his crew constantly enjoyed, to the excellent quality of the water preserved in the iron tanks, and also to the order which he had given that it should be used at pleasure. As to the good fortune which the Coquille had, to execute so long a voyage without damage either in its masts, its yards, or even in its sails, if it should be attributed to a con- currence of extraordinary circumstances which it would be imprudent always to expect, it should also be remarked that | such chances only offer themselves to the best seamen. We may also add, that M. Duperrey and his fellow-labourers had had, in 1822, the advantage of finding at Toulon, M. Lefébure de Cerizy, an engineer of the greatest merit, who presided at the repair and outfitting of the corvette with all the solicitude-of a true friend. Maps and Plans taken during the Voyage of the Coquille. The hydrographic works executed during the cireumnaviga- tion of the Coquille are already completely drawn, and only wait the hand of the engraver: they form 53 maps or plans, pre- pared in the best manner. We shall give in this place an enumeration, reciting the names of the officers to whom we are respectively indebted for them. The plan of the islets of Martin Vaz and of the Trinity, on the coast of Brazil, has been executed with much care by M. Berard. On the coast of Peru the same officer made a very detailed plan of the anchorage of Payta and a map of the adjacent coasts, from Colan, situated at a small distance from the mouth of the Rio de Chira, as far as the isle of Lobos. The general map of the Dangerous archipelago has been executed by M. Duperrey himself; the particular map of the isle Clermont-Tonnerre belongs to M. Berard; the plans of the isles of Augier, Freycinet, and of Lostange have been made with much care by M. Lottin. M. Duperrey has profited by his navigation among the So- ciety Islands to rectify several serious errors which are re- marked in all the maps of this archipelago. M. Berard has taken, in the island of Otaheite, with his ac- customed skill, the plan of the anchorage of Matavai. The plan of the isles of Moutou-iti and Moupiti, and that of the anchorage of Papoa, are by M. Blosseville: they do equal ho- nour to his zeal and his experience. In made in the Coquille by M. Duperrey. 207 In New Ireland, Messrs. Berard, Lottin, and Blosseville have taken jointly and in the greatest detail the plan of Port Pras- lin and of the creek belonging to the English, the plan of Cape Saint George, and the chart of the Strait of the same name which separates New Ireland from New Britain. In quitting New Ireland, the Coquille made a detailed sur- vey of the isles of Schouten, respecting which we had hitherto only rather confused notions. M. Duperrey made the chart of it. The harbour of Offak, in the isle Waigiou, of which the interior was little known, has been the object of peculiar labour, in which all the officers took part. M. Berard made the chart of that portion of the coast of New Guinea lying be- tween Dory and Auranswary ; the plan of the harbour of Doryis founded on the united observations of Messrs. Berard, Lottin, and De Blois. The chart of the coast between Dory and the Cape of Good Hope in New Guinea, is by M. Lottin. It is also to this officer we owe the map of the isles of Yang, si- tuated to the north of Rouib. Cruisings performed in very various directions in the Mo- luccas have furnished M. Duperrey with the elements of a new chart of this archipelago, and of that of the strait of Wangi- Wangi, to the east of the isle of Boutoun. Admiral D’Entre- casteaux saw only the northern coasts of the islands Savu and Benjoar, situated to the south-west of Timor; M. Berard has traced a great part of the southern coasts. The chart of the strait of Ombay and of the island of the Volcano is also formed upon the observations of the same officer. That of the island of Guébé is due to M. de Blois. In New Zealand, the labours of the Coquille had for their object the northern extremity only of the island Eaheinomauve ; they occupy four plates. The first shows the configuration of all the N.E. coast: it is by M. de Blois. The second repre- sents the Bay of the Isles, from the united labours of all the officers. The third gives the plan of the Bay of Manawa, by M. Berard. And the fourth, is the detailed plan of the river Ké- dékédé, laid down after the observations of M. de Blosseville. The isolated islands of Rotumah, Cocal, and Saint-Augustin were taken by Messrs. Berard and Lottin. In the archipelago of the Mulgrave Islands, the general chart of which M. Duperrey has drawn, M. de Blosseville has completed a survey of King’s Mill, Hopper, Wood and Hen- derville islands; and M. de Blois that of Hall’s Island; of an archipelago of five islands ; and lastly, of the Mulgrave Islands, properly called Marshall’s Islands. The vast archipelago of the Carolines, hitherto so imper- fectly known, has been the principal theatre of the geographic operations 208 Report of the Voyage of Discovery operations of the Coquille. The general chart of it which M. Duperrey has made will rectify many errors. Benham Island is there represented according to the observations which M. de Blosseville made. Ualan Island, which the American Cap- tain Crozier named Strong, and to which M. Duperrey has restored the name which the inhabitants give it, merits parti- cular interest. During a stay of fifteen days, the officers of the corvette went over it in every direction; they found there some tolerably large ports: one, which the inhabitants call Lélé, and another which has received the name of the Coquille, are laid down in the atlas, after the very detailed operations of Messrs. Berard, Lottin, and de Blois. M. de Blois has besides made a complete survey of the islands Tougoulon and Pelepap, which are probably the Mac- Askill of certain maps; and also of the islands Mougoul, Ougai, and Aoura, which were discovered on the 18th of June. It is also to this officer we owe the detailed plan of the rather ex- tended group of Hogoleu, of which father Cantova had al- ready formerly spoken; and in the midst of which the Co- quille navigated, the 24th of June 1824. ‘The survey made by M. Lottin of the islands Tametain, Fanadik, and Holap, unites in these latitudes the operations of the Coquille to those of the Uranie. The three last sheets of this rich atlas, an analysis of which we have just given, represent the anchorages of Saint-Helena and of Sandy Bay, and the island of Ascension, from the ob- servations of all the officers. Charts are not the less improved, when freed from islands, rocks and sand-banks which do not exist, than when newly discovered lands are inserted inthem. ‘The expedition of the Coquille will have rendered more than one service in this re- spect. According to most geographers, there is, not far from the eastern coasts of Peru, a rock named the Trepied. M. Du- perrey has sought for it in vain: the Coquille went full sail over the very places where the Trepied is generally laid down. Whilst standing along the coasts of New Guinea, M. Du- perrey sought with great care, but without success, for the isles which Carteret had named Stephens’ Islands. According to him, these islands, still represented in our maps, would be the Providence Islands of Dampier, situated at the opening of Geelving Bay: this is also the opinion of Captain Krusenstern, and it cannot be denied that it is now avery probable one. It will nevertheless seem very strange that Carteret should have been deceived by nearly three degrees in his reckoning. Our most modern maps place a group of isles called the Trials, made in the Coquille by M. Duperrey. 209 Trials, opposite De Witt’s land, by 20° of south latitude and 100° west longitude; M. Duperrey, who would have attached a great value to the determination of ‘their position, was not able to find them. The archipelago of the Carolines was repeatedly sailed through and minutely examined. M. Duperrey shows satisfac- torily that Hope island, Teyoa island, the groups of Satahual and Lamurek, do not exist in the positions which are assigned to them. Perhaps it may be sometimes difficult for him exactly to apply these old names to the islands whose place he has fixed. Moreover, the inconvenience is not serious; all was so inexact in the charts of this archipelago, that the labours of the Coquille are equivalent to a first discovery. Astronomical Observations. In a voyage like that of the’Coquille, in which the periods of lying-to were always necessarily very short, the astrono- mical observations could only have for their object the im- provement of geography. These observations, in each port, consist of elevations of the sun and stars fit for verifying the rate of chronometers; of numerous series of circummeridian heights taken with the astronomical repeating circle, and de- signed for giving the latitudes. Lastly, of a multitude of distances from the moon to the sun, to the stars and to the planets, taken with the reflecting repeating circle. The examination which we have made of the part of this labour already completely reduced, has given us a most fa- vourable opinion of it. All the officers of the Coquille have equally assisted in it. We must here, however, make particular mention of M. Jacquinot, who, intrusted by the commander with the care of the chronometers during the whole voyage, fulfilled this critical task with a zeal and exactitude worthy of the praises of the Academy. Observations relative to the Determination of the Figure of the Earth. M. Duperrey was furnished with two invariable pendulums of copper, which had before served in the voyage of the Uranie. They had been observed at Paris before the departure, and after the return of the expedition; at Toulon, whilst the vessel was fitting out; at the Malouines, 51° 31’ 43” south latitude ; at Port Jackson, on the eastern coast of New Holland; at the Isles of France and Ascension, between the tropics. Our col- league, M. Mathieu, has already calculated the observations for the Malouines and those of Paris. He has deduced from them this important consequence, at variance with an opinion long accredited, that the two terrestrial hemispheres north Vol. 67. No. 335. March 1826. 2D and 210 Mr. Utting’s Errata in Mathematical Tables. and south haye very nearly the same form. Those of the ob- servations which there has not yet been time to discuss, belong to questions not less curious. It results, for example, from the operations of M. Freycinet, that there exists at the Isle of France a cause of local attraction so intense as to alter the rate of a clock there 13 or 14 seconds aday. It may be con- ceived how interesting it becomes to investigate, in the obser- vations of M. Duperrey, if the accidental influence was also manifest.—In a few days the results of this inquiry will be presented to the Academy. [To be continued.] XXXIII. List of Errata in the Mathematical Tables of Dr. Horton and Dr.Grecory. By Mr. J. Urine. To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Sir, Bs ee it is very desirable to obtain the greatest accuracy in mathematical tables, the following list of errata, which I have discovered in Dr. Hutton’s and Dr. Gregory’s tables, will I trust be acceptable to such gentlemen as use the tables in which the following list of errors are pointed out. In Dr. Hutton’s Mathematical, &c. Dictionary, first edition: Square roots of numbers to ten places of decimals. Nos. 138 for 11. 43808 read 11. 01245 149 — 12, 3 — 12. f 197 — 14. 41 — 14. 76 374 — 19. 537514 — 19. 796058 462 — 21. 579 — 21. 602 482 — 21. 24 — 21. 01 499 — 22, 9 — 22. 7b 504 — 22. 1206. —* 22. ~ 3206 580 — 24. 683962 — 24. 891576 586 — 24. 6 — 24. 8 634 — 25. Ol — 25. 40 706 — 26.4 — 26.5 712 — 26. 3 — 26. 2 788 — 28. 881 — 28. 952 879 — 29. 24743 — 29. 41607 952 — 30. i=! 30. 1 For Dr. Hutton’s tables of the product and powers of numbers: Table of products. No. 15 by 277, for 5155 read 4155. In Prof. Sedgwick on Trap Dykes in Yorkshire and Durham. 211 In the table of cubes. Nos. 11 for 1338 read 1331 408 — 67911312 — 67917312 702 — 345948008 — 345948408 813 — 537366797 — 537367797 The last 3 errors apply also to Dr.Hutton’s Course and Tracts. In Dr. Gregory’s Mathematics for Practical Men: Table II. of Supplementary Tables. In the column of Areas. Nos. 7 for 38. 6000 read 38. 1001 18 — 264. 46900493 — 254. 46900494 19 — 6 — 9 24 — 07 — 12 28 — 7 — 18) 33 — 89 — 94 40 — 4143 — 6144 56 — 68 — 41 61 — 922 — 00 64. — o—_— 8 65 — 10k 5 96 — o_ 7 In the areas for Nos. 22, 27, 30, 32, 39, 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, 60, 62, 66, 69, 72, 75, 87, 90, 99, increase the last figure by 2. In Nos. 1, 8, 9, 10, 14, 16, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 34, 36, 38, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 55, 58, 59, 63, 68, 70, 71, 74, 78, 81, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, and 98, increase the last figure by unity. N. B. The areas for each integer, from 1 to 100, or one- twelfth part of this table only, has been examined. I have recomputed the Tables of Dr. Hutton, for all Nos. from 1 to 1000; and if the above corrections are made, the tables to which they apply will stand correct. March 1826. J. UTtiNnG. XXXIV. On the Phenomena connected with some Trap Dykes in Yorkshire and Durham. By the Rev. ADAM Sepewicx, M.A. F.R.S. M.G.S. Fellow of Trinity College, and Woodwardian Professor in the University of Cambridge*. Introduction. HE various phenomena presented by trap rocks have long engaged the attention of geologists. Different ages have been assigned to them, founded on their union with older or * From the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol. ii. Part I. 2D2 newer 212 Prof. Sedgwick on,some Trap Dykes newer strata, and distinctive characters have been pointed out by which it has been attempted to separate the several forma- tions from each other. As observations have become more widely extended, many of the conclusions founded on such characters have proved to be fallacious ; and it isnow generally admitted, that the mineralogical composition of any system of trap rocks gives us little information respecting its antiquity or probable‘associations. When strata rest conformably upon each other, in such a way as to indicate a‘continued succession of de- positions, we can immediately determine, at least, their rela- tive antiquity, and may often adopt some natural or artificial arrangement which will greatly facilitate their description. But formations, which appear as dykes and overlying masses, afford no such facilities for correct classification; and the only general conclusion which we can arrive at respecting them is, that they are newer than the beds into which they have in- truded. It is on this account that different observers have formed completely different views respecting the classification of certain formations of trap ; each, in ambiguous cases, having adopted that opinion which happened to fall in with his fa- vourite theory.—In determining the origin of any one of these formations, it seems essential to inquire, (1) In what manner it is: associated with other rocks. (2) What minerals enter into its« composition. (3) What effects are produced by its presence. Satisfactory answers to these questions have been obtained from so many quarters, that the discussions in which they have originated will perhaps soon terminate. It is my intention in this communication to bring together some facts, connected with the subject, which fell under my observation during last summer. Trap Dykes in the Coal-fields. Dykes and overlying masses of trap are of such ordinary oc- currence in many: of our coal-fields, that they have sometimes been regarded as true members of the great coal formation. Shouldut, however, appear, that they have not originated in the same causes which formed those innumerable layers of sandstone, shale, ironstone, &c. which enter into the composi- tion'of the coal strata; but that they have been subsequently driven in among these beds by the irregular action of power- ful disturbing forces; we’ shall’ then be compelled to regard them, not as the subordinate. members, but as the intrusive associates of the great coal formation, In confirmation of this Opinion it may be stated; (1) That in many extensive coal- fields there are no traces of any beds or dykes of trap. , (2) That in other places, such beds or dykes pass beyond the bounds in Yorkshire and Durham. 213 bounds of the coal-fields, and traverse indifferently all the newer strata which cross their line of direction. ‘The facts presented by the north coast of Ireland afford several iilustra- tions of the truth of this assertion. Mr. Winch, in the fourth volume of the Geological Trans- actions, has given many interesting details respecting the dykes* which intersect the great coal basin of Northumberland and Durham. They are in some instances filled with clay and rounded pebbles or shattered fragments of sandstone, mixed with other materials derived from the neighbouring rocks, and their whole appearance plainly indicates the violent nature of the forces by which the solid strata have been cleft asunder. In other instances, the fissures are filled with a variety of ba- salt, which rises like a great partition wall through all the beds of the formation. (Geol. Trans. vol. iv. p. 21—30.) It is the opinion of Mr. Winch that these basaltic dykes never pass up into the magnesian limestone which reposes immediately on the coal strata. Thus, for example, the cliff of Tynemouth castle is intersected by a basaltic dyke which does not pene- trate the capping of magnesian limestone. Every one who is acquainted with the details of English geology must have remarked, that our newer strata, down to the magnesian limestone inclusive, are generally unconform- able to all the older rocks. Thus in numberless instances, more especially in the West of England, we find some of the newer strata filling up the inequalities, or resting on the in- clined edges, of the coal measures. In all such cases, the frac- tures and contortions of the lower formation must have taken place prior to the deposition of the superincumbent horizontal beds. Now if it appear, that masses of trap are not only the common associates of such fractures and dislocations, but sometimes the very instruments by which they have been pro- duced ; it follows, almost of necessity, that the dykes we have been describing will not generally be found among the hori- zontal beds which repose upon the disturbed strata. Such a rule as this may, however, admit of many exceptions. For no reason can be given @ priori, why the same forces, which produced the great fissures in our coal formations, should not again come into action in successive epochs in the natural hi- story of the earth. Accordingly, it is found that basaltic dykes are not confined to any particular set of strata, hut may occa- * In the North of England the term dyke is not confined to the descrip- tion of those fissures which have been filled with trap, but is extended to all the great faults and dislocations which intersect the strata in a nearly vertical direction, A want of attention to this extended use of the word has given rise to occasional mis-statements and false inferences, sionally 214 Prof. Sedgwick on some Trap Dykes sionally appear among the newest secondary rocks. The facts exhibited by the north coast of Ireland have been already al- luded to. ‘The great dyke which starting from Cockfield Fell, in the county of Durham, crosses the plain of Cleveland, and terminates in the eastern moors of Yorkshire, leads us to a si- milar conclusion. Cockfield Fell and Cleveland Dykes. This dyke, which preserves such an extraordinary continuity, forms a striking feature in all the geological maps of the di- strict. Some good general descriptions have already been given of it*. My principal object in this paper will be, to place before the Society, in a connected point of view, those facts which appear to bear on the question of its origin. I shall afterwards notice some pheenomena which are exhibited in High Teesdale, and seem to throw light on the same question. Dykes near Egglestone in Upper Teesdale. A mass of trap occupies the lower part of the left bank of the river Tees exactly opposite to the entrance of the Lune. It may be traced without difficulty for three or four hundred feet, close to the edge of the water; and it at length disap-~ pears under Egelestone bank; where it rests upon, or abuts against a bed of slate clay. The prolongation of the trap to the other side of the Tees is rendered highly probable by the appearance of a bed of similar character in the left bank of the Lune immediately under Lonton Chapel. But the accumu- lation of diluvium prevents this connexion from being esta- blished by direct evidence. The imperfect denudation on the left bank of the Tees did not allow me to ascertain the exact relation which the trap on that side of the water has to the contiguous strata. Above Egglestone bank another mass of trap, to all appearance immediately connected with that which has been described, crosses the road about a mile to the north- west of the village. It there assumes the unequivocal charac- ters of a dyke, ranges (as nearly as I could discover from very imperfect data) E. by N. and a few hundred yards above the road crosses the western branch of the rivulet which runs past Egelestone. A quarter of a mile further up the same branch of the rivulet, a second dyke crosses its bed, and seems to range about S.E. by S. From what has been stated it appears probable that these two dykes unite, or intersect each other. Their concourse will probably be found on the moor above the new smelting-house. ‘The former, where it is seen above * Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast, by Young and Bird. p. 17]. Egglestone, in Yorkshire and Durham. 215 Egglestone, is about forty feet wide, and cuts through a bed of coarse grit, provincially called firestone. ‘The latter is about ' sixty feet wide, and is associated with gritstone and a band of indurated shale which has been much quarried for whet- stones. It would certainly be very interesting to trace these dykes as far as possible through the eastern moors, as there can be little doubt of their connexion with some of those masses of trap which traverse the great coal-field. My own observa- tions were much too limited to complete this task. I however found on Woolly Hills, in the Woodland Fells, several quarries opened in a dyke which, from its position as well as in its structure, seemed to form a connecting link between the trap of High Teesdale and some of the dykes which traverse the country near Cockfield Fell *. Cockfield Fell Dyke. Proceeding some miles further to the S.E. we come to the north-western termination of Cockfield Fell dyke, which is seen in a quarry by the side of the brook which runs past Gaundlass Mill. In that single locality it assumes a compound form, being made up of three distinct and nearly vertical masses of trap alternating with a variety of indurated slate-clay. The following is a transverse horizontal section of the whole dyke. (1) On the south-west side, common coal shale, which, as it approaches the dyke, becomes much indurated and has a ver- tical cleavage. In this state it is provincially termed penczl. (2) Trap one yard. (3) Pencil about four or five yards, but of variable thickness and much shattered. (4) ‘Trap two yards. (5) Pencil half a yard. (6) Trap about seven yards. (7) Coal shale resembling No.(1). ‘These entangled masses of coal shale are probably not prolonged far beyond the quarry, as they are seen in no other section. The dyke afterwards ranges through the coal works which are opened in Cockfield Fell about half a mile to the north of * It is stated by Mr. Winch (Geological Transactions, vol. iv. p. 76.), that “at Egelestone, three miles below Middleton, a very strong vein of basalt may be seen crossing the Tees in a diagonal direction.” I suspect that he here alludes to the mass of basalt abovementioned, which appears on the left bank of the Tees opposite to the entrance of the Lune, as I in vain en- deavoured to discover the traces of a dyke further down the river. If this conjecture be right, it will be necessary to remove the dyke (which in the map accompanying Mr. Winch’s memoir is made to cross the Tees below Egglestone) to a place considerably to the N.W. ofits present position. hen so represented, it will be seen, by an inspection of the map, that the basalt in Teesdale and the neighbourhood of Cockfield Fell are much more nearly in a straight line than they haye been represented. h the 216 Prof. Sedgwick on some Trap Dykes the village; and its further progress in a direction about E.S.E. is marked in Blackburn quarry and Crag-wood. Near the former place it is intersected by a cross course, and heaved — several yards out of the line of its direction. ‘To the S.E. of Crag-wood, it would perhaps be impossible to trace it at the surface; but the vein of trap which runs along the high ridge of coal strata between Bolam and Houghton-le-side, agrees so well in character and direction with the masses above men- tioned, that it has generally been assumed as the prolongation of them. Bolam Quarry. In the quarries which they are now excavating near Bolam, the vertical dyke is unusually contracted in its dimensions; but on reaching the surface, it undergoes a great lateral extension, especially on the south-west side, so that the works are con- ducted in a perpendicular face of columnar trap more than two hundred feet wide. ‘The changes produced by this over- lying columnar mass are highly instructive, and will be de- scribed in their proper place. The old excavations, in the direction of Houghton-le-side, show that the trap is there con- fined to a fissure nearly forty feet wide, which, with a slight undulation in its direction, bears to a point about S.E. by E. Sandstone on the Trap. There is another locality, the mention of which must not be omitted, though I think it probable that it is not in the line of the great dyke. In this opinion I may, however, have been misled by the maps of the district, in which many of the places are laid down entirely out of their true bearings. At Wacker- field-lane-end, half a mile W.N.W. of Hilton, a mass of trap appears to range east and west, and may therefore join the leading dyke which intersects the country still further to the east. The excavations in that place would not deserve any particular attention, were it not for the important fact, that at their western termination horizontal beds of sandstone are seen to rest immediately upon the upper surface of the dyke. I have been informed that masses of trap occur on the north- east side of the quarries of Bolam; but I had no opportunity of examining them with a view of ascertaining their probable connexion with the principal dyke. From all these facts we may infer—(1) ‘That from Gaund- lass Mill to Houghton-le-side, a distance of about ten miles, the dyke of trap is uninterrupted—(2) That it may be con- nected with other dykes, which appear still further to the north-west nearly in the same line of direction, and through’ them zn Yorkshire and Durham: 217 them with the dykes in Upper Teesdale—(3) That it pro- bably gives out some lateral branches connecting it with other masses of trap in the same district. It may further be ob- served, that all this portion of the dyke, however modified by local circumstances, dips towards a point on the north-eastern side of its general line of direction, so as to make with the horizon an angle perhaps in no instance less than eighty de- ees. The high ridge of coal strata, extending from Bolam to Houghton-le-side, forms a kind of abutment which encroaches considerably on the line of the magnesian limestone. The present collocation of the two formations might lead to a con- jecture that a great fault, ranging along the line of demarca- tion, had thrown the magnesian limestone down below its na- tural level. But the supposition is not necessary; for the ap- pearance of the limestone below the level of the ridge may be only an indication of its unconformable position. Dyke in Lower Teesdale. In the low region of the magnesian limestone we lose all traces of the basalt from Houghton-le-side to Coatham Stob. From the last-mentioned place it may be traced through the quarries of Preston across the Tees; and very large excava- tions have been made in a corresponding quarry at Barwick on the right bank of the river. The mineralogical character of this dyke, its direction, and its dip, agree so well with the one which ranges through Cockfield Fell; that no one has, I believe, denied the probability of their being continuous *. The great distance between Houghton-le-side and Coatham Stob in which no trap has been discovered; and still more the tact, that the basaltic veins in the great coal-field do not generally pass up into the magnesian limestone; have led some to ima- gine, that the prolongation of the dyke of Cockfield Fell is for several miles concealed beneath the beds of that formation. These basaltic veins, which do not penetrate the magnesian limestone, prove one of two things. ‘Either that they took their present form before the deposition of the limestone; or that they were injected from below, but not with sufficient energy to break through the superincumbent limestone.—Nei- ther of these suppositions can apply to a great dyke intersecting an enormous mass of secondary strata which are newer than the magnesian limestone, and probably rest upon it. If there- * Should any one maintain that the dykes of Cockfield Fell and the plain of Cleveland have a distinct origin ; he may, perhaps, draw an argument in favour of his own opinion, from the great thickness of the vein of trap in the quarries of Preston, Barwick, Langbargh, &c. In this one respect there is undoubtedly a considerable difference between them. Vol. 67. No. 335. March 1826. 2 fore 218 Prof. Sedgwick on Trap Dykes in Yorkshire and Durham. fore we admit the identity of the Cockfield Fell and Cleveland dykes; we must suppose that in the whole interval, between Houghton-le-side and Coatham Stob, it is concealed by a thick covering of diluvium : an opinion which no one will have much difficulty in admitting who has observed the enormous accu- mulation of transported materials’ in all the neighbouring di- strict. Range of the Dyke through the Eastern Moors. At Preston the trap emerges from beneath nearly fifty feet of diluvian brick earth; and would probably have remained concealed, had it not been laid bare in the bank of the river. On both sides of the Tees it is more than seventy feet wide, and ranges through horizontal strata of sandstone in a direc- tion about S.E. by E. These horizontal strata must be re- ferred to the new red sandstone formation, though they ex- hibit but faint traces of the usual ferruginous tinge. From Barwick, the dyke passes through the quarries of Stainton, Nunthorp, and Langbargh, to the foot of the Cleveland hills; making in its progress a considerable flexure to the north. At Stainton, the north face of the dyke is interrupted by a fissure about five feet wide, which is filled with light coloured argil- laceous materials, with a transverse slaty texture. These sub- stances bear no resemblance either to the sound or decom- posing specimens of the dyke itself. On the east side of Nunthorp it gradually rises above the level of the neighbouring country, and might be mistaken for a gigantic artificial mound, had not the quarries exposed its interior structure. A well defined ridge, about four hundred feet above the level of the neighbouring plains, marks its pas- sage over the south flank of Rosebury Fopping. Still further to the east it is traced by a gap in the outline of the moors: for the upper beds of sandstone appear to have been shattered and carried off, and the dyke only rises to the highest level of the great bed of alum-shale. After passing through this gap and descending into Lownsdale, we found the trap forming a mass of bare rock which rose twenty or thirty feet above the vegetable soil. From thence it may be followed without diffi- culty many miles down the valley of the Esk, in a line bearing about E.S.E. Afterwards, by the turn of the valley at Egton Bridge, it is once more brought through the high moorlands ; and its course is marked in that desolate region by a low ridge resembling an ancient Roman road. A quarry which is opened at Silhoue, near the seventh milestone on the road from Whitby to Pickering, proves the whole thickness of the dyke to be about forty feet, and its inclination and direction nearly the same as in the other localities. Beyond this place it Notices respecting New Books. 219 it continues to thin off; but it may be traced, though not with- out some difficulty, as far'as a small rivulet about two miles to the east of the road. ‘The exact point of its termination has perhaps not been ascertained; but there does not seem to be any good reason for supposing that it is continued to the German Ocean, as no vestige of it has been seen in any part of the cliff where it might be expected to appear. [To be continued.] XXXV. Notices respecting New Books. HE First Part of the Second Volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society has just been published, and the following are its contents: On the method of determining the difference of meridians, by the culmination of the moon. By Francis Baily, Esq.— On the utility and probable accuracy of the method of deter- mining the sun’s parallax by observations on the planet Mars near his opposition. By Henry Atkinson, Esq.—On the cor- rections requisite for the triangles which occur in geodesic operations. By Captain George Everest.—On the rectifica- tion of the equatorial instrument. By J. F. Littrow.—On the variation in the mean motion of the comet of Encke, produced by the resistance of an ether. By M. Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti.—Observations of the solstice in June 1823, made at Paramatta, New South Wales. By Sir Thomas Brisbane.— Observations made in the years 1823-4 at Paramatta, New South Wales. Transmitted by Major-General Sir' Thomas Bris- bane.—On a new instrument, called the Differential Sextant, for measuring small differences of angular distances. By Benjamin Gompertz, Esq.—Observations on some singular appearances attending the occultation of Jupiter and his satel- lites on April 5,1824. By Mr. Ramage, Captain Ross of the Royal Navy, and Mr. Comfield.—Observations on the occul- tation of the Herschel planet on August 6, 1824. By Capt. John Ross.—An account of the arrival and erection of Fraun- hofer’s large refracting telescope at the observatory of the Im- perial University at Dorpat. By Prof. Struve—On a new zenith micrometer. By Charles Babbage, Esq.—'The results of com- putations on astronomical observations made at Paramatta, in New South Wales, under the direction of Sir Thomas Brisbane, and the application thereof to investigate the exactness of ob- servations made in the northern hemisphere. By the Rev. Jobn Brinkley, D.D.—A short account of a new instrument for measuring vertical and horizontal angles. By George 2E2 Dollond, 220 Notices respecting New Books. Dollond, Esq.—Observations made at Bushey Heath (north latitude 51° 37! 44-3; west longitude, in time, from Green- wich, 0" 1™ 205-93), from May 17, 1816, to December 7, 1824. By Colonel Beaufoy.—On astronomical and other refractions; with a connected inquiry into the law of temperature in dif- ferent latitudes and at different altitudes. By Henry Atkin- son, Esq.—A report on the properties and powers of a new 3-feet altitude and azimuth circle, lately fixed at the Rectory- house of South Kilworth in the county of Leicester: con- structed by Edward Troughton, and divided by T. Jones. Drawn up by the Rev. William Pearson, LL.D.—Observa- tions made at Paramatta, in New South Wales, by Major- general Sir Thomas Brisbane. To which are annexed, Obser- vations made by Mr. C. Rumker, at Stargard, New South Wales, on the comet which appeared in July 1824.—Astro- nomical observations: 1. Observation of an eclipse of the moon, taken at Chouringhy, near Calcutta, in the year 1798; and, 2. Observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, taken at Chouringhy, in the years 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, and 1803. By the late Colonel R. H. Colebrooke; 3. Ob- servations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, taken at Chouringhy, in the years 1821, 1822, and 1823. By Captains Hodgson and Herbert; 4. Observations of the occultations of the Pleiades by the moon, in July and October 1821. By the Rey. W. Pearson, LL.D.—Report, lists of presents, mem- bers, associates, and officers: Appendix, containing a part of the tables (mentioned in our last Number, p. 138) for deter-_ mining the apparent places of nearly 3000 principal fixed stars: with a treatise on their construction and use, drawn up at the request of the council, by the president, F. Baily, Esq. Just published. The Narrative of a Tour through Hawaii or Owhyhee; with an account of the geology, natural productions, volca- nos, &c. history, superstitions, traditions, manners and cus- toms of the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands; a grammatical view of their language, with specimens. The account given of the death of Captain Cook by the natives, and biographical notices of the late king and queen who died in London. B W. Ellis, missionary from the Society and Sandwich Islands. The Tanner’s Key to a New System of Tanning Leather quicker and cheaper than usual.—Price 5s. XXXVI. Pro- —_ —— - [ 221 ] XXXVI. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Feb. 23.— A Paper was read, entitled, “An Account of a new reflecting curve; with its application to the construction of a telescope having only one reflector ;” by Abram Robertson, D.D. F.R.S. Savilian Professor of Astro- nomy, Oxford. Also a paper, on the constitution of the atmosphere; by John Dalton, Esq., F.R.S. Mar. 2.—T wo papers by Sir E. Home, Bart. V.P.R.S., were read, on the coagulation of blood by heated iron. Mar. 9.—A paper was read, on oil of wine; by Mr. H. Hennell: communicated by W. T. Brande, Esq. Sec. R.S. A paper was also read, on the mathematical principles of suspension bridges; by Davies Gilbert, Esq. M.P. V.P.R.S. The reading was commenced of a paper on a new method of determining the parallax of the fixed stars; by J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. Sec. R.S. Mar. 16.—The reading of Mr. Herschel’s paper was concluded ; and a paper was read, on the expression of the parts of machinery by signs; by C. Babbage, Esq. F.R.S. The Society then adjourned till April 6th. LINNEAN SOCIETY. Mar. 7.—A further portion of Dr. Hamilton’s Commen- tary on the Hortus Malabaricus was read. Mar. 21.—The following communications were read :— Descriptions of two new birds belonging to the family Pha- sianida, by Major-gen. Hardwicke, F.L.S. The first of these birds is a species of the genus Lophopho- rus of M. Temminck, which General Hardwicke proposes to call L. Wallichi, after Dr. Wallich, the distinguished curator of the Company’s botanic garden at Calcutta, through whose exertions, aided by the influence of the Hon. Edward Gard- ner, the English resident at the court of Katmandu, many in- teresting subjects in ornithology were procured. It is about the size of the Impeyan Pheasant, another species of Lopho- phorus, to which it does not yield in beauty. It is a native of the Almorah Hills on the north-eastern boundary of Bengal. The local name of this bird is Cheer. The second species belongs to Phasianus, and will together with P. cruentus constitute a small but well marked group of that interesting genus. General Hardwicke has called this species P. Gardneri. It is a native of the Snowy Mountains north of the valley of Nepal. Description 222 Geological Society. Description of a new genus belonging to the natural family of plants called Scrophularine, by Mr. David Don, Libr. L.S. Mr. Don proposes to name this genus Lophospermum, and in this paper points out its affinity to Antirrhinum and Maurandia, from both which, however, it is abundantly characterized by its flat winged seeds and campanulate corolla. The essential characters of the genus are as follows :—Calyx 5-partitus, Corolla campanulata: limbo 5-lobo, subequali. Capsula bi- locularis, irregulariter dehiscens. Semina imbricata, membra- naceo-alata. The genus consists of two species, both of them natives of Mexico, where they were discovered by the Spanish botanists Sessé and Mocinno, and which Mr. Don has named Lopho- spermum scandens and physalodes. A review of the genus Combretum, by Mr. George Don, A.L.S. The author here describes thirty-eight species of this inter- esting and beautiful genus, exclusive of six doubtful species enumerated by Dr. Roxburgh in the Hortus Bengalensis, In the Systema Vegetabilium ot Professor Sprengel, which is the latest general work, only six species are enumerated. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. March 3.—The reading of Sir A. Crichton’s paper On the Tanuus Mountains in Nassau was concluded. The great mountain groups forming the Tanuus, are por- tions of that vast chain which crosses the Rhine to Valen- ciennes; and in the duchy of Nassau they are composed of transition and trap rocks: they here separate into two ranges, nearly at right angles to each other. ‘The southern chain lies on the north of Mayence and Frankfort, and its highest point is the Feldberg, 2600 feet above the level of the Mayne. The northern chain includes the Westervald, celebrated for its brown coal. The strata of the southern face of the former chain, consist of tale and quartz-slate dipping north-west ; whilst those of the northern face are of grauwacké and clay slate, inclining upwards south-east. The summit is a decom- posing quartz rock, containing talc and iron, the sides and base of the mountain being formed of talc and slate. The baths of Schlangenbad are surrounded by slaty quartz: quartz conglomerates occur near the foot of the southern chain; where also a thick bed of sandstone, resembling our new-red-sandstone, rests upon the calcareous deposits of the valley of the Mayne, quarries of which are seen at Wisbaden. The valley of the Mayne, which is interposed between the northern and southern chains, is chiefly occupied by low hills of Geological Society.—Royal Institution of Great Britain. 223 of coarse shelly limestone, analogous to the upper fresh-water formation of Paris, and quarries of it occur near Wisbaden and Hockheim: Paludine and Modioli abound in it. At ’ Hockheim the beds are much dislocated; and at Wisbaden fossil bones are found, the teeth accompanying which refer them to animals allied to the Lophiodon tapzroides, and to the Sumatran Tapir. These calcareous deposits are only two hun- dred feet above the level of the Mayne, and they are per- forated in many places by basalt, upon which they rest. The basalt finally disappears south-east of Darmstadt, and is suc- ceeded by primitive rocks. ‘There are strong salt-springs at Soden, and various mineral waters near Frankfort and Had- nigstein. The Falkenstein mountain, though composed of talc-slate, protrudes through the high table land in the form of basalt. To the north of this the older rocks disappear, and the district is occupied by grauwacké. ‘The grauwacké is divided into quartz grauwacké and grauwacké slate; the latter is very di- stinct from micaceous slate, and contains casts of Spiriferz, of the Pleurobranchi of Cuvier, &c.; the former offers encrinites, ‘and unknown coralloids. ‘The valley of the Lahn, between Coblentz and Diety, affords the best sections of grauwacké, and higher up that river the transition limestone appears at Baldowinstein. The schalstein (or problematic stone of Von Buch), is seen in all its varieties in the valley of the Aar, and with it are associated, porphyry, carbonate of lime in veins, iron, and copper. At Diety and Baldowinstein, porphyry seems to rise through the limestone. Crystalline dolomite, resting upon transition limestone, is the most recent formation observable in the mountainous ranges of Nassau. No diluvial detritus is seen in any part of the duchy, but quartz pebbles in sand occur in the elevated plain between Selters and Nassau : these are supposed to have been torn from the grau- wacké by local causes, and to have been deposited prior to the elevation of that formation. The author, reflecting upon the marine fossils on the summits of some of these mountains, infers, that the horizontal strata were formed at the bottom of a sea, and were subsequently elevated; and he is inclined to attribute the origin of the grauwacké to the attrition of the primitive rocks during the period of their elevation. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. The following is an account of the proceedings at the Royal Institution, on the Friday evening meetings of the members. Feb. 3.—The history of caoutchouc was given in the lec- ture-room by Mr. Faraday, and various specimens relating to its chemical nature and its application in producing water- proof 224 Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris. proof fabrics shown. The latter were prepared by Mr. Han- cock. x Feb. 10.—The progress made by Mr. Brunell in his appli- cation of the condensed carbonic acid to the construction of a mechanical engine was described to the members by Mr. Fa- raday, and stated to be highly favourable. Feb. 17.—Mr. Griffiths’s experiment on the state of alkali in glass, Mr. Varley’s single adjustable microscope, Mr. Brant’s large bar of palladium, and a South American Geological series of specimens were shown and explained in the library. Feb. 24.—Mr. Varley explained the nature of his graphic telescope intended for the use of artists. It combines magni- fying powers with the properties of Dr. Wollaston’s camera lucida. Mar. 3.—The art of lithography was illustrated by nu- merous operations, and its minute chemical and mechanical principles explained by Mr. Faraday, and Mr. Hullmandel, who furnished the beautiful specimens shown. Mar. 10.—Mr. Brande entered into the chemical history of wines as respected the alcohol contained in them; and showed the state of combination ‘in which it was retained, the conse- quent loss of part of its power, and the most perfect modes of analysis. Some specimens of unadulterated port and very old hock were operated upon. ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS. Nov. 7, 1825.—A letter from M. de Gregori was read, re- lative to the success of vaccination in the Piedmontese states. — M. D’Hombre-Firmas communicated a memoir on a great de- pression of the barometer observed at Alais in October last.— Dr. Rouzé presented a memoir in manuscript, entitled, An ex- planation of the famous problem of general electricity.— Dr. Candiloro, of Palermo, presented a memoir, entitled, Medico- chirurgical reflections on the quickest and surest means of ex- tracting calculi from the bladder.—M. Latreille was appointed to make a verbal report on M. de Blainville’s work, entitled, ‘‘ Manuel de Malacologie et de Conchyologie.—M. Dupuytren read the second part of the report of the committee appointed to examine the memoirs on the yellow fever and on the plague. —M. de Ferussac read a memoir, entitled, A methodical table of the class of Cephalopoda, presenting a new classification, by M. Dessalines d@’Orbigny, jun. Nov. 14.—M. Paul Laurens communicated a memoir on aérial perspective-—M. Lejeune d’Irichlet communicated a supplement to his memoir on the impossibility of some inde- terminate equations of the fifth degree—M. Amussat com. municated Comet.— The Pantochronometer. 225 raunicated a memoir on the different rights of priority in the discovery of lithontriptic methods.—M. Reestrentret commue - nicated a plan of an instrument for sounding at the greatest depths.—M. Magendie, in the name of Mr. Hulkens, a clock- maker at Philadelphia, presented an improved instrument for executing the same operations as those of MM. Amussat, Civiale, &c.—M. Girard made a report on the machine pre- sented to the King by M. Blanc, of Grenoble—MM. Geof- froy St. Hilaire, Latreille and Duméril gave a report on Me Serres’s work on animal monsters.—M. Duméril gave a verbal account of M. de Blainville’s comparative anatomy.—M. de la Billardiére read a report on M. Poiret’s History of the Plants of Europe. : Noy. 21.~— M. Libri communicated a memoir, in which he discusses various questions relative to the analytical theory of heat.—M. Dupuytren read the third and last part of the re- port of the committee on the memoirs on yellow fever, &c. XXXVI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. COMET. a OT RER comet has been discovered this year, by Cap- tain Biela, at Josephstadt. It was first seen in R 27° 38', and N. decl. 9° 47': but both its right ascension and declina- tion were diminishing. THE PANTOCHRONOMETER. In vol. lxiii. of the Philosophical Magazine we noticed Es- sex’s Portable Damp Detector, an useful application of hy- grometry to the purposes of good housewifery and the pre- servation of health. The same ingenious artist has pro- duced an instrument called the Pantochronometer, intended, by a neat combined application of several principles of nature and facts in astronomy, to instruct young persons in the va- riation of time according to longitude, in a very amusing manner. A sun-dial is supported by a magnetic needle, ad- justed to the variation in the different longitudes for which the instrument is constructed, and the divisions of the hours on which are made to indicate, in an outer fixed circle, the corresponding time at most places of consequence on the globe. ‘The principle and applications of the Pantochrono- meter are perspicuously explained in a work which is sold with it; and, altogether, we think the inyention a very useful Vol. 67. No. 385. March 1826. 2F addition 226 Mr. Murray’s Chemical Observations. addition to our stock of means for imparting scientific _know- ledge to the juvenile mind. CHEMICAL OBSERVATIONS: BY MR. MURRAY. 1. Singular Modification of Temperature by Copper and Silver Leaf. When we grasp in the hand a few foils of copper or silver leaf, a peculiar glow of temperature is communicated and felt. I found that a delicate thermometer placed in the hollow of the hand, the ball completely enveloped, indicated 98° 5! F. ; with the ball wrapped round with loose copper leaf, the tem- perature shown was 101° F.; with silver leaf, 101°+ F.; with mixed silver and copper foil, 99° 75’. 