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Mg th gat Solhe te =. a ns _~ — oe ee *. oF . > —_ ~ ~ Tw ea ter — Pee ete “oe Rey ~ ‘ - =) I - * ae ore ° “~ « ~~ wl eter fe xs sy Bh nga — P—gh—ahe a Hie BPR eo hibuinaninted Payee? = o 7) .DeWwrdret we Tet he eter = = eens rit o = . a . wi ty 5 a Tay rateryhe Pa regener nae: : nt, ay pr igte | one: CR CUT ee we ene te ete eo < - oa~a = ; ao < € : gi Soe ae one ty? teh “Pg! ome ty teh geo kyr. e! wlyhe rm ge egete— te om ge eer tiger ce seer aoe : : . -) . bf-e0h. aq < iwe . ae ee te eS . “in - ai Es anal aed se oe ee = SE amanal - _ attain t tein ae . - ~ stees rn rer - ng con : ; . terete ern mee pa — - Sa - — — » > cme nae ; 9 eee " Sina 2 * arte 3 . “ > a . a eh ae " e ites pt Nertiling —< © si a soo” =. ee ’ ete ~ ore : va e 7 ee a lame “ . pingh ae eh COTO, ~ pw pete” Rootes a ET Reg re EM * -, «4 oe, othe a ge it dtr er er ee ee ee en eee a acer) 3 at aN SR itn deukyeae ee baa bo A he EDT a nee eg mR he ph aes GA 2 NPC en at ie — = e . i me ae ie hates pire eee ts P ? ee A oaeaeel pee me allen met om cers tir = pla Re ema Me ee FE Nee ee ee en nce: ceplannns adellanieiaedindiy o-tiharqsaeraienh"un-deematapaaner area 37 a a > rr sin int sili ag rom pats Pee eer np ght anne Orta Pe taln SITE e510 tel tenderer Hrs te te NR or vent - . ; > 5 ™ ~ — a - —_ eee eS SS ae ee es ae =; ig ‘ nn Sa tz’ prety - : eens : eet OF py —qiha x of umdée . ee a nk os eine ~ 4 ’ oe a 2 FT ag FO pet ONE Oe ofr Pe De aa Er ey Pe — He cS A te ee PHILOSOPHY NATURAL HISTORY. WILLIAM SMELLIE, MEMBER OF THE ANTIQUARIAN AND ROYAL SOCIETIES OF EDINBURGH. WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND VARIOUS ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS. INTENDED To ADAPT IT To THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOW LEDGE. : BY | JOHN WARE, M.D. ereewree eee Stereotype Britton. BOSTON: HILLIARD, GRAY, AND COMPANY. 1838. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835, By HiLLiarD, GRay, AND Company, In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. STEREOTYPED AT THE BOSTON TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. EXTRACT FROM THE PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL WORK Azout fifteen years ago, ina conversation with the late wor thy, respectable, and ingenious Lord Kames, upon the too gen- eral neglect of natural knowledge, his Lordship suggested the idea of composing a book on the Puitosopuy or Narurat His- tory. In a work of this kind, he proposed that the productions of Nature, which to us are almost infinite, should, instead of being treated of individually, be arranged under general heads; that, in each of these divisions, the known facts, as well as reasonings, should be collected and methodized in the form of regular dis- courses; that as few technical terms as ‘possible should be em- ployed; and that all the useful and amusing views arising from the different subjects should be exhibited in such a manner as to convey both pleasure and information. This task his Lordship was pleased to think me not altogether unqualified to attempt. The idea struck me. I thought that a work of this kind, if executed even with moderate abilities, might excite a taste for examining the various objects which every where solicit our attention. A habit of observation refines our feelings. It is a source of interesting amusement, prevents idle or vicious propensities, and exalts the mind to a love of vir- tue and of rational entertainment. I likewise reflected, that men of learning often betray.an ignorance on the most common sub- jects of Natural History, which it is painful to remark. 1V 1 have been occasionally employed, since the period which I have mentioned, in collecting and digesting materials from the most authentic sources. These materials I have interspersed with such observations, reflections, and reasonings, as occurred to me from considering the multifarious subjects of which I have ventured to treat. I knew that a deliberate perusal of the numer- ous writers from Aristotle downwards, would require a consid- erable portion of time. But the avocations of business, and the translating of a work so voluminous as the JVatural History of the Count pre Burron, rendered my progress much slower than I wished. I now, however, with much diffidence, submit my labors to public opinion. | With regard to the manner of writing, it is perhaps impossible for a North Briton, in a work of any extent, to avoid what are called Scotticisms. But I have endeavored to be every where perspicuous, and to shun every sentiment and expression which might have a tendency to injure the feelings of individuals. Indulgent readers, though they must perceive errors and imper- fections, will naturally make some allowance for the variety of research, and the labor of condensing so much matter into so small a compass. He is a bad author, it has been said, who affords neither an aphorism nor a motto.. Upon the whole, the general design of. this publication is, to convey to the minds of youth, and of such as may have paid little attention to the study of Nature, a species of knowledge which it is not difficult to acquire. The knowledge will be a perpetual and inexhaustible source of many pleasures; it will afford innocent and virtuous amusement, and will occupy agreeably the leisure or vacant hours of life. ADVERTISEMENT Pe Tire Tits Ff LpUVTron. in preparing this edition of Smellie’s Philosophy of Natural History, I have endeavored to avail myself of such modern dis- coveries-and improvements in Physiology and Natural History as are connected with the subjects of which the book treats. It will be observed that instead of the two first chapters of the ori- ginal work, I have substituted an Introduction, containing some very general views of animal and vegetable life, and a brief sketch of the structure and classification of the whole animal kingdom. That something of this kind was rendered necessary on account of the light thrown upon these subjects by the progress recently made in Comparative Anatomy, cannot be doubted; and it was found easier to compose these chapters entirely anew, than to incorporate the requisite additions with them as they originally stood. | With regard to the remainder of the work, although a good deal has been added or rewritten, yet it has upon the whole been made considerably shorter, by the omission of many passages, which did not seem of sufficient importance to be retained; and also by the emission of many passages and a few chapters which touch upon subjects interesting only to the scientific reader, and which were deemed unnecessary in an edition intended for general use. Some apology may perhaps be required for the freedom with _ which these alterations have been made in a standard work of so great merit. On this subject it can only be said, that there vi- was rio other method by which it could be adapted to the use of young persons learning the elements of Natural History. Some of the views contained in the original edition have been since proved unfounded, and these it was necessary to correct. In some parts of it are details of great length, and often irrelevant to the sub- ject, which it was thought proper to abridge or exclude; and I trust that, upon a fair comparison of it with this edition, I shall appear to have taken no greater liberties than were necessary to fit it for the purpose for which it is principally mtended — the - instruction of the young. | The whole Introduction, as was observed above, has been pre- pared by the editor, with the exception of a few passages, distin- guished by inverted commas, which are retained from the original work. In the body of the book, those passages which have been added, or which have been entirely remodelled or rewritten, are distinguished by single inverted commas; quotations from other authors being marked in the usual way by double inverted commas. J. W. Boston, January, 1824. In the Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Editions, no alterations, except of a merely verbal nature, have been made. J. W. Boston, March, 1834. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. | Cuaprer I. Of the Nature of Living Bodies and the | Distinction between Animals and | Weert ple a er sada a vein ere cla 1-12 CaHapter Ii. General Remarks on the Structure of Vegetables...... Eth ay So ee 12-15 Cuaprer JiI. Of the Structure of Animals........... 15-84 PHILOSOPHY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Cuarrer I. Of Respiration... it gee je ee acter ais ~ 85-99 Cuarter Il, Of the Motions of pe Se cagney dae eue 100-108 | Guspres Vif --Of Instinct. ..:....0.. 8.5. 2 “steeds so far only as he can make them subservient to his purposes. When he comes into the possession of the domestic animals, the cow, the horse, the sheev, @&c., he finds that he can 34. CLASS I. MAMMALIA. derive an easier and less precarious subsistence from their milk and flesh, than from the products of the chase. He. rears, therefore, numerous herds of these animals, and being only occupied in finding them pasturage and shelter, is com-_ paratively at leisure to apply himself to some of the arts of civilized life. He manufactures clothing from their skins and wool, of various degrees of delicacy and elegance. He builds ; himself more commodious habitations; and from the different | degrees of industry and skill, with which different individuals | apply themselves to these occupations, arises an inequality of » conditions. Some become rich, and others comparatively poor. ‘The rich acquire a disposition to indulge in the com- i forts and luxuries of life, and this is found to be inconsistent ! with the wandering and unsettled life which they lead as mere. shepherds. Hence they are induced to fix themselves perma- nently upon particular tracts of country, which come to be con- sidered as their property ; and thus they gradually devote them- | selves to the cultivation of the soil. This enables a given | portion of land to support a much greater number of people; than when it was devoted to the feeding of herds; and, hence, / as agriculture becomes established, the population of a coun- try regularly increases. Society also becomes settled and | permanent. Every individual is able to produce more by his | own labor, than is sufficient for his own support, and some | therefore devote themselves to other occupations, the results of which they exchange with the laborer for his surplus. . Nations | also exchange with one another their superfluities. Thus com- | merce is established; and the arts and elegancies of life are » one by one brought to light, as the growing wealth of indi- | viduals and nations creates a demand for them. i II. The Quadrumana, as has been before observed, | approach more nearly to man, both in their internal structure | and external form, than any other animal. They differ, how- ever, in the size and shape of the head, which is proportion- ably smaller, narrower, and less elevated; in the conforma- ; tion of the face, which has a flat, depressed nose, and very {; prominent jaws and teeth; in the length of the fore-arm; and in the construction of the lower extremities, which are not calculated for the erect posture, and are furnished with hands, instead of feet like those of men. Their structure fits - them evidently for climbing, and their usual places of habita- tion are trees, on the fruits of which they feed. They main- | tain the erect position with difficulty ; it is a constrained one, , since it obliges them to straighten the joints of the hip mare ee — = ORDER Ii. QUADRUMANA. 35 than is easy or natural, and to rest their weight upon the outer edges of their feet or hind hands. Generally, then, they employ all four of their limbs in walking or‘running; but their motions, when upon the ground, are very various and irregular. They form a numerous tribe, and comprehend a great variety of species, known under the name of apes, monkeys, baboons, &c. These ames are generally employed with little discrimination, but they are imtended to point out some general differences of form. Thus, the apes are destitute of a tail; that of the monkeys is about the length of their bodies ; and that of the baboons a very short one. Besides these, which are confined to the old continent, the sapajous, which include those belonging to the new world, have all long tails; and these are, in many instances, of so much strength, as to answer in some measure the purpose of a fifth limb, enabling the animal to grasp with it the branches of trees or other objects, to assist in climbing. These are called prehensile fails. The ourang-outang and chimpanzé are the most cele- brated of this order, for their similarity in face and form to the human race; whilst many other species, by their elongated snout, depressed forehead, and other particulars, approach more nearly to other quadrupeds. - The Ourang-outang, or wild man of the woods, which is the meaning of the name inthe Malay language, is found only im some Eastern climates, and has seldom been seen in Europe; although many other animals have been exhibited. under this name. He is a native of Malacea and Cochin China, but is principally found in the great island of Borneo, in the East Indies. He is from three to four feet in height ; his body covered with a thick red hair; his forehead high and full; and his face of a bluish color. He is mild and docile, is easily tamed, and becomes attached to those about him. He.is able, in consequence of his bodily form and organs, to imitate very accurately a great variety of human actions; but is, on the whole, not more remarkable for sagacity and intel- ligence than the dog. The Chimpanzé is a larger animal, and has been said by travellers to equal or exceed the size of man. This, how- ever, is not well authenticated. His body is covered with black or brown hairs. He can be taught to walk, to sit, and toeatlike men. He is a native of Congo and Guinea, lives with his fellows in troops, and by means of clubs and stones, repels the attacks of man and other animals. It has been 36 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. said that he constructs for himself a hut with the fohage arid branches of trees; but he probably does little more than pro- vide, in this way, a very rude shelter for himself against rain and storms. The Pongo is probably the largest of the animals of this . order, and is a formidable and ferocious creature- He inhabits the island of Borneo, and is, from the structure of his poste- | rior limbs, as well able to support himself in the erect posture, : as the ourang-outang or chimpanzé. His history has been confounded with that of those animals, and his character and many of his habits have been attributed to them. : But he is, in fact, very different in some important particu- f lars, as the shape of his head approaches that of quadrupeds, | and his muzzle or snout is very long and projecting. One of the most remarkable species among the baboons, is © the great gray baboon, inhabiting Arabia and some parts of - Africa. He is more than five feet in height, and is very fero~ , cious. His head and shoulders are covered with a long | growth of gray hair, which has the appearance of a large full- © bottomed periwig, and, combined with the gravity of his coun- tenance, gives him a singular and grotesque appearance. He is called, by the French naturalists, Papion d perruque. A few of the American monkeys, or Sapajous, are furnished | with a pouch or bladder connected with the wind-pipe, which gives to their voice au enormous volume and a tremen- — dous tone. ‘They are called, from this circumstance, aan monkeys. Some of the smaller ind more inoffensive species of the Quadrumanaare playful, peaceable, and amusing hittle animals; but in general they are a noisy, chattering, mischievous race, whose distorted resemblance to the human face and fizure only renders them hideous and disgusting. III. Carnivora. ‘This order includes a great number and a great variety of animals. They are furnished with the three kinds of teeth, but these differ more or less in shape from those of man and the monkeys, so as to be adapted for the mastication of animal food, upon which they subsist, either in partor altogether. ‘They are subdivided into several tribes or families, accordingly as they are more or less carniv- orous. In some of these tribes the molares are very sharp and cutting, and thus indicate that the animal feeds entirely upon flesh; in others, they are broader, being adapted partly — for the mastication of vegetable food; and in others, they are armed with a number of points or cones, which are fitted for — ~ a ORDER Ill. CARNIVORA. 37 & diet consisting principally of insects. Their fore legs are capable of pretty free and extensive motions, and are furnished with nails er claws, but no thumb; whence they are far in- ferior in point of address to the apes. ‘hey are remarkable for possessing the sense of smell to a high degree of perfec- tion. Their organs of digestion are in general less com- plicated and extensive than those of other animals. The stomach is smailer, and the intestines rade animal food requiring less change than vegetable in order to convert it into chyle. | 1. The first tribe, or family, is that of the Bats. These have some points of affinity with the Quadrumana, and were arranged by Linneus with man and the monkeys. They are sufficiently distinguished, however, by their wings. These are formed of a thin fold of skin, which extends between the two limbs of the same side, and is likewise stretched across the claws of the fore feet, which are very long and slender, and serve to keep the membrane extended like the sticks of an umbrella. By means of this apparatus, many of them are enabled to fly with a force and rapidity equal te that of birds ; but, in others, it answers only the purpose of a parachute to break their fall from lofty places, or to enable them to per- form great leaps in their passage from tree to tree. ‘hey are principally nocturnal animals, seeking their prey (which consist of insects, small quadrupeds or birds, and flesh of any kind) in the twilight, and retiring during the day to dark and hidden recesses, where they remain suspended by their claws, till the return of night. Their eyes are extremely small, and apparently of little use ; but the cavities of their ears are extensive. They possess the singular faculty of directing their flight with great accuracy and precision, without the assistance of the sense of sight, and even after their eyes have been destroyed. It has been found that, after the complete removal of the eyeball, bats are able to fly about in a room without touching the walls, apparently with as much ease and security as before. What. is still more remarkable, when several willow rods are placed six inches distant from each other, so as to forma sort of grating, the bats, after the destruction of their eyes, are able to pass backward and forward through the spaces without ever: coming in contact with the rods. It is difficult to give any satisfactory account of this phenomenon, and yet the experi- ments from which the knowledge of it has been derived, are well authenticated, and have been frequently repeated. It 38 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. has been attributed to the great extent and uncommon del}- cacy of the membrane constituting the wings, and of that lining the ear, which have been supposed to render the animal | capable of judging, from the impressions made upon it by the | air, of the relative distances and positions of external objects. Bats retire upon the approach of cold weather in the autumn, , and pass the winter in a dormant state. They frequently suspend themselves together in large clusters, that by their | warmth they may reciprocally assist each other im resisting the | effects of the cold. During this period, the powers of life seem to be almost extinct, the temperature of the animal is much lowered, and he becomes lean and exhausted ; so that he awakens in the spring in a state of great weakness and emaciation, although in the autumn he may have been very fat. | Beside the common bat, with the appearance of which all are familiar, there are many others, differing a good deal in | size and disposition, which inhabit other countries. Among | them is the Vampyre bat, which is from five inches to a foot in length, and has membranous wings extending from four to | six feet. it inhabits Africa and Asia, but is found most abun- dantly in the East Indian islands. It is very gregarious, and is found in immense flocks. Five hundred have been counted ° hanging on a single tree. It does not confine itself to animal food, but subsists also upon fruits and vegetables, and is the | cause of great injury to the produce of the countries it in- | habits. It has been supposed to suck the blood of persons | lying asleep, by making an orifice in some exposed vein, which it does so easily as not to awaken the sleeper, to the sound- ness of whose slumbers it contributes by fanning him gently | with its wings. Hence this animal has received the name Vampyre, and is thought to have given origin to the ancient fable of the Harpies. It is said to be excellent food. The Spectre bat is a species very similar in its habits to the one just described. It is a smaller animal, not exceeding seven inches in the length of its body, and two feet in the extent of the membrane of its wings. It is an inhabitant of South America and New Holland, and exists in immense numbers. It has the same propensity for drawing blood as _ => - = the Vampyre, and is said to cause great Injury and destruc- ° tion among cattle by this means. In New Holland, twenty thousand have been computed to be seen within the compass of a mile. It is of a mild disposition, and is easily tamed and domesticated. 2. The second tribe of this order includes a number of -ORDER III. CARNIVORA. 39 small animals, which feed principally upon insects, and are called insectivorous. Many of them pass the wmter in a state of lethargy, and‘during summer they lead a secluded, noctur- nal, or subterranean life. Their limbs are short, and their motions very feeble. Among the most worthy of notice are the hedgehog, the tenrec, the shrew-mouse, and the mole. The Hedgehog is remarkable for being covered with short, strong spines instead of hairs, and for the faculty of drawing its head and feet in such a manner under its belly, as to give itself the appearance of a ball covered with sharp bristles. In this way it resists the attacks made upon it, using no other method of defence ; and no violence will induce it to alter its form or position. It is a harmless and inoffensive animal, and suffers injuries of all kinds with great patience and forbear- ance. It is about nine or ten inches in length, inhabits holes and decayed trees, into which it retreats in order to pass the winter. Its skin was used by the ancients for a clothes-brush, and has been sometimes employed for the purpose of dressing hemp. The Moles are peculiarly adapted, by the structure of their nose and feet, for burrowing in the earth. This operation they perform with great facility and rapidity. So expert are they, that if put upon the grass where the earth is soft, they force their way into it almost immediately ; and even upon a hard, gravelly road, they can cover themselves in the course of a few minutes. They feed principally upon the earth- worm, and prefer the soil in which it is to be found in greatest abundance for their residence. They construct habitations of a peculiar form, to be hereafter described, in which they rear their young, and lead a social and domestic life. They sometimes increase in number to such an extent, as to be a serious annoyance to the husbandman. 3. The animals of the third tribe possess the characteris- tics of this order in the highest degree. They are endowed not only with an appetite for animal food, and a structure adapted for its mastication and digestion, but with strength and courage for seizing and retaining it. They are not all, however, purely carnivorous, nor equally ferocious. Some are slow and indolent in their motions, and clumsy in their forms, passing the winter in cold climates in a state of lethargy, and being capable of subsisting in a great measure upon vege- table food. Such are the bear, glutton, and badger. There are others, as the weasel, the ermine, the ferret, and the pole- cat, mean in size and appearance, and of a long, lean body, 40 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. with very short legs, enabling them to creep through very narrow apertures. ‘They are small and feeble, but still ex- tremely cruel. Others again, as the dog, the wolf, the fox, and the jackal, are possessed of a good deal of strength, but do not exhibit a proportionate degree of courage and ferocity. But the lion, tiger, panther, é&&c., are at once the most power- ful, the most bloody, and the mest ferocious of the animal kingdom. ‘Their fore paws are endowed with prodigious muscular power, and are armed with sharp and piercing nails, which, in a state of rest, are drawn im and concealed from sight. ‘They are the terror of the forest, feed only upon flesh > and blood, and sometimes, when driven by hunger, attack even man himself. The Dog, so well known to all mankind, presents a great variety of shape, size, and color, according to the different breeds produced by the different situations in which he has been placed. No.animal is so completely under the control of mankind. Every individual of the species gives himself up > wholly to his master, obeys his voice, acquires his habits, de- fends his property, and, even m spite of eaprice and ill usage, - remains faithful till death. This connection, this attachment, does not proceed so much from necessity, as from a true sen-_ timent of friendship. The dog is the only animal which has | accompanied man to every part of the earth, and forms his | most useful ally, particularly in the early stages of society, in bringing into subjection the inhabitants of the forest. It has , been supposed by some, that the dog was originally the same with the wolf, and by others, that he is a jackal in a domestic | state. But the origin of his connection with man is too re- mote and obscure to allow this question to be determined. The animals of the Cat kind are all of a fierce and bloody — disposition; some are remarkable for the majesty and ele-— gance of their form, or the beauty of their skin. The lon and the tiger are the two most celebrated species. -* The Lion is a native of Asia and Africa; and is found some- ‘ times of the length of eight or nine feet, exclusively of the tail. His appearance is majestic and dignified; and, although entirely carnivorous, he is not remarkable for cruelty or the unnecessary destruction of life, but has been often noted for striking traits of generosity and magnanimity. His muscular strength is immense ; a single stroke of his paw is sufficient to destroy some of the larger animals on which he preys; a sweep of his tail will knock down a man; and he is able to carry off an ox, or even a buffalo, when lightened of its en- ORDER Ill. CARNIVORA. Al trails, with apparent ease. In populous countries, where he 1S accustomed to the sight and acquainted with the power of man, he is comparatively timid, and will sometimes even fly before women or children ; but in those where he is undis- turbed in his dominion of the forest, he defies man as well as all other animals, and has been known singly to attack a whole caravan. ‘The lion, when taken young, is capable of being tamed; and, in a state of confinement, has lived to the age of seventy years. The Royal Tiger is an inhabitant of the warmer parts of — Asia and the Indian islands. He attains to nearly the size of the lion, and is of equal strength, but far more bloody and cruel. He is the scourge of the countries which he infests, and has sometimes almost depopulated whole villages. Such is his vigor and the rapidity of all his motions, that he has been known, when lurking around an army on the march, to spring from a thicket upon a soldier, tear him from his horse, and convey him into the forest without being molested. When he has seized a large animal, if uninterrupted, he plunges his head into the midst of the carcass, and sucks the blood. He is not so-easily or completely tamed as the lion ; ; but if taken young, is susceptible of a certain degree of domestication. 4, A fourth tribe of the Carnivora comprehends the am- phibious animals, as the Seal and the Morse. They differ from other quadrupeds very widely in their external appear- ance, whilst their internal structure is very nearly the same. Their limbs are composed of a similar number of bones, ar- ranged in the same way, but so short and so enveloped by their skin, as to be of but little use for walking. But as the intervals between the toes are so filled up with skin, they form excellent oars; so that these animals move with great. rapidity and address in the water, although they can only crawl awkwardly upon land. ‘They feed principally upon fish; and the structure of their teeth is manifestly that of carnivorous animals. ‘They live almost entirely in the sea, and come upon shore only for the purpose of reposing in the sun and suckling their young. ‘They breathe, however, like other Mammalia; and hence cannot constantly remain under water, but are obliged to return occasionally to the surface for air. Still they are able to live a long time without breath- ~ ing; and it has been asserted that there is some peculiar con- formation about their heart, which renders this possible. But no such peculiarity is found to exist. The Seals are mild and inoffensive, except when provoked. 4* | 42 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. ORDER IV. RODENTTA. They are easily tamed, and become attached to those who feed them. Their head somewhat resembles that of the dog. They live together in large herds or families, and are valua- ble as objects of trade on account of their skins and oil. IV. Rodentia, the Gnawers, are distinguished by the pos- session of two large incisive teeth in the centre of each jaw, and by the absence of canine teeth. There is a wide space between the incisors and the molares, which last are broad, and evidently calculated for the mastication of vegetable food. .This arrangement of their teeth remarkably qualifies them for gnawing, and enables them to penetrate very solid substances ; and frequently they feed upon woody fibres and the bark of roots and trees. ‘There is an additional circum- stance in the structure of their incisive teeth, which adapts them to the use for which they are intended. They are fur- nished with enamel only upon their front surface, so that the back part, being merely bone, is by gnawing worn away faster than that in front, and of course the front edge is kept sharp and fit for cutting. ‘To remedy the loss of substance which necessarily takes place, there is a provision by which aconstant growth takes place from the root; so that if one of these teeth is lost by accident, that which corresponds to it in the opposite jaw, being no longer worn away by use, in- creases to a great length. Their feet are furnished with toes and nails, and their hind legs are stronger and longer than their fore legs ; so that frequently they leap better than they run. Of this order, among others, are the beaver, the squir- rel, the dormouse, the marmot, the hamster, the mouse and rat, the jerboa, the various species of hare and rabbit, and the porcupine. | | : The Beavers (Castor fiber) have been long celebrated for the value of their skins as an article of commerce, and for the wonderful sagacity and forethought which they exhibit in the construction of their dwellings. Their cutting teeth are very strong and sharp, and they are able, with them, to fell lofty trees.* ‘They are possessed of a large, long, and broad * In felling a tree, several beavers are engaged at once around its trunk, and they aw it carefully in such a part of the circumference, as will cause it to fall ina | irection convenient for their purposes. An observer of them relates, that he wit- nessed three beavers occupied in cutting round a tree; that, after a certain period, one of them left the two others, and went to a considerable distance, where he quietly watched their operations ; and that, when the trunk was nearly divided, so that the weight of the branches was sufficient to bring down the tree, and the in- -clination was obvious on looking at its summit, he gave a smart stroke with his | tail upon the water, as a signal to his companions, who immediately ran off with great expedition to escape the impending danger.—Long’s Expedition. ORDER IV. RODENTIA. 43 tail, almost ek incites shape, and covered with scales. It has been supposed that they used this as a kind of trowel, to lay on the mud and clay of which their dikes are partly built. But it has also been sometimes asserted that the tail was only of use as an instrument for swimming. They are aquatic animals, and construct themselves habitations upon waters which are sufficiently deep never to be frozen to the bottom, preferring running streams upon which the trees they cut can float down to whatever spot they have chosen. Here they build a dam for the purpose of preserving the water always of a convenient depth, and construct their huts or eabins. Of their skill, sagacity, and intelligence, a more par- ticular account will be given hereafter. But, although so wonderful in these respects when united in a society, they are, for the most part, helpless and timorous animals when living separately ; a beaver, although pretty large and strong, and armed with powerful teeth, if he meets a man alone upon the shore, sets himself down upon his haunches, and cries like a child. The Jerboa is a little animal of about the size of a rat, with a tail ten inches long, and legs of very unequal size, the hind legs being six inches, whilst the fore legs are but one inch in length. It cannot of course use them all at once without great difficulty, and moves principally by leaps, which are sometimes of five or six feet in extent, or by a hopping motion on its two hind legs, which resembles that of birds. Its fore legs it employs only as hands for the purpose of holding its food. It has been asserted that the ancient cony, mentioned in the Old Testament, was the jerboa, which inhabits Pales- tine to this day. There is an American species called the Canadian Jerboa, which does not exceed two and a halfor three inches in length. It has the same general characteristics as the animal before mentioned, and even exceeds it in the length of its leaps, which extend, if we may credit the accounts given of them, to the enormous distance of three or four yards, or nearly fifty times the length of its body. The Hamster is an animal larger and thicker than the Jer- boa, and nearly allied to the common rat. It is distinguished by cheek pouches, which are capable of containing a very. large quantity of food. When empty, they are so contracted as not to appear externally visible; but when filled, they are stretched to an enormous extent, and are capable of contain- ing a gill of grain. A hamster has been caught and dissected, 44 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. ORDER V. EDENTATA. that had stored in its pouches a quantity of beans, which, when taken out and laid in a heap, appeared to exceed the bulk of its whole body. The Canada rat is almost equally remarkable for the size of these receptacles. Of the Alpine Marmot some account will be given here- after. There is another species, however, which deserves a short notice. This is the Louisiana Marmot, usually known by the name of the prairie dog, from a slight resemblance of its cry to the barking of a small dog. It is a sprightly and interesting little animal, inhabiting the country around the Missouri and Arkansas rivers, and is found in villages from a few acres to several miles in extent, which are called by the hunters, prairie dog villages. It lives in burrows, the entrance - to which is in the summit or side of a small mound of earth, somewhat elevated, but rarely to the height of eighteen inches. This mound, particularly around the entrance, is trodden down like a pathway. They delight, in pleasant weather, to sport about the entrance of their burrows, and five or six individuals may be seen sitting on a single mound. When alarmed, if the object of terror be near at hand, they retreat immediately into their holes; but if at a distance, they remain for some time barking and _ flourishing their tails, or sitting erect to reconnoitre. The Porcupine is covered with hard and sharp spines, which afford it a natural protection against the attacks of other animals. In this respect it resembles the hedgehog, and, were external appearance alone regarded, would be arranged with it; but both its structure and its habits of life are different, and it is obviously intended for subsisting upon vegetable food. V. Edentata, Toothless animals, so called from the absence of the incisive, and sometimes also of the canine and grinding teeth. ‘Their toes are terminated by very large, thick, and strong claws, which approach in some degree to the nature of hoofs. The animals of this order are likewise remarkable for a great degree of torpor, listlessness, and indis- position to motion; but some more than others. The sloth, the ant-eater, and armadillo, are among them; and of each of these there are several species. The Three-toed Sloth is an animal whose very aspect is painful and disgusting, from its excessive ugliness and defor- mity. The expression of its countenance and its whole atti- tude, indeed, convey to the beholder the impression, that its very existence is a burden. It is about the size of a cat. Its ‘ORDER VI. RUMINANTIA. 45 fore legs are much larger than its hind ones, and it drags the latter after its body, as if weary of carrying them. It creeps, in fact, almost with its belly upon the ground, and cannot advance more than fifty or sixty paces in a day. It climbs trees, and feeds upon their Jeaves and smaller branches; but such is its indolence, that, after having despoiled one tree of its foliage, it endures the pangs of hunger a long time, before it removes to another, and usually consumes a day or two in ascending or descending. Sometimes, indeed, it has been known to suffer itself to fall to the ground, rather than undergo the labor of coming down by the trunk. The Armadilloes are principally remarkable for their crus- taceous shell or covering, which invests them like a suit of armor. ‘This coat of mail is composed of several pieces, and marked by bands, the number of which serves to distinguish the different species from each other. The Ant-eaters are totally destitute of teeth, but are fur- nished with a long, slender tongue. This they thrust into the habitations of ants and termites, and draw it back covered with these animals, which adhere to it by the thick, viscid saliva, with which it is covered. The animals of this order are principally found in the warm parts of the-American continent. VI. Ruminantia. This order is one of the most distinct and well marked among the Mammalia. They have gene- rally eight incisive teeth in the lower jaw; but except the camel, they have none in the upper; their place being occu- pied by a firm callous projection. They are commonly also destitute of the canine teeth. The grinders are always adapted for the mastication of vegetable food. They have neither toes nor nails, but, instead of them, each of their feet is terminated by a double hoof, which has the appearance of a single one cut in two. Hence they are called cloven-footed. Their fore feet, being thus deprived of the instruments of feel- ing, are only capable of being used, like the hind ones, for walking; and consequently they are not possessed of that freedom of motion in the shoulder-joint, which is observed in the animals previously described. Examples of this order are found in the camel, lama, antelope, musk, deer, ox, sheep, and goat. The most distinguished attribute of the ruminating animals, : and that which gives to them their name, is the power of bringing their food up into their mouths, after it has been once swallowed, for the purpose of masticating it a second time, 46 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. This power depends upon the structure of their stomachs, of which there are four. Of these the three first are so situated that the aliments may be made to enter either of them at pleasure, as the esophagus terminates at a point where they all communicate together. These animals usually feed upon grass and herbage; which substances, after being slightly chewed, are carried into the first stomach, called the paunch; there they undergo but little change, and are gradually transferred to the second stomach, a small globular cavity, called the bonnet, or king’s hood, whose internal membrane is arranged in cells of an appear- ance like those of honey-comb. Having received the food, this stomach divides it into little rolls or pellets, which are successively carried up into the mouth, where they undergo a thorough mastication, and are then again swallowed and deposited inthe third stomach. This, called manyplies, tripe, or feck, is distinguished by the numerous longitudinal folds of its internal membrane. It effects some further change upon the alimentary mass. In the fourth stomach, however, into which it next passes, the principal work of digestion goes on. This answers to the single stomach of other animals ; into it the gastric juice is poured, and here the function is finally completed. During the rumination, the animal-remains in a state of repose, almost of sleep; and this operation continues until the whole of the food previously swallowed has been subjected to it. | The ruminating animals have been more valuable to man, than any others. They are mild, docile, and easily domesti- cated. ‘Their flesh furnishes us with a large proportion of our animal food; indeed there are few other quadrupeds that man is m the habit of eating. Several of them, as the camel, the lama, ox, and rein-deer, are used as beasts of draught and burden. ‘They require, comparatively, little care, attention, or protection, and are generally contented with the cheapest and coarsest food. The milk, fat, hair, wool, skins, horns, and feet of one species or another, are made use of, for nour- ishment, for clothing, or for various manufactures. — The Camel and Dromedary are singularly valuable in the countries where they are reared. Without them, in fact, the great deserts of Arabia and of Africa would be totally impas- sable. Their structure is every way adapted for the life which they lead. Their feet are very large, and divided, on their upper part, into two lobes, having each a hoof; but under- neath are covered with an extremely strong, tough, and pliable ORDER Vi, RUMINANTIA, aT skin, which unites the two together, and, by yielding in all directions, enables these animals to travel with peculiar ease and security over dry, stony, and sandy regions. They are capable also of passing several days without a supply of water : this power is probably owing to a number of large and exten- sive cells in the paunch, which they fill with water, and retain it for a considerable length of time, forcing it up into the mouth whenever occasion requires. It has been supposed that the camel had a fifth stomach for this purpose, but it was probably the enlargement of the paunch, which gave rise to the opmion. The Arabian camel, of which the dromedary is a variety, has one large bunch of fat upon his back, while the Bactrian camel has two. ‘The dromedary is active and swift, and better adapted for rapid journeys; the camel more slow and deliberate, and calculated for the transportation of bag- gage and merchandise. The Lama has been called the camel of the new world. It resembles the camel in many particulars, but is much smaller, being of about the size of the stag. It is also called the Guanaco, and was the only laboring domestic animal possessed by the aboriginal inhabitants of America. The American Bison, or Buffalo, as it is often, but improp- erly called, is an animal very similar to the domestic ox. It inhabits the pastures and plains of the western parts of the United States in almost incredible numbers. In those parts of the country which they frequent, travellers report that their paths leading te and from springs and pools of water, are as common, and as well beaten, as the roads of a populous disirict. ‘They are gradually retiring before the settlements of the civilized inhabitants, = will probably in time become nearly exterminated. The Camelopard, or Giraffe, is the most lofty of all quadru- peds. It is remarkable for the great length of its fore legs, shoulders, and neck, which raise its head to an elevation of seventeen or eighteen feet, whilst, at its tail, it does not exceed half that height. Its color is white, spotted with brown. {t is a mild, gentle, and somewhat timid animal, and is very fleet and graceful inits motions. It feeds principally upon the foliage of trees, and inhabits only the centre of Africa. All the ruminating order, except the camel, lama, and the. musks, have horns. In animals of the deer kind, they are, with some exceptions, confined to the males. They are of a hard, solid, bony substance, generally large and branching, and are periodically cast off and renewed. In the sheep, 43 ORDER Vii. PACHYDERMATA. the goat, the ox, and the antelope, they are permanent, are hollow, and increase yearly in size; whilst in the camelopard they are short, conical, and always covered by the skin of the forehead, which extends over them, and by a quantity of thick, bristly hairs. VII. Pachydermata. 'This order embraces all the animals with hoofs which do not ruminate. They present a greater variety than the ruminating animals, and are called Pachy- dermata, because they are commonly possessed of a thick and tough skin. They have generally incisive teeth im both jaws, and often canine teeth or tusks of very great size. Of this order are the elephant, the hippopotamus, the tapir, the hog, the horse, the ass, &c. The elephant has, properly speaking, five hoofs on each foot, but they are so much enveloped by thick and callous skin, as to be scarcely observable. It is destitute of incisive teeth in either jaw; and, in place of the canine teeth in the upper, is furnished with two large tusks, which sometimes attain to an enormous size. ‘These, which furnish the ivory | of commerce, are used by the animal for tearing off the branches of trees, upon which it feeds, and sometimes as instruments of attack and defence. From the shortness of its neck, and the clumsiness of its head and jaws, the elephant is | incapable of taking up its food or drink from the ground with the mouth like other animals. This difficulty is obviated by its trunk or proboscis. This isa long and flexible organ, composed of an almost infinite number of little muscles, which contract and extend it at the animal’s pleasure, and move it in every possible direction. It is in fact a prolongation of the nostrils, and is endowed with the senses of smelling and feeling to a_ great degree of perfection. There is at its extremity a cavity of a cup-like form, into which open two canals thatrun through | its whole length, and serve for the transmission of air and for | drawing up water. Atthe upper edge of this cavity, or cup, is a small fleshy appendage, somewhat resembling a finger in shape, which, by being opposed to the surface of the cup; as the fingers are opposed to the palm of the hand, enables the animal to make use of its trunk as an organoftouch. It ; is nearly equal in this respect to the hand of the apes. From its length and flexibility, the trunk is capable of beimg bent — double, and its extremity inserted within the jaws which are below, at its base; and in this way the animal’s food, being taken up by the trunk, is conveyed into the mouth; whilst its | drink, being first sucked up into the cavities of the trunk, is : ORDER VII. PACHYDERMATA. AY injected with considerable force through the apertures of the nostrils into the throat. | f There are two species of elephant; the Indian or Asiatic, which inhabits the southern parts of Asia and the Indian isles; and the African, found in Africa, from the river Sene- gal to the Cape of Good Hope. The great Mastodon, or Mammoth, as it has been more frequently called, an animal whose bones only have been dis- covered, the species itself having become extinct, resembled the elephant'in many respects. It has been ascertained, from the remains which have been found, that this animal pos- sessed a trunk, tusks, and feet, similar to those of the ele- phant, and was of an equal size, but still more heavy and unwieldy. Its remains have been discovered in great abun- dance tn North America, but rarely in any other part of the world. The bones of a smaller species have been found on the eastern continent. The Hippepotamus, or River Horse, mhabits principally the rivers of the south of Africa, but was formerly known upon the southern extremities of the Nile. It is sometimes found ten or twelve feet in length, and six or seven in height. It has two very large tusks in the under jaw, which are partly concealed by its projecting snout and lips. ‘These tusks are used by dentists -for the manufacture of artificial teeth. It is a heavy, stupid, and ferocious animal; its body is thick, massy, and clumsy ; and its legs are so short that its belly almost drags upon the ground. It subsists upon roots and other vegetable substances, and frequently commits great devastation in the fields of millet, corn, rice, sugar-cane, é&c. it walks with great ease at the bottom of the water, though obliged occasionally to rise to the surface for breath. An attack upon it while in the water is dangerous, since, when wounded, it becomes exceedingly furious, and often tears to pieces the boat of its aggressors. Of the Rhinoceros there are several species. The one horned rhinoceros is somewhat larger than the hippopotamus, and is equally stupid and ferocious. It has one Jarge and solid horn, three feet in length, projecting from its snout. ft frequents moist and marshy grounds, and feeds upon herbs, roots, and branches of trees. The other species have two. horns, and are generally similar in form and habits of life. The Tapir is the largest quadruped of South America; it is of about the size of an ass, and inhabits marshes and low grounds. Its nose terminates in a short and movable trunk, 5 | : 50 ye CLASS I. MAMMALIA. which bears a distant resemblance to that of the elephant. It subsists entirely upon vegetables, and isof a gentle and timid disposition. ‘ From the Wild Boar is derived the domestic Hog and all | its varieties. The wild animal is extremely violent and fero- , cious, and is armed with much larger and stronger tusks than | the domestic. All the numerous varieties of form, size, and || color, which are observed among hogs, are to be attributed , ‘to the circumstances to which they are exposed in their do- ; nestic state. 4 Under this order are included the Solipeda or single-hoofed + animals, in which the whole foot is enveloped in a single ; hoof. Of these, the most celebrated is the horse, one of the | most beautiful and noble of quadrupeds. These animals are , distinguished, beside the formation of their hoofs, by the pos- | session of six incisive teeth in each jaw; and, in the male, of , two small canine teeth in the upper, and sometimes in the under jaw, which are wanting in the female. Between these and the double teeth, or grinders, there is a vacant space, just corresponding to the angle of the lips, where the bit of the bridle is placed, by which man is enabled to guide and restrain him. Beside the horse, which is the most valuable and highly prized of all the domestic animals, this family em- | braces the ass, the zebra, the dziggetai, a species between | the horse and the ass in size, of a light bay color, inhabiting | the central deserts of Asia, and the Couagga, an inhabitant | of Africa, resembling in shape the horse, but in stripes of dark and white colors, the zebra. All these animals are found naturally in the wild state, ex- cept the horse. ‘They are gregarious animals, live in immense > herds, and subsist entirely upon vegetable food. Even the | horse, in Tartary and America, is found, free from the domin- | ion of man, collected into troops or companies, each of which , is led and defended by an aged male. But in such cases it | has been proved that the wild animals are the descendants of | individuals who have been set at liberty by their masters, or | who have escaped from them. - Different breeds of horses | differ, as is well known, in their color, size, speed, shape, | strength, and many other qualities, which render them more || or less valuable. These differences depend very much upon | the care which is taken in rearing the young. The most | beautiful, if suffered to become wild, will begin soon to de- | teriorate, and give birth to a progeny destitute of elegance | and symmetry. The horse in the wild state has a large and — | | | | | | | | | | ! | | CLASS I. MAMMALIA. ORDER VIII. CETACEA. oli clumsy head, rough and frizzled hair, and an awkward and disagreeable form ; so different indeed is he from the domestic animal, that we can hardly recognize him a& being of the same species with the noble and graceful creature that we are accustomed to behold. VIII. Cetacea. 'The whales are usually confounded with the class of fishes, which they resemble in many particulars of external appearance, as well as in the circumstance of re- siding always in the water. In point of structure, however, - they clearly belong to the class Mammalia, since they breathe air by means of lungs, are warm-blooded, produce their young alive, and nourish them with their own milk. Instead of fore feet, they are furnished with fins or oars, which, how- ever, are supported by bones similar to those of the fore feet of quadrupeds. They have no hind feet, but their body ter- _ minates in a thick tail, which supports a fin or oar. This fin is horizontal, whilst that of fishes is vertical. A few of the Cetacea are herbivorous, and are frequently obliged to leave the water and crawl upon the shore in search of food. Such are the manati, usually called the sea-ox and -sea-cow,; and the dugong. ‘They have upon their fins the _ rudiments of claws, which are of service to them in their mo- tions upon the land, and with which they are even able to carry their young. The mamme, from which they nurse their young, are upon the chest, like those of the human spe- cies; and they have, around the face, a growth of hair which resembles, in a slight degree, that of man. Hence the ap- pearance they present when the upper part of their bodies is elevated above the water, bears some resemblance to that of mankind, and they have, consequently, been called sea-apes. It is probable that these animals being seen by the credulous, the ignorant, the timid, or the superstitious, gave rise to the ancient fables of the tritons and sirens, and, in modern times, to the various unfounded stories of mermen and mermaids. The remainder of the cetaceous animals, such as the whale, porpoise, grampus, narwhale, and dolphin, are distinguished by a peculiar construction, which has acquired for them the common name of blowers, and which is rendered necessary by their mode of taking their prey. In taking into their very large mouths a great number of fishes, mollusca, medusz, éc., at once, they would swallow at the same time large quantities of water, were there not some provision for getting rid of it. ‘T’o effect this, the water is passed up through the ‘roof of the mouth, into a cavity situated near the external ori- 52 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. ORDER IX. MARSUPIALIA. fice of the nostrils, from whence it is ejected, with consider- able force, through a small aperture, called the blowhole, on — the upper part of the head. In some of the whales, as in ‘the | great Balena, beside this arrangement, the mouth is fur- nished with rows of whalebone on each side, extended in the | form of thin plates, and terminating at their edges in fibres ; or a sort of fringe, which serve the purpose of a sieve, or | strainer, to retain the large shoals of little animals that are | taken in with the water, wiiaer the water passes through and escapes. The Balena mysticetus, or great Greenland Whale, is an enormous animal, which attains to a length varying ae sixty | to seventy or eighty feet, and is néarly of as many in cir- ; cumference. Its jaws are capable of being stretched twenty , feet apart, and its plates of whalebone are sometimes twelve feet in length. It is covered, under the skin, by a layer of | fat, which is often several feet thick, and yields, according to | the different sizes of the animal, from twelve to twenty tons || of oil. It used formerly to frequent the Atlantic coasts of | Europe and America; but to such an extent has the pursuit | of it been carried, that it has gradually been driven into the recesses of the northern seas. There are other whales equal in length to this, but less val- uable on account of their smaller circumference, their com- parative leanness, and the difficulty of taking them. The Spermaceti Whales are without the whalebone, and are remarkable for the disproportionate size of their heads. | This size is owing to the existence of certain cartilaginous | cavities upon their upper part, in which is contained the pe- | culiar substance known by the name of spermaceti. These | cavities are entirely distinct from that contaming the brain, which is very small. They have little fat in other parts of || their bodies ; and it is on account of the spermaceti only that ; they are a valuable object of fishery. The odorous substance || called ambergris, appears to be a concretion formed in the } intestines of these whales, particularly when they are the sub- | jects of disease. | IX. Marsupialia. The Marsupial animals have usually || been distributed among those orders of the class Mammalia, || to which they bear, in some particulars, the closest resem- || blance. ‘Thus the Kangaroo has been enumerated among | the Rodentia, because it resembles them in its teeth, and the | length and strength of its hind legs. The Opossum has been | ranked among the Carnivora, and the Ornithorhynchus among || | | ORDER IX. MARSUPIALIA. 53 the Edentata for a similar reason. But so peculiar and re- _ markable is the structure of these animals, and so singular | their mode of nourishing their young, that it will be far more _ intelligible and interesting to the student of natural history, "to have them placed together, and described as belonging to a single order. ~ The most remarkable circumstance, with regard to the | Marsupial animals, is the premature birth of their young, and _ the exceedingly unformed and imperfect state in which they _ are brought into the world. They are incapable of motion, | _ and scarcely exhibit even the rudiments of limbs or other ex- ternal organs. Their mouth is simply a round orifice, with- out distinction of parts; but by means of it, they attach them- selves to the nipples of the mother, and there remain immovably fixed, deriving their nourishment from them, and gradually Improving in shape and increasing in size, until they are as completely formed as other animals are at the time of their birth. So small in proportion are the young when first born, that the Kangaroo, which, when full grown, is as large as a sheep, and weighs one hundred and fifty pounds, is at its birth no more than an inch in length, and weighs only twenty-one grains. Generally, the female is furnished with a duplicature of the skin of the abdomen, which forms a kind of bag, covering the nipples, in which it places its young, and preserves them du- ring the period of helplessness. Frequently, indeed, even af- ter they have acquired strength to leave this pouch, they re- treat into it upon the approach of danger. Sometimes, in place of the pouch, there is simply a fold of the skin. ‘The pouch is supported by means of two bones attached to those of the pelvis, from which proceed muscles that open cr con- tract its mouth, like the opening of a purse. ‘These bones are found also in the male, and in those species which have not the complete pouch; and are always an indication that the animal belongs to this order. The Opossum is as large as a cat, and covered with a thick fur of a dingy cast. It hunts after birds and their eggs, and is destructive to poultry. It is found in many parts of the United States. When pursued and overtaken, it feigns it- self dead, and will give no signs of life during the presence of its assailant, although tortured to a great degree. Its young, which are sometimes six or seven in number, are ex- ceedingly minute; and, although blind and without limbs, find their way, by a sort of instinct, to the nipples, and adhere . * ; 54 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. ORDER IX. MARSUPIALIA. to ihn till they have attained the size of a mouse, which is not until the fiftieth day, when also they first open their eyes. They continue to return into the pouch, until they reach the size of a rat. The Phalangers are found in the Moluccas and New Hol- land. Their tails are long, covered with scales, and prehen- sile. ‘They live upon trees, and subsist upon insects and fruit. When any one approaches them, they suspend them- selves by the tail, until they fall, through mere fatigue, to the ground. The Phalanger volans, or Great Flying Opos- sum, is about the size of a common cat, and resembles, in many respects, the flying squirrel. Like that animal, it is provided with the power of extending the loose skin of its sides when it stretches out its legs, so as in some measure to buoy itself in the air, whilst leaping from one tree to another. It can Jeap in this way to the distance of a hundred yards. The Merian Opossum is remarkable for its method of car- rying its young. It conveys them on its back, where they fix themselves by twisting their tails closely about that of their parent, clinging with their claws to its fur. The Kangaroo is the largest animal of this order, and the largest quadruped which has been discovered in New Holland. It is sometimes six feet in height, and is distinguished by the great disproportion in length between its fore and hind legs; the former being only one foot and a half long, but the latter three feet and a half. In consequence of this, they cannot walk upon all fours without difficulty, but leap with great power and to a prodigious distance, sometimes twenty feet, and to the height of nine feet. They sit upon their hind legs whilst at rest, seldom using the fore legs, except for support- | ing themselves when stooping to drink, for conveying food to | the mouth, and for digging in the earth. But although dis- | proportionately long, as has just been observed, when full ‘| grown, the hind legs of the Kangaroo at birth are not so | large or so strong as the fore legs, which are more necessary, | in order to favor the motions of the little animal while in> the pouch. The Ornithorhynchus has not the pouch, like the opossum | and kangaroo, but has the marsupial bones, and is therefore | to be enumerated under this order. It is a most singular and | anomalous animal, and approaches, in some particulars, to a resemblance to birds. Its mouth is very much like the bill | of the duck; it has a bone resembling the fourchette or | wishing-bone ‘of birds: ; it has no nipples for nursing its young, | | | CLASS Ili. BIRDS. 55 and a doubt still exists if it be not oviparous. This is the belief of the inhabitants of New Holland, who assert that it Jays two eggs; and the dissection of the animal has led to the opinion that the eggs, if not laid, are hatched within the body of the parent, by its own heat, but just before the birth of the offspring. The male has, upon each of its hind feet, a spur, perforated by a small canal, through which, it is said, it can eject a poisonous fluid when it inflicts a wound. It is an aquatic animal, inhabiting the rivers and marshes of New Holland. Its feet are webbed, to adapt it for swimming. SECTION III. ‘Class Tf. * Birds. Brrps being intended for flight, Nature has adapted the structure of their organs to this purpose. Their anterior extremities, being designed to support them in the air, serve none of those purposes to which they are applied in quad- -rupeds;.and they therefore invariably stand and walk upon two feet only. The neck is long, and capable of a great variety and extent of motion; and the mouth, being furnished with a hard, horny beak, is without teeth. The breast-bone | is very large and strong, in order to support the powerful actions of the wings, and has in front a large projection, in shape like a keel, that serves for the attachment of the strong muscles which put the wings in motion. The wings are composed of nearly the same number and kind of bones as the anterior extremities of quadrupeds, and are covered with long and wide feathers or quills, so arranged as to be capable of acting upon the air, raising the animal from the ground, and conveying it abeut from place to place. The tail is also furnished with feathers that may be stretched out in the form of a fan, and serve to balance and direct the flight. The feet are furnished generally with four claws, but sometimes with only three. The bones of the leg and thigh resemble very nearly those of quadrupeds. The heart of birds is constructed, like that of the Mamma- lia, with four cavities, two auricles and two ventricles. They have, of course, a double circulation, one through the lungs, and the other through the body. Their lungs, however, are arranged differently. They are fixed against the back and sides of the body, and covered by a membrane, which, being 56 - - STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. perforated by many small openings, permits the air to enter into them, and likewise to pass into several cavities situated in the chest and belly. Iteven extends into the interior of the bones, and by thus pervading various parts of the body, not only exercises very extensively its peculiar influence on the blood, but also renders the whole body lighter and better adapted. for flight. The organs of digestion also: are somewhat varied. As | birds cannot chew their food, a provision is made to supply this defect by means of the structure of their internal organs. The food is carried first into the crop, which appears to be | merely an enlargement of the cesophagus or gullet, at the bottom of the neck, where it is softened by a liquor poured out from the internal surface of this cavity. It is then carried into a membranous sack, called the ventriculus succenturiatus, \ where it is further macerated and soaked; and from thence | into the gizzard, which is composed of two very strong and | firm muscles, united by radiated tendons, and lined on its inside by a rough cartilaginous membrane. In this organ the food is powerfully acted upon, and is triturated and ground up into a substance resembling that prepared by the teeth and stomach of the Mammalia. This structure, however, is not fully carried out in all birds. | It exists in its most complete state in those which are gra- nivorous, or which live upon fruit, seed, &c.; but in the car- -nivorous birds, or those which feed upon flesh or fish, the | dilatation, constituting the crop, is very small or altogether | wanting ; and the gizzard is a thin and weak organ, hardly to | be distinguished from the second or membranous stomach. | This is a difference corresponding to that which has been | described as existing in the Mammalia; among which those | feeding upon vegetable food are provided with powerful and | extensive organs of digestion, whilst in those living .upon | animal food they are comparatively weak, and limited in extent. : The sight of birds is very perfect. They possess the power of seeing objects distinctly, when very remote. Birds of prey | are particularly remarkable for the very great distance at ,| which they perceive their prey, and the accuracy with which they direct their flight towards it. Besides the upper and || under eyelids, birds have a third, which is semitransparent, | and serves the purpose of protecting the eye from the contact of external bodies, or from too powerful light, whilst, at the | same time, it does not prevent them from distinguishing the | objects around them. This membrane is situated at the inner | / : : : ORDER I. ACCIPITRES. 57 angle of the eye, and is drawn over the globe of it, like a cur- tain, at will. It is by means of this protection, that the eagle is enabled to look steadily at the sun. The senses of hearing and smelling are also possessed in considerable perfection by birds; the former more particularly by the nocturnal, and the latter by those feeding principally upon carrion, the scent of which they are thus able to trace to an immense distance. Their tongue being chiefly of bone or cartilage, they have little delicacy of taste; and the sense of touch, judging from the structure of their claws and beak, which would be the organs for its exercise, must be exceed- ingly imperfect. Most birds construct nests, and some of them with much care, labor, and ingenuity. In these they deposit their eggs, and hatch them by the heat of their own bodies. Some few lay them upon the sand, and leave them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. Their care and affection for their young are well known, and, in providing for and protecting them, they exhibit many indications of sagacity or of feeling. They are capable of some slight improvements, by education and imita- tion, but are, on the whole, in this respect decidedly inferior to quadrupeds. The class of birds is divided, according to their structure and habits of life, into six ondeuy 1. Accipitres, or Birds of Prey. These correspond, in many respects, with the carnivorous animals among quadru- peds. ‘They are distinguished by their strong, hooked beaks, and their crooked and powerful talons, by means of which they are enabled to prey upon other birds, and even upon some of the smaller quadrupeds and reptiles. ‘They are divided into the diurnal and the nocturnal. The diurnal include the vultures, eagles, falcons, hawks, buzzards, and kites. The vultures are heavy and ‘ferocious birds, feeding principally upon carrion. ‘They are so voracious, and fill themselves to such an extent, that they become quite stupid and inactive, and during digestion, a fetid humor distils from their nostrils. The eagles, falcons, &c., prefer living animals for their food, and never prey upon carrion, unless driven to it by hunger. The number of their species is very great, and they are observed to vary considerably in their plumage, according to their age and other circumstances. ‘The females are generally a third part larger than the males, and are likewise superior in beauty of shape and plumage. Hence the latter are often called tercels, or thirds, from their inferiority in size. These birds are generally fierce and difficult to tame, but 58 CLASS II. BIRDS. ORDER Il. PASSERES. im former days, the hawk and the falcon were educated with great care, and trained so as to be employed as assistants in hunting. — The nocturnal birds of prey include only the different spe- cies of owl. They are destitute of the dignity and beauty which distinguish the diurnal. ‘They have very large heads, which are sometimes surmounted with feathers that give them , the appearance of being horned. ‘Their eyes are very large, and, unlike those of most other birds, are directed forwards, and surrounded by a rim or circle of projecting feathers. Their structure is calculated to admit so much light, that the full rays of the sun dazzle and blind them; and they are , capable of seeing only in the twilight or evening. The owls ; are awkward and clumsy in their motions, and their wings are || too short and weak for long flights. They prey upon mice | and other small quadrupeds, upon birds and insects. II. Passeres, or Sparrows, form the most extensive and numerous order, embracing a very great variety of species, | which differ so much among themselves, as to be hardly capa- || ble of an intelligible description, common tothem all. Tothis | order belong those species which are most celebrated for the | sweetness and harmony of their notes; and in general the || organ of voice is in them larger and better formed, than in any others. Among them are some that have a sharp, pointed | beak, and feed upon insects, such as the blackbird, the robin, the nightingale, and the linnet; and others with a short, flat beak, and wide mouth, which enable them to catch and swal- || low insects, while upon the wing. These migrate during the | winter ; among them being the swallow, the martin, and the salangane, a species whose nests, made ‘of a gelatinous sub- | stance, probably the spawn of fishes, have been celebrated for | their nutritious and restorative qualities. Some of this order || have a strong, conical beak, feed upon seeds, and devour great | quantities of cultivated grain; as the lark, the titmouse, the jj yellow-hammer ; and some are larger birds, as the crow and {| the magpie, which feed also in part upon grain, but are fond jj of flesh, and will sometimes take and destroy mice and other | small animals. The Birds of Paradise and the Humming Birds are also of || this order. The birds of paradise have been celebrated for (| the splendor of their plumage, and the profusion of long feath- | ers with which different parts of their bodies are adorned. It was formerly believed that they were destitute of feet, and | never alighted upon the earth, but were always supported in j ORDER Ili, SCANSORES. 59- the air by their long plumage. This mistake was caused by the mode of preparing them for sale, adopted by the natives of the countries ‘they inhabit, who always deprived them of their feet and wings. The Humming Birds are the smallest-of the class of birds, and at the same time among the most beautiful. Their necks are clothed with small scale-like feathers of a peculiar struc- ture, and a brilliancy almost equal to that of precious stones. They have a long and slender beak, and along tongue divided into two filaments, with which they suck the nectar of flowers. They feed also upon insects. Their wings are exceedingly powerful in proportion to the size of their bodies, and they fly, comparatively, more rapidly than any other birds. They have the faculty of balancing themselves, by means of their Wings, as easily as some insects, and are thus enabled te remain stationary in the air, whilst they thrust their beaks into flowers, to possess themselves of the contents. The rapid motion of their wings eccasions the buzzing or humming noise with which their flight is accompanied. ‘The smallest species of humming bird is found in South America and some of the West Indian islands. It does not exceed an inch and a quar- ter from the extremity of its beak to that of its tail. Til. Scansores, or Climbers. This order includes those birds that have the external toe upon each side turned back- ward, which enables them to grasp substances more firmly with their claws, and affords them a more sure support than other birds. This structure adapts them for climbing, as they can cling with considerable force to the rough bark and branches of trees. Hence all birds with this form of the feet are of this order, although, strictly speaking, all of them do not climb, whilst. some, belonging to others, and without this provision, do. The birds of this order generally build their nests in the holes of decayed trees. Their food consists of insects, fruits, or seeds. Among them are the woodpecker, the cuckoo, the toucan, the parrot, dc. The Woodpeckers are strongly characterized by a long, straight, angular beak, narrowed into a wedge at its extremity, and thus fitted for piercing and splitting open the bark of trees; and by a long and slender tongue, covered towards its . tip with spines or bristles, which are turned backwards, and coated with a thick, viscid secretion. They run in every _ direction around the trunks and branches of trees, striking them : with their beaks, and thrusting their tongues into the holes 60 CLASS IH. BIRDS. ORDERS IV: AND V¥. and clefts they find in the bark, for the purpose of drawing out worms and the larve of insects, which constitute their food. The Toucan is principally remarkable for the enormous size |)‘ of its beak, which is almost as large and as long as its whole body. Itis of a hght, cellular structure, and furnished with a long tongue, straight, and armed on each side with barbs like 4" a feather. ‘The toucans live in small flocks in the warm parts ‘}! of America. When they have seized their food, they throw '}' it into the air, and catch it with their beaks, in order to swal- | low it with more ease, as they are incapable of masticating it. ‘}* IV. Gallinacee, the Gallinaceous birds. Of this order |}! are the peacock, the turkey, the common fowl, the pheasant, '}! the partridge, the quail, the pigeon, &c. Among them are |)! nearly all those birds which have been domesticated, and are | raised in poultry yards. ‘Their wings are short and weak, and | of course they are not constructed for long-continued flight ; but they are capable of running with considerable rapidity. || They have a large crop and a very powerful gizzard, their food : consisting principally of hard grain. Their flesh in general 2)» furnishes excellent food. The males are distinguished by a }j stately gait, and frequently by a tail ornamented with long | feathers. ‘They do not live in pairs; their eggs are very numerous, and are laid in nests built of chaff or straw upon the ground. ‘Their young are generally able to run about as soon as hatched. The Pigeons form in some particulars an exception to the general characteristics of the gallinaceous birds, and approach to a resemblance to the Passeres. They fly very well, live in pairs, build their nests upon trees or in the clefts of rocks, and produce seldom more than two eggs at once. They nour- ish their young by bringing up from the crop the food partly digested, with which they feed them. ‘The most remarkable species among them is the crowned pigeon of the Molucca islands, which is equal in size toa turkey. Its voice is exceed- ingly loud and harsh, and is said to have frightened sailors, who landed on the islands it inhabits, by its resemblance to the yells of the savage natives. V. Gralla, the Waders, otherwise called Shore birds. They are distinguished by their very long and naked legs, which permit them to wade toa considerable depth in the water without wetting their feathers. ‘The length of their neck and beak corresponds to that of their legs, and they are conse-~ quently able to search in the sand and mud at the bottom of the water for their food, which consists of fishes, reptiles, and |} €LASS 111. REPTILES. 61 worms. All birds with this structure of the legs are ranked among the Gralle, although some of them aré not, properly speaking, waders in their habits. ‘To. this order belong the estrich, cassowary, flaminge, heron, spoonbill, plover, rail, woodcock, ox-eye, yellowleg, &c. The greater part of them are possessed of strong wings, and fly well, but the ostrich and cassowary, as is well known, are striking exceptions. They are almost incapable of flight, but run with immense rapidity. _ The ostrich inhabits the sandy deserts of Africa, attains to a _ height varying from six to eight feet, and is at once the most _ lofty of birds, and the swiftest of all animals. When chased, it annoys its pursuers by throwing up gravel and stones behind it with its feet. | 3 VI. Anseres, the Web-footed birds. Their toes are con- _ nected together by a web or membrane, which fits them for being used as oars. Indeed, the whole structure of these birds is such as to adapt them for swimming. ‘Their legs are situ- ated far back upon their bedies; their feathers are thick, _ smooth, and oily, and their skin beneath covered by a layer of close down, which effectually protects them from the contact of the water. ‘Their necks are of considerable length—a pro- vision which enables them, while swimming upon the surface of the water, to plunge their heads down to the bottom in search of food. Most of them are capable of a iofty and long- continued flight, as the pelican, petrel, cormorant, albatross, gull, wild goose, and duck; whilst others, from the shortness of their wings, can scarcely raise themselves into the air, but are principally confined to the surface of the water, as the sea- diver, guillemet, penguin, awk, domestic goose and duck, &c. SECTION IV. Class ITI. Reptiles. Tue class of reptiles, including the tortoises, lizards, ser- | pents, toads, and frogs, have cold blood, and a circulation and respiration less perfect than those of the preceding classes, which have warm blood. In reptiles, only a part of the blood | received from the body by the heart, is sent to the lungs, to be subjected to the influence of the air; whilst the remainder, || having been mixed with a portion which has undergone the change that takes place in respiration, is returned again into |) the circulation. The greater part of the animals of this class “ff 62 CLASS Ill. REPTILES. ORDERS I. AND Il. have two auricles to the heart, but only one ventricle: inte the left auricle, the red blood from the lungs is poured, and into the right, the black blood from the body. From the au- ricles, the two kinds of blood are immediately transferred to the ventricle, where they are mixed together; and this min- gled mass is, by the contraction of the ventricle, sent through two distinct vessels, in part to the lungs, and in part to the body. | | The vessels of reptiles, then, are not filled with pure red blood, like those of the Mammalia and Birds, but with an im- perfect fluid, not so well adapted to give them a high degree of life and vigor. Hence, as the animal heat is always in proportion to the quantity of respiration, they are cold-blooded. Their lungs are not so large; their circulation is slower ; they consume less air, and are capable of living for a longer time without it. ‘They are, in general, sluggish and indo-_ lent in their habits of life, obtuse in their sensations, and slow in their digestion. In cold countries, they pass the greater part of the winter in a dormant state. ‘Their brain is small, and their nervous system imperfect and of less influ- ence than in the preceding classes. They produce their young by means of eggs, but take no pains themselves to hatch them. They have less intelligence, fewer faculties, and less instinct, than either quadrupeds or birds. ‘They are arranged in four orders, viz. | 1. Chelonia, the Tortoises, are distinguished by the pecu- liar structure of their ribs, sternum, and vertebre. ‘These are so arranged as to form a complete covering, consisting of an upper and under shell, joined together at their sides, which — permits only their head, tail, and four extremities, to be ex- tended without it. The upper shell is formed by the exten- sion and enlargement of the ribs and part of the back-bone; and the lower shell, by an alteration in the form of the ster- num. Their other bones are not essentially different from those of other vertebral animals. - Thus a part of their skeleton is, in fact, on the outside of their bodies. They have no teeth ; but their jaws are armed with a tough, horny substance, which supplies their place. Their stomach is simple and strong; their intestines are long, and they are capable of going a great length of time without food. All the various species of the turtle and tortoise belong to this order. Ti. Sauria, the Lizards. This order includes a very con- siderable variety, and is composed of the crocodile, the alli- gator, the chameleon, the true lizards, and the dragons. The ORDER II. SAURIA. ORDER III. OPHIDIA. 63 greater part of them have four feet, but a few are possessed of only two. ‘They have nails and teeth, and their skin is ‘covered with scales. The Crocodile is the most celebrated animal of this order. It is from twenty to thirty feet in length, including the tail, and is covered with a coat of scales, which, on the back, form an armor proof against a bullet, and have an appearance like that of carved work. It deposits its eggs in the sand, where the greater part of them are destroyed by birds, and an ani- mal called the ichueumon. ‘Their eggs resemble, a good deal, those of the domestic goose, and are of about the same size; the young, when first hatched, are of course very small when compared with the parent animal. They are at first mild and innocent, and may be handled with impunity; but the full- grown animal is both subtle and formidable. It lies in wait, covered from view amidst long grass, rushes, or projecting banks of rivers, until some other animal comes within its reach, which it seizes and swallows, and then retires to some secret recess to digest. The Dragons are remarkable for the possession of a sort of wings, produced by the extension of the six first false ribs, which support a fold of the skin. These serve, like a para- chute, to uphold these animals in leaping to the ground from any height, or in springing from branch to branch on the trees they inhabit; but are not sufficiently large or powerful to enable them to raise themselves from the earth. To Chameleons has been attributed the singular faculty of changing the color of their skin, according to the color of the substance on which they are placed, and of subsisting upon air. This belief has arisen from the extraordinary size of their lungs, which they are capable of distending with air to such an enormous extent, as to fill nearly their whole body, and render their skin somewhat transparent. Hence they were said to feed upon air. Im this state of distension and semi-transparency, the skin becomes easily affected by every change in the circulation; and consequently a change of color is produced by the varying wants and passions of the animal, which influence both the quantity of respiration and the tint of the blood. A few animals of the lizard kind are remarkable for their very short legs, and long slender bodies, giving them the ‘ap- pearance of serpents with feet, for which they have sometimes been mistaken. III, Ophidia. 'The serpents are distinguished by their 64 CLASS III. REPTILES. ORDER IV. BATRACHTIA. long and slender bodies without limbs, and by the great ex- tensibility of their jaws, mouth, and throat, which enables them often to swallow animals of greater diameter than them- selves. ‘I'hey are always provided wath teeth, which are sharp and bent backwards. They are divided, as is well known, into the venomous and those that are not venomous. The number of the latter kind is the greatest, and includes the largest animals. Among them are the great Boa constrictor, the Aboma, and the Ana- conda, which sometimes attain the length of thirty or forty feet, and inhabit marshy and fenny places in the tropical parts of America. They attach themselves by the tail to the branches of trees, leaving their bodies swinging in the air, in order to seize upon animals approaching them, which they generally swallow whole. ‘The Ular Sawa, or the great Py- thon, is another serpent of the same kind and size, and in- habits the ancient continent. The smaller and less celebrated species are very numerous, and are distributed over every gant of the earth. The venomous serpents are generally armed with fangs, for the specific purpose of infusing poison into the wounds they inflict. ‘These fangs are situated in the upper jaw, and per- forated by a small canal, which, opening on their extremities, gives passage to a fluid, secreted by a gland under the eye. When the tooth pierces the flesh of any animal, a_por- tion of this fluid is injected into the opening, and produces effects more or less dangerous, according to the virulence of the poison and the kind of animal wounded. When broken or injured, these fangs are renewed, and when not employed, are hidden from sight by a fold or projection of the gum. The largest and most celebrated of these animals is the rat- tlesnake of America. It is so called from a peculiar instru- ment at the end of its tail, denominated its rattle, which pro- duces a slight rustling sound, when it ‘is shaken, and is intended to give warning of the animal’s anger. This and the other venomous serpents are not malignant or ferocious in their dispositions, and seldom make use of their poison unless provoked. | | IV. Batrachia. The reptiles of this order have only one auricle to the heart, into which the veins from the lungs and from the body both enter. In it are included the toad, frog, | salamander, and other similar animals. ‘They are principally remarkable for a transformation which takes place in their offspring after leaving the egg. When first hatched, they CLASS IV. FISHES. 65 are strictly an aquatic animal, and capable of breathing and living only under water. They are furnished with gills like a fish, and -have no legs, but are provided witli a tail, which ‘serves them as an instrument of locomotion. In this state they are seen by thousands, of a dark color, with round bodies, swimming about in brooks, and small ponds; and are known by the familiar name of Tadpoles. After a certain period, their form and structure are altered; their feet and legs grow, and project from beneath the skin ; ‘their tail, their gills, and the covering of their head, fall of they begin to respire by means of lungs; and become, at length, animals capable of breathing only in the air. This transformation is not, however, in all cases complete. In two genera, the Pro- teus and the Siren, ‘besides lungs, the gills are retained through life, and they are thus possessed of two distinct sets of organs of respiration. SECTION V. Class IV. Fishes. Fisues, being destined to inhabit only the waiter, are pro- vided with organs and a structure adapted to the element in which they reside; and, since they cannot breathe air, of course some modification in the organs of respiration and _ cir- culation is required to enable them to perform those functions. The heart, in them, has only one auricle and one ventricle. The blood, coming from the body, is received into the auri- «cle, and transmitted by means of the ventricle to the gills, which perform the same office as lungs. These are situated upon each side of the neck, and consist of semicircular arches of bone or cartilage, to which are attached membranes, divided into little fibrils or fringes, to which the blood is distributed, in very small vessels, after it comes from the heart. Over the gills a constant current of water is passed, by the action of the mouth of the animal, which, by means of the air that it con- tains, exerts an influence over the blood circulating in them, and produces the same changes in it as are produced in the lungs of other animals by the air they breathe. [From the gills, the blood does not return to the heart, but is collected mto one large artery, which passes down along the spine, and | 66 STRUCTURE OF FISHES. is distributed to the different parts of the body, whence it ig again returned to the heart by the veins. The whole structure of fishes is as clearly designed to attain the end of motion in the water, as the structure of birds is in- tended for motion in the air. They are destitute of limbs, and their motions are effected by means of their fins and tail, which act upon the water like ears, either propelling the ani- mal forward, or moving it upward, downward, or to either side. Fishes are covered with a thick, strong skin, and most of them with scales, which are arranged one over another in an imbricated form, like slate or shingles on the roof of a house. Their bodies are also invested with a covering of thin slime, or mucus, which defends them from the immediate contact of the water. ‘Their forms vary exceedingly, and are much more numerous than those of the animals heretofore described. They vary also in size. Some are armed with strong, sharp spines; some with a sword or saw; and most of them with teeth. The latter, however, are not intended for the purpose of chewing, but merely for that of seizing and retaining prey, | which is swallowed whole. A few are possessed of a very remarkable species of defence, which consists in the power of inflicting upon whatever living creature comes in contact: with them, a powerful electrical shock. These shocks are so powerful, that, in South America, horses driven into the pools which fishes of this kind inhabit, have been stunned, and sometimes even killed. 7 Fishes have but a small brain. They have the senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, .and tasting. ‘That of touch they probably possess but imperfectly, as they have no organ which — seems intended for its exercise, except the snout and mouth,- i and in some species, a sort of feelers, growing around the mouth. Their skeleton is constructed of bones, generally. softer and less earthy than those of other animals, and indeed | in some they are entirely cartilaginous. Their stomach and / intestines are formed upon the same general plan with those | of other vertebral animals, and digestion is carried on in the | same general way. They ‘feed principally upon other fishes, upon worms, and shell-fish. They are long-lived, attain to their full growth slowly, and exhibit but few signs of intelli- i gence or remarkable instinct. Their constant residence in the water prevents that accu- rate knowledge of their character and habits of life, which would afford materials for a more copious detail. They are divided into orders and genera, according to certain differ- | | CLASS V. INSECTS. 67 ~ ences in the formation, structure, and situation of their mouth, gills, gill-covering, fins, &c. But an account of them here “4 would be of little use or interest. . SECTION VI Class V.. Insects. Tue animals of this class, although Jess complicated and perfect in their internal structure, than those of some of the following classes, are yet remarkable for a greater variety of powers and a more wonderful display of instinct and intelli- gence, than any other of the invertebral animals; and they are, therefore, placed first among them in this description. Insects are destitute of a heart, but instead of it they have a vessel or reservoir situated along the back, extending from one end of their bodies to the other, and filled with a trans- parent, viscous fluid. This vessel undergoes an irregular contraction, which is supposed to be analoyous to the con- tractions of a heart. No branches have been discovered go- ing off from it, and yet it is highly probable that this reservoir contains the blood or nutritious fluid of the animal, which is slowly conveyed, by absorption, to the various organs. In- sects have no particular organ for respiration, but their bodies are penetrated in every direction by tubes, called trachea, which convey the air. to every. part. These tubes com- municate externally by openings called stigmata. The blood, therefore, undergoes the changes wrought upon it by air, throughout its whole circulation. Instead of a brain and nervous system, they are furnished with two knotted cords, running the length of their bodies, which perform the same functions. They possess the senses of seeing, tasting, smell- ing, and feeling; but organs of hearing, if they exist, have not yet been discovered. Being destitute of any internal skeleton, insects are pro- vided with a hard external covering, which serves to support their motions and protect their organs. ‘The nature of this covering differs in different species; in some it forms a com- plete shell or case of a horny or shell-like substance; and in others it consists merely in a tough, muscular coat, divided into rings, which surround the body. The greater part of insects are winged, but some are not 68 CLASS V. INSECTS. so. Those which are not winged continue, during their whole existence, of the same form and structure as at birth. Those which are winged undergo certam metamorphoses, or changes of form, which will be hereafter described. They all have six legs, with the exception of the millepedes, which have always more ; and the number increases also with their age. The bodies of insects are divided into head, trunk, and | abdomen. ‘The head is attached.to the trunk by a joint or articulation, which is movable in every direction. It 1s destitute of a brain, but is furnished with a mouth, eyes, and two antenne or feelers. These are a kind of filaments, composed of joints, varying much in form and length, prob- ably designed as the organs of the sense of touch, or of sensations still more delicate, and of a nature totally unknown to us. | The mouth of insects varies much in its construction, according to the nature of their food. Some of them subsist only upon the juices of animal and vegetable substances, and have their lips arranged in the form of a tube or sucker; some of them are armed with a sort of lancet, with which they are enabled to pierce the skin of animals; some with a kind of beak; and others with a trunk or proboscis, which in the butterflies is capable of being rolled up in a spiral form. The insects which subsist upon solid substances are provided with jaws, which generally act laterally instead of verti- cally, and serve to masticate their food. Beside these parts, many species are furnished with palpi, organs somewhat resembling the antenne in structure and appearance, but whose office is to bring the food to the mouth, and hold it, while the insect eats. To the trunk are joined the legs, and the wings when pres- ent. It is divided, in those that have only six legs, into three segments or divisions, to each of which one pair of legs is attached. The legs are composed of four parts, called the haunch, thigh, leg or shank, and foot; which resemble con- siderably the corresponding parts in the limbs of quadrupeds. They vary in different insects, according to their habits and modes of life. Thus, in the srasshopper, the hind pair are very long and strong ; ‘ih the aquatic insects, they are flattened, in order to answer the purpose of oars. The wings differ much in kind and arrangement, as well as in number. Most of the winged insects have four, but some only two. They are generally thin, dry, membranaceous, and semi-transparent. In the butterfly the membrane forming the wing is concealed STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 69 by a covering of small scales, which appear to be merely a loose powder, but are in fact fixed by small pedicles or stalks to the membrane itself. They give to those insects their beauty and variety of color. The insects with one pair of wings have underneath them two cylindrical projections ter- minating in a knob, which seem as if they were the rudiments of a second pair. - These have been called balancers or poisers, from -being supposed to aid them in preserving an equilibrium during their flight. Between them and the wings themselves are. found small membranous scales, one upon each side, against which the balancer strikes with great rapidity whilst the insect is in motion, and causes that buzzing which is then observed. In the various kinds of beetle and other similar insects, the upper pair-of wings is of a coriaceous or horny texture, and serves merely the purpose of a case under which the other pair is folded up and protected. In others, as in the grasshopper, the locust, &c., the upper pair is less hard, and has rather the consistence and texture of vellum. The abdomen forms the hinder part of the bodies of insects ; it contains the organs of digestion, and is the part from which the eggs of the insect are produced. It is divided into a ‘number of rings or segments. In some, it is furnished with a kind of perforator or auger, with which various substances are bored in order to admit their eggs. In many it is terminated by a sting, as in the wasp and bee, and in others by a forceps, a bristle, or a kind of claw. ‘They display much instinctive intelligence i in the deposition of their eggs, placing them in situations best adapted to the nourishment and preservation of their young when hatched, and in some cases even provi- ding food for their ‘immediate wants when they first come into life. The greater part of insects, as has just been remarked, after leaving the egg, undergo certain changes of structure and form, before arriving at their perfect state. These changes are called their metamorphoses. They differ in number in different kinds of insects. | To take the Butterfly tribe for an example. From the egg of this insect is hatched an animal differing entirely from its parent. Its body is long and cylindrical, and divided into a great many rings. It is provided with a large number of very short legs, with jaws, and with several small eyes. It is famil- larly known to us by the name of caterpillar. It lives in this state a considerable time, subsisting upon such food as is adapted to its nature. At length it casts off its skin, and 76 CLASS V. INSECTS. appears in another form without limbs. It ceases to feed or to move. It seems to be totally without life. This is called the chrysalis. After a while, by examining it closely, the imper- fect shape of the butterfly may be distinguished through its. 1 surface; and finally the envelope is broken, and the animal escapes. Its wings are at first short, weak, and moist, but they soon unfold to a greater size, and become strong ; and the insect is in a state to fly. Tt has now six long legs, a | spiral trunk, two antenne, and eyes differing entirely from those of the caterpillar. In short, it is an animal totally dif- ferent ; and yet these wonderful changes are only the succes- . sive unfolding of parts contained one baer another in the . original embryo. In the first state, the animal is tied the larva; in the second, the nympha or chrysalis ; and the third is called the perfect state. A considerable proportion of the insect tribes pass through these three stages of existence. But many only undergo what | is called a demi-metamorphosis. Their larva resembles the perfect insect, except that it is without wings. And the only change they experience is, that in the nymph state they have stumps or rudiments of wings, which finally, on casting their — skin, are changed into complete ones. Such are grasshoppers | and many kinds of bugs. Insects without wings undergo none of these alterations. | A more detailed account of the phenomena attending the metamorphosis of Insects will be found in a subsequent part | of this volume.* There are few vegetable substances which escape the dep- redations of insects; and sometimes their ravages produce | very serious evils. Some good as well as evil, however, may be attributed to their agency. Many of them feed upon putrid animal or vegetable matters, whose effluvia might otherwise | become dangerous or fatal. Others are made use of in med- icine, in the arts, and sometimes even asfood for man. They serve as nourishment for many species of animalst Beasts, _birds, reptiles, and fishes, equally make them their prey ; and thus prevent their multiplication to such an extent as to prove | a permanent evil to mankind. It only remains to give some general account of the orders under which insects have, been arranged, and the principles upon which naturalists have proceeded in making the distri- bution of them. SS eee * See chapter on the Transformation of Animals. ORDER OF INSECTS. Te The divisions of Linneus are fires upon the presence or absence of wings, their number, their ‘texture, their arrange- ment, and the nature of their surface ; and upon the existence or absence of a-sting. He forms seven orders.* : I. Coleoptera. 'The upper pair of wings in the Coleop- — terous insects consists of a crustaceous or horny substance. These cover and defend the other pair, which are of a more soft and flexible texture, and are folded beneath them. This is the most numerous and best known kind of insects; and many of them are very remarkable for the singularity of their forms and the beauty of their colors. It includes the various insects known under the names of beetles, winged bugs, &c. They all undergo a complete metamorphosis. Il. The Hemiptera have likewise four wings; but the upper pair is not of so hard a texture as these of the Coleop- tera. ‘They are more like fine vellum, and, at their extremities, terminate with a membranous edge, which resembles the sub- stance of the under pair. They cover the body horizontally, and do not meet in a straight line or ridge, as they do in the beetles. Insects of this order undergo only a demi-metamor- phosis. Among them are found the grasshopper, the cricket, the locust, the cockroach, and many kinds of bugs. II. The order Lepidoptera contains the various kinds of butterfly, sphinx, and moth. Those of the first kind fly in the day time; those of the two other kinds only in the night. They all have four wings, the structure and appearance of which have been alluded to. Among them are some of the most beautiful and splendid of insects, and they form some of the richest ornaments of the cabinet of the naturalist. They all pass through a ra. i series of metamorphoses ; and their larve, known under the name of worms or caterpil- lars, spin webs for their covering while in the chrysalis state. It is from the web, thus prepared by the silkworm for its resi- dence during this dormant state of existence, that the silk of commerce is prepared. IV. Neuroptera. 'This is another order with four wings. They are membranaceous, naked, and so interspersed with delicate veins, that they have the appearance of a beautiful network. The tail of the Neuroptera has no sting, but that of the male is frequently furnished with a kind of forceps or * This account of the classification of Insects is taken principally from Smellie, who follows Linnezus, because, to the general reader, it affords, upon the whole, a clearer view of the subject than could be presented in the same compass by rliee ing the Jater and more strictly anatomical methods of other naturalists. 72 CLASS V. INSECTS: pincers. Of this order are the various species of Dragon-fly, large and well-known insects that frequent lakes and = of stagnant water, in which the female deposits her eggs; the Ephemera, insects which pass two or three years in the states of larva and chrysalis, but whose existence as winged and perfect insects is limited to a single day ; and the Ant-lion and the Termites : the former is celebrated as the destroyer of the common ant, and the latter for the ravages they make, in the state of larva, in some tropical countries. The Neu- roptera do not all pass through a complete metamorphosis, a part of them undergoing only a partial change of form. V. The Hymenoptera have four naked membranaceous wings, but they have not that delicate, netted structure, which belongs to the last order. The bodies of the females are ter- minated by a borer or perforator, or by asting. ‘These insects all undergo a complete metamorphosis ; but there are, in the domestic economy and mode of propagation of some of the species, circumstances which excite our admiration and as- tonishment. The ant, wasp, and bee, belong to this order. They live in societies, greater or less in extent and number, and prepare habitations and nourishment for themselves and their offspring, with a forethought and provident care excelled only by those of man himself. ~In some of the tribes of insects of this kind, there is, beside the males and females, a third sort, called neuters, as among the ants and bees. Sometimes the neuter, and sometimes the female, ts without wings, and sometimes "without a sting. A more particular account of these insects will be given hereafter. Besides the above-men- tioned, there is found in this order a variety of singular ani- mals; and among others, the ichneumon-fly and the saw-fly, which, by means of their instruments for boring, in some con- structed in the form of a saw, insert their eggs in the wood, leaves, and fruit of plants, or in the eggs, larve, or nymphe of other insects. VI. The Diptera have only two wings, but beneath them are the balancers or poisers, which have been already men- tioned. Their mouths are frequently armed with lancets and suckers, by means of which they pierce the skin of animals and feed upon their blood. ‘T’o this order belong some of the most troublesome and annoying of the whole animal creation, viz. the various species of gnat and gad-fly, the musqueto, the common house-fly, the horse-fly, &c. They attack both men and other animals, and are found m almost every part of the globe. ‘Their larve are deposited in the skins and intestines of brute animals, sometimes even in those of men, in putrid é ORDERS OF INSECTS. 43 meat, in cheese, in manure, in water, in mud, &c. They pass through a complete metamorphosis. _ VII. Aptera. In this order is included a great variety of insects that are destitute of wings. It is true that in the pre- ceding orders are arranged many sorts of insects, which are destitute of wings; but they are'so arranged, because, in their general structure and habits of life, they resemble the other members of the order. The Aptera, however, have no such resemblance, and are therefore placed by themselves. Some naturalists divide them into several orders, according to their natural connections with one another ; but this is not necessary here. Among them are found the millepedes, whose body is divided inte a great number of rings, each ef which serves for the attachment of one or more pairs of legs; the louse, of which there are many kinds which infest the bedies of men, inferior animals, and plants ; the puceron, &c. Some of these animals cover the surface of plants so completely, as te pro- duce the appearance of a diseased change of structure. ‘The flea also belongs to this order, and is the only one that under- goes any metamorphosis. It passes through the three stages. Its power of leaping to a great distance is well known. The family of the Arachnides, or Spiders, is not always ar- ranged among Insects, and strictly speaking, their structure is different in some important particulars. We shall, however, give some account of them in connection with the Aptera, among which they were included by Linnzus. This family comprehends, besides the common spiders, the scorpion, the tarantula, the crab-scorpion, the various species of mites, and the animal which has been supposed to cause the Psora or itch, by insinuating itself beneath the skin. They are distinguished from all other insects by the absence of the antenne. A part of them breathe like insects by means of trachee distributed throughout their bodies; while, in the rest, the trachee open into pulmonary sacks, which answer the purpose of lungs. In the latter, there is found a well-organized heart and a vascular circulation, which are absent in the former. ‘They have generally eight legs, and are furnished with six or eight eyes, which enable them to perceive objects in several different directions at once. They are nourished generally by living prey, and are provided with means for securing and destroying it. ‘The Spider effects this by means of the web that it spins, in the construction of which much ingenuity is often manifested. The threads of which it is composed, are produced from six little fleshy bunches, 74 CLASS VI. CRUSTACEA. situated at the lower extremity of their bodies, which are perforated with an immense number of little holes. By means of their webs, many species of spiders, particularly when young, are able to transport themselves to a considerable dis- tance through the air. In order to effect this, they ascend some eminence, and throw out a number of. sala: ; these are raised up and carried along by the wind, and the animal, be- ing buoyed up by them, is conveyed sometimes to a great height. In order to alight, they have only to disengage them- selves from a part of their web, and suffer themselves to de- scend gradually to the ground. It is probable that they have recourse to this expedient, in part at least, for the purpose of catching insects for food. In autumn, the air 1s often full of the cobwebs which have been made -use of for this singular mode of conveyance; and those who have ascended emi- nences for the purpose of observing this phenomenon, have frequently seen spiders floating by in the air, supported in the manner just now described. Many branches of this family are exceedingly cruel and ferocious, not sparing even their own species. ‘The bite of many of them is poisonous, particularly that of the tarantula and the scorpion. They undergo no metamorphosis, but shed their skins several times. A few receive an additional pair of legs at some time after birth. SECTION VII. Class VI. Crustacea. Tue Crustaceous animals have been sometimes included in_ | the class of insects, to which- they have indeed many strong points of resemblance. They deserve, however, a separate consideration, both on account of their size and importance, and of some anatomical differences of structure, which will be pointed out. Among the most familiar examples of this class are the lobster, crab, crawfish, and what is usually called the horse-shoe. They have apical limbs, antenne, and jaws, similarly formed to those of insects. But they breathe by means of branchiz or gills, and have a regular double circulation; in which particulars they differ from insects. ‘The blood which has passed through the gills, is collected into one a vessel, = Sat es m Sone *. a aaa sae ———~ -_ STRUCTURE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 73 that distributes it to the whole body. On its return from the vessels of the body, it is collected into another vessel situated _ near the back, and performing in some measure the office of a ventricle, and ‘ is again sent to the gills. Their nervous sys- tem, and the degree of sensation they enjoy, are not essentially ditront from those of insects. They are covered by a pretty thick, firm shell, which en- velops them completely. This serves for a shelter and pro- tection to their soft parts, and also answers to them the same purpose, as an instrument of motion, that the internal system of bones does to the vertebral animals. As this shell is inca- pable of growth, it is occasionally changed, to make room for the constant increase in size of the animal. It is thrown off, and their bodies remain for a time entirely naked, and exposed in a soft and defenceless state. In this case the ani- mal generally retires to some place of concealment and secu- rity, and remains till the shell is restored. This is done by the deposition of calcareous matter on the external membrane of the skin, which consequently becomes hard and firm, and finally takes the place of the old shell. The Crustacea have always as many as six claws, and fre- quently more. The two anterior ones are often prolonged, enlarged, and armed with teeth, so as in some measure to act in assisting the jaws. Their antenne, as those of insects, are probably intended to serve as very delicate organs of touch. They possess the sense of smelling, but naturalists have not been able to satisfy themselves in what organ it resides. The organ of hearing has been discovered. ‘Their eyes are not placed loosely in a socket, but are fixed and immovable; and, to remedy the inconvenience which would result from this arrangement, they are, in some species, situated upon the end of a pedicle or stalk, which is capable of motion in every direction. The stomach of some of the Crustacea presents a very sin- gular and remarkable structure. It is exemplified particularly in the crab, lobster, crawfish, and others of the same kind; and is found in no other animals of any class. Near the lower end of the stomach, where it begins to grow narrow, are sit- uated a number of teeth, or substances of a bony nature re- sembling teeth, generally five in number. They are placed upon the opposite sides of the organ, and, being moved by muscles belonging to them, they grind up thoroughly the food passed between them, which then goes out at the orifice into the intestines 76 CLASS VII. MOLLUSCA.. The animals of this class reside, for the most part, in the water. A few are found upon land. The former do not im- mediately die on being taken out of their natural element, but can live for some time in the air. They are generally carniv- orous. Many of them furnish very delicious articles of food, although their flesh is ordinarily heavy and difficult of di- gestion. SECTION VIII. Class VII. Mollusca. Tis is a large and — class, embracing a great va- riety of animals, whose ‘structure, residence, and habits, are but obscurely and imperfectly known. Among them are the cuttle-fish, squid, oyster, clam, muscle, snail, and, in short, nearly all the testaceous animals, or shell-fish, as they are usu- ally called, although they have no resemblance to fishes, and do not all inhabit the water. As it respects their internal structure and organization, they are undoubtedly superior to the two classes last described; but in regard to intelligence and instinct, they are, upon the whole, inferior, and are not subjects of so much interest. The Mollusca are destitute of bones and of articulated limbs. ‘Their bodies are generally of a soft texture, and fre- quently, at first sight, appear to be little else than a simple mucous mass, without parts, and almost without organization. Their muscles are fixed into the skin, which is naked, very sensible, and constantly moistened by a fluid furnished by its pores. ‘The contractions of these muscles produce certain obscure and indistinct motions of their whole bodies, by means of which they are enabled to swim and crawl, or even seize those objects which are adapted to their nourishment. But as no part is supported by any solid foundation, like the bones of vertebral animals, their motions are generally slow, awk- ward, and limited. Their bodies are generally covered by a fold or reflection of the skin, which envelops them completely, and is called their mantle. In some species, the two folds of the mantle are united at their edges,so as to form a complete bag, in which the body of the animal is contamed, opening only at one end by a sort of canal or snout: in some, it extends in } zz. : STRUCTURE OF MOLLUSCA. 77 two opposite directions, so as to answer the purpose of fins or oars. Sometimes there is only this simple membranaceous _ covering ; but more frequently there is a hard* external shell, which serves as a retreat into which the animal may with- draw itself, and which it can carry about upon its back in all its changes of place. These shells differ a good deal in shape, color, and texture, in different species; and among them are found some, whose form, polish, and splendid tints, place them among the most beautiful objects in nature. The Mollusca. have no brain nor spinal marrow. Their nervous system consists merely of a number of nervous masses, distributed in different parts of their bodies, from which are sent out a great many small branches, that mutually unite with each other. The principal of these, which is sometimes called the brain, is situated round the cesophagus, and envel- ops it like a collar. In a few species it is contained in a car- tilaginous case. Their respiration is not uniform. It is gen- erally carried on by organs resembling the gills of fishes, which are acted upon either by fresh or salt water; but, in some cases, air is respired directly from the atmosphere. The cir- culation is always double; that is to say, there is a passage of the blood through the respiratory organs, distinct ftom that through the rest of the body. This circulation is carried on by either one or more hearts. When there is only one, it is situated so as to receive the blood from the gills, and circulate it through the body. When there are two, the second is situated so as to circulate through the gills the blood coming from the body. In some species, there are three hearts; and in this case, as there are two sets of gills, a distinct heart is devoted to each. The blood in the Mollusca is thin, of a bluish white, and always cold. The organs of digestion vary very much. Sometimes there are organs for mastication, and sometimes not. Some species have only a single stomach, and others have several; the structure of this organ, in some species, very much resembling that of the gizzard of birds. In some species there are four stomachs, which bear a great analogy to those of the rumina- ting animals, and have been supposed to answer a similar pur- pose. In the intestines there is as great a variety. This class is divided into several orders, according to the general form and structure of the species composing it. A few of the most important Beromulate that distinguish them will be pointed out. In the first order, containing the eee squid, nauti- y* 18 CLASS Vil. MOLLUSCA. lus, &c., the body consists of a sack formed by the mantle, enveloping all the parts except the head, which projects from it, and is provided with a number of fleshy arms or feet, ta- pering towards their end, frequently of great length and of great power. ‘These arms are capable of being moved in every direction, and are furnished with a large number of suckers in the form of cups, by which the animal can attach itself very closely to whatever object it embraces. They serve for swimming, for creeping, and for seizing pre In all its motions, the head goes last, so that the a in a manner pushes itself backward in whatever direction it wishes to move. Between the arms is placed the mouth, which is furnished with two strong jaws of a horny texture, and in shape resembling the beak of a parrot. These animals have the power of ejecting a peculiar liquid of a black color, when in any danger, for the purpose of dis- coloring the water of the sea around them, and thus conceal- ing themselves from their enemies. The cavity containing this liquid is situated in the abdamen, and is sometimes found in the very substance of the liver. It has been supposed, that the celebrated paint called Indian ink, is made by the Chinese from the inky fluid of some animal of this kind. Their eyes are large and perfect. ‘They have an ear; but no organ for smelling has been discovered, although they prob- ably possess that sense. Their nature is fierce and cruel. They are very voracious, and devour great numbers of fishes, and other aquatic animals. Some of the animals of this order grow occasionally to an immense size. This is more particularly the case with the eight-armed cuttle-fish. In the Indian seas, it is said to at- tain to such a magnitude, that its arms are nine fathoms in length, and the other parts of its body large in proportion. The natives hold it in great dread, fearing that it will lay hold of their boats, and drag them under water. They keep themselves provided with hatchets, to cut off its arms, should any danger arise from this cause.* * An account of an enormous animal, which was probably of this kind, is found in the works of Pliny, who cites it from a writer named Trebius. This animal made its appearance on the coast of Carteia, and was in the habit, during the night, of robbing of their contents certain reservoirs of salt-fish, which were situated near the sea-side. Its depredations were not prevented by arowof stakes which were so planted as.to intercept communication with the sea. It was found that the animal made use of a tree, which grew near the stakes, to assist it in climbing over them, and it was finally attacked, while in the reservoir, by a number of dogs and men. It made a powerful resistance, and lashed the dogs smartly With its arms, but was omg tee oe tte OOOO ee ee | | | | STRUCTURE OF THE MOLLUSCA. 79 In another order, which includes the snail and the greater part of cockles, the foot, or instrument of motion, is placed under the belly of the animal, and consists ef a fleshy plate or disk, protected underneath by a layer of a horny or calca- reous substance, which, when the animal retreats into its shell, serves to close up its opening. ‘Their mantle is fixed upon the back, and covers more or less of the body, the head also being partly enveloped by it. The mouth has generally a few tentacula or feelers beneath it, but they are sometimes wanting. ‘The eyes are very small, sometimes fixed to the head, and sometimes situated upon the end of the tentacula; but they are also sometimes wanting. ‘These animals are almost always furnished with shells, which serve them as a residence. The Mollusca of another order, including the oyster, the clam, the quahog, the muscle, and, in short, all the bivalve shell-fish, have no apparent head, but only a mouth surrounded by four tentacula, and situated beneath the folds of their mantle. The mantle is generally composed of two folds, which inclose the body between them, as a book is contained within its covers. Sometimes the edges of the two folds are united together, and form a complete sack. In the clam, this sack terminates in a long, double, fleshy tube, which is usually called the head of the animal, but in fact serves a totally different purpose; one of the tubes being for the entrance of the water which supplies the gills in respiration, and the other serving as the termination of the intestinal canal, and the mouth of the animal being situated at that part of the body which corresponds to the other extremity of the shell. : * ‘The Giant Clam is the largest of the Mollusca, with a tes- taceous covering. Its shell is more than three feet long, and its body forms a meal for a great number of persons. It is found in the Indian seas, and in different parts of the Pacific ocean. Many of the animals of this kind are furnished with an organ denominated their foot, consisting of a fleshy mass attached to their body, whose motions are produced like those of the tongue of quadrupeds. This foot often gives rise to a number of filaments or threads, by which the animal is capa- ble of attaching itself to rocks or other marine substances, finally killed. Its body was as big as a hogshead ; its arms, called its beards, were as big as a man could clasp, and thirty feet long; and its cups or suckers held four gallons each. It weighed 700 pounds. The Kraken has been supposed to be an animal of the same kind. 80 CLASS VIII. VERMES OR WORMS. thus, as it were, being moored or anchored, and secured from the influence of the waves. The two valves of their shell are held together by strong muscles which pass from one to the other; and when these are relaxed, the shells open mechani- cally, by means of an elastic substance placed in the hinge of the joint which connects them. There are several other orders of the Mollusca, but the characteristics by which they are distinguished are too obscure or minute to be here described. SECTION IX. Class VIIT. Vermes or Worms. Tue term Vermes or Worms has been used with great vagueness in natural history, and employed to designate ani- mals to which the name was not appropriate. It is now, however, more restricted in its application, and is made to include only a small class of animals, which have some cir- cumstances in common with each of the three classes last described, but still not exactly resembling any. ‘They are sometimes called, by way of distinction, Worms with red blood, as they are the only invertebral animals which have red blood ; and sometimes Annelides, from the structure of their body, which is of a cylindrical, elongated shape, divided into a great number of rings. Their nervous system resembles that of the Insects and Crustacea. Their organs of sense consist merely in some fleshy tentacula, which surround the mouth, and answer the purpose of feeling and touching. In some species, certain black points appear around the head, which have been sup- posed to be eyes, but this is doubtful. ‘Their blood is nearly of the color of that of the vertebral animals, but not of so bright a red. It circulates in a double system of vessels, but there is no distinct, fleshy heart to give it motion. They breathe by means of branchie, which are sometimes within and sometimes without their bodies. ‘They have no limbs, _ but on each of the rings, of which their bodies are composed, are little bristly projections, which answer in some sort the purpose of feet. Their mouths are sometimes armed with jaws, and sometimes consist in a mere tube or sucker. i Their bodies are soft and compressible. All, except the aa — —_————— 8 eee —EE——— ee een OS oe a 4 STRUCTURE OF WORMS. Sl earth-worm, inhabit the water. Many of them bury them- selves in the sand; others form themselves a sort of tube or habitation of sand, bits of dirt, gravel, or other materials ; and others exude ‘from their surfaces a calcareous matter, which produces a shell around them. Among the animals belonging to this class are the earth- worm, the leech, and the hair-worm. The appearance of Earth-worms is familiar to all. They attain sometimes to the length of a foot, and have as many as a hundred and twenty rings, each of which is furnished with the little bristles or spines above mentioned. They emit through certain pores a slimy fluid, which lubricates their bodies, and thus gives them an easier passage through the earth, which ‘they traverse in every direction. They feed upon roots, woody fibres, and the remains of animal and vegetable: mat- ter. They swallow earth also in considerable quantity, but this is probably on account of the animal or vegetable matter, ina state of decomposition, which it may contain. When cut through the middle, each portion becomes a distinct - individual. And in some worms nearly resembling the earth- worm, but residing in the water, the power of reproduction is nearly equal to that of the polypes. The Leech has three jaws, or rather Jancets, with which it pierces the skin of animals, in order to suck their blood. Its tail is furnished with a shallow cup or disk, by which it is able to fix itself firmly to different objects, while obtaining its nourishment in this manner; and by means of the same organ, it moves from place to place. There are several spe- cies of the leech, of which the medicinal leech is the most valuable, from the use made of it in local blood-letting. The horse-leech has the same power of drawing blood, but the wounds which it makes are sometimes poisoned, and fol- lowed by bad effects. The body of the Gordius, or Hair-worm, is long, shaped like a thread or hair, nearly smooth and round. It isa vulgar notion that the hair of the human head, or of a horse’s tail, if thrown into the water, acquires life, and is converted into a worm. A species of the hair-worm, in Africa and the Indies, is extremely noxious. It is of a pale, yellowish color, and is frequently met with among the grass, especially when covered with dew. It often insinuates itself into the naked feet or limbs of children and unwary persons, where it produces an inflam- mation that is sometimes fatal. Great care and attention are required in extracting it; for if it be broken during the ope- &2 CLASS IX. ZOOPHYTES. ration, the part which remains in the flesh continues alive, and is quite as troublesome as the whole. Some naturalists consider these worms as properly belonging to the next class. SECTION X. Class IX. Zoophytes.. Tue class of Zoophytes is the last division of the anima! kingdom, and the lowest in the scale of the animated creation. It includes an immense number of individuals but obscurely and imperfectly known, and which have but few points of re- semblance and connection with one another. In general they have no nervous system, no complete vascular circulation, no distinct apparatus for respiration, and no sense but that of feeling, and perhaps that of tasting. This is not true, how- ever, without exception; for in some instances, traces of a nervous system, of a circulation, and of respiratory organs, may be detected, as is particularly the case in the Echinoder- mata, the first order of Zoophytes. ‘They are covered with a well-organized skin, and often with a sort of shell with points” or spines. They have an internal cavity, in which are lodged several distinct intestines, and vessels which maintain an imperfect circulation. There are also distinct organs for respiration, and many filaments which probably perform im- perfectly the functions of a nervous system. To this order belong the sea-urchin, the common star-fish, the sea-egg, dc. They are the most perfect of Zoophytes in their structure, and are endowed with a curious set of organs for the purpose of motion. ‘Their shells are pierced with a large number of holes, regularly arranged, through which project the feet of the animal, or rather the instruments answering the purpose of feet. These are little hollow cylinders, composed of a membranous substance, and ending in a kind of knob, which is also hollow. ‘They are filled with a liquid, which is fur- nished to them by reservoirs situated within the body. The animal at will can either lengthen these cylinders and dis- tend their extremities by forcing this liquid into them, or ex- hhaust it, and thus shorten and contract them. When it is exhausted, the knob or disk is drawn into a cuplike form, and thus may be firmly fixed to whatever object it is applied, hke a cupping-glass; and when the liquid is again thrown into it, it is again loosened. By this arrangement, which enables it to fix and loosen, and at the same time to lengthen and shorten ~ STRUCTURE OF ZOOPHYTES. 