2. Aphlogistic Phenomena of Gum. If a portion of powdered gum arabic be placed on a dise of platinum and burnt to charcoal, it will, when ignited, continue long to glow in that state: let fall on paper it ignites the paper; and placed on the platinum wire of the “lamp with- out flame” it continues aphlogistic with the coils, and it will ignite a sulphur match, &c. The platinum cage supplied with these aphlogistic live coals produces a fine effect ; and when even the platinum has become extinct, they will continue to glow and give light, and the reignition of the wick is more certainly secured. When the aphlogistic gum is introduced into a glass cylinder containing a portion of ether, it will glow in the superior part of the vessel; when immersed too low and brought near the surface of the ether, it will be apparently extinguished ; but when raised to its former position it will be rekindled, and continue to glow with additional brightness. There is this difference, however, between the platinum and the gum; there is no appretiable waste in the former, while there is a sensible expenditure in the latter. When this substance reduced nearly to whiteness is intro- duced into the lower part of the flame of coal gas, the starlike brilliancy is excessive. It will be easy now to account for the peculiar intensity of light which supervenes on introducing into the exterior verge of common flame, platinum wire, bits of straw, &c. reduced to whiteness,—the brilliancy ef mag- nesia, &c. before the ignited gas in the compound blowpipe, &c.—these being al] reducible to the class of aphlogistic phae- nomena. 3. Liquid Aqueous Ammonia, burning with Flame in Chlorine. It is well known that if two cylinders, the one containing chlorine Fossil Remains. 227 chlorine and the other ammoniacal gas, be brought in con- tact, a flash of light pervades the interior. Professor Silliman has also stated that a large volume of ammoniacal gas may be ignited and continue to burn; and Dr. Henry has adverted to a phzenomenon of the same description: indeed, the foreign flame exhibited when a lighted taper is introduced into a small cylinder of this gas, sufficiently proves that the gas is inflam- mable in atmospheric air. I find, however, that if a slip of paper be dipped in strong liquid ammonia, and immersed into a cylinder of newly prepared chlorine, it will burn with a beau- tiful flame, and the liquid ammonia will also burn with flame when introduced in the deflagrating spoon, FOSSIL REMAINS. Notwithstanding the confused and unscientific manner in which this account is drawn up, we think there is reason to believe that some interesting fossil remains have been found ; and not wishing to assume any responsibility for the correct- ness of the notice, we give it as originally published. It is to be hoped that a more satisfactory description of these remains will soon be received. _ Oar enterprising fellow-citizen, Mr. Samuel Schofield, has disinterred from the low prairie grounds between Placquemine and the lakes, a number of remains of the most gigantic size. They evidently belong to some class of animals now no longer in existence; whether antediluvian or not, we are unable to say. The great Elephas mastodon, or American Mammoth, described by Dr. Mitchill, is inferior in size to these bones we have seen. From the circumstance of ambergris being col- lected in some quantity from the inferior surface of the maxil- lary bone, we are led to the conclusion that they are of marine origin, but of what description we are unable to conjecture. Upon examining these remains, we are easily led to give cre- dit to the extraordinary relations given by Father Kircher, of the Kraken and Norway sea snake. ‘This nondescript, when alive, must have equalled either of them in bulk. We will attempt a faint description of those which have al- ready been brought up to this city, and are now on board the steam-boat, Expedition. They consist, first, of an enormous fragment of acranium. It is about twenty-two feet in length, and its broadest part four feet high, and perhaps nine inches thick. It is said to weigh about twelve hundred pounds. On the interior surface the vitreous table appears to be separated from the cancelli for some way down; this table is perfectly 2 Eo firm, 228 Fossil Remains. firm, and in a perfect state of preservation; the digital de- pressions formed by the convolutions of the cerebellum are very perfect. The foramina for the passage of the sensorial nerves are very discernible. A very large portion of the inner table of the inside of the cranium is joined by a very singular squamous suture. The inner surface appears in many places perma- nently discoloured by the bed of earth from whence it was taken. In the interior part of the cranium the diploé presents a very singular appearance, the cavities of which are very large, in some cases presenting holes of nearly an inch in dia- meter, and generally very regular. Upon what we judge to be the temporal portion, a most singular process or elongation presents itself: it is eight feet in length, and of a triangular form, and about six inches through, tapering gradually to the point. This singular appearance sets all our conjectures at defiance; it is of a spongy construction, with a rough and ir- regular surface. There appears to be no seat for the insertion of muscles, or foramina for the passage of the nerves or blood- vessels. ‘ This bone must have been covered for its whole length with amembrane. The cancelli are remarkably regular. There is a singular consolidation of the nasal and maxillary bones. They are not united by any of the description of sutures found in quadrupeds, but form one entire mass of uniform consist- ence all through. A large groove or canal presents itself in the superior portion of this bone, upon the side of which consi- derable quantities of ambergris may be collected, which ap- pears to have suffered little or no decomposition or change by age. It burns with a beautiful bright flame, and emits an odoriferous smell while burning; it is of a greasy consistence, similar to adipocire. The foramen for the transmission of the facial nerve is of an immense size. In the inferior portion of this stupendous bone there ap- pears to be an articulating depression, in which the superior angle of the lower jaw might have been articulated. The other bones are; one of a cylindrical shape, with a round head similar to the os humeri in quadrupeds. It is two feet in length, and about ten inches in diameter, with about two processes near the head, in some respects similar to the trochanters of the femoris. The cartilaginous extremities ap- pear to have been entirely detached, Upon one end a sur- face for the articulation of two bones appears, ove of which is in the collection. This bone is over one foot in length, and of Volcano in Owhyhee. — 229 of a flattened cylindrical shape; the cartilaginous extremities are also gone. It is of a firmer consistence than any of the other bones, with a singular irradiation of ossific appearance on the outside surface. These two bones are probably the leg of the animal. There are also lumbar, dorsal, and cervical vertebre. The cylindrical portions of those of the first class are fourteen inches in diameter, with transyerse processes, in every respect like those of quadrupeds. One of them has the introvertebral substance completely detached; it is about twelve inches in diameter, and perhaps two inches thick in the centre, tapering gradually to the extremities ; this specimen is in a perfect state of preservation. In the articulation of these bones there is considerable analogy to the human vertebrae. To judge from the appearance of this portion of the cranium which we have seen, if this monster was of the Balena species, his length could not be less than two hundred and fifty feet. It is stated, that from this place, whence these remains were disinterred, a large carnivorous tooth was found, and has been carried away. It is also related, that in the year 1799, many remains of antediluvian creation were taken up near this same place, and shipped to’ Europe.— Boston Journal of Philosophy, Aug. -1825. VOLCANO IN OWHYHEE. Mr. William Ellis, a missionary, in his narrative of a tour through the island so well known as the place where Captain Cook was murdered, gives the description of a volcano of a singular kind, of which we shall select for our readers some of the most striking particulars. Mr. Ellis passed over a large tract of volcanic country with burning chasms and hills, which had the appearance of having been craters. The plain over which their way lay, was a vast waste of ancient lava, which he thus describes: * This tract of lava resembled in appearance an inland sea, bounded by distant mountains. Once it had certainly been in a fluid state, but appeared as if it had become suddenly petri- fied, or turned into a glassy stone, while its agitated billows were rolling to and fro. Not only were the large swells and hollows distinctly marked, but in many places the surface of these billows was covered by a smaller ripple, like that ob- served on the surface of the sea at the first springing up of a breeze, or the passing currents of air, which produce what the sailors call a cat’s-paw. * * E % * About two P.M. the crater of Kirauea suddenly burst upon our view. We expected to have seen a mountain with ; roar 230 Volcano in Owhyhee. broad base and rough indented sides, composed of loose slags, or hardened streams of lava, and whose summit would have presented a rugged wall of scoria, forming the rim of a mighty cauldron. But, instead of this, we found ourselves on the edge of a steep precipice, with a vast plain before us, fifteen or sixteen miles in circumference, and sunk from two hundred to four hundred feet below its original level. ‘The surface of this plain was uneven, and strewed over with huge stones and voleanic rock, and in the centre of it was the great crater, at the distance of a mile and a half from the place where we were standing. : ‘ é i We walked on to the north end of the ridge, where, the precipice being less steep, a descent to the plain below seemed practicable. 3 7 With all our care, we did not reach the bottom without falls and slight bruises. : : Atter walking some distance over the sunken plain, which in several places sounded hollow under our feet, we at length came to the edge of the great crater, where a spectacle sublime, and even appalling, presented itself before us. Immediately before us yawned an immense gulf, in the form of acrescent, about two miles in length, from N.E. to S.W. nearly a mile in width, and apparently eight hundred feet deep. The bottom was covered with lava, and the S.W. and northern parts of it were one vast flood of burning matter, in a state of terrific ebullition, rolling to and fro its ‘fiery surge’ and flaming billows. Fifty-one conical islands of varied form and size, containing so many craters, rose either round the edge, or from the surface of the burning lake ; 22 constantly emitted columns of gray smoke, or pyramids of brilliant flame ; and several of these at the same time vomited from their ig- nited mouths streams of lava which rolled in blazing torrents down their black indented sides, into the boiling mass below. The existence of these conical craters led us to conclude that the boiling cauldron of lava before us did not form the focus of the volcano; that this mass of melted lava was comparatively shallow; and that the basin in which it was contained was se- parated by a stratum of solid matter from the great volcanic abyss, which constantly poured out its melted contents through these numerous craters into this upper reservoir. “The sides of the gulf before us, although composed of different strata of ancient lava, were perpendicular for about 400 feet, and rose from a wide horizontal ledge of solid black lava of irregular breadth, but extending completely round: be- neath this ledge, the sides sloped gradually towards the burn- ing lake, which was, as nearly as we could judge, three hun- dred or four hundred feet lower. It was evident that the large crater List of Patents for New Inventions. 231 crater had been recently filled with liquid lava up to this black ledge, and had, by some subterraneous canal, emptied itself into the sea or under the low land on the shore. The gray, and in some places apparently calcined sides of the great era- ter before us—the fissures which intersected the surface of the plain on which we were standing—the long banks of sulphur on the opposite side of the abyss—the vigorous action of the numerous small craters on its borders—the dense columns of vapour and smoke that rose at the N. and S. end of the plain —together with the ridge of steep rocks by which it was sur- rounded, rising probably in some places 300 or 400 feet in perpendicular height, presented an immense volcanic pano- rama, the effect of which was greatly augmented by the con- stant roaring of the vast furnaces below.” LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To James Fraser, of Houndsditch, London, for his im- proved method of constructing capstans and windlasses.— Dated 25th of February 1826.—2 months allowed to enrol specification. To Benjamin Newmarch, of Cheltenham, for certain inven- tions to preserve vessels and other bodies from the dangerous effects of external or internal violence on Jand or water.— 25th of February.—6 months. To Benjamin Newmarch, of Cheltenham, for a preparation, to be used either in solution or otherwise, for preventing decay in timber, &c. arising from dry rot, &c.—25th of Fe- bruary.—6 months, To James Fraser, of Houndsditch, London, for his im- proved method of distilling and rectifying spirits, &e.—4th of March.—2 months. : To Robert Midgley, of Horsforth near Leeds, for his ap- paratus for conveying persons and goods across rivers or other waters, and over valleys.—4th of March.—6 months. To George Anderton, of Chickheaton, Yorkshire, worsted spinner, for improvements in the combing or dressing of wool and waste silk.—4th of March.—2 months. To James Neville, of New Walk. Shad Thames, Surrey, engineer, for his improved boiler for generating steam with less expenditure of fuel.—14th of March.—6 months. To Nicholas Hegesippe Manicler, of Great Guildford- street, Southwark, chemist, for his new preparation of fatty substances, and the application thereof to the purposes of at- fording light.—20th of March.—6 months. Results “18S ,b oul) UT | Heals ‘TTT ‘AINUAG WVITH AMA AF “srunzy “podsoxy ‘humapnoy oho ay} fo huozvo.sasg¢ ayy yw yday ‘GES wax 2y2 40f ousnoy qoo1sojosoaayy v fo sqnsayy 0-89] 6-14! 2-69} 6.29] L-OP|LE|OOT} 9S- 1S} ZL-1S| 00-25} PE-8S) LZ | 1-ZE, 10-€9,9z,98}196-62|996-62,996-62| LL-0 | £z-Lo 0-98] 7-98] 8-88] 6-28] TP |PS/86 188-15] SE-ZF] gS-0F| 18-PF| 91 | 62 | 28.zh,9z/SS]Z8S-62|1L9-6z|F9S-62| 09-0 | Lz-9 | 92 | Ot-1 | 1ZS-6z! 00-6 | -08] ZZ8! 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November Q 37 {59 |21 |36 Averages for 1825. ANNUAL 234 Meteorological Summary for 1825.—Hamp shire. ANNUAL RESULTS FOR 1825. Barometer. Inches. Greatest pressure of the atmosphere, Jan. 9th, Wind N. 30°820 Least ditto ditto Noy. 10th, Wind N.E. 28-600 Range of the mercury . . 2g ~ ing. p2220 Annual mean pressure of the atmosphere + is ay, SO°964 Mean pressure for 177 days, with the moon in North declination . . => «| i Segoe Mean pressure for 177 days with the moon in South declination . . : ot’ 5a orSbs Annual mean pressure be 8 re) selack A. M. 2 3 ie -29°966 $$$ _—_ at 2 o'clock P.M... . . 29°965 —— at 8 o'clock P.M. cunvenininato OO Greatest range of the mercury in November . . . 1°700 Least range oF ditto in, July? sud osu ae ED Greatest annual variation in 24 hours in March. . 0°770 Least of the greatest variations in 24 hours in May. 0*300 Ageregate of the spaces described by the rising and falling OPGNE MELCHLY.) Gite t's x9", ay mah oe OO Numpber-of ahances os. us a 0 heen ih oes, ae geen me Self-registering Day and Night Thermometer. Greatest thermometrical heat, July 19th, Wind S.E. 864° ———_—___——_————. cold, Dec. o7th and 30th, Bada Wo. oe ene my ae Wath Range of thermometer between the eee BS 604 Annual mean temperature of the external air . . 53°01 of dowati8 A.M..:,..°, « 2. 82°00 OF. docat Scr... 3 eihte ee eee of dor at 2 PsMeeoom.t 52, BBS Greatest rangein June . . hae at ee Least of the monthly ranges in Dedember < ae me) O00 Annual mean range. 22 @ pee oO Greatest monthly * variation in 24 hours in “Apr il and August = 9: . Pee i) Least of the greatest variations in 24 hours in December 16°00 Annual mean temperature of spring water at 8 A.M. 51°56 De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer. Degrees. Greatest humidity of the atmosphere, October 12th and November 10th... . . . eek 100 Greatest dryness of ditto, August 1s ois See BT: Range of the index between the extremes . 3 63 Annual mean of the hygrometer at 8 o’clock A. M. 69°2 ee — at 8 o'clock P.M. 71°9 ——————— at 2 o'clock P.M. 62°9 Annual Meteorological Summary for 1825.—Hampshire. 235 Annual mean of the hygrometer at 8, 2, & 8 o’clock Degrees. 68°0 Greatest mean monthly humidity of the prior in December Greatest mean monthly dryness of ditto in J uly Position of the Winds. From North to North-east . North-east to East. . East to South-east . South-east toSouth . . South to South-west South-west to West . . — West to North-west . North-west to North « . 365 Clouds, agreeably to the Nomenclature ; or the Number of Days on which each Modification has appeared. Cirrus seo eee ee Cirrecumulus —-;--.3¢ -.-- 2 Srrostratus 4 < s-s034.- 222 SSH E ET Cian pte, 3 sae, Ramen! CAEL TT CELT Ci eet tlie aS Steere Sumulostratus . + de t<. 5 « ORES Ph. oot ae General State of the Weather. A transparent atmosphere without clouds Fair, with various modifications of clouds An overcast sky, without rain Fog ; arom Rain, hail, and sleet ae Atmospheric Phenomena. Parhelia, or mock-suns, on the sides of the true sun . . Paraselenze, or mock-moons Solar halos Bye Saat: Lunar halos. ..... pep ent Rainbows, solar and lunar Free Meteors of various sizes . . Lightning, days on which it happened Thunder, ditto ditto Evaporation. Greatest monthly quantity in July 2G2 . Inches. 10°37 Least 236 Meteorological Summary for 1825.—Hampshire. Least monthly quantity in January. . . . 0°76 In. Total amount for the year. 2... . . 46.61 Rain. Greatest monthly depth in December. . . 5°325 Least monthly depth in July. . . . . . 0°180 Total depth near the ground for the year . 30°450 Total depth 23 feet high, for ditto. . . . 27:200 N. B. The barometer is hung up in the observatory 50 feet above the low-water mark of Portsmouth Harbour; and the self-registering horizontal day and night thermometer, and De Luc’s whalebone hygrometer, are placed in open-worked cases, in a northern aspect, out of the rays of the sun, 10 feet above the garden ground. The pluviameter and evaporator have re- spectively the same square area: the former is emptied every morning at 8 o’clock, after rain, into a cylindrical glass gauge accurately graduated to 1-100th of an inch; and the quantity lost by evaporation from the latter, is ascertained at least every third day, and sometimes oftener, when great evapora- tions happen by means ofa high temperature, and dry northerly or easterly winds. BarometricaL PressurE.—In consequence of the high pressure of the atmosphere during the first three months, also in June and July, the mean height of the barometer is greater this year by 79-1000th of an inch, than the mean of the last eleven years. This was the case in every part of the country with some little differences. The aggregate of the spaces de- scribed by the alternate rising and falling of the mercury is 15°89 inches less this year than last, and the number of changes seven less, which indicate a comparatively uniform pressure. For 177 days in which the moon ranged in North declina- tion, the pressure was 3-200ths of an inch greater than that in the 177 days in which she ranged in South declination. TEMPERATURE.—The annual mean temperature of the ex- ternal air is exactly one degree higher than that in 1824, and 1:39 degree higher than the mean of the last ten years. The mean temperature of June, July, August and September was high, and these months were dry, particularly July, when we experienced oppressive heat for several days: but the spring and autumn were rather cold, which in great measure equa- lized the annual average temperature of 1824 and 1825. The annual mean temperature of spring water at 8 o’clock A.M. this year, is nearly a degree and a half lower than the annual mean temperature of the external air. Winv.—The crossing and opposite winds, or upper cur- rents, have been found to prevail very much this year. ! In et? Meteorological Summary for 1825.—Hampshire. 237 In comparing the Scale of the Winds in 1824 and 1825, there appears a near coincidence in their duration from six out of eight points of the compass; but there is a great dif- ference in the North-east and South-west winds this year; the former having prevailed longer by nearly one-third, and the latter a less time by nearly one-fifth. The longer duration of the North-east wind, with the additional mean temperature of the atmosphere, seems to accord with the increased evapora- tion, which is nearly one-third more this year than last; and the shorter duration of the South-west wind, was the means of keeping back about one-fourth of the comparative depth of rain: besides, the gales from the South-west have not been so prevalent as they were last year. Such is the influence the winds appear to have in drying and condensing the lower stratum of air, in connexion with the temperature of the ground. The following is the number of strong gales of wind, or days on which they have prevailed, this year: N. IN.E E. |s-E| S. Is. w, W. [N.W,| Gates. 1{io[1}s|sfeels| 57 The gales from the S.W. are more than half the number in the scale. Cioups.—The following is a correct scale of the clouds agreeably to the nomenclature, being the number of days on which each modification has appeared during the last nine -years, ending with 1825. ° Cirro-. ,; Cirro- Cumulo- Stratus. Cumulus. *!cumulus.| stratus. stratus. 7-__—_—. 1838 | 1476 | 2582 295 1711 | 1708 | 1773 By this scale the cirrostratus appears to be the prevailing cloud, having appeared more than three-fourths of this long period. The cumuli and cumulostrati are nearest in the times of their appearance; and the czrrz and detached nimi the next nearest. The cirrocumuli and strata are the least in number, being in general fair weather clouds. Weatuer.—The general state of the weather throughout the year, was calm and dry, but very variable in temperature at intervals; the dry part was in the winter and summer months, and the wet part in spring and autumn. The summer was uniformly hot, which brought on an early corn harvest. January, 238 Meteorological Summary for Feb. 1826.—Hampshire. January, March, June, October, and November, were rather windy months, the others comparatively calm. The spring and summer seasons were healthy, but the win- ter and autumn were sickly, in consequence of the sudden changes that occurred in the temperature and quality of the air; as it must be acknowledged that health, or sickness, and also the spirits of the human mind, are materially influenced by the good or bad state of the air we inhale, and the means employed to keep the body of an uniform temperature through- out the vicissitudes of the seasons in the variable climate of England and her united kingdoms. Results of a Meteorological Journal for February 1826, kept at the Observatory of the Royal Academy, Gosport, Hants. General Observations. This month has been mild for the season, but generally windy and wet, agreeing with the old proverb “ February fill dike.” It has rained, more or less, on 20 days, and the ther- mometer a few feet from the ground did not recede once to the freezing point. In consequence of the constant humid air, very little evaporation, and the quantity of rain, the ground was saturated nearly the whole month, and is now in good condition for an early produce of the approaching spring. The average temperature of the external air this month, is 24 degrees higher than in February 1825, and nearly 33 de- grees higher than the average of that month for the last ten years. ‘There is a difference in the mean temperature be- tween last month and this of 104 degrees ! The temperature of spring water has increased upwards of one degree this month, and is 1} degree higher than at this time last year. This is certainly an unusual circumstance in February, as the temperature of spring water almost invariably decreases till the vernal equinox, and sometimes later. The last two or three days having been dry, and the temperature of the ground increasing, there was therefore a sudden appear- ance of the fruit and other trees breaking into bud. Although the wind has prevailed half the month from the S.W. and W., yet the result of the barometer is above the general mean indication, arising no doubt from the closer union of the atmospherical particles, and a lower temperature in the superior stratum of air not far above the disturbing force of the late S. W. gales of wind. The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our observations this month, are, one parhelion, one solar and one lunar halo, three meteors, and eight gales of wind, or days on which they have prevailed ; namely, one from S.E. and seven from S.W. Nu- ~~ —o Total 28 days. Meteorological Journal for Feb. 1826.—Hampshire. 239 Numerical Results for the Month. Inches. Maximum 30°44, February 26th— Wind S. W. Barometer {Mian 29°33, Ditto 17th—Wind S. Range of the mercury... (1°11. Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury 6:000 Greatest variation in 24 hours .... oe. ees oe 0°680 TN CSAP CIRC C77 a an ec 26° Maximum 56°, February 25th and 28th. Minimum 33 _ Ditto 9th—Wind E. Range.8 hy he EG Sr oe Oe Mean temp. of the external air 45-91 - for 30 days with the 43-93 un in Aquarius 5 ask variation in24 hours 16°00 ean temp. of spring water at 8 sae te: ito oe \ eas De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer. Degrees. Greatest humidity of the air . 96 in the morning of the 6th. Greatest dryness of ditto ... 63 aftern. of the 7th & 25th. Range of the index ...... 33 : Mean at 2 o’clock P.M. ... 75°8 at 8 o'clock A.M. ... 84:4 at 8.0 clock, PM was, .. 58402 of three observations each 81°5 day at 8, 2, and 8 o’clock x Evaporation for the month .......-.. 1°30 inch. Rain in the pluviameter near the ground . 3°86 Rain in ditto 23 feet highs: io-8b Ess oo 2 SAD Prevailing winds, S.W. Summary of the Weather. A clear sky, 3; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 11; an overcast sky without rain, 6; foggy, 4; rain, 74.— Thermometer } Clouds. Cirrus, Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus. Stratus. Cumulus, Cumulostr. Nimbus. 18 9 27 10) 7. 18 21 Scale of the prevailing Winds. N. ‘NE. E. 8H. °S. 6.W. 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Se 7 i ES N= Si9iela| ¢ ‘yquo S| Bi oy eels SISlElEISIE/5| 28 a PB |" 4 lNoanoq] ‘9 ‘soyouy |2| 2/2)" Aye|") 28 Jo shu *AHHLVA A Ul ‘1ajoULOLeg —— - : ‘NIVY |uajououoyy,| Jo wsaz] *sanotg ‘Wy *yD0[9 0 14ST ysud-jyey ye SUxOAsOy *UOsOg JO TIVIA Pl puv ‘UopuoTy ut AUF DLV ‘uodso9 yo xINUNg “HZ fo suoyvasasgg ay} Fumeduos 7TAVL TWOIMOTOUOALAN V Pral- Mag Wel £801, FUL. a 47 42 a Vie GM Se CY f : \ HAIN bat | NN ohare PD = ES" YVAN | A ae Pre AE > (BS Ay esol aseeo)terofarlallaglistan 30°05 | 2964 THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. 30 APRIL 1826. X XXVIII. On the Properties of a Line of shortest Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spheroid. By J. Ivory, Esq. M.A. F.R.S.* Y intention in treating of the geodetical problem inserted in this Journal for July 1824, p. 35, was to show that by giving a proper form to the coordinates of the surface of the spheroid, the usual analysis might be much shortened, and more simple formulz of solution obtained. If the polar semi- axis be unit, and / 1 + é represent the radius of the equator, the equation of the surface will be, +y? 1+e? z being perpendicular, and x and y parallel, to the equator. Now this equation is satisfied by assuming xr=cos¢cos) /1 42 y=singcos) V1 + 6 z= sin, the angles ¢ and } remaining indeterminate. ‘The coordi- nates belong to a spherical surface when e = 0; and this man- ner of expressing them, which I have used on other occasions, is well adapted for simplifying the investigation of such pro- perties of the elliptical spheroid as are analogous to those of the sphere. With regard to the arcs and y, it is obvious that sin is the distance from the equator (estimated in parts of the polar semi-axis) of a parallel to the equator drawn through the point on the surface of the spheroid; and hence it is obvious that $ is the angular distance between the meridian passing through the same point and a given meridian. The arc Wis the lati- tude of a parallel to the equator on the surface of the sphere inscribed in the spheroid; but it is not the true latitude of the same parallel on the surface of the spheroid, as I have inadver- * Communicated by the Author. Vol, 67. No. 336. April 1826. des | tently Se — 242 Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest tently called it in the communication alluded to. I have already noticed the inadvertency in this Journal for April 1825; and have shown that the accuracy of the solution is not affected by it, because the import of the symbol is independent of the name given to it, being fixed by the assumed form of the coordi- nates. The relation of the arc ¥ to the true latitude may like- wise be deduced directly from the equation of the surface, or from the expressions of the coordinates, without recurring to particular properties of the spheroid, in the manner following. From a point in the spheroid, of which the coordinates are 2, y, 2, let a perpendicular p be drawn to the surface, and extended outward to a point of which the coordinates are @, b, c; then, p= (a—a2l + (b—yf + (¢— 2): and if 2, y, vary in the surface of the spheroid, the condi- tion of perpendicularity will be, O=(a—a)dx+(b—y)dy + (c —2) dz. If the arc w denote the inclination of p to the equator, then, c and z being perpendicular to that plane, we shall have c—z=p sinwu. Also p cos x will be the projection of p upon the same plane; and, as the spheroid is a solid of revo- lution, p and its projection will be contained in the meridian which makes an angle ¢ with the given meridian to which y is perpendicular and z parallel: hence a — x = p cos wu cos 9, b—y=pcosusin¢g. The foregoing equation will therefore become by substitution, 0 = cosu (dx cos¢ + dy sind) + dzsinu. Now substitute the differentials of the coordinates, then the arc ¢ will disappear; and, having divided by cos u cos pd, we shall get tan wu z tan = Vite This very simple equation expresses the relation between the arcs y and w, of which the latter is the true latitude of the point on the surface of the spheroid. It is usual to call the arc the reduced latitude; but, as this name is purely arbi- trary, it seems preferable to define the same arc from some of its geometrical properties. ‘This may be done by saying that wu and w are the latitudes of the same parallel to the equa- tor, the one on the surface of the spheroid, the other on the inscribed sphere. ‘To the formula already given we may add the two following resulting from it, which are of continual use, viz. < sin u sim wy i A/ 1 +e? cost u cos u 1+eé cos) = Swe A 1 +? cos? % ‘ Having Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spheroid. 243 Having now ascertained the import of the arcs ¢ and , all the properties of the geodetical line are readily deduced from the formule investigated in this Journal for July 1824. Using the arc { to denote the latitude (on the surface of the inscribed sphere) of a plane parallel to the equator which cuts the geo- detical line, put »! for the azimuth at the point of section; then the most distinguishing property is expressed by this - saan cos f! sin #’ = cosz (a) where cos z expresses a quantity which is constantly the same for every point of the geodetical line. If we suppose that the parallel plane moves towards the equator, and finally coin- cides with it, the foregoing equation will become, sin pu! = cos 7; whence we learn that the arc 7 is the inclination of the geodetical line to the equator where it crosses that circle. Conceive a great circle on the surface of the inscribed sphere, which is inclined to the equator in the same angle z; and it readily follows from the rules of spherical trigonometry, that the equation (a) is common to the geodetical line on the sur- face of the spheroid, and the oblique circle on the surface of the sphere; that is, the two lines have the same azimuth at any two points in the same parallel to the equator. It follows that a parallel which meets the oblique great circle, will like- wise meet the geodetical line; and consequently they are both contained within the same limits on either side of the equator. They both extend from the equator to two parallels of which the latitudes, on the inscribed sphere, are + 7; and having touched these planes, they bend back in an opposite direc- tion. In order to compare the two lines further, it is requisite to fix two initial points, or two points of departure from which to reckon. Having assumed any point in the geodetical line, draw through it a parallel to the equator. This parallel will likewise meet the oblique great circle; and we may suppose the plane of the circle turned about the centre of the sphere, till the point in the parallel comes to the meridian of the point assumed in the geodetical line. These two points, one in the oblique great circle, and one in the geodetical line, are the two initial points required; they are in the same parallel to the equator, and they have the same longitude. If a and Z denote the two latitudes of the parallel to the equator, the first on the sphere, and the other on the spheroid, we shall have, according to the equation before found, tan / Ji +e Suppose now that any other parallel to the equator cuts the 2H 2 two tana = 244 Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest two lines: let be the latitude of the parallel on the sphere; s' the arc of the oblique great circle between the parallel and the initial point; and 4! the spherical angle subtended by s! at the pole of the sphere, or the difference of longitude be- tween the extremities of s'; also let ~ be the azimuth of the oblique circle at the initial point, and yp! the azimuth at the other extremity of s': then we shall have the following equa- tions, VIZ. cos 2 = cosA sin ists dw cos A sin?i — sin? wy (B) do! — St) EEN SO cos y s/sin®?i — sin? y dp! aS cos id sin > get tl cos Y /sin?i — sin? ; These formulee express the relations between the differentials of the latitude, longitude, and azimuth of a variable point in a great circle of the sphere having the inclination z to the equator; and their use is to compare them with the like quan- tities in the geodetical line. The expressions of ds! and dq! are the same with those marked (B) in the communication in- serted in this Journal for July 1824, except that I have here written sin?z— sin*) for the equivalent quantity cos?) — cos*z = cos* — cos*Asin® yw. The expression of d p!, which is common both to the circle and the geodetical line, has now been added. Again, let s denote the part of the geodetical line cut off by the same paralle] to the equator; and put ¢ for the difference of longitude of the two extremities of s; that is, for the angle containéd between the meridian which passes through the va- riable extremity of s and the fixed meridian of the two initial points. Then, according to the formulz marked (A) in the communication alluded to, we shall have, ds=d3!x f1+esin*y, ea A) rete f Vi+e%siney | ( dg=d}' x pager These different formule, extremely simple, contain all that is necessary to a complete theory of a geodetical line on the sur- face of an oblate spheroid. Ihave here merely supplied the geometrical explanation of the analytical solution before given. Let us compare the longitude in the geodetical line with that in the oblique great circle. The second formula (A) shows that d $ is always less than d ¢!; and hence the longi- tude in the geodetical line continually falls behind the longi- tude in the great circle, the defect accumulating more the further Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spheroid. 245 further the line is produced. If therefore we suppose that the variable parallel to the equator begins to move from the two initial points, passes beyond the equator to the extreme latitude — z, then returns to the other extreme latitude + 2, and lastly, falls down to the situation it first left; the moveable point in the oblique great circle will have made a complete circle in longitude, and will have returned to its original place; but the moveable point in the geodetical line, although it will have returned to the same latitude it left, will not have com- pleted a circle of longitude, and therefore it will meet the pa- rallel of latitude in a point different from its first place. 'Thus a geodetical line dves not return into itself; if it be continued for several successive circuits of the spheroid, it will form a spiral line upon its surface. It is manifest from the analytical expression of d ¢, that when z, which is the limit of {, is very small, the whole arc of longitude answering to one turn of the : a 60° ° geodetical line, approaches very nearly to See. or, if we estimate the longitudes on the equator of the spheroid, it will be equal to an arc of the same length with the periphery of the inscribed sphere. Accurately speaking, the arc mentioned is the limit of the longitude made in one turn, when the geo- detical line cuts the equator in an indefinitely small angle. It follows therefore that the equator itself is not comprehended in the analytical expression of the arcs of shortest distance ; but, when the inclination to the equator is infinitely small, all the turns of the spiral curve become blended with one another and with the equator. We may next compare the lengths of the geodetical line with the ares of the oblique great circle cut off by the same parallel to the equator. ‘The first formula (A) shows that ds is greater than ds'; and hence an entire turn of the geodetical line is greater than the periphery of the great circle. But these two quantities approach nearer to an equality as the obliquity to the equator increases; so that they are exactly equal when the geodetical line makes an infinitely small angle with the equator. This agrees with what has already been said respecting the longitude in the same circumstances. From the same expression it follows that all the turns of the same geodetical line are equal and similar; and even that every single turn consists of four equal parts or quadrants: for the integral of ds has the same value, while varies be- tween the limits 0 and + 7. Let a denote the are of the oblique great circle between the initial point and the equator; then a —s! will be the are be- tween 246 Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest tween the equator and the variable parallel; and we shall have these equations, sin A= sin? sina sin = sin z sin (a—s'). Now substitute this value of sin {, then ds=ds' ¥1 +e? sin*z sin® (a—s'); and this formula shows that the lengths of a geodetical line, reckoned from a fixt point on the surface of the spheroid, are equal to the arcs of an ellipse reckoned from a fixt point in the periphery. The greater semi-axis of the ellipse is equal to / 1 +e? sin? z, which is the semi-diameter of the spheroid perpendicular to the plane of the oblique great circle; the less semi-axis is equal to the radius of the inscribed sphere. Enough has now been said to show the use of the formulze in investigating the properties of a geodetical line. There can be no difficulty in this respect, at least if we suppose that the figure of the spheroid, or the proportion of the polar axis to equatorial diameter, is known. Without knowing this pro- portion, we cannot deduce the inclination of the oblique great circle to the equator, nor pass from the latitudes actually ob- served on the surface of the spheroid, to the corresponding latitudes on the surface of the sphere. In the question of the figure of the earth, the problem must therefore be viewed a little differently. It is necessary to introduce the angles ac- tually found by observation in the expression of the length of the geodetical line. Now, we have, cos 27 = COSA SIN»; and, by substituting the value of cos A, we get cos J sin & »/ T+ e2 cos i = ——— — a/ 1 +e? cos?l A 1.— cos? / sin? # + e? cos? 1 cos? A 1 — e? cos21 on a Let us now put cos 8 = cosZ/sinp: a/sin® B +e? cos? 1 cos? Jl +e cos2t é The are 6 being deduced from the latitude and azimuth on the spheroid, is always known; and it is very little different from 7. Again : if we combine the values of ds and d s', found in the formulze (A) and (B), we shall get, dy cos f / 1 +e2 sin? y) 4 A sin? i — sin? Y then, sinz = ds= But, —— Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spherotd. 247 But, u and ) being the latitudes of the same parallel to the equator on the spheroid and the sphere, we have, . v ia sin u me Ge ie ea ap and if we transform the expression of ds, by introducing the values of sin { and sin 2, we shall obtain, A= V sin? 6 + e? cos? cos? » — sin? u (1 +e? cos*/ cos’ p)|, He 2 (1+e2) f/f 1+e2 cos22.ducosu ; (C) (1 + e2cos?u)?. A This formula determines the length of s by means of the lati- tudes at the two extremities, and the initial direction with re- spect to the meridian. In the first place, if the geodetical line be in the direction of the meridian, then sin » = 0, cos » = 1, sinB = 1: hence A =cosu 7 1 + e*? cos? J, 1+e2)d ds — gk 2) oe . (l+e? cos? uw)? If we expand the radical and integrate as usual between the limits 7 and u, supposing w greater than /, we shall get, — — (sin 2% — sin 21) — ets 3(u—) __ 3(sin 2u — sin 2) 15(sin du — sin 42) u—l = =u—l+e?} 64 32 . 256 I have here written > for s, on the supposition that s is the actual length measured, and P the semi-polar axis expressed in the same parts. There are therefore two unknown quan- tities P and e*; and consequently two different measurements are required at different latitudes. The latitudes chosen ought to be very distant from one another, one near the equator and one near the pole, in order that the curvatures of the meridian may be as different as possible. In places not remote, the pro- portion of the lengths measured would approach so near the proportion of the observed differences of latitude, that the un- avoidable errors of observation would render the result quite uncertain. Let us next suppose that the geodetical line is perpendicu- lar to the meridian. In this case, sin » = 1, cos » = 0, sin 6 = sin 7, and A= 9 sin*/ — sin* u Wherefore, if we put sin « = sin Z cos z, then A= sin 7/ sin z, d gis (1+ e?) f1l+e* cos?l. dz (1 +e% — e2 sin ?1.cos? x)? In 248 Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest In this equation s and z increase together from zero. If it be expanded we shall obtain a formula for computing s as in the foregoing instance. I shall not however take the trouble of further developing the expression, because it is not proper to be employed in the research of the figure of the earth. The reason is, that the small arc z is determined. by its cosine; so that a minute error in the latitude ~ would occasion an exces- sive variation in x When a geodetical line is perpendicular to the meridian, the variation of latitude is at first proportional, not to the length measured, but to the square of the length ;- and therefore it cannot safely be employed in so delicate a research as the deviation of the figure of the earth from a sphere. In the most general case when the geodetical line is inclined to the meridian in any proposed angle, we must make, sin « = sin f cos z. And here it is evident that the determination of the are z will be liable to the same objection as in the- perpendicular to the meridian, unless sin « is considerably different from sin 6. It follows therefore that a geodetical line must not make a great angle with the meridian, at least if we employ the difference of latitude in the research. The inclination to the meridian ought not to exceed 45°. On this supposition the are z will be tolerably well ascertained, and the formula (C) will be suffi- cient for finding the length of s by means of that arc. The expression would however be a little complicated on account of the number of quantities that enter into it; but as an in- stance of such an oblique measurement has neither actually occurred, nor can any good reason be given for carrying it into execution, I shall not pursue the subject further. I have now considered very particularly the problem of the figure of the earth as it depends upon the lines measured on the surface, and the observed differences of latitude. It fol- lows that observations made in the direction of the meridian are the most advantageous for obtaining the values of the quantities sought. When the lengths measured extend only to a few degrees, we may use the differential equation before found, viz. d (l+e2)du s= —, (1+ e? cos? wu)? instead of the integral. In this case, ds or s is the length measured; du, or u — J, the difference of latitude in degrees ; and if m denote the degrees in the arc equal to the radius (57°°29578), then — , Will be the radius of a circle in which an are equal to s contains w —/ degrees. Hence if P be the polar Distance traced on the Surfuce of an oblate Spheroid. 249 polar semi-axis in the same parts with s, and if we take the é l mean latitude +. for u, we shall have ME, SU OTE: eS) u—l (1+ e2cos2 i+u yi and by expanding the radical and retaining only the first power of e*, we get, “~~ =P} ri “ = 2= cos (1 + u)}. Two such equations are required for determining P and the > ey e2 ellipticity ae But in determining the figure of the earth by means of ter- restrial observations, instead of the difference of latitude, we may employ the difference of longitude of the two extremities of the line measured, or the change in azimuth at the same Stations. And in the case of a perpendicular to the meridian, one or other of the two quantities mentioned must be used, since it has been shown that the difference of latitude is in- adequate to the purpose. It therefore becomes necessary to form the expressions of a geodetical line in terms of the dif- ference of longitude, and in terms of the azimuth at its further extremity; but, as this would make too great an addition to what I have already written, I shall reserve it for a future communication. April 5, 1826. J. Ivory. XXXIX. On the Phenomena connected with some Trap Dykes in Yorkshire and Durham. By the Rev. ADAM Sepewicx, M.A. F.R.S. M.G.S. Fellow of Trinity College, and Woodwardian Professor in the University of Cambridge. [Concluded from p. 219.} Extent and Position. N O other dyke has, I believe, been yet described, which in- tersects so many secondary formations, and preserves such an extraordinary uniformity of direction and inclination. The whole length, reckoning from the quarry at Gaundlass Mill, is more than fifty miles: and if any one should object to this, as including a considerable space in which the continuity is not apparent, there will still remain from Coatham Stob a di- stance of about thirty-five miles, through which it is almost certain that the trap ranges without any break or interruption. Perhaps it might with more justice be objected, that the first Vol. 67. No. 336, April 1826. eI com- 250 Prof. Sedgwick on some Trap Dykes computation falls below the truth; in consequence of the pro- bable extension of the dyke to the N. W. through the. Wood- land Fells and Egglestone Burn to the banks of the Tees. Should this supposition be admitted, we shall have an unin- terrupted dyke extending from High Teesdale to the confines of the eastern coast, a distance of more than sixty miles. The angle at which it cuts the strata is of course variable, and in many places cannot possibly be ascertained. At Bar- wick, near the Tees, its inclination to the horizontal beds of sandstone is more than eighty degrees ; and the angle at which it intersects the beds of shale and sandstone in the eastern moors is still greater; occasioned, perhaps, by the south- eastern dip, which generally prevails among the strata in that region *. Secondary formations, when interrupted in the manner above described, seldom preserve the same level on the oppo- site sides of their line of separation. Thus at Cockfield Fell, the coal-beds on the north side of the dyke are eighteen feet below the corresponding beds on the south side. In the ex- cayations at Preston and Barwick there is no indication of any great change having been produced in the relative level of the beds of sandstone; nor can any conclusive evidence be obtained on this subject from the obscure sections exhibited by the quarries in the eastern moorlands. Perhaps, as a general rule, the greatest dislocations are produced by those fissures into which trap is not intruded: such at least appears to be the case in the great coal-field of Northumberland and Durham. The injected masses of trap may be supposed to have acted as a kind of support, and to have partially hindered the broken ends of the strata from sliding past each other. Structure of the Dyke. Notwithstanding the great length of the Cleveland dyke, and the different nature of the rocks with which it is associated, it undergoes very little modification in its general structure. Its prevailing character is that of a fine granular trap rock of a dark blueish colour. This colour is indeed, with some unim- portant exceptions, so constant in all the sound specimens, that the dyke is provincially termed blue-stone by the men who are employed in working the quarries. It breaks into irre- gular, sharp, angular fragments; and on a recently exposed surface there generally may be seen a number of minute bril- liant facets: but the constituent parts are never sufficiently distinguished from each other to give it the appearance of a green-stone. ‘The essential ingredients of the rock are, if I * See the Survey of the Yorkshire coast by Young and Bird. mistake in Yorkshire and Durham. 