83 these organs of motion, the animal ‘is enabled to move itself from place to place. Some of the animals of this order are composed of several branches united together in one com- mon centre, like the spokes of a wheel; and hence they are called star-fish, or mere commonly five-fingers. ‘Their mouth is in the centre, where the several branches meet. Others are globular, and others oblong, like the sea-urchin and sea-egg. The Intestinal Worms belong also to the class of Zoophytes. Those which inhabit the bowels of children are well known. But there is scarce any animal which is not infested by one or more kinds of them. They can exist only within the bodies of the animals to which they belong, and it 1s seldom that the same species infests more than one kind of animal. They have no visible organs of respiration or circulation, and those of digestion are very imperfect and indistinct. They are not confined to the intestines, but are found in other canals and passages of the body, and even in the substance of parts, as in the liver, brain, and eye. . The difficulty of accounting for their existence in these parts, has given rise to the opinion of some naturalists, that they are spontaneously engendered ; but it is known, with regard to many of them, that they pro- duce eggs, and a living offspring ; and it is contrary to all the analogy of nature to ascribe, in these obscure cases, to chance and the spontaneous operations of matter, the production of effects, which, in all other instances, are the result of a per- fect and wonderful adaptation of organs to the end in view. © The Sea-nettles, or Sea-anemones, are still less perfect. Their bodies are circular, and in their centre 1s the mouth, which leads to several rude and imperfect cavities in the sub- stance of the animal, answering the purposes of stomach and intestines. ‘‘hey are generally found attached by their base to some rock or marine substance; but this attachment 1s vol- untary, for they can at will disengage themselves. Generally, however, they perform no other motion than that of opening and closing their mouths, and extending the tentacula with which they are surrounded. With these they grasp animals coming within their reach, such as small fish, mollusca, worms, &c. ‘These they swallow, and after having digested their flesh, throw out their bones, shells, and other refuse matter by the same opening, which is their only one. The Medusz do not differ much from these, except that they are merely of a gelatinous, slimy consistence, and are never found fixed by their base. They are common, and are often seen in immense shoals. One species of them is vulgarly known by the name of sun-fish. 84 CLASS IX. ZOOPHYTES. - The Polypes have a hollow, cylindrical, or conical body, with one extremity open, which serves for their mouth, and is surrounded by a number of tentacula. The simple cavity thus formed constitutes their only organ, and performs all the functions of which they are capable. They seize their prey and convey it to their mouths with the tentacula, and, as their bodies are gelatinous and semi-transparent, the operation of digestion may be seen going on within. Many of the polypes have been celebrated on account of the fact, that when one is divided into several pieces, each piece becomes a distinct animal, perfect in all its parts. The immense beds of coral, and the different kinds of sponge, are nothing but the habita- tions of infinite numbers of these little animals, and are pro- duced by their labor. | The Animalcules are animals still more minute, and are scarcely discernible except by the assistance of the micro- scope. ‘Thousands of them are in this way brought to our view, of various shapes, sizes, and appearances. Most of them offer to the view merely a gelatinous mass, capable of an imperfect sort of motion. Some, however, present appearances of a structure which might give them a claim to a higher rank in the scale of beings, did not their minuteness prevent a proper examination. ‘These animals are principally found in some animal and vegetable fluids and infusions, and hence have sometimes received the name of Infusoria. This completes a view of the whole animal kingdom, be- ginning with man, the most perfect member of it, and descend- ing to those obscure and minute creatures which are scarcely visible except with the assistance of the microscope. It wiil be observed, that one common plan pervades the whole; that the same general objects are had in view, im the structure of every class, and that there is a general analogy in the methods employed for effecting these objects, although there is a great © variety in the details; that there is a grand simplicity in the | design, though-a great diversity in the means. In short, not only in the structure of each individual animal, but in the wonderful manner in which that structure is varied to corre- | spond to the nature, habits, and wants of the different classes, we may perceive the wisdom, the power, and the benevolence of that great Creator, who has devised and formed, and who | continues to uphold, the myriads of shin beings with | which the earth is filled. THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I. OF RESPIRATION, ‘ By the air is meant that common elastic fluid which en- velops the whole earth, and extends to a certain distance from its surface. It constitutes what is.calledthe atmosphere. By its weight, its compressibility, and its pressure in all directions, it insinuates itself into every vacuity; and its presence is ab- solutely necessary to the existence of every vegetable and ani- mal. In order, however, to understand the manner in which it contributes to the support of living things, it is necessary to give some account of its composition. © Although the air, as we breathe it, seems to be a simple and homogeneous fluid, yet it is in fact composed of two dis- unct constituent or elementary parts, upon the mixture or combination of which, its adaptation to the preservation of life depends; containing, besides, some other ingredients of minor importance. These main elements are two permanently elas- tic fluids or gases, called oxygen, and nitrogen or azote. At- mospheric air contains about twenty-three parts, by weight, of the former, and seventy-seven of the latter, out of one hun- dred ; or, since oxygen is the heaviest of the two gases, twen- ty-one, by measure of oxygen, and seventy-nine of azote. It is upon the oxygen of the air, that its fitness for supporting animal life depends; for, when an animal is confined in a small quantity of air till this is exhausted, it dies from suffoca- tion, although the azote remains unaltered. ‘No animal can exist in an active state without air, but dif- ferent classes of animals differ very much as to the manner in 8 86 RESPIRATION. which the function of respiration is performed The influence which the air exerts, is always upon the circulating fluid or blood. It produces some change in it, or imparts some prin- ciple to it, which renders it fit to be distributed to the body for its nourishment. In al] the animals which have red blood, viz. the Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes, this change consists, so far as can be observed, in imparting to the dark- red or venous blood, which is sent to the lungs by the heart, a bright red or vermilion color. In this state, it is returned to the heart, and thence distributed throughout the body by the arteries. ‘In the Mammalia, the air is alternately drawn into the lungs, and expelled from them, by the action of the diaphragm and muscles of the ribs. This is called the inspiration and expiration of the air, and is constantly going on in order to produce the requisite change upon the blood, which is con- tiually passing through the lungs. In the greater part of the animals of this class, if this process be stopped but for a few moments, death is the inevitable consequence ; but in some species it may be suspended for a longer period. This is the case with the seal and the whale. Even men may acquire by habit the power of existing a considerable time without breath- ing, as is the case with the fishermen who dive for pearls ;* but many of the stories which have been related with regard to this subject, are probably destitute of foundation. ‘There are many other kinds of air or gas, which may be taken into the lungs, beside the atmospheric ; but no other which will support life. Even pure oxygen itself, and another gas which contains oxygen, although they will support life longer than any other kinds of air, will yet finally prove fatal. It is only when oxygen is combined with azote in the propor- tion above mentioned, that it 1s adequate to the continual support of life? ‘The quantity of air ordinarily contained in * ¢ The pearl-fishers have been said to remain half an hour or more under water. The accounts, however, which state so extraordinary a fact as this, must he looked upon with great doubt. It seems impossible from what we Know on the subject, that any human being could exist and remain capable of action under water, more than a few minutes.’ + ‘ Water destroys the life of animals merely by preventing the admission of air; jt does not itself enter the lungs, or at most only in a very small quantity. There are some gases which operate in the same way. The windpipe is spasmodically cicsed against them, and they do not enter the lungs; such are carbonic acid gas, ammoniacal gas, chlorine or oxymuriatic gas, &c., when unmixed. Other gases ar6é inspired with sufficient ease, but produce death, either merely for the want of oxy- en, as hydrogen and pure azote; or, in a certain sense, by poisoning the blood or A tayine ite vital properties, as carburetted and sulphuretted hydrogen, and car- bonic oxide. Oxygen alone, as has been remarked above, and nitrous oxide, which RESPIRATION. 87 the lungs of a common-sized man, immediately after an in- spiration, has been calculated to be about two hundred and eighty cubic inches, and about forty inches are drawn in and thrown out at each inspiration and expiration; so that the whole mass of air is not changed at every breath, but a large proportion remains constantly present, and distends the lungs. ‘If the air which has been respired be examined, a change will be found to have taken place in its composition. A part of its oxygen has disappeared, and in its place is found about the same bulk of carbonic acid or fixed air. There is also a considerable quantity of watery vapor. This change is un- doubtedly connected with the effect produced upon the color of the blood in respiration; and many have endeavored to give some account of the mode in which it takes place. But it is a process which we shall probably never be able fully to understand. A similar change is produced upon the air re- spired by all animals of whatever class. ‘Respiration has been supposed to be the cause of animal heat. Various opinions have been advanced to account for the manner in which it maintains the temperature of our bodies. None of them, however, seem perfectly satisfactory. It appears undoubtedly to have some very close connection with respiration, and dependence upon it; for the degree of heat in animals is generally proportioned to.the vigor and quantity of respiration. The temperature of birds is higher than that of man, and they consume a greater quantity of air. Reptiles and fishes have cold blood, and the amount of respi- ration in them is comparatively small. The same remark is true of all cold-blooded animals. But we are not yet ace- quainted with the exact nature of the connection between respiration and animal heat.* ‘Respiration commences immediately after birth, and at the same time a change is produced in the course of the cir- contains a greater proportion of it than atmospheric air, are capable of supporting life for a considerable period, but finally prove fatal. The latter is celebrated for its intoxicating and exhilarating effects, when respired.’ * ¢ Animal heat has been supposed to arise from a hemes action taking place in the lungs at the time of the change of venous blood into arterial, in the same way that heat is produced by many other chemical operations ; but if this were true, the lungs ought to be hotter than any other part of the body, which is not the case. It has been also supposed to arise from a greater capacity for caloric in the arterial, than in the venous blood, in consequence of which, heat would be developed when the change from the former to the latter takes place in the capillary vessels of the body. This is more probable, but still hardly satisfactory. Neither of these hy- potheses accounts for the independent temperature of eggs, which resist cold so long as they retain their life ; nor for the power in men Of resisting very high degrees of heat, with hardly any increase of the temperature of their bodies.” 88 | RESPIRATION. culation. Before birth, only a very small proportion of the blood is carried through the lungs; but after birth, and through life, the whole of it. The connection between the action of the lungs and that of the heart is very close and important. ‘The functions they perform are mutually depend- ent, and neither can go on alone. If the circulation cease by the cessation of the action of the heart, respiration is im- mediately interrupted. If, on the other hand, respiration be impeded, the heart does not stop at once; but as the dark, venous blood is no longer changed in its properties, as usual, in the lungs, it is returned to the heart in the same state, and is then sent throughout the body; and being totally 1 unfit for the purposes of life, destroys it, by cutting short the action of all the organs. The effect of its contact upon the brain is an immediate suspension of life; and if the cause be long continued, it is never restored. But in many cases of this kind, as in persons apparently drowned, circulation and respi- ration may be renewed, if they have not been too long inter- rupted, by blowing air ito the lungs, and by the application of warmth and stimulating substances to the body. ‘Beside these uses of the function of respiration, it is made subservient to a number of other important purposes. All animals furnished with lungs, express their wants, their affec- tions and aversions, their pleasures and pains, either by words, or by sounds peculiar to each species. ‘These are produced by different changes in the windpipe or canal through which the air 1s drawn into the lungs. The inferior animals are by this means enabled to maintain some sort of communication with others of the same species, and can, to a certain extent, convey information and express their affections and wants. But how far they are intelligible one to another, it is impos- sible to ascertain.’ On man alone, nature has bestowed the faculty of speaking, or of expressing his various feelings and ideas, by a regular, extensive, and established combination of articulate sounds. ‘To have extended this faculty to the brute creation, would not, it is probable, have been of any use to them; for, though some animals can be taught to articulate, yet none of them seem to have any idea of the proper meaning of the words they utter. Speech is performed by a very various and complicated machinery. In speaking, the tongue, the lips, the jaws, the whole palate, the nose, the throat, together with the muscles, bones, &c., of which these organs are composed, are all employed. This combi- nation of organs we are taught to use when so young, that Pa RESPIRATION. 89 we are hardly conscious of the laborious task, and far less of the manner by which we pronounce different letters and words. The mode of pronouncing letters aad words, how- ever, may be learned by attentively observing the different “organs employed by the speaker. By this means we are enabled to correct the various defects of speech, and even to teach the dumb to speak; for dumbness is seldom the effect of imperfection in the organs of speech, but generally arises from a want of hearing; and it is impossible for deaf men to imitate sounds which they never heard, except they be taught to use their organs by vision and by touching. When about to laugh, we make a very full inspiration, which is succeeded by frequent, interrupted, and sonorous expirations. When the titillation is great, whether it arises from the mind or body, these convulsive expirations some- times interrupt the breathing to such a degree as to endanger suffocation. Moderate laughing, on the contrary, produces health ; by agitating the whole body, it quickens the circula- tion of the blood, gives an inexpressible cheerfulness to the countenance, and banishes every kind of anxiety from the mind.. In weeping, we employ nearly the same organs as in laugh- ing. It commences with a deep inspiration, which is suc- ceeded by short, broken, sonorous, and disagreeable expira- tions. ‘The countenance has a dismal aspect, and tears are - poured out. Weeping originates from grief, or other painful sensations either of body or mind. When full vent is given to tears, grief is greatly alleviated. Both laughing and weep- ing have beenreckoned peculiar to man. But this notion seems not to be well founded. Though the other animals express not their pleasures or pains in the same manner as we do, yet all of them exhibit their pleasant or painful feelings by symptoms or cries, which are perfectly understood by the individuals of each species, and, in many instances, by man. A dog, when hurt, complains in the bitterest terms; and when he is afraid, or perhaps melancholy, he expresses the situation of his mind by the most deplorable howlings. A bird, when sick, ceases to sing, droops the wing, abstains from food, assumes a lurid aspect, utters melancholy, weak cries, and exhibits every mark of depressed spirits. By this means, animals intimate the assistance they require, or soften those who maltreat them. Their plaintive cries are some- times so affecting as to disarm their enemies, or to procure the aid of their equals. On the other hand, when animals S* | 90 » RESPIRATION. are pleased or caressed, they discover, by their countenarice, by their voice, by their movements, unequivocal symptoms of cheerfulness and alacrity of mind. _Thus the expressions of pleasure and pain by brute animals, though not uttered in the precise manner with those of the human species, are perfectly analogous, and answer the same intentions of nature. By respiration and the instruments employed in the per- formance of it, the young of animals are enabled to extract milk from the breasts of the mother. By respiration, odors are conveyed to the nose ; and coughing, sneezing, yawning, sighing, singing, and many other functions of the animal economy, are at least partly accomplished. ‘The Respiration of Birds is carried on by an arrangement of the lungs very different from that of the Mammalia. They are enabled to transmit air to almost every part of their bodies, by means of membranous sacks or bags, which receive it from the lungs through certain orifices or passages on the surface of these organs. The lungs themselves are firmly attached to the ribs, and are almost incapable of dilatation or contraction, but the air passes through them into the sacks by the action of the abdominal muscles. In this way it is diffused not only throughout the thorax and abdomen, but ex- tends even to the cavities of many of the bones, which are distinguished from the others by their lightness, their white color, and the absence of any bloody matter or marrow in their cavities. | | ‘This provision answers probably several important pur- poses. It renders birds lighter, in proportion to their bulk, than animals whose bones are filled with marrow or other solid substances, and thus gives them some advantage in flight; and generally in birds of the longest and highest flight, as eagles, this extension or diffusion of air is carried farther than in others. But a more important object of it probably is, to contribute to the muscular strength of these animals, by producing a very extensive operation upon the blood. The motions of birds in flight require a much greater expenditure of power, than those of walking or running in other animals. This power depends upon the circulation of the red, arterial blood in the muscles which exert it, and in order to increase the proportion of this in the system, the influence of the air is carried over the whole system, instead of being confined to the lungs alone. It has been found that birds consume, in proportion to their size, more air than quadrupeds; and this arises from its extensive influence upon wet SE ee SE ee SS SE AN eee eee RESPIRATION. 91 the blood. Thus, two sparrows were found by Lavoisier to require as much for their existence as a Guinea-pig, an animal many times as large. Another use ascribed to this arrange- ment by Mr. Hunter, is that of acting, in some degree, as a ‘Rgservoir of air, to prevent the necessity of frequent respira- tion, which may be supposed inconvenient to birds while mov- ing rapidly on the wing. ‘The voice of birds is more remarkable and beautiful than that of any other animal except man; and on account of the large quantity of air which they have at command, it is very much more powerful. But the sounds uttered by man and quadrupeds are produced by an organ situated at the top of the windpipe, called the larynz, with the assistance of the mouth, at the top of the windpipe; whilst, in birds, the organ of voice, or larynx, is situated at the spot where it divides into two parts to go to the lungs on each side, that is to say, at the bottom of the throat. The variations of note are pro- duced by a little membrane in the tube of the windpipe, which is made to vibrate by the air; and by means of a number of little muscles, which either tighten or relax it, it is made to give the various notes. Hence, in singing, birds seldom close or make any motions with their beaks. That the voice is produced at this place, has been proved by cutting off the necks of some birds, which still retained the power of uttering their notes. ‘The other parts of the windpipe are not, how- ever, without their use. Some changes of tone are produced by shortening or lengthening it, and others by contracting or enlarging its upper opening into the mouth. The instrument of voice, in fact, resembles in many respects a musical instru- ment, and the excellence and beauty of the notes of birds depend very much upon imitation and education. The night- ingale, if secluded in a cage when young, never sings so per- fectly as in the wild state, unless exposed in a place where it can hear the song of those which are at liberty. Many birds are capable of imitating a great variety of sounds, and some have been taught to sing very accurately tunes of human composition, merely by playing them upon some instrument in their hearing.’ The lungs of Reptiles do not consist, like those of the Mammalia and Birds, of a solid organ penetrated in every direction by the air tubes, but of a number of bags of a mem- branous texture, into which the air is conveyed. In some, this is effected by the motion of the ribs and muscles of the abdomen, as in serpents and lizards. In others, as in frogs 92 RESPIRATION. * and tortoises, the air is swallowed. Respiration in these ani- mals is not performed so regularly and constantly as in the higher classes. Only a comparatively small proportion of the blood is subjected to the influence of the air, at once; and they can subsist for a very considerable time without breath- ing, though its suspension at length destroysthem. Tortoises have been known to live more than a month with their jaws tied closely together, and their nostrils filled with sealing- wax. A toad lived for five days in a jar containing about a hundred cubic inches of air. In forty inches, another toad lived for twenty-four hours, and a frog for fifty-nine. This is many times longer than a warm-blooded animal could exist under the same circumstances. ‘The temperature of the bodies of Reptiles is generally that of the air and water in which they are found. Still they have the power of resisting, during life, both very high and | very low temperatures; and as their heat is seldom, under any circumstances, raised to a degree near to that of our bodies, they are designated as cold-blooded animals. This circumstance proceeds, probably, in some way from the limited — quantity of their respiration ; and with the same cause is con- nected their slow and feeble motions, their tendency to the dormant state, and in general! their low degree of vital power. ‘The Respiration of Fishes is carried on by means of gills or branchie, to which the air is applied through the ‘medium of the water. Every portion of water contains a certam quan- “4ity of air combined or mixed in some way with it, and by this means is made capable of supporting respiration. A cur- rent of water is constantly passed over the gills by the action of the mouth, and produces the requisite change upon the blood circulating through them. This change is ef the same kind with that taking place in the warm-blooded animals. It arises from the influence of the oxygen in the atmospheric air; and if the water be examined, after fishes have respired it, the air it contains will be found to have undergone a simi- lar change of composition with that breathed by quadrupeds and birds.’ When a free communication with the external air is pre- vented by ice, or by artifice, fishes immediately discover symp- toms of uneasiness, and soon perish. Atjian informs us, that, in winter, when the river Ister was frozen, the fishers dug holes in the ice; that great numbers of fishes resorted to these holes; and that their eagerness was so great, that they allowed themselves to be seized by the hands‘of the fishermen ss RESPIRATION. 93 Rondeletius made many experiments on this subject. If, says he, fishes are put into a narrow-mouthed vessel filled with water, and a communication with the air be preserved, the animals live, and swim about, not for days and months only, but for several years. If the mouth of the vessel, however, _be closely shut, either with the hand or any other covering, so that the passage of the air is excluded, the fishes suddenly die. Immediately after the mouth of the vessel is closed, the creatures rush tumultuously, one above another, to the top, contending which of them shali soonest receive the benefit of the air. In the shallow parts of rivers, when frozen, many fishes are found dead. But, when parts of a river are deep or rapid, the fishes fly from the i ice, and by this means avoid destruction. These, and similar experiments, have been repeated by Mr. Willoughby and many other modern authors; and they have uniformly been attended with the same event. A carp, in a large vessel full of water, was placed in the receiver of an air- pump. In proportion as the air was exhausted by working ~ the pump, the surface of the animal’s body was covered with a number of bubbles. The carp soon breathed quicker, and with more difficulty. A little after it arose to the surface in ~~ of air. The bubbles on its surface next disappeared ; belly, which before was greatly swollen, suddenly col- ysed; and the animal sunk to the bottom, and expired in commalsons. ‘ Air is distributed in the bodies of Insects by a great number of tubes or canals, called trachee, which convey it to every part. These communicate with the external air by means of openings called stzgmata, which furnish a constant supply. That these organs are destined for the transmission of air, has been proved by repeated experiments; for when stopped up by the application of oil, or other unctuous sub- stances, the animals soon lose their existence. In some insects they protrude externally to some distance from the P" body, and have the appearance of one, two, or three talis; ‘and in others they arise from the back and sides.’ In contemplating the parts of animals, when the uses of these parts are not apparent, we are apt to deceive ourselves by rashly supposing them to answer purposes for which they were never intended by nature. Impressed with this idea, M. de Reaumur was not satisfied with the notion of Godart and others, that the long tails of certain worms were intended to keep them steady in their motions, and prevent them 94 RESPIRATION. from rolling. Reaumur observed, that these worms or grubs could lengthen or shorten their tails at pleasure, but that they were always longer than the animal’s body. Because these tails have some resemblance to thatof a rat, he distinguishes the animals by the name of rat-tailed worms. These worms are aquatic, and never appear on dry ground till they are about to undergo their first transformation. Reaumur, in order to observe their economy more closely, collected a number of rat-tailed worms, and put them into a glass vessel filled two inches high with water. At first they were consid- erably agitated, each seemingly searching for a proper place of repose. Some of them swam across, others attached themselves to the sides, and others rested at the bottom of the vessel. In a quarter of an hour they were almost entirely tranquil, and Reaumur soon discovered the real use of their long tails. Upon examining the vessel, he found that each of the animals, in whatever situation they were placed, extended its tail exactly to the surface; that, like other aquatic in- sects, the respiration of. air was necessary to their existence; and that the tail, which is tubular, and open at the extremity, was the organ by which this operation was performed. In this experiment, the distance from the bottom to the surface was two inches, and, of course, the tails were of equal length. To discover how far the animals could extend their tails, he gradually augmented the height of the water, and the tails uniformly rose to the surface, till it was between five and six inches high. When the water was raised higher, the animals immediately quitted their station at the bottom, and either mounted higher in the water, or fixed upon the sides of the vessel, in situations which rendered it convenient for them to reach the surface with the points of their tails. These tails consist of two tubes, both of which are capable of extension and contraction. The first tube is always visible; but the second, which is the proper organ of respiration, is exerted only when the water is raised to a certain height. Through this tube the air is conveyed into two large trachez or wind- pipes within the body of the animal, and maintains the prin- ciple of life. When the tails are below the surface, they occasionally emit small bubbles of air, which are visible to the naked eye; and immediately are extended to the surface for fresh supplies. ‘These worms pass the first and longest part of their lives under water; when near the time of their transformation, they leave the water, go under the ground, and are there transformed into chrysalids; and, lastly, from RESPIRATION, 95 this state they are transformed into flies, and spend the re- mainder of their existence in the air. _ Another species of aquatic worms merits attention. ‘They frequent marshes, ditches, and stagnating waters. Their gen- eral color is a greenish brown. Their bodies consist of eleven rings; and their skin is not crustaceous, but rather resembles parchment. Though these animals, before their transformation into flies, live in water, air is necessary to sup- port their principle of ‘life : and the apparatus with which nature has furnished them for that important purpose, deserves eur notice. The last ring or termination of their bodies is open, and serves as a conductor of air. From this last ring proceeds a number of hairs, which, when examined by the microscope, are found to be real feathers with regular vanes. In particular situations, they bend the last ring in such a manner as to reach the surface of the water or mud in which they are placed. ‘These feathers prevent the water from en- tering into the tube, or organ of respiration; and, when the animal raises the termination of its body to the surface, in order to receive air, it erects and spreads the feathers, and by this means exposes the ends of the tube to the atmosphere. When cautiously cut open, two large vessels, or trachez, ap- pear on each side, and occupy almost one half of the body. Both of these windpipes terminate in the open tube, or last ring. ‘Though these worms are furnished with organs of res- piration, and actually respire air, yet M. de Reaumur discov- ered that some of them could live more than twenty-four _ hours without respiration. So anxious is Nature to provide animals, in every state of their existence, with air, that, after the transformation of many insects into chrysalids, she creates instruments for that pur- pose, which did not exist previous to their transformation. The rat-tailed worms, formerly mentioned, soon after they are transformed into chrysalids, instead of a soft, pliable skin, are covered with a hard, crustaceous substance, seemingly impervious to the air; and the tail, which was the windpipe of the animal in its first state, gradually vanishes. In a few hours, however, four hollow horns shoot out, two from the fore, and two from the hind part of what was the head of the animal. These horns, which are hard and tubular, are discov- ered to be real windpipes, destined for the introduction of air into the chrysalis, a state in which the animals have the appearance of being almost totally dead, and, of course, would seem to have little use for respiration. It is likewise 96 RESPIRATION, discovered, that these horns, which pierced the hard exterior covering, terminate in as many trachee in the body of the animal. ‘This fact affords a strong example of the necessity of air for sustaining the principle of life, even in its lowest condition. After these animals pass from the chrysalis state to that of flies, they are deprived both of their tails and horns. But Nature, in this last stage of their existence, has not left them without proper resources for the introduction of air into their bodies. Instead of protuberant tracheze in the form of tails or horns, they now, like other flies, receive air by means of stigmata, or holes, variously disposed over different parts of the body The nymphs of sie libella, or dragon-fly, respire water by an aperture at the termination of their bodies. These nymphs sometimes throw out the water, at certain intervals, with such force, that the stream is perceptible at the distance of two or three inches from their bodies. When kept some time out of the water, the desire or necessity of respiration is augmented ; and, accordingly, when replaced in it, imspirations and ex- pirations are repeated with unusual force and frequency. If you hold one of these nymphs in your hand, and apply drops of water to the posterior end of its body, it instantly, by an apparatus similar to the piston of a pump, sucks it in, and the dimensions of its body are visibly augmented. 'This water is again quickly thrown out by the same instrument. But though this insect respires water, air seems to be not the less necessary to its existence; for, like other insects, the whole interior part of its body is amply provided with large and con- voluted trachee ; and, externally, there are several stigmata destined for the introduction of air. The worms, or nymphs, of the ephemeron flies merit atten- tion. They have received the denomination of ephemeron, because very few of them survive the day in which they are transformed into flies. Many of them hive not one hour after their transformation. When in the worm and nymph states, they generally live in holes near the surface of the water ; and under these two forms, continue to grow till they are mature for passing into the Jast and shortest period of their existence. Swammerdam informs us, that some of them remain three years under water, others two, and others one only. On each side of their bodies, there are six or seven protu- berances, which have the appearance of so many oars. With these instruments the animals describe arches in the water, first on one side, and then on the other, with astonishing ra- RESPIRATION. G7 pidity. This circumstance led Clutius, and some other authors, to think that these protuberances were fins, or instru- ments of motion, and that the animals were fishes. But Reaumur remarked, that they moved these fins with the same rapidity when the animals were at rest, as when they were in motion ; and that, instead of fins, when examined by the mi- croscope, he discovered them to be gifs through which the creatures respire. ‘ Each gill consists of a short trunk, and two large branches or tubes, which give off on all sides a number of smaller ramifications, and are perfectly similar to the trachee of other insects. At the origin of every gill, two trachee penetrate the trunk, and are dispersed through the body of the animal. ‘The Crustacea, the Mollusca, and Worms, all respire by means of gills, which, although they differ in some measure from those of fishes, are formed upon the same plan. In a few instances they respire air by itself, but in general through the medium of water alone. In some animals of these classes the gills are situated upon the outside of their bodies, but commonly within. Zoophytes have distinct organs for respi- ration; yet the air seems, in some way or other, absolutely necessary for their existence also, and probably penetrates their bodies, and acts upon their blood by means entirely un- known. ‘These animals are all cold-blooded. ‘This chapter will be concluded by a few miscellaneous remarks relating to the respiration of different animals, aug appearances connected with it.’ Land-snails, at the approach of winter, bury fidbierues in the earth, or retire into holes of rocks, or of old buildings, where they remain in a torpid state during the severity of the season. For protection and warmth, these animals, when they go into their winter habitations, form, by means of a slime that issues from every pore of their bodies, a membra- nous cover, which stops up the mouths of their ‘shells. But this pellicle or cover, though apparently pretty hard and solid, is so thin and porous as not entirely to exclude the en- trance of air, without which the principle of life could not be continued. Accordingly, when by accident the pellicle is made too thick, and prevents a communication with the ex- ternal air, the animal, to remedy the evil, makes a small aper- ture in its cover. In this state snails remain six or seven months, without food or motion, till the genial warmth of the spring breaks their slumber, and calls forth their active powers. Hence it would appear, that air is more immediately ‘ 98 RESPIRATION. necessary to the preservation of animal life than food itseif; for, in numberless instances, animals can live, not for days or weeks, but for months, without supplies of nourishment. -None of them, however, are capable of existing nearly so long without having some communication with the air. With regard to the snails that live in fresh waters, or in the ocean, the species of which are numerous, their manner of respiring.1s singular. -All of them have an aperture on the right side of the neck, through which they respire. ‘They are frequently observed to straiten the orifice of this aperture, to stretch it out in the form of an oblong tube, and, in this state, they rise to the surface, in order to expel the former air, and take in a new supply. But, though air seems to be an indispensable principle of animal life, yet many animals can live longer without the use of this element, or at least with smaller quantities of it, than others. ‘Those animals which lie torpid during the winter, as the hedge-hog, the dormouse, the marmot, &c., though per- haps not entirely deprived of all communication with the air, exist, with only an occasional and interrupted respiration, till the heat of the spring restores their wonted powers of life, when a full respiration becomes again equally necessary as _. before their torpor commenced. The toad, like all the frog kind, is torpid in winter. At the approach of winter, it re- tires to the hollow root of a tree, to the cleft of a rock, and sometimes to the bottom of a ditch or pond, where it remains for months in a state of seeming insensibility. In this last situation it can have very little communication with the air. But still the principle of life is continued, and the animal re- vives in the spring. What is more wonderful, toads have | been found, in a hundred places on the globe, inclosed in the heart of solid rocks, and in the bodies of trees, where they must probably have existed for centuries, without any appa- rent access either to nourishment or air; and yet they were alive and vigorous. These facts are supported by authorities so numerous and so respectable, that it is unnecessary to quote them. Many abortive attempts have been made to account for an animal’s growing and living very long in the situations above de- scribed, without the possibility of receiving nourishment or air ; especially as, like all other animals, when put into an exhausted receiver, it is soon destroyed. No satisfactory explanation, however, has ever been offered; and solitary exceptions like these do not invalidate the general principle, that the respi- RESPIRATION. oF ration of air, in a greater or less degree, 1s constantly neces- sary to the existence of every living thing. ‘The presence of air is as necessary to the har circumstances and situations, or such as are umprovable by experience and observation. ‘Almost all the instincts of the higher kind of animals are included under this division. There are few of them which are not capable of being improved by education and experi- ence, and this is particularly the case with those of man.’ The ostrich has been accused. of unnaturalness, because she leaves her eggs to be hatched by the heat of the sun. In Senegal, where the heat 1s great, she neglects her eggs dur- ing the day, but sits upon them in the night. At the Cape of Good Hope, however, where the degree of heat is less, the ostrich, like other birds, sits upon her eggs both day and night. Rabbits dig holes in the ground for warmth and protection. But, after continuing long m a domestic state, that resource being unnecessary, they seldom employ this art. Bees, when they have not room enough for their operations, augment the depth of their honey-cells. The female bee, when the cells are not sufficiently numerous to receive her eggs, lays two or three in each cel]. But a few days after, when the cells are mcreased, the working bees remove all the supernumerary. eggs, and deposit them in the newly-con- structed ceils. When a wasp, in attempting to transport a dead companion from the nest, finds the load too heavy, he cuts off its head, and carries it out in two portions. In countries infested with monkeys, many birds, which, in — other climates, build in bushes and clefts of trees, suspend their nests upon slender twigs, and, by this ingenious device, elude the rapacity of their enemies. The nymphs of water-moths, commonly called cod-bait, cover themselves, by means of gluten, with pieces of wood, straw, small shells, or gravel. It is necessary that they should always be nearly in equilibrium with the water in which they live. To accomplish this purpose, when their habitations are too heavy, they add a piece of wood; when too light, a bit of gravel. A cat was known to frequent a closet, the door of which was fastened by a common iron latch. ’A window was sit- uated near the door. When the door was shut, she gave her- self no uneasiness. As soon as she was tired of her confine- ment, she mounted on the sole of the window, and with her paw dexterously lifted the latch and came out. This prac- tice she continued for years. EE —— DIFFERENT KINDS OF INSTINCT. | 115 ‘These are but a few examples of instinct: many others, more curious and interesting, will be found in the different chapters of this work, which treats of other subjects con- nected with the character and history of animals.’ - The notion that animals are machines, is perhaps too ab- surd to merit refutation. ‘Though no animal is endowed with mental powers equal to those of man, yet there is not a faculty of the human mind, but evident marks of its existence are to be found in particular animals. Senses, memory, imagi- nation, the principle of imitation, curiosity, cunning, ingenu- ity, devotion, or respect for superiors, gratitude, are ail dis- coverable in the brute creation. Neither is art denied to them. They build in various styles; they dig; they wage war; they extract peculiar substances from water, from plants, from the earth ; they modulate their voices so as to commu- nicate their wants, their sentiments, their pleasures and pains, their apprehensions of danger, and their prospects of future good. Every spécies has its own language. They ask and give assistance to each other. They speak of their necessi- ties; and this branch of their language is more or less ex- tended, in proportion to the number of their wants. Ges- tures and inarticulate sounds are the signs of their thoughis. It is necessary that the same sentiment should produce the same sounds and the same movements; and, consequently, each individual of a species must have the same organization. Birds and quadrupeds, accordingly, are incapable of holding discourse to each other, or communicating the ideas and feel- ings they possess in common. The language of gesture pre- pares for that of articulation; and some animals are capable of acquiring a knowledge of articulate sounds. They first judge of our thoughts by our gestures; and afterwards ac- quire the habit of connecting these thoughts with the lan- guage in which we express them. It is in this manner that the elephant and the dog learn to obey the commands of their masters. Infants are exactly in the same condition with brutes. They understand some of our gestures and words long before they can articulate. They discover their wants by cestures and inarticulate sounds, the meaning of which the nurse learns by experience. Different infants have different modes of expressing their wants. This is the reason why nurses know the intentions of infants, though they are perfectly un- 116 DIFFERENT KINDS OF INSTINCT, intelligible to strangers. When an infant, accordingly, is trans- ferred from one nurse to another, the former instructs the latter in the gestures and inarticulate language of the child. The idea of a machine implies a select combination of the common properties of matter. The regularity of its move- ments is a proof that they are totally distinct from animal or spontaneous motion. A machine has nothing analogous to sensation, which is the lowest characteristic of an animal. An animated machine, therefore, is an absurd abuse of terms. Tt confounds what nature has distinguished i in the most unam- biguous manner. ‘Brutes, like men, Jearn to see objects in their proper posi- tion, to judge of distances and heights, and of hurtful, pleas- urable, or indifferent bodies. Without some portion of reason, therefore, they could never acquire the faculty of making _a proper use of their senses. A dog, though pressed with hunger, will not seize a piece of meat in the presence of his master, unless it be given -to him; but, with his eyes, his movements, and his voice, he makes the most humble and ex- pressive petition. If this balancing of motives be not reason- ing, by what ether name can it be ‘called? Animals, recently after birth, know not how to avoid dan- ger. N either can they make a proper use of their members. But experience soon teaches them what is pleasant and what is painful, what objects are hurtful and what salutary. A young cat or a dog, which has had no experience of leaping from a height, will, without hesitation, precipitate itself from the top of a high wall. But, after perceiving that certain heights are hurtful, and others inoffensive, the animal learns to make the distinction, and never afterwards can be prevailed upon to leap from a height which it knows will be produc- tive of pain. Young animals examine every object they meet with. In this investigation they employ all their organs. The first periods of their life are dedicated to study. When they run about, and make frolicsome gambols, it is nature sporting with them for their instruction. In this manner they improve their faculties and organs, and acquire an intimate knowledge of the objects which surround them. Men who, from pecu- liar circumstances, have been prevented from mingling with companions, and engaging in the different amusements and exercises of youth, are always awkward in their movements, cannot use their organs with ease or dexterity, and often con- tinue, during life, ignorant of the most common objects. SMELLING. 117 CHAPTER IV. OF THE SENSES. No animal, of which we have any knowledge, is endowed with more than the five external senses of smelling, tasting, hearing, touch, and seeing; and no animal, however imper- fect, is destitute of the whole. Without organs of sensation, in a smaller or greater number, animal or intellectual exist- ence is to us an inconceivable idea. Our observations on the different instruments of sensation will proceed in the following order, namely, of the senses of smelling, of tasting, of hearing, of touch, and of seeing. In general, it may be remarked, that all sensation is conveyed to the mind by an unknown influence of the nerves. If the op- tic, olfactory, or any nerve distributed over an organ of sen- sation, be cut, or rendered paralytic, the animal instantly loses that particular sense. This is a fact universally established by experiment. But that the nerves, which are nearly similar in every part of the body, should, when distributed oyer the eye, the ear, the tongue, the nose, convey to the mind feelings so different, is the mast mysterious part of this subject. Of Smelling. In man, and many other animals, the organ by which the sense of smelling i is conveyed to the mind, has received the general appellation of nose or nostrils. The more immediate instrument of this sensation is a soft, vascular, porous mem- brane, and is known by the name of the pituctary membrane, or Schneiderian membrane. ‘This membrane is totally covered with infinite ramifications and convolutions of the olfactory nerves. These nerves are almost naked, and exposed to the action of the air which passes through the nose in performing the function of respiration. But Na ature, ever attentive to the ease and convenience of her creatures, has furnished the nostrils with a number of glands, or small arteries, which secrete a thick, insipid mucus. By this mucus, the olfactory nerves are defended from the action of the air, and from the painful stimuli of acrid odors. The odors perceived by smelling are extremely various. 118 ; SMELLING, “-. ¢itee ey ah ist ae ! Some of them convey to us the most delightful and refreshing sensations, and others are painful, noxious, and disgusting. — The effluvia of odoriferous bodies float in the atmosphere, and — act upon the olfactory nerves of different animals, and some- times of different individuals of the same species, in sucha manner as to produce very different sensations. What is pleasant to the nostrils of one animal is highly offensive to those of another. Brute animals select their food chiefly by employing the sense of smelling, and it seldom deceives them. They easily distinguish noxious from salutary food ; and they carefully avoid the one, and use the other for nourishment. _ The same thing happens with regard to the drmk of animals. A cow, when it-can be obtained, always repairs to the clear- est and freshest stream; but.a horse, from some instinctive impulse, uniformly raises the mud with. his feet, and renders the water impure, before he drinks. In the selection of food, men are greatly assisted, even in the most luxurious state of society, by the sense of smelling By smelling we often reject food as noxious, and will not risk the other test of. tasting. Victuals which have a putrid smell, as equally offensive to our nostrils as hurtful to our constitu- tions, we avoid with abhorrence ; but we are allured to eat substances which have a grateful and savory-odor. The more frequent and more acute discernment of brutes in the exercise _ of this sense, is entirely owing to their freedom, and to their using natural productions alone. But men in society, by the arts of cookery, by the unnatural assemblage of twenty in- gredients in one dish, blunt, corrupt, and deceive both their senses of smelling and tasting. Were we in the same natural condition as the brutes, our sense of smelling would enable us to distinguish, with equal certainty, noxious from salutary food. Brutes, as well as men, prefer particular foods to others. This may be considered as a species of luxury; but it should likewise be considered, that all the articles they use are either animal or vegetable substances in a natural state, neither converted into a thousand forms and qualities by the operation of fire and water, nor having their savor exalted by stimulating condiments. Domestic animals are nearly in the same condition with luxurious men. A pampered dog snuffs -and rejects many kinds of food, which, in a natural state, he would devour with eagerness. It is not unworthy of remark, that, in all animals, the organs of smelling and of tasting are uniformly situated very near each other. Hence the intention of nature is evident. The | | SMELLING. 7 119 vicinity of these two senses forms a double guard in the se- lection of food. Were they placed in distant parts of the ' body, they could not so readily give mutual aids The air we breathe is perpetually impregnated with an in- finity of different particles, which stimulate the olfactory nerves, and give rise to the sensations of smell. When our senses are not vitiated by unnatural habits, they are not only faithful monitors of danger, but convey to us the most exquisite pleas- ures. Even the sense of smelling is always productive either of pleasure or pain. The fragrance of a rose, and of many other flowers, is not only pleasant, but gives a refreshing and delightful stimulus to the whole system, and may be considered as a species of wholesome nourishment; while the odors pro- ceeding from hemlock, and from many other noxious vegeta- ble, animal, and mineral substances, are highly offensive to our nostrils. Hence we are naturally compelled to embrace the one class of sensations, and to avoid the other. Some animals, as the dog, the fox, the raven, &c., are en- dowed with a most exquisite sense of smelling. A dog scents various kinds of game at a considerable distance ; and, if the fact were not confirmed by daily experience, it could hardly gain credit, that he can trace the odor of his master’s foot through all the winding streets of a populous city. If we judge from our own feelings, this extreme sensibility in the nose of a dog i is to us perfectly incomprehensible. ‘In animals which do not breathe air, the odoriferous par- ticles are conveyed to the organ of smelling through the me- dium of water. In fishes, the nostrils do not form a tube or canal, as in animals which breathe air,. but consist of a simple cavity on each side of the nose, into which the water, impreg- nated with odors, flows, and communicates the sensation of smell. ‘In the invertebral animals, no dude! organ for this sense has ever been discovered, and yet they almost all appear to possess it in no inconsiderable degree. Some insects, as was mentioned in the last chapter, are induced, by the odor of cer- tain fetid plants, to deposit their eggs upon the leaves, be- lieving them to be putrid flesh; they must, therefore, be pos- sessed of the sense of smelling, for in no other way could they be deceived. A probable conjecture with regard to the organ by which it is exercised, is that which refers it to the air-tubes or trachee, by which they respire. In the mollusca, it is not improbable that the whole surface of the skin, which resembles in its structure the pituitary membrane of other 120 TASTING, | animals, is the seat of this sense; and the same may be true of worms and zoophytes.’ Of Tasting. - | The tongue and palate are the great struments of this sen- sation. With much wisdom and propriety, the organ of taste is situated in such a manner as enables it to be a guardian to the alimentary canal, and to assist the organ of smell in distin- guishing salutary from noxious food. ‘The tongue is perpetu- ally moistened with saliva, a liquor which, though insipid itself, is one great cause of all tastes. The saliva of animals is a very powerful solvent. Every substance applied to the tongue is partially dissolved by the saliva before the sensation of taste is excited. When the tongue is rendered dry, or coated by disease, or any other cause, the sense of taste ts either vitiated, or totally annihilated. ‘When we exercise this sense, the substance which we wish to taste is pressed by the tongue against the roof of the mouth, and the different parts of the mouth are contracted closely around the tongue and the sapid body. ‘The more complete and perfect the contact which thus takes:place, the more perfect is the art of tasting. ‘The internal surface of the mouth is very little capable of perceiving or distinguishing tastes, unless this pressure takes place. In fact, if the mouth be held open and a substance of even a pretty powerfal taste be applied to the tongue, the umpression it gives is-very indis- tinct and indefinite, and becomes perceptible only by closing the jaws and bringing the tongue up into contact with the roof of the mouth. Hence arises the pleasure we feel in the act of chewing and swallowing. ‘The motion of the jaw, and the action of the teeth and tongue, mix the food with saliva, thus putting it into a fit state for producing the sensa- tion of taste, and, at the same time, convey it between the tongue and ‘the roof of the mouth; whilst, in swallowing, almost the whole internal surface of the mouth contracts upon and comes in contact with the morsel, raising the pleasure of taste to the highest degree.’ In some men the sense of taste is so blunt, that they can- not distinguish, with any degree of accuracy, the different species of that sensation. In others, whether from nature or from habit, this sense is so acute, that they can perceive the nicest distinctions in the savor of solids and of liquids. - PASTING. 121 Though the sense of taste varies in some individuals, yet, like figurative taste, the standard of agreeable and disagree- able, of pleasant and painful, is almost universally diffused over mankind and the brute creation. Every horse, and every ox, when in a natural state, eats or rejects the same species of food. But men in society, as well as domestic ani- mals, are induced by habit, by necessity, or by imitation, to acquire a taste for many dishes, and combinations of sub- stances, which, before the natural, discriminating sense 1s per- verted, would be rejected with disgust. Some individuals of the human species have an aversion to particular kinds of food, which are generally agreeable. ‘This aversion may be either original or acquired. I knew a child, who, from the moment he was weaned, could rever be in- duced te take milk of any kind. These criginai aversions must be ascribed te seme peculiar modification in the struc- ture of the organ, or in the disposition of its nerves. But, in general, disgust at particular foods is produced by surfeits, which injure the stomach, and create in that exquisitely irri- table viscus an insuperabie antipathy to receive nourishment which formerly gave it so much uneasiness to digest. Brute animals, especially those which feed upon herbage, and are net liable to be corrupted by example or necessity, distinguish tastes with wonderful accuracy. By the applica- tion of the tongue, they instantly perceive whether any plant is salutary or noxious. To enable them, amidst a thousand plants, to make this discrimination, their nervous papille, and their tongues, are proportionally much larger than those of man. ‘ This sense indeed seems particularly intended as a guard to the digestive organs, and to be subservient to | them; and this more especially in other animals than in man, who is accustomed to depend upon his judgment and experience, rather than his taste, in the selection of articles of food. Still that which is- salutary for the stomach, is generally pleasant to the taste. It is probable that all ani- mals possess the sense of taste, to enable them to make choice ef and enjoy their food, and that, in all of them, the sense resides in those organs which are employed in receiving and swallowing it.’ 1] 122 | SENSES. Of Hearing. The sensation of hearing is conveyed to the mind by undu- lations of air striking the ear, an organ of a very delicate and complex structure. In quadrupeds, the external ears are large, and provided with muscles, by which they can erect and move them from side to side, in order to catch the undu- lations produced in the air by the vibrations of sonorous bodies, or to distinguish with greater accuracy the species of sound, and the nature and situation of the animal or object from which it proceeds. ‘Though the human ears, like those of quadrupeds, are furnished with muscles, evidently intended for similar movements, yet, I know not for what reasons, there is not one man in a million who has the power of moy- ing his ears. When we listen to a feeble sound, we are con- scious of an exertion; but that exertion, and the motions produced by it, are confined to the internal parts of the organ. The canals or passages to the imternal parts of the ear are cylindrical, somewhat contorted, and become gradually smaller till they reach the membrane which covers what is called the drum of the ear. This membrane, which is ex- tremely sensible when acted upon by undulations of-air, how- ever excited, conveys, by means of a complex apparatus of bones, nerves, é&&c., the sensation of sound to the brain or sentient principle. Infants hear bluntly, because the bones of their. ears are soft and cartilaginous; and, of course, the tremulations ex- cited in them by the motions of the air, are comparatively weak. Young children, accordingly, are extremely fond of noise. It rouses their attention, and conveys to them the agreeable sensation of sound; but feeble sounds are not per- ceived, which gives infants, like deaf persons, the appearance of in attention, or rather of stupidity. ‘That air is the medium by which sounds are propagated, has been established by repeated experiments. The sound of a bell suspended in the receiver of an air-pump, gradually diminishes as the air is exhausted, till it almost entirely ceases to be heard. On the other hand, when the quantity of air is increased by a condenser, the intensity of the sound is proportionally augmented. It has also been proved that sounds actually produced, cannot be transmitted through a vacuum, or a space deprived of air. ‘The undulations of the air by which sounds are produced HEARING. 123 have been illustrated by comparing them to the little circular waves or undulations which are produced when a stone is _ thrown into stagnant water. Similar motions are probably produced in the air by the. vibrations of sonorous bodies, The celerity with which sounds, or undulations of air, move, has been computed. All sounds, whether acute or grave, strong or weak, move at the average rate of 1142 feet in a second of time. Hence, whenever lightning, or the fire of artillery, is seen, its distance may be ascertained by determin- ing the interval which elapses before the thunder or the re- port is heard.* ‘The force or intensity of sound is augmented by reflection from surrounding bodies. It is from this cause that the hu- man voice, or any other noise, is always weaker and less dis- _tinctly heard in the open air than ina house. A musket discharged upon a wide and extensive plain, sounds but little louder than the burning of a squib, whilst, among buildings or hills, where there are a thousand reverberations, its report is very loud.’ . The modifications of sound are not less various than those _ of tastes or odors. The ear is capable of distinguishing some hundred tones in sound, and probably as many degrees of strength in the same tones. By combining these, many thou- sand simple sounds, which differ either in tone or in strength, are perceived and distinguished by the ear. A violin, a flute, a French-horn, may each of them give the same tone; but the ear easily makes the distinction. The immense variety of sensations, arising from the organs of smelling, of tasting, and of hearing, enables animals to judge concerning the na- ture and situation of external objects» By habit we learn to know the bodies from which particular species of sound pro- ceed. Previous to all experience, we could not distinguish whether a sound came from the right or the left, from above or below, from a greater or a smaller distance, or whether it was the sound of a coach, of a drum, of a bell, or of an animal. Hearing enables us to perceive all the agreeable sensations conveyed ‘to our minds by the melody and harmony of sounds. This, to man at least, is a great source of pleasure and of innocent amusement. But some men are almost totally des- titute of the faculty of distinguishing musical sounds, and of * ‘It has been lately ascertained that the velocity of sound is considerably affect- ea by different states of the atmosphere and of the weather, and hy the wind. The lowest rate of its velocity is 1099, the highest 1164 feet per second.’ - 124 SENSES. perceiving those delightful and diversified feelings excited by the various combinations of musical tones. Most men de- rive pleasure from particular species of music. But a musical ear, in a restricted sense, is by no means a general qualifica- tion. An ear for music, however, though not to be acquired by study, when the faculty itself is wanting, may be highly improved by habit and culture. Buffon, after examining a number of persons who had no ear for music, says, that every one of them heard worse in one ear than in the other; and — ascribes their inability of distinguishing musical expression to that defect. But a musical ear seems to have no depend- ence on acuteness or bluntness of hearing, whether in one or in both ears. There are many examples of people who may be said to be half deaf, and yet- are both fond of music and skilful practitioners. An ear for music, like a genius for painting or poetry, is a gift of Nature, and is born with the possessor. Beside the innumerable pleasures we derive from music and agreeable sounds, the extension and improvement of arti- Jicial language must be considered as objects of the greatest importance to the human race. Without the sense of hear- ing, mankind would forever have remained mute. I mention artificial, or improved language, because, from a thousand observations which every person must have made, it is per- fectly apparent, that, if destitute of a natural language, neither man nor the brute creation could possibly have existed and continued their species. As brutes, without information or experience, are capable of communicating to each other, by particular sounds and gestures, their pleasures and pains, their wants and desires, it would be the highest absurdity to suppose that the great Creator should have denied to man, the noblest animal that inhabits this globe, the- same indis- pensable privilege. Without a basis there can be na fabric. Without a natural, no artificial language could possibly have existed. This point is clearly demonstrated, in a few words, by that most ingenious, candid, and profound philoso- pher, Dr. Thomas Reid, formerly Professor of Moral Philoso- phy in the university of Glasgow. ‘If mankind,’ says Dr. Reid, ‘had not a natural language, they could never have invented an artificial one by their reason and ingenuity. For all arti- ficial language supposes some compact or agreement to affix a certain. meaning to certain signs; therefore, there must be compacts or agreements before the use of ‘artificial sions ; but there can be no compact or agreement without signs, not TOUCH. 125 without language ; and therefore there must be a natural lan- guage before any artificial language can be Sata ¥ Of Touch. The sensations of smelling, tasting, hearing, and seeing, are conveyed to us by partial organs, which are all confined to the head. But the sense of touching, or of feeling, is not only common to these organs, but extends over almost every part of the body, whether external or internal. Though every sensation may be comprehended under the general appella- tion of feeling, yet what is called the sense of touch is properly restricted to the different sensations excited by bodies applied to és skin, and particularly to the tips of the fingers. With regard to sensation in general, it is worthy of remark, that the eyes, the ears, the nostrils, the tongue and palate, the palms of the hands, especially towards the points of the fingers, are more amply supplied with nerves than any other external parts of the body. ‘The terminations of the nerves on the surface of the skin are soft and pulpy, and form minute protuberances, resembling the nap of frieze cloth, though , greatly inferior in magnitude. ‘These protuberances ‘have Te- ceived the denomination of nervus papille. They might be called animal feelers ; for they are obviously the immediate instruments of sensation: Ifan object be presented to the eye, or any other organ of sensation, certain feelings are ex- cited, which are either agreeable or disagreeable, ‘according to the real or imaginary qualities which we consider as be- longing to that object. The feelings thus excited instantly produce a change in the sensitive organs by which they are occasioned. Ifthe object be possessed of disagreeable quali- ties, aversion is the necessary consequence. But, if beauty and utility are perceived in the object, pleasant emotions spring up in the mind, which naturally induce a similar tone or disposition in the organs suited for the enjoyment of these qualities. When examining or enjoying any object, it is natural to inquire, what are the changes produced in the nervous papille or organs of sensation. If an object possessed of agreeable feelings is perceived, the nervous papille instantly extend themselves, and, from a state of flaceidity, become compara- * Dr. Reid’s fannie on the Human Mind, on the Principles of Common Sense.—S. * } 126 SENSES. tively rigid. This extension of the papille is not conjectural , it is founded on anatomical observation, and, in some cases, may be seen and felt by persons of acute and discerning sen- sations. When aman in the dark inclines to examine any substance, in order to discover its figure, or other qualities, _ he perceives a kind of rigidity at the tips of his fingers. If the fingers are kept long in this state, the rigidity of the nervous papille will give him a kind of pain or anxiety, which - it is impossible to describe. The cause of this pain is an over-distention of the papille Ifa small insect creeps on a man’s hand, when the papille are flaccid, its movements are not perceived ; but, if he happens to direct his eye to the animal, he immediately extends his papille, and feels distinctly all its motions. If a body be present, which, in the common state of the nerves, has scarcely any sensible order, by ex- tending the papille of the nostrils, an agreeable, disagreeable, or indifferent smell will be perceived. When two persons are whispering, and we wish to know what ts said, we stretch the papille, and other organs of hearing, which are exceed- ingly complex. If a sound is too low for making an im- pression on the papille in their natural state of relaxation, we are apt to overstretch the organ, which produces a pain- ful or irksome feeling. When we examine a mite, or any very minute object by the naked eye, a pain is propagated over every part of that organ. Several causes may concur in producing this pain, such as the dilating of the pupil, and the adjusting the crystalline lens; but the chief cause must be ascribed to the preternatural intumescence and extension of the papillz of the retina, the substance of which is a mere congeries of nervous terminations. This circumstance con- firms a former remark, that the immediate organs of sensation are more copiously supplied with nervous papillez than those parts whose uses require not such exquisite sensibility; for a distinction in this respect is observable even among the sen- sitive organs themselves. They are furnished with nerves exactly proportioned to the subtilty of the objects whose im- pressions they are fitted to receive. The eye possesses by far the greatest number. The particles of light are so minute, that, had not this wise provision been observed in the con- struction of the eye, it could never have been able to distin- guish objects with such accuracy as at present it is capable of performing. When an insipid body, or a body which conveys but a feeble sensation of taste, is applied to the tongue, we are conscious of an effort which that organ makes TOUCH. 127 in order to discover the quality of the body thus applied. This effort is nothing but the stretching of the nervous papille, _ that they may palate the field of contact with the body under examination. © The pleasure or pain produced by the sense of touch, de- - pends chiefly upon the friction, or number of impulses, made upon the papille. Embrace ‘any agreeable. body with your hand, and allow it to remain perfectly at rest, and you will find the pleasure not half so exquisite as when the hand is gently moved backward and forward upon the surface. Apply the hand to a piece of velvet, and it is merely agreeable; run the hand repeatedly on the surface of the cloth, and the pleasant feeling will be augmented in proportion to the num- ber of impulses on the papille. When a man is pinched with hunger, the sight or idea of palatable food raises the whole papille of his tongue and stomach. From this circum- stance he is highly regaled by eating. But if he eats the same species of food when his stomach is less keen, the pleas- ure in the one case is not to be compared with what is felt in the other. The cause is obvious; his desire was not so ur- gent; the object, of course, was less alluring; and therefore he was more remiss in erecting his papille, or in putting them in a tone suited to such eminent gratification. The same observations are applicable to disagreeable or painful objects of contact. If the hand is laid upon a gritty stone, or a piece of rusty iron, the feeling 1s disagreeable; but if it is frequently rubbed upon the surface of these bodies the feeling becomes insufferably irksome. It is by the sense of touch, that men and other anjmals are enabled to perceive and determine many qualities of external bodies. By this sense. we acquire the ideas of hardness and softness, of roughness and smoothness, of heat and cold, of pressure and weight, of figure and of distance. The sense of touch is more uniform, and lable to fewer deceptions, than those of smelling, tasting, hearing, and seeing; because, in examining the qualities of objects, the bodies themselves must be brought into actual contact with the organ, without the intervention of any medium, the variations of which might mislead the judgment. ‘The accuracy of this sense is much improved by habit; and in some cases where the senses of sight or hearing have been injured, this has acquired so great a degree of sensibil- ity, as in a measure to supply their loss. Thus, blind men are sometimes able to distinguish the qualities of objects with 128 SENSES. a wonderful degree of exactness, by the sense of touch; and the power they frequently possess of determining when they approach a wall, has been attributed in part to their percep- tion of the effects produced upon the skin by the air, either on account of the change in the degree of its resistance, or from some other —_ in it with which we are unac- quainted.’ Of Seeing. Of all the senses, that of seeing is unquestionably the noblest, the most: refined, and the most extensive. The ear informs us of the existence of objects .at comparatively small distances; and its information is often imperfect and falla- cious. But the organ of sight, which is most admirably con- structed, not only enables us to perceive thousands of objects at one glance, together with their various figures, colors, and apparent positions, but, even when unassisted, to form ideas of the sun and planets, and of many of the fixed stars; and thus connects us with bodies so remote, that imagination is lost when it attempts to form a conception of their imménse magnitude and distances. This natural field of vision, how- ever great, has been vastly extended by the invention of optical instruments. When aided by the telescope, the eye penetrates into regions of space, and perceives stars innumer- able, which, without the assistance of art, would to us have no existence. Our ideas of the beauty, magnitude, and re- moteness or vicinity of external objects, are chiefly derived from this delicate and acute instrument of sensation. ‘The globe of the eye is contained within two coats, the cornea and the sclerotica. The cornea is that circular trans- parent membrane which covers a part of the anterior portion of the eye, and through whose central part is seen the pupil. It gives a passage to the rays of light, and presents the ap- pearance of a dark circle, when contrasted with the white of the eye. The remaining external covering of the organ is formed by the sclerotic coat. ‘This, where it is visible, is of a bluish-white color, and is called the white of the eye. These two coats together form a globe or ball, within which are con-: tained the immediate instruments of vision, consisting of the iris, the humors of the eye, and the retina. The iris is that colored circle which surrounds the pupil within the cornea, and gives the peculiar color to the eye. It is an extremely ' sensible membrane, placed as a sort of guard to the delicate SEEING. | 129 organs within, to protect them from any sudden changes of light. When the light is strong, the fibres of the iris dilate | towards the centre, and the pupil consequently becomes smaller, so that fewer rays are admitted. When the light is weak, the pupil becomes larger, and admits a larger number of rays. ‘The humors of the eye are three in number, the aqueous, the crystalline, and the vitreous. The crystalline humor is a double convex lens, situated a little way behind the iris. The space which intervenes between this lens and the cornea is filled up by the aqueous humor. This is nearly of the consistence of water, and surrounds the iris entirely, permit- ting its light and delicate fibres to float freely in it. The vitreous humor occupies the remaining back part of the eye. It is contained in a great number of thin, membranaceous, and transparent cells, which, when punctured, pour out a fluid of the consistence of the white of an egg. The rays of light, in passing through the humors, are refracted, become con centrated, and produce an image upon the retina. This isa membrane formed by the optic nerve, which enters from the brain, is spread out on the inner surface of the. back part of the eye, and receives the impressions made by the rays cf light, after they have been concentrated by the humors. This impression is transmitted to the brain, and is the immediate cause of vision.’ By this curious apparatus, all the phenomena of vision are conveyed to the mind. -But before we enter upon the man- ner in which the different parts of the eye concur in trans- mitting the rays of-light and the images of objects to the re- tina, it will be necessary to give some general ideas concern- ing the nature of light, which is the universal medium of vision. Light is supposed to consist of innumerable particles of matter, which proceed in direct lines from every part of lu- minous bodies, and constitute rays. The motion of light, though not instantaneous, is inconceivably swift. It has been discovered by philosophers, that rays of light coming from the sun reach this earth in eight minutes. Now the distance of the earth from the sun is so immense, that, supposing a cannon-ball to move at the rate of five hundred feet in a second, it could not come from the sun to the earth in less than twenty-five years. At this rate, the velocity of light will be above ten million times greater than that of a cannon-ball. oy 130 SENSES. The rays of light, though they proceed in direct lines from luminous bodies, are refracted, or bent out of their course, in passing through different mediums, as the air, glass, and every transparent substance ; but when they fall upon opaque bodies, they are reflected. . Rays proceeding from any object, and passing through a convex glass, or lens, are refracted and collected into a point, or small space, at a certain dis- tance from the glass, which is called the focus of that lens. The different humors of the eye, and the crystalline lens, are all denser than air or water; of course, their power of refracting the rays of light is likewise greater. The rays, proceeding from every point of an object, enter the pup ; and the refraction of the different parts of the eye, which act as a lens, necessarily makes them cross each other in their passage to the retina. After crossing, they diverge till they are stopped by the retina, where they form an mverted pic- ture. ‘The upper part of the object is painted on the lower part of the retina, and the right side upon the left, &c. The celebrated Kepler first discovered, that distinct, but inverted pictures of every object we behold, are painted on the retina by the rays of light proceeding from. visible objects. This discovery naturally led Kepler, as well as many other philos- ophers since his time, to inquire how we should see objects erect from inverted images on the retina. Many ingenious theories have been invented, in order to explain this seemingly difficult question. ‘To give even a cursory view of them would not only be tedious, but in a great measure useless. We shall therefore only remark, that their authors have uniformly assumed the principle, without prov ing it, that because the pictures are inverted on the retina, the mind ought also to perceive them in the same position. But this does by no means follow, and we can only resolve it into this, that animals see objects in their real position, although their images are inverted by a law of nature. It is certain, that, unless distinct images are painted on the retina, - objects eannot be clearly perceived. If, from too little light, remoteness, or any other cause, a picture is indistinctly painted on the retina, an obscure or indistinct idea of the object is conveyed to the mind. The picture on the retina, there- fore, is so far the cause of vision, that unless this picture be clear and well defined, our ideas of the figure, color, and other qualities of any object presented to the eye, will be ob- scure and imperfect. The retina of the eye resembles a can- vass on which objects are painted. The colors of these pic- SEEING, 13] tures are bright or obscure, in proportion to the distances of the objects represented. When objects are very remote, their pictures on the retina are so faint, that théy are entirely obliterated -by the vigorous and lively impressions of nearer objects, with which we are every way surrounded. On the other hand, when near objects emit a feeble light only, com- pared with that which proceeds from a remote object, as, for example, when we view luminous bodies in the night, then very distant objects make distinct pictures on the retina, and become perfectly visible. Hence a man, by placing himself in a dark situation, and looking through a long tube, without . the intervention of a glass, may make a kind of telescope, which will have a considerable effect, even during the day. For the same reason, a man at the bottom of a deep pit can see the stars at noon. Another question with regard to vision has been much agitated by philosophers. Because a separate image of every object is painted on the retina of each eye, it was concluded, that we naturally see all objects double; that we learn to correct this error of vision by the sense of touching ; and that if the sense of seeing were not constantly rectified by that of touching, we should be perpetually deceived as to the posi- tion, number, and situation of objects. The Count de Buffon mentions the real fact, though he ascribes it to a wrong cause. ‘When two images,’ says he, ‘ fall on corresponding parts of the retine, or those parts which are always affected at the same time, objects appear single, because we are accustomed to judge of them in this manner. But when the images of objects fall upon parts of the retine which are not usually affected at the same time, they then appear double, because we have not acquired the habit of rectifying this unusual sen- sation. Mr. Cheselden, in his anatomy, relates the case of a man who had been affected with a strabismus, or squinting, in consequence of a blow on the head. This man saw every object double for a long time; but he gradually learned to correct this error of vision, with regard to objects which were familiar to him; and, at last, he saw every object single as formerly, though the squinting was never removed. This is a proof still more direct, that we really see all objects double, and on it is by habit alone we learn to conceive them to be single.’ * In this, and other passages, the Count de Buffon has pointed out the genuine cause (or ultimate fact) why we see ob- * Buffon, Vol. Hil. p.7. Trans.—S. 13g SENSES. , jects single with two eyes. He tells us, that though @ dis tinct image is painted on each retina, whenever these images are painted on corresponding points of. the retine, an object is perceived to be single. It is equally true, that, when one eye is distorted by the finger, or any other cause, in such a manner that the images are painted on points of the retine which do not correspond, the object is perceived to be double. Objects which are much nearer, or much more remote, than that to which both eyes are directed, appear double. If a candle is placed at the distance of ten feet, and a man holds his finger at arm’s length between his eyes and the can- dle, when he looks at the candle, he sees his finger double, and when he looks at his finger, he sees the candle double. ‘In this phenomenon,’ Dr. Reid properly remarks, ‘it is evident to those who understand optics, that the pictures of objects which are seen double, do not fall upon the points of the retine which are similarly situated, but that the pictures of objects seen singly do fall upon points similarly situated. Whence we infer that as the points of the two retina, which are similarly situated with regard to the centres, do corre- spond, so those which are dissimilarly situated, do not corre- spond. It is to be observed, that although, in such cases as are mentioned in the last phenomenon, we have been accus- tomed from infancy to see objects double, which we know to be single, yet custom and experience of the unity of the object never take away this appearance of duplicity.’ * The sense of seeing, without the aid of experience, conveys no idea of distance. If not assisted by the sense of touching, all objects would seem to be in contact with the eye itself. Objects appear larger or smaller according as they approach or recede from the eye, or according to the angle they sub- tend. A fly, when very near the eye, seems to be larger than a horse or an ox at adistance. Children can have no idea of the relative magnitude of objects, because they have no notion of the different distances at which they are seen. It is only after measuring space by extending the hand, or by transporting their bodies from one place to another, that chil- dren acquire just ideas concerning the real distances and magnitudes of objects. Their ideas of magnitude result en- tirely from the angle formed by the extreme rays reflected from the superior and inferior parts of the object : hence every near object must appear to be large, and every distant one small. But after having, by touch, acquired ideas of distances, * Dr. Reid’s Inquiry, &c. p. 287.—S. SEEING - 1383 the judgment concerning magnitude begins to be rectified. If we judge solely by the eye, and have not acquired the habit ef considering the same objects to be equally large, though seen at different distances, the nearest of two men, though of equal size, would seem to be many times larger than the farthest. But we know that the last man is equally large with ‘the first; and, therefore, we judge him to be of the same dimensions. Any distance ceases to be familiar to us, when the interval is vertical, instead of bemg horizontal; because all the experiments by which we usually rectify the errors of vision, with regard to distances, are made horizontally. We have not the habit of judging concerning the magnitude of objects which are much elevated above or sunk below us. This is the reason that, when viewing men from the top of a tower, or when looking up to a globe or a cock on the top of a steeple, we think these objects much smaller than when seen at equal distances in a horizontal direction. During the night, _on account of the darkness, we have no proper idea of dis- tance, and, of course, judge of the magnitude of objects solely by the largeness of the angle or image formed in the eye, which necessarily produces a variety of deceptions. When travelling in the night, we are liable to mistake a bush that is near us for a tree at a distance, or a distant tree for a bush which is at hand. When benighted in a part of the country with which we are unacquainted, and of course unable to judge of the distance and figure of objects, we are every mo- ment liable to all the deceptions of vision. ‘This is the origin of that dread which some men feel in the dark, and of those ghosts and horrible figures which so many people positively assert they have seen’in the night. Such figures are com- monly said to exist in imagination only; but they often have a real existence in the eye; for, when we have no other mode of recognizing unknown objects but by the angle they form in the eye, their magnitude is uniformly augmented in propor- tion to their vicinity. If an object at the distance of twenty or thirty paces, appears to be only a few feet high, its height, when viewed within two or three feet of the eye, will seem to be many fathoms. Objects in this situation must excite ter- ror and astonishment in the spectator, till he approaches and recognizes them by actual feeling; for, the moment a man examines an object properly, the gigantic figure it assumed in the eye instantly vanishes, and its apparent magnitude is re- duced to its real dimensions. But if, instead of approaching an object of this kind, the spectator flies from it, he retains 12 | 134 3 INFANCY. the idea which the image of it formed in his eye, and he may affirm with truth, that he beheld an object terrible in its aspect, and enormous in its size. Hence the notion of spectres, and of horrible figures, is. ae in nature, and depends not solely on imagination. When we have no idea of the distance of objects by a pre- vious knowledge of the space between them and the eye, we try to judge of their magnitudes by recognizing their figures. But when their figures are not distinguishable, we perceive those which are most brilliant in color to be nearest, and those that are most obscure to be at the greatest distance. Irom this mode of judging many deceptions originate. When a number of objects are placed in a right line, as lamps in a long street, we cannot judge of their proximity or remoteness but by the different quantities of light they transmit to the eye. Ofcourse, ifthe lamps nearest the eye happen to be more obscure than those which are more remote, the first will appear to be last, and the last first. CHAPTER V. OF INFANCY. By the term Infancy is meant that portion of life which commences at birth, and terminates at the period when ani- mals have acquired the power of self-preservation, without any assistance from their parents. ‘T’his period varies greatly in different animals. Of course, when different species are mentioned, the term infancy must have very different limita- tions with regard to time. The state of infancy, in the human species, continues longer than in any other animal. Infants, immediately after birth, are indeed extremel y helpless, and require every assist- ance and attention from the mother. Most writers, however, on this subject, seem to have exaggerated not only the imbe- cility, but the miseries of the infant state. Though infants remain longer in a state of imbecility than the young of other animals, they are by no means more help- less. The instant after birth, they are capable of sucking whatever is presented to their mouths. When in the same INFANCY. 135 condition, the young of the opossum, of hares, rabbits, rats, mice, &c., can do no more. They can neither move nor sup- port their bodies. Besides, many quadrupeds are destitute of the sense of seeing for several days after birth. But the faculty of vision is enjoyed by infants the moment after they come into the world. This faculty, in a few hours, becomes a great source of pleasure and amusement to them ; but it is denied, for some days, to many other species of animals. The young of most birds are equally weak and helpless as human infants. Ifinfants really suffer more pain and misery than other animals in the same state, Nature seems not to merit that severity of censure which she has sometimes received. Men in society, like domestic animals, by luxury, by artificial modes of living, by unnatural and vicious habits, debilitate their bodies, and transmit to their progeny the seeds of weak- ness and disease, the effects of which are not felt by those who live more agreeably to the general economy and inten- tions of Nature. The children of savages, for the same reason, whether in the hunting or shepherd state, are more robust, more healthy, and liable to fewer diseases, than those produced by men in the more enlightened and refined stages of society. Even under the same governments, and in the same state of civilization, a similar gradation of imbecility and disease is to be observed. ‘The children of men of rank or fortune are, in general, more puny, debilitated, and diseased than those of the peasant or artificer. Still, however, children, in their progress from birth to maturity, have innumerable sources of pleasure, which alleviate, if they do not fully compensate, the pain which must unavoidably be endured, whether in a more natural or more artificial state of mankind. If luxury and civilization debilitate the constitutions of children, they give rise to many real enjoyments which are totally unknown to the savage. His wants are fewer; but his gratifications are more than proportionally diminished. From what causes or circumstances particular modes in the management of infants originate, it is difficult to determine. But it is certain that savages, and the ruder nations, in their treatment of infants, often discover more discernment and propriety of conduct, than are to be found in the most pol- ished stages of society. ‘The negroes, the savages of Canada, of Virginia, of Brazil, and the natives of almost the whole of South America, lay their infants naked into hammocks, or hanging beds of cotton, or into cradles lined with fur. The Peruvians leave the arms of their infants perfectly loose in a 136 INFANCY. kind of swathing-bag. When a little older, they are put, up to the middle, in a hole dug out of the earth, and lined with linen or cotton. By this contrivance, their arms and head are perfectly free, and they can bend their bodies, and move their arms and head, without the smallest danger of falling, or of receiving any injury. ‘To entice them to walk, whenever they are able to step, the breast is presented to them at a lit- tle distance. The children of negroes, when very young, cling round, with their knees and legs, one of their mother’s haunches, and grasp the breast with their hands. In this posi- tion they adhere so firmly, that they support themselves without any assistance, and continue to suck without danger of falling, though the mother moves forward, or works at her usual labor. These children, at the end of the second month, begin to creep on their hands and knees; and, in this situation, they acquire, by habit, the faculty of moving with surprising quickness. : Many savages are remarkably attentive to the cleanliness of their children. ‘Though they cannot afford to change their furs so frequently as we do our linen, this defect they supply by other substances of no value. The savages of North America put wood-dust, obtained from decayed trees, into the bottom of the cradle, and renew it as oiten as it is necessary. © Upon this powder the children are laid and covered with skins. This powder is very soft, and quickly absorbs moisture of every kind. The children in Virginia are placed naked upon a board covered with cotton. ‘T‘his practice is, likewise, al- most general in the eastern parts of Europe, and particularly in Turkey. Many northern nations plunge their infants, immediately after birth, into cold water, without their receiving any injury. The Laplanders expose their new-born infants on the snow till they are almost dead with cold, and then throw them into a warm bath. During the first year, this seemingly harsh treatment is repeated three timesevery day. After that pe- riod, the children are bathed in cold water thrice every week. It is a general opinion in northern regions, that cold bathing . renders men more healthy and robust; and hence they inure their children, from their very birth, to this habit. With regard to the food of infants, it should consist, for the first few months, of the mother’s milk alone. A child may be injured by allowing it, during that period, any other nourish- ment. In Holland, in Italy, in Turkey, and over the whole Levant, children, during the first year, are not permitted to INFANCY. | 137 taste any other food. The Canadian savages nurse their chil- dren four or five years, and sometimes six or seven. In cases _ of necessity, the milk of quadrupeds may supply that of the mother. But, in such cases, it is best the child should draw it from the animal; for the degree of heat is always uniform and proper, and the milk, by the action of the muscles, is mixed with the saliva, which is a great promoter of digestion. Several robust peasants have been known to have had no other nurses than ewes. After two or three months, children may be gradually accustomed to food somewhat more solid than milk. Before the teeth shoot through the gums, infants are incapable of mastication. During that period, therefore, it is, obvious that Nature intended they should be nourished solely by soft substances. But after they are furnished with teeth, it is equally obvious that they should occasionally be allowed food of a more solid texture. The lives of children, during the first three or four years, are extremely precarious. After that period, their existence becomes gradually more certain. According to Simpson’s tables of the degrees of mortality in London at different ages, it appears, that, of a certain number of infants brought forth at the same time, more than a fourth part died the first year, more than a third in two years, and at least one half at the end of the third year. But the mortality of children is not nearly so great in every place; for, by a number of obser- vations made in France, it has been shown, that one half of the children born at the same time are not extinct in less than seven or eight years. To treat of the diseases of claldech, or to enter minutely into the causes which contribute to the great mortality of mankind in early infancy, is no part of our plan. In general, these causes are to be referred to unnatural practices in the management of children, introduced by superstition, by igno- rance, and by foolish notions arising from over-refinement, from prejudice, and from hypothetical systems, while the economy and analogy of Nature, in the conduct and situation of the inferior animals, are almost totally neglected. An infant is no sooner brought ito the world, than it is cram- med with physic. Nature’s medicine for cleansing the bow- els of infants is the milk of the mother. But nurses absurdly imagine that drugs will answer this purpose much better. All other animals that give suck, nurse their own offspring ; but we too frequently delegate this tender and endearing office to strange women, whose constitutions, habits of life, 12 * 138 INFANCY, and mental dispositions, are often totally different from those of the genuine parent. Infants, recently after birth, fre- quently suffer from giving them, instead of the mother’s milk, wine-whey, water-gruel, and similar unnatural kinds of nour- ishment. In this period of their existence, however, very little food, but a great deal of rest, is necessary for promoting their health, and securing their ease and tranquillity; for infants, when not teased by officious cares, sleep almost con- tinually during several weeks after birth. Young animals are naturally fond of being in the open air; but our infants, par- ticularly in large towns, are almost perpetually shut up in warm apartments, which both relaxes their bodies and ener- vates their minds. The great agility, streneth, and fine pro- portions of savages, are results of a hardy education, of living much in the open air, and of an unrestrained use of all their organs the moment they come into the world. In young animals, as well as in infants, there is a gradual progress, both in bodily and mental powers, from birth to maturity. These powers are unfolded sooner or later, accord- ing to the nature and exigencies of particular species. This progress, in man, is very slow. Man acquires not his full stature and strength of body till several years after the age of puberty; and with regard to his mind, his judgment and other faculties cannot be said to be perfectly ripe before his thirtieth year. In early infancy, though the impressions received from new objects must be strong, the memory appears to be weak. Many causes may concur in producing this effect. In this period of our existence, almost every object is new, and, of course, engrosses the whole attention. Hence the idea of any particular object is obliterated by the quick succession and novelty of others, joined to the force with which they act upon the mind. Haller ascribes this want of recollection to a weakness of memory ; but it seems rather to proceed from a confusion which necessarily results from the number and strong impressions of new objects. ‘I'he memory ripens not so much by a gradual increase in the strength of that faculty, as by a diminution in the number and novelty of the objects which solicit attention. In a few years children are enabled to express all their wants and desires. ‘The number of new objects daily diminishes, and the impressions made by those with which they are familiar, become comparatively small and uninteresting. Hence their habits of attention and the ardor of their minds begin to relax. Instead of a general iNFANCY, — 139 and undistinguished gratification of their senses, this is the period when it is necessary to stimulate children, by various _artifices, to apply their minds steadily to the examination of particular objects, and to the acquisition of new ideas from more complicated and refined sources of information. The great basis of education is a habit of attention. When this important point is gained, the minds of children may be moulded into any form. But that restlessness and appetite for motion, which Nature, for the wisest purposes, has im- planted in the constitution of all young animals, should not be too severely checked. Health and vigor of body are the surest foundations of strength and improvement of mind. The duration of infancy from man to the insect tribes, seems, in general, to be proportioned, not to the extent of life, but to the sagacity or mental powers of the different classes of animated beings. The elephant requires thirty years, and the rhinoceros twenty, before they come to perfect maturity. But these years mark not the period of infancy ; for the animals, in a much shorter time, are capable of pro- curing their own food, and are totally independent of any aid from their parents. The same remark is applicable to the camel, the horse, the larger apes, &c. Their ages of puberty are four, two and a half, and three years. But in these quad- rupeds, the terminations of infancy are much more early. The smaller quadrupeds, as hares, rats, mice, &c., are ma- ture at the end of the first year after birth, and the guinea- pig and rabbit require only five or six months. There is a gradation of mental powers, though not without exceptions, from the larger to the more minute quadrupeds; for the dog and fox, whose sagacity is very great, come to maturity in one year, and their state of infancy is short. But of all animals, the infancy and helpless condition of man are the most prolonged ; and the ap Tgpey and ductility of his mind will not be questioned. The infant state of birds 1s very short. Most of the feath- ered tribes arrive at perfection in less than six months; and their sagacity is comparatively limited. Fishes receive no aid from their parents. They no sooner escape from the eggs of their mother, than they are in a con- dition to procure nourishment, and to provide, in some meas- ure, for their own safety. Of the sagacity of fishes, owing to the element in which they live, we have very little knowledge. But their general character is stupidity, joined to a voracious and indiscriminating appetite for food. In opposition to an 140 INFANCY. almost general law of Nature, which subsists among other animals, fishes devour, without distinction, every smaller or weaker animal, whether it belongs to a different species, or to their own. In animals of a much higher order, voracity of appetite is seldom accompanied with ingenuity or elegance of taste. When the principal attention of an animal is en- grossed with any sensual appetite, it is a fair conclusion that the mental powers are weak, because they are chiefly em- ployed upon the grossest of all objects. If this observation be just, fishes must be ranked among the most stupid animals of equal magnitude and activity. The infant state of insects is a various and complicated subject. After they escape from the egg, they undergo so many changes, and assume such a variety of forms, that it is difficult to determine the period of their existence, which corresponds to the condition of infancy in the larger animals. Different kinds remain a longer or shorter time in the form of worms and chrysalids, and then of caterpillars, or grubs, be- fore they are changed into flies. When young, like other animals, they are small and feeble; but even in their most helpless condition, with a very few exceptions, Nature is their only nurse. ‘They require no aid from their parents, who, in general, are totally unacquainted with their progeny. But, as formerly observed, when treating of instinct, the mothers uniformly deposit their eggs in situations which afford both protection and nourishment to their young. ‘The parent fly, according to the species, invariably, unless restrained by necessity, deposits its eggs upon particular plants, in the bodies of other animals, in the earth, or in water. Whenever, therefore, an insect receives existence in its primary form, all its wants are supplied. Though the mother, after the worms issue from the eggs, takes no charge of her offspring, and fre- quently does not exist at the time they come forth, yet, by an unerring and pure instinct, she uniformly places them in situa- tions where the young find proper nourishment, and every thing necessary to their feeble condition. T’o this general law, by which insects are governed, there are several exceptions. Bees, and some other flies, not only construct nests for their young, but actually feed, and most anxiously protect them. From what has been said concerning the infancy of ani- mals, one general remark merits attention. Nature has uni- formly, though by various modes, provided for the nourish- ment and preservation of all animated beings while they are | hn an infantine state. Though the human species continues Jong in that state, the attachment and solicitude of both parents, instead of abating, in proportion to the time and | labor bestowed on their progeny, constantly augment, and | commonly remain during life. The reciprocal affection of ||parents and children is one of the greatest sources of human | happiness. If the love of children were not strong, and if it _did not increase with time, the labor, the constant attention, | the anxiety and fatigue of mothers would be insufferable. But here Nature, whose wisdom is always conspicuous, makes | affection brave every difficulty, and soothe every pain. if a child be sickly, and require uncommon care, the exertions of the mother are wonderfully supported; pity unites with love _and these two passions become so strong, that hardships and | fatigue of every kind are suffered with cheerfulness and _ alacrity. | With regard to the slides tribes of animals, Nature has ' not been less provident. To quadrupeds and birds she has _given a strong and marked affection for their offspring, as long as parental care is necessary. But whenever the young begin to be in a condition to protect and provide for them- selves, the attachment of the parents gradually subsides; they become regardless of their offspring, at last banish them, with blows, from their presence, and, after that period, seem to have no knowledge of the objects which so lately engrossed all the attention of their minds, and occupied all the industry and labor of their bodies. Here the dignity and superiority of man appears in a conspicuous light. Instead of losing the knowledge of his offspring after they arrive at maturity, his affection expands, and embraces grandchildren, and great- grandchildren, with equal warmth, as if they had immediatelv originated from himself. GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. 141 CHAPTER VI. OF THE GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. Ir is alaw of nature, that all organized bodies, whether animal or vegetable, require food, in order to expand and strengthen their parts when young, and to preserve health 142 GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. and vigor after they have arrived at maturity. The food of © animals is digested in the stomach and intestines; by this | process, it is converted into chyle, and absorbed by the lacteal © vessels in the manner already described. But how this chyle, — - or nutritious matter, after mingling with the general mass of | blood, contributes to the growth and repairs the waste of ani- | mal bodies, is a mystery which probably never will be fully — unfolded by human sagacity. 7 . ‘Various theories have been invented by different philoso- phers, with a view to the explanation of this mystery; but — they have either proved to be entirely without foundation on facts, or to be totally inadequate to account for the phenomena | observed. Our knowledge concerning the nature of nutrition © and growth, is extremely limited, and must continue to be so. | We know that, in the anzmal kingdom, nutrition is performed by means of the blood, which is forcibly propelled through every part of the body by the action of the heart and arteries ; and that vegetables, in a similar manner, are nourished by the ascension and distribution of the sap. But of the appli- cation of the nutritive particles to: the various parts. of organ- ized bodies, and of the manner in which they expand the organs, or repair their continual waste. and loss of substance, we must content ourselves with remaining in perpetual igno- rance. It is, however, the opinion of the most rational and well-informed physiologists, that the nutritious particles of food are conveyed by the arteries, and applied by their ex- tremities to the various parts of animal bodies which Ee to be repaired or expanded.’ oe In general, the food of animals, and particularly of the human species, consists of animal and he: substances, combined with water, or other fluids. The Gentoo, and some other southern nations, live entirely upon vegetable diet. From the accounts we have of the different regions of the earth, it appears, that the natives of warm climates, where the cultivation of plants is practised, employ a greater proportion of vegetable food than in the more northern countries. The inhabitants of Lapland have little or no dependence on the fruits of the earth. ‘They neither sow nor reap. They still remain, and, from the nature of their climate, must forever remain, in the shepherd state. Their comparative riches con- sist entirely of the number of reindeer possessed by indi- viduals. ‘Their principal nourishment is derived from the flesh and milk of these animals. In autumn, however, they catch great multitudes of fowls, most of them of the game GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. 143 ‘and. With these, while fresh, they not only supply their (present wants, but dry and preserve them through the winter. | "They likewise kil] hares, and other animals, which abound in _the woods and moulitains ; but the flesh ef ‘the bear is their ‘greatest delicacy. In their lakes and rivers they have inex- , haustible stores of fish, which, in summer and autumn, they “dry ji in the sun, or in ‘stoves, and in winter preserve by the frost. The Laplanders drink water, or animal oils; but never taste bread or salt. They live in a pure air, and have suffi- | cient exercise. Their constitutions are attempered to the { coldness of the climate; and they are remarkable for vigor and longevity. The gout, the stone, the rheumatism, and many ether diseases which torture the luxurious in milder climes, _ are totally unknown to them. With the few gifts which Na- ture has bestowed upon them, they remain satisfied, and live _ happily among their mountains and their storms. If southern _nations afford examples of people who feed nearly on vegeta- _ bles alone, the Laplanders furnish one of the opposite extreme; for they are almost entirely carnivorous. To Norway, Sweden, Germany, Britain, and the United _ States, the same observation is applicable. In these coun- | tries animal food is much more used than in France, Spain, Italy, Barbary, and the other southern regions of the globe. - _ Many reasons may be assigned for these differences in the food of nations. The natural productions of the earth depend entirely on the climate. In warm climates, the vegetables, which grow spontaneously, are both more luxuriant and more various. Their fruits, in number and richness, far exceed those of colder regions. From this circumstance, the natives must be stimulated to use a proportionally greater quantity of vegetable food; and we learn from history, and from trav- ellers, that this is actually the case. In cold countries, on the contrary, vegetables are not only fewer, but more rigid, and contain less nourishment. The inhabitants, accordingly, are obliged to live principally on animal substances. If we examine the mode of feeding in different nations, it will be found, that in proportion as men approach or recede from the poles, a greater or less quantity of animal and vegetable sub- | stances are used in their diet. Custom, laws, and religious rites, it must be allowed, produce esneiderable: differences in the articles of food, among particular nations, which have no dependence on climate, or the natural productions of the earth. But when men are not fettered or prejudiced by ex- traneous circumstances, or political institutions, the nature of 144 GROWTH AND FOOD Of ANIMALS. their food is invariably determined by the climates they m- habit. The variety of food, in any country, is likewise greatly influenced by culture and by imitation. Commerce occa- sionally furnishes new species of food, particularly of the vegetable kind. In Scotland, till about the beginning of this century, the common people lived almost entirely upon grain. Since that period, the culture and use of the potato, of many species of coleworts, and of fruits, have been introduced, and universally diffused through the nation. | Whether man was originally intended by Nature to live solely upon animal or vegetable food, is a question which has been much agitated both by the ancients and the moderns. Many facts and circumstances concur in establishing the opin- ion, that man was designed to be nourished neither by animals nor vegetables solely, but by a mixture of both. Agriculture is an art the invention of which must depend ona number of fortuitous circumstances. It requires a long succession of ages before savage nations learn this art. They depend en- tirely for their subsistence upon hunting wild animals, fishing, and such fruits as their country happens spontaneously to produce. This has uniformly been the manner of living among all the savage nations of which we have any proper knowledge; and seems to be a clear proof, that animal food is by no means repugnant to the nature of man. Besides, the surface of the earth, even in the most luxuriant climates, and though assisted by culture, is not capable of producing vegetable food in sufficient quantity to support the human race, after any region of it has become so populous as Britain, France, and many other nations. The general practice of mankind, when not restrained by prejudice or superstition, of feeding promiscuously on animal or vegetable substances, is a strong mdication, that man is, partly at least, a carnivorous animal. ‘The Gentoos, though their chief diet be vegetables, afford no proper argument against this reasoning. ‘They are obliged, by their religion, to abstain from the flesh of animals ; and they are allowed to use milk, which is a very nourishing animal food Notwithstanding this indulgence, the Gentoos in general are a meagre, sickly, and feeble race. In hot climates, however, a very great proportion of vegetable diet may be used without any bad consequences. Other arguments, tending to the same conclusion, are de- rived, not from the customs or practices of particular nations, but from the structure of the human body. All animals which feed upon vegetables alone, as formerly remarked, have GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. 145 stomachs and intestines proportionally larger than those that live solely on animal substances. Man, like the carnivorous tribes, is furnished with cutting and canine" teeth, and, like the graminivorous, with a double row of grinders. The dimen- sions of his stomach and intestines likewise hold a mean pro- portion between these two tribes of animals, which differ so essentially in their characters and manners. From these and similar arguments, I have no hesitation to conclude, that a promiscuous use of animal and vegetable substances is no deviation from the original nature or destination of mankind, whatever country they may inhabit. With regard to the different proportions of animal and vege- table feod which are most accommodated to the health and vigor of mankind, no general rule can be given that could be applicable to different climates, and to the different constitu- tions of individuals. Animal food, it is certain, gives vigor to the body, and may be used more liberally by the active and laborious, than by those who Jead a studious and seden- tary life. A great proportion of vegetable food, and particu- larly of bread, is considered by the most eminent physicians as best adapted for men who are fond of science and literature; for full meals of animal food load the stomach, and seldom fail to produce dullness, yawning, indolence, and many dis- eases which often prove fatal. ‘Man is directed, in the selection of his food, partly by accident, and partly by experience and the aid of his senses. ‘That which is pleasant to his palate, is generally salutary to his stomach; and by a constant observation of the effects produced by different kinds of food, he acquires a considera- ble facility in determining what is proper.’ Other animals select their food instinctively; and their choice is chiefly determined by the sense of smelling. The spaniel hunts his prey by the scent; but the greyhound depends principally upon the use of his eye. When the greyhound loses sight of a hare, he instantly gives up the chase, and looks keenly around him, but never applies his nose, in order to discover the track. Some rapacious animals, as wolves and ravens, discover carrion at distances, which, if we were to judge from our own sense of smelling, would appear to be altogether incredible. Others, as eagles, hawks, gulls, &c., surprise us no less by the acuteness of their sight. They perceive, from great heights in the air, mice, small birds, and minute fishes in the water. One great cause of the diffusion of animals over every part 13 146 GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. of the globe, is to be derived from the diversity of appetites for particular species of food, implanted by nature in the different tribes. Some fishes are only to be found in certain latitudes. Some animals inhabit the frigid, others the torrid zone: some frequent deserts, mountains, woods, lakes, and meadows. In their choice of situation, ‘they are uniformly determined to occupy such places as furnish them with food accommodated to their natures. Monkeys, the elephant, and rhinoceros, fix on the torrid zone, because they feed on vege- tables which flourish there during the whole year. The reindeer inhabit the cold regions of the north, because these countries produce the greatest quantity of the lichen, a species of moss, which is their beloved food. The pelican makes choice of dry and desert places to lay her eggs. When her young are hatched, she is obliged to bring water to them from great distances. To enable her to perform this neces- sary office, nature has provided her with a large sack, which extends from the tip of the upper mandible of her bill to the throat, and holds as much water as will supply her brood for several days. ‘This water she pours into the nest to cool her young, to allay their thirst, and to teach them toswim. Lions, tigers, and other rapacious animals, resort to these nests, drink the water, and are said not to injure the young. ‘The goat ascends the rocky precipice, to crop the leaves of shrubs. and other favorite plants. (The sloth and the squirrel feed upon the leaves and the fruit of trees, and are therefore fur- nished with feet which enable them to climb. Water-fowls live upon fishes, insects, and the eggs of fishes. Their bill, neck, wings, legs, and whole structure, are nicely fitted for enabling them to catch the food adapted to their natures. Their feeding upon the eggs of fishes, accounts for that vari- ety of fishes which are often found in lakes and pools on the tops of hills, and on high grounds remote from the sea and from rivers. ‘Fhe bat and the goat-sucker fly about during the night, when the whole air is filled with moths and other nocturnal insects. The bear, who acquires a prodigious quantity of fat during the summer, retires to his den, when provisions fail him, in winter. For some months, he receives his sole nourishment from the absorption of the fat which had been previously accumulated in the cellular membrane. A glutton, brought from Siberia to Dresden, ate every day, says M. Klein, thirty pounds of flesh without ‘being satisfied. This fact indicates an amazing digestive power in so small a quadruped ; for the story of his squeezing his sides between two trees, in order to make him disgorge, is a mere fable. GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. 147 Siberia, Kamtschatka, and the polar regions, are supposed to be the abodes of misery and desolation. They are, it must be allowed, infested with numerous tribes of bears, foxes, gluttons, and other rapacious animals. But it should be con- sidered, that these voracious animals supply the natives with food and clothing. To elude the attacks of ferocity, and to acquire possession of the skins and carcasses of such crea- tures, the industry and dexterity of savage nations are excited. The furs are demanded by foreigners. The inhabitants by this means learn commerce and the arts of life; and in the progress of time, bears and wild beasts become the instru- ments of polishing a barbarous people. ‘Thus the most sub- stantial good often proceeds from apparent misfortune. There is hardly a plant that is not rejected as food by some animals, and ardently desired by others. The horse yields the common water-hemlock to the goat, and the cow the long- leafed water-hemlock to the sheep. The goat, again, leaves the aconite, or bane-berries, to the horse, &c. Plants which afford proper nourishment to some animals, are by others avoided, because they would not only be hurtful, but even poisonous. Hence no plant is absolutely deleterious to ani- mal life. Poison is only a relative term. The euphobia, or spurge, so noxious to man, is greedily devoured by some of the insect tribes. | It is a remark of the ingenious Reaumur, that such insects as feed upon dead carcasses, and whose fecundity is great, never attack live animals. ‘The flesh-fly deposits her eggs in the bodies of dead animals, where her -progeny receive that nourishment which is best suited to their constitution. But this fly never attempts to lay her eggs in the flesh of sound and living animals. If Nature had determined her to observe the opposite conduct, men, quadrupeds, and birds would have been dreadfully afflicted by the ravages of this single insect. Lest it might be imagined that the flesh-fly selected dead, instead of live animals, because, in depositing her eggs, she was unable to pierce the skin of the latter, M. de Reaumur made the following experiment, which removed every doubt, that might arise on the subject. He carefully pulled off all the feathers from the thigh of a young pigeon, and applied to it a thin slice of beef, in which there were hundreds of mag- gots. The portion of beef was not sufficient to maintain them above a fewhours. He fixed it to the thigh by a bit of gauze; and he prevented the pigeon from moving, by tying its wings -and Jegs. The maggots soon showed that their present situ- ~ EEE SESS EES EE eR eR en ee 148 GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. ation was disagreeable to them. Most of them retired from under the slice of beef; and the few that remained perished in a short time. Their death was probably occasioned by the degree of heat in the pigeon’s body being greater than their constitution could bear. Upon the same pigeon M. de Reau- mur performed another experiment. He took off the skin from its’ thigh, laid bare the flesh, and applied immediately another slice of beef full of maggots. The animals discovered evident marks of uneasiness; and all of them that remained on the flesh of the pigeon were deprived of life, as in the former experiment, in less than an hour. Thus the degree of heat that is necessary to such worms as inhabit the interior parts of animals, is destructive to those species which nature has destined to feed upon the flesh of dead animals. Hence the worms sometimes found in ulcerous sores must belong to a different species from those upon which the above experi- ments were made. The growth of some worms, which feed upon animal or vegetable substances, is extremely rapid. Redi remarked, that these creatures, the day after they escaped from the egg, had acquired at least double their former size. At this period he weighed them, and found that each worm weighed seven grains; but that, on the day preceding, it. required from twenty-five to thirty of them to weigh a single grain. Hence, in about the space of twenty-four hours, each of these worms had become from one hundred and fifty-five to two hundred and ten times heavier than formerly. ‘This rapidity of growth is remarkable in those maggots which are produced from the eggs of the common flesh-fly. Before we dismiss this subject, a few observations on that power inherent in all animal bodies, of dissolving and con- verting into chyle the nutritive substances thrown into the stomach, merit attention. In order to explain the process of digestion, some physi- cians and philosophers have had recourse to mechanical force, and others to chemical action. ‘The supporters of mechani- cal force maintained, that the stomachs of all animals com- minuted, or broke down into small portions, every species of ‘food, and prepared it for being converted into chyle. The chemical philosophers, on the contrary, supported the opinion, that the food was dissolved by a fermentation induced by the saliva and gastric juices. The disputes which naturally arose from these seemingly opposite theories, stimulated the inquiries of the ingenious, and produced several curious and important discoveries. é GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. 