251 mistake not, pyroxéne and felspar, in which respect it agrees with the greater number of trap dykes which have been care- fully examined, as well as with a great many varieties of re- cent lava. The principal modifications, of course, arise from the variable proportions of these essential ingredients. Among the prevailing and nearly compact portions of the dyke, there are some larger crystals of felspar and carbonate of lime; very rarely, however, in such abundance or order of arrangement, as to give any decided appearance of porphyritic structure. Good specimens of amygdaloid are not common; where they do occur, the nodules are chiefly composed of carbonate of lime. In one or two instances we found chalcedony filling the hollows of an imperfect amygdaloid. Iron pyrites may be mentioned among the minerals frequently associated with the dyke. It is found disseminated through the substance of some decomposing varieties in considerable abundance; and small spangles of it may occasionally be seen in the sound specimens, especially among the larger crystals of felspar before men- tioned. All the dark sonorous specimens act strongly on the magnet; but some of the light-coloured varieties, which con- tain a great excess of decomposing felspar, do not sensibly affect it. The dyke is generally separated by a number of natural partings into large blocks, which are amorphous, prismatic, or globular. Near the centre they are sometimes of such entire irregularity as to defy all description. Not un frequently, how- ever, in the midst of this confusion we may observe traces of a prismatic form; and where this arrangement is most com- plete the A as are always transverse to the dyke. Good ex- amples of this form may be seen in the quarry of Preston, and in other localities above described. The sides of the dyke are generally occupied by clusters of minute horizontal prisms, which are often seen in great perfection even where the cen- tral mass is amorphous. In the great quarry of Bolam, where the trap has extended laterally over the horizontal beds of sandstone and coal shale, the capping of basaltic rock is di- vided into rude columns which are perpendicular to the strata on which they rest; and, therefore, nearly at right angles to the prismatic blocks which lie across the leading dyke, This arrangement is exactly similar to that which takes place among some masses of ancient lava near Mount Vesuvius*. Traces of the globular structure are often visible, especially where * Altered beds of coal in contact with trap sometimes exhibit a similar arrangement. Thus at Coley Hill (Geological Transactions, vol. iv. p. 23), a small bed of coal abuts against a dyke of basalt, and near this contact 212 the 252 Prof. Sedgwick on some Trap Dykes where the trap passes into an earthy state: for many of the larger blocks, whether prismatic or amorphous, decompose in concentric crusts, which easily fall off and expose the hard spherical nuclei. These balls are particularly abundant in the old quarry of Coatham Stob, and are associated with some blocks of a light gray colour, which have an earthy fracture. Both these va- rieties are interesting. Some of the balls contain a consider- able quantity of olivine, which is, if I mistake not, a very rare mineral in all the other localities. The light-coloured blocks have a superabundance of decomposing felspar, and are par- tially porphyritic. Carbonate of lime exists in the form of distinct crystals, and is also disseminated through the mass; and in some instances small spherical concretions of compact felspar are found in a congeries of very minute crystals, giving to such specimens the appearance of an amygdaloidal struc- ture. In other cases the concretions effervesce when first plunged into acids, are opaque from the admixture of impuri- ties, and do not possess the characters of a simple mineral. Effects of Decomposition. In this dyke, as in almost every similar formation, the effects produced by decomposition are exceedingly varied. The com- ponent parts, from the centre to the surface, are in some quarries hard and sonorous. In others, the sides are invested with a ferruginous earthy matter which only penetrates to the depth of a few inches, and gradually passes into a sonorous granular rock. Not unfrequently, a decomposing crust of more considerable thickness covers the surface even of the blocks which are derived from the centre of the dyke. A number of white spots, probably resulting from decomposing felspar, are often disseminated through these earthy masses, and enable us to separate them from other argillaceous ma- terials, with which they are sometimes in contact. It would be a laborious, and not a very profitabie task, to attempt a minute account of phenomena like these which vary with every different locality, Liffects produced by Contact of the Dyke. It now remains to describe some of the effects produced by the intrusion of the dyke. These effects will of course vary with the substances which are acted on. In some of the quarries the coal is deprived of its bitumen, and arranged in beautiful small hori- zontal prisms. Under the overlying mass in the quarry of Bolam, the car- bonaceous shale is rudely prismatic: and in one or two places where this structure is best exhibited, the prisms are nearly vertical. which ee ee = Se oe in Yorkshire and Durham. 253 which have been already described, the trap passes through horizontal beds of slate-clay, and the changes produced by its presence are in all these cases strikingly similar. At Nunthorp and Langbargh these beds of slate-clay belong to the great alum-shale formation (lias), and are easily identified by the belemnites, pectinites and other characteristic fossils which are imbedded in them. On approaching the dyke they become much indurated, and are divided bya great many vertical fissures, which, when combined with the ordinary cleavage, separate the strata into rhomboidal fragments. In all such cases the rifts and fissures are coated over with oxide of iron. In other instances, the true horizontal cleavage entirely disap- pears; and the indurated masses might then be easily mistaken for beds which had been tilted out of their original position. The alteration produced in the coal-shale at Gaundlass Mill is exactly analogous to what has been described, though not so strikingly exhibited. In the quarry at Barwick, on the right bank of the Tees, the vein of trap is well denuded, and the south side of the sec- tion exposes a great many horizontal beds of sandstone, which are separated into prismatic blocks by a number of natural transverse fissures. Close to the dyke this structure disappears ; the sandstone is much more compact, and breaks into amor- phous fragments. It must however be allowed that in some other localities the sandstone did not, under similar circumstances, appear to have undergone any modification. Perhaps, as a general rule, none of the changes above de- scribed are well exhibited, where the portion of the dyke, in contact with the horizontal beds, assumes the appearance of a wacké. Should this observation be sufficiently verified, it would seem to indicate, that the earthy texture of the dyke is, in some cases, rather due to its original mode of agerégation, than to any subsequent decomposition. 1 may, however, as- sert unequivocally, that I neyer saw any beds which are easily susceptible of modification (such as coal or carbonaceous shale) in immediate contact with the trap, without having undergone a remarkable change. The overlying trap at Bolam bears no resemblance to a sub- stance which has been tranquilly deposited on the inferior strata; for it is separated from them by a broken indented su- perficies which has exposed many distinct beds to its immediate action. Some of the massy columns rest on a bed of shale partially converted into a substance resembling Lydian stone, which rings under the hammer, or flies in all directions into a number of sharp splinters. Others are supported by a bed of 254 Prof. Sedgwick on some Trap Dykes of impure coal or carbonaceous shale, in the upper part of which are found shapeless masses in various states of indura- tion, mixed irregularly with angular pieces of trap, and an earthy substance like soot or pounded charcoal. - Where the carbonaceous ingredients are most abundant, the parts of the bed in immediate contact assume the appearance of coke de- rived from the artificial distillation of impure coal, and not unfrequently separate into a number of minute prisms*. An impure carbonaceous powder is sometimes found in the crevices between the basaltic columns, several feet above the beds on which they rest. In addition to the substances above described, I found be- neath the trap some thin white porcellanous fragments, which appeared to be derived from an indurated bed of fire-clay—a well-known associate of the great coal formation. All these phenomena so exactly resemble the effects pro- duced by fire, that I am unable to describe them without using language which may be thought hypothetical by those who deny the igneous origin of trap dykes. In Cockfield Fell the coal-works have been conducted on both sides of the dyke, and the extraordinary changes pro- duced by its influence have been recorded by practical men who had no theory to support, and who founded their opinions upon actual observation. The works are not now carried on in the immediate neighbourhood of the dyke; but I procured so many specimens of the substances which had been taken from the altered coal-beds, that I have no doubt of the general accuracy of the accounts which have been published. Close to the dyke, the main coal is converted into a sub- stance resembling soot, and at some distance it passes into a more solid substance, which the miners call cinder. At a still greater distance it retains a part of its bitumen, and about thirty yards from the trap it does not differ from the ordinary pit-coal of the district. It is stated (Hutchinson’s History of Durham) “ that immediately above the cinder there is a great deal of sulphur in angular forms of a bright yellow colour. The cinder burns clear, without smoke, and affords very little sulphurous effluvia.” Igneous Origin of the Dyke. Were there no other examples of corresponding phzeno- mena, it would perhaps be unsafe to draw any direct conclu- sions from the facts which have been stated. But in different parts of the British Isles, similar effects appear, in instances almost without number, to have been produced by the opera- * See the note to p. 251. tion in Yorkshire and Durham. 255 tion of similar causes: so that the igneous origin of a large class of trap dykes seems to be established by evidence which is almost irresistible. It is urged to no purpose, that Lydian stone and glance- coal occur in places which have never been influenced by vol- canic action. ‘The assertion may be true, but is of no value in determining the question; unless it can be shown, that sub- stances, similar to those derived from the sides of the dykes, are found in other parts of the same district which are removed from their influence. This, however, is not the case; for the enormous excavations which have been carried on in the great coal-basin of Northumberland and Durham have, with one ambiguous exception*, made us acquainted with no similar substances excepting those which appear to have been pro- duced by similar agents. General Summary. It may be proper briefly to enumerate some of the facts which are established by a detailed examination of the great dyke, and which will, perhaps, be considered to place its origin out of all doubt. 1. It is more recent than the formations which it traverses. For it eccupies the interval between beds which were evidently once continuous; but have been subsequently broken up and severed by some great convulsion. 2. It was consolidated prior to the last great catastrophe which formed the beds of superficial gravel, and excavated the secondary valleys. In proof of this we need only state, that it partakes of all the inequalities of the districts through which it passes, rising with the hills and falling with the valleys, so that in many of the lower regions it is buried in diluvium. On this subject there is, I believe, no difference of opinion. 3. There is every reason to believe that it has been filled from below. For there exists no trace of any upper bed from which its materials could have been supplied ; and in one place, horizontal beds of sandstone rest on the top of a mass of trap which is probably connected with the dyke. We may further * See the Geological Transactions, vol. iv. p.27. The case is obviously ambiguous, because the effect of a large mass of trap on a bed of coal may be propagated to a considerable distance. The very change described by Mr. Winch may therefore have been effected by a mass of trap which is not exposed in the workings. We must carefully distinguish between the phe- nomena here described, and the effects of those dislocations which so com- monly intersect the coal strata. In these latter instances the coal beds are often deteriorated on both sides of the line of fault by the mere mechanical effects of the rupture, state, 256 | Prof, Sedgwick on some Trap Dykes state, that many dykes of similar origin wedge out before they reach the surface*. 4. The dyke has once been in a fluid state. For it is moulded tovall the flexures of the chasm which it fills up. The same assertion is also proved by its crystalline texture. 5. The materials of which it is composed are the same with those which abound in a great many varieties of recent lava. On this subject there is perhaps no difference of opinion. For the Wernerians at one time asserted, that recent lava was de- rived from the igneous fusion of trap rocks of aqueous origin. 6. The effects produced by the dyke are such as might be expected from the intrusion of a great mass of ignited matter. 'Phis assertion is fully established by the facts which have. been already stated. If, therefore, similar effects have originated in similar causes, we must conclude, that this-dyke, as well as all the other si- milar masses in the great Durham coal-field, are the undoubted monuments of ancient volcanic action. _ Conclusion. It is a matter of fact, which is independent of all theory, that an enormous mass of strata has been rent asunder; and it is probable that the rent has been prolonged to the ex- tent of fifty or sixty miles. If we exclude volcanic agency, what power in nature is there capable of producing such an effect? By supposing such phenomena the effects of volcanic action, we’ bring into operation no causes but those which are known to exist, and are adequate to effects even more exten- sive than those which have been described. Combining this observation with the facts described with minute detail in the preceding parts of this paper, we obtain a chain of evidence, in favour of the igneous origin of a cer- tain class of trap dykes, not one link of which appears to be defective. It is not to be denied, that the associations of trap rocks may in other cases present great difficulties to the igneous theorist. But these difficulties are not the present subject of consideration. I have confined myself, as far as possible, to a statement of facts, and I have only attempted to record such conclusions as a review of those facts appeared fully to justify. Trin. Coll. March 12, 1823. P. S. Before this paper was sent to the press, I received two letters from my friend Mr. Wharton, of Oswald House, * See ProfessorHenslow’s paper on the Isle of Anglesea ; Dr. MacCulloch on the Hebrides, &c. &c. near in Yorkshire and Durham. 257 near Durham, communicating some very interesting facts con- nected with the appearance of a basaltic dyke; which ranges from the escarpment of the magnesian limestone (at Quarring- ton Hill, a few miles to the east of Durham) through the great coal-field, in a direction about W.S.W. _ It is found along this line at Crowtrees, Tarsdale, Hett, Tudhoe, Whitworth, and Constantine farm. From the last-mentioned place, it passes along the same line of bearing, through the collieries of Bitch- burn and Hargill Hill, to a spot near the confluence of Bed- burn Beck and the river Wear, where it is well exposed on the surface of the ground; and it is known to pass up the Bed- burn Beck valley towards Egglestone Moor. If prolonged a few. miles in the same direction, it must meet the line of the Cockfield Fell dyke within a short distance of Egglestone ; and may, perhaps, be a prolongation of one of the masses of trap described in a former part of this paper. This dyke is laid down in none of our geological maps. Indeed its existence was probably unknown before Mr. Whar- ton ascertained its continuity, by examining the thickness, the dip, and the bearing, of several masses of trap, which ap- peared in separate quarries, but in the same general line of direction. That its further extension towards Egglestone Moor, and its probable connexion with the trap of High Tees- dale, should be correctly determined, is certainly an object of considerable interest. The following facts appear of most importance in illustra- ting the natural history of this dyke. 1. The trap, in colour, fracture, and external form, is simi- lar to that of Cockfield Fell. It often parts into irregular pris- matic blocks with well defined angles, and four or five plane sides covered with an ochreous crust. 2. The width of the dyke appears to increase in its pro- gress westward. Thus, at Crowtrees quarry it is six feet and a half wide,—at Tarsdale quarry nine feet and a half,—atBitch- burn bank fifteen feet,—and still further west it is seventeen feet wide. 3. It dips to the north. at an angle which brings it up in a direction which is nearly perpendicular to the coal strata; which, on the north side of the dyke, are. found about twenty- four feet above the level of the corresponding beds on the south side. 4 In the collieries situate in its line of direction (viz. Crow- trees, Bitchburn, and Hargill Hill) the seams of coal near the dyke are charred, or converted into a hard mass of cinders; in consequence of which, the works have in some cases been partially abandoned. Vol. 67. No. 336, April 1826. 2K 5. The 258 Prof. Sedgwick on Trap Dykes in Yorkshire and Durham. 5. The dyke appears to decrease in width ‘as it rises to- wards the surface. ‘Thus, in Crowtrees colliery, the width of the dyke, where it is cut through at the depth of fifteen fa- thoms, is nearly twice as great as at the surface. 6. It does not appear at Quarrington Hill to cut through a bed of sand and pebbles, which lies between the highest beds of the coal-formation and the magnesian limestone. The importance of these facts in confirming the theoretical views given in the preceding paper, is too obvious to need any explanation. Mr. Winch asserts (Geological Transactions, vol. iv. p.25),_ ‘¢ that he has never been able to trace any of these basaltic veins into the magnesian limestone, and is almost certain that, with other members of the coal-formation, they are covered by it.” The dyke just described affords some additional evidence in support of this opinion. Moreover, it appears, in its ge- neral relations, to agree so exactly with the Cockfield Fell dyke, that I now cannot help suspecting, that this latter also belongs to the class of * basaltic veins” which do not pass up into the magnesian limestone, though I inclined to a different opinion when the preceding paper was written. Respecting the prolongation of the Cockfield Fell dyke through the region of the magnesian limestone, there are con- flicting probabilities which lead to directly opposite conclu- sions. ‘The near agreement in the direction and dip of the Cockfield Fell and Cleveland dykes, has generally been sup- posed to afford sufficient evidence for their continuity. If this opinion be adopted, we must, I think, be compelled to admit the existence of a dyke through all the intermediate district*. On the contrary, there is no direct evidence for the existence of any trap associated with the magnesian limestone; and the relations of all the analogous formations in the coal district seem to prove, that the Cockfield Fell dyke cannot pass out of the limits of the coal-formation. If we adopt this latter opinion, we must admit that the dykes of Cockfield Fell and Cleveland (notwithstanding the agree- ment in their line of direction) belong to two distinct epochs. After all, the question is only one of local interest; and, as far as regards the leading object of this paper, of no importance whatsoever. Through the kindness of T. R. Underwood, Esq. of Paris, I have become acquainted with the results of an examination of specimens from several English trap dykes by Professor Cordier. I will subjoin his description of such specimens as were derived from localities alluded to in the preceding paper. * See the observations at p. 217 of this paper. “ No. 1. a Mr. Babbage on a New Class of Infinite Series. 259 No. 1. From Preston quarry in the Cleveland dyke. Mi- mosite, fine grained, imperfectly porpheroidal from the salient crystals of pyroxene. It is a basalt of the ancient mineralo- gists. The specimen contains a great abundance of dark- greenish gray felspar, mixed with a very small quantity of pyroxene and titaniferous iron. Some points of pyrites are to be seen. The paste also envelops laminar crystals of fel- spar, having a considerable lustre, which give the paste a scaly appearance which distinguishes it from basalt. No. 2. From Coaly Hill dyke near Newcastle. Mimosite, small grained, passing into zerasite. Many of the cavities contain green-earth. It is imperfectly porpheroidal. The crystals of felspar very brilliant. No. 3. From Walbottle Dean dyke. This has a more de- cided character of a dolerite, very fine grained, the felspar whiter than in the others. As these distinctive terms are not generally adopted by English mineralogists ; it may be proper to state that mzmosite and dolerite are granular rocks. Xerasite and basalt are com- posed of the same elements, but microscopic, and having the appearance of a paste. XL. -On the Determination of the General Term of a New Class of Infinite Series. By CHARLES BaBBaGE, Esq. M.A. Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society*. (THE subject of investigation on which I have entered in the following paper, had its origin in a circumstance which is, I believe, as yet singular in the history of mathema- tical science, although there exists considerable probability, that it will not long remain an isolated example of analytical in- quiries, suggested and rendered necessary by the progress of machinery adapted to numerical computation. Some time has elapsed since [ was examining a small machine I had con- structed, by which a table, having its second difference con- stant, might be computed by mechanical means. In consi- dering the various Bp ps which might be made in the ar- rangement of its parts, I observed an alteration, by which the calculated series would always have its second difference equal to the unit’s figure of the last computed term of the series ; other forms of the machine would make the first or the third, or generally any given difference equal to the unit’s figure of * From the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol. ii. Part I. 9K 9 the 260 Mr. Babbage on the General Term the term last computed; and a further alteration would make the same difference equal to double, or generally to (a) times the digit in the unit’s place: or if it were preferred, the digit fixed upon might’be that occurring in the ten’s place, or ge- nerally in the zth place. I did not, at that time, ‘possess the means of making these alterations which I had contemplated, but I immediately proceeded to write down one of the series which would have been calculated by the machine-thus altered ; and commencing with one of the most simple, I formed the series, Series. Diff: ne Dn OP ro D OS vo Hf u, represent any term of this series, then the equation which determines w_ is Au, = unit’s figure of w_, an equation of differences of a nature not hitherto considered, nor am | aware that any method has been pointed out for the determining u. in functions of z from such laws. I shall now lay before the Society, the steps which I took for ascertaining the general terms of such series, and of integrating the equa- tions to. which they lead. I shall not, however, commence with the general investigation of the subject, but shall simply point out the paths through which I was led to their solution, conceiving this course to be much more conducive to the pro- gress of analysis, although not so much in unison with the taste which at present, prevails in that science. If we examine the series, and its first differences, it will be perceived, that the terms of the latter recur after intervals of four, and that all the changes in the first differences, are com- prised in the numbers 2, 4, 8, 6, which recur continually, and the series may be written thus: Series. Diff. 2 2 4 4 8 8 16 6 5 22 = 20+ 2 2 24=20+ 4 4 -of a New Class of Infinite Series. 261 Series. Diff. 98 = 20+ 8 8 386 = 26 + 16 6 42 = 40 4+ 2 2 10 44 = 40 + 4 4 48 = 40+ 8 8 56 = 40 + 16 6 62 =60+ 2 2 64 = 60 + 4 4 15 68 = 60+ 8 8 76 = 60 + 16 6 S2r—— SU ey 2 If then z be of the form 4v+2, the value of u, will be 20v + one of four numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, according to the value of 7, and if i always represents one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, the value of u_will be thus expressed, uw, = 200+ 2. As a second example, let us consider the series whose first term is 2; its first difference 0, and its second difference always equal the unit’s figure of the next term ; its equation will be A*u, = unit's figure of w,, and the few first terms are 2 28 2 48 4 76 10 110 16 144 182 This series may be put under the form Series. 1 Diff. ¢) 2 0 2 2 4. 6 10 s ae ue Table of (a). 5 28 20 if a=0(d) =2 48 28 1 2 76 34 2 4: 110 34 3 10 144 38 4 16 10 182 40 = 40+ 0O 5 28 222 42=40+4+ 2 6 48 264 46 = 40+ 6 7 76 310 46 = 40+ 6 8 110 356 52 = 40 + 12 9 144 262 Mr. Babbage on the General Term Series. 1 Diff. 15 408 60 = 40 + 20 468 68 = 40 + 28 536 74 = 40 4+ 34 610 74 = 40 + 34 684 78 = 40 + 38 20 762 SOS tOPE Se, 842 82 = 80+ 2 924 {a LORS Si als: 1010 86 =, 60) 16 1096 O2'==, “80.7 12 25 1188 100 = 80 + 20 1288 108 = 80 + 28 1396 114 = 80 + 34 1510 114 = 80 + 34 1624 LS: ==" 480 =" 38 30) «1742 120 = 120+ 0O 1862 122 =120 + 2 In this series it may be observed, that ~, when z is less than 10, is equal to the sum of the first differences of all the preceding terms ; and if z be greater than 10, it will be com- posed of four terms,viz. first the sum of the ten first terms of the first difference, multiplied by the number of tens contained in z; secondly, of the sum of the series 40 + 80 + 120 + to as many terms as there are tens in z, this must be multiplied by 10, as each term is ten times added; and thirdly, of the num- ber 40 multiplied by the same number of the tens, and also multiplied by the digit in the unit’s place of z; and fourthly, of the sum of so many terms of the series as is equal to the unit’s figure of z; this being expressed by (@) signifying the number opposite a in the previous table. These four parts, if z= 100 + a, are thus expressed, 1st 1808, b.b—1 2 34 40 ba, ede (9G These added together produce u, = 206(106 + 2a — 1) + (4). This value of ,, , if diminished by 2, is equal to the sum of z—1 term of the series which constitute the first difference. This inductive process for discovering the mth terms of such series, might be applied to others of the same kind; but it does not admit of an application sufficiently general or direct, to render it desirable that it should be pursued further. and 40 10, If of a New Class of Infinite Series. 263 If we consider any series in which the first difference is equal to the digit occurring in the unit’s place of the corre- sponding term, as for example; the series 6 6 12 2 14 4 18 8 26 6 32 2 a slight examination will satisfy us, that the value of the digit occur ring in the unit’s figure of w,, depends entirely on the value of w_, at the commencement op the series, and also that whenever the same digit again occurs, there will, at that point, commence a repetition of the same figures which have pre- ceded; consequently, the first difference at those two points will be equal. In the first example which I have adduced of a series of this kind, it will be found, that this reappearance of the ter- minal figure, happens at the 5th, at the 9th, at the 13th terms, &c. or that Au, = Ad; =A, =(Ad; =<. This gives for the equation of the series, Au,= Atl. 4 or by integrating UW, = Us 4 + d, but when z = 1, wu, = w, therefore b = 0, and u, 41 — u, =e whose integral is u, = a(—/—1) + hag Hers icles d(—/—l) Sees Sie The four constants set determined, by comparing this value of w, with the first four terms of the series, we shall find Bee ees aa oe ee Y¥—-l,d=3+/7-1, and the value of «, becomes u,= 5(z—1) 4.63 —V—1) (VW -1¥ +(5 + V1) (—V — 1) which expresses any term of the series 2, 4, 8, 16, 22, 24, 28, 36, 42, 44, 48. It is necessary, for the success of this method, that we should have continued the given series until we arrive at some term whose unit’s figure is the same as that of some term which has preceded it: now if we consider that this figure dep solely 264 Mr. Babbage on the General Term solely on that of the one which occupied the same place in the preceding term, it will appear that the same digit must re- appear in the course of ten terms at the utmost, since there are only ten digits, and that it may re-occur sooner. The same reasoning is applicable to the case of series whose first difference is equal to any multiple of the digits found in the unit’s place of the corresponding term, or to those contained in the equation : Au, =a x (unit’s figure of w.), as also to those in which this is increased by a given quantity, as Au. =a (unit’s figure of wu. )+ b. Ifthe second difference is equal to some multiple of the figure occurring in the unit’s place of the next term, as in the series 2, 2, 4, 10, 16, already given, since the unit’s figure must always depend on the same figure in the first term of the series, and its first dif- ference 2 0 . g 2 4 6 10 6 . . whenever those two figures are the same, a similar period must reappear : now as there are only two figures concerned, they can only admit of 100 permutations, consequently, this is the greatest limit of the periods in such species of series.—In the one in question the period is comprised in ten terms. This reasoning may be extended to other forms of series in which higher differences are given in terms of the digits occurring in the unit’s, ten’s, or other places of uw, or w, 41 0F elsewhere, but I am aware that it does not in its present form present that de- gree of generality which ought to be expected on such a sub- ject: probably the attempt to solve directly that class of equa- tions to which these and similar inquiries lead, may be at- tended with more valuable results. As the term “ unit’s figure of” occurs frequently, it will be convenient to designate it by an abbreviation; that which I shall propose is the combination of the two initials, and I shall write the above equation of differences thus Au, = aUFu,.......... (a). This may be reduced to a more usual form by the following method. If S, represent the sum of the xth powers of unity, divided by ten; then of a New Class of Infinite Series. 265 OS, + 15.,,4+258,15435,,,4+45,,,+ 55,64 @ 6 S46 +7 S47 ae S.i8 see S49? will represent the figure which occurs in the unit’s place of any number 2: substituting w, instead of x, we have 1 ee 18 We 2 es _ as Ee tei IST F9% 535 (8). an equation in which w_ enters as an exponent. From the previous knowledge of the form of the general terms of the series we are considering, it would appear that the general solution of the equations (a) and () is u=9z+ceS +65 ..4+4S8 5+ 2 a baleteus where the constants must be determined from the conditions. In the further pursuit of any inquiries in this direction, much assistance may be derived by consulting a paper of Mr. Her- schel’s in the Philosophical Transactions for 1818, ** On cir- culating functions.” Amongst the conditions for determining the general terms of series by some relation amongst particular figures, there occurs a curious class, in which, if we consider only whole numbers, the series becomes impossible after a certain num- ber of terms. Let the equation determining u_ be Au, =1(UFu._,+ UF w,, ,). Then the following series conform to this law, Series. Diff. Series. Diff. Series. Diff. 1 3 4 6 ] 9 4 5 10 4 TORS 9 14 4 11 1 18 12 3 15 If the law is restricted to whole numbers, none of these series admit of any prolongation; nor have I, with that restriction, been able to discover any series of the kind possessing more than five terms. Devonshire Street, Portland Place, C. BABBAGE. March 29, 1824, Vol. 67. No. 336. April 1826. 2 L XLI. On [ 266 } XLI. On the Application of the Sliding Rod Measurement in Hydrometry. By Rosert Hare, M.D. Professor of Che- mistry in the University of Pennsylvania*. (THERE is, in my opinion, no mode of measuring fluids, heretofore contrived, so accurate and convenient, as that which I have employed in my eudiometers. I allude to the contrivance of a rod, or piston, sliding through a collar of leathers into a tube, and expelling from it any contained fluid, in quantities measured by degrees marked upon the rod; and ascertained, with additional accuracy, by means of a vernier. One of the most advantageous applications of the mechanism alluded to is, in ascertaining specific gravities, in the case either of liquids or solids. ‘To assay liquids which are not corrosive, I have employed two instruments like that represented in the following figure, severally graduated to 100 degrees, and fur- nished with a vernier, by which those degrees may be divided into tenths, and each scale made equivalent to 1000 parts. In order to avoid circumlocution, I shall, to the instrument here represented, give the name of Chyometer; from the Greek chuo, to pour, and meter, measure. Supposing two such instruments to be filled, to the extent of the graduation, one with pure water, the other with any spirituous liquid, lighter than water, whose gravity is to be. found ; let 1000 parts of the liquid be excluded into one scale of a beam, and then exclude into the other scale as much water as will balance it. Inspecting the graduation of the chyome- ter, from which the water has been expelled, the numbers ob- served will be the answer sought. For, supposing 1000 mea- sures of alcohol were placed in one scale, if S00 measures of * Communicated by the Author. water Prof. Hare on the Sliding Rod Measurement in Hydrometry. 267 water counterbalance it, the alcohol must be to the water in gravity as 800 to 1000; since it is self-evident, that when any two masses are made equal in weight, their gravities must be inversely as their bulks. To ascertain the Specific Gravity of a Solid, by the Chyometer. For this purpose, the body, whose gravity is in question, should be suspended in the usual way, beneath one of the ' scales of a balance, and its weight in parts of water, at 60° Fahr. ascertained, by measuring from the chyometer, into the oppo- site scale, as many parts as will balance the body. Being thus equipoised, and a vessel of pure water, at the same tempera- ture as that introduced by the chyometer, duly placed under it; the number of parts of water, competent exactly to cause it to be merged in this fluid, will be the weight of a quantity of water equivalent in bulk to the body. Of course, dividing by the number thus observed, the weight of the body in parts of water as previously found, the quotient will be the specific gravity. This process ought to be easily understood, since it differs from the usua] process only in using measures of water in- stead of the brass weights ordinarily employed. The chyometer enables us to make new weights, out of wa- ter, for each process. To ascertain the Specific Gravity of a Corrosive Fluid, by the Chyometer. The process described in the preceding page, is only appli~ cable where the fluid is not of a nature to act upon the sliding rod. By employing a body,—a glass bulb for instance,—ap- pended from a balance, as in the usual process, we may use water measured by the chyometer, in lieu of weights. First, having counterbalanced the body exactly, ascertain how many parts of water will cause it to sink in water; next, how many parts will cause it to sink in the liquid whose gra- vity is to be ascertained. The number last found, being di- vided by the first, the quotient is the specific gravity. Supposing that the graduation be made to correspond with the size of the bulb, so that 1000 parts of pure water will just sink the bulb in another portion of the same fluid; the pro- cess for any other liquid will be simply to ascertain how many arts of water will sink the bulb in it. "The number observed, will be the specific gravity; so that recourse to water, or to calculation, would be unnecessary. 2L2 To 268 Prot. Hare on the Application To find the Specific Gravity of a Mineral, without Calculation, ; and without Degrees. Fig. 2. WwW S J The preceding figure represents a balance employed in this process. It is in two respects more convenient than a com- mon balance. The moveable weight on one of the arms, ren- ders it easier to counterpoise bodies of various weights; and the adjustment of the index (I) by the screw (S) to the beam, saves the necessity of adjusting the beam to the index; the accurate accomplishment of which, by varying the weights, is usually a chief part of the trouble of weighing. One of the buckets, suspended from the beam, is five times as far from the fulcrum as the other. A chyometer is employed in this process, of which the fol- lowing figure will convey a correct idea. B The rod of this instrument is not graduated, but is provided with a band (B) which can be slipped along the rod, and fast- ened at any part of it by means of a screw. Let of the Sliding Rod Measurement in Hydrometry. 269 Let a mineral be suspended from the outer bucket, and ren- dered equiponderant with the counter-weight (W), by moving this further from or nearer to the fulcrum, so that the index point (1) may be exactly opposite the point of the beam. Place under the mineral a vessel of water, and add as much of this fluid to the bucket, by means of the chyometer, as will cause the immersion of the mineral. The band (B) which is made to slip upon the rod, should be so fastened, by means of the screw, as to mark the distance which the rod has entered, in expelling the water, requisite to sink the mineral. Having removed the vessel of water and the mineral, ascertain how many times the same quantity of water, which caused the im- mersion of the mineral, must be employed to compensate its removal. Adding to the number thus found, one for the water (pre- viously introduced into the bucket, in order to cause the im- mersion of the mineral), we have its specific gravity; so far as it may be expressed without fractions. When requisite, these may be discovered by means of the second bucket, which gives fifths for each measure of water; which, if added to the outer bucket, would be equivalent to a whole number, By the eye the distance is easily so divided, as to give half fifths or tenths. Or, the nearest bucket being hung one half nearer the ful- crum, the same measures will become tenths in the latter, which would be units, if added to the outer bucket. Rationale. The portion of the rod, marked off by the band, was evi- dently found competent, by its introduction into the tube of the chyometer, to exclude from the orifice a weight of water, adequate to counteract the resistance encountered by the mi- neral in sinking in water: consequently, to find the specific gravity of the mineral, we have only to find how often this weight (of water) will go into the weight of the mineral; or, what is the same effect, how often the former must be taken, in order to balance the Jatter. Indeed it must, otherwise, be sufficiently evident, that the mineral and the water being made equal in weight, their specific gravities must be inversely as their bulks, which are known by the premises. The inner bucket may be dispensed with, and greater frac- tional accuracy attained, by means of a sector, graduated into 100 parts. It is for this purpose that the sliding band, and the ferule at the but-end of the tube, are severally furnished with the points. The assistance of a sector is especially ap- plicable, where fluids are in question, since it is necessary to find their differences in thousandths. To 270 _ Prof. Hare on the Application To find the Specific Gravity of a Liquid, by the Sectoral Chyo- meter. Let a glass bulb (represented in fig. 2, under the buckets) be suspended from the outer bucket, and counterpoised. Let the situation of the beam be marked, by bringing the point of the index opposite to it. Let the tube of the chyometer be full of water, and the rod retracted, until stopped by an en- largement purposely made at its inner termination. Next.re- turn it into the tube, until as much water is projected into the bucket, as is just adequate to cause the immersion of the bulb. Let the band be fastened upon the rod, close to where it en- ters the tube, so as to mark the extent to which it may have entered. The rod must in the next place be drawn out from its tube, to its first position; and the sector so opened, as that the points may extend from 100 degrees on one leg to 100 upon the other. Leaving the sector thus prepared, place un- der the suspended ball, a vessel containing an adequate quan- tity of the fluid, whose gravity is required. If the fluid be lighter than water, in order to cause the immersion of the bulb in it, the rod will not have to enter so far, as at first. This distance being marked, by fixing the sliding cylinder, and the rod withdrawn from the tube as far as allowed by the stop, the number on each leg of the sector, with which the points will coincide, gives the gravity of the fluid. Forcing as much water into the bucket as had been sufficient to sink the bulb in wa- ter, will not sink it-in a heavier liquid; consequently, in the case of such liquids, it will be necessary to fill the chyometer a second time, and force as much more water from it, as may be sufficient to cause the immersion of the bulb. The sliding band being then fixed, and the points separated and applied to the sector as before, the number to which they extend must be added to the weight of water = 100, for the specific gravity of the fluid in question. : Small differences are better found by subtraction; as, for instance, suppose the specific gravity of the fluid were 101; after the small addition of water made to the bucket, beyond the 100 parts required for the immersion of the bulb in water (the band being unmoved), the points would extend from 99 on one leg to 99 on the other. ‘The difference between this number and 100, is then to be added to the weight of water ; so that the specific gravity is found to be 101. The angle made by the sectoral lines in using the same bulb and the same rod will always be the same. Hence, a stay may be employed to give the sector the requisite opening. Indeed, were liquids alone in question, an immoveable sec- toral of the Sliding Rod Measurement in Hydrometry, 271. toral scale would answer. Thus prepared, it were unneces- sary to have recourse to water, excepting in the first adjust- ment of the scale. The number of parts required to merge the bulb in any fluid, will reach (at once or twice) the number or numbers, on the sector, which give the required gravity. In this process if greater accuracy be desirable, it is only necessary to employ a smaller rod or a larger bulb. Instead of effecting an immersion by one stroke of the rod, it may be done by ten strokes, which will make each division of the sec- tor indicate a thousandth of the bulk of the bulb. The following process is, however, preferable, as the sector is made to give the answer in thousandths, without the delay of filling and emptying the chyometer more than once. _ Let the distance on the rod of the chyometer be ascertained ; which, when introduced five times successively, will exclude just water enough to overcome the resistance encountered by a globe, in sinking in that fluid. Let the sector be opened, to the distance so designated: let the globe be partially coun- terpoised, so as to float in any liquid heavier than 800. The apparatus being thus prepared, if the globe be placed in a li- quid, in which it floats, add as much water, from the chyo- meter to the scale, from which it hangs, as will sink it ; and, by means of the points and the sector, ascertain the value of the distance to which the rod has been introduced. Addin the numbers thus found to 800, the sum will be the specific gravity of the liquid. For this process the sector should be divided into 200 parts ; and the proper opening being once duly ascertained, should be preserved by means of an arc like that attached to common beam compasses. Instead of a globe, a hydrometer surmounted with a cup, may be employed, either with a graduated or a sectoral chyo~ meter. Before taking leave of the reader, it may be proper to ex- plain the use of the square dish, which may be seen to the left under the beam (fig. 5). The are of wire is for the purpose of suspending the dish tothe hook, in place of the outer bucket. When so suspended, filled with water, and duly balanced, it will be found soon to become sensibly lighter, in consequence of the evaporation of the water. By means of the chyometer, it is easy to ascertain the different quantities evaporated, in similar times, at different periods, and in different places; so that, guarding against the effect of aérial currents, hydrome- trical observations may be made with great accuracy. In lieu of having points attached to the chyometer, as re- presented in the figure, it may be as convenient to have i sma 272 On the Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus. small holes, for the insertion of the points of a pair of com- passes, either of the common kind, of the construction used by clock-makers, or that which is known under the name of beam compasses. The compasses may be used to regulate the opening of the sector, or to ascertain by the aid of that instrument, the com- parative value of the distances which the rod of the chyometer © has to be introduced into its tube. In order to convey an idea of the nature of the sector to any reader who may be unacquainted with it, I trust it will be suf- ficient to point out, that its construction is similar to that of the foot-rule used by carpenters. We have only to suppose such a rule, covered with brass, and each leg graduated into 200 equal parts, in order to have an adequate conception of the instrument employed by me. A more particular explanation.of the principle of the sector, may be found in any Encyclopaedia, or Dictionary of Mathe-’ matics. XLII. On the Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus dis- covered in the Lias at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, in the Collection: of His Grace the Duke of Buckingham. ) HE plate (III.) given in our present Number, represents a nearly perfect skeleton of the Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus, described by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, F.R.S. &c. in a me- moir given at p. 412 of our 65th volume. The drawing from which the original plate in the Geological Transactions was engraved was executed with extreme care by Mr. Webster. The several parts are described in the memoir. ** The bones are entirely imbedded in a matrix of lias shale, which, though intersected in several places by lines of fracture, has evidently, from the mutual adaptation of the parts, formed one entire mass. Above twenty of the cervical vertebrae con- nected with the head, lie together unbroken. ‘* We have omitted to state in the memoir, that a second unbroken specimen of the entire vertebral column, from the head to the tail, was found at the same time and place with the one here represented ; and has been presented by Professor Buckland to the museum at Oxford.”— Trans. Geol. Soc. Sec. Ser. vol. i. [See a delineation of the Skeleton conjecturally restored in Plate III. vol. lxv.] XLIII. Note ad Peers 7 XLII. Note on the Genus Condylura of Illiger. By J. D. Gopman, M.D.* S several very interesting external characters peculiar to the Condylura cristata have been entirely overlooked by those who have heretofore written on this subject, the object of this Note is to supply the deficiency as far as possible, es- pecially as these characters may be very serviceable in enabling us to compare the present genus with some others. The Condylura cristata is destitute of an auricle projecting above the level of the skin, but is, nevertheless, provided with an extremely large external ear, as we may properly consider all that part which is entirely exterior to the tympanum and skull. The meatus externus is half an inch long, having a distinctly marked tragus and anti-tragus, and is situated at a short distance from the shoulder, in the broad triangular fold of integument connecting the fore-arm and head, and may be very easily missed by those who merely examine stuffed skins, or specimens preserved in spirits. From the meatus, the course of the cartilaginous tube is obliquely downwards, for- wards, and inwards, until it terminates in a delicate bony tube, previous to reaching the tympanum, which is large and com- posed of a very delicate membrane. The scales on the anterior and posterior extremities have been mentioned in general terms by several writers, especially by Desmarest, who has given the best description of the ani- mal that has yet appeared. But these scales are so peculiar and uniform in their position, that I cannot understand how a naturalist could pass over the particulars of their arrange- ment in silence. On the anterior extremities the superior or ulnar edge of the hand has on its anterior surface, (regarding the position of the animal, ) a row of corneous scales, about nine in number, which are broadest midway from the carpus to the first pha- lanx of the fifth finger. Another row of scales commences on the inferior part of the back of the little finger, becoming broader and of a semilunar figure as they extend towards the metacarpus, between these two a much smaller row is placed. The fourth finger has a single row of small scales on its upper posterior side, and a large one extending along the back of the finger to the metacarpus; the middle finger has a small central row, which is distinguishable ; that on the fore finger is still more faint ; the thumb has none but very small ones on its central posterior part, but on its inferior posterior part, or * From Journal of Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia, vol. v. p. 109. Vol. 67. No. 336. April 1826. 