149 * Many physiologists have exerted their industry upon this subject, but. it would require more space than«the design of this work will allow, to give even an abridged account of all their labors. Therefore, only some of the most curious and important results will be presented. ‘Spallanzani, who made a great number of original obser- vations and experiments upon digestion, directed his attention to this function, as taking place in animals with three differ- ent kinds of stomach. 1. Those with strong muscular stom- achs or gizzards, as hens, turkeys, ducks, geese, pigeons, é&c. %. Those with stomachs of an intermediate structure, as crows, herons, &&c. 3. Those with membranous stomachs, as man, the mammalia, many birds, particularly the accipi- trine, reptiles, and fishes. ‘1. In his experiments upon birds with strong gizzards, Spallanzani forced down their throats small glass and metal balls and tubes, filled with grain, and perforated with many holes, in order to give free admittance to the gastric juice. The grain was in its entire state. At the end of different pe- riods, varying from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, the ani- mals were killed and the balls examined. No change had taken place in the grain. ‘There was no diminution of size, and no marks of dissolution were to be seen. In all his ex- periments, which were numerous, the event was uniformly the same. Suspecting that, although the gastric juice might be unable to dissolve grains in their entire state, it might act as a solvent upon them when sufficiently masticated or bruised, he repeated his experiments, filling his balls with bruised grain. In all his numerous trials upon this plan, he invaria- bly found, that the grain was more or less dissolved in pro- portion to the time the balls were allowed to remain in the stomach. | ‘When tin tubes full of grain were thrust into the stomachs _of turkeys, and allowed to continue there a considerable time, they were found to be broken, crushed, and distorted in suck a manner as to evince the existence of a most powerful com- minuting force. ‘‘ Having found,’ says Spallanzani, “that the tin tubes which I used for common fowls were incapable of resisting the stomach of turkeys, and not happening at that time to be provided with any tin plate of greater thickness, I tried to strengthen them, by soldering to the ends two circu- lar plates of the same metal, perforated only with a few holes for the admission of the gastric fluid. But this contrivance was ineffectual ; for after the tubes had been twenty-four hours 13 * | 150 GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. in the stomach of a turkey, the circular plates were driven in, and some of the tubes were broken, some compressed, and some distorted, in the most irregular manner.” ‘These smooth substances, although violently acted upon, could not injure the stomach, and Spallanzani was therefore induced to try the effect of sharp bodies. He found that the stomach of a cock in twenty-four hours broke off the angles of a piece of rough, jagged glass, without laceration or wound. A leaden ball, into which twelve strong tin needles were firmly fixed, with their points projecting about a quarter of an inch from the surface, was then covered with a case of paper, and forced down the throat of a turkey. The animal discovered no symptoms of uneasiness, and at the end of a day and a half, when the stomach was examined, the points of the twelve needles were broken off close to the surface of the ball, ex- cept two or three, which projected a little. ‘T'wo of these points were discovered among the food; the other ten had probably passed out of the body. ' ©Jn another experiment, still more cruel than this, twelve small lancets were fixed, in a similar manner, into a leaden ball, and forced down the throat of a turkey cock. After eight hours, the stomach was opened, but nothing appeared ex- cept the naked ball, the lancets having been broken to pieces. The stomach itself was found perfectly sound and uninjured in both these experiments. ‘It is common, in the gizzards of many birds, to find small . stones, which have been supposed to assist in breaking down grain and other hard substances into small fragments, to pre- pare the way for their digestion. Spallanzani has endeav- ored to prove that the muscular action of the gizzard 1s equally powerful without the stones. In a number of pigeons which he had fed from the egg himself, so as to prevent them from obtaining stones, he found that tin tubes, glass globules, and fragments of broken glass, were acted upon in the same way as in ordinary circumstances; and this happened also without any laceration of the stomach. It is the opinion, however, of the best physiologists, notwithstanding these ex- periments, that stones are extremely useful in the comminu- tion of grain, and other substances which constitute the food of fowls, though not absolutely essential. , | ‘2. In stomachs of an intermediate kind, such as those of crows, ravens, &c., the power and action of their coats upon substances contained within them, were found to be greatly inferior to those of the strong muscular stomachs. But little GROWTH AND FOOD OF ANIMALS. 151 alteration was produced upon the tubes of tin, but when made _ of lead, they were evidently compressed and flattened. When unbroken grains and seeds were inclosed in perforated tubes and thrust into their stomachs, no change whatever was pro- duced ; no solution appeared to have taken place. But when the same substances were bruised into a coarse flour, so as to get rid of their husks, a very sensible diminution of their bulk took place, and on being several times introduced, they were finally entirely dissolved. Wheat and beans, when eaten vol- untarily by the crow, offered similar phenomena. Before swallowing, the anima! set them under its feet, and broke them in pieces by repeated strokes of its beak ; and then they were very well digested. But when the same seeds were swallowed. entire, they were generally vomited up, or voided unaltered. Similar experiments were made with French beans, peas, nut-kernels, bread-apples, and different kinds of flesh and fish ; and corresponding results were obtained.’ 3. Spallanzani finished his experiments on digestion with those animals which have thin membranous stomachs, as man, quadrupeds, fishes, reptiles, and some birds. In these, the coats of the stomach seemed to have little or no mechanical action upon their contents; the gastric juice being fully suf- ficient to break down the food and reduce it to a pulp. With regard to man, Dr. Stevens, in an Inaugural Disser- tation concerning digestion, published at Edinburgh, in the year 1777, made several experiments upon a German, who gained a miserable livelihood by swallowing stones for the amusement of the people. He began this strange practice at the age of seven, and had at that time continued it about twenty years. He swallowed sixor eight stones at a time, some of them as large as a pigeon’s egg, and passed them in the nat- ural way. Dr. Stevens thought this poor man would be an ex- cellent subject for ascertaining the solvent power of the gastric juice in the human stomach. The Doctor, accordingly, made use of him for this purpose. He made the German swallow a hollow silver sphere, divided into two cavities by a partition, and perforated with a great number of holes, capable of ad- mitting an ordinary needle. Into one of these cavities he put four scruples and a half of raw beef, and into the other five scruples of raw bleak. In twenty-one hours the sphere was voided, when the beef had lost a scruple and a half, and the fish two scruples. A few days afterwards, the German swal- lowed the same sphere, which contained, in one cavity, four scruples and four grains of raw, and, in the other, four scruples 152 GROWTH AND FOOD Of ANIMALS, and — grains of boiled beef. The sphere was returned in forty-three hours; the raw flesh had lost one scruple and two grains, and the boiled one scruple and sixteen grains. Sus- pecting that, if these substances were divided, the solvent would have a freer access tothem, and more of them would be dissolved, Dr. Stevens procured another sphere, with holes’ large enough to receive a crow’s quill. He inclosed some beef in it, a little masticated. In thirty-eight hours after it was swallowed, it was voided quite empty. Perceiving how readily the chewed meat was dissolved, he tried whether it would dis- solve equally soon without being chewed. With this view, he put a scruple and eight grains of pork into one cavity, and the same quantity of cheese into the other. ‘The sphere was re- tained in the German’s stomach and intestines forty-three hours; at the end of which time, not the smallest quantity of either pork or cheese was to be found in thesphere. He next swallowed the same sphere, which contained, in one partition, some roasted turkey, and some boiled salt herring in the other. The sphere was voided in forty-six hours; but no part of the turkey or herring appeared ; for both had been completely dis- solved. Having discovered that animal substances, though inclosed in tubes, were easily dissolved by the gastric juice, the Doctor tried whether it would produce the same effect upon vegetables. He, therefore, inclosed an equal quantity of raw parsnip and potato in a sphere. After continuing forty-eight hours in the alimentary canal, not a vestige of either remained. Pieces of apple and turnip, both raw and boiled, were dissolved in thirty-six hours. It is a comfortable circumstance that. no animal, perhaps, except those worms which are generated in the human in- testines, can resist the dissolving power of the gastric juice. Dr. Stevens inclosed live leeches, and earth-worms, in differ- ent spheres, and made the German swallow them. When the spheres were discharged, the animals were not only deprived of life, but completely dissolved, by the operation of this pow- erful menstruum. Hence, if any live reptile should chance to be swallowed, we have no reason to apprehend any danger from such an accident. The German left Edinburgh before the Doctor had an op- portunity of making a farther progress in his experiments. He therefore had recourse to dogs and ruminating animals. In the course of his trials upon the solvent power in the gastric fluid of dogs, he found that it was capable of dissolving hard bones, and even hard balls of ivory ; but that, in equal times very GROWTH AND FGOD OF ANIMALS. 153 little impression was made upon potatoes, parsnips, and other vegetable substances. On the contrary, in the ruminating animals, as the sheep, the ox, &c., he discovered that their gastric juice speedily dissolved vegetables, but made no im- pression on beef, mutton, and other animal bodies. From these last experiments, it appears, that the different tribes of animals are not less distinguished by their external figure, and by their manners, than by the quality and powers of their gastric juices. Dogs are unable to digest vegetables, and sheep and oxen cannot digest animal substances. As the gastric juice of the human stomach is capable of dissolving, nearly with equal ease, both animals and vegetables, this cir- cumstance affords a strong, and almost an irresistible proof, that nature originally intended man to feed promiscuously upon both. * Live animals, as long as the vital principle remains in them, are not affected by the solvent powers of the stomach. ‘Hence it is,’ Mr. Hunter remarks, ‘that we find animals of various kinds living in the stomach, or even hatched and bred there; but the moment that any of these lose the living prin- ciple, they become subject to the digestive powers of the stomach. If it were -possible, for example, for a man’s hand to be introduced into the stomach of a living animal, and kept there for some considerable time, it would be found, that the dissolvent powers of the stomach could have no effect upon it; but if the same hand were separated from the body, and introduced into the same stomach, we should then find that the stomach would immediately act upon it. Indeed, if this were not the case, we should find that the stomach itself ought to have been made of indigestible materials; for if the living principle was not capable of preserving animal substances from undergoing that process, the stomach itself would be digested. But we find, on the contrary, that the stomach, which, at one instant, that is, while possessed of the living principle, is capable of resisting the digestive powers which it contained, the next moment, viz. when deprived of the living principle, is itself capable of being digested, either by the digestive powers of other stomachs, or by the remains of that power which it had of digesting other things.’ When bodies are opened some time after death, a consid- erable aperture is frequently found at the greatest extremity of the stomach. ‘In these cases,’ says Mr. Hunter, ‘the contents of the stomach are generally found loose in the cayity of the abdomen, about the spleen and diaphragm. In ¥ 154 TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. | many subjects, this digestive power extends much farther than through the stomach. I have often found, that, after it had dissolved the stomach at the usual place, the contents of the stomach had come into contact with the spleen and diaphragm, had partly dissolved the adjacent side of the spleen, and had dissolved the stomach quite through ; so that the contents of the stomach were found in the cavity of the thorax, and had even affected the lungs in a small degree.” CHAPTER VIL. OF THE TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. THE transformation of caterpillars, and of different kinds of worms, into winged insects, has long excited the attention as well as the admiration of mankind. But the truth is, that every animal, without exception, undergoes. changes in structure, mode of existence, and external appearances. Mankind from their embryo state, to their final dissolution, assume many different forms. At birth, the form, the: sym- metry,,and organs of the animal are by ne: means complete. The head continues for some time to be disproportionally large; the hands and feet are not properly shaped ; the legs are crooked ; and the hair on the head is short and scanty; no teeth as yet appear; and there is not a vestige of a beard. In a few months, however, the symmetry of all the parts is evidently improved, and the teeth begin to shoot. The growth of the whole body, as well as the strength and beauty of its form, gradually advances to perfection till the sixth or seventh year, when another change takes place. At this period, the first set of teeth are shed, and are replaced by new ones. From boyhood to youth, the size of the body, and of its different members, increases. During youth, several important changes are produced in the system. ‘The beard now makes its appearance; and the dimensions of the body, in most individuals, are suddenly augmented. From this period to the age of twenty-five or thirty, the muscles swell, their interstices are filled with fat, the parts bear a proper proportion to each other, and man may now be considered as a perfect animal. In this state of bodily perfection and vigor, TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS, 155 he generally remains till he reaches his fiftieth year. Then a new, but a gradual change begins to appear. From the fiftieth year to the age of seventy or eighty, the powers of the body decline in their strength and activity. The muscles lose their spring and their force. The vigor of manhood is no longer felt, and the withered decrepitude of old age is suc- ceeded by death, its unavoidable consequence. The mind of man undergoes changes as well as his body. The taste, the appetites, and the dispositions are in perpetual fluctuation. How different is the taste of a child from that of a man! Fond of gewgaws and of trifling amusements, children frolic away their time without much thought or reflection. When advancing towards youth, their disposi- tions and desires suffer a gradual mutation. The faculties are unfolded, and a sense of propriety begins to be perceived. They despise their former occupations and amusements; and different species of objects solicit and obtain their attention. Their powers of reflection are now considerably augmented ; and both sexes acquire a modesty and a shyness with regard to each other. This awkward, but natural bashfulness, by the intercourse of society, soon vanishes. [From this period to the age of twenty-five or thirty, men’s minds assume a bold, enterprising, and active tone. They engage in the business of life, look forward to futurity, and have a desire of marry- ing and of establishing families. All the social appetites are in vigor; solid and manly friendships are formed; and man goes on for some time to enjoy every kind of happiness which his nature is capable of affording. At fifty or sixty, the mental powers, in general, like those of the body, begin to decline, till feeble and tremulous old age arrives, and death . closes the mutable scene of human life. ; With regard to quadrupeds, both before and after birth, they undergo similar, and many of them greater, changes of form than those of the human species. Their mental powers, likewise their dispositions and manners, as well as the objects of their attention, vary according to the different stages of their existence. Many of them come into the world blind, and continue for some time before they receive the sense of seeing. How many changes are exhibited in the dog from the birth till he becomes a perfect animal, till all his members are completely formed, and al! his instincts are un- folded and improved by experience and education! The deer kind acquire not their magnificent and beautiful horns before the age of puberty ; and even these are annually cast % 156 TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS; off and renewed. Similar changes take place in quadrtupeds of every denomination; with examples of which every man’s experience and recollection will readily supply him; and, therefore, it is unnecessary to be more particular. _ Neither are birds, in their progress from birth to maturity, exempted from changes. Like quadrupeds, many birds are blind for some time after they are hatched. In this condition, how different are their form and appearances from those of the perfect animals! At first they are covered with a kind of down instead of feathers. Even after the feathers shoot, they are often of a color different from that which they ac- quire when full grown. The beautifully variegated colors of the peacock’s tail appear not till he arrives at his third year. Birds that have crests, or wattles, live a considerable time before they acquire these ornaments or marks of distinction. All birds annually moult, or cast their feathers, in the same manner as quadrupeds shed their hair; the new pushing out the old. Frogs, toads, and some other reptiles, undergo great changes in their form and structure. When it first escapes from the egg, a frog appears in the form of a tadpole, an animal with a large, roundish head, and a compressed or flat tail, but totally destitute of feet and legs. Im this state it remains a considerable time, when the two fore feet begin to shoot, and have an exact resemblance to the buds of trees. As their growth advances, the toes and legs are distinguishable. The same process goes on with the hind legs, only they are some- what later in making their appearance. During the growth of the legs, the blood being drawn into different channels, the tail suffers a gradual mortification, till at last it totally vanishes, and the tadpole is metamorphosed into a quadruped. Tadpoles never come out of the water; but after their trans- formation into frogs, they become amphibious, and occasion- ally frequent both Jand and water. ‘In the species of frog called Rana paradoxa, or the para- doxical frog, the animal in its tadpole state grows to its full size, before the change takes place. Having in almost all respects the appearance of a fish, it has been supposed by the vulgar to be a frog turned into a fish, and hence has been called the frog-fish. In time, however, it undergoes the usual changes, and becomes a true frog. It inhabits Surinam. In a species of toad, also found in Surinam, the whole process of metamorphosis, from the egg to the perfect state, is carried on upon the back of the parent animal. The egg is depos- _ YRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. 157 ited under the skin, and asthe successive chgnges take place, the sack in which it is contained, is enlarged to accommodate its increasing size.’ Serpents cast their skins annually. ‘The beauty and lustre of their colors are then highly augmented. Before casting, the old skins have a tarnished and withered appearance. The old skins, like the first set of teeth in children, are forced off by the growth of the new. The crustaceous tribes, as lobsters, crabs, &c., beside the different appearances they assume while growing to perfec- tion, cast their shells every year. When this change is about to happen, they retire into the crevices of rocks, or shelter themselves below detached stones, with a view to conceal and defend their bodies from the rapacious attacks of other fishes. After the shells are cast, the animals are exceedingly weak and defenceless. Instead of their natural defence of hard shells and strong claws, they are covered only with a thin membrane or skin. In this state they become an easy prey to almost every fish that swims. The skin, however, gradually thickens and grows harder, till it acquires the usual degree of firmness. By this time the animals have resumed their former strength and activity; they come out from their retirements, and go about in quest of food. We come now to give some account of the transformations of insects, which are both various and wonderful. All winged insects, without exception, and many of those which are destitute of wings, must pass through several changes before the animals arrive at the perfection of their natures. The appearance, the structure, and the organs of a caterpillar, of a chrysalis, and of a fly, are so different, that, to a person unacquainted with their transformations, an identical animal would be considered as three distinct species. Without the aid of experience, who could believe that a butterfly, adorned with four beautiful wings, furnished with a long spiral pro- boscis, or tongue, instead of a mouth, and with six legs, should have proceeded from a disgusting, hairy caterpillar, provided with jaws and teeth, and fourteen feet? Without experience, who could imagine that a long, white, smooth, soft worm, hid under the earth, should be transformed into a black, crustaceous beetle, having wings covered with horny elytra, or cases ? Upon this branch of the subject, we shall , first, give an ex- ample of two of the most common transformations of insects; and, secondly, aescribe some of the more uncommon kinds. 158 TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. Beside their final metamorphosis into flies, caterpillars undergo several intermediate changes. All caterpillars cast or change their skins oftener or more seldom, according to the species. Malpighius informs us, that the silkworm, previous to its chrysalis state, casts its skin four times. The first skin is cast on the 10th, llth, or 12th day, according to the nature of the season ; the ‘second in five or six days after ; the third in five or six days more; and the fourth and last in six or seven days after the third. This changing of skin is not only common to all caterpillars, but to every insect whatever. Not one of them arrives at perfection without casting its skin at least once or twice. The skin, after it is cast, preserves so entirely the figure of the caterpillar in its head, teeth, legs, color, hair, &c., that it is often mistaken for the animal itself. A day or two before this change happens, caterpillars take no food; they lose their former activity, attach them- selves to a particular place, and bend their bodies in various directions, till at last they escape from the old skin, and leave it behind them. When about to pass into the chrysalis state, which is a state of imbecility, caterpillars select the most proper places and modes of concealing themselves from their enemies. Some, as the silkworm, and many others, spin silken webs round their bodies, which completely disguise the ani- mal form. Others leave the plants upon which they formerly fed, and hide themselves in little cells which they make in the earth. The rat-tailed worm abandons the water upon the approach of its metamorphosis, retires under the earth, where it is changed into a chrysalis, and, after a certain time, bursts from its seemingly inanimate condition, and appears in the form of a winged insect. Thus the same animals pass the first and longest period of their existence in the water, another under the earth, and the third and last in the air. Some caterpillars, when about to change into the chrysalis state, cover their bodies with a mixture of earth and of silk, and conceal themselves in the loose soil. Others incrust them- selves with a silky or glutinous matter, which they push out from their mouths, without spinning it into threads. Others re- tire into the holes of walls or of decayed trees. Others suspend themselves to the twigs of trees, or to other elevated bodies, with their heads undermost. Some attach themselves to walls, with their heads higher than their bodies, but in various in- clinations; and others choose a horizontal position. Some fix themselves by a gluten, and spin a rope round their middle, to prevent them from falling. ‘Those which feed upon trees r.. TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. 159 ttach themselves to the branches, instead. of the leaves, which are less durable, and subject toa greater variety of ac- _cidents. The colors of the caterpillars give no idea of those of the future flies. In general, the figure of chrysalids approaches to that of a cone, especially in their posterior part. When under this form the insect seems to have neither legs nor wings. It is incapable either of walking or of crawling. It takes no nour- — ishment, because it has no organs suited to that purpose; yet, in some species, life is continued for several months before their last metamorphosis takes place. In a word, it seems to be a lifeless mass. But upon a more attentive observation, it is found to possess the power of bending upwards and down- wards the posterior part of its body. The skin, or exterior covering of those which do not spin webs, seems to be of a cartilaginous nature. It is commonly smooth and shining. In some species, however, the skin of the chrysalis is more or less covered with hair, and other rugosities. Though chrys- alids differ both in figure and color, their appearances are by no means so various as those of the caterpillars, from which they are produced. The color of some chrysalids is that of pure gold, from which circumstance the whole have received their denomination. For the same reason they are called aurelia, in Latin. Some are brown, others green; and indeed they are to be found of almost every color and shade. The life of winged insects consists of three principal periods, which present very different scenes to the student of nature. In the first period, the insect appears under the form of a worm, caterpillar, or larva. Its body is long and cylindrical, and consists of a succession of rings, which are generally membranous, and incased within each other. By the aid of its rings, or of crotchets, or of several pairs of legs, it crawls about in quest of food; and its movements are, in some species, remarkably quick. Its head is armed with teeth or pincers, by which it eats the leaves of plants or other kinds of food. Its blood moves from the tail toward the head. It respires either by stigmata, or small apertures placed on each side of its body, or by one or several tubes situated on its posterior part, which have the resemblance of so many tails. In the second period, the insect appears under the form of a nymph, or a chrysalis. While in this state, insects in general are totally inactive, and seem not to possess any powers of life. Sunk into a kind of deep sleep, they are little affected by external objects. They can make no use of their eyes, 160 TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. their mouth, or any of their members; for they are all im- prisoned by coverings more or less strong. No cares occupy their attention. Deprived of the faculty of motion, they re- main fixed in those situations which they have chosen for their temporary abode, or where chance has placed them, till their final metamorphosis into flies. Some of them, however, are capable of changing place; but their movements are slow and painful. Their blood circulates, but in a contrary direction from what took place in the caterpillar state; for it proceeds from the head toward the tail. Respiration con- tinues to go on, but the organs are differently situated. In the caterpillar, the principal organs of respiration were placed at the posterior part of the body; but now these same organs are to be found at the anterior part of the animal. In the third period, the insect has acquired that perfect organization which corresponds to the rank it is to hold in the scale of animation. ‘The bonds of the nymph, or of the chrysalis, are now burst asunder, and the insect commences a new mode of existence. All its members, formerly soft, inactive, and folded up in an envelope, are expanded, strengthened, and exposed to observation. ‘ Under the form of a worm or caterpillar, it crawled ; under that of a nymph or chrysalis, its power of motion was almost annihilated; under the last form, it is fur- nished with six springy legs, and two or four wings, with which it is enabled to fly through the air. Instead of teeth or pincers, with which it divided a gross aliment, it has now a trunk, by which it extracts the refined juices of the most del- icate flowers. Instead of a few smooth eyes, which it possessed in the worm and caterpillar state, the new insect is furnished with both smooth and convex eyes, to the number of several thousands. The internal parts of the insect have likewise undergone as many changes as the external. The texture, the proportions, and the number of the viscera, are greatly altered. Some have acquired an additional degree of consistence; others, on the contrary, are rendered finer and more delicate. Some receive a new form, and others are entirely annihilated. Lastly, some organs in the perfect insect, which seemed formerly to have no existence, are unfolded, and become visible. We shall now give some examples of transformation which deviate from the common mode. Some insects hold a middlerank between those which pre- serve their original figure during life, and those that suffer transformations. ‘Their existence is divided into two periods 4PRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. 161 only. They walk in the first, and fly in the second. Thus their only metamorphosis consists in the addition of wings, the growth and expansion of which are performed without any considerable alteration in the figure of their bodies. There is not a law established among organized bodies which seems to be so universal, as that all of them grow or augment in size, after birth, till they arrive at maturity. Ifa hen were to bring forth an egg as large as her own body, and if this egg, when hatched, were to produce a bird of equal dimensions with either of the parents, it would be considered as a miracle. But the spzder-fly, so denominated from its figure, affords an example of a similar prodigy. This fly ac- tually lays an egg, from which a new fly is hatched that is as large and as perfect as its mother. This egg is roundish, is at first white, and afterwards assumes a shining black color. Upon a more accurate examination, however, this production is found to be an egg only in appearance. When the envelope 1s removed, instead of a gelatinous substance, the new insect, furnished with all its members, is discovered. But this dis- covery does not render the fact the less wonderful. All winged insects undergo their different transformations after being expelled from the bodies of their mothers, and receive great augmentation of size before their metamorphosis into the nymph or chrysalis state, after which their growth stops. But the spider-fly affords an imstance of an insect transformed within its mother, and which grows no more after it escapes from its envelope. The worm, from which the tipula or crane-fly is produced, is perfectly smooth, Immediately before its first transforma- tion it retires under ground. After this metamorphosis, the surface of the nymph is furnished with a number of spines. By means of these spines, the nymph, when about to be trans- formed into a fly, raises itself in its hole till the chest of the insect is above ground. ‘The fly then bursts its prison, mounts into the air, and leaves its former covering behind in the earth. Many species of flies deposit their eggs in the leaves and different parts of plants. Soon after the egg is inserted into the leaf, a small tubercle begins to appear, which gradually increases in magnitude till the animal is hatched and has passed through its different transformations. These tubercles are known by the name of gaWs, and are very different in their form, texture, color, and size. Galls of every kind, however, derive their origin from the perforators of insects, which gen- erally belong eg class of flies. The female fly, by means 14% | 162 TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS, of this instrument, makes incisions in the leaves or branches of a tree, and in each i incision lays an egg. ‘This egg is at first extremely minute; but it soon acquires a considerable bulk, and the gall has arrived at its full size before the worm is hatched. It isa singular and almost inexplicable fact, that the eggs of gall-flies should continue to grow after being separated from the body of the mother. But that their eggs do augment in size; that worms proceed from them; that these worms are nourished and live a certain time imprisoned in the galls; that they are transformed into nymphs or chrysalids ; and, lastly, that they are metamorphosed into winged insects, which, by gnawing an aperture through the gall, take their flight in the air; are known and incontestable facts, of the truth of which every man may easily satisfy himself, Ex- amine the common oak-galls, or those of any other tree; if any of them happen to have no aperture, cut them gently open, and you are certain to find an egg, a worm, a chrysalis, or a fly; but in such as are perforated by a cylindrical hole, not a vestige of an animal is discoverable. The galls, which make an ingredient in the composition of ink, are thick, and their texture is very strong and compact. That the small animals they contain should be able fo pierce through such a rigid substance is truly wonderful. . In the general order of nature among oviparous animals, each egg includes one embryo only. A singular species of eggs, however, discovered by the celebrated Mr. Folks, late President of the Royal Society of London, must be excepted. He found great numbers of them in the mud of small rivulets. In size they equalled the head of an ordinary pin. They were of a brown color, and their surface was crustaceous, through which, by employing the microscope, severa! living worms were distinctly perceptible. By dexterously breaking the shell, he dislodged them; and he found, with surprise, that eight or nine worms were contained in, and proceeded from, the same egg. They were all well formed, and moved about with great agility. Hach of them was inclosed in an individual membranous covering, which was extremely thin and transparent. It were to be wished that the transforma- tions of these extraordinary animals had been traced. Some caterpillars, when about to transform, make a belt pass round their bodies. This belt is composed of an assem- blage of silken threads, spun by themselves, the ends of which they paste to the twigs of bushes, or other places where they choose to attach their bodies. They likewise fix their hind ‘TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS, 163 legs in a tuft-of silk. After transformation, the chrysalids re- main fixed in the same manner as before their metamorphosis. The belt is loose, and allows the chrysalis to perform its slow and feeble movements. ES The whole moth kind, as well as the silkworm, immediately before their eaeocrhation into the chrysalis state, cover their bodies with a cod or clew of silk, though the nature of the silk, and their mode of spinning, are very different. The cods of the silkworm are composed of pure silk. ‘Their figure is _ generally oval, which necessarily results from that of the ani- mal’s body upon which they are moulded. When spinning, - they twist their bodies into the form of an S. The cod is produced by numberless circumvolutions and zigzags of the . same thread. The silk is spun by an instrument situated near the mouth of the insect. The silky matter, before it is a manufactured by the spinning instrument, appears under the ‘form of a gum almost liquid, which is contained in two large reservoirs contorted like the intestines of larger animals, and which terminate at the extremity by two parallel and slender conduits. Each conduit furnishes matter for one thread. The spinning instrument, as is evident when viewed by the microscope, unites the two threads into one. ‘Thus a thread of silk, which has the appearance of being single, is in reality double, and spun with great dexterity. Some writers, who delight i in the marvellous, ascribe foresight to the silkworm in spinning itscod. ‘The silkworm, it must be acknowledged, acts as if it foresaw the approaching event. But the truth is, that, when the animal has acquired its full growth, its reser- voirs of silk are completely filled. It then seems to be strongly stimulated to evacuate this glutinous matter. Its different movements and attitudes, while discharging the silk, produce those oval bundles which clothe and ornament vast numbers of the human species. Another species of caterpillar constructs its cod in the form of a boat with the keel uppermost; but it consists not en- tirely of pure silk. The animal, with its teeth, detaches small triangular pieces of bark from a bush or a tree. These pieces of bark it pastes upon its body, by means of a glutinous or silky substance, and they constitute a principal part of its cod. Another species works also in wood, though not with as much art asthe former. Its cod is composed entirely of small irrecular fragments of dried wood. These fragments the ani- mal has the address to unite together, and to form of them a 164 TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. kind of box, which covers and defends its whole body. It ac- complishes this purpose by moistening, for some moments, the pieces of wood in its mouth, and then attaches them to each other by a glutinous substanee. Of this mixture the cater- pillar forms a cod, the solidity of which i is nearly equal to that of wood. The most solitary of all insects are those which live in the internal parts of fruits. Many of them undergo their meta- morphosis in the fruit itself, which affords them both nourish- ment and a safe retreat. They dig cavities in the fruit, which some of them either line with silk, or spin cods. Others leave the fruit, and retire to be transformed in the earth. The metamorphosis of insects has been regarded as a suc- den operation, because they often burst their shell or silky covering quickly, and immediately appear furnished with wings. But, by more attentive observation, it has been dis- covered that the transformation of caterpillars is a gradual process from the moment the animals are hatched till they ar- rive at a state of perfection. Why, it may be asked, do caterpillars so frequently cast their skins? ‘The new skin and other organs were lodged under the old ones, as in so many tubes or cases, and the animal retires from these cases, be- cause they have become too strait. ‘The reality of these encasements has been demonstrated by a simple experiment. When about to moult or cast its skin, if the foremost legs of a caterpillar are cut off, the animal comes out of the old skin deprived of these legs. From this fact, Reaumur conjectured that the chrysalis might be thus encased and concealed under the last skin of the caterpillar. He discovered that the chrysalis, or rather the butterfly itself, was enclosed in the body of the caterpillar. The proboscis, the antenne, the limbs, and the wings of the fly, are so nicely folded up, that they occupy a small space only under the two first rings of the caterpillar. In the first six limbs of the caterpillar are encased the six limbs of the butterfly. Even the eggs of the butterfly have been discovered in the caterpillar long before its transformation. From these facts, it appears that the transformation of in- sects is only the throwing off of external and temporary coy- erings, and not an alteration of the original form. They live and receive nourishment in envelopes, till they acquire such a degree of perfection as enables them to support the situation to which they are ultimately destined by nature. Transformations are not peculiar to animals. All organized TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. 165 bodies pass through successive changes. Plants, of course, _ are not exempted from mutation. What an amazing differ- ence between an acorn and a stately oak! The seed con- tains within it the rudiments of the parts of the future plant. These parts require only time and other circumstances neces- sary to vegetation for their complete evolution. Beside the general changes arising from growth, plants undergo a nume- ber of metamorphoses from other causes. In northern cli- mates, if we except a few evergreens, trees, during winter, are entirely stripped of their leaves. Instead of the pleasant emotions excited by the variety of figures, movements, colors, and fragrance of the leaves, flowers, and fruit, during the spring and summer, nothing is exhibited in winter but the bare stems and branches. In this state, the trees of the for- est have a lugubrious appearance, and remind us of death and of skeletons. Very different are the emotions we feel in| the spring, when the buds begin to burst, and the leaves to expand. When summer approaches, another beautiful change takes place. The flowers, with all their splendor of colors, and sweetness of savors, are then highly delightful to our senses. After performing the office of cherishing and pro- tecting the tender fruit for some time, the flowers drop off, and a new change is exhibited. When the flowers fall, the young fruit appears, and gradually grows to maturity, perpetually presenting varieties in its magnitude, color, odor, and flavor. When the fruit or seeds are fully ripe, they are gathered for the use of man, drop down upon the earth, or are devoured by birds and other animals. After this change happens, to which all the others were only preparatory, the leaves begin to fall, winter commences, and the same series of metamor- phoses go on during the existence of the plant. The changes just now mentioned are annual, and are ulti- mately intended to supply men and other animals with food. But plants are subjected to changes of form from causes of a much more accidental nature. Varieties or changes in the fisure of plants are often produced by soil, by situation, by culture, and by climate. The petals of all flowers in a natural state are single. But when transplanted into gardens, many of them, especially those which are furnished with numerous stamina, as the ane- mone, the poppy, the peony, the ranunculus, the daisy, the marigold, the rose, &&c., double, or rather multiply their flower leaves without end. This change from single to double, or monstrous flowers, as they are called, is produced by too 166 TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. great a quantity of nutritious juices, which transforms the stamina into petals; and it not unfrequently happens, that, when these double-flowering plants are committed to a poor soil, they become drier, are reduced to their natural state, and produce single flowers only. Plants which inhabit the valleys, when transported to the tops of mountains, or other elevated situations, not only become dwarfish, but undergo such changes in their general structure and appearance, that they are often thought to belong to a different species, though they are, in reality, only varieties of the same. Similar changes are produced when Alpine or mountain plants are cultivated in the valleys. From culture and climate, likewise, plants undergo many changes. But this subject is so generally known, that to en- large upon it would be entirely superfluous. We shall only remark, that the older botanists, when they perceived the same species of plants growing in a different soil, or in a dif- ferent climate, assume such different appearances, considered and enumerated them as distinct species. But the modern botanists, to prevent the unnecessary multiplication of separate beings, have endeavored to reduce all those varieties, arising from fortuitous circumstances, to their original species. From these facts, and many others which might be men- tioned, it appears, that, in both the animal and vegetable king- doms, forms are perpetually changing. ‘The mineral kingdom is not less subject to metamorphosis ; but this belongs not to our present subject. ‘Though forms continually change, the quantity of matter is invariable. The same substances pass successively into the three kingdoms, and constitute, in their turn, a mineral, a plant, an insect, a reptile, a fish, a bird, a quadruped, a man. In these transformations, organized bodies are the principal agents. ‘T'hey change or decompose every substance that either enters into them, or is exposed to the action of their powers. Some they assimilate, by the process of nutrition, into their own substance ; others they evacuate in different forms ; and these evacuations make ingredients in the compositions of other bodies, as those of insects, whose multiplication is prodigious, and affords a very great quantity of organized matter for the nourishment and support of almost every animated being. ‘Thus, from the apparently vilest and most contemptible species of matter, the richest productions derive their origin. The most beautiful flowers, the most ex- quisite fruits, and the most useful grain, all proceed from the besom of corruption. The earth is continually bestowing TRANSFORMATION OF ANIMALS. | 167 fresh gifts upon us; and her powers would soon be exhausted, aif what she perpetually gives were not perpetually restored to her. It is a law of nature, that all organized bodies should be decomposed, and gradually transformed intoearth. While undergoing this species of dissolution, their more volatile par- ticles pass into the air, and are diffused through the atmos- phere. Thus animals, at least portions of them, are buried in the air, as well as in the earth, or in water. These float- ing particles soon enter into the composition of new organized beings, which are themselves destined to undergo the same revolutions. This circulation of organized matter has con- tinued since the commencement of the world, and will pro- ceed in the same course till its final destruction. With regard to the intentions of Nature in changing forms, a complete investigation of them exceeds the powers of hu- man research. One great intention, from the examples above enumerated, cannot escape observation. In the animal world, every successive change is a new approach to the perfection of the individuals. Men, and the larger animals, some time after the age of puberty, remain, stationary, and continue to -multiply their species for periods proportioned to their respec- tive species. When those periods terminate, they gradually decay till their final dissolution. The same observation is applicable to the insect tribes, whose transformations strike us with wonder. The caterpillar repeatedly moults or casts off its skin. The butterfly existed originally in the body of the caterpillar; but the organs of the fly were too soft, and not sufficiently unfolded. It remains unfit to encounter the open air, or to perform the functions of a perfect animal, till some time after its transformation into a chrysalis. It then bursts through its envelope, arrives at a state of perfection, multiplies its species, and dies. All the changes in the vege- table kingdom tend to the same point. In the process of growing, they are perpetually changing forms till they produce fruit, and then they decay. Some plants, like caterpillars, go through all their transformations, death not excepted, in one year. But others, like man and the larger animals, beside the common changes produced by growth and the evolution of different organs, continue for many years in a state of perfec- tion before the periods of decay and of dissolution arrive. But these perennial plants undergo, every year, all the vicis- -situdes of the annual. They every year increase in magni- tude, send forth new leaves and branches, ripen and dissem- inate their seeds, and, during winter, remain in a torpid state, 168 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. or suffer a temporary death. 'These annual changes in treés, é&c., have some resemblance to those of animals, which pro- duce at certain stated seasons only. This distribution of life toan immensity of successive indi- viduals, seems to be another intention of Nature in changing forms, and in the dissolution of her productions. Were the existence of individuals perpetual, or were it prolonged for ten times the periods now established, life would be denied to myriads of animated beings, which enjoy their present limited portion of happiness. | CHAPTER VIII. OF THE HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. Many animals, beside those of the human species, have the faculty of constructing proper habitations for concealing themselves, for defending themselves against the attacks of their enemies, for sheltering and cherishing their young, and for protecting them from the injuries of the weather. Al! those of the same species, when not restrained by accidental causes, uniformly build in the same style, and use the same materials. From this general rule man is to be excepted. Possessed of superior faculties and understanding, he can build in any style, and employ such materials as his taste, his fancy, or the purposes for which the fabric is intended, shall direct him. A cottage and a palace are equally within the reach of his powers. In treating of this subject, we mean not . to trace the progress of human architecture, which, in the earlier stages of society, is extremely rude, but to confine our. selves to that of the inferior tribes of animated beings. With regard to quadrupeds, many of them employ no kind of architecture, but live continually, and bring forth their young, in the open air. When not under the immediate pro- tection of man, these species, in rough or stormy weather, shelter themselves among trees or bushes, retire under the coverture of projecting rocks, or the sides of hills opposite to those from which the wind proceeds. Beside these arts of defence, to which they are prompted by instinct and experi- ence, nature furnishes them, during the winter months, with a “MARMOT. 169 double portion of long hair, which protects them from cold, and other assaults of the weather. Of the quadrupeds that make or choose pahitations for them- selves, some dig holes in the earth, some take refuge in the cavities of decayed trees, and in the clefts of rocks, and some actually construct cabins or houses. But the artifices they _ employ, the materials they use, and the situations they select, are so Various and so numerous, that our plan necessarily limits us to a few of the more curious examples. 3 The Alpine Marmot is a quadruped about sixteen inches in length, and has a short tail. In figure, the marmots have some resemblance both to the rat and to the bear. When tamed, they eat every thing presented to them, as flesh, bread, fruit, roots, pot-herbs, insects, &c. They delight in the re- gions of frost and of snow, and are only to be found on the tops of the highest mountains. These animals remain in a torpid state during winter. About the end of September, or the beginning of October, they retire into their holes, and never come abroad again till the beginning of April. ‘Their retreats are formed with much art and precaution. With their feet and claws, which are admirably adapted to the purpose, they dig the earth with amazing quickness, and throw it behind them. ‘They do not make a simple hole, or a straight or wind- ing tube, but a kind of gallery in the form of a Y, each branch of which has an aperture, and both terminate in a capacious apartment. As the whole operation is performed on the de- clivity of a mountain, this innermost apartment alone is hori- — zontal. Both branches of the Y are inclined. One of the branches descends under the apartment, and follows the de- clivity of the mountain. his branch is a kind of aqueduct, and receives and carries off the filth of their habitations; and the other, which rises above the principal apartment, is used for coming in and going out. ‘The place of their abode is well lined with moss and hay, of which they lay up great store during the summer. They are social animals. Several of them live together, and work in common when forming their habitations. 'Thither they retire during rain, or upon the ap- proach of danger. One of them stands sentinel upon a rock, while the others gambol upon the grass, or are employed in cutting it, in order to make hay. If the sentinel perceives a man, an eagle, a dog, or other dangerous animal, he alarms his companions by a loud whistle, and is himself the last that enters the hole. ‘They continue torpid during the winter, and, as if they foresaw that they would then have no occasion for 179 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. victuals, they lay up no provisions in their apartments. But when they feel the first approaches of the sleeping season, they shut up both passages to their habitation; and this opera- tion they perform with such labor and solidity, that it is more easy to dig the earth any where else, than in such parts - as they have thus fortified. At this time they are very fat, weighing sometimes twenty pounds. ‘They continue to be plump for three months; but afterwards they gradually de- cline, and, at the end of winter, they are extremely emaciated. When seized in their retreats, they appear rolled up in the form of a ball, and covered with hay. In this state they are so torpid, that they may be killed without seem:ng to feel pai. The hunters select the fattest for eating, and keep the young ones for taming. Like the dormice, and all the other animals which sleep during winter, the marmots are revived by a grad- ual and gentle heat; and it is remarkable, that those which are fed in houses, and kept warm, never become torpid, but are equally active and lively during the whole year. The Beaver is about three feet in length, and its tail, which 1s of an oval figure, and covered with scales, is eleven inches long. He uses his tail as a rudder to direct his course in the water. In places much frequented by man, the beavers neither associate nor build habitations. But in the northern © regions of both continents, they assemble in the month of June or July, for the purpose of uniting into society, and of building a city. From all quarters they arrive in numbers, and soon form a troop of two or three hundred. ‘The opera- tions and architecture of the beavers are so well described by the Count de Buffon, that we shall lay it before our read- ers nearly in his own words. ‘The place of rendezvous, he remarks, is generally the situation fixed upon for their estab- lishment, and it is always on the banks of waters. If the waters be flat, and seldom rise above their ordinary level, as in lakes, the beavers make no bank or dam. But im rivers or brooks, ‘where the water is subject to risings and fallings, they build a bank, which traverses the river from one side to the other, hike a sluice, and is often from eighty to a hundred — feet long, by ten or twelve broad at the base. This pile, for animals of so small a size (the largest beavers weighing only fifty or sixty pounds), appears to be enormous, and presup- poses an incredible labor. But the solidity with which the work is constructed, is still more astonishing than its magni- tude. The part of the river where they erect this bank is generally shallow. If they find on the margin a large tree, BEAVER. 171 which can be made to fall into the river, they begin, by cut- ting it down, to form the principal basis of théir work. This tree is often thicker than a man’s body. By gnawing it at the bottom with their four cutting teeth, they in a short time accomplish their purpose, and always make the tree fall across the river. ‘They next cut the branches from the trunk to make it lie level. These operations are performed by the joint industry of the whole community. Some of them, at the same time, traverse the banks of the river, and cut down smaller trees, from the size of a man’s leg to that of his thigh. These they cut to a certain length, dress them into stakes, and first drag them by land to the margin of the river, and then by water to the place where the building is carrying on. These piles they sink down, and interweave the branches with the larger stakes. In performing this operation, many difficulties are to be surmounted. In order to dress these stakes, and to put them in a situation nearly perpendicular, some of the beavers must elevate, with their teeth, the thick ends against the margin of the river, or against the cross tree, while others plunge to the bottom, and dig holes with their fore feet to receive the points, that they may stand on end. When some are laboring in this manner, others bring earth in their mouths and with their fore feet, and transport it in such quantities, that they fill with it all the intervals between the piles. ‘These piles consist of several rows of stakes of equal height, all placed opposite to each other, and extend from one bank of the river to the other. . The stakes facing the lower part of the river are placed perpendicularly; but those which are opposed to the stream slope upward, to sus- tain the pressure of the water; so that the bank, which is ten or twelve feet wide at the es is reduced to two or three at the top. Near the top, or thinnest part of the bank, the bea- vers make two or three sloping holes, to allow the surface water toescape. ‘These they enlarge or contract in propor- tion as the river rises or falls; and when any breaches are made in the bank by sudden or violent inundations, they know how to repair them when the water subsides. Hitherto all these operations were performed by the united force and dexterity of the whole community. They now separate into smaller societies, which build cabins or houses. These cabins are constructed upon piles near the margin of the river or pond, and have two openings, one for the animals going to the land, and the other for throwing themselves into the water. The form of these edifices is either round or u Vo HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. oval, and they vary in size from four or five to eight or ten feet in diameter. Some of them consist of three or four sto- ries. Their walls are about two feet thick, and are raised perpendicularly upon planks, or plain stakes, which serve both for foundations and floors to their houses. When they consist of but one story, they rise perpendicularly a few feet only, afterwards assume a curved form, and terminate in a dome or vault, which answers the purpose of a roof. They are built with amazing solidity, and neatly plastered with a kind of stucco both within and without. In the application of this mortar the tails of the beavers serve for trowels, and their feet for plashing. ‘Their houses are impenetrable to rain, and resist the most impetuous winds. In their construc- tion, they employ different materials, as wood, stone, and a kind of sandy earth, which is not lable to be dissolved in water. ‘The wood they use is generally of the light and ten- der kinds, as alders, poplars, and willows, which commonly grow on the banks of rivers, and are more ‘easily barked, cut, and transported, than the heavier and more solid species of timber. They always begin the operation of cutting trees at a foot or a foot and a half above the ground. They labor in a sitting posture; and, beside the convenience of this posture, they enjoy the pleasure of gnawing perpetually the bark and wood, which are their favorite food. Of these pro- visions they lay up ample. stores in their cabins to support them during the winter. Each cabin has its own magazine, which is proportioned to the number of its inhabitants, who have all a common right to the store, and never pillage their neighbors. Some villages are composed of twenty or twenty-five cabins. But these large establishments are not frequent; and the common republics seldom exceed ten or twelve families, while each have their own quarter of the village, their own magazine, and their separate habitation. ‘The smallest cabins contain two, four, or six, and the largest eighteen, twenty, and sometimes thirty beavers. As to males and females, they are almost always equally paired. Upon a moderate computation, therefore, the society is often com- posed of a hundred and fifty or two hundred, who all, at first, labor jomtly in raising the great public building, and after- wards, in select tribes or companies, in making particular habitations. , In this society, however numerous, an universal peace is maintained. Their union is cemented by common labors; and it is perpetuated by mutual conveniency, and the abundance of provisions which they amass and consume BEAVER. | 173 together. A simple taste, moderate appetites, and an aver- sion to blood and carnage, render them destitute of the ideas of rapine and war. Friends to each other, if they have any foreign enemies, they know how to avoid them. When dan- ger approaches, they advertise one another, by striking their broad tail on the surface of the water, the noise of which is heard at a great distance, and resounds through all the vaults of their habitations. Each individual, upon these oc- casions, consults his own safety ; some plunge i into the water ; - others conceal themselves within their walls, which can be penetrated only by the fire of heaven, or the steel of man, and which no animal will attempt either to open or to over- turn. These retreats are not only safe, but neat and commo- dious. The floors are spread over with verdure; the branches of the box and of the fir serve them for carpets, upon which they permit not the smallest dirtiness. The window that faces the water answers for a balcony to receive the fresh air, and for the purpose of bathing. During the greater part of the day, the beavers sit on end, with their head and the anterior parts of their body elevated, and their posterior parts sunk in the water. The aperture of this window is sufficiently raised to prevent its being stopped up with the ice, which, in the beaver climates, is often two or three feet thick. When this accident happens, they slope the sole of the window, cut obliquely the stakes which support it, and thus open a communication with the unfrozen water. They often swim a long way under the ice. In September, the beavers collect their provisions of bark and of wood. . Till the end of winter, they remain in their cabins, enjoy the fruits of their labors, and taste the sweets of domestic happiness. This is their time of repose. In the ‘spring they separate; the males retire into the country, to enjoy the pleasures and fruits of spring. They return occasionally, however, to their cabins; but dwell there no more. The females continue in the cabins, and are occupied in nursing, protecting, and rearing their young, which in a few weeks are in a condition to fol- low their dams. The beavers assemble not again till autumn, unless their banks or cabins be injured by inundations; for, when accidents of this kind happen, they suddenly collect their forces, and repair the breaches that have been made. This account of the society and operations of beavers, how- ever marvellous it may appear, has been established and con- - firmed by so many credible eye-witnesses, that it is impossible to doubt of its reality. | 15* 174 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. The habitations where Moles deposit their young, merit a particular description; because it is constructed with pecu- liar intelligence, and because the mole is an animal with which we are well acquainted. They begin by raising the earth, and forming a pretty high arch. They leave partitions, or a kind of pillars, at certain distances, beat and press the earth, mterweave it with the roots of plants, and render it so hard and solid, that the water cannot penetrate the vault, on account of its convexity and firmness. ‘They then elevate a little hillock under the principal arch; upon the latter they Jay herbs and leaves for a bed to their young. In this situa- tion they are above the level of the ground, and, of course, beyond the reach of ordinary inundations. They are, at the same time, defended from the rains by the large vault that covers the internal one, upon the convexity of which last they rest along with their young. The internal hillock is pierced on all sides with sloping holes, which descend still lower, and serve as subterraneous passages for the mother to go in quest of food for herself and her offspring. These by- paths are beaten and firm, extend about twelve or fifteen paces, and issue from the principal mansion like rays from a centre. Under the superior vault we likewise find remains of the roots of the meadow saffron, which seem to be the first food given to the young. From this description it appears, that the mole never comes abroad but at considerable distances from her habitation. Moles, like the beavers, pair, and so lively and reciprocal an attachment subsists between them, that they seem to disrelish all other society. . In their dark abodes they enjoy the placid habits of repose and of solitude, the art of securing themselves from injury, of almost instanta- neously making an asylum or habitation, and of procuring a plentiful subsistence without the necessity of going abroad. They shut up the entrance of their retreats, and seldom leave them, unless compelled by the admission of water, or when their mansions are demolished by art. The nidification of Birds has at al! times called forth the admiration of mankind. In general, the nests of birds are built with an art so exquisite, that an exact imitation of them. exceeds all the powers of human skill and industry. Their style of architecture, the materials they employ, and the situ- ations they select, are as various as the different species. Individuals of the same species, whatever region of the globe they inhabit, collect the same materials, arrange and construct them in the same form, and make choice of similar situations NESTS OF BIRDS. 