2M radial 274 Dr. Godman’s Note on the Genus Condylura of Illiger. radial edge, it has one scale of considerable size on the pha- lanx, and four or five between this part and the carpus; the two nearest the scale on the phalanx are largest. The surface of the palm of the hand is covered with small circular scales, extending most numerously, and of a darker colour, from opposite the root of the thumb obliquely outward to the hasis of the little finger. On the inferior extremities, the whole of the superior sur- face of the foot is covered with minute, blackish, circular scales, which increase slightly in size as they approach the toes. On the anterior part of the fourth toe is a large central row of black scales, and on the fifth a rather smaller one; hence these toes have a very considerable resemblance to the toes of a bird. The other toes of the hind foot being applied with their anterior surfaces to the ground, have the scales very minute and almost colourless. The colour of the scales varies on different parts of the hand. On so much of the back of the hand as is formed by the fourth and little fingers, the scales are very dark blue, approaching a black, in the living animal ; thence to the large scales of the thumb the colour changes to a faint purplish blue, which is little more than distinguishable. Two other excellent characters belonging to the palm of the hand have been neglected: the first is the enlargement of the carpal edge of the palm by an elongation of the integuments ; this, in addition to the row of bristles that margins all the rest of the palm, has two distinct bristly hairs at its superior and inferior edge, more than }th of an inch long. The second cha- racter is still more striking; it is a process of the palmar cu- ticle on the superior edge of the thumb and three succeeding fingers. ‘These processes are serrated and directed obliquely upwards and outwards; the serrations on the thumb being two, and on the three succeeding fingers three in number. On the soles of the (posterior) feet another character is found, which consists of five circular, distinct spots, so ar- ranged that the two nearest the body are parallel with each other, opposite the commencement of the first toe, counting as in the human subject, from the one nearest the median line of the body; the superior spot is nearly in a line with the fourth toe, and larger and darker coloured than the inferior; the two succeeding spots (nearer the extremity of the toes) are also parallel with each other; the exterior one is largest of all these plantar scales, and placed nearly over the extremity of the metatarsal of the fourth toe; the inferior spot is nearly over the root of the second toe; the fifth or single scale is placed in advance of all the rest, and is situated immediately over Dr. Godman’s Note on the Genus Condylura of Illiger. 275 over the centre and behind the separation of the third and fourth toes. A very analogous arrangement may be observed in the sole of the feet of the Szgmodon hispidum of Ord. By comparing the Condylura with the Scalops, we are led to several interesting observations. We have seen that the Condylura has a remarkable and large external ear, though it is destitute of a projecting auricle. ‘The Scalops has neither auricle nor meatus externus opening on the side of the head, as the skin of the head extends over the cartilaginous tube, which is small, and a simple funnel. The situation of the ear is to be discovered externally only by a very small spot, not larger than the circumference of an ordinary pin head. The hand of the Scalops is peculiar for its great breadth and strength: the extraordinary breadth is produced by an additional metacarpal bone, inferior or external to the thumb, articulated with the carpus, and having a tendon for moving it from the common flexor of the fingers*. On the superior or ulnar edge of the hand there is a cartilaginous additament, connected: with the little finger by atendon. The Condylura has the additional metacarpal bone, but rather like a rudi- ment, and has not the cartilaginous additament at the superior edge of the hand; hence the very great difference in breadth in the hands of the two genera. ‘The Scalops has a slight process or elongation, not at the carpal extremity of the palm, but on the inferior or outer edge of the supplementary bone. If we compare the Scalops and Condylura with the de- scription of Talpa europea, the resemblance will be found greater between the Condylura and Talpa in regard to the ears and eyes. If we compare the hands and nose, we shall find that the Scalops approximates more closely to the Euro- pean genus; nevertheless, the affinity of neither is so strong as to endanger their being confounded with Talpa, if we were to judge from external characters alone+. Of the genus Condylura I believe after a patient examina- tion, and obtaining specimens from various localities, that most probably there is no other species in this country than * This structure resembles that of the Talpa europea; but as that species does not exist in this country, I have not been able to obtain a recent spe- cimen for comparison. + 1am happy to state from actual and repeated observation, that it is the Scalops which in this country forms the “mole-hills,’ similar to those thrown up by the Talpa europea. As far as I can ascertain, no such cir- cumstance has yet been remarked relative to the burrowing of the Condy- lura. In a forthcoming work on American Natural History, a full account will be given of my observations on the habits of the Scalops and Condy- lura, 2M2 the 276 Dr. Godman’s Note on the genus Condylura of Illiger. - the cristata*. ‘The only evidence of the existence of a longi- caudata is that given by Pennant, who describes it without reference to the nasal rays. It is on this indication that Gmelin, Lliger, and Desmarest have allowed of the species, the latter author with very strong doubts, which Ranzani re- peats. From Pennant’s figure I feel convinced that his Jon- gicaudata was a stuffed and dried specimen of the Condylura cristata, having the nasal radii shrunk and distorted. A spe- cimen in this condition I have now in my possession, and it might readily be taken for the longicaudata, figured by Pen- nant. The Condylura cristata is subject at certain seasons to a very, remarkable enlargement of the tail, varying from the smallest or most ordinary size to the thickness of the little finger. This circumstance was long since made known to many of his friends by Mr. Titian Peale, who found one of the largest size: since then I have found one, and examined several others, and both Messrs. Say and Bonaparte confirm this observation by other examinations: all the specimens yet examined having the tail thus enlarged, were males ; and it is most probable that the enlargement occurs only during the rutting season. Messrs. Say and Peale both suggested to me a long time since, that the differences heretofore serving for the establishment of the longicaudata as a distinct species, were merely sexual. In all other respects the species of Con- dylura found are invariable in their external characters, if we except a single.specimen obtained by my friend, Titian Peale, which may prove to be a new species, should he find other specimens with the same character, for which purpose he defers his observations. It is certainly an extremely desirable circumstance that we should rid the American Fauna of a great number of merely nominal species, which never had existence unless in the imagination of their authors: to this end the labours of American naturalists should be directed, as it is a great advance towards true knowledge to disencum- ber ourselves of error. It is well known that the appearance from which TIlliger named the genus, was an extravagant exaggeration of Dela- faille, who represented it in his plate as having numerous knots or strangulations on the tail. Desmarest’s figure is also incorrect in relation to the tail; he having figured it from a * A late number of the United States Literary Gazette contained an annunciation of a newly discovered species of this genus, by Dr. Harris, of Milton. From a description given by this gentleman in a letter to a distin- guished naturalist of Philadelphia, we are satisfied that the supposed new animal is the well known Condylura cristata. dried Mr. Groombridge on the Opposition of the Minor Planets. 277 dried specimen; in the recent state, the knetted appearance is not distinguishable: he has also drawn it with the palms turned nearly to the earth, instead of placing them with the thumbs to the ground and the palms presenting backwards. In the recent English translation of Baron Cuvier’s Régne Animal, Desmarest’s figure is copied, but is rendered vastly more incorrect and unnatural than it is in the original. Note.—In my Note on the genus Condylura recently pub- lished, it is stated that the Scalops has the integuments con- tinued over the cartilaginous tube leading to the internal ear. I lately had an opportunity of examining several fine speci- mens, and have found the very small meatus auditorius ex- ternus, which will admit a body of the size of a common pin. It is by no means easily discovered, and is situated about three-fourths of an inch behind the eye, nearly over the ante- rior part of the shoulder joint. XLIV. On the Opposition of the Minor Planets. By SvEPHEN GroomprincE, Esg. . BS. &c. &c. HAVING computed the apparent places. of these planets about the time of their respective oppositions in pre- — ceding years, from elements which required correction in the mean epoch of longitude on the orbit; particularly in Pallas, whose mean diurnal tropical motion had been assumed too great a quantity: I have now corrected their elements from the observations made at Greenwich in the last year; and the following Ephemeris will show their apparent places at mid- night for 1826, Dist. from Opposition. Anomaly. ©O=1 Pallas... June 23d at 175 28'| 329°26'| 2-563 Ceres... June 28th 23 59 311 16 1886 Vesta... August 18th 15 20 | 256 35 | 1°291 Juno ... November Ist 10 23 | 166 19 | 1°023 Pallas will appear very faint, being so distant from the earth; but Vesta and Juno pene in the lower part of their orbits, will appear as stars of 6th and 7th magnitude. Blackheath, April 19, 1826, S. GROOMBRIDGE. Ephemeris 278 Mr.Groombridge on the Opposition of the Minor Planets. Ephemeris at Midnight. PALLAS. 1826. R Dec. N. ’ ar ° , May 31 |18 24 ~ 23 84 June 1 Mr. Groombridge on the Opposition of the Minor Planets. 279 Ephemeris at Midnight. VESTA. JUNO. 1826. R Dec. S. | 1826. R Dec. N. iia h ' " ° ! 5 a: ° ! 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Report made to the Academy of Sciences, 22d of August 1825, on the Voyage of Discovery, performed in the Years 1822, 1823, 1824, and 1825, under the command of M. Durrrrey, Lieutenant of the Navy. (Commissioners: MM. pr Humpo tpt, Cuvirr, Desrontaines, CorpiEr, LatreiLue, DE Rossei; and Araco, Reporter.) [Continued from p. 210.] Magnetism. "THE phzenomena of terrestrial magnetism, in spite of more than a century of researches, are still enveloped in great obscurity. M. Duperrey was occupied upon them, during the whole of his voyage, with the most persevering attention, both when at sea and when in various ports. He journals contain a multitude of observations of declination, inclination, intensity, and diurnal variations of the declination, made ac- cording to the best methods. The Commission is of opinion that by here presenting a rapid sketch of the advancement which science may expect from this great work, it will fulfill the intentions of the Academy. _ There exists, as is well known, on the globe, a curve along which the magnetic needle maintains a horizontal position. This curve, which has received the name of the magnetic equator, has been lately the object of the investigations of MM. Hans- teen and Morlet. Although these two philosophers have used the same data, yet on some points they have arrived at results slightly different. In the chaft of the learned Norwe- gian, as well as in that of our countryman, the magnetic equa- tor is, entirely, to the south of the terrestrial equator, between Africa and America. The greatest distance of these two curves in latitude, corresponds to about 25° of west longitude: it is of 13° or 14°. In the first chart we find a node (nceud)in Africa, at 22° of east longitude ; the second places it 4° more to the west. According to Messrs. Hansteen and Morlet, if we proceed from this node advancing to the side of the Indian sea, the line of no dip swerves rapidly towards the north of the terrestrial equator, quits Africa a little to the south of Cape Guardafui, and comes in the Arabian sea to its absolute maximum of northern excursion (about 12°), at 62° east longitude. Between this meridian and the 174th degree of longitude, the line of no dip constantly keeps in the northern hemisphere. It cuts the Indian penin- sula a little to the north of Cape Comorin; crosses the Gulf of Bengal slightly approaching the terrestrial equator from which it is only 8° apart at the entrance of the Gulfof Siam; then remounts Report of the Voyage of the Coquille. 284 remounts a trifle to the north; nearly touches the northern point of Borneo; crosses the isle Paragua, the strait which se- parates the southernmost of the Philippines from the island of Mindanao, and under the meridian of Waigiou is again found at 9° of north latitude. From thence, after having passed through the archipelago of the Carolines, the magnetic equator descends rapidly towards the terrestrial equator, and cuts it, according to Morlet, at 174°; and according to Hansteen, at 187° of east longitude. There is much less un- certainty respecting the position of a second node also situated in the Pacific Ocean: its west longitude should be about 120°: but whilst the researches of M. Morlet have led him to admit that the magnetic equator, after having merely touched the terrestrial equator, immediately inclines towards the south, M. Hansteen supposes that this curve passes into the northern hemisphere for a space of about 15° of longitude, and then returns again to cut the equinoctial line at 23° distance from the western coast of America. In fine, not to exaggerate this discordance, we ought to say that in its northern excursion, Hansteen’s curve without dip does not depart from the ter- restrial equator more than one degree and a half, and that, de- finitively, this line, and that of M. Morlet, are nowhere at two degrees distance one from the other in the direction of the parallels of latitude. These different results belong to the magnetic equator of the year 1780. Have there happened, since then, any re- markable changes, either in the form of this curve, or in the position of its nodes? We do not doubt that the labours of M. Duperrey, united to the excellent observations of M. Frey- cinet, may fully clear up this question; your commissioners must confine themselves here to laying before you what they have been able to deduce from a first view. p The Coquille has crossed the magnetic equator six times. Two of the points whose position she thus directly deter- mined are situated in the Atlantic Ocean at 27° 19! 22" and 14° 20' 15" west longitude, and 12° 27! 11" and 9° 45! 0" of south latitude. In M. Morlet’s map the latitudes of the oints of the line of no dip answering to 27°} and 14°3 west lreicituile: are respectively 14° 10! and 11° 36!. The line with- out inclination seems then, at the first point, to have come nearer to the terrestrial equator by 1° 43', and at the meridian of the second, by 1° 51'.. M. Hansteen’s chart gives very nearly the same differences. In the South Sea, near the coast of America, M. Duperrey found, first in going from Callao to Payta, and afterwards during his navigation between Payta and the Society Islands, Vol. 67. No. 336. April 1826. 2N two 282 Report of the Voyage of Discovery two points of the magnetic equator, of which the co-ordinates are: Long. 83° 38! W. Lat. 7° 45! S. Long. 85° 46’ W. Lat. 6° 18! S. In the charts of MM. Hansteen and Morlet, the latitudes are about one degree Jess. Here the difference is in a con- trary direction to that which we found in the Atlantic Ocean: towards the coasts of Peru, the magnetic equator seems then to have become more distant from the terrestrial equator. Let us, lastly, proceed to the two points determined directly during the circumnavigation of the Coquille, in the northern part of the line of no dip. M. Duperrey has found for their co-ordinates :. Long. 170° 37’ 24" E. Lat. 0° 53! N. Long. 145° 2’ 38" EK. Lat. 7° O'N. These latitudes are Jess on the charts which represent the equator of 1780. In the part of the equinoctial ocean corre- sponding to the Carolines and to the Mulgrave Islands, the line of no dip seems now, notwithstanding, to remove from the terrestrial equator. Variations apparently so contradictory, will notwithstanding admit of a very simple explanation, even without its being ne- cessary to admit a change of form in the magnetic equator, provided we suppose that this curve is endowed with a trans- latory movement, which, from year to year, transports it pro- gressively and in mass from the east to the west. From 1780 to the present period, this retrogradation of the nodes, in order that the numerical value of the change observed in the lati- tudes may be deduced from it, should hardly be below 10°. If the rapidity of this change of position be looked upon as an objection, we would remark that the direct observations of the position of the nodes lead very nearly to the same results. M. Duperrey has found, in fact, a node of the curve at about 172° east longitude: on M. Hansteen’s map this node is placed at the 184th degree. In the South Sea, the tangent node of M. Morlet, and thetwo nodes of M. Hansteen are found between the 108th and the 126th degree of west longitude. Very ex- - act observations made on board the Uranie, in 1819, and which M. Freycinet has had the goodness to communicate to us, carry this node as far as the 132d degree of longitude. Indeed we find, in a work by Captain Sabine, published only a few weeks since by order of the British Board of Longitude, an observation which shows in a manner no less evident that the point of intersection of the two equators, which was situated in Africa, in the interior of the continent, and pretty far from the coast in 1780, has advanced from the east to the west made in the Coquille by M. Duperrey. 283 west as far as the Atlantic Ocean. The observation of which we have been speaking was made at the Portuguese island of St. Thomas. Captain Sabine found indeed, in 1822, for the value of the dip, 0° 4’ S. The magnetic equator then actually passes by this island, the latitude of which is 24! N., or some minutes only more to the west. Its point of inter- section with the terrestrial equator is about 5° of east longi- tude, whilst, according to the observations of 1780, MM. Morlet and Hansteen have placed it at least 13° more to the east. According to these several approximations, the existence of a translatory movement in the magnetic equator is very probable. M. Morlet had already pointed it out, but with the proper doubt which measures of the dip obtained without change of the poles of the needle justly excited in his mind. In this re- spect we can now obtain complete certainty in investigating under the same point of view the whole of the observations on the dip made in the open sea in the equinoctial regions. The journals kept on board the Uranie and the Coquille include all the elements of these researches, in our opinion one of the most important that can now be undertaken on the phezeno- mena of terrestrial magnetism, It would appear, in short, that it is the form and position of the line of no dip, which determines from one pole to the other, in what direction, in every place, the annual variations of the magnetic needle shall manifest themselves. This conjecture, inasmuch as there is question of change of inclination, is to be found in the inter- esting memoir of M. Morlet, which the Academy some years ago honoured with its approbation. Ifthe appellation of mag- netic latitude of a point be given to the angular distance from this point to the line without dip, measured on the magnetic meridian considered as a great circle, we shall find in general, according to M. Morlet, that the inclination of the needle dz- minishes, where the translatory movement of the equator tends to diminish the magnetic latitude; and that it zncreases, on the contrary, every where where the magnetic latitude e- comes greater. Some places, such as New Holland, Teneriffe, &c. seem notwithstanding to form an_exception to it. The observations collected in the voyages of the Uranie and Co- quille have enabled us to submit this rule to a greater number cof verifications, and to learn that it agrees with experience in a very remarkable manner, even in the stations which M. Mor- let had excepted. We see in this manner that if the south inclination increases rapidly at St. Helena, whilst the north inclination diminishes rapidly at Ascension, it is because in its translatory movement, the magnetic equator, which is consi- 2N2 derably 284 Report of.the Voyage of Discovery derably removed from the first of these islands, approaches, on the contrary, the second, which it will even reach in a few years. The magnetic meridian of the Cape, produced to- wards the north, passes at a little distance from one of the nodes towards the west: hence the inclination must rapidly increase there; and this is what the observations of Cook, of Bayly, of King, of Vancouver, and of Freycinet, also show. At Otaheite, Bayly, Wales, and Cook found, in 1773, 1774, and 1777, a dip of the needle of about 30°; M. Duperrey de- duces from his observations 30° 36’; the annual change then is nearly insensible: but the magnetic meridian of Otaheite also meets the line without dip very near to its maximum of latitude; that is to say, in a point where this curve is nearly parallel to the terrestrial meridian. ‘The rapid change of dip at Conception in Chili, deduced from the comparison of the observations of Malaspina and of M. Duperrey; the inconsi- derableness, on the contrary, of this motion at the Sandwich Islands, which seems to us to result from the observations of Bayly, Cook, Vancouver, and M. Freycinet, present a no less striking confirmation of the rule. If an exact investigation of the observations on the hori- zontal needle showed, what at first sight appears to be the case, that in each place the changes of variation may also be connected with the position of the magnetic equator, the study of the motion of this curve would acquire a new import- ance. It is an inquiry of which MM. Freycinet and Du- perrey possess all the elements, and which appears to us worthy of occupying their attention. We shall content our- selves here with remarking, that it results from the observa- tions of these two officers, compared with those of Cook and Vancouver, that the declination, whether at Otaheite, to the south of the two equators, or at the Sandwich Islands, in a northern latitude, is still as little variable as the dip. The maritime expedition of the Uranie is the first during which the diurnal oscillations of the horizontal magnetic needle were studied. The valuable observations published by M. Frey- cinet have established in an incontestible manner, that between the tropics the extent of this oscillation is sensibly less than in our climates. It would also appear that we may infer that in the southern hemisphere, whatever be the direction of the dip, the northern extremity of the needle moves towards the east at the same hour when we see it in Europe vary to- wards the west. This fact, in its turn, led to the consequence, that between Europe and the regions where M. Freycinet’s observations were made, points must be found in which the varia- tion would be absolutely nothing. There remained only to de- termine made in the Coquille by M. Duperrey. | 285 termine whether these p oints belonged to the magnetic equator or the terrestrial equator. The second supposition could hardly bereconciled with the existence ofa diurnal variation of from three to fourminutes at Rawack: for this port, situated in the country of the Papous, is only in 0° 1'4 south latitude. Nevertheless it seemed desireable, in order to dissipate all uncertainty, that the pheenomenon should be observed between the two equators. Such was the principal object of the stay of M. Duperrey at Payta. In this city, situated to the north of the magnetic equator and to the south of the terrestrial equator, the northern extremity of the needle observed with a microscope moved, as in Europe, from east to west, from eight o’clock in the morning till.noon. ‘This angular deviation is very small; but its direction, respecting which the observations leave no un- certainty, would seem to authorise the conclusion, that all along the magnetic equator the horizontal needle is not sub- ject to diurnal variations. In other stations situated like Payta,—at the Isle of Ascension, for example,—we have never- theless been abie to see that this inference would have been premature. The phznomenon is more complex than would be imagined. Perhaps the changes in the declination of the sun, which in Europe occasion such great variations in the extent of the diurnal oscillations, produce, according to the seasons under the tropics, motions of the needle in an inverse direction. Further observations made in months and places suitably chosen will remove these doubts. It appears to us also, that it would be very useful for the Acadeiny, from this time, to recommend this inquiry in a particular manner to the attention of navigators, especially if, as is announced, a new expedition for discovery is soon to sail from our ports. To terminate this article, the length of which we hope will be excused, we have yet to add that M. Duperrey has given all his attention to the experiments from which may be de- duced the comparative intensities of terrestrial magnetism in various places, and that he is also engaged in making obser- vations proper for giving the corrections of which the mag- netic elements obtained at sea are susceptible. It has ap- peared to us that in general these corrections will be very in- considerable. Meteorology. Meteorology will have been enriched by the expedition of the Coquille, from a journal in which, for thirty-one months in succession and without there being one exception, were noted six times a day the state of the atmosphere, its temperature, its pressure, and the temperature of the sea. While lying-to for example, at Payta; at Waigiou, under the terrestrial equa- tor ; 286 Report of the Voyage of Discovery tor; at the Isle of France, at St. Helena, at Ascension, be- tween the tropics ; our navigators had the incredible patience to observe the thermometer and the barometer at every quarter of an hour, day and night, for whole weeks. So much pains, will not be lost; observations so minutely exact, so detailed will furnish valuable data on the law which connects cor- responding atmospheric temperatures with the different hours of the day; on the value of the diurnal and nocturnal baro- metric period; on the hours of the maxima and the mi- nima, &c. ‘Thanks to the extreme complaisance of M. Del- cros, (a very distinguished geographical engineer, ) in going at the request of one of us, to ‘loulon,—in order to compare the instruments of the Coquille with a barometer which belongs to him, and which has agreed for several years with that of the Observatory,—we shall be able to decide that which indeed is scarcely any longer a question, since the observations of MM. Boussingault and Riviero have been received in Europe, whether the mean pressure of the atmosphere be the same in all climates. bites Since the celebrated voyages of Cook, no one any longer doubts that the southern hemisphere is in mass decidedly colder than the northern;—but at what distance from the equinoctial regions does the difference begin to be felt? Ac- cording to what law does it become greater in proportion as the latitude augments ? When these questions shall have been completely resolved, the various causes to which this great phzenomenon has been attributed may be submitted to an ex- act investigation. Already the stay of M. Duperrey at the Malouines, will show that by 51°4 of latitude, the difference of climate is very great. We see, in effect, that at the anchor- age of the Bate Francaise, from the 19th to the 30th of No- vember 1822, the mean temperatures of the atmosphere and of the sea were respectively : . Les + 8°°O and + 8° 2 Cent. The month following, from the 1st to the 18th, we found : + 10° 0 and + 9° 4, We can then adopt + 9°: 0 Cent. for the mean temperature of the Malouines, in the thirty days which precede the sum- mer solstice of these regions. London is precisely under the latitude of Baie Frangaise. Then the mean tempera- ture of the twelve last days of May, and of the eighteen first days of June, according to the tables published by the Royal Society, is about 15° Cent. : that is, 6° more than at the Malouines. The inquiry respecting the direction and swiftness of cur- rents merits in the highest degree the attention of naviga- tors. of be -made in the Coquille by M. Duperrey. 287 tors. Meteorological observations are not less. adapted to ac- celerate the progress of this important branch of the nau- tical art, than the method generally employed by mariners, and which consists in comparing latitudes and longitudes as- tronomically determined, with the corresponding latitudes and longitudes deduced from the observation of the compass and the log. The waters of a certain region, when they are transported by a current into a region more or less approaching to the equator, lose in the passage only a part of their former tem- perature. The ocean is thus furrowed by a great number of streams of warm and cold water, whose existence the thermo- meter manifests, and points out in a certain degree their direc- tion. Every one knows the researches of Franklin, of Blag- den, of Williams, and of Humboldt, on the equinoctial current, which, after being turned back in the Gulf of Mexico, after having issued out through the strait of Bahama, moves from the south to the north, at a certain distance from the eastern coast of America, and proceeds, under the name of the Gulf- Stream, to temper the climate of Ireland, of the Shetland Isles, and of Norway. At the other extremity of this vast con- tinent, along the coasts of Chili and of Peru, a rapid current from south to north carries on the other hand as far as Callao the cold waters of Cape Horn and of the Straits of Magellan. The anomalous temperature of the ocean, in the port of Lima, was remarked as far back as the sixteenth century. Acosta, indeed, says (lib. ii. cap. 2. pag. 70), that liquors may be cooled at Calloa by plunging them in the sea water; but it was M. de Humboldt who first proved, by exact experiments, that this accidental temperature is the effect, in a great degree at least, of a southern current, whose limit is Cape. Blanc: more to the north, in the Gulf of Guayaquil, he found no traces of it. The numerous observations collected in the Coquille, either during its navigation along the coasts of Chili and Peru, or during its stay at Conception, at Lima, and at Payta, will fur- nish important data relative to this curious phenomenon. At Payta, for example, the temperature of the air was in general 5, 6, ‘and even sometimes 7° Cent. above that of the sea. The mean difference of these temperatures, determined by thirteen days observations in the month of March, rises to 5°: during the stay at Callao, a difference was also found in the same direction; but it is less than at Payta, which perhaps would not have been expected. The journals kept in all the other ports, that of Conception in Chili excepted, do not pre- sent any thing similar: the water and the atmosphere on an average 288 Report of the Voyage of Discovery average of ten days observations give very nearly the same degree. The consideration of the absolu¢e temperatures would fur- nish a proof not less certain of the existence of this current of cold water. At the port of Callao, from the 26th of February to the 4th of March, the mean temperatures of the air and of the sea were respectively 21°°3 and 19°°1. Cent. At sea, at 800 leagues from the coasts, under the same latitude, as also under a higher latitude, they found, from the 7th to the 10th of April, 25°-9 and 25°°6. At Payta, from the 10th to the 22d of March, the mean temperatures of the air and water which we deduce from the journals of the Coquille are 25°*1 and 20°°0. Here the current no longer exercises, as it appears, a very great influence on the temperature of the at- mosphere near the coast; but it is still 6 or 7 degrees colder than the ocean at a similar latitude in all other parts of the sea. ; We applied ourselves to this investigation of some of the meteorological observations made by M. Duperrey, in order to show how desirable it would be that they should be printed entire; the physical sciences and even the nautical art would derive great advantage from this. May it also be permitted us, in closing this article, to express the regret which we have felt, in not finding in such rich and valuable journals, some observations of the temperature of the sea at great depths. This inquiry, so directly connected with that of the existence of submarine currents, would nevertheless not have retarded the sailing of the Coquille a quarter of an hour, since in ge- neral it would have sufficed to have attached a thermometer to the deep-sea-lead every time it was thrown into the sea. If experiments so interesting were completely neglected by M. Duperrey and his fellow-labourers, it is almost needless to say that it was only because the means of making them with exactitude were wanting. ‘There was not indeed on board the corvette one of those ingenious thermometers which mark by indexes the maxima and minima of temperature to which they have been exposed. An expedition for discovery seldom leaves our ports with- out the Academy being consulted by the public authorities, even without their requiring it, to prepare the instructions for the commander. We think that it would contribute in a manner not less efficacious to the progress of the sciences, if it caused to be prepared before-hand, by the most skilful artists, some of the philosophical instruments which the na- vigators might want. If the Academy, as we hope, shall deign to Notices respecting New Books. 289 to give effect to the proposition which we haye had the honour to make, it will for the future not have to remark any omission in the labours which may be laid before it: and this arrange- ment will contribute to diffuse the spirit of research and the taste for accuracy, amongst that rising generation, full of talent and of zeal, with which our ports abound. [To be continued.] XLVI. Notices respecting New Books. Remarks on the Cultivation of the Silk Worm ; with additional Observations, made in Italy, during the summer of 1825. By John Murray, F.S.A., F.L.S. Glasgow, 1825 pp. 29. HE substance of this useful tract formed an article in the Edinburgh Journal of Science, No. III.; and the author has now made various additions to it, embracing the most material parts of Count Dandolo’s work on his improved cul- ture of the silk worm. In an appendix, an account is given of the chemical nature of silk, &c., and some particulars of the history of its use in the manufacture of clothing, together with an outline of its preparation for that purpose, as now practised in Italy. Descriptive Account of a Shower Bath, constructed on a princi- ple not hitherto applied to that machine ; to which is added, that of an apparatus for restoring suspended animation ; and an invention for forming a line of communication in ship- wreck; and a fire-escape, in cases of fire. By the same Author. Glasgow, 1826. In Mr. Murray’s shower bath, the column of water in the vase above is supported by the resisting atmosphere; and the superiority of his improvement consists, in the numerous repe- titions which may be made from the same supply of water :— The intervals may be shortened or prolonged at pleasure, while the duration of each is under the complete control of the patient, and the water may be suffered to fall in a continued shower of any required division of the streams, attenuating even toa gentle dew. Just Published. The Zoological Journal, No. viii. completing the second volume: conducted by Thomas Bell, Esq. F.L.S., J. G. Chil- dren, Esq. F.R. & L.S., J. D. C. Sowerby, Esq. F.L.S., and G. B. Sowerby, Esq. F.L.S. Also No. II. of Supplementary Plates to the Zoological Journal. Treatise on Clock and Watch Making, theoretical and gt Sold By Thomas Reid, Edinburgh, Hon. Mem. of the orshipful Company of Clockmakers, London. Vol. 67. No. 336. April 1826. 20 XLVII. Pro- [ 290 ] XLVII. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. April6.— A PAPER was read On observations made with an invariable pendulum at Greenwich, and at Port Bowen; by Lieut H. Forster, R.N., F.R.S. April 13.—The following papers were read: On the diurnal variation of the needle at Port Bowen; by Capt. W. E. Parry, R.N., F.R.S., and Lieut. H. Forster, R.N., F.R.S. On the dip of the needle at different latitudes between Woolwich and Port Bowen; by Lieut. Forster. On the magnetism imparted to iron by rotation; by the same: with remarks by S. H. Christie, Esq. M.A., F.R.S. April 20.—A paper was read On a formula expressing the decrement of human life ; by Thomas Young, M.D. For. Sec. LINNZAN SOCIETY. April 4.—The following papers were read :—On dichoto- mous and quinary arrangements in Natural History ; by Hen. Thos. Colebrooke, Esq. F.R.S. F.L.S. &c. The learned author states that what has been called the dichotomous arrangement of nature can only be represented on a superficies: whereas the affinities of natural objects ramify in every direction, and cannot therefore be correctly repre- sented on a plane surface. He then shows that that distribu- tion which, taking one central or interior group, makes only a few equidistant exterior ones, is necessarily quinary. The centres of the exterior groups will represent the solid angles of a tetrahedron within a sphere of which the centre is the middle point in the interior group.-—He finally observes, that although the tendency to a quinary arrangement in natural history has hitherto been chiefly developed in zoology, yet the same principle may be recognised in botany. Also a communication, by the same author, On Boswellia, and certain Indian Terebinthacee. Mr. Colebrooke is of opi- nion that the three genera Amyris, Icica, and Bursera require to be thrown together and recast: the whole group com- prising nearly. 40 species, several of which are unpublished. Among those described are Boswellia serrata, Bursera serrata, Chalcas nitida, Amyris heptaphylla, A. punctata, Bergera in- tegerrima, and B. Kenigiz. April 18.—A large collection of the plants of Nepal was presented from the East India Company. The papers read were a continuation of Mr.Colebrooke’s on Boswellia, and cer- tain Indian Terebinthacee ;—and observations on a species of Simia Geological Society. 291 Simia Linn., now alive in the collection of Exeter ’Change, allied to, if not identical with, the Simia Lagothrix of Baron Humboldt; by Edward Griffiths, Esq. F.L.S. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. March 17.—A paper was read, entitled, “* On the strata of the Plastic Clay formation exhibited in the cliffs between Christ- church Head, Hampshire, and Studland Bay, Dorsetshire ; by Charles Lyell, Esq. F.G.S. &c. The strata of sand and clay which form the subject of this communication are referable exclusively to the plastic clay formation. They occupy an interval in the coast of about 16 miles in extent, between the London clay of Highcliff on the east of Muddiford, and the chalk of the Isle of Purbeck. A coloured section of the strata exhibited in these cliffs accom- panies the paper. The author first describes in detail the cliffs of Christchurch, or Hengistbury Head, which consist of sand and loam, often much charged with bituminous matter, and containing large concretions of ferruginous sandstone and clay ironstone, disposed in fine parallel layers, in which, as well as in the sand and loam, occur black-flint pebbles, lignite, and flat- tened impressions of fossil trees. Below these strata are dark bituminous clays, alternating with red and brown sands, and with occasional layers of black-flint pebbles. After the outcrop of the above strata, the cliffs are low, and about three miles from Muddiford are composed solely of diluvium. When they rise again in height, their direction corresponds with the line of bearing of the strata, so that the same beds are continuously exposed for eight miles, as far as the mouth of Poole Harbour. These beds consist of fine white sand, pinkish sand, and thinly laminated argillaceous marls, containing occasionally much vegetable matter ; and the whole series exceeding 150 feet in thickness. ‘The section is interrupted for a space of 21 miles by the mouth of Poole Harbour and the bars of sand on each side of it. But in the cliffs near Studland the strata are again seen, consisting principally of yellow and purplish sand, white sand alternating with thinly laminated white clay, and sand with ferruginous concretions passing into sandstone, and pipe-clay. The junction of the chalk with the superior strata is very indistinctly exposed, but a thin bed of striated soft chalk-marl rests immediately upon the chalk, as is the case in Alum Bay. The author concludes with observations on the diluvium of this district, composed chiefly of chalk-flints ; and he infers from its local characters, both here and in the rest for Hampshire, as well as in the district between the North and South Downs, 202 that 292 Astronomical Society. that it owes its origin, in this part of England, to causes much more local in their operation than those generally assigned. He examines how far the phenomena attending its distribu- tion are consistent with the supposition, that the diluvium was formed in consequence of the protrusion of the inferior through the superior strata, along the anticlinal axis which now sepa- rates the tertiary basins of London and Hampshire. Admit~ ting that this elevation took place when all the strata were be- neath the level of the sea, Mr. Lyell endeavours to show, that the returning waters, when the land was raised to its present position above the sea, would have strewed the debris of the older over the newer formations, as we now find it; while those of the more recent would not cover, except in inconsiderable quantities, the more ancient strata; and that the marked dis- similarity between the diluvium of the Wealds of Kent and Sussex, and that of Hampshire and the neighbourhood of London, may thus be accounted for. As the freshwater for- mations in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, as well as the Plastic and London clays, are covered by deep beds of a simi- lar gravel, consisting of chalk-flints, the author states several geological facts to prove, that these more recent formations existed when the chalk and tertiary strata were elevated, and notwithstanding their difference of inclination, even when the strata of Alum-bay assumed their vertical position; and con- sequently they were all covered indiscriminately by a similar stratum of diluvium. April 7.—A translation was read of a letter from M. de Gim- bernat, of Geneva, principally upon sulphate of soda, to G. B. Greenough, Esq. F.G.S. &c. A paper, entitled, “ On the geology of the valley of the St. Laurence ;” by John J. Bigsby, M.G. F'.G.S. was read in part. April 21.—The reading of Dr. Bigsby’s paper was continued. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. March 10.—A paper was read “ On an appearance hitherto unnoticed in the nebula of Orion,” communicated by the Astro- nomer Royal. ‘This appearance was detected by means of Mr. Ramage’s 25-feet reflector, which is now placed up at the Royal Observatory. It is well known that among a variety of stars, which appear at the same time in the field of view of the telescope with this nebula, there are four very bright ones, which form a trapezium, and, at a little distance, three others nearly in a straight line. These three stars, Mr. Pond observes, are neithe: situated on the edge of the nebula, nor are they pa- rallel to the edge; but they seem to be insulated from the ne- bula, the light of which retires from them in a semicircular form, Astronomical Society. 298 form, as‘if they had either absorbed or repelled the light from their immediate vicinity. The same appearance, the Astronomer Royal remarks, is observable in the trapezium, round the four stars of which the light has also receded analogously, leaving them on a com- paratively dark ground. He conjectures that the stars have been the immediate cause of the disappearance of the light ; and therefore he wishes to draw the attention of astronomers to the pheenomenon, as it seems to deserve a marked attention. The Astronomer Royal has noticed a similar appearance, still more decidedly, in another part of the same nebula at some minutes distance from the trapezium. 2. There was read a communication from Colonel Mark Beaufoy, a member of the Council of this Society. It contains Ist. Observed transits of the moon and of moon-culmina- ting stars, over the middle wire of his transit instrument at Bushey Heath in Sidereal time. These were observed in the course of 1825, and amount to 322. 2dly. Occultations of stars by the moon, in number 6. 3dly. Observations of two lunar eclipses, in 1825. 4thly. Observations of eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, in 1825, at Bushey Heath. These amount to twenty-five, and the results are given both in Bushey and Greenwich, mean time. There was also read a communication from Major J. A. Hodgson, of the 61st Bengal Native Infantry, Revenue Sur- veyor General, residing at Futty Ghur, on the Ganges. This letter records seventy-five observations of the eclipses of Ju- piter’s satellites, made at Futty Ghur (latitude 27° 21! 35" N.) in the autumn of 1824 and spring of 1825. Some of these observations were made by Major Hodgson himself, and others, under his superintendance, by young men who are his appren- tices in the Revenue Survey Department. The names of the several observers are given :—each observation has its appro- priate meteorological indications registered :—and the natures, powers, and qualities, of the telescopes employed, are respec- tively described. These observations, compared with corre- sponding observations of the same phenomena in any places whose longitude have been accurately ascertained, will serve to determine the longitude of Major Hodgson’s observatory. An Address delivered at a special General Meeting of the Astro- nomical Society of London, on presenting the Gold Medals to J. I.W. Herscuer, Esg., J. Souru, Esg., and Professor Srruve, on April 14, 1826, by Francis Barry, Esq. F R.S. LS. §& GS. MRA. and President of the Society. The Members of the Astronomical Society are convened together 294 Astronomical Society. together this evening for the purpose of witnessing the distri- bution of the Medals, which have this year been awarded by the Council, agreeably to the powers vested in them for that purpose. The subject, which has called for this public ex- pression of their opinion and approbation, is that of Double Stars ; which has been pursued with uncommon zeal and energy by three distinguished members of your body. The history of this particular branch of astronomy is but of recent date. For, it cannot be unknown to any of you that this subject occupied a considerable portion of the time and attention of our late illustrious President, Sir William Her- schel; and that, in fact, it was he who first directed the at- tention of astronomers to this important branch of the science; having himself commenced and carried on, with great ability and diligence, a minute survey of the heavens, for the express purpose of detecting those almost imperceptible combinations of stars, which had hitherto escaped the observation of ordi- nary observers. Assisted by his own inventive genius, and the labour of his own skilful and unerring hand, he contrived and brought to perfection telescopes of a size which may be truly termed g7- gantic, and possessing powers of vision and penetration far su- perior to any that had ever yet been used by astronomers: and with which he made those astonishing and remarkable disco- veries that have filled the contemplative mind with wonder and admiration. It did not escape the sagacity of this illustrious astronomer that these important discoveries, which he was the first to dis- close to the world, might be made conducive to the investiga- tion of the parallax of the fixed stars: a subject which has, from the earliest period, occupied the attention and curiosity of astronomers. And it was, in fact, this consideration that first led him to the pursuit of this important branch of astro- nomy: but this object was soon lost sight of, in the singular and remarkable phenomena which he afterwards brought to light*. Before he commenced his observations, however, he was de- sirous of ascertaining what other astronomers had done be- fore him in the same pursuit. But, not having the facility of reference to many works, he himself (as he emphatically ex- * Indeed the obvious use which might be made of such observations had occurred to Galileo, who first suggested the idea that the apparent distance ~ of two apparently contiguous stars might perceptibly vary according to the position of the earth in its orbit. But, his theory was founded on very im- perfect and unsatisfactory data: and he himself made nv progress in the solution of this important problem. presses Astronomical Soczety. 