175 for erecting their temporary habitations; for the nests of birds, those of the eagle kind excepted, after the young have come to maturity, are forever abandoned by the parents. To describe minutely the nests of birds would be a vain attempt. Such descriptions could not convey an adequate idea of their architecture to a person who had never seen one of those beautiful and commodious habitations, which even astonish and excite the amazement of children. The different orders of birds exhibit great variety in the materials and structure of their nests. ‘Those of the rapa- cious tribes are in general rude, and composed of coarse materials, as dried twigs, bents, &&c. But they are often lined with soft substances. ‘They build in elevated rocks, ruinous and sequestered castles and towers, and in other solitary re- tirements. The aerie or nest of the eagle is quite flat, and not hollow, like those of other birds. The male and female commonly place their nest between two rocks, in a dry and inaccessible situation. ‘The same nest, it is said, serves the eagle during life. The structure is so considerable, and com- posed of such solid materials, that it may last many years. Its form resembles that of a floor. Its basis consists of sticks about five or six feet in length, which are supported at each end, and these are covered with several layers of rushes and heath. An eagle’s nest was found in the Peak of Derbyshire, which Willoughby describes in the following manner: ‘ It was made of great sticks, resting one end on the edge of a rock, the other on a birch tree. Upon these was a layer of rushes, and over them a layer of heath, and upon the heath rushes again; upon which lay one young eagle and an addle egg, and by them a lamb, a hare, and three heathpouts. The nest was about two yards square, and had no hollow in it.’ But the butcher-birds, or shrikes, which are less rapacious than eagles and hawks, build their habitations in shrubs and bushes, and employ moss, wool, and other soft materials. — The common magpies build their nests in trees, and their structure is admirably contrived for affording warmth and protection to the young. ‘The nest is not open at top: it is covered in the most dextrous manner, with an arch or dome, and a small opening in the side of it is left, to give the parents an opportunity of passing in and out at their pleasure. To protect their eggs and young from the attacks of other ani- mals, the magpies place, all around the external surface of their nest, sharp briers and thorns. The long-tailed titmouse, or ox-eye, builds nearly like the wren, but with still greater 176 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. art. With the same materials as the rest of the structure, the titmouse builds an arch over the top of the nest, which resem- bles an egg erected upon one end, and leaves a small hole in the side for a passage. Both eggs and young, by this contri- vance, are defended from the injuries of the air, rain, cold, &c. That the young may have a soft and warm bed, she lines the inside of the nest with feathers, down, and cobwebs. The sides and roof are composed of moss and wool, interwoven in the most curious and artificial manner. Mr. Pennant, in his Indian Zoology, gives the following cu- rious account of the manner in which the Motacilla sutoria, or tailor-bird, builds its nest. ‘Had Providence,’ Mr. Pen- nant remarks, ‘left the feathered tribes unendowed with any particular instinct, the birds of the torrid zone would have built their nests in the same unguarded manner as those of Ku- rope ; but there, the lesser species, having a certain prescience of the dangers that surround them, and of their own weakness, suspend their nests at the extreme ‘branches of the trees. They are conscious of inhabiting a climate replete with enemies to them and their young ; with snakes that twine up the bodies of the trees, and apes that are perpetually in search of prey ; but, heaven-instructed, they elude the gliding of the one, and the activity of the other—The brute creation are more at enmity with one another than in other climates; and the birds are obliged to exert an unusual artifice in placing their little broods out of the reach of an invader. Each aims at the same end, though by different means ; some form their pensile nest in shape of a purse, deep and open at top; others with a hole in the side; and others, still more cautious, with an entrance at the very bottom, forming their lodge near the summit.* But the tailor-bird seems to have greater diffidence than any of the others: it will not trust its nest even to the extremity of a slender twig, but makes one more advance to safety by fixing it to the leaf itself. It picks up a dead leaf, and, surprising to relate, sews it to the side of a living one, its slender bill being its needle, and its thread some fine fibres, the lining feathers, gossamer, and down. Its eggs are white, the color of the bird light yellow ; its length three inches ; its weight only three-sixteenths of an ounce ; so that the ma- terials of the nest and its own size, are not likely to draw down a habitation that depends on so slight a tenure.’ *This instinct prevails also among the birds on the banks of the Gambia in Africa, which abounds with monkeys and snakes ; others, for the same end, make their nes? in holes of the banks that overhang that vast river.—Purchas, Vol. Il. p. 1576. NESTS OF BIRDS. 177 Birds of the gallinaceous or poultry kind lay their eggs on _ the ground.’ Some of them scrape a kind of hole in the earth, and line it with a little long grass or straw. It is a singular, though a well-attested fact, that the cuc- koo makes no nest, and neither hatches nor feeds her own young. ‘The hedge-sparrow,’ says Mr. Willoughby, ‘is the cuckoo’s nurse; but not the hedge-sparrow only, but also ring- doves, larks, finches. I myself, with many others, have seen a wag-tail feeding a young cuckoo. The cuckoo herself builds ne nest ; but having found the nest of some little bird, she either devours or destroys the eggs she there finds, and, in the room thereof, lays one of her own, and so forsakes it. _ The silly bird, returning, sits on this egg, hatches it, and, with a great deal of care and toil, broods, feeds, and cherishes the young cuckoo for her own, until it be grown up, and able to fly and shift for itself. Which thing seems so strange, monstrous, and absurd, that for my part I cannot sufficiently wonder there should be such an example in nature ; nor could I ever have been induced to believe that such a thing had been done by nature’s instinct, had I not with mine own eyes seen it. For nature, in other things, is wont constantly to observe one and the same law and order, agreeable to the highest rea- son and prudence; which in this case is, that the dams make nests for themselves, if need be, sit upon their own eggs, and bring up their own young after they are hatched.’* This economy in the history of the cuckoo, is not only singular, but seems to contradict one of the most universal laws estab- lished among animated beings, and particularly among the feathered tribes, namely, the hatching and rearing of their offspring. Still, however, like the ostrich in very warm cli- mates, though the cuckoo neither hatches nor feeds her young, she places her eggs in situations where they are both hatched and her offspring brought to maturity. - Here the stupidity of the one animal makes it a dupe to the rapine and chicane of the other ; -for the cuckoo always destroys the eggs of the smal] bird before she deposits her own. Most of the passerine or small birds build their nests in hedges, shrubs, or bushes ; though some of them, as the lark and the goat-sucker, build upon the ground. The nests of small birds are more delicate in their structure and contri- vance than those of the larger kinds. As the size of their bod- ies, and likewise that of their eggs, are smaller, the materials ¥ Willoughby’s Ornithology, p. 98. 178 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. of which their nests are composed are generally warmer. Small bodies retain heat a shorter time than those which are large. Hence, the eggs of small birds require a more con- stant supply of heat than those of greater dimensions. ‘Their nests, accordingly, are built proportionally warmer and deeper, and they are lined with softer substances. The larger birds, of course, can leave their eggs for some time with impunity ; but the smaller kinds sit most assiduously ; for when the female is obliged to go abroad in quest of food, the nest is always oc- cupied by the male. When a nest is ‘finished, nothing can exceed the dexterity of both male and female in concealing it from the observation of man, and other destructive animals. If it is built in bushes, the pliant branches are disposed in such a manner as to hide it entirely from view. To conceal her retreat, the chaffinch covers the outside of her nest with moss, which is commonly of the same color with the bark of the tree on which she builds. The common swallow builds its nests on the tops of chimneys; and the martin attaches hers to the corners of windows, or under the eaves of houses. Both employ the same materials. The nest is built with mud well tempered by the bill, and moistened with water to make. it more firmly cohere; and the mud or clay is kept still firmer by a mixture of straw or grass. Within it is neatly lined with feathers. Wiauloughby, on the authority of Bontius, informs us, ‘ That on the sea-coast of the kingdom of China, a sort of small, party-colored birds, of the shape of swallows, at a cer- tain season of the year, viz. their breeding time, come out of. the midland country to the rocks, and from the foam or froth of the sea-water dashing and breaking against the bottom of the rocks, gather a certain clammy, glutinous matter, perchance the sperm of whales, or other fishes, of which they build their nests, wherein they lay their eggs and hatch their young. These nests the Chinese pluck from the rocks, and bring them in great numbers into the East Indies to ‘sell ; which are esteemed by gluttons great delicacies, who, dissolving them in chicken or mutton broth, are very fond of them, pre- ferring them far before oysters, mushrooms, or other dainty and lickerish morsels which most gratify the palate. These nests are of a hemispherical figure, of the bigness of a goose’s egg, and of a substance resembling isinglass.’ Most of the cloven-footed water-fowls, or waders, lay their eggs upon the ground. But the spoon-bills and the common heron build large nests in trees, and employ twigs and other coarse materials; and the storks build on churches, or on the SOLITARY INSECTS. 179 tops of houses. Many of the web-footed fowls lay their eggs likewise on the ground, as the terns, and sorhe of the gulls and mergansers. But ducks pull the down from their own breasts, to afford a warmer and more comfortable bed for their young. The hawks, the guillemots, and the puffins or coul- ternebs, lay their eggs on the naked shelves of high rocks. The penguins, for the : same purpose, dig large and deep holes under ground. It is not unworthy of remark, that birds uniformly propor- tion the dimensions of their nests to the number and size of the young to be a ia Every species lays nearly a de- termined number of eggs. But if one be each day abstracted from the nest, the bird continues daily to lay more till her number is completed. Dr. Lister, by this practice, made a swallow lay no less than nineteen eggs. The habitations of insects are next to be considered. On this branch of the subject we shall first give some examples of abodes censtructed by solitary workers, and next of those habitations which are executed by associated numbers. In several preceding parts of this work, the reader will find some instances of the skill and industry exhibited by insects, for the convenient lodging and protection of their young. ‘These it is unnecessary to repeat. We shall, therefore, pro- ceed to give some examples of a different kind. There are several species of bees distinguished by the ap- pellation of solitary, because they do not associate to carry on any joint operations. Of this kind is the mason-bee, so called because it builds a habitation composed of sand and mortar. The nests of this bee are fixed to the walls of houses, and, when finished, have the appearance of irregular prominences arising from dirt or clay accidentally thrown against a wall or stone by the feet of horses. These prominences are not so remarkabie as to attract attention; but when the external coat is removed, their structure is discovered to be truly admirable. The interior part consists of an assemblage of different cells, each of which affords a convenient lodgment to a white worm, pretty similar to those produced by the honey-bee. Here they remain till they have undergone all their metamorphoses. In constructing this nest, which is a work of great labor and dexterity, the female is the sole operator. She receives no assistance from the male. The manner in which the female mason-bees build their nests, is the most curious branch of their history. After choosing a part of a wall on which she is resolved to 186 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. fix a habitation for her future progeny, she goes im quest of proper materials. The nest to be constructed must consist of © a species of mortar, of which sand is the basis. She knows, like human builders, that every kind of sand 1s not equally proper for making good mortar. She goes, therefore, to a bed of sand, and selects, grain by grain, the kind which is best to answer her purpose. With her teeth, which are as large and as strong as those of the honey-bee, she examines and brings together several grains. But sand alone will not make mortar. Recourse must be had to a cement similar to the slacked lime employed by masons. Our bee is unacquainted with lime, but she possesses an equivalent in her own body. From her | mouth she throws out a viseid liquor, with which she moistens the first grain pitched upon. ‘To this grain she cements a second, which she moistens in the same manner, and to the former two she attaches a third, and so on till she has formed amass as large as the shot usually employed to kill hares. This mass she carries off in her teeth to the place she had chosen for erecting her nest, and makes it the foundation of the first cell. In this manner she labors incessantly till the whole cells are completed—a work which is generally accom- plished in five or six days. All the cells are similar, and nearly | equal m dimensions. Before they are covered, their figure resembles that of a thimble. She never begins to make a second till the first be finished. Each cell is about an inch high, and nearly half an inch in diameter. But the labor of building is not the only one this female bee has to under- go. When a cell has been raised to one half or two thirds of its height, another occupatién commences. She seems to know the quantity of food that will be necessary to nourish the young that is to proceed from the egg, from its exclu- sion till it acquires its full growth, and passes into the chrys- alis state. The food which is prepared for the support of the young worm consists of the farina or powder of flowers, diluted with honey, which forms a kind of pap. Before the cell is entirely finished, the mason-bee collects from the flowers, and deposits in the cell, a large quantity of farina, and afterwards disgorges upon it as much honey as dilutes it, and forms it into a kind of paste, or sirup. When this operation is performed, she completes her cell, and, after depositing an egg in it, covers the mouth of it with the same mortar she uses in building her nest. The egg is now inclos- ed on all sides in a walled habitation hermetically sealed. A smal] quantity of air, however, gets admission to the worm, SOLITARY INSECTS. 18] otherwise it could not exist. Reaumur discovered that air actually jee ain through a seemingly compact mason- work. As soon as the first cell is completed, the mason-bee lays the foundation of another. In the same nest she often con- structs seven or eight cells, and sometimes only three or four. She places them near each other, but not in any regular order. This industrious animal, after all her cells are constructed, fled with provisions, and sealed, covers the whole with an envelope of the same mortar, which, when dry, is as hard as stone. The nest now is commonly of an oblong or roundish figure, and the external cover is composed of coarser sand than that of the cells. As the nests are almost as durable as the wall on which they are placed, they are often, in the fol- lowing season, occupied and repatred by a stranger bee. Though inclosed with two hard walls, when the fly emerges from the chrysalis state, it first gnaws with its teeth a passage through the wall that sealed up the mouth of its cell ; after- wards, with the same instruments, it pierces the still stronger ’ and more compact cover which invests the whole nest; at last it escapes into the open air, and, if a female, in a os time, constructs a nest of the same kind with that which the mother had made. To all these facts, Du Hamel, Reaumur, and many other naturalists of credit and reputation, ‘have been re- peatedly eye-witnesses. From the hardness of the materials with which the mason- bee constructs her nest, from the industry and dexterity she employs to protect her progeny from’enemies of every kind, one would naturally imagine that the young worms were in perfect safety, and that their castle was impregnable. But notwithstanding all these favorable precautions, the young of the mason-bee are often devoured by the mstinctive dexterity of certain species of four-winged insects, distinguished by the name of ichneumon-fiies. ‘These flies, when the mason-bee has nearly completed a cell, and filled it with provisions, de- posit their own eggs in her cell. After the eggs of the ich- neumon-flies are hatched, their worms devour not only the provisions laid up by the mason-bee, but even her progeny whom she had labored so hard, and with so much art and i in- genuity, to protect. But the mason-bee has an enemy still more formidable. A certain fly employs the same stratagem of insinuating an egg into one of her cells before it is com- pleted. From this egg proceeds a strong and rapacious worm, armed with prodigious fangs. The devastations of this worm 182 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. are not confined to one cell. It often pierces through each cell in the nest, and successively devours both the mason- worms and the provisions so anxiously laid up for their sup- port by the mother. This stranger worm is afterwards trans- formed into a fine beetle, who is enabled to pierce the nest, and to make his escape. The operations of another species of solitary bees, exited wood-piercers, merit attention. These bees are larger than the queens of the honey-bee. Their bodies are smooth, ex- cept the sides, which are covered with hair. In the spring, they frequent gardens, and search for rotten, or at least dead wood, in order to make a habitation for their young. When a female of this species—for she receives no assistance from the male—has selected a piece of wood, or a decayed tree, she commences her labor by making a hole in it, which is generally directed toward the axis of the tree. When she has advanced about half an inch, she alters the direction of the hole, and conducts it nearly parallel to the axis of the wood. ‘The size of her body requires that this hole should have a considerable diameter. It is often so large as to admit the finger of a man, and it sometimes extends from twelve to fifteen inches in length. If the thickness of the wood permits, she makes three or four of these long holes in its interior part. M. de Reaumur found three of these parallel holes in an old espalier post. ‘Their diameters exceeded half an inch. This labor, for a single bee, is prodigious ; but in executing it, she consumes weeks, and even months. } Around the foot of a post or piece of wood where one of these bees is working, little heaps of timber-dust are always found lying on the ground. These heaps daily increase in magnitude, and the particles of dust are as large as those produced by a handsaw. ‘The two teeth with which the ant- mal is provided, are the only instruments she employs in making such considerable perforations. Each tooth consists of a solid piece of shell, which in shape resembles an auger. It is convex above, concave below, and terminates in a sharp but strong point. These long holes are designed for lodgings to the worms that are to proceed from the eggs, which the bee 1s soon to deposit in them. But after the holes are finished, her labor is by no means at anend. The eggs must not be mingled, or piled above each other. Every separate worm must have a distinct apartment, without any communication with the others. Each long hole or tube, accordingly, is only the SOLITARY INSECTS. 183 outer walls of a house, which is to consist of many chambers, ranged one above another. A hole of about.twelve inches in length, she divides into ten or twelve separate apartments, each of which 1s about an inch high. The roof of the lowest room is the floor of the second, and so on to the uppermost. Fach floor is of about the thickness of a French crown. The floors or divisions are composed of particles of wood cemented together by a glutinous substance from the animal’s mouth. In making a floor, she commences with gluing an annular plate of wood-dust round the internal circumference of the cavity. ‘To this plate she attaches a second, to the second a third, and to the third a fourth, till the whole floor is comple- ted. The undermost cell requires only a roof, and this roof is a floor to the second, &c. But these operations, though great, and seemingly superior to the powers of a creature so small, are not her only labor. Before roofing in the first cell, she fills it with a paste or pap, composed of the farina of flowers moistened with honey. The quantity of paste is equal to the dimensions of the cell, which is about an inch high, and half an inch in diameter. In this paste, which is to nourish the future worm, she deposits an egg. Immediately after this operation, she begins to form a roof, which not only incloses the first cell, but serves as a floor to the second. ‘The second cell she likewise fills with paste, deposits an egg, and then covers the whole with an- other roof. In this manner she proceeds, till she has divided the whole tube into separate cells. A single tube frequently contains from ten to a dozen of these, cells. When the cells are all inclosed, the business of this laborious bee is finished, and she takes no more charge of her future progeny. The attention and solicitude bestowed by many other animals, in rearing their young, are exerted after birth. But, in the wood- piercing bee, as well as in many other insects, this instinctive attachment is reversed. All her labors and all her cares are exerted before she either sees her offspring, or knows that they are to exist. But, after the description that has been given of her amazing operations, she will not be considered as an unnatural mother. With astonishing industry and per- severance, she not only furnishes her young with safe and con- venient lodgings, but lays up for them stores of provisions sufficient to support them till their final metamorphosis into flies, when the new females perform the same almost incredi- ble operations for the protection and sustenance of their own offspring. When the young worm is hatched, it has scarcely 184 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. sufficient space to turn itself in the cell, which is almost entire- ly filled with the pappy substance formerly mentioned. But, as this substance is gradually devoured by the worm, the space in the cell necessarily enlarges in proportion to the growth and magnitude of the animal. We are informed by M. de Reaumur, that M. Pitot furnished him with a piece of wood, not exceeding an inch and a half in diameter, which contained the cells of a wood-piercing bee. He cut off as much of the wood as was sufficient to expose two of the cells to view, in each of which was a worm. The aperture he had made, to prevent the myjuries of the air, he closed, by pasting on a bit of glass. The cells were then almost entirely filled with paste. ‘The two worms were ex- ceedingly small, and, of course, occupied but little space between the walls of the cells and the mass of paste. As the animals increased in size, the paste daily diminished. He began to observe them on the 12th day of June ; and, on the 27th of the same month, the paste in each cell was nearly consumed, and the worm, folded in two, occupied the greater part of its habitation. On the 2d of July, the provisions of beth worms were entirely exhausted ; and, besides the worms themselves, there remained in the cells only a few small, black, oblong grains of excrement. The five or six following days they fasted, which seemed to be a necessary abstinence, dur- ing which they were greatly agitated. ‘They often bended their bodies, and elevated and depressed their heads. These movements were preparatory to the great change the animals were about to undergo. Between the 7th and 8th of the same month, they threw off their skins, and were metamorphosed into nymphs. On the 30th of July, these nymphs were trans- formed into fiies similar to their parents. In a range of cells, the worms are of different ages, and, of course, of different sizes. ‘hose in the lower cells are older than those in the superior ; because, after the bee has filled with paste and in- closed its first cell, a considerable time is requisite to collect provisions, and to form partitions for every successive and superior cell. The former, therefore, must be transformed into nymphs and flies before the latter. These circumstances are apparently foreseen by the common mother ; for, if the un- dermost worm, which is oldest, and soonest transformed, were to: force its way upward, which it could easily do, it would not only disturb, but infallibly destroy, all those lodged in the superior cells. But nature has wisely prevented this devas- tation ; for the head of the nymph, and consequently of the SOLITARY INSECTS. 185 fly, is always placed in a downward direction. Its first in- stinctive movements must, therefore, be in thé same direction. That the young flies may escape from their respective cells, the mother digs a hole at the bottom of the long tube, which makes a communication with the undermost cell and the open air. Sometimes a similar passage is made near the middle of the tube. By this contrivance, as all the flies instinctively endeavor to cut their way downward, they find an easy and convenient passage ; for they have only to pierce the floor of their cells, which they readily perform with their teeth. Another small species of solitary bees dig holes in the earth to make a convenient habitation for their young. ‘Their nests are composed of cylindrical cells, fixed to one another, and each of them, in figure, resembles a thimble. Their bottom, of course, is convex or rounded. ‘The bottom of the second is inserted into the entry of the first; and the entry of the second receives the bottom of the third. They are not all of the same length. Some of them are five lines long, others only four, and their diameters seldom exceed two lines. Sometimes only two of these cells are joined together; and, at other times, we find three or four, which form a kind of cylinder. ‘This cylinder is composed of alternate bands of two different colors; those of the narrowest, at the juncture of two cells, are white, and those of the broadest are of a red- dish brown. The cells consist of a number of fine mem- branes, formed of a glutinous and transparent substance from the animal’s mouth. Each cell our bee fills with the farina of flowers diluted with honey, and in this paste she deposits an ego. She then covers the cell, by gluing to its mouth a fine cellular substance taken from the leaves of some plant ; and in this manner she proceeds till her cylindrical nest is com- pleted. ‘The worms which are hatched from the eggs, feed upon the paste, so carefully laid up for them by the mother, till they are transformed into flies similar to their parents. Among wasps, as well as bees, there are solitary species, which carry on no joint operations. These solitary wasps are not less ingenious in constructing proper habitations for their young, nor less provident in laying up for them a store of nourishment sufficient to support them till they are trans- formed into flies, or have become perfect animals. But to give a detailed description of their operations, would lead us into a prolixity, of which the plan of our work does not admit. I shall now give some examples of the operations of asso- 16 * | 186 | HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. ciating insects, who construct habitations by exerting a com- mon and mutual labor. The skill and dexterity of the honey-bees displayed in the construction of their combs or nests, have at all times called forth the admiration of mankind. They are composed of cells regularly applied to each other’s sides. These cells are uni- form hexagons or six-sided figures. In a bee-hive, every part is arranged with such symmetry, and so finely finished, that, if limited to the same materials, the most expert workman would find himself unqualified to construct a similar habita- tion, or rather a similar city. Most natural historians have celebrated bees for their wisdom, for the perfection and harmony of their republican government, and for their persevering industry and wonderful economy. All these splendid talents, however, the late inge- nious Count de Buffon has endeavored to persuade us, are. only results of pure mechanism. But this is not the proper place to enter into a discussion of this point. It will fall more naturally to be treated of when we come to describe the societies established among different gregarious animals. We shall, therefore, at present, confine ourselves chiefly to the mode in which bees construct their habitations. In the formation of their combs, bees seem to resolve a problem which would not be a little puzzling to some geome- ters, namely, a quantity of wax being given, to make of it equal and similar cells of a determined capacity, but of the largest size in proportion to the quantity of matter employed, and disposed in such a manner as to occupy in the hive the least possible space.) Every part of this problem is completely executed by the bees. By applying hexagonal cells to each other’s sides, no void spaces are left between them ; and, though the same end might be accomplished by other fig- ures, yet they would necessarily require a greater quantity of wax. Besides, hexagonal cells are better fitted to receive the cylindrical bodies of these insects. A comb consists of two strata of cells applied to each other’sends. ‘This arrange- ment both saves room in the hive, and it gives a double entry into the cells of which the comb is composed. As a further saving of wax, and preventing void spaces, the bases of these cells in one stratum of a comb serve for bases to the opposite stratum. In a word, the more minutely the construction of these cells is ae the more will the admiration of the ' observer be excited. The walls of the cells are so extremely thin, that their mouths would be in danger of suffering by a“ HONEY-BEE. 187 entering and issuing of the bees. To prevent this disaster, they make a kind of ring round the margin of each cell, and this ring is three or four times as thick as the walls. It is difficult to perceive, even with the assistance of glass hives, the manner in which bees operate when construct- ing their cells. They are so eager to afford mutual assist- ance, and, for this purpose, so many of them crowd together, and are perpetually succeeding each other, that their individ- ual operations can seldom be distinctly observed. It has, however, been plainly discovered, that their two teeth are the only instruments they employ in modelling and polishing the wax. With a little patience and attention, we perceive cells just begun ; we likewise remark the quickness with which a bee moves its teeth against a small portion of the cell. This portion the animal, by repeated strokes on each side, smooths, renders compact, and reduces to a proper thinness of consist- ence. While some of the hive are lengthening their hexagonal tubes, others are laying the foundations of new ones. In certain circumstances, when extremely hurried, they do not complete their new cells, but leave them imperfect till they have begun a number sufficient for their present exigencies. When a bee puts its head a little way into a cell, we easily perceive it scraping the walls with the points of its teeth, in order to detatch such useless and irregular fragments as may have been left in the work. Of these fragments the bee forms a ball about the size of a pin-head, comes out of the cell, and carries the wax to another part of the work where it is needed. It no sooner leaves the cell, than it is succeeded by another bee, which performs the same office ; and in this manner the work is successively carried on till the cell is completely polished. The cells of bees are designed for different purposes. Some of them are employed for the accumulation and pres- ervation of honey. In others, the female deposits her eggs, and from these eggs worms are hatched, which remain in the cells tll their final transformation into flies. The drones, or males, are larger than the common, or working bees ; and the queen, or mother of the hive, is much larger than either. A cell destined for the lodgment of a male or female worm, must, therefore, be considerably larger than the cells of the smaller working bees. ‘The number of cells destined for the reception of the working bees far exceeds those in which the males are lodged. ‘The honey-cells are always made deeper and more capacious than the When the honey col- 18s HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. lected is so abundant that the vessels cannot contain it, the bees lengthen, and, of course, deepen, the honey-cells. Their mode of working, and the disposition and division of their labor, when put into an empty hive, do much honor to the sagacity of bees. They immediately begin to lay the foundations of their combs, which they execute with sur- prising quickness and alacrity. Soon after they begin to construct one comb, they divide into two or three compa- nies, each of which, in different parts of the hive, is occu- pied with the same operations. By this division of labor, a greater number of bees have an opportunity of being employed at the same time, and, consequently, the com- mon work is sooner finished. The combs are generally arranged in a direction parallel to each other. An inter- val, or street, between the combs, is always left, that the bees may have a free passage, and an easy communication with the different combs in the hive. These streets are just wide enough to allow two bees to pass one another. Beside these parallel streets to shorten their journey when working, they leave several round cross passages, which are always covered. . Hitherto we have chiefly taken notice of the manner in which bees construct and polish their cells, without treating of the materials they employ. We have not marked the dif- ference between the crude matter collected from flowers and the true wax. Every body knows that bees carry into their hives, by means of their hind thighs, great quantities of the farina, or dust, of flowers. After many experiments made by Reaumur, with a view to discover whether this dust contained real wax, he was obliged to acknowledge that he could never find that wax formed any part of its composition. He at length discovered, that wax was not a substance produced by - the mixture of farina with any glutinous substance, nor by trituration, or any mechanical operation. By long and at- tentive observation, he found that the bees actually eat the farina which they so industriously collect; and that this farina, by an animal process, is converted into wax. This digestive process, which is necessary to the formation of wax, is carried on in the second stomach, and perhaps in the intes- tines of bees. After knowing the place where this operation is performed, chemists will probably allow, that it is equally dificult to make real wax with the farina of flowers, as to make chyle with animal or vegetable substances, a work which is daily executed by our own stomach and intestines, HONEY-BER. L&9o and by those of other animals. Reaumur likewise discovered, _ that all the cells in a hive were not destined for the reception of honey and for depositing the eggs of the female, but that some of them were employed as receptacles for the farina of flowers, a species of food that bees find necessary for the formation of wax, which is the great basis and raw material of all their curious operations. When a bee comes to the hive with its thighs filled with farina, it is often met near the entrance by some of its companions, who first take off the load, and then devour the provisions so kindly brought them. But, when none of the bees employed in the |. ive are hungry for this species of food, the carriers of the farina deposit their loads in cells prepared for that purpose. To these cells the bees resort, when the weather is so bad that they cannot ven- ture to go to the fields in quest of fresh provisions. The car- rying bees, however, commonly enter the hive loaded with fara. They walk along the combs, beating and making a noise with their wings. By these movements they seem to announce their arrival to their companions. No sooner has a loaded bee made these movements, than three or four of those within leave their work, come up to it, and first take off its load, and then eat the materials it has brought. As a further evidence that the bees actually eat the farina of flow- ers, when the stomach and intestines are laid open, they are often found to be filled with this dust, the grams of which, when examined by the microscope, have the exact figure, color, and consistence of farina, taken from the anthere of particular flowers. After the farina is digested, and converted into wax, the bees possess the power of bringing it from their stomachs to their mouths. ‘The instrument they employ in furnishing materials for constructing their waxen cells is their tongue. This tongue is situated below the two teeth or fangs. When at work, the tongue may be seen by the assistance of a lens and a glass hive. It is then in perpetual motion, and its motions are extremely rapid. Its figure con- tinually varies. Sometimes it is more sharp; at others it is flatter ; and sometimes it is more or less concave, and partly covered with a moist paste or wax. By the different move- ments of its tongue, the bee continues to supply fresh wax to the two teeth, which are employed in raising and fashioning the walls of its cell, till they have acquired a sufficient height. As soon as the moist paste or wax dries, which it does almost instantaneously, it then assumes all the appearances and qual- ities of common wax. There is a still stronger proof that 190 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. wax is the result of an animal process. When bees are removed into a new hive, and closely confined from the morning to the evening, if the hive chances to please them, in the course of this day several waxen eells will be formed, without the possibility of a single bee’s having had access to the fields. Besides, the rude materials, or the farina of plants carried into the hive, are of various colors. The farina of some plants employed by the bees is whitish ; in others, it is of a fine yellow color ; in others, it is almost entirely red ; and 1n others, it is green. he combs constructed with these differently colored materials, are, however, uniformly of the same color. Every comb, especially when it is newly made, is of a pure white color, which is more or less tarnished by age, the operation of the air, or by other accidental circum- stances. ‘To bleach wax, therefore, requires only the art of extracting such foreign bodies as may have insinuated them- selves into its substance, and changed its original color. Bees, from the nature of their constitution, require a warm habitation. They are likewise extremely solicitous to pre- vent insects of any kind from getting admittance into their hives. ‘To accomplish both these purposes, when they take possession of a new hive, they carefully examine every part of it ; and if they discover any small holes or chinks, they immediately paste them firmly up with a resinous substance, which differs considerably from wax. ‘This substance was not unknown to the ancients. Pliny mentions it under the name of propolis, or bee-glue. Bees use the propolis for ren- dering their hives more close and perfect, in preference to wax, because the former is more durable, and more powerful- ly resists the vicissitudes of weather, than the latter. This glue is not, like wax, procured by an animal process. The bees collect it from different trees, as the poplars, the birches, and the willows. It is a complete production of nature, and . requires no addition or manufacture from the animals by which it is employed. After a bee has procured a quantity sufficient to fill the cavities in its two hind thighs, it repairs to. the hive. ‘I'wo of its companions instantly draw out the pro- polis, and apply it to fill up such chinks, holes, “or other defi- clencies, as they find in their habitation. But this is not the only use to which bees apply the propolis. They are extremely solicitous to remove such insects or foreign bodies as happen to get admission into the hive. When so light as not to ex- ceed their powers, they first kill the insect with their stings, and then drag it out with their teeth. But it sometimes hap-~ HONEY-BEE. 191 pens that an ill-fated snail creeps into the hive. It is no sooner perceived, than it is attacked on all sides, and stung to death. But how are the bees to carry out a burthen of such weight? This labor they know would be in vain. They are, perhaps, apprehensive that a body so large would diffuse, in the course of its putrefaction, a disagreeable or noxious odor through the hive. To prevent such hurtful con- sequences, immediately after the animal’s death, they embalm it, by covering every part of its body with propolis, through which no effluvia can escape. When a snail with a shell gets entrance, to dispose of it gives much less trouble and expense to the bees. As soon as this kind of snail receives the first wound from a sting, it naturally retires within its shell. In this case, the bees, instead of pasting it all over with propolis, content themselves with gluing all round the margin of the shell, which is sufficient to render the animal forever immovably fixed. But propolis and the materials for making wax are not the only substances these industrious animals have to collect. As formerly remarked, beside the whole winter there are many days im which the bees are prevented by the weather from going abroad in quest of provisions. They are, therefore, un- der the necessity of collecting, and laying up in cells destined for that purpose, large quantities of honey. This sweet and balsamic liquor they extract, by means of their proboscis or trunk, from the nectariferous glands of flowers. The trunk of a bee is of a kind of rough cartilaginous tongue. After collecting a few small drops of honey, the animal with its proboscis conveys them to its mouth, and swallows them. From the csophagus, or gullet, it passes into the first stom- ach, which is more or less swelled in proportion to the quantity of honey it contains. When empty, it has the ap- pearance of a fine white thread; but, when filled with honey, it assumes the figure of an oblong bladder, the membrane of which is so thin and transparent, that it allows the color of the liquor it contains to be distinctly seen. This bladder is well known to children who live in the country. They cruelly amuse themselves with catching bees, and tearing them asun- der, in order to suck the honey. A single flower furnishes but a small quantity of honey. ‘The bees are therefore obliged to fly from one flower to another till they fill their first stomachs. When they have accomplished this purpose, they return di- rectly to the hive, and disgorge in a cell the whole honey they have collected. It not unfrequently happens, however, 19% HABITATIONS OF ANIMALES. that, when on its way to the hive, it is accosted by a hungry companion. How the one can communicate its necessity to the other, it is perhaps impossible to discover. But the fact is certain, that, when two bees meet in this situation, they mutually stop, and the one whose stomach is fall of honey extends its trunk, opens its mouth, which lies a little beyond the teeth, and, like ruminating animals, forces up the honey into that cavity. The hungry bee knows how to take advan- ‘tage of this hospitable invitation. With the point of its trunk it sucks the honey from the other’s mouth. When not stop- ped on the road, the bee proceeds to-the hive, and in the same manner offers its honey to those who are at work, as if it meant to prevent the necessity of quitting their labor in order to go in quest of food. In bad weather, the bees feed upon the honey laid up in open cells ; but they never touch these reservoirs when their companions are enabled to sup- ply them with fresh honey from the fields. But the mouths of those cells which are destined for preserving honey during winter, they always cover with a lid or thin plate of wax. Wasps, like the bees, associate in great numbers, and con- struct, with much dexterity and skill, a common habitation. There are many species of wasps, some of which unite into societies, and others spend their lives in perfect solitude. But, in this place, we shall confine our attention to the operations of the common associating wasp, an insect so well known, even to children, that it requires no description. Though bees, as well as wasps, are armed with a sting, yet the for- mer may be regarded as a placid and harmless race. Bees are continually occupied with their own labors. Their chief care is to defend themselves ; and they never take nour- ishment at the expense of any other animal. Wasps, on the contrary, are ferocious animals, who live entirely on rapine and destruction. They kill and devour every insect that is inferior to them in strength. But though warlike and rapa- cious in their general manners, they are polished and peace- able among themselves. ‘To their young they discover the greatest tenderness and affection. For their protection and conveniency no labor is spared ; and the habitations they construct do honor to their patience, address, and sagacity. Their architecture, like that of the honey-bee, is singular, and worthy of admiration ; but the materials employed fur- nish neither honey nor wax. Impelled by an instinctive love of posterity, they, with great labor, skill, and assiduity, con- struct combs, which are likewise composed of hexagonal or WASPS, 193 six-sided cells. Though these cells are not,made of wax, they are equally proper for the reception of eggs, and for af- fording convenient habitations to the worms which proceed from them till their transformation into wasps. _ In general, the cells of the wasps are formed of a kind of paper, which, with great dexterity, is fabricated by the ani- mals themselves. The number of combs and cells in a wasp’s nest, is always proportioned to the number of indi- viduals associated. Different species choose different situa- tions for building their nests. Some expose their habitations to all the injuries of the air ; others prefer the trunks of decayed trees ; and others, as the common kind, ef which we are principally treating, conceal their nests under ground. The hole which leads to a wasp’s nest is about an inch in diameter. This hole is a kind of gallery mined by the wasps, is seldom in a straight line, and varies in length from half a foot to two feet, according to the distance of the nest from the surface of the ground. When exposed to view, the whole nest appears to be of a roundish form, and sometimes about twelve or fourteen inches in diameter. It is strongly fortified all round with walls or layers of paper, thé surface of which is rough and irregular. In these walls, or rather in this ex- ternal covering, two holes are left for passages te the combs. The wasps uniformly enter the nest by one hole, and go out by the other, which prevents any confusion or interruption to their common labors. We are now arrived at the gates of this subterraneous city, which, though small, is extremely populous. Upon removing the external covering, we perceive that the whole interior part consists. of several stories or floors of combs, which are paral- iel to each other, and nearly in a horizontal position. Every story is composed of a numerous assemblage of hexagonal cells, very regularly constructed with a matter resembling ash- colored paper. These cells contain neither wax nor honey, but are solely destined for containing the eggs, the worms which are hatched from them, the nymphs, and the yourg wasps till they are able to fly. Wasps’ nests are not always composed of an equal number of combs. They sometimes consist of fifteen, and sometimes of eleven only. The combs are of various diameters. The first, or uppermost, is often only two inches in diameter, while those of the middie some- times exceed a foot. The lowest are also much smaller than the middle ones. All these combs, like so many floors or stories ranged in a parallel manner above each other, afford 194 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. lodging to prodigious numbers of inhabitants. Reaumur computed, from the number of cells in a given portion of comb, that, in a medium-sized nest, there were at least 10 000 cells. This calculation gives an idea of the astonish- ingly prolific powers of these insects, and the vast numbers of individuals produced in a single season from one nest ; for every cell serves as a lodging to no less than three gene- rations. Hence a moderately-sized nest gives birth annually to 30,000 young wasps. _ The different stories of combs are leas about half an inch high, which leaves free passages to the wasps from one part of the nest to another. ‘These intervals are so spacious, that, in proportion to the bulk of the animals, they may be compared to great halls or broad streets. Each of the larger combs is supported by about fifty pillars, which, at the same time, give solidity to the fabric, and greatly ornament the whole nest. The lesser combs are supported by the same ingenious contrivance. These pillars are coarse, and of a roundish form. Their bases and capitals, however, are much larger in diameter than the middle. By the one end they are attached to the superior comb, and by the other to the infe- rior. ‘Thus between two combs there is always a species of rustic colonnade. The wasps begin at the top, and build downward. ‘The uppermost and smallest comb is first con- structed. It is attached to the superior part of the external covering. The second comb is fixed to the bottom of the first; and in this manner the animals proceed till the whole operation is completed. The connecting pillars are composed of the same kind of paper as the rest of the nest. To allow the wasp entries into the void spaces, roads are left between the combs and the external envelope or covering. Having given a general idea of this curious edifice, it is next natural to inquire how the wasps build, and how they employ themselves in their abodes. But as all these mys- teries are performed under the earth, it required much indus- try and attention to discover them. By the mgenuity and perseverance of M. de Reaumur, however, we are enabled to _ explain some parts of their internal economy and manners. This indefatigable naturalist contrived to make wasps, like the honey-bees, lodge and work in glass hives. In this operation he was greatly assisted by the ardent affection which these animals have to their offspring ; for he found, that, though the nest was cut in different directions, and though it was ex- . posed to the light, the wasps never deserted it, nor relaxed WASPS. 195 in their attention to their young. When placed in a glass _ hive, they are perfectly peaceable, and never ‘attack the ob- server, if he calmly contemplates their operations ; for, natu- rally, they do not sting, unless they are irritated. Immediately after a wasp’s nest has been transported from its natural situation, and covered with a glass hive, the first operation of the insects is to repair the injuries it has suffered. With wonderful activity they carry off all the earth and foreign bodies that may have accidentally been conveyed into the hive. Some of them occupy themselves in fixing the nest to the top and sides of the hive by pillars of paper, similar to those which support the different stories or strata of combs ; others repair the breaches it has sustained; and others fortify it by aug- menting considerably the thickness of its external cover. This external envelope is an operation peculiar to wasps. Its construction requires great labor ; for it frequently ex- ceeds an inch and a half in thickness, and is composed of a number of strata or layers as thin as paper, between each of which there is a void space. ‘This cover is a kind of box for inclosing the combs, and defending them from the rain which occasionally penetrates the earth. For this purpose it is ad- mirably adapted. If it were one solid mass, the contact of water would penetrate the whole and reach the combs. But to prevent this fatal effect, the animals leave considerable vacuities between the vaulted layers, which are generally fifteen or sixteen in number. By this ingenious piece of architecture, one or two layers may be moistened with water, while the others are not in the least affected. The materials employed by wasps in the construction of their nests, are very different from those made use of by the honey-bee. Instead of collecting the farina of flowers, and digesting it into wax, the wasps gnaw with their two fangs, which are strong and serrated, small fibres of wood from the sashes of windows, the posts of espaliers, garden doors, &c., but never attempt growing or green timber. These fibres, though very slender, are often a line, or a twelfth part of an inch long. After cutting a certain number of them, the ani- mals collect them into minute bundles, transport them to their nest, and, by means of a glutinous substance furnished from their own bodies, form them into a moist and duetile paste. Of this substance, or papier maché, they construct the external cover, the partitions of the nest, the hexagonal cells, and the solid columns which SUH the several layers or stories of combs. 196 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. The constructing of the nest occupies a comparatively small number of laborers. The others are differently em- ployed. Here it is necessary to remark, that the republics of wasps, like those of the honey-bees, consist of three kinds of flles, males, females, and neuters. Like the bees, also, the number of neuters far surpasses that of both males and fe- males. The greatest quantity of labor is devolved upon the neuters ; but they are not, like the neuter bees, the only workers ; for there is no part of their operations which the females, at certain times, do not execute. Neither do the - males, though their industry is not comparable to that of the neuters, remain entirely idle. They often occupy themselves in the interior part of the nest. The greatest part of the labor, however, is performed by the neuters. They build the nest, feed the males, the females, and even the young. But while the neuters are employed in these different operations, the others are abroad in hunting parties. Some attack with intrepidity live insects, which they sometimes carry entire to the nest ; but they generally transport the abdomen or belly only. Oth- ers pillage butchers’ stalls, from which they often arrive with a piece of meat larger than the half of their own bodies. Others resort to gardens, and suck the juices of fruits. When they return to the nest, they distribute a part of their plunder to the females, to the males, and even to such neuters as have been usefully occupied at home. As soon as a neuter enters the nest, it is surrounded by several wasps, to each of whom it freely gives a portion of the food it has brought. Those who have not been hunting for prey, but have been sucking the juices of fruits, though they seem to return empty, fail not to regale their companions ;. for, after their arrival, they station themselves upon the upper part of the nest, and discharge from their mouths two or three drops of a clear liquid, which are immediately swallowed by the domestics. The neuter wasps, though the most laborious, are the smallest; but they are extremely active and vivacious. The females are much larger, heavier, and slower in their move- ments. ‘The males are of an intermediate size between that of the females and neuters. From these differences in size, it is easy to distinguish the different kinds of those wasps which build their nests below the ground. Jn the hive of the honey-bee, the number of females is always extremely smal] ; but in a wasp’s nest there are often more than three hundred females. During the months of June, July, and August, they remain constantly in the nest, and are never seen abroad, ex- WASPS. | 197 cept in the besicming of spring, and in the months of Sep- tember and October. During the summer, ‘they are totally occupied in laying their eggs and feeding their young. In this last operation, they are assisted by the other wasps; for the females alone, though numerous, would be insufficient for the laborious task. A wasp’s nest, when completed, some- times consists of sixteen thousand cells, each of which contains an egg, a worm, or a nymph. The eggs are white, trans- parent, of an oblong figure, and differ in size, according to the kind of wasps which are to proceed from them. Some of them are no larger than the head of a small pin. They are so firmly glued to the bottoms of the cells, that it is with dif- ficulty they can be detached without breaking. Eight days after the eggs are deposited in the cells, the worms are hatched, and are considerably larger than the eggs which gave birth to them. ‘These worms demand the principal cares of the wasps who continue always in the nest. They feed them, as birds feed their young, by giving them, from time to time, a mouthful of food. It is astonishing to see with what industry and rapidity a female runs along the cells of a comb, and distributes to each worm a portion of nutriment. In propor- tion to the ages and conditions of the worms, they are fed with solid food, such as the bellies of insects, or with a liquid substance disgorged by the mother. When a worm is so large as to occupy its whole cell, it is then ready to be meta- morphosed into anymph. It then refuses all nourishment, and ceases to have any connection with the wasps in the nest. It shuts up the mouth of its cell with a fine silken cover, in the same manner as the silkworm and other caterpillars spin their cods. ‘This operation is completed in three or four hours, and the animal remains in the nymph state nine or ten days, ‘when, with its teeth, it destroys the external cover of the cell, and comes forth in the form of a winged insect, which is either male, female or neuter, according to the na- ture of the egg from which it was hatched. In a short time, the wasps newly transformed receive the food brought into the nest by the foragers in the fields. What is still more curious, in the course of the first day after their transforma- tion, the young wasps have been observed going to the fields, bringing in provisions, and distributing them to the worms in the cells. A cell is no sooner abandoned by a young wasp, than it is cleaned, trimmed, and repaired by an old one, and rendered, in every respect, proper for the reception of aa- other egg. | . li * 198 HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. As formerly mentioned, wasps of different sexes differ great- ly in size. The animals know how to construct cells propor- tioned to the dimensions of the fly that is to proceed from the egg which the female deposits in them. The neuters are six times smaller than the females, and their cells are built ~ nearly in the same proportion. Cells are not only adapted for the reception of neuters, males and females, but it is re- markable that the cells of the neuters are never intermixed with those of the males or females. A comb is entirely oc- cupied with small cells fitted for the reception of neuter worms. But male and female cells are often found in the same comb. ‘The males and females are of equal Jength, and of course require cells of an equal deepness. But the cells of the males are narrower than those of the females, because the bodies of the former are never so thick as those of the latter. This wonderful assemblage of combs, of the pillars which support them, and of the external envelope, is an edifice which requires several months’ labor, and serves the animals one year only. This habitation, so populous in summer, Is almost deserted in winter, and abandoned entirely in spring ; for, in this last season, not a single wasp is to be found in a nest of the preceding year. It is worthy of remark, that the first combs of a nest are always accommodated for the recep- tion of the neuter or working wasps. The city, of which the foundation has just been laid, requires a number of workmen. The neuter or working wasps are accordingly first produced. A cell is no sooner half completed than an egg of a neuter is deposited in it by the female. Of fourteen or fifteen combs inclosed in a common cover, the four last only are destined for the reception of males and females. Hence it uniformly happens, that, before the males and females are capable of taking flight, every wasp’s nest is peopled with several thou- sand neuters or workers. But the neuters, who are first pro- duced, are likewise the first that perish ; for not one of them survives the termination even of a mild winter. It was re- marked by the ancient naturalists, that some wasps lived one year only, and others two. ‘To the former, Aristotle gives the appellation of operarit, which are our workers or neuters, and to the latter matrices, which are our females. The female wasps are stronger, and support the rigors of winter better than the males or neuters. Before the end of winter, however, several hundred females die, and not above ten or a dozen in each nest survive that season. These few ANTS, 199 females are destined for the continuation of the species. Each of them becomes the founder of a new republic. When a queen bee departs from a hive, in order to establish a new one, she is always accompanied with several thousand indus- trious laborers, ready to perform every necessary operation. But the female wasp has not the aid of a single laborer ; for all the neuters are dead before the beginning of the spring. The female alone lays the foundation of a new republic. She either finds or digs a hole under the earth, builds cells for the reception of her eggs, and feeds the worms which proceed from them. Whenever any of these neuter worms are trans- formed into flies, they immediately assist their parent in aug- menting the number of cells and combs, and in feeding the young worms which are daily hatching from the eggs. In a word, this female wasp, which in spring was perfectly solitary, without any proper habitation, and had every operation to perform, has, in autumn, several thousands of her offspring at her devotion, and is furnished with a magnificent palace, or rather city, to protect her from the injuries of the weather and from external enemies. With regard to the male wasps, it is uncertain whether any of them survive the winter. But, though not so indolent as the males of the honey-bee, they can be of little assistance to the female; for they never engage in any work of importance, such as constructing cells, or fortifying the external cover of the nest. They are never brought forth till towards the end of August; and their sole occupation seems to be that of keeping the nest clean. They carry out every kind of filth, and the carcasses of such of their companions as happen to die. In performing this operation, two of them often join, and, as mentioned in another place, when the load is too heavy, they cut off the head, and transport the dead animal at two different times. The males and females are produced at the same time, and they are nearly equal in number. Like the male honey-bees, the male wasps are destitute of stings ; but the females and neuters have stings, the poisonous liquor of which, when in- troduced into any part of the human body, excites inflamma- tion, and creates a considerable degree of pain. ‘The habitations and economy of the various species of Ants are equally curious with those which have been de- scribed. There are, as with the wasps and bees, individuals of three sorts; males and females, which have wings, and neuters. which are without them. The former desert the habi- } 200 © HABITATIONS OF ANIMALS. tations in which they have been reared, as soon as they have undergone the last metamorphosis, and seldom revisit them. They live principally in the air, like other insects, forming numerous swarms. The females, as soon as they are ready to deposit their eggs, wander from their place of birth, deprive themselves of their wings by means of their feet, and found a new establishment, whilst the males, having become entirely useless, all perish. A few of the females are seized by the neuters, confined in the original habitation, deprived of their wings, and obliged to lay their eggs there, and are then driven out to perish. ‘The neuters are distinguished not only by the want of wings, but by the size of their head, the strength of, their jaws, and the length of their feet. They have charge of the principal part of the labor of preparing for the reception and nourishment of the young. The nests of ants differ very much in different species. They are generally made in the earth. Some merely dig out the sand and form holes running in different directions, so that the habitation is almost entirely subterraneous. Others gather together particles of many different kinds, and raise mounds of considerable size above the surface of the earth in the form of domes. Others choose for their residence the trunks of old trees, the interior of which they pierce with holes passing in every direction. All the passages or galleries of which these habitations consist, terminate in an apartment designed for the Ni vc of the young. ‘The food of ants consists of fruit, insects and their larve, and the bodies of small quadrupeds and birds. The neuters, which are the providers for the whole establishment, are principally governed in- their researches by the senses of touch and smell. With the fruits of their labors they feed the larve while in a helpless state. In warm weather they drag them up for the benefit of the heat to the outside of their holes, and, at the approach of night or of bad weather, convey them back again into the recesses of their habitations. In short, all their labor and care are directed with a view to the accommodation and preservation of an offspring in which they really have no share. They defend them against the attack of all enemies, and risk for them their safety and their lives ; and after watching them with unremitting assiduity until they have arrived at the perfect state, they “will not then suffer them to leave the nest unless the weather be fine and propi- tious, when they permit them to take their departure.’ TERMITES. 201 ‘The male and female ants perish at the approach of win- ter, but the neuters survive it, and pass the cold months in a dormant state in the recesses of their habitations. Their forethought and providence, then, in the provision of food, has not for its object their own support, but that of their young ; and, in preparing for the winter, they have merely to render their ‘habitations tight and secure against the cold.’ The habitations and operations of 8 Termites, a species of insects frequently called white ants,* although of a different genus, and even a different order, from the common ants, are well worthy of attention. ‘They infest Guinea, and all the tropical regions, where, for their depredations upon property, they are greatly dreaded by the inhabitants. Of these insects there are several species ; but they all re- semble each other in form, and in their manner of living. They differ, however, as much as birds, in the style of their architecture, and in the selection of the materials of which their nests are composed; Some build on the surface, or partly above and partly»below the ground, and others on the trunks or branches of I¢fty trees. _ Before describing the r hills, it is necessary to give some idea of the animals themselves, and of their general economy and manners. We shall confine ourselves to that species called termites bellicost, or fighters, because they are largest and best known on the coast of Africa. The republic of the termites bellicost, like the other spe- cies of this genus, consists of three ranks or orders of insects, 1. The working insects, which Mr. Smeathman distinguishes by the name of laborers ; 2. The fighters or soldiers, which perform no kind of labor; and, 3. The winged or perfect insects, which are male and female. These last Mr. Smeath- man calls the nobility or gentry; because they neither labor nor fight. The nobility alone are capable of being raised to the rank of kings and queens. reasons, is made by the hornets. ‘Towards the end of Octo- ber, all the worms and nymphs are dragged out of the nest and killed. ‘The neuters and males fall daily victims to the cold ; so that, at the end of winter, a few fertile females only remain to continue the species. According to the adopted plan, we shall finish this subject with some observations which may have a tendency to recon cile our minds to a system so destructive to individuals of every species, that humanity, when not enlightened by a ray of philosophy, is apt to revolt, and to brand Nature with cruelty and oppression. Nature, it must be confessed, seems almost indifferent to individuals, who perish every moment in millions, without any apparent compunction. But, with regard to species of every description, her uniform and uninterrupted attention to the preservation and continuation of the great 3 19 * 922 HOSTILITIES OF ANIMALS, system of animation is conspicuous, and merits admiration Life, it should appear, cannot be supported without the inter vention of death. Through almost the whole of animated nature, as we have seen, nothing but rapine and the destruc- tion of individuals prevail. This destruction, however, has its use. Every animal, after death, administers life and hap- piness to a number of others. In many animals, the powers of digestion and of assimilation, are confined to animal sub- stances alone. If deprived of animal food, such species, it is evident, could not exist. The chief force of this observation, it 1s admitted, is applicable solely to the carnivorous tribes, strictly so denominated. But, from the facts formerly enu- . merated, and from the daily experience of every man, it is apparent, that, perhaps, no animal does or can exist totally independent of food, that is or has been animated. Sheep, oxen, and all herbivorous animals, though not from choice, and even without consciousness, daily devour thousands of insects. This may be one reason why cattle of all kinds fatten so remarkably in rich pastures ; for insects are always most numerous where the herbage is luxuriant. Nature is so profuse in her animated productions, that no food can be eaten, and no fluid can be drank, in which animal Substances, either in a living or dead state, are not to be found. To this reasoning it may be objected, Why has Nature es- tablished a system so cruel? Why did she render it neces- sary that one animal could not ie: without the destruction of another? ‘To such questions no answer can be either given or expected. No being, except the Supreme, can unfold this mystery. Perhaps it even exceeds the limits of possibility to establish such an extended system of animation upon any other foundation. From the general benevolence of the great Creator, we are warranted to conclude that this is really the case. But it is fruitless to dwell upon subjects which are inscrutable, and far removed beyond the powers of human - intellect. We shall therefore descend, and endeavor to point out some advantages which result from this mysterious insti- tution of nature. The hostilities of animals give rise to mutual improvement. Animals improve, and discover a superiority of parts, in pro- portion to the number of enemies they have to attack or evade. The weak, and consequently timid, are obliged to exert their utmost powers in inventing and practising every possible mode of escape. Pure instinct powerfully prompts , but much is learned by experience and observation. Rapa- HOSTILITIES OF ANIMALS. 293 cious animals, on the contrary, by frequent disappointment, are obliged to. provide against the cunning and alertness of their prey. Herbivorous animals, as they have little difficulty in procuring food, are proportionally stupid ; but they would be still more stupid if they had no enemies to annoy them. Man, if his attention and talents were not excited by the ani- mosities of his own species, by the attacks of ferocious animals, and even by those of insect tribes, would be an in- dolent and i incurious, a dirty and an ignorant animal. Those of the human race, accordingly, who procure their food with little or no industry, as we learn from a multitude of travellers and voyagers, are perfectly ignorant and brutishly stupid. Timid animals never use the arts of defence, or provide against danger, except from three -causes,—pure instinct, whichis implanted in their natures, imitation, and experience. By experience, timid animals are taught the arts of evasion. Flight is instinctive ; but the modifications of it are acquired by imitation and experience. Hostilities, in some instances, seem to arise, not from a natural antipathy of one species to another, but from a scar- city of food. The celebrated Captain Cook informs us, that, in Staten Island, birds of prey assemble promiscuously with penguins and other birds, without the one offering any injury, or the other discovering the smallest symptom of terror. In that island, the rapacious birds, perhaps, find plenty of food from dead seals, sea-lions, and fishes. A profusion of animal life seems to be the general intention of nature. For this purpose, when not modified or restrained by the industry and intelligence of man, she uniformly covers the surface of the earth with trees and vegetables of every kind, which supply myriads of animated beings with food. But the greatest possible extension of life would still be want- ing, if animals did not prey upon each other. If all animals were to live on vegetables alone, many species, and millions of individuals, which now enjoy life and happiness, could have no existence ; for the productions of the earth would not be sufficient to support them. But, by making animals feed upon each other, the system of animation and of happiness is extended to the greatest possible degree. In this view, Nature, instead of being cruel and oppressive, is highly gen- erous and beneficent. To diminish the number of noxious animals, and to aug- ment that of useful vegetables, has been the uniform scope of human industry. A few species of animals only are of imme- 224 HOSTILITIES OF ANIMALS. diate utility to man. These he either cultivates with care, or hunts for his prey. The ox, the sheep, the goat, and other animals which are under his peculiar protection, he daily uses for food. This is not cruelty. He has a right to eat them ; for, like Nature, though he occasionally destroys domestic animals, a timid and docile race of beings, by his culture and protection he gives life and happiness to millions, which, without his aid, could have no existence. ‘The number of individuals, among animals of this description, if they were not cherished and defended by man, would be extremely lim- ited ; for, by the mildness of their dispositions, the compara- tive weakness of their arms, and the universal and strong appetite for them by rapacious quadrupeds and birds of prey, though the species might, perhaps, be continued, the number of individuals would of necessity be very small. There is a wonderful balance in the system of animal de- struction. If the general profusion of the animated produc- tions of nature had no other check than the various periods to which their lives, when not extinguished by hostilities of one kind and another, are limited, the whole would soon be annihilated by an universal famine, and the earth, instead of every where teeming with animals, would, unless repeopled by a new creation, exhibit nothing but a mute, a lifeless, and an inactive scene. If even a single species were permitted to multiply without disturbance, the food of other species would be exhausted, and, of course, a period would be put to their existence. The herbivorous and frugivorous races, if not restrained by the carnivorous, would soon increase S a hurtful degree. Carnivorous animals are the barriers fixed by nature to noxious inundations of other kinds. The car- nivorous tribes may be compared to the hoe and the pruning- hook, which, by diminishing the number of plants when too close, or lopping off their luxuriances, make the others grow to greater perfection. ‘To these swarms of insects, which cover the surface of the earth, are opposed an army of birds— an active, a vigilant, and a voracious race. Hares, rabbits, mice, rats, are exposed to the depredations of carnivorous quad- rupeds and birds. The larger cattle, as the ox, the deer, the sheep, &c., are not exempted from enemies; and man, by the superiority of his mental powers, checks the multiplica- tion of the carnivorous tribes, and maintains the balance and empire of the animal system. Those species which are en- dowed with uncommon fertility, have the greatest number of enemies. The caterpillar, the puceron, and insects in gene- HOSTILITIES OF ANIMALS. 925 ral, one of the most prolific classes of animals, are attacked and devoured by numerous hostile bands. No species, how- ever, is ever exhausted. The balance between gain and loss iS perpetually preserved. The earth, the seas, the atmosphere, may be considered as an immense and variegated pasture. In this view it is most judiciously cultivated and stocked by the numerous animated beings which it is destined to support. Every animal and every vegetable furnish subsistence to par-— ticular species. Thus, nothing of value is lost; and every species is abundantly supplied with food. - That the general balance of animation is constantly pre- served, we learn from daily experience. The reader, how- ever, | presume, will not be displeased to have some examples of the modes employed by nature to accomplish this effect, suggested to him. After an inundation of the Nile, the lower parts of Egypt are greatly infested with serpents, frogs, mice, and other ver- min. At that period, the storks resort thither in immense multitudes, and devour the serpents, frogs, and mice, which, without this dreadful carnage, would be highly noxious to the inhabitants. Belon, a most ingenious and faithful French naturalist, remarks, that in many places the land could not be inhabited, if the storks did not destroy the amazing numbers of mice which frequently appear in Palestine, and other parts of the East bordering upon Egypt. The Egyptian vulture, says Hasselquist, is of singular benefit to that country. It eats up all the dung and offals in the towns, and the carcass- es of camels, horses, asses, &c., in the fields, which, if not quickly devoured, would, in that warm climate, by their pu- trescency, be productive of disease and death to the inhab- itants. Putrid carcasses, in all countries, are both offensive to the nostrils and hurtful to health. But Nature, by various instruments, soon removes the evil. An animal no sooner dies, than, in a very short time, he is consumed by bears, wolves, foxes, dogs, and ravens. In situations where these animals dare not approach, as in the vicinity of towns and vil- lages, a dead horse, in a few days, is.devoured by myriads of maggots. In the uncultivated parts of America, serpents and snakes of different kinds abound. After it was discovered that swine greedily devoured serpents, hogs were uniformly kept by all new settlers. Caterpillars are destructive to the leaves and fruits of plants. Their numbers and varieties are immense. But their devastations are checked by many ene- mies, Without a profusion of caterpillars, most of the smaller 996 HOSTILITIES OF ANIMALS. birds, especially when young, could not be supported. By devouring the caterpillars, these birds preserve the fruits of the earth from total destruction. Shell-fishes are extremely prolific, and so strongly fortified by nature, that their increase, one would imagine, would soon augment to a degree that might be hurtful to other species. Their noxious multiplication, however, is checked by num- berless enemies. But their most destructive enemy is the trochus, which is a kind of sea-snail. This animal is furnish- ed with a strong, muscular, hollow trunk, bordered at the extremity with a cartilage tooth like a saw. Against this instrument, which acts like an auger, no shell, however hard or thick, is a sufficient defence. These animals, called trochz, fix themselves upon an oyster or a muscle, bore through the shell with their trunk, and devour their prey at their leisure. The amimal attacked, if a bivalve, may open or shut its shell ; but no efforts of this kind can be of any avail; for the trochus remains immovably fixed, till it has completely sucked out the vitals of its prey. In this cruel occupation, the trochus often continues for days, and even weeks, before the life of the animal attacked ts fully extinguished. The operation of the trochus may be seen in the shells of many oysters, muscles, and other shell-fishes ; for their shells are often pierced with a number of circular holes. The amazing strength of the whale, one would imagine, would secure it from the insults of every other animal. But, besides the annual depredations made by man upon the ceta- ceous tribes, they are often attacked and killed by the sword- fish. ‘The snout of this comparatively small animal is armed with a long, hard projection of bone, each edge of which is furnished with a number of strong, flat, and sharp points, or teeth, some of which, especially near the snout, are an inch and a half in length. With this instrument the sword-fish boldly attacks the whale. ‘The whaie has no other defence but its tail, with which it endeavors to strike its antagonist. But, as the sword-fish 1s more active and nimble than the whale, he easily parries the blow by springing into the air, and renewing the attack with his saw-like instrument. When- ever he succeeds, the sea is dyed red with the blood issuing from the wound. The fury of the whale appears from the vehemence with which it-lashes the waters, each stroke resounding like the report of a cannon. Upon the whole, every animated being that inhabits this globe seems to be destined by Nature, not for his own individual * ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. 227 existence and happiness alone, but likewise for the existence and happiness-of other animated beings. A circle of anima- tion and of destruction goes perpetually round. ‘This is the economy ofnature. Different species of animals live by the mutual destruction of each other. Even among individual men, the strong too often oppress the weak ; but on the other hand, the wise instruct the ignorant. These are the bonds ef society, and the sources of improvement. CHAPTER X. OF THE ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. Many instances of the dexterity and artifices of different animals, in various parts of their manners and economy, have been occasionally mentioned in several of the foregoing chap- ters. This circumstance, to avoid repetitions, will necessarily render the present chapter proportionally short. The arti- fices practised by animals proceed from several motives, many of which are purely instinctive, and others are acquired by experience and imitation. Upon this subject we shall, as usual, give some examples, which may both amuse and inform the reader. When a bear, or other rapacious animal, attacks cattle, they instantly join and form a phalanx for mutual defence. In the same circumstances, horses rank up in lines, and beat off the enemy with their heels. Pontoppidan tells us, that the small Norwegian horses, when attacked by bears, instead of striking with their hind legs, rear, and, by quick and re- peated strokes with their fore feet, either kill the enemy, or oblige him to retire. This curious, and generally successful defence, is frequently performed in the woods, while a traveller is sitting on the horse’s back. It has often been remarked, that troops of wild horses, whether sleeping either in plains or in the forest, have always one of their number awake, who acts as a sentinel, and gives notice of any approaching danger. Margraaf informs us, that the monkeys in Brazil, while they are sleeping on the trees, have uniformly a sentinel to warn them of the approach of the tiger or other rapacious 228 ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. animals; and that, if ever this sentinel is found sleeping, his companions instantly tear him in pieces for his neglect of duty For the same purpose, when a troop of monkeys are commit- ting depredations on the fruits of a garden, a sentinel is placed on an eminence, who, when any person appears, makes a certain chattering noise, which the rest understand to be a sig- nal for retreat, and immediately fly off and make their escape. The deer kind are remarkable for the arts they employ in order to deceive the dogs. With this view the stag often re- turns twice or thrice upon his former steps. He endeavors to raise hinds or younger stags to follow him, and draw off the dogs from the immediate object of their pursuit. If he succeeds in this attempt, he then flies off with redoubled speed, or springs off at a side, and lies down on his belly to conceal himself. When im this situation, if by any means his foot is recovered by the dogs, they pursue him with more ad- vantage, because he is now considerably fatigued. Their ardor increases in proportion to his feebleness; and the scent becomes stronger as he grows warm. From these circum- stances the dogs augment their cries and their speed; and, though the stag employs more arts of escape than formerly, as his swiftness is diminished, his doublings and artifices be- come gradually less effectual. No other resource is now left him but to fly from the earth which he treads, and go into the waters, in order to cut off the scent from the dogs, when the huntsmen again endeavor. to put them on the track of his foot. After taking to the water, the stag is so much exhausted that he is incapable of-running much farther, and 1s soon at bay, or, in other words, turns and defends himself against the hounds. In this situation he often wounds the dogs, and - even the huntsmen, by blows with the horns, till one of them cuts his hams to make him fall, and then puts a period to his life. | The fallow-deer is more delicate, less savage, and ap- proaches nearer to the domestic state than the stag. They associate in herds, which generally keep together. When great numbers are assembled in one park, they commonly form themselves into two distinct troops, which soon become hostile, because they are both ambitious of possessing the same part of the inclosure. Each of these troops has its own chief or leader, who always marches foremost, and he is uni- formly the oldest and strongest of the flock. The others fol- low him ; and the whole draw up in order of battle, to force the other troop, who observe the same conduct, from the best ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. 229 pasture. The regularity with which these combats are con- ducted is singular. They make regular attacks, fight with courage, and never think themselves vanquished by one check ; for the battle is daily renewed, till the weaker are completely defeated, and obliged to remain in the worst pasture. They love elevated and hilly countries. When hunted, they run not straight out, like the stag, but double, and endeavor to conceal themselves from the dogs by various artifices, and by substituting other animals in their place. When fatigued and heated, however, they take the water, but never attempt to cross such large rivers as the stag. Thus, between the chase of the fallow-deer and of the stag, there is no material dif- ference. Their sagacity and instincts, their shifts and dou- blings, are the same, only they are more frequently practised by the fallow-deer. As he runs not so far before the dogs, and is less enterprising, he has oftener occasion to change, to substitute another in his place, to double, return upon his former tracks, &c., which renders the hunting of the fallow- deer more subject to inconveniences than that of the stag. | The roe-deer is inferior to the stag and fallow-deer, both m strength and stature; but he is endowed with more graceful- ness, courage, and vivacity. “His eyes are more brilliant and animated. His limbs are more nimble; his movements are quicker, and he bounds with equal vigor and agility. He is, likewise, more crafty, conceals himself with greater address, and derives superior resources from his instincts. ‘hough he leaves behind him a stronger scent than the stag, which increases the ardor of the dogs, he knows how to evade their pursuit, by the rapidity with which he commences his flight, and by numerous doublings. He delays not his arts of de- fence till his strength begins to fail him; for he no sooner perceives that the efforts of a rapid flight have been unsuc- cessful, than he repeatedly returns upon his former steps; and after confounding, by these opposite motions, the direction he has taken, after intermixing the present with the past emanations of his body, he, by a great bound, rises from the earth, and, retiring to a side, lies down flat upon his belly. in this immovable situation, he often allows the whole pack: of his deceived enemies to pass very near him. The roe-deer differs from the stag in disposition, manners, and in almost every natural habit. Instead of associating in herds, they live in separate families. ‘The two parents and the young go together, and never mingle with strangers. The females com- monly produce two fawns, the one a male and the other a 2oU ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. female. These young animals, who are brought up and nour- ished together, acquire a mutual affection so strong, that they never depart from each other. In a week or two after birth, the fawns are able to follow their mother. When threatened with danger, she hides them in a close thicket ; and, so strong is her parental affection, that, in order to preserve her offspring from destruction, she presents herself to be chased. Hares possess not, like rabbits, the art of digging retreats in the earth. But they neither want instinct sufficient for their own preservation, nor sagacity for escaping their ene- mies. ‘They form seats or nests on the surface of the ground, where they watch, with the most vigilant attention, the ap- proach of any danger. In order to deceive, they conceal themselves between clods of the same color with their own hair. When pursued, they first run with rapidity, and then double or return upon their former steps. From the place of starting, the females run not so far as the males; but they double more frequently. Hares hunted in the place where they are brought forth, seldom remove to a great dis- tance from it, but return to their form ; and when chased two days successively, on the second day they perform the same doublings they had practised the day before. When hares run straight out to a great distance, it is a proof that they are strangers. ‘‘I have seen a hare,” Fouilloux remarks, “ so sagacious, that, after hearing the hunter’s horn, he started from his form, and though at the distance of a quarter of a league, went to swim in a pool, and lay down on the rushes in the middle of it, without being chased by the dogs. I have seen a hare, after running two hours before the dogs, push another from his seat, and take possession of it. I have seen others swim over two or three ponds, the narrowest of which was eighty paces broad. I have seen others, after a two hours’ chase, run into a sheepfold, and lie down among them. I have seen others, when hard pushed, run in among a flock of sheep, and would not leave them. I have seen others, after hearing the noise of the hounds, conceal themselves in the earth. I have seen others run up one side of a hedge, and return by the other, when there was nothing else between them and the dogs. I have seen others, after running half an hour, mount an old wall six feet high, and clap down in a hole covered with ivy. Lastly, I have seen others swim over a river, of about eighty paces broad, oftener than twice, in the Jength of two hundred paces.” The fox has, in all ages and nations, been celebrated for PE ——— ~ - ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. 931 crafiiness and address. Acute and circumspect, sagacious and prudent, he diversifies his conduct, and always reserves some art for unforeseen accidents. Though nimbler than the wolf, he trusts not entirely to the swiftness of his course. He knows how to ensure safety, by providing himself with an asylum, to which he retires when danger appears. He is not a vagabond, but lives in a settled habitation, and in a domes- tic state. The choice of situation, the art of making and rendering a house commodious, and of concealing the avenues which lead to it, imply a superior degree of sentiment and reflection. ‘The fox possesses these qualities, and employs them with dexterity and advantage. He takes up his abode on the border of a wood, and in the neighborhood of cot- tages. Here he listens to the crowing of the cocks and the noise of the poultry. He scents them at a distance. He chooses his time with great judgment and discretion. He conceals both his route and his design. He moves forward with caution, sometimes even trailing his body, and seldom makes a fruitless expedition. When he leaps the wall, or gets in underneath it, he ravages the court-yard, puts all the fowls to death, and then retires quietly with his prey, which he either conceals under the herbage, or carries off to his kennel. In a short time he returns for another, which he carries off in the same manner, but to a different place. inthis manner he proceeds, till the light of the sun, or some movements perceived in the house, admonish him that it is time to retire to his den. He does much mischief to the bird-catchers Early in the morning he visits their nets and their birdlime, and carries off successively all the birds that happen to be entangled. The young hares he hunts in the plains, seizes old ones in their seats, digs out the rabbits in the warrens, finds out the nests of partridges, quails, &c., seizes the mothers on the eggs, and destroys a prodigious number of game. Dogs of all kinds spontaneously hunt the fox. Though his odor be strong, they often prefer him to the stag or the hare. When pursued, he runs to his hole; and it is not uncommon to send in terriers to detain him till the hunters remove the earth above, and either kill or seize him alive. The most certain method, however, of destroying a fox is to begin with shutting up the hole, to station a man with a gun near the entrance, and then to search about with the dogs. When they fal] in with him, he immediately makes for his hole. But, ‘when he comes up to it, he is met with a discharge from the gun. Ifthe shot misses him, he flies off full speed, takes a ye ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. wide circuit, and returns to the hole, where he is fired upon a second time; but, when he discovers that the entrance is shut, he darts away straight forward, with the intention of never revisiting his former habitation. He is next pursued by the hounds, whom he seldom fails to fatigue; because, with much cunning, he passes through the thickest part of the forest, or places of the most difficult access, where the dogs are hardly able to follow him; and, when he takes to the plains he runs straight out, without either stopping or dou- bling. But the most effectual way of destroying foxes is to lay snares baited with live pigeons, fowls, &c. The fox is an exceedingly voracious animal. Besides all kinds of flesh and fishes, he devours, with equal avidity, eggs, milk, cheese, fruits, and particularly grapes. He is so extremely fond of honey, that he attacks the nests of wild bees. They at first put him to flight by numberless stings; but he retires for the sole purpose of rolling himself on the ground, and of crushing the bees. He returns to the charge so often, that he obliges them to abandon the hive, which he soon uncovers, and de- vours both the honey and the wax. When the female perceives that her retreat is discovered, and that her young have been disturbed, she carries them off, one by one, into a new habitation. ‘The fox sleeps in around form, like the dog; but, when he only reposes himself, he lies on his belly, with his hind legs extended. It is in this situa- tion that he eyes the birds on the hedges and trees. The birds have such an antipathy against him, that they no sooner perceive him than they send forth shrill cries to advertise their neighbors of the enemy’s approach. ‘The jays and blackbirds, in particular, follow the fox from tree to tree, sometimes two or three hundred paces, often repeating the watch-cries. The Count de Buffon kept two young foxes, which, when at liberty, attacked the poultry ; but after they were chained, they never attempted to toucha single fowl. A living hen was then placed near them for whole nights; and, though destitute of victuals for many hours, in spite of hunger and opportunity, they never forgot that they were chained, and gave the hen no disturbance. — In Kamtschatka, the animals called Ahions employ a sin- gular stratagem for killing the fallow-deer. ‘They climb up a tree, and carry with them a quantity of that species of moss of which the deer are very fond. When a deer approaches near the tree, the glutton throws down the moss. If the deer stops to eat the moss, the glutton instantly darts upon his ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. 233 back, and, after fixing himself firmly between the horns, tears out his eyes, which torments the animal to such a degree, that, whether to put an end to its torments, or to get rid of its cruel enemy, it strikes its head against the tree till it falls down dead. The glutton divides the flesh of the deer into convenient portions, and conceals them in the earth to serve for future provisions.. The gluttons on the river Lena kill horses in the same manner. There are several species of rats in Kamtschatka. The most remarkable kind is called tegulchitch by the natives. These rats make neat and spacious nests under ground ; they are lined with turf, and divided into different apartments, in which the rats deposit stores of provisions for supporting them during the winter. It is worthy of remark, that the rats of this country never touch the provisions laid up for the winter, except when they cannot procure nourishment any where else. These rats, like the Tartars, change their habitations. Sometimes they totally abandon Kamtschatka for several years, and their retreat greatly alarms the inhab- itants, which they consider as a presage of a rainy season, and of a bad year for hunting. The return of these animals is, of course, looked upon as a good omen. Whenever they appear, the happy news is soon spread over all parts of the country. ‘They always take their departure in the spring, when they assemble in prodigious numbers, and traverse rivers, lakes, and even arms of the sea. After they have made a long voyage, they frequently lie motionless on the shore, as if they were dead. When they recover their strength, they recommencetheir march. The inhabitants of Kamt- schatka are very solicitous for the preservation of these ani- mals. ‘They never do the rats any injury, but give them every . assistance when they lie weakened and extended on the sround. ‘They generally return to Kamtschatka about the month of October; and they are sometimes met with in such prodigious numbers, that travellers are obliged to stop two hours till the whole troop passes. The tract of ground they travel in a single summer is not less wonderful than the regu- larity they observe in their march, and that instinctive im- pulse which enables them to foresee, with certainty, the changes of times and of seasons. , With regard to birds, their artifices are not less numerous nor less surprising than those of quadrupeds. The eagle and hawk kinds are remarkable for the sharpness of their sight, and the arts at employ in catching their prey. Their 0 934 ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. - movements are rapid or slow, according to their intentions, and the situation of the animals they wish to devour. Rapa- cious birds uniformly endeavor to rise higher in the air than their prey, that they may have an opportunity of darting forcibly down upon it with their pounces. To counteract these artifices, nature has endowed the smaller and more innocent species of birds with many arts of defence. When a hawk appears, the small birds, if they find it convenient, conceal themselves in hedges or brush-wood. When deprived of this opportunity, they often, in great numbers, seem to fol- low the hawk, and to expose themselves unnecessarily to danger, while in fact, by their numbers, their perpetual changes of direction, and their uniform endeavors to rise above him, they perplex the hawk to such a degree, that he is unable to fix upon a single object; and, after exerting all his art and address, he is frequently obliged to relinquish the pursuit. When in the extremity of danger, and after employ- ing every other artifice in vain, small birds have been often known to fly to men for protection. This is a plain indica- tion that these animals, though they in general avoid the hu- man race, are by no means so much afraid of man as of rapa- cious birds. : The ravens often frequent the sea-shores in quest of food. When they find their inability to break the shells of muscles, &c., to accomplish this purpose they use a very ingenious stratagem. ‘They carry a muscle, or other shell-fish, high up in the air, and then dash it down upon a rock, by which means the shell is broken, and they obtain the end they had in view. The woodpecker is furnished with a very long and flexible tongue. It feeds upon ants and other small insects. Nature has endowed this bird with a singular instinct. It knows how to procure food without seeing its prey. It attaches itself to the trunks or branches of decayed trees; and, wherever it perceives a hole or crevice, it darts in its long tongue, and brings it out loaded with insects of different kinds. This op- eration is certainly instinctive ; but the instinct is assisted by the instruction of the parents; for the young are no sooner able to fly, than the parents, by the force of example, teach them to resort to trees, and to insert their tongues indiscrimi- nately into every hole or fissure. ‘A small bird of the hawk kind, called the nine-killer, has been observed at particular seasons of the year to catch grass- hoppers, beetles, or other insects, kill them and stick them ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. 235 in a position entirely natural, upon the brayches of trees or bushes, so that they appear, at first sight, as if alive. Itisa common opinion where this bird is found, that it thus destroys nine insects every day, and hence its name; but as it is known not to feed upon insects itself, but principally upon smail quadrupeds and birds, the object of this expedient is not per- fectly obvious. Some have supposed that it was done merely for amusement. ‘T'he most probable explanation, however, is that the insects are intended by this little hawk as a decoy for the birds which it designs for its prey. This mancuvre is put in practice in the fall of the year, just before the severe frosts begin, which by killing the insects deprive the smaller birds of the food on which they have been accustomed to subsist. They are of course, in the season of scarcity, led to the bait their sagacious enemy has provided, and thus become an easy prey.’ Of the economy of the inhabitants of the water, as for- merly remarked, our knowledge is extremely limited. But, as the ocean exhibits a perpetual and general scene of attack and defence, the arts of assault and of evasion must, of course, be exceedingly various. For the preservation of some spe- cies of fishes, nature has armed them with strong and sharp pikes. Others, as the perch kind, are defended with strong, bony rays in their fins. Others, as the univalve shell-fish, retire into their shells upon the approach of danger. The bivalves and multivalves, when attacked, instantly shut their shells, which, in general, is a sufficient protection to them. Some univalves, as the limpet kind, attach themselves so firmly, by excluding the air, to rocks and stones, that, unless quickly surprised, no force inferior to that of breaking the shell can remove them. The flying-fish, when pursued, darts out of the water, and takes refuge im the air, in which it is for some time supported by the operation of its large and pliable fins. The torpedo is furnished with a remarkable apparatus for self-preservation. It repels every hostile at- tempt by an electrical stroke, which confounds and intimi- dates its enemies. Several fishes, and particularly the salmon kind, when about to generate, leave the ocean, ascend the rivers, deposit their eggs in the sand, and, after making a proper nidus for their future progeny, return to the ocean — from whence they came. Others, as the herring kind, though they seldom go up rivers, assemble in myriads from all quar- ters, and approach the shores, or ascend arms of the sea, for the purpose of continuing the species, and cherishing their hy. 236 | ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. offspring. When that operation is performed, they leave the coasts and disperse in the ocean, till the same instinctive impulse forces them to observe similar conduct the next sea- son. This migration of salmons, herrings, and many other fishes, from the ocean to the rivers or shores, is of infinite ad- vantage to mankind. It is upon their passage that such immense numbers are taken to be used as food, and thus be- come an important article of commerce. The insect tribes, though comparatively diminutive, are not deficient in artifice and address. With much art the spider spins his web. It serves him the double purpose of a habita- tion, and of a machine for catching his food. With incredi- ble patience and perseverance he lies in the centre of his web for days, and sometimes for weeks, before an ill-fated fly happens to be entangled. One species of spider, which is small, of a blackish color, and frequents cottages or out-houses, I have known to live, during the whole winter months, almost without the possibility of receiving any nourishment; for, during that period, not a fly of any kind could be discovered in the apartment. If they had been ina torpid state, like some other animals, the wonder of their surviving the want of food so long would not have been so great. But in the severest weather, and through the whole course of the winter, they were perfectly active and lively. Neither did they seem to be in the least emaciated. , The formica-leo, or ant-lion, is a small insect, somewhat resembling a wood-louse, but larger. Its head is flat, and armed with two fine movable crotchets, or pincers. It has six legs, and its body, which terminates in a point, is composed of a number of membranous rings. | In the sand or in finely- pulverized earth, this animal digs a hole in the form of a funnel, at the bottom of which it lies in ambush for its prey. As it always walks backward, it cannot pursue any. insect. To supply this defect, it lays a snare for them, and especially for the ant, which is its favorite food. It generally lies con- cealed under the sand in the bottom of its funnel or trap, and seldom exhibits more than the top of its head. In digging a funnel, the formica-leo begins with tracing a circular furrow in the sand, the circumference of which determines the size of the funnel, which is often an inch deep. After the first furrow is made, the animal traces a second, which is always concentric with the first. It throws out the sand, as with a shovel, from the successive furrows or circles, by means of its square, flat head, and one of its fore legs. It proceeds in ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. 237 this manner till it has completed its funnel, which it does with surprising promptitude and address. At the bottom of this artful snare it: lies concealed and immovable. When an ant happens to make too near an approach to the margin of the funnel, the sides of which are very steep, the fine sand gives - way, and the unwary animal tumbles down to the bottom. The formica-leo instantly kills the ant, buries it under the sand, and sucks out its vitals. It afterwards pushes out the empty skin, repairs the disorder introduced into its snare, and again lies in ambush for a fresh prey. We formerly took some notice of that species of spider which carries her eggs in a bag attached to her belly. A spider of this kind was thrown into the funnel of a formica- leo. The latter instantly seized the bagof eggs, and endeav- ored to drag it under the sand. The spider, from a strong love of offspring, allowed its own body to be carried along with the bag. But the slender silk by which it was fixed to the animal’s belly broke, and a separation took place. The spider immediately seized the bag with her pincers, and ex- erted all her efforts to regain the object of her affections. But these efforts were ineffectual; for the formica-leo gradu- ally sunk the bag deeper and deeper in the sand. The spider, however, rather than quit her hold, allowed herself to be buried alive. In a short time, the observer removed the sand, and took out the spider. She was perfectly unhurt ; for the formica-leo had not made an attack upon her. But, ‘so strong was her attachment to her eggs, that, though fre- quently touched with a twig, she would not relinquish the place which contained them. When arrived at its full growth, the formica-leo gives up the business of an ensnaring hunter. He deserts his former habitation, and crawls about for some time on the surface of the earth. He at last retires under the ground, spins a round silken pod, and is soon transformed into a fly. 238 SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. — m8 CHAPTER XL OF THE docrseies ie ANIMALS. Tue associating principle, from which so many advantages are derived, is not confined to the human species, but extends, in some instances, to every class of animals. It is remarked, by Buffon and some other authors, that the state of nature, which had long occupied the attention and researches of philosophers, was rejected by them after the discovery was made. In the estimation of the authors alluded to, the savage state is the state of nature. ‘The first natural condition of mankind is the union of a male and female. These produce @ family, who, from necessity, or, in other words, from parental and filial affection, continue together, and assist each other in procuring food and shelter. This family, like most families in established civil societies, feel their own weakness, and their inability to supply their wants without more powerful resources than their feeble exertions. When this wandering and defenceless family accidentally meet with another family in the same condition, nature, it Is said, teaches them to unite for mutual support and protec- tion. The association of two families may be considered as the, first formation of a tribe or nation. When a number of tribes happen to unite, they only become a larger or more numerous nation. A single pair, it is true, if placed in a situ- ation where plenty of food could be procured without much labor, might, in a succession of ages, produce any indefinite number. This is precisely the situation in which Moses has placed our first parents. He has added another circumstance highly favorable to a speedy population. Instead of the pres- ent brevity of human life, he informs us, that men, in the — first periods of the world, lived and propagated several hun- dred years. In countries thinly peopled with savages, it is extremely probable, that societies are formed by the gradual union of families and tribes. The increase of power arising from mutual assistance, and a thousand other comfortable circum- stances, soon contribute to cement more firmly the associated members. Some of the arts of life, beside that of hunting, are occasionally discovered either by accident or by the ingenuity of individuals. In this manner, gradual advances SOCIRTY OF ANIMALS. 239 are made from the savage to the civilized condition of man- kind. This is a very short view of the origin of society, which has been adopted by most authors, both ancient and modern, though many of them have derived the associating principle from very different, and even from opposite causes, which it is no part of our plan either to enumerate or to refute. Some writers, as Aristotle, and a few moderns, implicit followers of his opinions, deny that man is naturally a gregarious or asso- ciating animal. ‘To render this notion consistent with the actual and universal state of the human race, these authors have had recourse to puerile conceits, and to questionable facts, which it would be fruitless to relate. Other writers, possessed of greater judgment and discernment, and _ less warped with vanity and hypothetical phantoms, have derived the origin of society from its real and only source, Nature herself. That the associating principle is instinctive hardly requires a proof. An appeal to the feelings of any human being, and to the universal condition of mankind, is sufficient. ‘These feelings, it may be said, are acquired by education and habit. By these causes, it is true, our social feelings are strengthened and confirmed; but their origin is coeval with the existence of the first human mind. Let any man attend to the eyes, the features, and the gestures of a child upon the breast when another child is presented to it; both instantly, previ- ous to the possibility of instruction or habit, exhibit the most evident expressions of joy. Their eyes sparkle, their features and gestures demonstrate, in the most unequivocal manner, a mutual attachment, and a strong desire of approaching each other, not with a hostile intention, but with an ardent affec- tion, which, in that pure and uncontaminated state of our be- ing, does honor to human nature. When farther advanced, children who are strangers to each other, though their social appetite is equally strong, discover a mutual shyness of ap- proach. ‘This shyness, or modesty, however, is soon conquer- ed by the more powerful instinct of association. They daily mingle and sport together. Their natural affections, which, at that period, are strong, and unbiased by those selfish and vicious motives which too often conceal. and thwart the in- tentions of nature, create warm friendships that frequently continue during their lives, and produce the most beneficial and cordial effects. When we thus see with our eyes, that the associating principle appears distinctly at so early a period, who will listen to those writers who choose to deny that man is, naturally, an associating or gregarious animal ? 246 SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. With regard to the advantages we derive from association, a volume would not be sufficient to enumerate them. Man possesses a portion of the reasoning faculty highly superior to that of any other animal. He alone enjoys the power of com- municating and expressing his ideas by articulate and artifi- cial language. ‘This inestimable prerogative is, perhaps, one of the greatest secondary bonds of society, and the greatest source of improvement to the human intellect. Without ar- tificial language, though nature has bestowed on every ani- mal a mode of expressing its wants and desires, its pleasures and pains, what a humiliating figure would the human spe- cies exhibit, even upon the supposition that they did associ- ate! But when language and association are conjoined, the human intellect, in the progress of time, arrives at a high de- gree of perfection. Society gives rise to virtue, honor, gov- ernment, subordination, arts, science, order, happiness. All the individuals of a community conduct themselves upon a regulated system. Under the influence of established laws, kings and magistrates, by the exercise of legal authority, en- courage virtue, repress vice, and diffuse, through the extent of their jurisdictions, the happy effects of their administra- tion. In society, as ina fertile climate, human talents ger- | minate and are expanded; the mechanical and hberal arts flourish; poets, orators, historians, philosophers, lawyers, physicians, and theologians are produced. These truths are pleasant ; and it were to be wished that no evils accompanied them. But, through the whole extent of nature, it would ap- pear, from our limited views, that good and evil, pleasure and pain, are necessary and perpetual concomitants. The advantages of society are immense and invaluable. But the inconveniences, hardships, injustice, oppressions, and cruelties, which too often originate from it, are great and lamentable. Even under the mildest and best-regulated gov- ernments, animosities, jealousies, avarice, fraud, and chicane, are unfortunately never removed from our observation. In absolute monarchies, and particularly in despotic govern ments, the scenes of private and of general calamity and distress are often too dreadful to be described. Notwithstand- ing all these disadvantages, however, any government is preferable to anarchy ; and the comforts, pleasures, and im- provements we receive from associating with each other, overbalance all the evils to which society gives rise. From an attentive observation of the manners and economy of animals, society has been distinguished into two kinds, —EEE eee ee . -- SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. 24] which have been called proper and improper.—1. Proper Societies comprehend all those animals which not only live together in numbers, but carry on certain operations which have a direct tendency to promote the welfare and happiness of the community.—2. Improper Societies include all those animals which herd together, and love the company of each other, without carrying en any common operation. 1. Proper Secieties.—It is almost needless to remark that man holds the first rank in animal. associations of this kind. If men did not assist each other, no operation of any magni- tude, or which could show any great superiority of talents above those of the brute creation, could possibly be effected. A single family, or even a few families united, like other car- nivorous animals, might hunt their prey, and procure a sufficient quantity of food. They might, like the bear, lodge in the cavities of trees; they might occupy natural caves in the rocks ; they might even build huts with branches of trees and with turf, and cement these gross materials with clay. This lowest and most abject view of human nature is not ex- aggerated. It were to be wished that this grovelling condi- tion of mankind were fictitious, and that, in many regions of the globe, it did not, at this moment, exist. ‘These operations of men, when only acquainted with the mere rudiments of society, indicate parts little superior to those of the brutes. Man, even in his most uninformed state, possesses the capacity for every species of knowledge and every exertion of genius. But it may be cherished, expanded, and brought gradually to perfection. It is by numerous and regularly-established so- clieties alone, that such glorious exhibitions of human intellect can be produced. What is the hut of a savage, when com- pared to the palace of a prince? or what his canoe, when compared to a first-rate ship of war ? Next to the intelligence exhibited in human society, that of the beavers is the most conspicuous. Their operations in preparing, fashioning, and transporting the heavy materials for building their winter habitations, as formerly remarked, are truly astonishing ; and, when we read their history, we are apt to think that we are perusing the history of man in a _ period of society not inconsiderably advanced. it is only by the united strength and codperation of numbers, that the _ beavers could be enabled to produce such wonderful effects ; for, in a solitary state, as they at present appear in some northern parts of Europe, the beavers are timid and stupid animals. ‘They neither associate, nor attempt to construct 21 RAR SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. “ villages, but content themselves with digging holes in the earth. Like men under the oppression of despotic govern- ments, the spirit of the European beavers is depressed, and their genius is extinguished by terror, and by a perpetual and necessary attention to individual safety. The northern parts of Europe are now so populous, and the animals there are so perpetually hunted for the sake of their furs, that they have no opportunity of associating; of course, those wonderful marks of their sagacity, which they exhibit in the remote and uninhabited regions of North America, are no longer to be found. ‘The society of beavers is a society of peace and of affection. They never quarrel or injure one another, but live together in different numbers, according to the dimensions of particular cabins, in the most perfect harmony. The princi- ple of their union is neither monarchical nor despotic ; for the inhabitants of the different cabins, as well as those of the whole village, seem to acknowledge no chief or leader what- ever. ‘heir association presents to our observation a model of a pure and perfect republic, the only basis of which is mutual and unequivocal attachment. ‘They have no law but the law of love and of parental affection. Humanity prompts us to wish that it were possible to establish republics of this kind among mankind. But the dispositions of men have little af- finity to those of the beavers. The hampster, or German marmot, and some other quadru- peds of this kind, live in society, and assist each other in dig- ging and rendering commodious their subterraneous habita- tions. The operations of the marmots have already been de- scribed ; and the nature of their society, as they continue during the winter in a torpid state, is either less known, or does not excite so much admiration, as that of the beavers. Pairing birds, in some measure, may be considered as form- | ing proper society ; ; because, in general, the males and fe- | males mutually assist each other in building nests and feeding I their young. But this society, except in the eagle tribes, com- , monly continues no longer than their mutual offspring are fully able to provide for themselves. None of the feathered tribes, as far as we know, unite in bodies, in order to carry on any “operation common to the whole. ] 1 ) Neither do we learn from history that fishes ever associate | for the purpose of executing any common operation. Many , of them, as herrings, salmon, &c., assemble in multitudes at particular seasons of the year; but this association, to which they are impelled by instinct, has no common object; for , ) SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. 