295 presses it) opened the Great Book of Nature, and explored that vast and splendid Volume, as the best Catalogue that he could find for the occasion. At the time that he began his important and interesting enquiries, he was not aware of more than four stars that came under the description of double stars: yet, with this small stock he began his pursuit; and, in the course of a few years, formed a catalogue of 269 double and triple stars, which he presented to the Royal Society, and which is published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1782. ‘In this Memoir, and in all his subsequent ones, he gave not only the Distances between the two stars, as measured by various methods, but also the Angle of Position, or the angle formed by the parallel of declination, and an imaginary line joining the two stars. These records have now become of conside- rable importance, as enabling future observers to compare their results, and thus determine the change which those quantities have undergone during the interval that has elapsed since they were made. Ever ardent in the cause of science, this distinguished astro- nomer followed up his favourite pursuit by a second collection, consisting of 434 additional double stars; which was published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1785. : In the years 1803 and 1804: he communicated to the Royal Society “ An account of the changes that have happened during the last 25 years, in the relative situation of double stars :” and it was in these papers that he first made known to the world those astonishing and important facts which have so justly excited the admiration of astronomers. In order to set this in a clearer light, I would remark that it had been hitherto a commonly received opinion, that the difference in the apparent magnitude of the fixed stars was caused by the difference in their distance from the eye of the observer : that a star of the first magnitude, for instance, was situated nearer to us than one of’ the second magnitude; and this again, nearer to us than one of the third magnitude; and so on in succession till we came to the smallest point visible in the most powerful telescopes : and moreover that those apparent com- binations of stars, by twos or by threes, or any larger clusters (numbers of which present themselves to the eye of the ob- server) were merely the consequence of their lying nearly in the same line of vision, and that they were nevertheless se- parated from each other by an immense and immeasurable distance. But this, however much it may be true in some par- ticular instances, is not universally the case: for, in the course of the observations alluded to in the two papers just men- tioned, the most remarkable and unexpected pheenomena pre~ sented 296 Astronomical Society. sented themselves. The apparent distances of many of the double stars were found to differ from what they had been at a former period; at the same time also that their angles of position were discovered to have undergone a perceptible variation, and evidently indicating a revoiution round each other. This was the case whether the star had a considerable proper motion of its own; or whether it was apparently at rest with respect to the other stars around it: thus showing incon- testibly that the two stars acted on each other agreeably to the universal law of gravitation. In fact, in the language of Messrs. Herschel and South, *‘ the existence of binary systems (in which two stars per- ‘form to each other the office of sun and planet) has been ‘‘ distinctly proved; and the periods of rotation of more “than one such pair ascertained with something approach- ‘‘ ing to exactness. The immersions and emersions of stars “ behind each other have been noted; and real motions ‘“‘ among them detected, rapid enough to become sensible and ‘‘ measurable in very short intervals of time.” ‘The most re- markable and regular instance of this kind is that of the double star § Urse Majoris: where the stars perform a revolution round each other in the short space of 60 years: and already three fourths of the circuit has been actually observed from the first period of its discovery in 1781 to the present day. The double star p Ophiuchi presents also a similar phanome- non, with a motion in its orbit still more rapid. In this case the two stars are very unequal in their magnitude. Castor, y Virginis, § Cancri, § Bootis, § Serpentis and that remarkable double star 61 Cygnz, together with several others exhibit like- wise the same progressive increase in the angle of position. The instances are indeed too numerous for me to enlarge upon in this place; and I allude to them merely with a view of drawing your attention to this important and interesting branch of the science. These binary systems, it must be confessed, open a vast field of inquiry and speculation relative to the true system of the universe. The mind is lost in the contemplation of such im- mense bodies performing their revolutions round each other at such immeasurable distances. Our vast planetary system shrinks to a mere point, when compared to the orbits of these revolving suns. When we consider likewise the remarkable appearances exhibited by clusters of very minute stars, by ne- bulous stars and by nebulee, and the singular changes which they seem to be undergoing, and which are too evident to ad- mit of a doubt, and too important to be overlooked, we must confess that there is still much to learn in the science of astro- . nomy. Astronomical Society. 297 nomy. It is true that our late illustrious President has drawn some important inferences from those remarkable appearances which he was the first to discover, and has advanced a theory relative to the system of the universe, which whether it be realized or not, (and centuries must elapse before we can even approximate towards the truth of it,) must ever show the vigour of his bold and comprehensive mind. The last production of this Great Man, relative to double stars, was communicated to this Society, in the year 1821; and is inserted in the first volume of our Memoirs. Such was the state of this interesting branch of the science at the time it was taken up by Messrs. Herschel and South. The singular and extraordinary changes that had been ob- served by Sir William Herschel in his review of the heavens in 1802 and 1804, had determined Mr. Herschel to follow up the intentions of his father, by a review of all the double stars inserted in his catalogues: and as early as 1816 he had com- menced this arduous undertaking. Mr. South also being dis- posed to pursue the same enquiry, suggested the plan of car- rying on their observations in concert: and, with the aid of tivo excellent achromatic telescopes, belonging to the latter, they employed the years 1821, 1822, and 1823 in this re- search. The result of their labours was presented to the Royal Society, and published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1824 at the expense of the Board of Longitude. he number of double stars observed jointly by these two astronomers amounts to 380: and we may judge of their value and importance when we learn that the authors were more anxious to obtain accurate results, than to extend the field of their inquiries in the first instance. But, when we find that, even to obtain these results, many thousand mea- surements of distance and position were made, we must justly admire the patience and perseverance of the authors in this their laborious, but highly important pursuit. The remark- able phzenomena, first brought to light by Sir William Her- schel, have been abundantly confirmed ; and many new ob- jects pointed out as worthy the attention of future observers. Whilst these important inquiries were carrying on in Eng- Jand, one of our Associates, trattstor Struve, was engaged m similar observations at Dorpat in Russia. The result of his labours is contained in the several volumes of the Observations made at that observatory; and will be read with pleasure and advantage by every lover of astronomy *, The remarkable coincidence * Although not immediately connected with the object of this Address, I cannot omit this opportunity of noticing the labours of M, Amici on Vol. 67. No. 336. April 1826. 2P double 298 Astronomical Society. coincidence in most of the measurements made by M. Struve, and those made by Sir William Herschel and afterwards by Messrs. Herschel and South (although with very different in- struments and micrometers), confirms the general accuracy of the observations, and marks the degree of confidence that may be placed in measurements of this kind. Some slight discre- pancies have indeed been observed on a comparison of the total results, and some singular anomalies have presented themselves: but these, so far from invalidating their accuracy, tend to give them greater confirmation, and may probably, at some future period, lead to the detection of some hidden law which regulates the motions of these remarkable bodies. It is for these important observations and discoveries, and for the great zeal and talent displayed by these distinguished astronomers, in the pursuit of this interesting subject, that your Council has resolved to bestow on each of them the Gold Medal of the Society: and which I have now the honor of doing. [The President, then addressing Mr. Herschel, said :] “ In ‘‘ the name of the Astronomical Society of London, I present * to you this Medal. You will accept it, Sir, as a mark of *‘ the deep interest which this Society takes in the object of *‘ your labours. Be assured that we are pleased to see (from ‘*‘ the Paper presented to us this evening) that the subject still ** occupies your attention, and that it is likely to be pursued ‘* with so much energy and zeal, by one who can so fully ap- ‘* pretiate the importance of such inquiries, and who is so ** competent to conduct investigations of this kind. We trust ‘that you will have health and strength to pursue the path ‘¢ which you have thus commenced with so much honour to *¢ yourself, and so much benefit to science. Inheriting, as you ** do, those rare and exalted talents which distinguished your ** venerable and honoured father, and aided by the resources ** of your own powerful and enlightened mind, you have al- ** ready opened another and very interesting field of inquiry ‘and research in this particular branch of astronomy, by pro- “posing a new method of applying such observations to the “* investigation of the parallax of the fixed stars: a subject ** which cannot be fully appretiated till after the lapse of many ** years, and which we hope will not be lost sight of by those *‘ who are engaged in investigations of this kind. The name “ double stars. With some excellent and beautiful telescopes and micro- meters of his own workmanship and construction, this indefatigable and careful observer has extended his examination to upwards of 200 double stars ; and has detected motions in some of them, not yet noticed by other astronomers. It is to be hoped that his very valuable labours will be col- lected and published, for the benefit of science. 73 of Astronomical Society. 299 “ of Herschel, doubly connected as it thus is, with the history “¢ of astronomy, can perish only with all records of the science. « The splendid example of the father has been emulated by “the son: and you have the proud and enviable satisfaction « of knowing that you will share the Glory of his Immortal s Name.” [The President next presented the Medal to Mr. South in a similar manner, and said:] “In presenting you with this «‘ Medal, Sir, I can only repeat the sentiments which I have «just delivered to your friend and fellow-labourer Mr. Her- «‘schel. The ardent zeal which you have always evinced in “the cause of astronomy, the patience and perseverance « which you have shown in conducting so many and so valu- able observations, of no ordinary kind, and the skill and « accuracy which you have displayed in those delicate mea- « surements, are subjects that are duly estimated by this So- “ ciety. Possessed of a princely collection of instruments, of “ exquisite workmanship and considerable magnitude, such “as have never yet fallen to the lot of a private individual, ‘you have not suffered them to remain idle in your hands, « but have set an example to the world how much may be ‘«‘ done by a single person, animated with zeal in the cause of « science. Scarcely indeed have those labours issued from the « press, for which this Society is now assembled to congra- “tulate you, than they have been followed by a communi- “‘ cation of others (now lying on the table) rivalling them 1 “ magnitude and importance ; extending your examination t« « 460 additional stars (many of which are new), and confirmin, « in a satisfactory manner the remarkable changes which hac “ been noticed in your previous review. The subject whicl “ you have thus commenced with so much success, with so « much benefit to science and so much honour to yourself, i “ as vast as it is important. ‘The number of double and triple « stars seems to increase with the attention that is paid to “them: and already their amount is sufficient to appal an “ ordinary obseryer. Boldly pursuing the path of science, “ your energy has, however, increased with your difficulty ; so « that few of these singular bodies have escaped your patience “ and penetration: and the Society hope and trust that the « same talents will be exerted in a further prosecution of the “ subject. There is no doubt but that a careful examination “and re-examination of these remarkable bodies will tend to “throw some new and interesting light on the system of the “ universe: and it must ever be a pride and satisfaction to “you to reflect that you have been instrumental in advancing « the boundaries of this department of science, and that your oP 2 own 300 Royal Institution of Great Britain. «© own Name will always stand conspicuous in the history of ** these discoveries.” [The President afterwards presented the Medal, in a similar manner, to Mr. Herschel, as proxy for Professor Struve, and addressed him as follows:] ‘“‘ Assure M. Struve of the lively “ interest which we take in all that is passing at the Observa- “‘ tory of Dorpat: that we admire the patience, the exertions * and the address, with which he has overcome the difficul- ‘© ties he has had to encounter, in the progress of his disco- “ veries: and that we look forward with confidence to a con- ‘“ tinuance of the same brilliant career in the cause of astro- *nomy. Furnished, as he now is, with one of Fraunhofer’s * colossal telescopes, and thus armed with the most powerful ‘‘ means, we anticipate the most successful results from his “ laborious exertions. Unconscious of what was going forward “in this country, he had opened for himself a vast field of s¢ inquiry, which he has pursued with the most splendid suc- «cess; and which places his name amongst the most cele- ‘‘ brated of modern astronomers. The Paper which has been ‘ yead to us, this evening, shows that his ardour is unabated : ‘ since he there announces the important fact of the observa- * tion of 1000 double stars of the first four classes, (most of ‘‘ which are entirely new,) and amongst which are 300 of the ‘“‘ first class. ‘To a mind, formed like his for the pursuit of “ science, little need be said to animate him to a continuance “ of his labours: but, it may be pleasing to him to know that ‘we are alive to the progress of his discoveries: and I am *¢ sure that you will convey to him, in much better terms than *‘ IT can do, the expressions of our esteem and admiration for ‘‘ his services in the cause of science ;—services which assure *‘ us that the name of Struve will be imperishable in the an- “ nals of astronomy.” ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. April 7.—Mr. Faraday spoke in the Lecture-room on the subject of vapour of extreme tenuity, opposing the general © opinion that vapour may be diminished in its tension ad inji- nitum, and stating that there was reason to believe that a limit existed, varying with different bodies, but beneath which they gave off no vapour. He began from Dr. Wollaston’s argu- ment of the finite extension of the atmosphere, and then showed that either gravity or cohesion were sufficient to overcome a certain degree of elasticity, advancing experiments in illustra- tion of the power of cohesion over vapour. He.concluded that some bodies might have their limit of vaporization within - . the range of temperature which we can command, and even near The new Expedition into the Interior of Africa. $01 near ordinary temperatures; whilst others, as the earths’ and some of the metals, are perfectly fixed under common circum- stances. The bearing of these opinions upon one of the theories of meteorites was pointed out. Mr. Cuthbert exhibited his fine American microscope, and his short reflecting telescope in the Library; and several spe- cimens of Mosaic gold were also brought for inspection, by Mr. Parker. April 14.—Dr. Granville gave a condensed account of his researches into the history and processes of mummification, and illustrated it by his fine specimens, an account of which has already been before the public in our Journal. April 21.—Dr. Harwood read an essay on the natural hi- story of the Asiatic elephant, including some account of the individual lately existing at Exeter ’Change: a cast of the head of this animal was in the room, with a number of other large and small specimens, and a series of finely coloured drawings. A specimen of illuminated writing, being the fac simile of a page of a missal, was placed upon the table in the Library. XLVIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. THE NEW EXPEDITION INTO THE INTERIOR OF AFRICA. DISPATCHES, public and private, have been received from Captains Clapperton and Pearce, dated Badagry Roads, in the Bight of Benin, the 29th of November last. On the evening of that day they were to land at Badagry, where, fortunately, they found Mr. Houtson, a British merchant, well known in that part of the country, who not only arranged for them a safe passage in palanquins, through the king of Bada- gry’s dominions, but agreed to accompany them to the next kingdom, Hio, or Eyo, about five days’ journey of twenty-five miles each, and there to settle a palaver with the king of that country, who is in constant communication with Nyffe and other parts of Houssa. From him they learn, that once ar- rived at Hio, he apprehends there is little reason to fear any check to their future progress. From Hio to Tasso is about nine days’ journey, and from Tasso to Nyffe nine days’ more; so that the whole distance from the coast to Nyffe is twenty- three days, or about 570 miles. At Whydah they met with a M. de Souza, a Portuguese; and also Mr. James, who makes so remarkable a figure in Mr. Bowditch’s book, who both recommended a visit to the king of Dahomey, as the direct road 302 Mr. Moyle on the Temperature of Mines. road to the Sultan Bello’s dominions was through a part of his; and as M. de Souza was most intimate with this sove- reign, he offered to accompany any of the gentlemen to his capital, Abomey, to obtain permission for them to pass through his territory: for this purpose Dr. Dickson was dispatched with orders to join the party in the interior. They were all in the best health and in high spirits. ON THE-TEMPERATURE OF MINES. BY M. P. MOYLE, ESQ. During the last summer and autumn, I repeated most of my former experiments on the water in the old and relin- guished mines as before stated (véde Annals, vol. v. N.S.), and almost precisely with the same results. Suffice it to say on this head, that the greatest heat found in those collections of water from the depth of 20 to 170 fathoms from the surface, was 55° Fahr. in Relistian mine, in the parish of Gwinear, while the coldest temperature found was 52° at 134 fathoms in Huel Ann, in Wendron. I conceived that by selecting a stagnant collection of water in a deep part of a mine at work, the temperature of which spot while it was occupied by the workmen was known, might more effectually give us the true temperature of the surround- ing strata, than by any other means. I, therefore, selected a winze* at the 110 fathom level, in Huel Trumpet tin mine, in the parish of Wendron. ‘This winze was sunk between four and five fathoms, when it was found necessary to relinquish it from the water being too quick; and until the 120 fathom Jevel was driven far enough under it to drain it of its water. A hole was bored in the solid granite at the bottom of this winze two feet deep; a thermometer was put into it, and the hole was soon found to fill with water from a natural infiltra- tion without a drop falling into it from above. As this hole filled with water, the thermometer fell to 56°, but in a few hours it rose to 70°, while the air at the bottom of the winze was 72°. I fastened a line to the thermometer, and allowed it to remain in the hole. The place was now relinquished, and was in the course of a few hours full with water, and great care was taken to prevent any of the water in common to the mine from running into this reservoir. On the following day this water was found at the surface 70°, at two fathoms in depth 68°, and at the bottom 67°: at the expiration of nearly three months, it was thought necessary to examine it again, as the approach of the end of the 120 fathom level might other- * A winze is a small shaft sunk simply from one level to another, often required for ventilation, as well as for the judicious working of a mine. wise Physiology of the Brain. 3038 wise destroy the opportunity sought. The water was now found at all depths to be 54°. A few weeks after this, the wa- ‘ter was found to be sinking, when additional care was taken to prevent any water from falling into the winze; when it had sunk to within two feet of the bottom, the thermometer which was allowed to remain in the hole was suddenly withdrawn, when it was found to be at 54°. Two days after this period, this hole was dry, and showed the temperature of 70°. Not willing to rely too much on this single experiment, I sought another opportunity of repeating it in Huel Vor tin mine, situated in slate. Here a winze similarly circumstanced to the one just related occurred at the 124 fathom level. This winze was sunk just six fathoms before relinquished, at which time the temperature was 75°; but after being filled with wa- ter for about two months, the registering thermometer indi- cated only 56°; and this possibly might be influenced in some measure by its being found impossible wholly to exclude a fall of water running into it from above. I do flatter myself that these experiments tend much to strengthen my former assertions of the earth in general pos- sessing and preserving the mean annual temperature of the latitude; and although these experiments give a degree or two above this mark, we cannot but suppose the local causes of heat in a mine at full work must tend to influence the re- sults; but it should be observed that it falls far below what we are taught to expect at these depths, by those holding a different opinion from myself.—Ann. of Phil. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN:—EXPERIMENTS OF MM. FLOU- RENS, MAJENDIE, ETC. Analysis of the Physiological labours of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, for the year 1824, by M. Le Baron Cuvier. — We have reported in our analysis for 1822, with the interest which they deserve, the experiments of M. Flourens to deter- mine with more precision the functions proper to each parti- cular part of the brain; and we have seen that the result ap- pears to be, that the brain (cerebrum) properly speaking, is the receptacle for the impressions transmitted by the organs of sense; the cerebellum the regulator of locomotion; and the medulla oblongata the agent of muscular irritability; that the tubercula quadrigemina in particular participate in this irritant power of the medulla oblongata, and produce as it does, con- vulsions when stimulated. The author expected that these properties might contribute toward the solution of a problem in comparative anatomy which had for some time occupied the attention 804 Baron Cuvier on the Physiological: Labours attention of naturalists, to determine the true nature of the different tubercles which compose the brain of fishes. a We have given an account more than once, and especially in 1820, of the doubts which exist with respect to those two tubercles which are interior to the cerebellum, and are generally hollow, containing in the interior one or two pair of smaller tubercles. ‘These have long been considered to be the true brain, the tubercles which they cover, to be the tubercula quadrigemina, and those placed anterior to them the olfactory tubercles, analogous to those which we find in front of the cerebrum in the rat, mole, and other mammalia. For some years M. Arasky, and subsequently M. Serres, have come to the conclusion, but from anatomical comparison only, that the anterior tubercles constitute the cerebrum, and that the large hollow pair correspond to the tubercula quadri- gemina. It follows from the experiments of M. Flourens made on carps, that irritation of the anterior tubercles, or of the su- perior part of the hollow tubercles, produces no convulsions, but if the base of the last be pricked, violent spasms are in- duced ; which would also lead us to consider the lesser internal tubercles to be tubercula quadrigemina, as well as the hollow tubercle which incloses them. ‘Lhe removal of the anterior tubercles does not at first perceptibly change the animal’s con- dition or manner; but it appears to move less frequently. and not voluntarily; it even appeared to the author, as well as he could judge from the state of restraint in which he was obliged to keep the fish thus mutilated, that it could neither hear nor see. ‘The removal of the hollow tubercles produces a much more decisive effect on the ceconomy of the animal; it moves no longer, respires with difficulty, and lies on its back or side. M. Flourens does not hesitate to conclude that it is to the tu- bercula quadrigemina that these hollow tubercles correspond, and considers that the great influence which they exert on the system of fishes arises from their extraordinary state of deve- lopment in this class of animals. With respect to the single tubercle which has universally been regarded as cerebellum, it exhibits phenomena similar to those of the cerebellum of qua- drupeds and birds. Injury of it does not excite convulsions ; when removed the fish can scarcely remain on its belly; it swims in an extraordinary way; and it turns on its centre as birds do who have lost the cerebellum. The protuberances which are placed behind the cerebellum in fishes, from which their 8th pair of nerves appears to originate, remain to be ex- amined; those which in the superior. classes afford only doubt- ful or imperceptible analogies. Irritation of all. their parts produces. violent convulsions, particularly in the opercula of . the of the Royal Academy of Paris, for 1824. $05 the gills, which derive their nerves from this source. If they be destroyed, the motions of the opercula are lost, and respi- ration ceases. The same effect follows from dividing them longitudinally. M. Flourens concludes that the cerebral organ of inspiration is found here, circumscribed, distinct, and de- veloped to a true lobe, while in other animals it is scarcely separated from the mass. Similar phzenomena are to be ob- served in the Gadus lota, pike, and eel. The conclusion to be drawn by the author and those who coincide in his views respecting the hollow tubercles is, that the point in which the brain in fishes most essentially differs from that of other classes, consists in the great development of the part which presides over the respiratory function; which M. Flourens accounts for by the more laborious respiration of aquatic animals, who act on the air through the intervention of water, unlike animals respiring in air which immediately penetrates the lung. It is thus, says he, that the brain is larger in animals en- dowed with much intelligence, the cerebellum in birds, which are so much -more agile than any other, and that this same cerebellum always disappears in reptiles, sluggish animals, the very name of which implies torpor. The author finally ex- presses an opinion that the parts which render the animal tenacious of life, and especially the spinal marrow, are with respect to volume in an inverse ratio to those upon which the intellectual functions depend; animals destitute of the means of defence from violence require a blunted or coarse descrip- tion of vital condition, which should be to them what we might designate a detence against the effects of its own peculiar con- dition. M. Flourens being obliged to make so many and such ex- tensive wounds of the brain to resolve questions so important to humanity, took the opportunity of making numerous ob- servations respecting injuries of this organ and the regenera tion of its coverings, as also upon the corresponding phzeno- mena in the animal’s faculties as the reproductions advance. To analyse these observations made day after day would re- quire a copy of them, and the details would prove equally in- teresting in this point of view, if our limits permitted us to enumerate them. In general, where a portion is removed, a clot of blood is formed, and a scab produced, beneath which lymph is deposited. ‘The bone extoliates; beneath this ex- Dliation and scab a new skin forms which casts them off, and beneath this skin a new bone forms; but this new skin does not consist of true corium or rete mucosum, nor is the bone formed with two laminz: and a diploe. ‘The new skin is con< Vol. 67. No. 386. April 1826. 2Q tinued 306 Baron Cuvier on the Physiological Labours tinued from the old, and requires for its formation that.the jymph from which it is produced should be maintained in its position either by the scab or some other means, ‘The entire portion of brain removed is not regenerated, but a cicatrix is formed upon the cut surface. A simple division is repaired by reunion. The superior part of the ventricle, when re- moved, is repaired by a production from the margins of the remaining part. Finally, as we have observed in 1822, the animal recovers by little and little its faculties as the parts ci- catrize, at least they do so if the injury has not been very reat. M. Majendie has also made many experiments respecting the functions peculiar to the different parts of the brain, and has communicated to the Academy one of the most remarkable, which in every respect corresponds with one made on the ce- rebellum by M. Flourens, and which serves as a support to it.’ When the great commissure of the. cerebellum (pons varolit) is divided anterior to the origin of the 5th pair of nerves, the animal loses all power of supporting itself on its four limbs; it falls on the side upon which the division has been made, and rolls over and over during entire days, ceasing only when pre- vented by some obstacle. The harmony in the motion of its eyes is also destroyed; the eye of the injured sideis irresistibly directed downward, while that of the opposite side is turned upward. A Guinea pig thus treated turns over and over sixty times in a minute. This rotatory movement is produced by division of one of the crura cerebelli, but if both be divided the animal remains without motion; the equilibrium of these two organs being as essential to the repose as to the regular move- ments of the animal. Similar phenomena are exhibited when the cerebellum itself is divided from above downward. If three quarters of it be left on the left side, and one quarter on the right, the animal turns over to the right, and its eyes are distorted as stated above; a similar section leaving the one quarter on the left side re-establishes the equilibrium, but if leaving the quarter on the right untouched it is cut on the left down to the crus, the animal turns to the left, or in other words it turns to the side where least is left. A vertical section of the cerebellum puts the animal into an extraordinary condi- tion : its eyes appear to project from the orbit; it leans some- times to one side and sometimes to the other; its limbs are stretched out as if it endeavoured to go backward. M. Ma- jendie quotes an observation of M. Serres, which proves that the same effects might take place in the human subject ; an in- dividual after excessive drinking was seized with a propensity “to turn over and over, which continued till death; on dissec- tion of the Royal Academy of Paris, for 1824. 307 tion a rupture of one of the crura cerebri was discovered. M. Majendie has not confined his observations to the centre of the nervous system, he has made some very curious obser- vations respecting the nerves distributed to the organs of sense. Hitherto the first pair of nerves or olfactory has been considered as dedicated to the organ of smell. M. Majendie, wishing to make an experiment which appeared to him a work of supererogation, to prove the correctness of an opinion doubted by none, cut the olfactory nerves of a young dog. What was his surprise the following day to find the animal sensible to strong odours! The experiment repeated on other animals afforded similar results. ‘The author suspected that this sensibility was to be attributed to the branches of the fifth pair distributed to the nostril; he accomplished the division of these nerves on either side, notwithstanding their depth, in dogs, cats, and Guinea pigs, and thus destroyed all sensibi- lity in the nostril. Animals which sneezed, rubbed the nose, and turned away the head when compelled to inhale the va- pour of ammonia or acetic acid, remained passive when the fifth pair was divided, or at least manifested only the effects resulting from stimulation of the larynx. This effect of strong -odours remained even in hens, from whose heads the whole cerebral hemispheres and olfactory nerves had been removed. We might certainly suspect that the volatile alkali acted only chemically on the pituitary membrane, and attribute the effects more to pain than smell ; in that case the pain alone would de- pend upon the fifth pair: but M. Majendie, who saw the force of this objection, observes, that it is much weaker with re- ference to the animal oil of Dippel or essential oil of almonds, which affected the organ before the fifth pair was divided, and lost all effect when it was cut, although the first pair remained untouched. What would still better rebut the objection, would be to prove that animals which have had the olfactory nerve divided, still continued to seek and distinguish their food by the nose. ‘The experiments on this head do not appear as yet conclusive, but he promises to prosecute the investigation. The dissections of Dr. Ramond, reported by M. Majendie, prove also that when the hemispheres are gorged with blood, or that deep and rooted alterations take place in their cortical substance, the sensibility of the nostril to the most delicate odours is not impaired. But it is not to the sense of smell alone that the participation of the fifth pair is essential ; it con- tributes to all the senses of those organs to which it is distri- buted ; when divided, the sense of touch is also destroyed, but on the anterior part of the io only; behind the ear and 4 : ; 2 2 ; the $08 Baron. Cuvier o7 the Physiological Labours the back of the;head it is unimpaired-as in other parts of the body. The most irritating chemical agents will not produce tears; the eyelids and iris become immoveable; one might even suppose the eye to be artificial. After some time the cornea becomes white and opaque, the conjunctiva and iris inflame and suppurate, and finally, the eye shrinks into a small tuber- ele, which fills only a small part of the orbit, and its substance resembles newly coagulated milk. In this state the animal is no longer guided by its whiskers, as it should: if merely de- prived of sight; it advances with the chin resting on the ground, and pushing its head before it; the tongue is equally insensi- ble, and hangs out of the mouth; sapid bodies appear to have no apparent effect on its anterior part, although they exert their influence on its centre and base. The epidermis of the mouth thickens and the gums separate from-the teeth. .The author even thinks, that he has observed that the sense of hearing is lost by the division of the fifth pair, which if cor- rect, shows that all the senses are under the influence of this nerve. It has long been known that it was in the lingual branch of the fifth pair that the sense of taste essentially re- sided, and more recently the experiments of Mr. Bell prove, that the sensibility of the face depends upon the numerous branches of this nerve distributed upon it, but those distri- buted to the nose, eye, and ear, were not considered equally essential to the integrity, or even to the perfect exercise, of the senses of smell, sight, and hearing, as has been shown by M. Majendie. The details of these experiments, and of others not less interesting, may be found ima journal of physiology, of which the author publishes four numbers in the year, and where he collects whatever is founded on positive facts, esta- blished by accurate observations. M. Flourens has also endeavoured to apply his method of successive removal to determine the use of the different parts of the ear. We know that this complicated organ is com- posed in warm-blooded animals of an external passage leading to the membrane of the tympanum, which forms the entrance into a second cavity named tympanum or box,:and from which a chain of bones commences, the last of which, the stapes, is applied to the fenestra ovalis, or entrance of the second cavity called vestibule, into which three canals called semicircular canals and one of the orifices. of a third cavity of a spiral form called cochlea open, the other orifice of the cochlea opening immediately into the tympanum by the fenestra rotunda. There are also mastoid cells formed in the substance of the bone, which communicate with the tympanum, and a canal called the fallopian of the Royal Academy of Paris, for 1824. 309 fallopian tube which leads from the tympanum to the back of the nostril or fauces. M. Flourens in a previous investiga- tion, endeavoured to ascertain what part of the organ of hear- ing should be considered most essential to the perfection of the sense. Pigeons were made the subject of experiment; birds having the ear enveloped in a delicate cellular structure easily removed. He destroyed the meatus auditorius, the first bones, and the tympanum, without destroying the sense; the stapes was then removed, and hearing was sensibly injured; merely raising this bone from its situation, and then replacing it al- ternately diminished and re-established the faculty; on re- moving the semicircular canals much more remarkable phee- nomena were observed ; not only the animal continued to hear, but the impression of sound became painful, the slightest noise produced severe agitation, and its head was moved horizontally from right to left, with remarkable violence, which did not cease till perfect rest was obtained, and re-commenced when the animal attempted to move. Exposure of the vestibule, and destruction of part of the nervous pulp contained within it, did not entirely destroy hearing: to effect this, the total re- moval of the whole of the pulp and the nervous expansions continuous with it was necessary, the animal remaining deaf although the rest of the ear was untouched. The author con- cludes, that the pulp in the vestibule is the essential part of the organ, and that it is in fact, as shown by Scarpa and Cuvier, the only part existing in inferior animals; so that we may con- sider the other parts of the organ as serving to give to this sense the different degrees of perfection, which characterize it in the higher classes of animals. - We have given the above report at full length, not so much on account of the value of the information communicated, as to put our readers in possession of the opinion entertained by the highest literary tribunal in France respecting those expe- riments which have latterly so much attracted the attention of physiologists. We do not however, by any means, consider that’those experimenters have settled the respective questions which they profess to decide, but look upon their labours as little more than so much argument in favour of pursuing the investigation; in which light it is to be hoped that the authors themselves view the subject. With respect to the experiments of M. Majendie, to determine the nerve to which we are in- debted for the sense of smell, they must be admitted to be in- conclusive, if not altogether fallacious, as we hope to be able to demonstrate in another place.— Dublin Phil. Journ. ACTION $10 Alcohol.—Mr. Dalton on the Constitution of the Atmosphere. ACTION OF LIME ON ALCOHOL. It was known that when alcohol and lime are kept in con- tact, during a length of time, the alcohol becomes pale yellow *, Dr. Menici introduced into a vessel, three ounces of alcohol, of 35 degrees (B), and a similar quantity at 28, into another ; each vessel containing also an equal quantity of lime; and they were all exposed to the ordinary temperature, being previously well closed. At the end of four months, the liquor in the second vessel had become sensibly yellow, which soon became deeper, and in six months it was reddish. The alco- hol now restored reddened litmus, owing to the solution of lime. Submitted to distillation it afforded unaltered alcohol. The residual liquor, evaporated to dryness, afforded a sub- stance analogous to our black resin [colofonia rossastra],which, when kindled, burned brilliantly, with much smoke+. But the strong alcohol contained in the first bottle seemed not to have been, in any manner, affected; unless that it feebly re- stored the colour of reddened litmus.—( Giornale di Fisica.) Dublin Phil. Journ. —— : MR. DALTON ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. The following is an abstract of Mr. Dalton’s paper on the constitution of the atmosphere, read before the Royal Society on the 23d of February last. After some preliminary remarks, the author observes, that whatever may be thought of Newton’s hypothesis as to elastic fluids, as far as the mechanical effects of such fluids are objects of inquiry, we may safely adopt it; namely, that each fluid zs constituted of particles repelling one another by forces inversely as their central distances, at least within ordinary limits of con- densation and rarefaction. - After adverting to the fact that mixtures of various elastic fluids, such as is the atmosphere, composed of atoms of dif- ferent volumes and elasticities, do notwithstanding observe the same laws of condensation and rarefaction as simple elastic fluids, and to the difficulties which this fact throws in the way - * Gay-Lussac first noticed this change of colour, while engaged in di- stilling alcohol off lime, which he proposed as a better method of obtaining alcohol than by means of muriate of lime. [Memoires d’ Arcueil, tome iil. .104.] But this method had been practised long before. See Hlémens de Pharmacie, par Baumé, 1770, p. 474.—Dus.tn Epi. + When sulphuric acid and alcohol are distilled, as in the preparation of ether, towards the end of the process the mixture becomes black, and a black matter collects (if the quantity operated on be large) into a mass. This black mass is brittle; it may be melted; it solidifies on cooling: it is combustible, and burns with a smoky flame. It is, in fact, a kind of pitchy. matter, which seems very much to resemble this resin noticed by Dr. Me- nici.—Dvustiw Ent. oe : of Mr. Dalton on the Constitution of the Atmosphere. 334 of the Newtonian hypothesis, Mr. D. puts a case which he thinks has not before been considered, and which may assist us materially in forming a correct notion of such mixed at- mospheres. Two equal cylindrical pipes are conceived to be placed per- pendicular to the horizon, in contact, and of indefinite length, close at the bottom, and open at the top. These are supposed to be filled with two gases of different kinds, the one with car- bonic acid, and the other with hydrogen, in order to show the contrast more strikingly. The columns of gases are assumed each to be of the weight of 30 inches of mercury, and conse- quently will represent vertical columns of atmospheres of the respective gases equal in weight to like columns of the earth’s atmosphere. Mr. D. calculates from known principles that the column of carbonic acid gas will terminate at 30 or 40 miles of elevation, or at least will become of such tenuity as that it may be disregarded. In like manner that of hydrogen will be found to become insignificant above 1200 miles of al- titude. The author then supposes that horizontal air-tight partitions are made across both tubes at any given intervals of distance, and that openings are made, so that the gases in the corresponding horizontal cells may communicate with each other; in which case each gas, as is well known, would divide itself equally between the two cells. For 30 or 40 miles both gases would be found in each cell; but for the rest of the co- lumn, namely, for 1000 miles or upwards, there would be no- thing but hydrogen in both cells. In the next place, Mr. D. conceives the horizontal partitions to be withdrawn, and considers what change would ensue, There would have been many cells about the summit of the carbonic acid atmosphere which, when opened for the purpose of communication, would part with half their contents to the collateral cells, but half the contents would not be able to fill the whole space of the cell, by reason that the gas was at its minimum density before. Hence the gas would be confined to the lower half of the cells, and there would be no carbonic acid in the upper parts. Of course when the partitions were removed, the carbonic acid in each cell would descend till it came in contact with the like gas of the inferior cell. Thus there would be a slight descent of the upper regions of car- bonic acid gas. ‘The same also would happen to the hydro- gen gas about the summit of its atmosphere, and a still more considerable descent would take place. Mr. D. seems to think there would be no material change in the mixed atmospheres afterwards. ‘Thus the two ioe atmospheres would exhibit equal volumes of each gas in the lowest cells, or at the surface of 212 Analysis of Oil of Wine, &c. of the earth, though in the whole compound atmosphere the two gases are of equal weights. ' All this would take place. according to the author’s argu- ments were the mixed atmospheres quiescent; but if the atmo- spheres are like the earth’s atmosphere, in a constant state of commotion, greater or less, still there will be a constant ten- dency towards that state of equilibrium which is above de- scribed. Inthe conclusion Mr. D. states, that he has a series of observations which support the opinion that the atmosphere at different seasons and elevations exhibits different propor- tions of its elements in association, which he intends to brin forward on some future occasion.— Annals of Philosophy. ANALYSIS OF OIL OF WINE, &c. On the 9th of March, a paper on this subject and on the sulphovinates, by Mr. H. Hennell, of Apothecaries’ Hall, was read before the Royal Society :--the following is a summary of its contents. Mr. Hennell at first supposing that the elements of oil of wine were the same as those of sulphuric ether, endeavoured accordingly to determine their relative proportions in the for- mer substance, by passing its vapour over ignited peroxide of copper. In this process, portions of sulphurous acid gas and sulphate of copper were invariably obtained ; in attempting to ascertain the origin of which, the oil of wine was heated in solution of muriate of barytes, but no precipitate or even cloudiness was produced in it, though litmus paper at the same time indicated the presence of free acid. On concentrating the solution, however, a precipitate of sulphate of barytes was gradually formed; showing that either the sulphuric acid was in some state of combination interfering with its action upon tests, or that its elements existed in the oil of wine in some unusual state of arrangement. From 200 grains of pure oil of wine, treated with solution of potash, evaporated-to dryness and ignited, and then treated successively with nitric acid and muriate of barytes, were obtained 218-3 of sulphate of barytes, indicating 74 of sulphuric acid. On resuming the analysis with peroxide of copper, with due care, and the additional precautions suggested by the nature of _the substance as just pointed out, it appeared that 100 grains of oil of wine contain 53°70 of carbon, and 8°30 of hydrogen: the deficiency = 38 parts being referable to the sulphuric acid, as shown by the experiments above mentioned. ‘These pro- portions indicate the hydrocarbon combined with the sulphuric acid to contain an atom of each constituent; but they do not show the quantity of hydrocarbon combined with the sulphuric acid, Analysis of Oil of Wine, &c. 313 acid, for oil of wine always holds in solution an excess of this hydrocarbon, from which it is impossible to free it. In order to determine, therefore, the quantity of hydrocarbon in com- bination with the sulphuric acid, some oil of wine was heated with water, and precipitated carbonate of barytes was then added to it, which was dissolved, with effervescence. When, however, the solution was evaporated, it soon became acid, and sulphate of barytes precipitated. On treating a further quantity of oil of wine in the same manner, but precipitating the barytic solution by carbonate of potash, and evaporating at a temperature of 150° Fahr. it yielded tabular crystals, not unlike chlorate of potash, very soluble in water and alcohol, and burning with a flame resembling that of zther. These crystals were found to contain, in 100 parts, Potash). 5334 scp Serene > eon a8 Be Sulphuricacid ........ . 48°84 Carson gota «Since Gisteoe eles Elydnopen” ae oe ghee see oe Water Saini wieiichsion tern 600 101°00 , It thus appears, that in this salt four proportionals of car- bon united with four of hydrogen, are combined with one of sulphuric acid, forming oil of wine. : Mr. Hennell ascertained that this salt was identical with that called sulphoyinate of potash; and whilst preparing some of the sulphovinates, for the purpose of comparing them with the salts obtained from oil of wine in this manner, he found that a great reduction of the saturating power of sulphuric acid was produced by its mixture with alcohol; 440 ers. of acid mixed with an equal weight of alcohol, requiring for their saturation only 398 grs. of partially dried carbonate of soda, whilst an equal weight of pure acid required 555 gfs. of the same carbonate. ‘This fact shows that sulphuric acid, by mixture with alcohol, is immediately converted into sulphovinic acid ; and, in conjunction with the facts detailed in the former part of the paper, it also evinces that the loss of saturating power cannot be owing, as MM. Vogel and Gay-Lussac have sup- posed, to the formation of hyposulphuric acid. By heating oil of wine either in solution of potash, or in water, much of the excess of hydrocarbon which it contains is liberated in the form of an oil, resembling in appearance some of the balsams. ‘This oil, as well as the erystals which form spontaneously in oil of wine, yielded by analysis carbon and hydrogen, in proportions nearly approximating to those of sine gas; but in the analyses, which were seyeral times re- Vol. 67. No. 336. April 1826. 2K peated, 314 Mechanical Notation of Machinery. peated, a slight loss was always experienced, the cause of which Mr. Hennell was unable to ascertain.— Ann. of Phil. MECHANICAL NOTATION OF MACHINERY. A paper was lately read before the Royal Society, On the expression of the parts of machinery by signs; by C. Babbage, Esq. F.R.S. of which the following is a notice. In contriving his calculating engine *, Mr. Babbage found great difficulty from not having any regular method, by which he could find, at an instant’s notice, the precise time at which any given piece began to move, and also the state of motion or rest, at the same instant, of all the other parts. He therefore devised a method of expressing all the motions of any machine, however complicated, by signs. This it is almost impossible to describe without figures; but the following statement of the information which may be derived, almost at a glance of the eye, from the paper on which the “ mechanical notation” of any machine is expressed, will serve to show the important pur- poses to which the method may be applied. 1, The name of each part is written at length, and there are references from the name to all the drawings. 2. The number of teeth on each wheel, pinion, rack, or sector, is seen. 3. Any given part, a wheel for example, being named, it will be seen what immediately moves it, what drives the mover, and so on up to the origin of motion: and not only will the whole succession of movements be visible, but the manner in which they act; as, for instance, whether by being permanently connected, or in the manner of a pinion driving a wheel, or by stiff friction, or at intervals only. 4. The angular velocity of each part will be seen. 5. The comparative angular velocity, or the mean velocity. 6. All parts which require adjustment will appear; and the order in which those adjustments should be made is pointed out. 7. At any part of the cycle of the engine’s motion, it will be seen at a glance what parts are moving, what are at rest; and it will appear in what direction the motions of the moving parts take place, and whether their velocity is uniform or vari- able. It will also be seen whether any given bolt or click is locked or not. 8. Any part being named, the entire succession of its mo- tions and intervals of rest is at once presented to the eye; and if the contemporary movements at any particular time be re- quired, they will be visible adjacent to it. Mr. Babbage gives, as specimens of his method, the mecha- nical notation of the common eight-day clock, and of the hy- draulic ram.—Ann. of Phil. Results 315 Results of our Meteorological Tables for 1825. sesvigay ee.gz |.sz.0¢ | pr-er | 625.62 | 99-27 | 098-62 |Fo0-0r| gt-ze| 9.09 | $9.09 | so1g | pse6e | Pest ics zb-oz | PLis | Sg-6r | LS9.6e | oo.eh | L66.6z 9¢-9F| 1.69 | 9S-1S | gezS | 696.62 | =g8t 7% sasvioay Lg-zP | £92.64 } Sg-Eh | £85.62 16-0 | 9-88 | 81-29 | OP-EP | SES.6% |**tequie.aq 00-17 | 667-62 | O1-2P | Zal-6% 99-1 | G0g | 9%-FS | OL-PP | L18-6% |**49quIoaony g9-€S | 999-6 | LO-1G | 120.08 cue | LVL | 10-S¢ | LI-SG | L86.6% |*****22q0199 14:29 | Z€P-6 | SP.09 | 616-62 Of-F | f1L | 66-bS | GS.€9 | 168-60 |**tequiardag 92-29 | ZRV-66 916.62 08-9 | 6.09 | SoS | 6z-b9 | £96.60 |" *tasnsny LI-£9 | 29-66 [60.08 £75 | P19 | LLS9 | SLo.og |-e-*** Sing 13-85 | 699-62 870.08 ; UbS | 1€-0G | 60-19 | 990.0 | “*****aune gL-€S | Z19-6z 026-62 L:z9 | VE-6F | Lo-Ls aw steese Kay 8S-9F | 9L8.6z O€T-0€ P-09 | 96-87 | 9£-67 sored yy 19-LE | (£6.62 S0L-0€ 3.69 | 90:6F | LoIP sees YOUR AT v9-LE | $z0-0€ . 09@-0€ aSL | 29:6P | L6.0V + Areniqaq 69:86 | S26-6z €St-0€ 66-0$ | SS-IP s+ Arenuer S ‘uy ‘ul ° ° ~ OS ~ a RCC lienites sajawMO1eEg *ra}aUOLSATT ‘W'v is 3 1a}JIMLOULIOY T, ‘WV $8 3 ‘Wd 1 3? ainjesaduiay, uorjeirodea A9JIUIOULIOY J, *19}9UIOULIOY T, 2929 ‘sayouy Ul sajyauo1eg, "029 ‘sayouy U sraye yy “dg jo | *‘uojsog | ‘uopuo’y ‘uopuo'Ty ACV %90]9,0 g 4sed-j,ey 92 G10dsoy ‘ATT ‘saniag witty 47 "GERI “aquaracy JO YISG IY? 02 FEST taquavaqy fo yISG ay; most ‘aurznsnyy joorydosopiyg 9y7 JO pua ay} 4D sajqny Jwoisojo.oajayy ayz fo syynsayy In 2R2 a 316 Results of our Meteorological Tables for 1825. In order to obtain the correct mean annual results of the barometers, thermometers, and depths of rain at Gosport, in London, and at Boston for this table, I recalculated the tables at the end of the Numbers of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal for 1825. I shall here notice by the way of Errata, that Mr. Veall’s barometer appears too low by 45-100dths of an inch on the 11th of May, and on the 16th of that month 5-10ths of an inch too low*, Again, on the 26th of November, Mr. J. Cary’s barometer is too high by 6-10ths of an inch. ‘These errors I have corrected in the monthly mean pressures in the table, as on comparison it will be readily discovered that they are errors by some means or other. The mean annual heights of the barometers in the table at the different stations this year, will be found much higher than they were last year, particularly at Gosport and in Lon- don: and the mean annuai temperatures of the external air are more than a degree higher. ‘The aggregate depth of rain at each place is nearly one-third less this year than last. Iam much disappointed at the discontinuation of the use of the pluviameter in London; but by the way of making the table complete, I have substituted the depth of rain that fell there in November and December by approximation. As the va- rieties of weather, and the heights of barometers very much depend on the position of the prevailing winds, as well as on the vicissitudes of the seasons, I think it necessary to notice some peculiarities in their position at Boston and Gosport. The winds from the North-east and East frequently travel over the Russian empire, Denmark, &c., and those from the South-east over part of Asia, Turkey, Hungary, and Germany before they arrive at Boston; and in these directions overland they become drier than the opposite winds which travel over a great extent of sea: hence it is that the pressure at Boston is comparatively greater with these winds than with those from opposite points of the compass. In comparing the position of the winds as registered at these places, they will seldom be found to blow simultaneously from the same point, and their directions are very often four, some- times eight points different, and not unfrequently in opposite directions. The difference in their directions at the same time of registering, no doubt arises chiefly from the different lati- tudes of these places, as it respects a tract of land upwards of two degrees in extent between them; and the South-west and West winds, which are so prevalent here from the Atlantic * We have just learnt, however, that Mr.Veall finds these heights to be correct, according to his journal.—Eprr. Ocean, Melaina.— Patents. — Meteorological Journal for March. 317 Ocean, either often die away, or change their direction, before they arrive at Boston, from their meeting with other currents over the land; consequently, a less quantity of rain falls an- nually at Boston than at Gosport. . MELAINA. Sig. Bizio considers the black matter of the ink of the cuttles fish as a substance swz generis, which he calls Melaina, from péaas and a}. It is obtained by digesting the ink with very dilute nitric acid until it become yellowish, washing it well, and separating it by the filter; it is then to be frequently boiled in water, one of the washings to be a little alkalized, and finally with distilled water. The melaina is a tasteless black powder, insoluble in alco- hol, zther, and water while cold, but soluble in hot water; the solution is black. Caustic alkalies form with it a solu- tion even in the cold, from which the mineral acids precipitate it unchanged. It contains much azote. It dissolves in and decomposes sulphuric acid. It easily kindles at the flame of a candle. It has been found to succeed as a pigment, in some respects better than China ink.—(Gzornale di Fisica.) Dublir. Phil. Journ. _ LIST OF NEW PATENTS. To John Bellingham, of Norfolk-street, Strand, for im- provements in the construction of cooking apparatus.—Dated 18th of April 1826.—2 months allowed to enrol specification. To James Rowbotham, of Great Surrey-street, Blackfriars Road, hat manufacturer, and Robert Lloyd, of No. 71, Strand, in the county of Middlesex, for a method of preparing a sub- stance for the purpose of being made into hats, bonnets, coats, and wearing apparel in general, and various other purposes.— 18th of April.—6 months. Results of a Meteorological Journal for March 1826, kept at the Observatory of the Royal Academy, Gosport, Hants. General Observations. The first part of this month was alternately wet and dry, but mild for March; the latter part was dry, windy, and very cold. From the vernal equinox to the end of the month, with the exception of one day, the temperature of the air decreased considerably, with smart frosty nights; and a heavy equinoc- tial gale blew seven days and nights from the North and North- east. The 23d was a cold winter-like day, with snow from 9 till 11 A.M.; but from the dampness of the air it was not adhesive 318 Meteorological Journal for March. adhesive to the trees or to the ground, and was the first we had had here during the past winter: it again snowed in the night, and by the morning it had covered Portsdown Hill. Snow also fell here on the 26th, which was the coldest day and night since the 28th of last January. Heavy snow-showers and boisterous winds were also experienced in other parts of the country, particularly to the northward. Early in the morning of the 27th, the ice was one-third of an inch thick, and in the mornings of the 30th and 31st, it was one-eighth of an inch thick. This ungenial weather was a seasonable check upon the budding of the fruit-trees, and has therefore made the spring rather backward; but this will no doubt be bene- ficial in the end. An early spring, with variable weather, is much dreaded in this latitude, as the frosty nights which al- most invariably ensue, have a destructive effect upon the young fruit, and vegetation. ‘The mean temperature of the external air this month, is one-third of a degree less than that of last month! The maximum temperature occurred in the night of the 6th, instead of in the day. Spring water seems to have arrived at its minimum temperature, as it is now at a stand. On the morning of the 3lst two beautiful parhelia, and a fine solar halo appeared between 8 and 9 o’clock. ‘The first arhelion on the south side of the sun was visible from eight till half-past, one degree without the exterior colour of the solar halo, and 23 degrees distant from the sun’s centre: it varied in shape, being sometimes circular, at other times gib- bous and oblong, according to the motion and density of the almost invisible vapour in which it was formed by the reflected rays of the sun; and the orange, light yellow, and blue co- lours with which it was embellished, were sufficiently vivid to be traced through a passing attenuated czrrostratus cloud. The other parhelion on the north side of the sun, which ap- peared from half-past eight till a quarter to nine, was not so bright in its primitive colours, in consequence of the most dense part of the vapour having passed off by means of a fresh wind from the North-west; but its distance was the same from the sun’s centre, viz. 23 degrees. ‘The solar halo was well- defined, its horizontal diameter was 44 degrees, and its whole area presented a lake colour bounded by a turbid red, whilst that part of the sky in its vicinity was gray. The atmospheric and meteoric phenomena that have come within our observations, this month, are two parhelia, two so- lar and two lunar halos, three meteors, one rainbow, and thir- teen gales, of wind, or days on which they have prevailed, namely, one from the North, seven from North-east, one from South-east, and four from the South-west. Numerical Meteorological Journal for March. 319 Numerical Results for the Month. Inches. Maximum 30°36, March 3lst—Wind N.W. Minimum 29°37, Ditto 24th—Wind N.E. _ Range of the mercury. . 0°99. Mean barometrical pressure for the month. ..... 29°958 for the lunar period ending the 8th inst.. . 29°971 for 14 days, with the Moon in North declin. 29'902 for 15 day s, with the Moon in South declin. 30°040 Spaces described by the rising and falling of the mercury 6:110 Greatest variation in 24 Rates oy te: Boge tei te a Wiotine. Seinen te a tae Wainber-of changes srips- 0 jejernne staat eR ee ics Ph cenasctuk ; Maximum 59°, March 9th. Wind: S, E. Minimum 31 Ditto 26th—Wind NE. CTT Sea Ae aaa a 28 Mean temp. of the external air 45°56 for 30 days with the Sun in Pisces. Kh: oe ee variation in 24 ois 21:00 ean temp. of spring water : at 8 o’clock A. M> eee \ eure De Luc’s Whalebone Hygrometer. Degrees. Greatest humidity of the air . 95 in the evening of the 6th. Greatest dryness of ditto ... 50 several times. Range of the index ...... 45 Mean at 2 o’clock P.M. ... 642 at 8 o'clock A.M. ... 72:3 —— at8o'clock P.M. . 71°6 of three observations packs 69°4 day at 8, 2, and 8 o’clock } - Evaporation forthe month %.-< ss .-. « .» $°620 inch. Rain in the pluviameter near the ground . 2°615 Rain in ditto 23 feet high. ......... 2°370 Prevailing wind, N.E. Summary of the Weather. A clear sky, 5; fine, with various modifications of clouds, 13; an overcast sky without rain, 9; rain, 4.—Total 31 days. Barometer Clouds. Cirrus, Cirrocumulus. Cirrostratus, Stratus. Cumulus. Cumulostr, Nimbus. 13 5 D4 1 i GF 23 15 Scale of the prevailing Winds. N. NE: £.° "8.8. ~8.W. WwW. M,W.: iDays, $10). 2eeerre Soers, 44 31 A METEORO- oul Suu03g Apnoj9 ued Urey “AULT ; ound MOUS 2 Uley ‘ud ) uley Teyay arey “Apnoyy wed urey * FIVGVL TWOLIOTOUOMLAIN V THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. | STS ee EY 4896, XLIX. On Mr. Datron’s Speculations respecting the Miz- ture of Gases, the Constitution of the Atmosphere, &c. - By Tuomas TrepcGotp, Esg.* T appears that Mr. Dalton’s speculations respecting the mixture of gases and vapours, and the nature of the atmo- sphere, have been very generally received as true explanations * of the phenomena of the one and of the nature of the other; and by those who are considered of high authority in science. Under these circumstances, it becomes the duty of those who reject these speculations as erroneous, to exhibit the grounds on which they do object to them, in the hope that the true explanation of these important points of physical science may be established. We owe much to Mr. Dalton, even in cases where he has not been successful, and his name will always be respected by those who feel any interest in the progress of knowledge; and I am sorry that I have to oppose as inaccurate one of those bold speculations on which much of his fame has been raised. If his had been merely speculations, and without influence on the progress of other branches of physical inquiry, they might have remained unopposed; but when formule for the reduction of chemical experiments to a common standard are founded on them, and they are made the basis of other theories, and are used in the correction of barometrical measurements, and in various meteorological inquiries, it becomes a work of necessity to examine how far these doctrines are founded in truth. When Mr. Dalton’s opinions first appeared, they were op- posed by Mr. Gough, and with sufficient force to have called for more accurate investigation before they were acceded to. Mr. Gough’s paper was however not satisfactory to me; and as far as | can recollect, it was very diffuse. The whole of Mr. Dalton’s theory rests upon a very im- * Communicated by the Author. Vol. 67. No. 337. May 1826. 28 portant 322 Mr. Tredgold on Mr. Dalton’s Speculations portant proposition in aérostatics: for if this proposition be true, the whole of his speculations are at variance from it, and mtst, therefore, be erroneous. Consequently, the labour of refuting them is reduced into a very narrow compass. Proposition I.—If an uniform mixture of gases or vapours, which mix without condensation, be confined in a close vessel, the elastic force of each gas on a given surface must be the same, and equal to the elastic force of the mixture on the same extent of surface. Let p be the elastic force of the mixture, and V the volume of the vessel. Also let A and B be the two gases, and v the volume of the gas A when its elastic force is p. It is obvious, that v must be less than V, otherwise the gas A would entirely fill the vessel, and a mixture could not be formed without condensation. But since v is less than V, and the gas A is uniformly dis- tributed throughout the greater volume of the vessel V, its parts must be kept asunder by a force which is not less than its own elastic force; and as the force which keeps separate the parts of the gas A, is the elastic force of the gas B, there- fore, the elastic force of the gas B in the mixture cannot be less than that of A. But by the same steps it may be proved that the elastic force of the gas A cannot be less than that of B, and conse- quently, that their elastic forces must be equal in the mixture, and also equal to the elastic force of the mixture. The addition of two other propositions will not only give the means of comparing the result of the preceding one with experiment, but also give the formule which will supply the place of Mr. Dalton’s. Proposition II.—If given volumes V, v, of gases of different elastic forces. F, £ be allowed to mix and occupy the volumes which previously contained them, the elastic force of the mix- VF +of ; cee v- Let p be the elastic force of the mixture: and since it has been proved that each gas taken separately must be of the same elastic force-as the mixture, and the volumes are in- versely as the elastic forces, we have TE - mise |S se “s = the volume of the gas whose elastic force ture will be equal to p was f before mixture; and consequently, V+u— a = pV + JF _ the volume to be occupied by the other gas. Hence a ee a Ws yee ye ees ee V* p(V+v)—vf “* ‘P= 5(V40)=0f? V+u a respecting the Mixture of Gases, Sc. 323 Cor. 1.— When the volumes before mixture are equal EF i 2 S ae =p; or the resulting elastic force is the mean be- tween the elastic forces before mixture. Cor. 2.—If F =f, then F = p, or the elastic force, is not changed by mixture. eae. ProposiTionIIJ.—If given volumesV, v, of gases or vapours of different elastic forces F, f, be mixed, and the elastic force c VF J of the mixture be p, then aie = the volume of the mix- ture. ~ For, by Prop. 1, the elastic force of each gas is to be equal to the elastic force of the mixture, and therefore ite VF ae eens Vs -- = the volume of the gas whose force be- P fore mixture was F; and Tank ra 5 39: af = ‘the volume of the gas whose force was f before mixture: hence, the volume of the resulting compound , Veto Pp Cor.— When V = », and F = p, we have ee = the volume after mixture. This condition, viz. that V = v, seems to apply with accuracy to the combination of air with the vapour of water, when the Vp Pia the volume; and to put the two to the test, let an experiment be made when / is equal to 3 p. By Mr. Dalton’s formula, the volume of the mixture of air and vapour would be three times the volume of the dry air. By my formula the volume of the mixture of air.and vapour would be only 13 of the volume of the dry air. I did intend to conclude here; but I cannot resist the temp- tation to ask Mr. Dalton, or M. Gay-Lussac, how in a mix- ture of one part of dry air of an elastic force of 30 inches of mercury with 2 parts of vapour of the elastic force of only 20 inches, the whole mixture should possess an elastic force of 30 inches? If they can answer this question satisfactorily, we need not altogether despair of a perpetual motion being discovered. But to be once again serious: I shall be very happy to have any error in my train of reasoning or results pointed out, should such be detected by any of your learned contributors. 16, Grove Place, Lisson Grove, May 2, 1826, 282 L. On air is saturated. Mr. Dalton arrives at the formula ne VL. S28 Jp" dear tees - a + : L. On the Equilibrium of the Funicular Curve when the String is extensible. By H. Mosetey, Esg. B.A.* qEt the forces acting on the point (2, y) of the curve in the directions of the axes be X Y. Let the length of the corresponding branch of the curve be (s) and the tension at its extremity T. Then since by a property of the funicular polygon all the forces acting on the branch (s) if applied at its extremity would be in equilibrum with the tension (T) at that point, we have, calling » the mass of an unit of (s), and S its length before distension, the mass of each linear unit being in this case considered unity, fRpeds+ TH 0 oh (1) [Ypds+ TA s0 oon... (2) T ds—(1+y)dS=0........ (3) (E being the modulus of extension) CF as 0e ee Ss ~ (4) From the two first equations, we get yf[Xuds—xrfYuds q.yguse? aedy =0 ds —yd ¢ sty = = the perpendicular on the tangent = p Now, (suppose), .*. differentiating S we obtain (observing that dy SXpds—dzxfYpds=0) (Xy—Ya)pds—d(Tp)=0..... (a) Again, differentiating the equations (1) and (2) multiplying the former by dz and the latter by dy and adding, we get dT + (Xdz+Ydyjp=0....... (B) And by equations (3) and (4), 1 oy 1+ = Xy— Yoa)ds abi ieee Sesh +dadT=0 SS at a * Communicated by the Author. from: Mr. Moseley on the Equilibrium of the Funicular Curve. 325 from the last equation f (Xdz4 Vdy+T++ Pec ao. T?4 OTE = CE —2/(Xdzx + Xdy)E “ T=—E+ V E74 {C—2 [(Xdz+ YdyRE if one extremity of the string be free so that at this extremity _T =0, and the integral be taken from this point as a limit, then C = 0, and the equilibrium becomes impossible, unless E>2 /(Xdx+Ydy). In the impossible case, a continual motion will be com- municated to the string by the action of the forces upon it. In the case in which the extremities of the string are joined: if M be the value of /(X dz + Ydy) taken through the arc (s), and N its value taken throughout the whole length plus the quantity s, we have, since in the latter case T becomes — T T? + 2TE = C — 2ME T? — 2TE = C — 2NE eT =(N—M) _ N-—M — - __ To determine the equation to the curve, we have generally, if {C —2/(Xdx+ Ydy)}{E=K. E E \i Spe ye Gar ) = —E+ (E?+ KE)! 63 + — E+ (E+ KE) eV a ik ea gf / #(E +5)? Whence the curve may in all cases be determined. Also when the force acts from a centre, we have Xy— Yr =0 . by the equation («) d(Tp)=0 —E+(E?+ XE)} the double value of (p) for a given value of (r), shows two positions of equilibrium ; in the case in which p is negative . yde—ady oe pea BN eA els gio As 326 Mr. Faraday on the mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid Or the angle PSM < PTX and .«. the pole S lies without the curve as in fig. 2. In this case the equilibrium is stable when the force is at- tractive, and unstable when repulsive. In the other case the curve may be convex or concave to the pole, or both. In the case in which the extremities of the string are joined, we have but one position of equilibrium, and 2 P= MN’ In this case the form of the curve will be the same as though it were inextensible. LE. On the mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid and Naphthaline, and on a new Acid produced. By M. Faravay, Esq. F.R.S. Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Sc. de.* | a paper * On new compounds of carbon and hydrogen +,” lately honoured by the Royal Society with a place in the Philosophical Transactions, I had occasion briefly to notice, the peculiar action exerted on certain of those compounds by sulphuric acid. During my attempts to ascertain more mi- nutely the general nature of this action, I was led to suspect the occasional combination of the hydro-carbonaceous matter with the acid, and even its entrance into the constitution of the salts, which the acid afterwards formed with bases. Although this opinion proved incorrect, relative to the peculiar hydro- carbons forming the subject of that paper, yet it led to expe- riments upon analogous bodies, and amongst others, upon naphthaline, which terminated in the production of the new acid body and salts now to be described. * From the Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part II. + See Philosophical Magazine, vol. Ixvi. p. 180. Some and Naphthaline, and on a new Acid produced. 327 Some of the results obtained by the use of the oil gas pro- ducts are very peculiar. If, when completed, I find them suf- ficiefitly interesting, I shall think it my duty to place them before the Royal Society, as explicatory of that action_of sul- phuric acid which was briefly noticed in my last paper. Most authors who have had occasion to describe naphthaline, have noticed its habitudes with sulphuric acid. Mr. Brande, several years since* stated that naphthaline dissolved in heated sulphuric acid “ in considerable abundance, forming a deep violet coloured solution, which bears diluting with water with- out decomposition. The alkalies produce in this solution a white flaky precipitate, and if diluted the mixture becomes curiously opalescent, in consequence of the separation of nu- merous small flakes.” The precipitate by alkali was probably one of the salts to be hereafter described. Dr. Kidd observes +, that ‘it blackens sulphuric acid when boiled with it; the addition of water to the mixture having no other effect than to dilute the colour, neither does any preci- pitation take place upon saturating the acid with ammonia.” Mr. Chamberlain states {, that sulphuric acid probably de- composes naphthaline, for that it holds but a very small quan- tity in solution. The true interpretation of these facts and statements will be readily deduced from the following experi- mental details. 1. Production and Properties of the new Acid formed from Sul~ phuric Acid and Naphthaline. Naphthaline, which had been almost entirely freed from naphtha by repeated sublimation and pressure, was pulverized ; about one part with three or four parts by weight of cold sul- phuric acid were put into a bottle, well shaken, and left for 36 hours. The mixture then contained a tenacious deep red fluid, and a crystalline solid ; it had no odour of sulphurous acid. Water being added, all the liquid and part of the solid was dissolved; a few fragments of naphthaline were left, but the greater part was retained in solution. The diluted fluid being filtered was of a light brown tint, transparent, and of an acid and bitter taste. For the purpose of combining as much naphthaline as pos- sible with the sulphuric acid, 700 grains, with 520 grains of oil of vitriol were warmed in a Florence flask until entirely fluid, and were well shaken for about 30 minutes. The mix- ture was red; and the flask being covered up and left to cool, * Quarterly Journal of Science, viii. p. 289. 1819. + Philosophical Transactions, 1821, p. 216. t Annals of Philosophy, N.S. vi. p. 186. 1823, was 828 Mr. Faraday on the mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid was found after some hours to contain, at the bottom, a little brownish fluid, strongly acid, the rest of the contents having solidified into a highly crystalline mass. The cake was re- moved, and its lower surface having been cleaned, it was put into another Florence flask with 300 grains more of naphtha- line, the whole melted and well shaken together, by which an uniform mixture was obtained ; but opaque and dingy in co- lour. It was now poured into glass tubes, in which it could be retained and examined without contact of air. In these the substance was observed to divide into two portions, which could easily be distinguished from each other, whilst both were retained in the fluid state. The heavier portion was in the largest quantity; it was of a deep red colour, opaque in tubes half an inch in diameter, but in small tubes could be seen through by a candle, or sun light, and appeared perfectly clear. The upper portion was also of a deep red colour, but clear, and far more transparent than the lower: the line of separa- tion very defined. On cooling the tubes, the lighter substance first solidified, and after some time the heavier substance also became solid. In this state, whilst in the tube, they could with great difficulty be distinguished from each other. These two substances were separated, and being put into” tubes, were further purified by being left in a state of repose at temperatures above their fusing points, so as to allow of separation; and when cold, the lower part of the lighter sub- stance, and the upper, as well as the lower part of the heavier substance, were set aside for further purification. The heavier substance was a red crystalline solid, soft to the nail like a mixture of wax and oil. Its specific gravity was from 1-3 to 1°4, varying in different specimens; its taste sour, bitter, and somewhat metallic. When heated in a tube, it fused, forming as before a clear but deep red fluid. Further heat decomposed it, naphthaline, sulphurous acid, charcoal, &e. being produced. When heated in the air it burnt with much flame. Exposed to air it attracted moisture rapidly, became brown and-damp upon the surface, and developed a coat of naphthaline. It dissolved entirely in alcohol, forming a brown solution. When rubbed in water a portion of naph- thaline separated, amounting to 27 per cent. and a brown acid solution was obtained. ‘This was found by experiments to contain a peculiar acid mixed with a little free sulphuric acid, and it may conveniently be called the zmpure acid. The lighter substance was much harder than the former, and more distinctly crystalline. It was of a dull red colour, easily broken down in a mortar, the powder being nearly white, and adhesive like naphthaline. It was highly sapid, being acid, bitter, and. Naphthaline, and on a new Acid produced. _ 329. bitter, and astringent. When heated in a tube it melted, forming a clear red fluid, from which by a continued heat much colourless naphthaline sublimed, and a black acid sub- stance was left, which at a high temperature gaye sul- phurous acid and charcoal. When heated in the air it took fire and burnt like naphthaline. Being rubbed in a mortar with water, a very large portion of it proved to be insoluble; this was naphthaline; and on filtration the solution contained the peculiar acid found to exist in the heavier substance, con- taminated with very little sulphuric acid. More minute ex- amination proved that this /ighter substance in its fluid state was a solution of a small quantity of the dry peculiar acid in naphthaline; and that the heavier substance was an union of the peculiar acid in large quantity with water, free sulphuric acid, and naphthaline. It was easy by diminishing the proportion of naphthaline to make the whole of it soluble, so that when water was added to the first result of the experiment, nothing separated; and the solution was found to contain sulphuric acid with the peculiar acid. But reversing the proportions, no excess of naphtha- line was competent, at least in several hours, to cause the entire disappearance of the sulphuric acid. When the expe- riment was carefully made with pure naphthaline, and either at common, or slightly elevated temperatures, no sulphurous acid appeared to be formed, and the action seemed to consist in a simple union of the concentrated acid and the hydro- carbon. Hence it appears, that when concentrated sulphuric acid and naphthaline are brought into contact at common, or mo- derately elevated temperatures, a peculiar compound of sul- phuric acid with the elements of the naphthaline is produced, which possesses acid properties; and as this exists in large quantity in the heavier of the bodies above described, that pro- duct may conveniently be called the impure solid acid. ‘The experiments made with it, and the mode of obtaining the pure acid from it, are now to be described. Upon applying heat and agitation to a mixture of one volume of water and five volumes of impure solid acid, the water was taken up to the exclusion of nearly the whole of the free naphthaline present ; the latter separating in a colour- less state from the red hydrated acid beneath it. As the tem- perature of the acid diminished, crystallization in tufts com- menced here and there, and ultimately the whole became a brownish yellow solid. A sufficient addition of water dis- solved nearly the whole of this hydrated acid, a few flakes only of naphthaline separating. Vol. 67. No. 337. May 1826. 2T A portion 330 Mr. Faraday on the mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid A portion of the impure acid in solution was evaporated at a moderate temperature; when concentrated, it gradually assumed a light brown tint. In this state it became solid on cooling, of the hardness of cheese, and was very deliquescent. By further heat it melted, then fumed, charred, &c. and gave evidence of the abundant presence of carbonaceous matter. Some of the impure acid in solution was neutralized by potash, during which no naphthaline or other substance se- parated. The solution being concentrated until ready to yield a film on its surface, was set aside whilst hot to crystallize: after some hours the solution was filled with minute silky cry- stals, in tufts, which gave the whole, when stirred, not the appearance of mixed solid salt and liquid, but that of a very strong solution of soap. The agitation also caused the sud- den solidification of so much more salt, that the whole became solid, and felt like a piece of soft soap. The salt when dried had no resemblance to sulphate of potash. When heated in the air, it burnt with a dense flame, leaving common sulphate of potash, mixed with some sulphuret of potassium, resulting from the action of the carbon, &c. upon the salt. Some of the dry salt was digested in alcohol to separate common sulphate of potash. The solution being filtered and evaporated, gave a white salt soluble in water and alcohol, crystalline, neutral, burning in the air with much flame, and leaving sulphate of potash. It was not precipitated by nitrate of lead, muriate of baryta, or nitrate of silver. It was now evident that an acid had been formed peculiar in its nature and composition, and producing with bases pe- culiar salts. In consequence of the solubility of its barytic salt, the following process for the preparation of the pure acid was adopted : A specimen of native carbonate of baryta was selected, and its purity ascertained. It was then pulverized, and rubbed in successive portions with a quantity of the impure acid in so- lution, until the latter was perfectly neutralized, during which the slight colour of the acid was entirely removed. The so- lution was found to contain the peculiar barytic salt. Water added to the solid matter dissolved out more of the salt; and ultimately only carbonate and sulphate of baryta, mixed with a little of another barytic salt, remained. The latter salt be- ing much less soluble in water than the former, was not re- moved so readily by lixiviation, and was generally found to be almost entirely taken up by the last portions of water applied with heat. The barytic salt in solution was now very carefully decom- posed, by successive additions of sulphuric acid, until all the baryta and Naphthaline, and ona new Acid produced. 331 baryta was separated, no excess of sulphuric acid being per- mitted. Being filtered, a pure aqueous solution of the peculiar acid was obtained. It powerfully reddened litmus paper, and had a bitter acid taste. Being evaporated to a certain degree, a portion of it was subjected to the continued action of heat ; when very concentrated it began to assume a brown colour, and on cooling became thick, and ultimately solid, and was very deliquescent. By renewed heat it melted, then began to fume, charred, but did not flame; and ultimately gave sul- phuric and sulphurous acid vapours, and left charcoal. Another portion of the unchanged strong acid solution was placed over sulphuric acid in an exhausted receiver. In some hours it had by concentration become a soft white solid, ap- parently dry; and after a longer period was hard and brittle. In this state it was deliquescent in the air, but in close vessels underwent no change in several months. Its taste was bitter, acid, and accompanied by an after metallic flavour, like that of cupreous salts. When heated in a tube at temperatures below 212°, it melted without any other change; and on being © allowed to cool, crystallized from centres, the whole ultimately becoming solid. "When more highly heated, water at first passed off, and the acid assumed a slight red tint; but no sul- phurous acid was as yet produced, nor any charring occa~- sioned; and a portion being dissolved and tested by muriate of baryta, gave but a very minute trace of free sulphuric acid. In this state it was probably anhydrous. Further heat caused a little naphthaline to rise, the red colour became deep brown, -and then a sudden action commenced at the bottom of the tube, which spread over the whole, and the acid became black and opaque. Continuing the heat, naphthaline, sulphurous acid, and charcoal were evolved ; but even after some time the residuum examined by water and carbonate of baryta, was found to contain a portion of the peculiar acid undecomposed, unless the temperature had been raised to redness. These facts establish the peculiarity of this acid, and distin- cuish it from all others. In its solid state it is generally a hydrate containing much combustible matter. It is readily so- Juble in water — alcohol, and its solutions form neutral salts with bases, all of which are soluble in water, most of them in alcohol, and all combustible, leaving sulphates or sulphurets according to circumstances. _ It dissolves in naphthaline, oil of turpentine, and olive oil, in greater or smaller quantities, ac- cording as it contains less or more water. As ahydrate, when it is almost insoluble in naphthaline, it resembles the heavier substance, obtained, as before described, by the action of sul- phuric acid on naphthaline, and which is the solid hydrated oT 2 acid, 332 Capt. Sabine’s Remarks on the Method of investigating acid, containing a little naphthaline, and some free sulphuric acid; whilst the lighter substance is a solution of the dry acid in naphthaline; the water present in the oil of vitriol originally used being sufficient to cause a separation of a part, but not of the whole. (To be continued.] LIT. Hydrographical Notices :—Remarks on the Method of in- vestigating the Direction and Force of theCurrents of theOcean; Presence of the Water of the Gulf-Stream on the Coasts of Europe in January 1822; Summary of the Currents experienced by His Majesty's Ship Pheasant, in a Voyage from Sierra Leone to Bahia, and thence to New York; Stream of the River Amazons crossed, three hundred Miles from the Mouth of the River. By Capt. Enwarp Sasint, &. A. FR. § LS. §c.* PREVIOUSLY to my leaving England in 1821, I had had the great advantage of much conversation with Major Rennell, on the subject of the currents in the northern and southern Atlantic Oceans, and of having my attention direct- ed by him to those points in particular, concerning their ve- locity, limits, and temperature, on which further inquiries might conduce to the advancement of hydrographical know- ledge. The method of ascertaining the existence, direction and ye- locity of a current, where land is not in sight, and a ship can- not be rendered stationary by anchorage, is to compare her position at intervals of sufficient length (generally of 24 hours) by observation and by reckoning. By the former is learnt her real change of geographical position in the interval; by the latter, the course and distance that she has gone through the water; should the position by the reckoning not agree with the position by the observation, the difference (presuming both to be correct) is the indication and measure of current. To determine a ship’s position from day to day by observa- tion, or rather, her relative position on one day to the pre- ceding, has become, since the introduction of chronometers, a matter of very simple accomplishment, and capable of much precision. It is far otherwise with the reckoning, however, when more is sought by it than such a rough approximation as may serve the ordinary purposes of navigation: it must, in fact, require the most assiduous and unremitting attention, as well as considerable nautical experience and judgement, to * From Captain Sabine’s newly-published Account of his Experiments to determine the Figure of the Earth. estimate the Direction, Se. of the Currents of the Ocean. 3383 estimate correctly the continually varying effects of the winds and sea, on a body that is also continually varying the mea- sure of her exposure to their influence. It may be in the power of an individual in a vessel, to obtain, by his own ex- ertions alone, that portion of the materials towards the evidence of currents, which depends on her real change of position; but the completion of the evidence by a sufficiently correct reckoning must be the result of an interest participated in by all the executive officers of a ship; or by the establishment of such habits of accuracy, under the authority of her com- mander, as are not of usual practice, because they are not ne- cessary for the general purposes of navigation; the employ- ment of chronometers, by which the position of a ship is ascer- tained and a fresh departure taken on every day that the sun shines, has superseded the necessity of that vigilant and scru- pulous regard, which the older navigators paid to all the de- tails of the reckoning, on which alone they had to depend; and has tended to substitute general habits of loose and vague estimation, for the considerate and well-practised judgement with which allowances were formerly made for the incidental circumstances of steerage, leeway, making and shortening sail, &c. &c., on a due attention to which the accuracy of a reckon- ing so materially depends. In ships of war especially, the reckoning is further embar- rassed by a difficulty less obvious, but not less generally opera- tive, by which, if not properly provided against, the know- ledge of the true course which the ship has made is necessarily _ rendered very uncertain: it arises from the usual practice of di- recting the course by the binnacle compasses, which are two in number for the convenience of the helmsmen, and being placed one on the Jarboard and the other on the starboard side of the midship, with a space between them of greater or less ex- tent according to the size of the vessel, can scarcely fail, and are, in fact, generally influenced differently by the ship’s iron ; and being subject to different sys/ems of attraction, the com- passes not only disagree, but their disagreement varies ac- cording to the direction of ship’s head, the amount of the dip of the needle, and the force of terrestrial magnetism. It is customary always to steer by the weather compass; and thus each is liable to become in its turn the directing compass for periods of more or less duration, and the corrections of the courses for the disturbing influence of the ship’s iron, becomes so various and complicated, as to render the deduction of a correct reckoning practically unattainable. [or example, the binnacle compasses of the Iphigenia, on her passage from nue and 334 Capt. Sabine on the Presence of the Water land to Madeira, were observed to differ from each other half a point in one direction when on south-westerly courses, and less than half a point in the opposite direction when on easterly courses, the indications of the compasses having crossed each other, and agreed at some intermediate point; it was requisite, therefore, that the correction to be allowed on every course by each of the two compasses should be ascertained, and that the compass by which each course was directed should be specially recorded, in order that the true course should be known. The most obvious mode of preventing so much inconyve- nience and trouble, as well as the more correct practice, is to direct and note the ship’s course by one compass only, sta- tioned permanently in some convenient situation, without re- ference to the helmsmen, and to use the binnacle compasses solely to steer by, on the point which may be noticed at the time to agree with the magnetic course of the standard com- pass; and by employing an azimuth compass for the latter purpose, the advantage is gained of enabling the variation to be observed directly with the compass by which the course is governed, and thus of avoiding intermediate comparisons, in which time is occupied, and errors frequently introduced. This arrangement of a standard compass was adopted by Captain Clavering in the Pheasant, and subsequently in the Griper, and was found to answer its purpose perfectly, and to be attended with no practical inconvenience whatsoever. Although from the courses above noticed, no satisfactory investigation of the direction or velocity of currents could be made in the Iphigenia, in her passage from England to the coast of Africa, a remarkable and very interesting evidence was obtained by observations on the temperature of the sea, of the accidental presence in that year of the water of the Gulf- stream, in longitudes much to the eastward of its ordinary ex- tension. The Iphigenia sailed from Plymouth on the 4th of January, after an almost continuous succession of very heavy westerly and south-westerly gales, by which she had been re- peatedly driven back and detained in the ports of the Channel. The following memorandum exhibits her position at noon on each day of her subsequent voyage from Plymouth to Ma- deira, and from thence to Cape Verd Islands, the tempera- ture of the air in the shade and to windward, and that of the surface of the sea; it also exhibits in comparison, the or- dinary temperature of the ocean at that season, in the respec- -tive parallels, which Major Rennell has been so kind as to permit me to insert on his authority, as an approximation founded of the Gulf-stream in Europe, in 1822. 335 founded on his extensive inquiries ; the last. column shows the excess or defect in the temperature observed in the Iphigenia’s passage. Latit. \Longit.| Surface Water. | Excess N. | W Pe ! [SRST Fy a aay: QObserved.| Usual. | Defect. - |S 1822. 5 i o s] © ° ° Jan. 5'47 30| 7 30| 47 | 49 56 | ae] Pech 644 20) 9 30] 52:5| 55°7 | 52:5 | 43-9 a 7/41 29/11 37; 54 | 582 | 54 | beg Madeira 8'38 54/13 20) 54°2| 617 | 55°7 | 46 ; 9} no observ. | 56 63 58 +5 1033 40/15 30) 60°7| 64 60 | +4 1926 00|17 50 66 | 65:5 | 67 | —1°5 Madeira [ 2024 30|18 50, 68 | 67- | 68-4 | —1+4 tothe 4 2123 06/20 00) 69 | 69 69°35 | —0°5 C.Verds. 22/21 02/21 27| 69°5| 69°5 | 71:2 | —1°7 2319 20|23 00) 70°6 | 70°2 | 71°6 | —1*4 It is seen by the preceding memorandum, that in the pas- sage from Plymouth to Madeira, the Iphigenia found the tem- perature of the sea, between the parallels of 443° and 332°, several degrees warmer than its usual temperature in the same season; namely, 3°:2 in 443°, increasing to 6° in 39°, and again diminishing to 4° in 333°; whilst at the same period, the general temperature of the ocean in the adjoining parallels, both to the northward and to the southward, even as far as the Cape Verd Islands in 193°, was colder by a degree and upwards than the usual average. ‘The evidence of many care- ful observers at different seasons and in different years, whose observations have been collected and compared by Major Rennell, has satisfactorily shown, that the water of the Gulf- stream, distinguished by the high temperature which it brings from its origin in the Gulf of Mexico, is not usually found to extend to the eastward of the Azores. Vessels navigating the ocean between the Azores and the continent of Europe, find at all seasons a temperature progressively increasing as they approach the sun; the absolute amount varies according to the season, the maximum in summer being about 14 degrees warmer than the maximum in winter; but the progression in respect to latitude is regular, and is nearly the same in winter as in summer, being an increase of 3° of Fahrenheit for every 5° of latitude. It is further observed, that the ordinary con- dition of the temperature, in the part of the ocean under no- - tice, is little subject to disturbance, and that in any particular parallel ° 336 Capt. Sabine on the Presence of the Water parallel and season, the limits of variation in different years are usually very small: after westerly winds of much strength or continuance, the sea in all the parallels is rather colder than the average temperature, on account of the increased ve- locity communicated to the general set of the waters of the north-eastern Atlantic towards the southward. To the heavy westerly gales which had prevailed almost without intermission in the last fortnight in November, and during the whole of December, may therefore be attributed the colder tempera- tures observed in the latitude of 474°, and in those between 26° and 193°. If doubt could exist in regard to the higher temperatures between 444° and 333°, being a consequence of the extension in that year of the Gulf-stream in the direction of its general course, it might be removed by a circumstance well deserving of notice; namely, that the greatest excess above the natural temperature of the ocean was found in or about the latitude of 39°, being the parallel where the middle of the stream, indi- cated by the warmest water, would arrive, by continuing to flow to the eastward of the Azores, in the prolongation of the great circle in which it is known to reach the mid Atlantic. One previous and similar instance is on record, in which the water of the Gulf-stream was traced by its temperature quite across the Atlantic to the coasts of Europe; this was by Dr. Franklin, in a passage from the United States to France, in November 1776*. ‘The latter part of his voyage, 7.e. from the meridian of 35° to the Bay of Biscay, was performed with little deviation in the latitude of 45°; in this run, exceeding 1200 miles, in a parallel of which the usual temperature, to- wards the close of November, is about 554°, he found 63° in the longitude of 35° W., diminishing to 60° in the Bay of Biscay ; and 61° in 10° west longitude, near the same spot where the Iphigenia found 55°-7 on the 6th of January, being about five weeks later in the season. At this spot then, where the Iphigenia crossed Dr. Franklin’s track, the temperature in November 1776 was 54°, and in January 1822, 3°*2 above the ordinary temperature of the season. There can be little hesitation in attributing the unusual ex- tension of the stream in particular years to its greater initial velocity, occasioned by a more than ordinary difference in the levels of the Gulf of Mexico and of the Atlantic: it has been computed by Major Rennell, from the known velocity of the stream at various points of its course, that in the summer months, when its rapidity is greatest, the water requires about * Franklin’s Works, 8yo, London 1806, vol. ii. pp. 200, 201. eleven of the Gulf-stream in Europe in 1822. 337 eleven weeks to run from the outlet of the Gulf of Mexico to the Azores, being about 3000 geographical miles; and he has further supposed, in the case of the water, of which the tem- perature was examined by Dr. Franklin, that perhaps not less than three months were occupied in addition by its passage to the coasts of Europe, being altogether a course exceeding 4000 geographical miles. On this supposition, the water of the latter end of November 1776, may have quitted the Gulf of Mexico, with a temperature of 83° in June; and that of Ja- nuary 1822, towards the end of July, with nearly the same temperature. The summer months, particularly July and August, are those of the greatest initial velocity of the stream, because it is the period when the level of the Caribbean sea and Gulf of Mexico is most deranged. It is not difficult to imagine, that the space between the Azores and the coasts of the old continent, being traversed by the stream, slowly as it must be, at a much colder season in the instance observed by the Iphigenia than in that by Dr. Franklin, its temperature may have been cooled thereby to a nearer ap- proximation to the natural temperature of the ocean in the former than in the latter case; and that the difference between the excess of 5°°5 in November, and of 3°-2 in January, may be thus accounted for. If the explanation of the apparently very unusual facts ob- served by Dr. Franklin in 1776, and by the Iphigenia in 1522, be correct, how highly curious is the connexion thus traced between a more than ordinary strength of the winds within the tropics in the summer, occasioning the derangement of the level of the Mexican and Caribbean seas, and the high tem- perature of the sea between the British Channel and Madeira, in the following winter. Nor is the probable meteorological influence undeserving of attention, of so considerable an increase in the temperature of the surface-water over an extent of ocean exceeding 600 miles in latitude and 1000 in longitnde, situated so importantly in relation to the western parts of Europe. It is at least a re- markable coincidence, that in November and December 1821, and in January 1822, the state of the weather was so unusual in the southern parts of Great Britain and in France, as to have excited general observation; in the meteorological jour- nals of the period it is characterized ‘ as most extraordinarily hot, damp, stormy, and oppressive :” it is stated that an un- usual quantity of rain fell both in November and December, but particularly in the latter ;” that, “ the gales from the west and south-west were almost without intermission,” and that Vol. 67. No, 337. May 1826. 2U in ~ 338 Capt. Sabine on the Influence of-the Vicinity in December, the mercury in the barometer was lower.than it had been known for 35 years before *. On leaving the Cape Verd Islands, the Iphigenia proceeded to make the continent of Africa at Cape Verd. ‘The distance between the Cape and the Islands is about 400 miles, both be- ing in the same parallel of latitude. ‘This passage afforded an interesting opportunity of observing on the approach to land, the influence of its vicinity on the temperature of the sea. The general temperature of the surface in that parallel and at that season may be considered 71°-7, the observations made at sun- rise, noon, and sunset, in the first 350 miles of the passage, va- rying from 71° to 72°-4: but at sunrise on the 31st of January, being then at the distance of 26 miles west of Cape Verd, with no land as yet in sight, the surface-water had lowered to 69°°6. On approaching nearer it progressively diminished, until at * The following description of this very remarkable winter is extracted from Mr. Daniell’s Essay on the Climate of London (Meteorological Essays, London 1823, pages 297 and 298), and becomes highly curious when viewed in connexion with the unusual temperature of the ocean in the direction from which the principal winds proceeded. “« November 1821, differed from the mean, and from both the preceding years, in avery extraordinary way. The average temperature was 5° above the usual amount, and although its dryness was in excess,” [the relative dryness, in consequence of the increased temperature] “ the quantity of rain exceeded the mean quantity by one half. The barometer on the whole was not below the mean. All the low lands were flooded, and the sowing of wheat very much interrupted by the wet. “In December, the quantity of rain was very nearly double its usual amount. The barometer averaged considerably below the mean, and de- scended lower than had been known for 35 years. Its range was from 30:27 inches to 28:12 inches. The temperature was still high for the sea- son, and the weather continued, as in the last month, in an uninterrupted course of wind and rain; the former often approaching to an hurricane, and the latter inundating all the low grounds. The water-sodden state of the soil, in many parts, prevented wheat sowing, cr fallowing. the land at the regular season. The mild temperature pushed forward all the early sown wheats to an height and luxuriance scarcely ever before witnessed. The grass, and every green production, increased in an equal proportion. January 1822. This mest extraordinary season still continued above the mean temperature, but the rain, as if exhausted in the preceding month, fell much below the usual quantity in this. There was not one day on which the frost lasted during the twenty-four hours. “ Serious apprehensions were entertained lest the wheats, drawn up as they had been by warm and moist weather, without the slightest check from frost, should be exhausted by excessive vegetation, and ultimately be more productive in straw than corn. “The month of February, still five degrees above the mean temperature, ended a winter which has never been paralleled.” It would not be difficult to trace in detail, each of the effects described in the preceding extract, to the cause which has been thus placed in con- nexion with them. one of Land on the Temperature of the Sea. 339 one mile from the shore, it had fallen as low as 64 degrees, and continued from 64 to 65 degrees, between Cape Manoel and Goree. Cape Verd is situated nearly at equal distances, exceeding 70 miles, from the mouths of the Senegal and Gam- bia, the one being to the north and the other to the south. It is probable that the water of both these rivers is always colder at their entrance into the sea, than the ocean temperature of the parallel; that of the Gambia certainly was so at that sea- ‘son, but it was not so cold as the sea in the vicinity of Cape Verd, as on approaching the entrance of the Gambia, the tem- perature of the surface rose to 67°°5, and varied in the river itself at different hours from 66° to 67°°5; and at the depth of 36 feet, being within six feet of the bottom, a self-registering thermometer indicated at high water less than a degree colder than the surface. The coast in the neighbourhood of Cape Verd is every where low and sandy, and is covered with trees to the water’s edge. Such, indeed, is the general character of the shores of western Africa, with the exception of Cape Sierra Leone; but at no other part of the coast was the diminution of the temperature of the water, on approaching the land, so great, as in the instance which has been mentioned. Between the Gambia and Sierra Leone are a succession of rivers, ori- ginating in land of less elevation than the Senegal and Gambia, and much exceeding them in the temperature of the waters which they convey into the ocean; in the mid-channel of the Rio Grande, at a few miles from its mouth, the surface was never less than 74°, and occasionally as high as 77°*5, and at the depth of 30 or 40 feet was less than a degree colder than the surface. At the entrance of the River Noonez the surface- water was 77°°5, and at that of the Rokelle 80°. To the south of the Rokelle, and from thence to the extremity of the Gulf of Guinea, the coast is swept by a current of considerable ra- pidity, which renders the cooling effect of the land less appa- rent; but in the bays of the coast, where the current sweeps from point to point, and leaves still water in the inside, a diffe- rence is commonly found amounting to three and four degrees*. [To be continued.} LIII. On * The passage from the Cape Verd Islands to Cape Verd and the Gambia, afforded a not less interesting opportunity of observing the difference in the hygrometrical state of the atmosphere at sea, and in the vicinity of the continent, in the region of the trade winds. We had entered the N.E. trade in the latitude of 24° North, nine degrees to the northward of the Cape Verd Islands, and did not lose it until the afternoon of the day on which we quitted the Gambia, the strength declining on the approach to the continent, but the direction continuing unchanged. On the 28th, 29th, and 30th of January, in navigating the first 350 miles of the passage from the islands to the continent, the air in the shade and to windward varied at different hours of the day from 70°2 to 712, and the dew-point from 63° 2U2 to [ 340. ] LIII. On the Properties of a Line of shortest Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spheroid. By J. Ivory, Esg. M.A. FRS.* (Concluded from p. 249.) | continuing the subject of my last communication, I shall now examine particularly the case of a geodetical line di- rected at right angles to the meridian. For this purpose I resume the formula before found, viz. sin uw = sin 1 cosz, eS J/1 + & cos?l. dx (1 + e® — e? sin? 7 cos? z)a° / being the latitude at the commencement of the line, and the latitude at its termination. We rejected this formula, be- cause the are x cannot be safely determined by means of the latitudes. But this objection will be of no force if the same are can be ascertained with sufficient exactness either by the difference of longitude, or the change in azimuth. In reality the formula is extremely proper for finding s: for so long as is not very considerable the denominator varies slowly, and is almost proportional to s. We may likewise illustrate the ae to 64°5. At sunrise on the 31st, when at 26 miles west of Cape Verd, the dew-point was 61°'5, and lowered to 57°:5 on nearing the land, the tem- perature of the air not being sensibly affected. Off the entrance of the Gambia, on the Ist of February, and in the river on the 2d and 3rd and 4th, the dew-point was never higher than 51°, and occasionally as low as 48°°5, the air over the water and in the shade being generally during the day from 69° to 70°. When about to quit the Gambia on the morning of the 5th of February, we experienced, although in a very slight degree, the pe- caliar wind called the Harmattan, of which the season was nearly over : its direction was one or two points to the north of the trade wind, or about N.N.E.; the air during its influence fell to 66°°5, and the dew-point to 37°°5; affording a reasonable inference, that in a genuine Harmattan, and before it reaches the sea, the constituent temperature of the vapour may be at least as low as 32°. In the progress toCape Roxo, on the afternoon of the same day, we lost the Harmattan, and with it the continuance of the trade wind. ‘ke sea breeze which followed, raised the temperature of the air to 70°, and of the dew-point to 61°'5. It appears, therefore, that when the north-east wind first comes off the continent of Africa it contains only 53 parts in 100 of the moisture which would be required for repletion at the existing temperature ; that in blowing over the sea its proportion of moisture rapidly augmeats, until at fifty miles {rom the land, it has acquired 80 parts in 100; which proportion is not subsequently increased by its passage over 350 additional miles of ocean, In the Harmattan the air contained only 38-parts in 100 of the proportion of moisture required for its repletion. * Communicated by the Author, ~ same Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest Distance. $41 same thing by attending to what z represents on the surface of the sphere. Let the arc 7! be determined by this equation ; viz. . tan 7 tan? = ieee. and draw a great circle having the inclination 7! to the equa- tor, and intersecting it in the same diameter with the former oblique circle. Now let any meridian meet the two circles, and let ) and uw be the arcs of the meridian between the equa~ tor, and the respective circles; then we shall have this equa-~ tion, v1z. tan w tany = Vis: whence it follows, that if / be the latitude of a parallel to the equator on the surface of the sphere, x will be the latitude of the same parallel on the surface of the spheroid. Hence it will readily appear that z is the are of the latter great circle intercepted between the two meridians that pass through the extremities of the arc s! of the former circle; and, on account of the proximity of the two circles, it is never much different from s' or s. When the meridian is nearly perpendicular to the circles, it is also evident, as has already been observed, that a small error in the latitude will occasion a great varia- tion in 2. Having expanded the foregoing formula and integrated as usual (using Hirsch’s tables of fluents, or the tables of any such plodding collector, if need be), we shall get, by neglecting the powers of e* above the square, 2 sin? J ‘ : : > =m 1+ a — Gq (16 sin?2 — 13 sin* 7) ¢ : pin hg et ; ; + sin 22 } SS sin’ _ 3S (4 sin*Z — 3sin*7) i 15e sin4/ 256 and, in this formula, we have only to substitute the value of z in terms of the difference of longitude, or of the change in azimuth. ai : Let us first compare z with the difference of longitude. The second formula (A) gives us V1 +e2 sin? p ag! ¥, Wi Meee: ™ fl +e? costu Observing that here sing = 1, sinz = sin A, the formule (B) give us X sin 42: dg=q! x —d ¢! = 7 cos Y o/sin®A—sin? y Now 342 Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest Now we shall find av T+e?. of sintl —sin?u SS Y sin?a— sin? y= v1 ezcos?l.1+e%cos?u” OY cok ae ee aes cosy ~ cosua/l+e*cos?u ” ier ne cosldu we get, -—d¢g= cos u asin’? —sin?u? and hence, because cos / = gh cos ld up a cos27 4 sin2/sin22 ° We have therefore, do a . cosldsz 1 cos?/ + sin2/ sin? x A 1 +e (cos? + sin 27 sin® %). If this expression of dg be expanded and integrated, we shall find, sf tang \ ee ai 3et e g = arc tan. (=>) 2 x cos 1} = cos Lt. ; 4 cos 1 si In this value I have rejected Be oa fdz sin® z, which is altogether insensible even supposing z equal to 10° or 12°. Next put ee ue cos : L 2 8 a and the last equation will become tan 7 tan z We must now find z in terms of z, and, as this operation re- quires only the ordinary rules of analysis, I shall suppress the detail of the calculation. Neglecting quantities of the order already indicated, I have found, e 3 r 4 Re i ; 1+ z (cos*2 + sin?/ sin*a2) — - cos #7}, (D) which formula may likewise be written thus, z=av 1 +e cos?l) + = sin? Jin? a... - (D’) This value of z must now be substituted in the formula for s; and, in doing this, it will be sufficient to make sm'2'2 = sin2a (1 at g=h— § = cos — 3 cos */ i x arc tan.(tan 6 cos /). This formula is already very exact, and will extend to an am- plitude of 10° or 12° from the beginning of the geodetical line: but the method we have employed may be carried to any required degree of approximation. In the Conn. des Tems 1828, I find an example very pro- per to illustrate the foregoing calculations. Ina perpendicu- lar to the meridian commencing in latitude 45° M. Puissant has Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spheroid. 345 has computed the angles at the extremity of a length equal to 400,000 metres, supposing the oblateness equal to =! and the results of his calculation, given in pp. 221, 222, expressed by the symbols we have and are as follows: ; ‘ s = 400,000 bri 452 “u = 44° 53! 14!-73 g = 5° 4! 3!-78 f 86° 25! 8-46: i also, taking the proportion of the axes of the spheroid, we have f/1+e2= a and hence E vat OLGi Mittra 0°0065045 log. —3'8131838. We may now compare the values of z computed in the dif- ferent ways we have investigated. In the first place, by the formula, sin u = sin / cos 2, we get == Bo Bo SOF As uw is here the result of an exact calculation and not affected with errors of observation, the value of z now found must be accurate as far as the tables usually employed will allow. But if u were determined by observation, we may reasonably sup- pose an error of 1" in defect; then p= ge Sn baths; so that an error of 1" in w has produced one of near 16” in z. Next computing by the difference of longitude, we have tan ¢ cos/ = tan 2, RR AOE LEN then, by the formula (D), z= 2 X 1:001631 = 3° 35! 38"-20. Lastly, to determine z by means of the variation in azimuth, we have w = 90° — yu! = 3° 34) 5154 tan w tan / 4 8° 35! 16"°78: sin y = J then, by the formula (E) z= y xX 1001625 + OTT ="8° Sols7ss. The values of z deduced from the difference of longitude and the variation of azimuth are not exactly equal, the former exceeding the latter by 0-32, which seems to arise from small errors in the calculated longitude and azimuth. For ac- Vol. 67. No. 337, May 1826. 2 cording 346 Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest cording to the formula (F) the arcs x and y ought to be more nearly equal than they are found to be. I have likewise com- puted the difference of longitude ¢ directly from the azimuth by means of the formula (G), and have found it equal to 5° 4! 3-32, or 0-46 less than it should be, which agrees with the remark just made. I shall not prosecute this subject further at present. It would be interesting to investigate the general case of a geo- detical line directed in any angle to the meridian ;_ but it would occupy too much room. ‘The relations of all the quantities concerned in the problem have, in the foregoing analysis, been expressed by formule so simple and manageable, that there can be little difficulty in the investigation of any point that can occur in practice; and it is in this that I conceive the advan- tage of the solution I have given to consist. Since my last communication on this subject, the 41st number of the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Institution has appeared, which contains some investigations of M. Bessel relating to the curve of shortest distance on a spheroid of revolution. It is extremely remarkable that M. Bessel’s general solution of the problem is exactly the same with that which I published in this Journal for July, 1824*. By saying this I mean, not that every step of his investigation is the same with mine, but that the same view is taken of the problem, and the ultimate formule obtained, are not a jot different from those which I have given. The two formule marked (5) in p. 139 of the Journal of Science, are identical with the two marked (A) in my solution, the apparent difference existing only in the nota- tions. Although this is so plain as to require only to be no- ticed, yet ina case of this kind it may not be improper to prove incontestibly the exact coincidence of the expressions. Now one of my formulee (A) is this, ds=ds' 71+€sin*y, which belongs to a spheroid of which the semi-axis of revolu- tion is unit; and if the same semi-axis be of any other mag- nitude P, it is evident that we must write = for ds, and then we shall have, ds=Pxds 7W1+é€sin’y: put 1—cos* for sin*; then Pia Poe et RUE of de SOE l+e * It is proper to observe that I have no knowledge of M. Bessel’s writ- ings on this subject, except from the Journal of Science. but Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spherotd. 347 but when the semi-axis of revolution is changed from 1 to P, the equatorial semi-diameter will be changed from 4/ 1 + é? to P ¥ 1 +e? =a; and the formula will now be, e? cos? = ! - av ds=axds J) ae which is identical with the first of the formulze (5) in the Journal of Science, because in my notation ds', y, and a stand for the same things as do, uw, and e? in M. Bessel’s. The other of my formulze (A) is, V/ 1+ &sin?y Vite ‘ LF - / & cosy dg=d¢ | i ie aes which is identical with the second of the formulse (5). It is there- fore certain that the two investigations end in the same results. The equations marked (4) in p. 138 of the Journal are no more than the equations (5) in p. 139 in a different shape. I investigated these equations by giving to the coordinates a cer- tain form, which led to them directly without successive sub- stitutions, and many intermediate inferences: M. Bessel has arrived at the same conclusion by setting out from the usual property of the curve of shortest distance on a solid of revo- lution, and by a train of reasoning which rests upon proper- ties directly flowing from my analysis. How this coinci- dence has happened I am not called upon to give any ac- count. The date of my solution exculpates me from the charge of silently producing formule found by another, as my own under a little disguise, in the form of the expression and the mode of investigation. If we except the general solution of the problem, M. Bes- sel’s investigations contain nothing new or of much interest. His principal formula (10) in p. 141, is the length of an ellip- tic arc expressed in a complicated manner, and requiring in practice bulky tables, and the calculation of many subsidiary arcs. Let us try with what success the methods we have fol- lowed will apply to determine the geographical position of places on a given spheroid. In the first place we have, dg=d¢@'x or, coslsing Y 1+eé. V 1 +? cos*/ ; but, from the relation between the arcs z and 7, we likewise have, cosi = cos Asin wp = 2K%2 cos 348 Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest cosi’ fl +e é V1+e cos?” wherefore, by equating the two values of cos 7, we get, cos? = 4 ee cos / sin « COS = (Tp eee (1) Again, by combining the formulz (A) and (B), we get, ad cos f V1 +e sin? y c= ——— ; 4/ sin*i—sin*y but, we have, a sin ? 4 A sin % smn z = SS, sin _ V1 + e cos *i : V1 + &cos*u” wherefore, by substitution, (1 + é) Vi+ecos*i. du cos u _ d § 5 s > . > 2 (1 + e cos?u) 7 V sin 27 — sin 4x and hence, sin uw = sin 7’ sin z gees | +e)V¥1+e&cos*i.dx a+eé—eé sin ® i’ sin? x) 2 This formula is different from that we have obtained above in no other respect,.except that s and z are now to be reckoned from the equator, the one along the geodetical line, and the other along the great circle of the inscribed sphere, having the inclination 2’ to the equator. The terminations of s and z are points in the two lines that have the same latitude w. We next obtain, ; é& sin’ 7’ fi= Le? V1i—f?. dz =f ? sin ®x) : In order to integrate this formula, I assume, s Ww then having taken the fluxions and made the two values of ds coincide, I have found, oo — = Az—cosz{Bsinz + Csin*z + &c.} ; A—B=1 : f PRRTES 9B—3C= me — 3:5 44 &c. and hence by exterminating B,C, &c. successively, we get, Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spheroid. 349 A=1 a 2 ee a a) 5f* + &e. - B=A-—1 C=[B- Tf? &e. The coeficients B, C, &c. decrease at the same rate with the successive powers of f*. It may be remarked here, once for all, that, if we are to calculate with the usual tables, the approxi- mation need not be carried further than to include /*: for it will be found that the other terms affect the numbers only in the eighth decimal place, which is beyond the reach of the or- dinary tables. This being observed, we have, (0) — ara pa = 15 AMSA VI =fal+ 5 f+ Sf AM =BVI-f = if tis 4 — sj by A® =C VI —ft = By s = Az — cosz fA) sing + A(3) sin?z}. Now this very simple expression will accomplish all that can be effected by M. Bessel’s formula (10) in p. 141 of the Jour- nal of Science. But it will be more convenient in practice if it be written a little differently, as follows, 1 m=— = 1— A Ae 3 papa alt att eutth: (os allied tO) on aed 3 ms = z—cosx fpsinz + gsin°z}. (2) For illustration 1 take M. Bessel’s example in pp. 143, 144, of the Journal of Science. The latitude of Seeberg, or J, is 50° 56° 6""7; w, or the azimuth, 85° 38! 56"-82 reckoning from the north westward ; and, if s be the distance from See- a to Dunkirk on the geodetical line, and reduced toa sphe- roid of which the polar semi-axis is unit, we have, log s = 8°9649485. Further, the square of the excentricity is, in my s 3 notation, equal to ree and according to M. Bessel, e log ine = 7°8108710 log e? = 7°8136900. From these data we get, by the formula (1), = 51° 4! g!94, And 350 Mr. Ivory on the Properties of a Line of shortest And hence, = \jpaein - \ fi = Sia = 00039150 f* = 00000153. It will be convenient to multiply the coefficients m, p, g by the seconds in an arc equal to the radius in order to have all the terms of the formula expressed in seconds of a degree: then, log m = 5*3139988, log p = 2°78254, log g = 0°170, The arc zis the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle in which the latitude subtends the angle 2’: therefore, sin 2(0) — in? ; sin z or, when 7’ and / are very nearly equal, we may use this for- mula, cot. 2° = ¥ sin ( Ce) : sin / 2° = 86° 28! 19""0. This quantity must now be substituted in the formula (2) to find m s°; the amount of the terms.to be subtracted is only 37"-31; therefore, m® s = 86° 27! 41"-69. In order to get m (s?+ s) we must add the degrees in the arc between Seeberg and Dunkirk, viz. 5° 16! 48':48, which is found by adding the log. of m to the log. of the distance be- tween the two places; then, m (s° + s) = 91° 44! 30""17. This value being found, we must next compute the correspond- ing quantity z° + z by the formula (2): the correction to be applied is only — 18'*4; wherefore, 20 4+ 2 = 91° 44! 11-77, Finally, we have, sin u = sin?’ x sin (z° + 2); the lat. of Dunkirk, « = 51° 2! 12!-7, In order to find the difference of longitude, I shall resume the expression of d¢ before found, writing 7’ for 7, and sin z for cos z, and likewise, for the sake of brevity, putting A* = cos 72’ + sin ?z' cos?z = 1 — sin ?2’ sin?z: then, cosi' dz 1 do=———- vie By expanding the radical we get, ae - cosidz$ = —3 4 AR + Ze At— &e.}. If now we substitute what A? stands for, and in place of the powers of sin z write the equivalent expressions in the oo of the d¢= Distance traced on the Surface of an oblate Spheroid. $51 of the multiples of the arc, we shall get with sufficient exact- ness, 4 6 GL cos a(S aE ts a ) 4 6 + cos 7! sin 272! SAoich a an &c. ) 15e& 128 &c. ) 3 e sin *7’ cos 7’ RIG dzcos2z. + cos7’ sin *7! x ( d _ cost dx —Cxdz+ idx. : é Now Ch oe = is the arc 9’, or the difference of longitude of the two extremities of the arc z; and hence, by integrating between the limits 2° and z + z, we get, 4 + os oF Ss ee cos (2 z° + 2) sin z. Now in the foregoing example, we have e* cos 7! = ‘0040917 e* cos 2! = '0000266°4 & cos z' = :0000001°7 e* cos 7’ sin? z! = 0000161°2 @=a?—-Cxz- and hence we get, C = 0:0020389, _ and the log. of the coefficient of the remaining term, multiplied by the seconds in the arc equal to radius, is 9°791. Where- fore, the arc z being 5° 15! 52"-77 = 18952"-77, we get, = 9! — 38-64 — 0-06. The arc ¢! is readily computed by this formula, ; ) ___ cos?’ sin z | aa lies cos 7 cos u* O.= 87:2) a7 076 — 38°7 g = 8°21! 19!-06 which is the difference of longitude between Seeberg and Dun- kirk, the latter place being west of the former. In such calculations, the defect is not in the algebraic for- mulze, but in the tables in ordinary use, which are not suffi- cient to ensure exactness in the fractions of a second. The editor of the Journal of Science greatly approves of M. Bessel’s researches, and he comments upon them with all that complacency which is so natural to him when he thinks he has got things in a right train. He concludes his remarks with announcing in set phrase, a simple rectification of the geo- delitic curve. It is an expression of the length of an elliptic arc 352 Mr. Robert Brown’s description of Kingia. arc at which he has arrived with the help of Hirsch’s tables. Now there is perhaps no problem in pure mathematics that has more engaged the attention of geometers than the various ways of computing elliptic arcs. In particular Legendre has written largely on this subject, and has published extensive tables for the use of the calculator. Hence there is some dif- ficulty as to the sense in which we are to understand the word simple. Is it to be taken generally in reference to the labours of all mathematicians ? Or is it merely intended to mark a con- trast with the complicated calculations of M. Bessel? This is a point which I shall not take upon me to decide; although I should not be surprised if it shall be found that, on the present as on other occasions, this member of the Royal Institution has outdone, with a stroke of his pen, all that has hitherto been at- tempted on the same subject. After all it may perhaps be al- ledged that the word in question slipt in cursorily, and its meaning must not therefore be scanned too precisely. In con- clusion should any part of these investigations happen to hit the fancy of the Editor of the Journal of Science, I beg ieave to suggest the propriety of his taking it from the pages of this Journal without waiting to get it at second-hand from Germany. May, 5, 1826. J. Ivory. LIV. Character and Description of Kingia, a new Genus of Plants found on the South-west Coast of New Holland: with Observations on the Structure of its Unimpregnated Ovulum ; and on the Female Flower of Cycadee and Conifera. By Rosert Brown, Esq., F.R.S.S.L. § E., FL.S. (Read before the Linnean Society of London, Nov. 1 &15, 1825*.) | the Botanical Appendix to the Voyage to Terra Australis, I have mentioned a plant of very remarkable appearance, observed in the year 1801, near the shores of King George the Third’s Sound, in Mr. Westall’s view of which, published in Captain Flinders’s Narrative, it is introduced. The plant in question was then found with only the imper- fect remains of fructification: I judged of its affinities, there- fore, merely from its habit, and as in this respect it entirely agrees with Xanthorrhcea, included the short notice given of it in my remarks on Asphodelez, to which that genus was re- ferred}. Mr. Cunningham, the botanist attached to Captain * From Captain King’s Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia, 1826, vol. ii. p. 534. + Flinders’s Voyage, vol. ii. p. 576. King’s a new Genus of Plants in New Holland. 353 King’s voyages, who examined the plant in the same place of growth, in February 1818 and in December 1821, was not more fortunate than myself. Captain King, however, in his last visit to King George’s Sound, in November 1822, ob- served it with ripe seeds: and at length Mr. William Baxter, whose attention I had particularly directed to this plant, found it, on the shores of the same port in 1823, both in flower and fruit. To this zealous collector, and to his liberal employer Mr. Henchman, I am indebted for complete specimens of its fructification, which enable me to establish it as a genus distinct from any. yet described. To this new genus I have given the name of my friend Cap- tain King, who, during his important surveys of the coasts of New Holland, formed valuable collections in several depart- ments of Natural History, and on all occasions gave every as- sistance in his power to Mr. Cunningham, the indefatigable botanist who accompanied him. ‘The name is also intended as amark of respect to the memory of the late Captain Philip Gidley King, who, as governor of New South Wales, materially forwarded the objects of Captain Flinders’s voyage; and to whose friendship Mr. Ferdinand Bauer and myself were in- debted for important assistance in our pursuits while we re- mained in that colony. KINGIA. Orv. Nat. Juncee prope Dasypogon, Calectasiam et Xerotem. Cuar. Gen. Perianthium sexpartitum, regulare, glumaceum, persistens. Stamina sex, fere hypogyna: Antheris basi affixis. Ovarium triloculare, loculis monospermis ; ovzl7s adscenden- tibus. Stylus 1. Stigma tridentatum. Pericarpium exsuccum. indehiscens, monospermum, perianthio scarioso cinctum. Planta facie Xanthorrhcee elatioris. Caudex arborescens cica- tricibus basibusve foliorum exasperatus ? Folia caudicem ter- minantia confertissima longissima, figura et dispositione Xan- thorrhoee. Pedunculi numerosi foliis breviores, bracteis va- ginantibus imbricatis tecti, floriferi terminales erecti, mox, caudice parum elongato foliisque novellis productis, laterales, et divaricati vel deflexi, terminati capitulo denso globoso flo- ribus tribracteatis. Kincia Australis. Tab. C. Desc. Caudex arborescens erectus simplicissimus cylindra- ceus, 6—18 pedes altus, crassitie femoris. Jolia caudicem ter- minantia numerosissima patula, apicibus arcuato-recurvis, lo- rea, solida, ancipitia apice teretiusculo, novella undique tecta pilis adpressis strictis acutis laevibus, angulis lateralibus et ven- Vol. 67. No. 337. May 1826. ay trali 554 Mr. Robert Brown’s Description of Kingia, trali retrorsum scabris. Pedunculi numerosi teretes 8—12-pol- licares crassitie digiti, vaginis integris brevibus imbricatis hine in foliolum subulatum productis tecti. Capitulum globosum, floridum magnitudine pruni minoris, fructiferum pomum par- yum eequans. Flores undique densé imbricati, tribracteati, ses- siles. Bractea exterior lanceolata breve acuminata planiuscula erecta, extus villosa intus glabra, post lapsum fructus persis- tens: due laterales angusto-naviculares, acutissimz, carina la- teribusque villosis, longitudine fere exterioris, simul cum pe- rianthio fructifero, separatim tamen, dilabentibus. Perianthium sexpartitum regulare subzequale glumaceum : folzola lanceolata acutissima disco nervoso nervis immersis simplicissimis, antica et postica plana, lateralia complicata lateribus inzequalibus, omnia basi subangustata, extus longitudinaliter sed extra me- dium przcipue villosa, intus glaberrima, zestivatione imbricata. Stamina sex subzequalia, zestivatione stricta filamentis sensim elongantibus: Filamenta fere hypogyna ipsis basibus foliolo- rum perianthii quibus opposita leviter adhzerentia, filiformia glabra teretia: Anthere stantes, ante dehiscentiam lineares ob- tusee filamento paulo latiores, deflorate: subulatze vix crassitie filamenti, loculis parallelo-contiguis connectivo dorsali angusto adnatis, axi ventrali longitudinaliter dehiscentibus, lobulis ba- seos brevibus acutis subadnatis: Pol/en simplex brevé ovale leeve. Pistillum: Ovarium sessile disco nullo squamulisve cinc- tum, lanceolatum trigono-anceps villosum, triloculare, loculis monospermis. Ovula erecta fundo anguli interioris loculi paulo supra basin suam inserta, obovata lenticulari-compressa, aptera : Testa in ipsa basi acutiuscula foramine minuto perforata: Mem- brana interna respectu teste inversa, hujusce nempe apici lata basi inserta, ovata apice angustato aperto foramen teste ob- turante: Nucleus cavitate membranz conformis, ejusdem basi insertus, caterum liber, pulposus solidus, apice acutiusculo levi aperturam membrane interne attingente. Stylus trigonus strictus, infra villosus, dimidio superiore glabro, altitudine sta- minum, iisdem paulo preecocior, exsertus nempe dum illa adhuc inclusa. Stigmata tria brevissima acuta denticuliformia. Peri- carpium exsuccum, indehiscens, villosum, basi styli aristatum, perianthio scarioso et filamentis emarcidis cinctum, abortione monospermum. Semen turgidum obovatum retusum, integu- mento (testa) simplici membranaceo aqueo-pallido, hinc (intus) fere a basi acutiuscula, raphe fusca verticem retusum attingente ibique in chalazam parvam concolorem ampliata. Albumen se- mini conforme densé carnosum album. Embryo monocotyledo- neus, aqueo-pallidus subglobosus, extremitate inferiore (radi- culari) acuta, in ipsa basi seminis situs, semi 3/a 5 2 he Us 8 ey Sah eS es = +15|2 © ales || Tsien 3 § |SEEl Ela BB |F 2 ‘NoaNoy| “99 ‘SeqoUy gs S & al g E *MTHLVA AA Ul ‘taJoMOIeT = z se 1-4 Baal ; ; & “NIVY [aojewoumeYyy,| Jo ISIE o| 6 ‘sano1g wv ‘qo0[Q ,.0 IYSIY sed-spey yw “Luoasos “Uuopsog 40 TILA ‘Ly pun ‘uopuoT ut AUK DLA ‘10ds04) 0 AINUNAT “MT fo suormasasgg ay} Susduoo ? FIGVL TWOIMOTOUOALAN V — “THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. 30% JUNE 1826. LVIII. On the Rectification of Curve Lines. By Tuomas BEVERLEY, Esq. To the Editor of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal. Sir, HE following property of curves, which I have recently discovered, from its general and extensive application, may probably be found very interesting and useful to those who sometimes make digressions into the more abstruse parts of the higher geometry ; as it may be the meansof rectifying many curves which have not yet been found susceptible of rectifica- tion. The property is the same in all plane curves whatever, whether they return into themselves, or proceed on ad injini- tum. The rectification of the tangential curve is always finite, pro- vided the curve round which it is described either returns into itself or has asymptotes to the infinite branches; if not, it will of course be infinite likewise. And the rectification is had without even finding the parti- cular equation of the curve to be rectified. Proposition 1.—ACM is any plane curve, to which CT is a tangent at C, join AC (A being the vertex), and demit AQ per- pendicularly on the tangent; so shall the rectification of the curve described by Q be represented by fAC x d. TAQ. Demonstr.—Draw the ordinate CD, and call it y; also draw the abscissa AD, and call it z. We have (z representing the ry d . curve AC), CT= re DT = i , and therefore by trigo- , ‘ d ‘ nometry = = sin TAQ = sin TCD, at = sin £4 T= Vol. 67. No. 338, June 1826. $D cos 394 Mr. Beverley on the Rectification of Curve Lines. - dx —ad cos TAQ, AT = seas, anithe MG 2S te dz . dAQ= t> x { (yde ~ 2dy)dz—(yde —xdy) a} and d TAQ = eee. 62 .” But since im any case either dz.dy 4 . x or y may be supposed to flow equably, their second fluxions will be equal tu zero. Hence, in order to abridge the two ‘ last expressions for operation, let us suppose d*r = 0, we shall 1 then have dAQ =—d’y.dx x (w.dz+y.dy) x er and dTAQ = —d’y.du x a Draw another polar ordinate Ap, indefinitely near to AQ, and with centre A and radius AQ describe the indefinitely small are Qr; then is pr = d AQ, and Qr =AQx dTAQ; and consequently, Qp = 7 pr*+Qr* —d2y.da(rdr+ydy)\? —dy.dxr(ydr+ady) ate eat ee dy? dx ye ts Sie dy? d x? (29+ ¥?) } = {26 xara} = ee = ev 2+ y= ACxad TAQ. Q. E. D. Example 1.—Let ACM be a circle whose radius is 7, and put TAQ = 24; we have 1(= rad.) :2r::sin$: 27 sin g= AC, and fAC x dTAQ = 4rfsin ¢d$¢=— 47 cos ¢, which, between ¢ = 0, and 90°, becomes 47 for half the length of the curve, whence 2 x 47 = 87 = 4.x diameter, for the whole ‘length of the cardioide. Example 2.—Now let another curve be similarly described upon the curve we have just investigated, we shall then have to find AQ, and a second angle T’AQ!. 1(= rad.):7:: cos2$:r cos 24, and r —r cos 26'= r (1— cos 2¢) = 2r sin? = AC, Also 1(= rad.) :2r sin® $:: sin 2¢: 27 sin*® >.sin 26 = y, and 1(= rad.): 27 sin? ¢::cos2$:2r sin*¢ . cos2¢ =a = ab- 2rd¢ sin 2¢(1—4 sin? 9) : Ve di scissa of the first cardioide .-. a = 4rd@sin¢sin3 9 a = cot 3¢, and we therefore obtain fAC' xd T’AQ! = Qrfsin®> x 3do=6r(4o — } sin2$) = 3r(o — $ sin 29), which, when ¢ = 90°, becomes 37 x 1°5708 = 4°71247, for half the length of the second cardioide. et Remark.—It almost appears from what has already been done, that the angles TAQ, T’AQ’, T"AQ", &c. will always be equal to 2¢, 39,4, &c. and that we shall have 27 fsin x 2d¢, arf sin*¢ x 3d¢, 2rf sin?¢ x 4d, &c. for the rectifica- tions of the several curves respectively; but whether it is uni- versal or not I have not yet had leisure to determine. Example Mr. Beverley on the Rectification of Curve Lines. 395 Example 3.—When ACM is the common or Apollonian parabola, whose equation is az = y*, or y = at yt, a being the. ss ————> yd parameter. AC= f#+y= Var + 2’, A subtangent TD, and = = Var+4xe= CT, the tangent. Consequently, ee Ota PP: 2 yen TAQ, and CT:1::CD:; : a/ art 4x gr S = cos TAQ; whence dTAQ = and Ja+de “i Hat42) is eae Cy atde Di gett sate AC x dTAQ = V axz+ 2? x eae gadis 25 whose integral is a*(4 Vatuex—t¥ 8a x hyp. log. a/3a+2 asB Va+4e 7 Example4.— When ACM isthe cissoid of Diocles whose equa- ~.. FirstACe / @ py =/e4 = tion is y? = ss J a— a—@r I a2. rt also the subtangent TD = a = aon), and the tangent CT = i =3 — x (4=* ® consequently OP ores TD 36k = ge TED = sin TAQ, and a 4/ da—3e j : ¥ 3axr — 222 CT:1::CD: PPS rane tee cosTCD = cos TAQ; whence a wy 3dx(ax—a*)* 4 ate dTAQ= Se aa? and fAC xdTAQ =f = x 3dz(az=x2)* ia 3a2 x de (oe s da fone SS 4 (when corrected) 75% hyp. log. ee — 2a2 22. And when «x = a, it becomes aegr aE x hyp. log. (2 + /3)—2a = 3:041385 a—2a =1°041385a, or 2 x 1:041385a¢ = the whole length on both sides of the axis. ~ Example 5.—When ACM is the lemniscata whose equa- tion is (a? ab yy a (2* — y’) =.0, Let AC — g, and DAC = 6; we have y = sin 9 &, (2° + y*)’ = &, and a? (2® — y?) = (e+ y—2yY)=aCeP—-2eeY=ave —Va'sin® h &, whence &* = a*? — 2a’*sin’ $2 and & =a /f1—2 sin? 6=a oD 2 cos 396 Mr. Beverley on the Rectification of Curve Lines. cos ? 26, which gives y = asin§. cos? 2, and x =a cos 6. ee —(4sin3 — 3sin 4) asin écos? 2¢ 5 ) . cos “26 .*. iy = cosé(1—Asin?#) COs SIN §. —sij 6 . cos? 24 x — = TD, and a sin§.cos} 26(TD) :1(rad.):: asin§cos? 24 (y = CD): —- = — cot36 = — cot TAQ; therefore DAQ = 3DAC, and consequently. fAC x d TAQ =a cos 2 26x3 d 4, which, by putting cos 3 24= 5 becomes 2d 38axf re , the same as from 5, table 3, Landen’s Memoirs =? (vide Math. Repos. vol. i. page 61, old series) by which the whole integral between ¢ = 1 (sin 90°), and ¢ = 0, is readily found to be 3a x *5990701173 = 1°7972103519 a .*. the length of the four branches is 7°1888414076 a, a being the axis of the lemniscata. Proposition 2.—AEM is a plane curve, AB an indefinite axis; join AM, and perpendicular to AB draw AD meeting a perpendicular from M in D; then if the area AEMA have any given ratio to the area AEMD, the curve is of the parabolic kind. Demonstr.—For put AD =y, MD =., and let the ratio of the two areas be as m: n; then we must have }AM?x dMAD: MD x dAD:: m:n, or $(2* + y’) x ydx—ady mty ; d mxdy, and by reduction — sPdgne +s) | 28 (24-9). Xx of dy ° = (2m + n)x ze Taking the integrals n x hyp. log a = (2m +n) x hyp. log y, and therefore n Qnmin .- 2m n Qnin E —— >O°ra #£ =Y > an equation to a curve of the . . Qm - . ¥ parabolic kind, where a” is an arbitrary constant. _Q.E.D. Obs.—When the areas are equal, or m=, it becomes a’x = y°, the first cubical parabola. When the areas are as 1:2, or m= 1, and 2 = Q, it be- comes ax = 7’, the common or Apollonian parabola, &c. &c. Iam, sir, your very obedient servant, Brompton, near Scarborough, Tuomas BEVERLEY. March 6, 1826, ' LIX. On Reser: 7: LIX. On the mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid and Naphtha- line, and on a new Acid produced. By M. Farapay, Esq. F.R.S. Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, &c. Sc. [Concluded from p. 332,] 2. Salts formed by the peculiar Acid with Bases. (THESE compounds may be formed, either by acting on the bases or their carbonates by the pure acid, obtained as already described; or the impure acid in solution may be used, the salts resulting being afterwards freed from sulphates, by solution in alcohol. It is however proper to mention that another acid, composed of the same elements, is at the same time formed with the acid in question, in small, but variable proportions. The impure acid used, therefore, should be ex- amined as to the presence of this body, in the way to be di- rected when speaking of the barytic salts ; and such specimens as contain very little or none of it should be selected. Potash forms with the acid a neutral salt, soluble in water and alcohol, forming colourless solutions. These yield either transparent or white pearly crystals, which are soft, slightly fragile, feel slippery between the fingers, do not alter by ex- posure to air, and are bitter and saline to the taste. They are not very soluble in water; but they undergo no change by re- peated solutions and crystallizations, or by long continued ebullition. The solutions frequently yield the salt in acicular tufts, and they often vegetate, as it were, by spontaneous eva- poration, the salt creeping over the sides of the vessel, and running to a great distance in very beautiful forms. The solid salt heated in a tube gave off a little water, then some naph- thaline; after that a little carbonic and sulphurous acid gases arose, and a black ash remained, containing carbon, sulphate of potash, and sulphuret of potassium. When the salt was heated on platinum foil, in the air, it burnt with a dense flame, leaving a slightly alkaline sulphate of potash. Soda yields a salt, in most properties resembling that of potash; crystalline, white, pearly, and unaltered in the air. I thought that, in it, the metallic taste which frequently oc- curred with this acid and its compounds was very decided. The action of heat was the same as before. Ammonia formed a neutral salt imperfectly crystalline, not deliquescent, but drying in the atmosphere. Its taste was sa- line and cooling. It was readily soluble in water and alcohol. When heated on platinum foil it fused, blackened, burnt with fiame, and left a carbonaceous acid sulphate of ammonia, which by 398 Mr. Faraday on the mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid by further heat was entirely dissipated. Its general habits were those of ammoniacal salts. When its solutions, though previously rendered alkaline, were evaporated to dryness at common temperatures, and exposed to air, the salt became strongly acid to litmus paper. This however is a property common to all soluble ammoniacal salts, I believe, without exception. Baryta. It is easy by rubbing carbonate of baryta with solution of the impure acid, to obtain a perfectly neutral so- lution, in which the salt of baryta, containing the acid already described, is very nearly pure. There is in all cases an un- dissolved portion, which being washed repeatedly in small quantities of hot water, yields to the first portions a salt, the same as that in the solution. As the washings proceed, it is found, that the salt obtained does not burn with so much flame on platina foil, as that at first separated; and the fifth or sixth washing will perhaps separate only a little of a salt, which when heated in the air, in small quantities, burns with- out flame in the manner of tinder. Hence it is evident that there are two compounds of baryta, which as they are both soluble in water, both neutral, and both combustible, leaving sulphate of baryta, differ probably only in the quantity of combustible matter present, or its mode of combination in the acid. It is this circumstance, of the formation of a second salt in small but variable quantities with the first, which must be guarded against, as before mentioned, in the preparation of salts from the impure acid. It varies in quantity accordin to the proportions of materials, and the heat employed : a I have thought that, when the naphthaline has been in large quantity, and the temperature low, the smallest quantity is produced. When the impure acid is used for the preparation of the salts now under description, a small portion of it should be examined by carbonate of baryta, as above, and rejected, if it furnish an important quantity of the flameless salt. These bodies may be distinguished from each other provi- sionally, as the flaming and the glowing salts of baryta, from their appearances when heated in the air. The latter is more distinctly crystalline than the former, and much less soluble, which enabled me by careful and repeated crystallizations, to obtain both in their pure states. The flaming salt (that corresponding to the acid now under description) when obtained by the slow evaporation of the saturated solution, formed tufts, which were imperfectly cry- stalline. When drops were allowed to evaporate on a glass’ plate, the crystalline character was also perceived; but when the and Naphthaline, and on a new Acid produced. 399 the salt was deposited rapidly from its hot saturated solution, it appeared in the form of a soft granular mass. When dry, it was white and soft, not changing in the atmosphere. It was readily soluble in water and alcohol, but was not affected by zether. Its taste was decidedly bitter. When heated in the air on platinum foil it burnt with a bright smoky flame, like naphthaline, sending flocculi of carbon into the atmosphere, and leaving a mixture of charcoal, sulphuret of barium, and sulphate of baryta. After being heated to 212° for some time, the salt appeared to be perfectly dry, and in that state was but very slightly hy- grometric. When heated in a tube naphthaline was evolved; but the substance could be retained for hours at a tempera- ture of 500° Fahr. before a sensible portion of naphthaline had separated : a proof of the strength of the affinity by which the hydro-carbon was held in combination. When a higher temperature was applied, the naphthaline, after being driven off, was followed by a little sulphurous acid, a small portion of tarry matter, and a carbonaceous sulphate and sulphuret were left. This salt was not affected by moderately strong nitric or nitro-muriatic acid, even when boiled with them; and no precipitation of sulphate took place. When the acids were very strong, peculiar and complicated results were obtained. When put into an atmosphere of chlorine, at common tem- peratures, it was not at all affected by it. Heat being applied, an action between the naphthaline evolved, and chlorine, such as might be expected, took place. : When a strong solution of the pure acid was poured into a strong solution of muriate of baryta, a precipitate was formed, in consequence of the production of this salt. It was re-dis- solved by the addition of water. The fact indicates that the noon of this acid for baryta is stronger than that of muriatic acid. The second, or glowing salt of baryta, was obtained in small crystalline groups. The crystals were prismatic, colourless, and transparent: they were almost tasteless, and by no means so soluble either in hot or cold water as the former salts, They were soluble in alcohol, and the solutions were perfectly neutral. When heated on platinum foil they gave but very little flame, burning more like tinder, and leaving a carbona~- ceous mixture of sulphuret and sulphate. When heated in a tube they gave off a small quantity of naphthaline, some em- pyreumatic fumes, with a little sulphurous acid, and left the usual product. . This salt seemed formed in largest quantity when one volume of 400 Mr. Faraday on the mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid of naphthaline and two volumes of sulphuric acid were shakeit together, at a temperature as high as it could be without char- ring the substances. The tint, at first red, became olive green; some sulphurous acid was evolved, and the whole would ulti- mately have become black and charred, had it not been cooled before it had proceeded thus far, and immediately dissolved in water. A solution was obtained, which though dark itself, yielded, when rubbed with carbonate of baryta, colourless liquids; and these when evaporated furnished a barytic salt, burning without much flame, but which was not so crystalline as former specimens. No attempt to form the glowing salt from the flaming salt by solution of caustic baryta, suc- ceeded. : Strontia. 'The compound of this earth with the acid al- ready described very much resembled the flaming salt of baryta. When dry it was white, but not distinctly crystal- line: it was soluble in water and alcohol; not alterable in the air, but when heated burnt with a bright flame, without any red tinge, and left a result of the usual kind. | - Lime gave a white salt of a bitter taste, slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, the solutions yielding imperfect cry- stalline forms on evaporation: it burnt with flame; and both in the air and in tubes, when heated, gave results similar to those of the former salts. Magnesia formed a white salt with a moderately bitter taste ; crystallizing in favourable circumstances, burning with flame, and giving such results by the action of heat as might be ex- pected. Iron. The metal was acted upon by the acid, hydrogen being evolved. The moist protoxide being dissolved in the acid gave a neutral salt capable of crystallization. This by exposure to air slowly acquired oxygen, and a portion of per- salt was found. Zine was readily acted upon by the acid, hydrogen evolved, and a salt formed. The same salt resulted from the action of the acid upon the moist oxide. It was moderately soiuble in hot water, the solution on cooling affording an abundant crop of acicular crystals. The salt was white and unchangeable in the air; its taste bitter. It burnt with flame, and gave the usual results by heat. Lead. ‘The salt of this metal was white, solid, crystalline, and soluble in water and alcohol. It had a bitter metallic taste, with very little sweetness. The results by heat were such as might be expected. Manganese. ‘The protoxide of this metal formed a neutral crystalline salt with the acid. It had a slightly austere taste, was and Naphthaline, and on.a new Acid produced. 401 was soluble in water and alcohol, and was decomposed by heat, with the general appearances already described. Copper. Hydrated peroxide of copper formed an acid salt with the acid, and the solution evaporated in the air left ra- diated crystalline films. The dry salt when heated fused, burnt with flame, and exhibited the usual appearances. Nickel. The salt of this metal was made from the moist carbonate. It was soluble, crystalline, of a green colour, and decomposed by heat in the usual manner. In one instance an insoluble sub-salt was formed. Silver. Moist carbonate of silver dissolved readily in the acid, and a solution, almost neutral, was quickly obtained. It was of a brown colour, and a powerful metallic taste. By evaporation it gave a splendent, white, crystalline salt; not changing in the air except when heated; but then, burning with flame, and ultimately leaving pure silver. When the so- lution of ‘the salt was boiled for some time, a black insoluble matter was thrown down, and a solution obtained, which b evaporation gave abundance of a yellow crystalline salt. The changes which took place during the action of heat in the moist way were not minutely examined. Mercury. Moist proto-carbonate of mercury dissolved in the acid forming a salt not quite neutral, crystallizing feebly in the air, white, of a metallic taste, not deliquescent, and de- composed with various phaznomena by heat. By re-solution in water or alcohol, and heat, a sub-salt of a yellow colour was formed. 7H The moist hydrated per-oxide of mercury also dissolved in the acid, forming an acid solution, which by evaporation gave a yellowish deliquescent salt, decomposed by heat, burning in the air, and entirely volatile. 3. Analysis of the Acid and Salts. When solution of the pure acid was subjected to the voltaic battery, oxygen and hydrogen gases were evolved in their pure state: no solid matter separated, but the solution became of a deep yellow colour at the positive pole, occasioned by the evolution of free sulphuric acid, which re-acted upon the hydro-carbon. A solution of the barytic salts gave similar results. The analytical experiments upon the composition of this acid and its salts were made principally with the compound of baryta. This was found to be very constant in composition, could be obtained anhydrous at moderate temperatures, and yet sustained a high temperature before it suffered any change. ? Vol. 67. No. 338. June 1826. 3 E A portion 402 Mr. Faraday on the mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid A portion of the pure salt was prepared and dried for some hours on the sand bath, at a temperature about 212°. Known weights were then heated in a platinum crucible to dissipate and burn off the combustible matter; and the residuum being moistened with sulphuric acid to decompose any sulphuret of barium formed, was heated to convert it into a pure sulphate of baryta. The results obtained were very constant, and amounted to 41°714 of sulphate of baryta per cent of salt used, equivalent to 27°57 baryta per cent. Other portions of the salt were decomposed by being heated in a flask with strong nitro-muriatic acid, so as to liberate the sulphuric acid from the carbon and hydrogen present, and yet retain it in the state of acid. Muriate of baryta was then added, the whole evaporated to dryness, heated red-hot, washed with dilute muriatic acid to remove the baryta uncombined with sulphuric acid, and the sulphate collected, dried, and weighed. The results were inconstant; but the sulphate of baryta obtained, always much surpassed that furnished by the former method. Judging from this circumstance that the sul- phuric acid in the salt was more than an equivalent for the baryta present, many processes were devised for the determina- tion of its quantity, but were rejected in consequence of diffi- culties and imperfections, arising, principally, from the pre- sence and action of so much carbonaceous matter. The fol- lowing was ultimately adopted. A quantity of per-oxide of copper was prepared by heating copper plates in air and scaling them. A sufficient quantity of pure muriatic and nitric acids was provided, and also a specimen of pure native carbonate of baryta. Seven grains of the salt to be examined were then mixed with seven grains of the pulverized carbonate of baryta, and afterwards with 312 grains of the oxide of copper. The mixture being put into a glass tube was successively heated throughout its mass, the gas liberated being passed through a mixture of baryta water and solution of muriate of baryta. It was found that no sul- phurous or sulphuric acids came off, or indeed sulphur in any state. The contents of the tube were then dissolved in an ex- cess of nitric and muriatic acids, above that required to take up all that was soluble; and a little solution of muriate of baryta was added for the sake of greater certainty. A por- tion of sulphate of baryta remained undissolved, equivalent to the sulphuric acid of the salt experimented upon, with that contained accidentally in the oxide of copper acids, &c. ‘This sulphate was collected, washed, dried and weighed. Similar quantities of the carbonate of baryta and oxide of copper were then dissolved. in as much of the nitric and muriatic acids as was and Naphthaline, and on a new Acid produced. 403 was used in the former experiment; and the washings and other operations being repeated exactly in the same way, the quantity of sulphate of baryta occasioned by the presence of sulphuric acid in the oxide, acids, &c. was determined. This deducted from the weight afforded in the first experiments, gave the quantity produced from the sulphuric acid actually existing in the salt. Experiments so conducted gave very uniform results. The mean of many indicated 8-9 grains of sulphate of baryta for 10 grains of salt used, or 89 grains per cent, equivalent to 30°17 of sulphuric acid for every 100 of salt decomposed. In the analytical experiments, relative to the quantity of carbon and hydrogen contained in the salt, a given weight of the substance being mixed with per-oxide of copper, was heated in a green glass tube. The apparatus used consisted of Mr. Cooper’s lamp furnace, with Dr. Prout’s mercurial trough; and all the precautions that could be taken, and which are now well known, were adopted for the purpose of obtaining accurate results. When operated upon in this way, the only substances evolved from the salt, were carbonic acid and water. As an instance of the results, 3°5 grains of the salt afforded 11°74 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, and 0:9 of a grain of water. The mean of several experiments gave 32:93 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, and 2°589 grains of water, for every 10 grains of salt decomposed. On these data, 100 grains of the salt would yield 329°3 cubic inches of carbonic acid, or 153°46 grains, equivalent to 41°9 grains of carbon, and 25°89 grains of water, equivalent to 2°877 grains of hydrogen. Hence 100 grains of the salt yielded argtas See PAT ONS St a16 Sulphuric acid. . 30°17... . 85°35 Carbon: Sekar ALSO. Sir ebissoe Hydrogen.... 2877 ... 813 102°517 In the second numerical column the experimental results are repeated, but increased, that baryta might be taken in the quantity representing one proportional, hydrogen being unity : and it will be seen that they do not differ far from the follow- ing theoretical statement. Baryta ..... 1 proportional .. 78 Sulphuric acid . 2 dittoiwtgeis AVAVL TWOIOTOUOSLAN Vv 3M oe 38, June 1826 « ‘ ol. 67. No. 3 / \ INDEX tro VOL. LXVII. ——— A CID, new, from sulphuric acid and naphthaline, 326 Africa, expedition into, sol Alcohol, action of lime on, 310 Amazons, river, 431 Ampere, on a new electro-dynamic ex- periment, 37 Antimony, combinations of, 124 Arsenic, detection of, 150 Astronomy, 31, 47, 55, 57, 81, 131, 136, 148, 161, 209, 219, 225, 277, 292, 362, 376, 387, 406, 451 Atlantic States of North America, gales in, 113 Atmosphere, constitution of, 310, 321 Aurora borealis, noise attending, 177 Bubbage, (C.) on the general term of a new class of infinite series, 261; on the mechanical notation of machi- nery, 314 Berzelius’s ( Prof.) method of detecting arsenic, 150 Beverley, (T.) on Mr. Burns’s double altitude problem, 151 ; on curve lines, 393 Bicheno, (Mr. J. E.) on Systems in Natural History, 451 Biziv on melaina, 317 Books, new, 60, 219, 289 Botany, 60, 133, 222, 290, 352, 371,409 Brain, physiology of, 303 Brown, (R.) on the character and de- scription of Kingia, 352; on pheno- gamous plants, 356, 409 Burney, (Dr.) on the opposition of Mars to the sun, 387; luminous arch, 387 (see Meteorology) Burns, (J.) reply to Mr. Riddle on the double altitude problem, 47; double altitude problem, reply to, 131; cn finding the latitude, &c., 406 Carver, (Dr.) on a meteoric stone, 102 Chemistry, 21, 45, 72, 74, 89, 124, 149, 150, 201, 226, 266, 300, 310, 312, 317, 321, 326, 397 Chilton’s (Mr. G.), analysis of the Maryland aérolite, 104 Chladni’s (Dr.) new catalogue of me- teoric stones, &c. 3, 179 Clark, (B.) on Oistros, 451 Colours, invisibility of, to certain eyes, 153 Comets, 55, 225, 451 Condylura, on a species of, 191 ; on the genus, 273 Copper, metallic, formation of, 149 Crystallization, effect of position on, 149 Crystallography, 52, 149 Currents of the ocean, 332, 438 Curve lines, on, 393 Cuvier, (Baron) on the physiological labours of the Academy of Paris,303 Dalton, on the atmosphere, 310; reply to, 321 Davies, (T. S.) on Mr. Levy’s property of the octahedron, 52; on P, Q,’s defence of Mr. Herapath’s demon- stration, 53; on the combustion of compressed gas, 152 Davy, (Sir H.) on the preservation of metals by electro-chemical means, 89 Davy, (Dr. J.) on the poison of the toad, 155 Drummond, ( Lieut.) on a station-light, &e, 373, 453 Duperrey’s voyage of discovery, —report made to the Academy of Sciences on, 203, 280, 362 Earth, figure of, 161, 209 Earthquake felt at sea, 148 Electricity, 37, 445 Electro-chemical preservation of metals, §9 Electro-dynamic experiment, new, 37 Elk, fossil, on, 196 Evaporation, theory of, Si Eudiometers, improved, 21 Faraday, (M.) on the action of sul- phuric acid and naphthaline, 326, 397 Flourens’s experiments on the brain, 303 Fossil remains, 227 Funicular curve, equilibrium of, 324 Galbraith, (W-.) on the figure of the earth, 161 Gambart, (M.) on a comet, 45S Gas, coinpressed, combustion of, 152 Geodesical instruments, 453 Geology, 68, 134, 193, 196, 211, 222, 227, 229, 249, 272, 291, 302, 363, 374 Godman, (J. D.) on the genus Condy- lura, 273 Greenwich and Paris, difference of longitude between, 148 Gregory's and Huttun’s mathematical tables, errata in, 210 Groombridge, (S.) on the opposition of the minor planets, 277 el ail ae INDEX. 475 Guilding, (Rev. L.) on Oiketicus, 450 Gulf-stream, 334, 424 Hansteen, (Prof.) on the number and situation of the magnetic poles, 114, 167; on the noise attending the aurora borealis, 177 Hare, (Prof.) on the gales in the At- lantic States of N. America, 113; on improved eudiometers, 21 ; on the use of the sliding rod in hydrometry, 266 Harris, (Dr.) on a nondescript species of Condylura , 191 Heliostat, 373, 453 Hennell, (Mr.) analysis of oil of wine, 312 Herapath’ s (J.) demonstration, on P. Q.’s defence of, 53, 101; his sup- plement to a former paper, 442 Horsfield, (Dr.) ona new Ursus, 451 Hydrographical notices, 332, 421 Hydrometry, on the sliding rod mea- surement in, 266 Hutton’s and Gregory’s mathematical tables, errata in, 210 Infinite series, general term of a new class of, 261 Ivory, (J.) on the figure of the planets, 31, 82; on the line of shortest di- stance traced on an oblate spheroid, 241, 340; on the equilibrium of fluids, 439 Jeffries, (Dr.) dissection of the ourang outang, 182 Kingia, character and description of, 352, 409 Latitude, Burns on finding the, 406 Lead-plaster, necessity of water in the preparation of, de Levy's (Mr.) property of the octahe- dron, on, 52 Lime, action of, on alcohol, 310 Longitude, difference of, between Green- wich and Paris, 148 Machinery, mechanical notation of, 314 Magnelic poles, on the number and si- tuation of, 114 Magnetic rotation, 73 Magnetism, 73, 114, 167, 280 Majendie’s experiments on the brain, 303 Maryland aérolite, analysis of, 104 Melaina, on, 317 Metals, preservation of, by electro- chemical means, 89 Meteoric stone, notice of, 102, 104, 107 Meteoric stones, &c. new catalogue of, 3, 179 Metcorites, $, 102, 179 Meteorology, 5S, 76, 110, 157, 177, 179, 232, 265, 310, 315, 317, $21, 337, 387, 390, 428, 455 Mines, temperature of, 302 Moseley, (H.) on the equilibrium of the funicular curve, 324 Moyle, (M. P.) on the temperature of mines, 302 Murray,.(J.) on the ebullition of water at different altitudes, 201; chemical observations, 226 Natural History, Mr. Bicheno on Sy- stems in, 451 New Books, 60, 219, 289 Neggerath, (Dr. J.) on the volcanic origin of the rock-salt formation, 193 Octahedron, demonstration of Mr. Levy’s property of, 52 Oil of wine, analysis of, 312 Optics, 153 Ourang outang, dissection of, 182 Oxides and salts, natural formation of, 72 Pantochronometer, 225 Paris and Greenwich, difference of lon- gitude between, 148 Patents, list of, 75, 156, 231, 317, 388 Planets, on the figure of the, 31 ; minor, opposition of, 277 Plants, phenogamous, on the unim- pregnated ovulum in, 356, 409 Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus, skeleton of, 272 P. Q.’s reply to Mr. Davies’s post- script on Mr. Herapath’s demonstra- tion, 101 Riddle, (E.) on Mr. Burns’s double altitude problem, 131 Rock-salt formation, volcanic origin of, 193 Rose, (M.) on the combinations of an- timony, 124 Sabine, (Capt.) on the method of in- vestigating the direction of the cur- rents of the ocean, 332; on the pre- sence of the water of the Gulf-stream in Europe, 334; on the influence of land on the temperature of the sea, 338, on the stream of the river Ama- zons, 431; on the velocity and tem- perature of the Gulf-stream, 434 Saturn, on the planet, 57 Sedgwick, (Rev. A.) on trap dykes, 211, 249 Silliman, ( Prof.) on the Maryland aéro- lite, 107 Simia Satyrus, dissection of, 182 Smith, (M.) on the planet Saturn, 57 Smith, (Sir J. E.) notice of his English Flora, 60 Societies, learned ; Royal Society,67,133, 221, 290, 373,450; Linnzan Society, 67,133, 221, 290, 374, 450; Gealo- gical Society, 68, 184, 222, 291, 374; Medico- Botanical Society, 70; Royal 476 Academy of Sciences of Paris, 71, 144, 224; Astronomical Society, 136, 292,376,451; Horticulturaland Agri- cultural Society of Jamaica, 146; Royal Institution, 223, 300, 382 ; Vaccine Pock Institution, 383; Zo- ological Society, 385 Sjuire, (T.) on the comet of 1825, 55, Sturgeon, (W.) on the ignition of gun- powder by electricity, &c, 445 Sulphonaphthalic acid, 326, 397 Sulphuric acid and naphthaline, action of, $26, 397 Toad, on the poison of the, 155 INDEX. Trap dykes, on, 211, 249 Tredgold, (T.) on the theory of evapo- ration, 45; strictures on Mr. Dal- ton’s views, $21 Uiting, (J.) on errata in the mathema- tical tables of Hutton and Gregory, 210 Volcano in Owhyhee, we 229 Voyage of discovery, 208, 280, 362 Water, ebullition of, at different alti- tudes, 201 Weaver, (T.) on the fossil elk, 196 Zoology, 193, 155, 182, 191, 196, 221, 272, 273, 290, 303, 365, 385 END OF THE SIXTY-SEVENTH VOLUME. LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, SHGE-LANE, 1826, ENGRAVINGS. _ Vol. LVI. 1. Mrs. Izserson onthe Physiology of Botany.—2. Mr. ALL’s Percussion Gun-Lock; Dr. Kircnener’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks—3. Sections of Mr. MaLam’s Gas-Meter. 4. Discoveries of Captain Parry in the Polar Sea. - Vol. LVIT. 1. Messrs. 2rstep and Ampere's Electro-magnetic Ex- ‘periments; and Mr. Perxrns’s Paper on the Compressibility of Water.— ‘9. Mr. JAMreson’s Marine Thermometer Case; and Mr. Jenninq’s Mer- purial Log-Glass.—3. Dr. Hare’s Modification of Galvanic Apparatus.— 4. Double Canal Lock, by Mr. R. H. Gower; and Mr. Tarum’s Mo. ‘ification of Electro-magnetic Apparatus. | Vol. LVIIL. i. Annular Eclipse of the Sun, May 15, 1836.—2. Hy- ‘drostatic Balances of Isaram LuKeEns and Dr. Coates.—3. Introduction o the Knowledge of Funguses.—4. Professor Davy’s Lactometer ; and ‘Mr. Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs.—5. Scnootcrart’s Account of the Native Copper of Lake Superior; and Dr. Mirrar’s Observations and Experiments on the Rose of Jericho.—6. Portrait of the Eprror, engraved by THomson from a Painting by Frazer—7. Mr. Lezson’s Appendage to Torrt’s Blow-pipe. Vol. LIX. 1. Mrs. IssEetTson’s Paper.on the Flower-buds of Trees assing through the Wood.—2. Instruments employed in determining \ltitudes from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. =3. Mr. Ivory’s Theory of Parallel Lines; Mr. Lezson’s Safety Blow- pipe; Mr. Moore’s Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs; md Dr. Reape on Refraction,—4. Electro-magnetic Experiment by Ar. BARLow ; and Mrs. Inperson’s Paper on Perspiration in Plants. — 5. Mr. Marsn’s Paper on M. Ampere’s Rotating Cylinder. ~ Vol. LX. 1. Mrs. [sserson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers.—2. A Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Norwich, on Fossil Bones from the Norfolk Coast.—3. A Paper by F. Bairy,Esq. on the Pleiades.—4. Prof. Amici’s Sextant. : Vo}. LXI. 1. Mr. TRepdGoLp’s Paper on the Flexure of Astronomical nstruments.—2. DeurBRoucg and Nicuots’ Apparatus for Gervais’ Method of Fermentation,— 3. Mr. R. Taytor’s Geological Section of Hunstanton Cliff, Norfolk. —4, Mr. Tarum’s Communication on Electro- Jagnetism. ol, LXU. 1. Prof. Hars’s Communications on Electricity, and the elf-acting Blowpipe.—2. Brunev’s new Mode of Tunnelling, and Road- fay under the Thames.—3. Becqurret’s Experiments on the Develop- aent. of Electricity by Pressure.—4. Bartow’s Experiments. on Mr, Rsu’s Thermo-electric Apparatus,—5. Mr. SEAwaRp’s Observations n Suspension Chain Bridges. ‘Vol, LXIM, 1. Mr.Gomperrz’s Method of defending Ships, &e.— . Mr. R. Taytor’s Paper on the Upper Marine Formation in the Cliffs ear Cromer.—3. Dr. WAtcuner’s Examination of Hyalosiderite; and ir. Barty’s and Mr. Fraunnorer’s Accounts of the Circular Micro- eter.—4, Prof. Harr’s Single-leaf Electrometer and improved Deflae ators.—5. Two new Species of Ascidia ; and Amphiuma means, anew - trachian Animal. Vol. LXIV. 1. SeawArn’s Hydro-pneumatic Pump.—2. Mr. Stur- ton’s Electro-magnetic Rotating Apparatus; and Mr. Haycrart’s pparatus for ascertaining the SpecificjHeat of Gases.—3. Fossil Remains Saurian Animals found in America. Vol. LXV. 1. Captain Graypon’s Celestial Compass.—2. Skeletons Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus and Ichthiyosaurus communis. Vol. LXVI. 1. M. Ampzre’s New Electro-dynamic Experiments.— 3, Dr. Kipp’s Anatomy of the Mole-cricket. ey Vou. 67. Philosophical Magazine. J AN. 196 44 dae Contents or NuMBER 333. Satie: “aes I. A new Catalogue of Meteeric Stones, Masses of Meteoric Irony » and other Substances, the Fall of which has been made known, down to the present Time: | By Be BB OCavagne . 02%, soe owen page § II. An Account of some Eudiometers of an improved Construc- tion. By Rosert Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry i in the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania ....,.....+-+ io 0 Bibi Wa wre Wie SiO eat 2 III. On the Theory of the Figure of the Planets contained in ~ the Third Book of the Mécanique Céleste. By J. Ivory, Esq. M.A: FARIS, (Dobe continued ) oo 0855 oh os eb OB Se a 3] IV. Sequel of the Memoir of M. Ampere on a new Electro. dynamic Experiment, on its Application to the Formula represent- — ing the mutual Action of the two Elements of Voltaic Conductors, and on new Results deduced from that Formula ................ 3% V. On the Theory of Evaporation. By Txos. TREDGOLD, Esq. as VI. Reply to the Remarks of Mr. Rippxz, on the Double Alti- '' tude Problem. By JAMES BURNS ....... 50. ... cece cece ents +e a tes VII. Demonstration of Mr. Levy’s Property of the apathy Oc- \ : tahedron;—with a Postscript on P. Q.’s Defence of Mr, HERAPATH’S a Demonstration. By T. S. Daviss, Esq... 2.4... -+eeeecereeeee - VIII. On the Comet of 1825. By Tuomas Squire, Esq. .... 1X, On the Planet Saturn, By M. Smitu, Esq. ..........., ; X. Notices respecting New Books :—Sir J. E. Smith’s English __ FlorayVol. itte oo vn oa fe 5 asia 0 caw clean ban othe ae Tete fo othe XI. Proceedings of Learned Societies :—Royal Society ; hike of nxan Society; Geological Society; Medico-Botanical Society of "7 London; Royal Academy. of Sciences of Paris .......+++, 677 XII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles :—Natural Forma- 7 tion of various Metallic Oxides and Salts ; Magnetic Rotation; Ne- cessity of Water in the Preparation of Lead-plaster ; List of ‘New ~ i RICHARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, SHOE:LANE, LONDON: ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LVI. i, Mrs. Isperson onthe Physiology of Botany.—2. Mr. Hatv’s Percussion Gun-Lock; Dr. KircHener’s Pancratic Eye-Tube ; r. Parx’s Mooring Blocks—3. Sections of Mr. Maiam’s Gas-Meter. 4. Discoveries of Captain Parry in the Polar Sea. Vol. LVII. 1. Messrs. Ersrep and Amprre’s Electro-magnetic Ex- periments; and Mr, Perxins’s Paper on the Compressibility of Water.— » Mr. JAmieson’s Marine Thermometer Case ; and Mr. Jennine’s Mer- urial Log-Glass.—3, Dr. Harez’s Modification of Galvanic Apparatus.—— +. Double Canal Lock, by Mr. R. H. Gower; and Mr. Tatum’s Mo- ification of Electro-magnetic Apparatus. Vol. LVIII. 1. Annular Eclipse of the Sun, May 15, 1836.—2. Hy- rostatic Balances of IsaraH Lukens and Dr. Coates.—3. Introduction 0 the Knowledge of Funguses.—4. Professor Davy’s Lactometer ; and r. Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restoring the Action of ae Lungs.—5. Scuootcrart’s Account of the Native Copper of Lake uperior; and Dr, Mitiar’s Observations on the Rose of Jericho — . Portrait of the Eprror, engraved by Tuomson from a Painting by }RAZER—7. Mr. Leeson’s Appendage to Torrr’s Blow-pipe. . Vol. LIX. 1. Mrs. Isserson’s Paper on the Flower-buds of Trees jassing through the Wood.—2. Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. —3. Mr. Ivory’s Theory of Parallel Lines; Mr. Lezson’s Safety Blow- ipe; Mr. Moorr’s Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs;. nd Dr. Reape on Refraction,—4. Electro-magnetic Experiment by fr. Bartow; and Mrs. Isperson’s Paper on Perspiration in Plants.— » Mr. Marsn’s Paper on M, Ampere’s Rotating Cylinder. ‘Vol, LX. 1. Mrs. [BBErson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers.—2. A laper by Mr. R. Tayor, of Norwich, on Fossil Bones from Norfolk.—- . A Paper by F. Bairy,Esq. onthe Pleiades.—4. Prof. Amici’s Sextant. Vol. LXI. 1. Mr. TREpGoxp’s Paper on the Flexure of Astronomical nstruments—2. DeuRBRoucg and Nicuors’ Apparatus for GervAts’ Method of Fermentation.— 3. Mr. R. Taytor’s Geological Section of dunstanton Cliff, Norfolk—4. Mr. Tarum on Electro-Magnetism. Vol, LXU. 1. Prof. Hare’s Communications on Electricity, and the acting Blowpipe.—2. Brunew’s new Mode of Tunnelling, and Road- y under the Thames.—3. Brcqurre.’s Experiments on the Develop- aent of Electricity by Pressure.—4. BarLow’s Experiments on Mr. Marsn’s Thermo-electric Apparatus.—5. Mr. SEAwaRp’s Observations Suspension Chain Bridges. - Vol. LXUI. 1. Mr.Gompzrrz’s Method of defending Ships, &c.— . Mr. R- Tayror’s Paper on the Upper Marine Formation in the Cliffs var Cromer.—3. Dr. WALCHNER’s Examination of Hyalosiderite; and fr. Barry's and Mr. Fraunnorer’s Accounts of the Circular Micro- eter.—4. Prof. HAnre’s Single-leaf Electrometer and improved Defla. tors.—5. Two new Species of Ascidia ; and Amphiuma means, a new atrachian Animal. Vol. LXIV. 1. Seawarp’s Hydro-pneumatic Pump.—2. Mr. Stur- * on’s, Electro-magnetic Rotating Apparatus; and Mr. Haycrarr’s »paratus for ascertaining the Specific Heat of Gases.—3. Fossil Remains -‘surian Animals found in America. Tol. LXV, 1. Captain Graypoy’s Celestial Compass.—2. Skeletons PE ~ saurus Dolichodeirus and Ichthyosaurus communis. Voi. UXVI. 1. M. Ampere’s New Electro-dynamic Experiments.— & 3. Dr. Kipp’s Anatomy of the Mole-cricket. nN Vou. 67. Philosophical Magazine, fn i 18 6. . tease or I Numonr 334. " XIII. On the Theory of the Figure of the Planets contained ie Ye the Third Book of the Mécanique Céleste. By J. Ivory, Esq. M.A, By. , | Pl =). MAE he Mina SP RE Se Pieris. Ke es EOS eens s- page 8] XIV. Further Researches on the Preservation of Metals by Elec- tro-chemical Means. By Sir Humpnry Davy, Bart. Pres, R.S.. ~ KV. Reply to Mr. Davies’s Postscript on Mr. Henaragn's Bt Demonstration, By P. Q.. 256d 64. oon ses ao kON “XVI. Notice of a Meteoric Stone which fell at ‘Nanjasiog cae Maryland, North America, on February 10, 1825. By Dr. Samuzr | | D. Carver. Ina Letter to Professor SILLIMAN.......0..--+- i XVII. Analysis of the Maryland Aérolite, By Grorcr Cae, , Lecturer on Chemistry; &: 00.060. ccc ee eee a celes ase. tas ee XVIII. Essay on the Gales experienced in the Atlantic States of North America, By Rosert Hane, M.D, Professor of Chemistry . in the University of Pennsylvania ...... 08 eli 6 ane a oa ia ees Soe 11¢ XIX, On the Number and Situation of the ‘Magnetic Poles ofthe | all Earth. By Professor CuristorHer Hanstren. (Tobe continued.) 1:4 &X.. On the Combinations of Antimony with Chlorine and Sulphur. ; | By Ma Hewat Roap i... 0°). soto ss cue peoreaenae Mae j XXI. On Mr. Burns's Communications respecting the Double | Altitude Problem. By E. Rippxe, Esq..... SERN RE Ee 181 | On the same, By Mr. T. BeverRtey..:..... LRRD a Aetind 13] XXII. Proceedings of Learned Societies :—Royal Society; Lin- | nzan Society; Geological Society; Astronomical Society ; Royal 3 Academy of Sciences of Paris; Jamaica Agricultural Society, . 133—149) XXIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles :—Difference of “al Longitude between Greenwich and Paris; Earthquake felt at Sea, ee in February 1825; Formation of Metallic Copper by Water and Fire; of Effect of Position on Crystallization; Account of Professor Berze-. og lius's Method of detecting Arsenic in the Bodies of Persons poi- — at soned; On the Combustion of compressed Gas, by Mr. Davies; On i! the Invisibility of certain Colours to certain Eyes; On the Poison — of the commonToad, by Dr. J. Davy; List of New Patents; Results of a Meteorological Journal for January 1825, kept at the Royal ’ Academy, Gosport, Hants; ees Table..... sree. 148-—160 * * Bommunicalliis for this Work, post-paid, vacoad to the Editor, J | 38 Shoe-Lane, will meet with every attention. ; RICHARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, SHOE-LANE, LONDON, ots ENGRAVINGS IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE, illustrative of the following Subjects: Vol. LVI. 1. Mrs. Issetson onthe Physiology of Botany.—2. Mr. Haxx’s Percussion Gun-Lock; Dr. KitcHener’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks—3, Sections of Mr. Maiam’s Gas-Meter. —4. Discoveries of Captain Parry in the Polar Sea. Vol. LVII. 1. Messrs. @rstep and Amprre’s Electro-magnetic Ex- periments; and Mr, Perxins’s Paper on the Compressibility of Water.— 2. Mr. JAMiEson’s Marine Thermometer Case ; and Mr. Jenninc’s Mer- eurial Log-Glass.—3, Dr. Hare’s Modification of Galvanic Apparatus.— 4. Double Canal Lock, by Mr. R. H. Gower; and Mr. Tatum’s Mo- dification of Electro-magnetic Apparatus. Vol. LVIIl. 1. Annular Eclinse of the Sun, May 15, 1836.—2. Hy- drostatic Balances of Isatan LuKens and Dr. Coatres.—3. Introduction to the Knowledge of Funguses.—4. Professor Davy’s Lactometer ; and Mr. Joun Murray's portable Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs.—5. Scnootcrarr’s Account of the Native Copper of Lake Superior; and Dr, Mixiar’s Observations on the Rose of Jericho.— 6. Portrait of the Epiror, engraved by THomson from a Painting by Frazer—7. Mr, Lezson’s Appendage to Torrt’s Blow-pipe. Vol. LIX. 1. Mrs. Iszerson’s Paper on the Flowér-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—2. Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire, —3. Mr. Ivory’s Theory of Parallel Lines; Mr. Lezson’s Safety Blow- pipe; Mr. Moore's Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs; and Dr. Reape on Refraction.—4, Electro-magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Iszerson’s Paper on Perspiration in Plants.— 5. Mr. Marsn’s Paper on M. Ampere’s Rotating Cylinder. . Vol. LX. 1. Mrs. [pserson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers.—2. A Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Norwich, on Fossil Bones from Norfolk.— 3. A Paper by F. Bairy,Esq. onthe Pleiades.—4. Prof. Amici’s Sextant. Vol. LXI. 1. Mr. TREDGoLp’s Paper on the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments.—2. DEuRBROUca and Nicnoxs’ Apparatus for GeRvats’ Method of Fermentation.— 3. Mr. R. Tayior’s Geological Section of Hunstanton Cliff, Norfolk.—4. Mr. Tarum on Electro-Magnetism. Vol. LXII. 1. Prof. Hare's Communications on Electricity, and the Self-acting Blowpipe —2. Brunet’s new Mode of Tunnelling, and Road- way under the Thames.—3, Brcquerev’s Experiments on the Develop- ment of Electricity by Pressure.—4. Bartow’s Experiments on Mr, Marsn’s Thermo-electric Apparatus.—5. Mr. SEAWARD’s Observations on Suspension Chain Bridges. Vol. LXUT, 1. Mr.Gomprrrz’s Method of defending Ships, &c,— 2. Mr. R. Taytor's Paper on the Upper Marine Formation in the Cliffs near Cromer.—3. Dr. Watcuner’s Examination of Hyalosiderite; and Mr. Bairy’s and Mr. Fraunnorenr’s Accounts of the Circular Micro- meter.—4. Prof. Hare's Single-leaf Electrometer and improved Defla- eo, Two new Species of Ascidia ; and Amphiuma means, a new atrachian Animal. Vol. LXIV. 1. Szawarn’s Hydro-pneumatic Pump.—2. Mr. Srur- | GEon’s Electro-magnetic Rotating Apparatus; and Mr. Haycrarrt’s aie for ascertaining the Specific Heat of Gases.—3. Fossil Remains of Saurian Animals found in America. Vol. LXV. 1. Captain Graypon’s Celestial Compass.—2. Skeletons of Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus and Ichthyosaurus communis. " Vol, LXVI. 1. M. Amprrn’s New Electro-dynamic Experiments.— _ 2.& 3. Dr, Kipp’s Anatomy of the Mole-cricket,—Prof, HANSTEEN’s Paper on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth, Vou. 67. Philosophical Magazine. Marcu 1896. ConTents or NumBER 835. XXIV. Onthe Figure ofthe Earth, By WiurtAM GaALbRaItH, ~~ Mag, Mo Aner. oN peticrir s » ss soca ecient kate ge page 161 XXV. Onthe Number and Situation of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth.. By Professor CuristorpHer HansTEEN ( With two Charts’) 167 ’ On the Noise attending the Aurore borealis................ 177 XXVI. Continuation of the New Catalogue of Meteorites. By Ei PORMCALADNI |... ce estes. ieohle nC yet a kee eb ae eee 179 XXVIII. Some Account of the Dissection of a Simia Satyrus, Ou- rang Outang, or Wild Man of the Woods, By Joun Jerrrizs,M.D. 182 XXVIII. Description of a nondescript Species of the Genus © © Goantylura.: By’ T. W. Haan, MDa ooo. nec st cea 191 XXIX. On the Volcanic Origin of the Rock-salt Formaticn, By : De.F NaGGeratel). oh P2ce tL ae ae BI 2S da octane 193 XXX. On the pies Elk of Ireland. By Tuomas Ween! Esq. TERR REGS, Bey aie ees ave. Wem alles cle cB ale ead 196 XXXI. On a ibballien of Water at Specific Temperatures, 2s the Measure of Altitude. By Joan Murray, F.S.A. F.LS. XXXII. Report made to the Academy of Sciences, 22d of August 1826, on the Voyage of Discovery, performed in the Years 1822, 1823, 1894, and 1825, under the command of M. Duperrey, Lieute- nant of the Navy. By M. Araco. (To becontinued),.....04..4: 203 XXXII. List of Errata in the Mathematical Tables of Dr. Hur- ron and Dr. Gregory. By Mr. J. UTTING ,,.........++.2-208 210 XXXIV. On the Phenomena connected with some, Trap Dykes in Yorkshire and Durham. By the Rev. Apam Srpewicx, M.A, F.R,.S. M.G.S. Fellow of Trinity Coliege, and Woodwardian Pro- fessor in the University of Cambridge. ( To be continued.).,...... 211 XXXV. Notices respecting New Books ..........0.6.-00005 219 XXXVI. Proceedings of Learned Societies :—Royal Society ; Lin- mean Society; Geological Society; Royal Institution of Great Bri- tain; Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris ..........000+.- 221—225 XXXVII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles :—Comet; The Panatochronometer ; Chemical Observations, by Mr. Murray ; Fossil Remains; Volcano in Owhyhee; List of New Patents; Meteorological Summary for 1825—Hampshire, Meteorological Table, &c... 225—240 *,* Communications for this Work, post-paid, addressed to the Editor, © 38 Shoe-Lane, will meet with every attention. —— RICHARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, SHOE-LANE, LONDON. x ‘ ’ a ui ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LVI. 1. Messrs. Ersrep and Amprre’s Electro-magnetic Ex. periments; and Mr. Perkins’s Paper on the Compressibility of Water.— 9, Mr. Jamseson’s Marine Thermometer Case ; and Mr, Jenninc’s Mer- curial Log-Glass.—3, Dr. Hare's Modification of Galvanic Apparatus.— 4. Double Canal Lock, by Mr. R. H. Gower; and Mr. Tarum’s Mo. dification of Electro-magnetic Apparatus. Vol. LVIIL, 1. Annular Eclipse of the Sun, May 15, 1836.—2. Hy- drostatic Balances of Isatan Lukens and Dr. Coares.—3. Introduction to the Knowledge of Funguses.—4. Professor Davy’s Lactometer ; and Mr. Joun Mureay’s portable Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs —5. Scuootcrart’s Account of the Native Copper of Lake Superior; and Dr. Miriar’s Observations on the Rose of Jericho— 6. Portrait of the Eprror, engraved by THomson from a Painting by Frazer—7. Mr. Lezson’s Appendage to Torrt’s Blow-pipe. Vol. LIX. 1. Mrs. Isserson’s Paper on the Flowér-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—2. Instruments employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. —3. Mr. Ivory’s Theory of Parallel Lines; Mr. Lerson’s Safety Blow- pipe; Mr. Moore's Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs; and Dr. Reape on Refraction.—4. Electro-magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Isperson’s Paper on Perspiration in Plants. — &. Mr. Marsn’s Paper on M. AmpeEre’s Rotating Cylinder. Vol. LX. 1. Mrs, [sperson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers.—2. A Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Norwich, on Fossil Bones from Norfolk. 3. A Paper by F. Bairy,Esq. on the Pleiades.—4. Prof. Amici’s Sextant. Vol. LXI. 1. Mr. TrepGotn’s Paper on the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments.—2. Deurrrovcg and Nicuors’ Apparatus for Gervars’ Method of Fermentation.— 3. Mr. R. Taytor’s Geological Section of Hunstanton Cliff, Norfolk.—4, Mr. Tarum on Electro-Magnetism. Vol, LXII. 1. Prof. Hare's Communications on Electricity, and the Self-acting Blowpipe.—2. Brune’s new Mode of Tunnelling, and Road- way under the Thames.—3. Becqueret’s Experiments on the Develop- _ ment of Electricity by Pressure.—4. BArLow’s Experiments on Mr. Marsn’s Thermo-electric Apparatus.—5. Mr. SEawAkRp's Observations on Suspension Chain Bridges. Vol. LXII. 1. Mr.Gomprrrz’s Method of defending Ships, &c.— 2. Mr. R. Taytor’s Paper on the Upper Marine Formation in the Cliffs near Cromer.—3. Dr. Watcuner’s Examination of Hyalosiderite; and Mr. Baity’s and Mr. Fraunuorer’s Accounts of the Circular Micro- meter.—4, Prof. HArn’s Single-leaf Electrometer and improved Defla. ators.—5. Two new Species of Ascidia ; and Amphiuma means, a new trachian Animal. Vol. LXIV. 1. SeawArn’s Hydro-pneumatic Pump.—2. Mr. Stur- cron’s Electro-magnetic Rotating Apparatus; and Mr. Haycrarr’s ig ai for ascertaining the Specific Heat of Gases.—3. Fossil Remains of Saurian Animals found in America. Vol. LXV, 1. Captain Graypon’s Celestial Compass.—2. Skeletons of Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus and Ichthyosaurus communis. Vol. LXVI. 1. M. Ampern’s New Electro-dynamic Experiments.— 2. & 3. Dr. Kipp’s Anatomy of the Mole-cricket.—Prof, HANnsTEEN’s Paper on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth, “Nbeg LXVIJ. Prof, Hansreen’s Chart on the Magnetic Poles of the arth, A a me et, hoe OS eo” a nit cet Se te ~ Se FEMA BP tite Per A Laat Vien he fe \ Sar Men Bayt as rik Y Xs VoL. 67. Philosophical Movable Avni 1826. a ConTENTS OF NUMBER 336. ' XXXVIIE On the Properties of a Line of shortest Distance ~ : traced on the Surface of an oblate Spheroid, By J. Ivory, Esq. 3 RR ee eas wis he aes Mae mine ayes eels pige 241 ~ XXXIX, On the Phenomena connected with some Trap Dykes in Yorkshire and Durham, By the Rev, Apam Sepewick, M.A. F.R.S. M.G.S, Fellow of Trinity College, and Woodwardian Pro. fessor in the University of Cambridge :......... 002000008 wile we, (249 XL, On the Determination of the General Term of a New Class. of Infinite Series. By Cuartes BapzAcr, Esq. M.A. Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society ...:..0:. 5.000 00s ou eds cues cull outall 259 XLI, On the Application of the Sliding Rod Measurement in Hydrometry, By Rosert Harr, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania ...6.6....ccc neces ee ee ot aja e tle GRE XLII. On the Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus Dolichodeir ‘us, discover~ ~~ vedi in the Lias at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, in Collection of His Grace nf shiake-chBuekiiehayt >. 567 ORS eee eee 1° Cor 1 ee XLIIi. Note on. the Genus Condylura of Llliger. By J. D. Gop- - a wai MAN, MAD... oes be, 2s ie wig cr ellen ah seme ea pies, DESIR a XLIV. On the Opposition of the Minor Planets.” By Srirxin Groomsriner, Esq. F.R:S. &0. & Cece cv ete ee eens “Oe XLV, Report made to the Academy of Sciences, 22d of August . 4 1825, on the Voyage of Discovery, performed. i in. the Years 1822, 1823, 1824, and 1825, under the command of My; Duverney, Liew- ~~ * tenant of the Navy. By M. Araco (Jo be continued. Dre vations. 280 XLVI. Notices respecting New Books............... Ob Gey 289. XLVII. Proceedings of Learned Societies: — Royal Society ; Linnean Society ; Geological Society ; Astropantical Society; Royal. Institution of Great Britain ...........00 5225 Ries wa ear 290—300 XLVIII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles: —The new.Ex-- pedition into the Interior of Africa ; On the Temperature of Mines, by M. P. Moyle, Esq: ; Physiology of the Brain; Action of Lime on — Alcohol; Mr. Dalton on the Constitution of the Atmosphere ; Analy- sis of Oil of Wine, &c.; Mechanical Notation of Machinery ; Me-. ' teorological Summary for 1825; Dictate List of New Patents; Bee vrelagical Tables Sc, msec BORO Ch ae Gy sea Pecan 6 RE 801—320 * . Qommunications for this Work, post-paid, addressed to the Editor, “$8 Shoe-Lane, will meet with every attention. . RICHARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, SHOE-LANE, LONDON. any Sie ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LVIT. 1. Messrs, CEnsrep and Amprre’s Electro-magnetic Ex. periments; and Mr, Perxrns’s Paper on the Compressibility of Water.— 2. Mr. Jamreson’s Marine Thermometer Case ; and Mr, Jenninc’s Mer- eurial Log-Glass.—3, Dr. Hare's Modification of Galvanic Apparatus.—- _ 4, Double Canal Lock, by Mr. R. H. Gower; and Mr. Tarum’s Mo. dification of Electro-magnetic Apparatus. Vol. LVIII. 1. Annular Eclipse of the Sun, May 15, 1836.—2. Hy- drostatic Balances of Isatan Lukens and Dr. Coares.—3. Introduction to the Knowledge of Funguses.—4. Professor Davy’s Lactometer ; and Mr. Joun Murray’s portable Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs.—5. ScnHooLtcrart’s Account of the Native Copper of Eake Superior; and Dr, Mizrar’s Observations on the Rose of Jericho — 6. Portrait of the Eprror, engraved by THomsown from a Painting by Frazer—7. Mr. Leszson’s Appendage to Torrr’s Blow-pipe. Vol. LIX. 1. Mrs. Insetson’s Paper on the Flower-buds of Trees passing through the Wood.—2. Instrument employed in determining Altitudes from the Trigonometrical Station on Rumbles Moor, Yorkshire. —3. Mr, Ivory’s Theory of Parallel Lines; Mr, Lezson’s Safety Blow- pipe; Mr. Moore's Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs; and Dr. Reape on Refraction.—4, Electro-magnetic Experiment by Mr. Bartow; and Mrs. Isperson’s Paper on Perspiration in Plants:— 5. Mr. Marsn’s Paper on M. AMpEre’s Rotating Cylinder. Vol. LX. 1. Mrs, [sserson’s Paper on the Pollen of Flowers.—2. A Paper by Mr. R. Taytor, of Norwich, on Fossil Bones from Norfolk. — _$. A Paper by F. Baity,Esq. on the Pleiades.—4. Prof. Amici’s Sextant. _— Vol. LXI. 1. Mr. TRepcorn’s Paper on the Flexure of Astronomical Instruments ——2. Drrrerouce and Nicuots’ Apparatus for Gervats’ Method of Fermentation.— 3. Mr. R. Taytor’s Geological Section of Hunstanton Cliff, Norfolk.-—4, Mr. Tarum on Electro-Magnetism. Vol, LXU. 1. Prof. Hare's Communications on Electricity, and the _Self-acting Blowpipe.—2. Brunet’s new Mode of Tunnelling, and Road- way under the Thames.—3. BecqurreL’s Experiments on the Develop- ment of Electricity by Pressure.—4. BARLow’s Experiments on Mr. Marsn’s Thermo-electric Apparatus.—5. Mr. Seawarp’s Observations on Suspension Chain Bridges. _ Vol. LXIT. 1, Mr.Gompertz’s Method of defending Ships, &c.— 2. Mr. R. Taytor’s Paper on tlie Upper Marine Formation in the Cliffs near Cromer.—3. Dr. Watcuner’s Examination of Hyalosiderite; and Mr. Barry’s and Mr. Fraunuorer’s Accounts of the Circular Micro- meter.—4, Prof. Hare’s Single-leaf Electrometer and improved Defla. rators.—5. Two new Species of Ascidia ; and Amphiuma means, a new atrachian Animal. Vol. LXIV. 1. SeAwarn’s Hydro-pneumatic Pump.—2. Mr. Sturx- GEoN’s Electro-magnetic Rotating Apparatus; and Mr. Haycrarr’s Apparatus for ascertaining the Specific Heat of Gases.—3. Fessil Remains of Saurian Animals found in America. Vol. LXV, 1. Captain Graypon’s Celestial Compass.—2. Skeletons of Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus and Ichthyosaurus communis. Vol. LXVI. 1. M. Amprre’s New Electro-dynamic Experiments.— 2.& 3. Dr. Kipp’s Anatomy of the Mole-cricket.—Prof, HANSTEEN’s Paper on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. Vol. LXVII, Prof. Hansreen’s Chart on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth—A Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus found at Lyme in Dorsetshire. Vo. 67. ‘ane a ees May 1896. Pe td : Dxicon’s Speculations respecting-the 2 ixt ‘” Gases, i ‘Constitution of the Atmosphere, &c. “By Tnon ee fee) 821 ae. -_xnse Oue Trencoxs, ‘Esq. verre see nsndeadtaee es osee g Ly On ‘the ‘Equilibrium of ce Funiculd cure wher the fee is) extensible. By H. MoszLey, Esq. B, A., Pie By 324 on a new Acid produced. By M. Farapay, Esqu Pil Se ( eh be. Continued.) Bee hak ae Gade 3 pane cme Riba iat bin ec $96 LIL. Hydrographical Notices :—Remarks on: th Methode Sp Ae tigating the Direction and Force of the Curtents of ¢ thé Ocea hundred Miles Sioa sis ‘Mouth of the Rivers ae he Epwaxp st Sasine, R.A. ER, & LS. &e. (To be continweil.). abi 4 See LI. On Topertics. of a Line of shortest Distance traced, on — see's the Surface of an oblate Spheroid.- “By J. Ivory Esq. M.A. FBS. . 340 — LIV. Character and Description of Kingia, a new Genus of Plants found on the South-west Coast of New Holland: with Observations onthe Structure of its Unimpregnated Ovulum ;, and on the Female . “. ‘Blower of Cycadew and Conifere. By R. Brows, Esq. F. R. SS. L. Piles igs usr ee 8 P.L.S. (To be continued.)......5.+ 1860 Gay ile ode guneeen © 962 ee i eLY, Report made to the Academy of Sciences, 22d of August ah 11625, on the Voyage of Discovery, performed in the Years 1822, 1828, 1824, and 1825, under the command of M, Durentey, Liew te ‘emt Habe Navy By MM. ARAGo, Conpienyand neo : ‘Learned Societies; + Roy ‘Societ ciety ; Geological Society ; Astronomical ociety; Royal I In,’ Meat stitation “of { reat’ Britain; Vaccine Pock Institution; Zoological Dee Society....:.... es peMPT RTE. EE RT ETRE ERT ELI TERE sea —38 +S aa and Miscellaneous Articles Om Pp Ppos tion“ ee er ee *4* Conn unteaat this Work, post-paid, addreseed to th ee: Rare 38 Shoe- Lane, Wel aioe With. Cvery BR et In a few days will be published, in 1 vol. 8vo, DESCRIPTION of ACTIVE and EXTINCT VOLCANOS; with Remarks on their Origin, their Chemical Phenomena, and.the Character of their Products, as determined by the Condition of the Earth during the Period of their Formation. Being the Substance of some ectures delivered before the University of Oxford :—with much addi- Enal Matter, Illustrated by three Plates and by Engravings on Wood. x By CHARLES DAUBENY, M.D.F.RS. ‘Fellow of the Geological Society, and of the College of Physicians in - London; Honorary Member of the Bristol Philosophical and Literary Institution ; Corresponding Associate of the Gioenean Society of Na- tural History at Catania; Professor of Chemistry, and Fellow of Mag- dalen College, Oxford. ; London: printed and published by W. Phillips, George-yard, Lombard- _ street: and by Joseph Parker, Oxford. PHARMACOPGIA LONDINENSIS, Iterum recognita et retractata, 1824, p. 6. “ACIDUM ACETICUM FORTIUS,” 7 vel “© Acidum Aceticum & Ligno destillatum.” URE CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID, agreeable to the Sample P furnished at the request of the Committee of the Royal College of Physicians, may be had of the Manufacturers, BEAUFOY & CO. South Lambeth, London. ENGRAVINGS IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE, illustrative of the following Subjects: Vol, LXII. 1. Prof. Hare's Communications on Electricity, and the Self-acting Blowpipe.—2. Brunev’s new Mode of Tunnelling, and Road- way under the Thames.—3. Becqueret’s Experiments on the Develop- ment of Electricity by Pressure.—4. BARrtow’s Experiments on Mr. _ Marsn’s Thermo-electric Apparatus.—5. Mr. Seawarp’s Observations on Suspension Chain Bridges. ; Vol. LXIII. 1. Mr.Gomperrz’s Method of defending Ships, &c.— 2. Mr. R. Taytor’s Paper on the Upper Marine Formation in the Cliffs near Cromer.—3. Dr. WALCHNER’S A ceinatiot of Hyalosiderite; and Mr. Baity’s and Mr. Fraunnorer’s Accounts of the Circular Micro- meter.—4. Prof. Hare’s Single-leaf Electrometer and improved Defla. rators —5. Two new Species of Ascidia ; and Amphiuma means, a new atrachian Animal. Vol. LXIV. 1. Seawarn’s Hydro-pneumatic Pump.—2. Mr. Srur- cron’s Electro-magnetic Rotating Apparatus; and Mr. Haycrarr’s Apparatus for ascertaining the Specific Heat of Gases.—3. Fossil Remains Bf Renrian Animals found fn America. Vol. LXV, 1. Captain Graypon’s Celestial Compass.—2. Skeletons of Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus and Ichthyosaurus communis. Vol, LXVI. 1. M. Ampere’s New Electro-dynamic Experiments.— _ @ & 3. Dr. Kipp’s Anatomy of the Mole-cricket.—4, Prof, HANsTEEN’s _ Paper on the Magnetic Poles of the Earth. ol. LXVII. 1,& 2, Prof. Hanstgeen’s Chart of the Magnetic Poles of the Earth-3. A Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus Dolichodeirus found at Lyme in Dorsetshire. i, | VERLEY, Esq... ee enane eoeoene PR RRS RS ORs 0's: 88 a cee eee page ag jesty’s Ship Pheasant, ina Voyage from Sierra Leone to Bahia, and _ Joun Henaratu, Md Aen a tach kc ceeeteeage atl ceee eens aa on the Transmission of saa h through Water, &c. ‘ty ' Astronomical Society . BS eee PUM SS Bags ps5 > cam 150-498 ie oy mond's Geodesical Instruments; pes Table, Index, &e. oe Sat oF «*- Communications for ‘his Work: 208t oid, addressed to the Bator, soit | ‘Vou. 67. Philosophical Magni, Z : s elon aie OF Nuwnwe 338. - : ane fe the pelted of Curve Lines, By THowe Br- es LIX. On the mutual Action of * Sulphuric Acid and Naphthaline, _and on anew Acid produced. By M. Farapay, Esq, F.R.S..... “897 ) ~ LX. On finding the Latitude, &c., from three Altitudes of the Sun and the elapsed Times. By James Burns, Esq... er = eee ‘406 UXI. Character and Description of Kingia, a new Genus of Plants Gal on the South-west Coast of New. Holland : ; with Observations on the Structure of its Unimpregnated Ovulum ; and on the Female eel Flower of Cycadez and Conifere, By R. Baawa, Esq. FERS. SL. At Be ig Mdads-cy «oot gil Lang dels a aainik ae sete veeeetses es 409- LXIl, Hydrographical Notices :—Remarks on. the Method of i in- ie ‘ vestigating the Direction and Force of the Currents of the Ocean ; : Presence of the Water of the Gulf-Stream on the Coasts of Europe . in January 1822; ‘Summary of the Currents experienced by HisMa- thence to New York; Stream of the River Amazons crossed, three hundred Miles from the Mouth of the es By Capt. EpwarbD Sane, R.A, BTS Me Sitesi: ys eeinet ey 421 ~ LXIIL. Notice relating to the Theory of the Equilibrium. of Fluids. tee By J. Ivory, PS. Was Pa Sh iv ciis ss 5S cea bes ees ye see» 439 — LXIV. Supplement to Mr. Heraparn’s Paper in the Philoso- phical Magazine for August 1825) on Functional sage: _ By 3 WwW. Sranckow. >. 2: .. vaeae Ra avemeges sabe $ —LXVI. Proceedings of Learned Sacition — Tereeen nm Society 7 Bais *-LXVIL Intelligence and Nistelibneous Articles :—Lieut, Drum- Tete Gets ig ¥ meer attention, 38° Shoe-Lane, yell mee : - Ne fae