243 each individual is stimulated to act in this manner by its own ‘motives, and no general effect is produced by mutual exertions. In proper societies, each individual not only attends to his own preservation and welfare, but all the members cooperate in certain laborious offices, which produce many common ad- vantages, that could not otherwise be procured. In some societies, the general principle of association and of mutual labor is purely instinctive, though, in many cases, individuals learn, by observation and experience, to modify or accommo- date this general principle according to particular accidents or circumstances ; some examples of which have already been given in the chapter upon instinct. The insect tribes furnish many instances of proper societies. The honey-bees not only labor in common with astonishing assiduity and art, but their whole attention and affections seem to centre in the person of the queen or sovereign of the hive. She is the basis of their association and of all their operations. When she dies by any accident, the whole commu- nity are instantly in disorder. All their labors cease. No new cells are constructed. Neither honey nor wax is collected. Nothing but perfect anarchy prevails, till a new queen or female is obtained. The government or society of bees is more of a monarchical than of a republican nature. The whole of the members of the state seem to respect and to be directed by asingle female. This fact affords a strong in- stance of the force and wisdom of nature. The female alone is the mother of the whole hive, however numerous. With- out her, the species could not be continued. Nature, there- fore, has endowed the rest of the hive with a wonderful affection to their common parent. For the reception of her eggs, nature impels them to construct cells, and to lay up stores of provisions for winter subsistence. These operations proceed from pure instinctive impulses. But every instinct necessarily supposes a degree of intellect, a substratum to be acted upon, otherwise no impuise could be felt, and, of course, no action nor mark of intelligence could possibly be produced. That the intelligence, the government, and the sagacity of bees have been frequently exaggerated, and as frequently misunderstood, no real philosopher, or natural historian, will. pretend to deny. But to refuse to believe them possessed of any portion of intelligence, and to refer all their wonderful operations to a mere mechanical impulse, as is done by Buffon, is equally opposed to the dictates of common sense and of sound philosophy. : 244 SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. What are called the common caterpillars afford an instance of proper association. About the middle of summer, a but- terfly deposits from three to four hundred eggs on the leaf of a tree, from each of which, in a few days, a young caterpillar proceeds. ‘They are no sooner hatched than they begin to form a common habitation. They spin silken threads, which they attach to one edge of the leaf, and extend them to the other. By this operation they make the two edges of the leaf approach each other, and form a cavity resembling a hammock. ‘In a short time, the concave leaf is completely roofed with a covering of silk. Under this tent the animals live together in mutual friendship and harmony. When not disposed to eat or spin, they retire to their tent. It requires several of these habitations to contain the whole. According as these animals increase in size, the number of their tents is augmented. But these are only temporary and partial lodg- ments, constructed for mutual conveniency, till the caterpil- Jars are in a state to build one more spacious, and which will be sufficient to contain the whole. After gnawing one half of the substance of such leaves as happen to be near the end of some twig or small branch, they begin their great work. In constructing this new edifice or nest, the caterpillars en- crust a considerable part of the twig with white silk. In the same manner, they cover two or three of such leaves as are nearest to the termination of the twig. They then spin silken coverings of greater dimensions, in which they inclose the two or three leaves together with the twig. The nest 1s now so spacious that it is able to contain the whole community, every individual of which is employed in the common labor. These nests“are too frequently seen, in autumn, upon the fruit-trees of our gardens. They are still more exposed to observation in winter, when the leaves, which formerly con- cealed many of them, have fallen. They consist of large bundles of white silk and withered leaves, without any reg- ular or constant form. Some of them are flat, and others roundish ; but none of them are destitute of angles. By dif- ferent plain coverings extended from the opposite sides of the leaves and of the twig, the internal part of the nest is divided into a number of different apartments. T’o each of these apartments, which seem to be very irregular, there are passages by which the caterpillars can either go out in quest of food, or retire in the evening, or during rainy weather. The silken coverings, by repeated layers, become at last so | thick and strong, that they resist all the attacks of the wind, | SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. Q45 - and all the injuries of the air, during eight or nine months. _ About the beginning of October, or when thé frost first com- mences, the whole community shut themselves up in the nest. Dnring the winter they remain immovable, and seemingly dead. But, when exposed to heat, they soon discover symp- toms of life, and begin to creep. In this country, they seldom go out of the nest till the middle or end of April. When they shut themselves up for the winter, they are very small ; but, after they have fed for some days in spring upon the young and tender leaves, they find the nest itself, ana all the entrances to it, too small for the increased size of their bodies. To remedy this inconvenience, these disgusting reptiles know how to enlarge both the nest and its passages by additional operations accommodated to their present state. Into these new lodgings they retire when they want to repose, to screen themselves from the injuries of the weather, or to cast their skins. In fine, after casting their skins several times, the time of their dispersion arrives. From the beginning to near the end of June, they lead a solitary life. ‘Their social dis- position is no longer felt. Each of them spins a pod of coarse brownish silk. In a few days they are changed into chrysa- lids ; and, in eighteen or twenty days more, they are trans- formed into butterflies. | Caterpillars of another species, which Reaumur distin- suishes by the appellation of the processtonary caterpillars, live in society till their transformation into flies. These caterpillars are of the hairy kind, and are of a reddish color. They inhabit the oak, and feed upon its leaves. When very young, they have no fixed or general habitation. But, after they have acquired about one half of their natural size, they assemble together, and construct a nest sufficient to accom- modate the whole. The nests of these caterpillars are at- tached to the trunks of the oak, and are situated sometimes near the earth, and sometimes seven or eight feet above its surface. They consist of different strata, or layers of silk, which are spun by the united labor of the whole community. Their figure is neither striking nor uniform. On the part of. the oak to which they are fixed, they form a protuberance similar to those knots which are seen upon trees. This pro- tuberance sometimes resembles a segment of a circle, and sometimes it 1s three or four times longer than it is broad. Some of these nests are from eighteen to twenty inches long, and from five to six inches wide. About the middle of their convexity, they often rise more than four inches above the “e * 2 : 246 SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. surface of the tree. Between the trunk of the tree and the layers of silk, a single hole is left, to allow the animals to go out in quest of food, and to retire into the nest after they are — satiated. Notwithstanding the great bulk of these nests, and though there are often three or four of them upon the same free, “and never elevated above the height of distinct vision, they are not easily perceived ; for the silk of which they are composed is cinerous, and resembles, in color, those mosses with which the trunk of the oak is generally covered. The inhabitants of a nest, which are numerous, march out, about the setting of the sun, to forage, under the conduct of a chief or leader, all whose movements they uniformly follow. The order they observe is singular. The first rank consists of single animals, the second of two, the third of three, the fourth of four, and sometimes more. In this manner they proceed, in quest of food, with all the regularity of disciplined troops. The chief or leader has no marks of preéminence ; for any individual that happens first to issue from the nest, from that circumstance alone, becomes the leader of an expe- dition. After making a full repast upon the neighboring leaves, they return to the nest i the same regular order; and this practice they continue during the whole period of their existence in the caterpillar state. It was from this strange regularity of movement that Reaumur, with much propriety, denominated these animals processionary caterpillars. When arrived at maturity, each individual spins a silken pod, is converted into a chrysalis, and afterwards assumes the form of a butterfly. This last transformation breaks all the bonds of their former association, and the female flies deposit their eggs, which, when hatched, produce new colonies, which ex- hibit the same economy and manners. There are several species of caterpillars which are real republicans, and whose discipline, manners, and genius, are as diversified as those of the inhabitants of different nations and climates. Some, like particular savages, construct a kind of hammocks, in which they take their victuals, repose, and spend their lives till the period of their transformation. Others, like the Arabs and Tartars, construct and live in silken tents, and, after consuming the neighboring herbage, they leave their former habitations, and encamp on fresh pas- ture. They go out of their tents at particular times in quest of food, and often to considerable distances ; but they never lose their way back. It is not by sight that they are directed with so much certainty to their abodes. Nature has furnished é | SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. 247 them with another guide for regaining their habitations. We pave our streets with stones; but the caterpillars cover all their roads with silken threads. These threads make white tracks, which are often more than a sixth of an inch wide. It is by following these silken tracks, however complicated, that the caterpillars never miss their nests. If the road is broken by a man’s finger drawn along it, or by any other accident, the caterpillars are greatly embarrassed. They stop suddenly at the interrupted space, and exhibit every mark of fear and of diffidence. Here the march stops, till an individual, more bold or more impatient than his companions, traverses the gap. In his passage he leaves behind him a thread of silk, which serves as a bridge or conductor to the next that follows. By the progression of numbers, each of which spins a thread, the breach is soon repaired. We can- not suppose that these stupid animals cover their roads to prevent their wandering. But they never wander, because their roads are covered with silk. In this, as well as in many other instances, nature obliges animals to embrace the most effectual means of self-preservation, and even of conveniency, without their perceiving the utility of their own operations. The caterpillars, whose manners we have been describing, spin almost continually, because they are continually obliged to evacuate a silky matter, secreted from their food by ves- sels destined for that purpose, and included in their intes- tines. In obeying this call of nature, they effectually secure their retreat to their nests, and perhaps their existence. It may be said that caterpillars associate for no other reason but because they are all produced at the same time from eggs deposited near each other. But many other species of cater- pillars, which are brought to life in the very same circum- stances, never associate or act in concert in the performance of any mutual labor. The silkworms afford a familiar exam- ple. It is true they spontaneously remain assembled in the same place, which is of great advantage to manufacturers. But the individuals of other species disperse immediately after birth, and never reunite. Spiders, when newly hatched, begin with spinning a web in common ; but they soon termi- nate this association by devouring one another. , As caterpillars do not engender till they arrive at the but- terfly state, their associations have no respect to the rearing or education of young. Self-preservation and individual con- ' venience are the only bonds of their union. A perfect equal- _ ity reigns among them, without any distinction of sex or even S48 SOCIETY OF ANIMALS, of size. Each takes his share of the common labor; and the whole society, which constitutes but one family, is the Beinn issue of the same mother. The association and economy of the common ants merit some attention. With wonderful industry and activity they collect materials for the construction of their nest. ‘They unite in numbers, and assist each other in excavating the earth, and in transporting to their habitation bits of straw, small pieces of wood, and other substances of a similar kind, which they employ in lining and supporting their subterra- neous galleries. The form of their nest or hill is somewhat conical, and, of course, the water, when it rains, runs easily off, without penetrating their abode. Under this hill there are many galleries or passages, which communicate with each other, and resemble the streets of a small city. The ants not only associate for the purpose of constructing a common. habitation, but for cherishing and protecting their offspring. Every person must have often observed, when part of a nest is suddenly exposed, their extreme solicitude for the preservation of their chrysalids or nymphs, which often exceed the size of the animals themselves. With amazing dexterity and quickness, the ants transport their nymphs into the sub- terraneous galleries of the nest, and place them beyond the reach of any common danger. The courage and fortitude with which they defend their young is no less astonishing. The body of an ant was cut through the middle, and, after suffering this cruel treatment, so strong was its parental affec- tion, with its head, and one‘ half of the body, it carried off eight or ten nymphs. . They go to great distances in search of provisions. Their roads, which are often winding and involved, all terminate in the nest. The wisdom and foresight of the ants have been celebrated from the remotest antiquity. It has been asserted and believed for near three thousand years, that they lay up magazines of provisions for the winter, and that they even cut off the germ of the grain to prevent it from shooting. But the ancients were never famed for accurate researches into the nature and operations of insects. ‘These supposed magazines could be of no use to the ants; for, like the marmots and dormice, they sleep during the winter. A very moderate degree of cold is sufficient to render them torpid. In fact, it is now well known, that they amass no magazines of provisions. The grains which, with so much industry and labor, they carry to their nest, are not intended to be food to the animals, : SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. ~ 249 but, like the bits of straw and wood, are employed as materials in the construction of their habitation. 2. Improper Societies. —Many animals are gregarious, though they unite not with a view to any joint operation, such as constructing common habitations, or mutually and indiscriminately nourishing and protecting the offspring pro- duced by the whole society. But, even among animals of this description, there are motives or bonds of association ; and, in many instances, they mutually assist and defend each other from hostile assaults. The ox is a gregarious animal. When a herd of oxen are pasturing in a meadow, if a wolf makes his appearance, they instantly form themselves in battle array, and present their united horns to the enemy. This warlike disposition often intimidates, the wolf, and obliges him to retire. In winter, the hinds and young stags associate, and form herds, which are always more numerous in proportion to the severity of the weather. One bond of their society seems to be the advantage of mutual warmth derived from each other’s bodies. In spring they disperse, and the hinds conceal them- selves in the forests, where they produce their young. . The young stags, however, continue together; they love to browse in company ; and necessity alone forces them to separate. The Count de Buffon represents sheep as stupid creatures, which are incapable of defending themselves against the attacks of any rapacious animal. He maintains that the race must long ago have been extinguished, if man had not taken them under his immediate protection. But nature has fur- nished every species of animated beings with weapons and arts of defence which are sufficient for individual preservation, as well as for the continuation of the kind. Sheep are endow- ed with a strong associating principle. When threatened with an attack, like soldiers, they form a line of battle, and boldly face the enemy. In a natural state, the rams constitute one half of the flock. ‘They join together and form the front. When prepared in this manner for repelling an assault, no lion or tiger can resist their united impetuosity and force. A family of hogs, when in a state of natural liberty, never separate till the young have acquired strength sufficient to repel the wolf. When a wolf threatens an attack, the whole family unite their forces, and bravely defend each other. The wild dogs of Africa hunt in packs, and carry on a per- petual war against other rapacious animals. The jackals of Asia and Africa likewise hunt in packs. But, though animals 250 DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. of this kind mutually assist each other in killing prey, indi- vidual advantage is the chief, if not the only, bond of this temporary union. Another kind of society 1s oheore among domestic an mals. Horses and oxen, when deprived of companions of their own species, associate, and discover a visible attach- ment. A dog and ox, or a dog and a cow, when placed in certain circumstances, though the species are remote, and even hostile, acquire a strong affection for each other. The same kind of association takes place between dogs and cats, between cats and birds, &c. If domestic animals had a strong aversion to one another, man could not derive so many ad- vantages from them. Horses, oxen, sheep, &c., by browsing promiscuously together, augment and meliorate the common pasture. By living under the same roof, and feeding in com- mon, this associating principle is strengthened and modified by habit, which often commences immediately after birth. A single horse confined in an inclosure, discovers every mark of uneasiness. He becomes restless, neglects his food, and breaks through every fence, in order to join his companions in a neighboring field. Oxen and cows will not fatten in the finest pasture, if they are deprived of society. From the facts and remarks contained in this chapter, it seems to be evident, that the principle of association in man, as well as in many other animals, is natural ; and that this principle may be strengthened and modified by the number- less advantages derived from it, by imitation, by habit, and by many other circumstances. CHAPTER XII. OF THE DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. Or all animals capable of culture, man is the most ductile. By instruction, imitation, and habit, his mind may be moulded into any form. It may be exalted by science and art to a degree of knowledge of which the vulgar and uninformed have not the most distant conception. ‘The reverse is melan- choly. When the human mind is left to its own operations, and deprived of almost every opportunity of secial informa- DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. 251 tion, it sinks so low, that it is nearly rivalled by the most sa- gacious brutes. It is net necessary to enlargé upon a subject so familiar to the most common observer as the capacity of mankind for acquiring knowledge by observation and instruc- tion. The bodies of men, though not so ductile as their minds, are capable, when properly managed by early culture, of wonderful exertions. Men accustomed to live in polished societies, have little or no idea of the activity, the courage, the patience, and the persevering industry of savages, when simply occupied in hunting wild “animals for food for them- selves and their families. The hunger, the fatigue, the hard- ships, which they not only endure with fortitude, but despise, would amaze and terrify the imagination of any civilized European. Beside man, many other animals are eHipablle of being in- structed. ‘The ape kind, and especially the larger species of them, imitate the actions of men without any instruction. This imitation they are enabled to perform with the greater exactness, on account of their structure, which approaches in many respects so nearly to that of the human species. The ourang-outang is the most celebrated of these animals in this particular. ‘< The ourang-outang,” says Buffon, “ which I saw, walked always on two feet, even when carrying things of considera- ble weight. His air was melancholy, his movements measured, his disposition gentle, and very different from those of other apes. He had neither the impatience of the Barbary ape, the maliciousness of the baboon, nor the extravagance of the monkeys. It may be alleged that he had the benefit of in- struction; but the apes, which I shall compare with him, were educated in the same manner. Signs and words were alone sufficient to make our ourang-outang act; but the baboon required a cudgel, and the other apes a whip; for none of them would obey without blows. I have seen this animal present his hand to conduct the people who came to visit him, and walk as gravely along as if he had formed a part of the company. I have seen him sit down at table, unfold his towel, wipe his lips, use a spoon or a fork to carry the victuals to his mouth, pour his liquor into a glass, and make it touch that of the person who drank along with him. When invited to drink tea, he brought a cup and a saucer, placed them on the table, put in sugar, poured out the tea, ‘and allowed it to cool before he drank it. All these actions he performed with out any other instigation than the signs or verbal orders of = ©. 953 DOCILATY OF ANIMALS. his master, and often of his own accord. He did no injury te ~ “any person. Heeven approached company with circumspec- tion, and presented himself as if he wanted to be caressed. He was very fond of dainties, which every body gave him; and, as his breast was diseased, and he was affficted with a teasing cough, this quantity of sweetmeats undoubtedly con- tributed to shorten his life. He lived one summer in Paris, and died in London the following winter. He ate almost every thing; but preferred ripe and dried fruits to all other kinds of food. He drank a little wine; but spontaneously teft it for milk, tea, or other mild liquors.” M. de la Brosse remarks of two ourang-outangs, whose ages exceeded not twelve monihs, that ‘* These animals have the instinct of sitting at table like men. They eat every kind of food without distinction. They use a knife, a fork, or a spoon, to cut or lay hold of what is put upon their plate. They drink wine and other liquors. We carried them abroad. At table, when they wanted any thing, they made themselves under- stood by the cabin-boy ; and when the boy refused to give them what they demanded, they sometimes became enraged, seized him by the arm, bit and threw him down.—The male was seized with sickness on the road. He made himself be attended as a human being. He was even twice bled in the right arm; and, whenever he found himself afterwards in the same condition, he held out his arm to be bled, as if he knew that he had formerly received benefit from that operation.”’ We are informed by Francis Pyrard, “that, in the province of Sierra Leona, there is a species of animals called baris (ourang-outang), which are strong and well-limbed, and so industrious, that, when properly trained and fed, they work like servants ; that they generally walk on the two hind feet ; that they pound any substances in a mortar; that they go to bring water from the river in,small pitchers, which they carry | full on their heads. But when they arrive at the door, if the © pitchers are not soon taken off, they allow them to fall; and, when they perceive the pitcher overturned and broken, they | weep and lament.” With regard to the education of these : animals, the testimony of Schoutton corresponds with that of | Pyrard. ‘* They are taken,” says he, ‘‘ with snares, taught to | walk on their hind feet, and to use their fore feet as hands in | performing different operations, as rinsing glasses, carrying | drink round to the company, turning a spit, &c.’’ Guatinforms | us, that he ‘‘ saw at Java a very extraordinary ape. It wasa : female. She was very tall, and often walked erect on her t DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. 253 mind feet. She made her bed very neatly every day, lay upon her side, and covered herself with the bed-clothes. When her head ached, she bound it up with her handkerchief; and it was amusing to see her thus hooded in bed. I could relate many other little articles which appeared to be extremely ‘singular. But I admired them not so much as the multitude ; because, as I knew the design of bringing her to Europe to be exhibited as a show, I was inclined to think that she had been taught many of these monkey tricks, which the people considered as being natural to the animal. She died in our ship, about the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope. The figure of this ape had a very great resemblance to that of man.” We have now enumerated the principal facts regarding this extraordinary animal, which have been related by voyagers of credit, and by those who have seen and examined him in Europe ; and shall only remark, that notwithstanding the great similarity of his structure and organs to those of the hu- man species, his genius and talents seem to be very limited. The form of his body enables him to imitate every human ac- tion. But though he has the organs of speech, he is destitute of articulate language. If, however, he were domesticated, and proper pains bestowed for instructing him, he might pos- sibly be taught to articulate. But, supposing this point to be obtained, if he remained incapable of reflection, if he was unable to comprehend the meaning of words, or to discover by his expressions a degree of intellect greatly superior to that of the brute creation, which I imagine would be the case, he could never, as some authors have helg , forth, be exalted to the distinguished rank of human beings: Of ali quadrupeds, of whose history and manners we have any proper knowledge, the elephant is one of the most re- markable both for docility and for understanding. ‘Though his size is enormous, and his members rude and dispropor- tioned, which give him, at first sight, the aspect of dulness and stupidity, his genius is great, and his sagacious manners, and his sedate and collected deportment, are almost incredi- ble. He is the largest and strongest of all terrestrial animals. Though naturally brave, his dispositions are mild and peace- able. He is an associating animal, and seldom appears alone. in the forests. When in danger, or when they undertake a depredatory expedition into cultivated fields, the elephants assemble in troops. The oldest takes the lead; the next in seniority brings up the rear; and the young and the feeble < - 954 DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. occupy the centre. In the forest and solitudes they move * with less precaution ; but never separate so far asunder as to render them incapable of affording each other assistance when danger approaches. A troop of elephants constitutes a most formidable band. Wherever they march, the forest seems to fall before them. T’hey bear down the branches upon which they feed ; and, if they enter an inclosure, they soon destroy ail the labors of the husbandmen. ‘Their invasions are the more tremendous, as there is hardly any means of repelling them; for to attack a troop, when thus united, would require a little army. It is only when one or two elephants happen to linger behind the rest, that the hunters dare exert their art and ingenuity in making an attack; for any attempt to dis- turb the troop would certainly prove fatal to the assailants. When an insult is offered, the elephants instantly move for- ward against the offender, toss him in the air with their tusks, and afterwards trample him to pieces under their feet, or rather pillars of flesh and bone. Let not the character of this noble, majestic animal, however, be misrepresented. With force and dignity he resents every affront; but, when not dis- turbed by petulance or actual injury, he never shows a hos- tile intention either against man or any other animal. Ele- phants live entirely on vegetables, and have no thirst for blood. Such is their social and generous disposition, that, when an individual chances to meet with a luxurious spot of pasture, he immediately calls to his companions, and invites them to partake of his good fortune. | The elephant possesses all the senses in perfection; but, in the sense of touching, he excels all the brute creation. His trunk is the chief instrument of this sense. In an ele- phant fourteen feet high, the trunk is about eight feet long, and five feet and a half in circumference at the base. It isa large fleshy tube, divided through its whole extent by a sep- tum or partition. It is capable of motion in every direction. The animal can shorten or lengthen it at pleasure. It answers every purpose of a hand; for it grasps large objects with great force, and its extremity can lay hold of a sixpence or even of a pin. The trunk of the elephant affords him the same means of address as the ape. It serves the purposes of anarmandahand. By this instrument, the elephant conveys large or small bodies to his. mouth, places them on his back, ~ embraces them fast, or throws them forcibly to a distance. __ In a state of nature and perfect freedom, the dispositions of the elephant are neither sanguinary nor ferocious. ‘’hey DOCILIFY OF ANIMALS. 255 are gentle creatures, and never exert their strength, or employ their weapons, but in defending themselves or protecting their companions. Even when deprived of the instruction of men, they possess the sagacity of the beaver, the address of the ape, and the acuteness of the dog. ‘To these mental talents are added the advantages of amazing bodily strength, and the experience and knowledge he acquires by living at least two centuries. With his trunk he tears up trees. By a push of his body he makes a breach ina wall. ‘To this prodigious strength he adds courage, prudence, and coolness of deport-— ment. As he never makes an attack but when he receives an ~ injury, he is universally beloved ; and all animals respect, be- zause none have any reason to fear him. In all ages, men 1ave entertained a veneration for this most magnificent and “agacious of terrestrial creatures. The ancients regarded 1im as a miracle of nature, and he is, in reality, one of her rreatest efforts. But they have greatly exaggerated his fac- ulties. Without hesitation, they have ascribed to him high intellectual. powers and moral virtues. Pliny, lian, Plu- tarch, and other authors of a more modern date, have be- stowed on elephants not only rational manners, but an innate -eligion, a kind of daily adoration of the sun and moon, the use of ablution before worship, a spirit of divination, piety toward Heaven and their fellow creatures, whom they assist at the approach of death, and, after their decease, bedew them with tears, and cover their bodies with earth. When tamed and instructed by man, the elephant is soon endered the mildest and most obedient of all domestic ani- nals. He loves his keeper, caresses him, and anticipates his vommands. He learns to comprehend signs, and even to un- derstand the expression of sounds. He distinguishes the tones of command, of anger, and of approbation, and regulates his actions by his perceptions. The voice of his master he never mistakes. His orders are executed with alacrity, but without any degree of precipitation. His movements are al- ways measured and sedate, and his character seems to cor- respond with the gravity of his mass. ‘To accommodate those who mount him, he readily learns to bend his knees. With his trunk he salutes his friends, uses it for raising burdens, and assists in loading himself. He loves to be clothed, and seems to be proud of gaudy trappings. In the southern regions, he is employed in drawing wagons, ploughs, and chariots. ‘‘I was eye-witness,”’ says P. Philippe, ‘ to the fol- lowing facts. At Goa, there are always some elephants era- 256 DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. _ ployed in the building of ships. I one day went to the side of the river, near which a large ship was building in the city of Goa, where there is a large area filled with beams for that pufpose. Some men tie the ends of the heaviest beams with a rope, which is handed to the elephant, who carries it to his mouth, and, after twisting it round his trunk, draws it, with- out any conductor, to the place where the ship is building, though it had only once been pointed out to him. He some- times drew beams so large that more than twenty men would have been unable to move them. But what surprised me still more, when other beams obstructed the road, he elevated the ends of his own beams, that they might run easily over those which Jay in his way. Could the most enlightened man do more?”? When at work, the elephant draws equally, and if properly managed, never turns restive. ‘The man who con- ducts the animal generally rides on his neck, and employs a hooked iron rod, or a bodkin, with which he pricks the head or sides of the ears, in order to push the creature forward, or to make him turn. But words are commonly sufficient. The attachment and affection of the elephant are sometimes so strong and durable that he has been known to die of grief, when, in an unguarded paroxysm of rage, he had killed his guide. Before the invention of gunpowder, elephants were em- ployed in war by the African and Asiatic nations. ‘‘ From time immemorial,” says Schoutton, ‘‘ the kings of Ceylon, of Pegu, and of Aracan, have used elephants in war. Naked sabres were tied to their trunks, and on their backs were fixed small wooden castles, which contained five or six men armed > with javelins, and other weapons.”. ‘The Greeks and Romans, however, soon became acquainted with the nature of these monstrous warriors. They opened their ranks to let the animals pass, and directed all their weapons not against the elephants, — but their conductors. Since fire has now become the element of war, and the chief instrument of destruction, elephants, who are terrified both at the flame and noise, would be more dan- gerous than useful in our modern battles. The Indian kings, however, still arm elephants in their wars. In Cochin, and other parts of Malabar, all the warriors who fight not on foot are mounted on elephants. The same practice obtains in Tonquin, Siam, and Pegu. In these countries, the kings and nobles at public festivals are always preceded and followed by numerous trains of elephants, pompously adorned with pieces of shining metal, and clothed with rich garments. Their | é | | F - DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. 207 tusks are ornamented with rings of gold and silver ; their ears and cheeks are painted with various colors ; they are crowned « with garlands ;.and a number of smail bells are fixed to dif- ferent parts of their bodies. ‘They delight in gaudy attire; for they are cheerful and caressing in proportion to the num- ber and splendor of their ornaments. ‘he Asiatics, who were very anciently civilized, perceiving the sagacity and docility of the elephant, educated him in a systematic manner, and modified his dispositions according to their own manners, and the useful labors in which his strength and dexterity could be employed. A domestic elephant performs more labor than could be accomplished by six horses; but he requires much care and a great deal of food. He is subject to be overheated, and must be led to the water twice or thrice aday. He easily learns to bathe himself. With his trunk he sucks up large quantities of water, carries it to his mouth, drinks part of it, and by elevating his trunk, makes the remainder run over every part of his body. ‘To give some idea of the labor he performs, and the docility of his disposition, it is worthy of remark, that, in India, bales, sacks, tuns, are transported from one place to another by elephants. They carry burdens on their bodies, their necks, their tusks, and even in their mouths, by giving them the end of a rope, which they hold fast with their teeth. Uniting sagacity with strength, they never break or injure any thing committed to their charge. From the margins of the rivers they put weighty bundles into boats with- out wetting them, lay them down gently, and arrange them where they ought to be placed. When the goods are disposed. as their masters direct, they examine with their trunks whether the articles are properly stowed ; and if a cask or tun rolls, they go spontaneously in quest of stones to prop and render it firm. In the elephant, the sense of smelling is acute, and he is passionately fond of odoriferous flowers, which he collects one. by one, forms them into a nosegay, and after gratifying his nose, conveys them to his mouth. In India, the domestic elephants, to whom the use of water is aS necessary as that of air, are allowed every possible con- venience for bathing themselves. The animal goes into a river till the water reaches his belly. He then lies down on one side, fills his trunk several times, and dexterously throws the water on such parts as happen to be uncovered. ‘The master, after cleaning and currying one side, desires the ae 258 DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. animal to turn to the other, which command he obeys with the greatest alacrity ; and when both sides have been properly cleaned, he comes out of the river, and stands some time on the bank to dry himself. The elephant, though his mass be enormous, is an excellent swimmer; and, of course, he is of great use in the passage of rivers. When employed on occasions of this kind, he is often loaded with two pieces of cannon which admit three or four pound balls, beside great quantities of baggage and several men fixed to his ears and tail. When thus heavily loaded, he spontaneously enters the river and swims over, with his trunk elevated in the air for the benefit of respiration. He is fond of wine and ardent spirits. By showing him a vessel loaded with any of these liquors, and promising him it as the reward of his labors, he is induced to exert the greatest efforts, and to perform the most painful tasks. ‘I'he elephant is employed in dragging artillery over mountains, and, on these occasions, his sagacity and docility are conspicuous. Horses or oxen, when yoked to a cannon, make all their exertions to pull it up a declivity. But the elephant pushes the breech forward with his front, and at each effort, supports the carriage with his knee, which he places against the wheel. He seems to understand what his cornack, or conductor, says to him. When his conductor wants him to perform any painful labor, he explains the nature of the opera- tion, and gives the reasons which should induce him to obey. If the elephant shows a reluctance to the task, the cornack promises to give him wine, arrack, or any other article that he is fond of, and then the animal exerts his utmost efforts. But to break any promise made to him is extremely dangerous. Many cornacks have fallen victims to indiscretions of this kind. ‘At Dehan,” says M. de Bussy, “an elephant, from re- venge, killed his cornack. The man’s wife, who beheld the dreadful scene, took her two children, and threw them at the feet of the enraged animal, saying, Since you have slain my husband, take my life also, as well as that of my children. The elephant instantly stopped, relented, and, as if stung with remorse, took the eldest boy in its trunk, placed him on its neck, adopted him for its cornack, and would never allow any other person to mount it.’ From the members of the Royal Academy of Sciences we Jearn some curious facts with regard to the manners of the Versailles elephant. This elephant, they remark, seemed to know when it was mocked, and remembered the affront till it had an opportunity of revenge. A man deceived it, by pre- DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. 2590 tending to throw some food into its mouth. The animal gave him such a blow with its trunk as knocked “him down, and broke two of his ribs. A painter wanted to draw the animal in an unusual attitude, with its trunk elevated, and its mouth ~ open. ‘I'he painter’s servant, to make it remain in this posi- tion, threw fruits into his mouth, but generally made only a feint of throwing them. ‘This conduct enraged the elephant ; and, as if it knew that the painter was the cause of this teas- ing impertinence, instead of attacking the servant, it eyed the master, and squirted at him from its trunk, such a quantity of water as spoiled the paper on which he was drawing. ‘This elephant commonly made less use of its strength than of its address. It loosed, with great ease and coolness, the buckle of a large double leathern strap, with which its leg was fixed ; and as the servants had wrapped the buckle round with a small cord, and tied many knots upon it, the creature, with much deliberation, loosed the whole, without breaking either the strap or the cord. It is remarked by Le P. Vincent Marie, that the elephant, when in a domestic state, is highly esteemed for his gentle- ness, docility, and friendship to his governor. When destined to the immediate service of princes, he is sensible of his good fortune, and maintains a gravity of demeanor correspond- ing to the dignity of his situation. But if, on the contrary, less honorable labors are assigned to him, he grows melan- choly, frets, and evidently discovers that he is humbled and depressed. He is fond of children, caresses them, and appears to discern the innocence of their manners. The Dutch voyagers relate, that, by giving elephants what is agree- able to them, they are soon rendered perfectly tame and sub- missive. ‘They are so sagacious, that they may be said to be destitute of the use of language only. ‘They are proud and ambitious ; and they are so grateful for good usage, that, as a mark of respect, they bow their heads in passing houses where they have been hospitably received. They allow them- selves to be led and commanded by a-child; but they love to be praised and caressed. When a wild elephant is taken, the hunters tie his feet, and one of them accosts and salutes him, makes apologies for binding him, protests that no injury. is intended, tells him, that, in his former condition, he fre- quently wanted food, but that, henceforward, he shall be well treated, and that every promise shall be performed to him. This soothing harangue is no sooner finished than the elephant _placidly follows the hunter. From this fact, however, we 260 DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. must not conclude that the elephant understands language, but that, like the dog, he has a strong discerning faculty. He distinguishes esteem from contempt, friendship from hatred, and many other emotions which are expressed by human ges- tures and features. For this reason, the elephant is more easily tamed by mildness than by blows. “‘T have frequently remarked,” says Edward Terry, ‘that the elephant performs many actions which seem to proceed more from reason than from instinct. He does every thing which his master commands. If he wants to terrify any per- son, he runs upon him with every appearance of fury, and when he comes near, stops short, without doing him the small- est injury. When the master chooses to affront any man, he tells the elephant, who immediately collects water and mud with his trunk, and squirts it upon the object pointed out to him. The Moguls keep some elephants who serve as execu- tioners to criminals condemned to death. When the conduct- or orders one of these animals to despatch the poor criminals quickly, he tears them to pieces in a moment with his feet ; but if desired to torment them slowly, he breaks their bones one after another, and makes them suffer a punishment as cruel as that of the wheel.” Next to the elephant, the dog seems to be the most. docile quadruped. A wild dog is a passionate, ferocious, and san- guinary animal. But, after he is reduced to a domestic state, these hostile dispositions are suppressed, and they are suc- ceeded by a warm attachment, and a perpetual desire of pleas- ing. ‘The perceptions and natural talents of the dog are acute. When these are aided by instruction, the sagacity he dis- covers, and the actions he is taught to perform, often excite our wonder. Those animals which man has taken under his immediate protection are taught to perform artificial actions, or have their natural instincts improved, by three modes of instruction, punishment, reward, and imitation. More ductile in his nature than most other animals, the dog not only re- ceives instruction with rapidity, but accommodates his beha- ‘vior and deportment to the manners and habits of those who command him. He assumes the very tone of the family in which he resides. Eager, at all times, to please his master or his friends, he furiously repels beggars; because he proba- bly, from their dress, conceives them to be either thieves, or competitors for food. Though every dog, as well as every man, is naturally a hunter, the dexterity of both is highly improved by experience DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. 2961 and instruction. The shepherd’s dog, independently of all instruction, seems to be endowed by nature ‘with an innate attachment tothe preservation of sheep and cattle. His do- cility is likewise so great, that he not only learns to under- stand the language and commands of the shepherd, and obeys them with faithfulness and alacrity; but, when at distances beyond the reach of his master’s voice, he often stops, looks back, and recognizes the approbation or disapprobation of the shepherd by the mere waving of his hand. He reigns at the head of a flock, and is better heard than the voice of his mas- ter. His vigilance and activity produce order, discipline, and safety. Sheep and cattle are peculiarly subjected to his man- agement, which he prudently conducts and protects, and never employs force against them, except for the preservation of peace and good order. But when the flock committed to his charge is attacked by the fox, the wolf, or other rapacious animals, he makes a full display of his-courage and sagacity. In situations of this kind, both his natural and acquired talents are exerted. ‘Three shepherd’s dogs are said to be a match for a bear, and four for a lion. Every person knows the docility and sagacity of such dogs as are employed in conducting blind mendicants. A blind beggar used to be led through the streets of Rome by a mid- dle-sized dog. This dog, beside leading his master in such a manner as to protect him from all danger, learned to distin- guish not only the streets, but the houses where his master was accustomed to receive alms twice or thrice a week. Whenever the animal came to any of these streets, with which he was well acquainted, he would not leave it till a call had been made at every house where his master was usually suc- cessful in his petitions. When the beggar began to ask alms, the dog, being wearied, lay down to rest; but the master was no sooner served or refused, than the dog rose spontaneously, and, without either order or sign, proceeded to the other houses where the beggar generally received some gratuity. When a halfpenny was thrown from a window, such was the sagacity and attention of this dog, that he went about in quest of it, lifted it from the ground with his mouth, and put it into his master’s hat. Even when bread was thrown down, the animal would not taste it, unless he received a portion of it from the hand of his master. Without any other instruction than imitation, a mastiff, when accidentally shut out from a house which hs master frequented, uniformly rung the bell for admittance. Dogs can be taught to goto market with 262 DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. money, to repair to a known butcher, and to carry home the meat in safety. They can be taught to dance to ee, and to search for food, and find any thing that is lost. There was a dog formerly belon, ing to a grocer in Edin- burgh, which for some time amused and astonished the people in the neighborhood. A man who went through the streets ringing a ‘bell and selling penny pies, happened one day to treat this dog with a pie. The next time he heard the pie- man’s bell, he ran to him with impetuosity, seized | him by the coat, and would not suffer him to pass. ‘The pie-man, who understood what the animal wanted, showed him a penny, and pointed to his master, who stood i in the street-door, and saw what was going on. The dog immediately supplicated his master by many humble gestures and looks. The master put a penny into the dog’s mouth, which he instantly delivered to the pie-man, and received his pie. This traffic between the pie-man and the grocer’s dog was daily practised for several months. Dogs, horses, and even hogs, by rewards and punishments, and, I am afraid, often by cruelty, may be taught to perform actions, as we have frequently seen in public exhibitions, which are truly astonishing. But of these we must not enter into any detail. With regard to the horse, the gentleness of his dispositions, and the docility of his temper, are so well and so universally known, that it is unnecessary to dwell long upon the subject. To give some idea of what instruction horses receive when in a domestic state, we shall mention some traits of their form and manners when under no restraints. In South America the horses have multiplied prodigiously, and, in that thinly- inhabited country, live in perfect freedom. They fly from the presence of man. They wander about in troops, and devour, in immense meadows, the productions of a perpetual spring. Wild horses are stronger, lighter, and more nervous than the generality of those which are kept in a domestic state. They are by no means ferocious. ‘Though superior in strength to most animals, they never make an attack. Whenever as- saulted, however, they either disdain the enemy, or strike him dead with their heels. ‘They associate in troops from mutual attachment, and neither make war with other animals nor among themselves. As their appetites are moderate, and they have few objects to excite envy or discord, they live in perpet- ual peace. ‘Their manners are gentle, and their tempers social. Their force and ardor are rendered conspicuous only “pocitaty of ANIMALS. 263 by marks of emulation. They are anxious to be foremost in the course, to brave danger in crossing a river, or in leaping a ditch or precipice; and it is said, that those horses which are most adventurous and expert in these natural! exercises, are, when domesticated, the most generous, mild, and tract- able. Wild horses are taken nutice of by several of the ancients. Herodotus mentions white wild horses on the banks of the Hypanis, in Scythia. He likewise tells us that in the north- ern part of Thrace, beyond the Danube, there were wild horses covered all over with hair five inches in length. The wild horses in America are the offspring of domestic horses originally transported thither from Europe by the Spaniards. The author of the History of the Buccaneers informs us, that troops of horses, sometimes consisting of 500, are frequently met with in the island of St. Domingo; that, when they see a man, they all stop, and that one of their number approaches to a certain distance, blows through his nostrils, takes flight, and is instantly followed by the whole troop. He describes them as having gross heads and limbs, and long necks and ears. ‘The inhabitants tame them with ease, and then train them to labor. In order to take them, gins of ropes are laid in the places which they are known to frequent. When caught by the neck, they soon strangle themselves, unless some person arrives in time to disentangle them. ‘They are tied to trees by the body and limbs, and are left in that situa- tion two days without victuals or ‘drink. This treatment is generally sufficient to render them more tractable, and they soon become as gentle as if they had never been wil Id. Even when any of these horses, by accident, regain their Jiberty, they never resume their savage state, but know their Scie and allow themselves to be approached and retaken. From these and similar facts, it may be concluded, that the dispositions of horses are gentle, and that they are naturally disposed to associate with man. After they are tamed they never forsake the abodes of men. On the contrary, they are anxious to return to the stable. The sweets of habit seem to supply all they have lost by slavery. When fatigued, the mansion of repose is full of comfort. ‘They smell it at con- siderable distances, can distinguish it in the midst of popu- lous cities, and seem uniformly to prefer bondage to liberty. By some attention and address, colts are first rendered tract- able. When that point is gained, by different modes of management, the docility of the animal is improved, and they — 864 DOCILIT'Y Of ANIMALS; soon learn to perform with alacrity the various labors assigiied to them. The domestication of the horse is perhaps the noblest acquisition from the animal world, which has ever been made by the genius, the art, and the ‘industry of man. He is taught to partake of the dangers and fatigues of war, and seems to enjoy the glory of victory. He encounters death with ardor and with magnanimity. He delights in the tumult of arms, and attacks the enemy with resolution and alacrity. It is not in perils and conflicts alone that the horse cooperates with the dispositions of his master. He even seems to participate of human pleasures and amusements. He delights in the chase and the tournament, and his eyes sparkle with emulation in the course. ‘Though bold and in- trepid, however, he does not allow himself to be hurried on by a furious ardor. On _ proper occasions, he represses his movements, and knows how to check the natural fire of his temper. He not only yields tothe hand, but seems to consult the inclination, of his rider. Always obedient to the impres- sions he receives, he flies or stops, and regulates his motions solely by the will of his master. Mr. Ray, who wrote about the end of the seventeenth cen- tury, informs us, that he had seen a horse who danced to music, who, at the command of his master, affected to be lame, who simulated death, lay motionless with his limbs ex- tended, and allowed himself to be dragged about, till some words were pronounced, when he instantly sprung up on his feet. Facts of this kind would scarcely receive credit, if every person were not now acquainted with the wonderful docility of the horses educated by public exhibitors of horse- manship. In exhibitions of this kind, the docility and prompt obedience of the animals deserve more admiration than the dexterous feats of the men. Animals of the ox kind, in a domestic state, are dull and phlegmatic. Their sensibility and talents seem to be very limited. But we should not pronounce rashly concerning the genius and powers of animals in a country where their education is totally neglected. In all the southern provinces of Africa and Asia, there are many wild bisons, or bunched oxen, which are caught young and tamed. They are soon taught to submit, without resistance, to all kinds of domestic labor. They become so tractable, that they are managed with as much ease as our horses. The voice of their master is alone sufficient to make them obey, and to direct their course. They are shod, curried, caressed, and supplied Q DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. 265 abundantly with the best food. When managed in this man- ner, these animals appear to be different creatures from our oxen. The oxen of the Hottentots are favorite domestics, companions in amusements, assistants in all laborious exer- cises, and participate the habitation, the bed, and the table of their masters. As their nature 1s improved by the gentle- ness of their education, by the kind treatment they receive, and the perpetual attention bestowed on them, they acquire sensibility and intelligence, and perform actions which one would not expect from them. The Hottentots train oxen to war. In all their armies there are considerable troops of these oxen, which are easily governed, and are let loose. by the chief when a proper opportunity occurs. They instantly dart with impetuosity upon the enemy. ‘They strike with their horns, kick, overturn, and trample under their feet. every thing that opposes their fury. : - They run ferociously into the ranks, which they soon put in the utmost disorder, and thus pave the way for an easy victory to their masters. ‘These oxen are likewise instructed to guard the flocks, which they conduct with dexterity, and defend them from the attacks of strangers and of rapacious animals. They are taught to dis- tinguish friends from enemies, to understand signals, and to obey the commands of their‘master. When pasturing, at the smallest signal from the keeper, they bring back and collect the wandering animals. They attack all strangers with fury, which renders them a great security against robbers. These brackelays, as they are called, know every inhabitant of the kraal, and discover the same marks of respect for all the men, women, and children, as a dog does for those who live in his master’s house. ‘I'hese people may, therefore, approach their cattle with the greatest safety. But if a stranger, and par- ticularly a European, should use the same freedom, without being accompanied. with one of the Hottentots, his life would be in imminent danger. | Notwithstanding the many surprising actions which ieee quadrupeds may be taught to perform, none of them, though their organs are much more perfect than those of birds, have ever been able to pronounce articulate sounds. But many birds, without much instruction, learn to pronounce words. and even sentences. In parrots, the distinguishing accuracy of their ear, the acuteness of their attention, and their strong | instinctive propensity to imitate sounds of every kind, have justly procured them universal admiration. When in a state of domestication, the parrot learns to pronounce the commor | 266 DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. street calls, beside many words and phrases occasionally em- ployed by the family in which he resides. Though the limi- tation of his mental powers does not permit him to learn any extent of language, or the proper use and meaning of words, he not unfrequently discovers the association between the ob- ject and the sound. A woman every morning passed the win- dow, where a parrot’s cage was fixed, calling salt. The parrot soon learned to imitate the call. But, before any sound could be heard, he no sooner cast his eye upon the woman than he uttered her usual call. In this and many other similar cases, the objects and the sounds are evidently connected in the minds of the animals. How far these associations might be carried by a patient and persevering education, it is difficult to determine. In this manner, however, parrots might be taught a considerable vocabulary of substantive nouns, or the proper names of common objects. But his intellect, it 1s more than probable, would never reach the use of the verb, and other parts of speech. ig Beside parrots, jays, &&c., who learn to pronounce articu-— Jate sounds, there is another race of birds whose docility de- serves tobe mentioned. Singing birds, those lively and spirited little animals, attempt not to articulate. But their musical ears are as delicate and discerning as their voices are melo- dious and delightful. The vivacity, the extent of voice, and the imitative powers of these beautiful creatures, have at all times excited the attention and conciliated the affections of mankind. When domesticated, these birds, beside their nat- ural notes, soon acquire the faculty of simging considerable parts of artificial tunes. These imitations are effects of natural instinct. But in exhibitions, I have seen linnets simulate death, and remain perfectly tranquil and unmoved, when small cannons were fired, within an inch of their bodies, from a wooden fort. These little creatures have even been taught to lay hold of a match, and fire the cannons them- selves. ce We shall conclude this subject with a few. remarks concern- ing the changes produced in animals by DoMESTICATION. Climate and food are the chief causes which produce changes in the magnitude, figure, color, and constitution of | wild animals. But, beside these causes, there are others which have an influence upon animals when reduced to a do- mestic or unnatural state. When at perfect liberty, animals seem to have selected those particular zones or regions of the globe, which are most consonant to the nature and constitu- DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. 267. tion of each particular tribe: There they spontaneously re- main, and never, like man, disperse themselvesover the whole surface of the earth. But when obliged by man, or by any great revolution of nature, to abandon their native soil, they undergo changes so great, that, to recognize and distinguish them, recourse must be had to the most accurate examination. If we add to climate and food, those natural causes of alter- ation in free animals, the empire of man over such of them as he has reduced to servitude, the degree to which tyranny degrades and disfigures nature, will appear to be greatly aug- mented. The mouflon, the stock from which our domestic sheep have derived their origin, is comparatively a large ani- mal. He is as fleet as a stag, armed with horns and strong hoofs, and covered with coarse hair. With these natural ad- vantages, he dreads neither the inclemency of the sky, nor the voracity of the wolf. He not only, by the swiftness of his course, escapes from his enemies, but he is enabled to resist them by the strength of his body and the solidity of his arms. How different is this animal from our domestic sheep, _who are.timid, weak, and unable to defend themselves! With- out the protection of man, the whole race would soon be extir- pated by rapacious animals and by winter storms. In the warmest climates of Africa and Asia, the mouflon, which 1s the common parent of the sheep, appears to be less degen- erated than in any other region. Though reduced to a do- mestic state, he has preserved his stature and his hair; but the size of his horns is diminished. The sheep of Barbary, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, &c., have undergone greater changes; and in proportion as they approach toward either pole, they diminish in size, in strength, in swiftness, and in courage. In relation to man, they are improved in some articles, and vitiated in others. Their coarse hair is converted into fine wool. But with regard to nature, improvement-and degen- eration amount to the same thing ; for both imply an altera- tion of the original constitution. The ox is more influenced by nourishment than any See domestic animal. In countries where the pasture is luxuriant, the oxen acquire a prodigious size. ‘To the oxen of ABthiopia and some provinces of Asia, the ancients gave the appella- tion of Bull-Elephants, because in these regions they ap- proach to the magnitude of the elephant. This. effect is chiefly produced by the abundance of rich and succulent herbage. The Highlands of Scotland, and indeed every high and northern country, afford striking examples of the influ- 268 DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. ence of food upon the magnitude of cattle. The oxen, as well as the horses, in the more northern parts of Scotland, are extremely diminutive ; but, when transported to richer pasture, their size is augmented, and the qualities of their flesh are improved. ‘The climate has likewise a considerable influence on the nature of the ox. In the northern regions of both continents, he is covered with long, soft hair. He has likewise a large bunch on his shoulders; and this deformi- ty 1s common to the oxen of Asia, Africa, and America. Those of Europe have no bunch. ‘The European oxen, how- ever, seem to be the primitive race, to which the bunched kind ascend, by intermixture, in the second or third genera- tion. The difference in their size is remarkably great. The small zebu, or bunched ox of Arabia, is not one tenth part of the magnitude of the Atthiopian bull-elephant. The influence of food upon the dog kind seems not to be great. In all his variations and degradations, he appears to follow the differences of climate. In the warmest climates, he is naked; in the northern regions, he is covered with a coarse, thick hair ; and he is adorned with a fine, silky robe in Spain and Syria, where the mild temperature of the air converts the hair of most quadrupeds into a kind of silk. Besides these external variations produced by climate, the dog undergoes other changes, which proceed from his situa- tion, his captivity, and the nature of the intercourse. he holds with man. His size is augmented or diminished by obliging the smaller kinds to unite together, and by observing the same conduct with the larger individuals. -Pendulous ears, the most certain mark of domestic servitude and of fear, are almost universal. Of many races of dogs, a few only have retained the primitive state of their ears. Erect ears are now confined to the wolf-dog, the shepherd's dog, and the dog of the north. The color of animals is greatly variegated by domestica- tion. The dog, the ox, the sheep, the goat, the horse, have assumed all kinds of colors, and even mixtures of colors, in the same individuals. The hog has changed from black to white ; and white, without intermixture of spots, is generally accompanied with essential imperfections. Men who are re- markably fair, and whose hair is white, have generally a defect in their hearing, and, at the same time, weak and red eyes. Quadrupeds which are entirely white likewise have red eyes and a dulness of hearing.* ‘The variations from the original * ¢ The individuals known under the name of Albinoes are examples of the same sort of imperfection as that alluded to in the text with regard to animals, They have a COVERING OF ANIMALS. 869 color are most remarkable in our domestic fowls. In a broed of chickens, though all of them proceed from the same parents, not one of them has the same colors with another. Domestication not only changes the external appearances of animals, but alters and modifies their natural dispositions. The dog, for example, when in a state of liberty, 1s a rapa- cious quadruped, and hunts and devours the weaker species. But, after he has submitted to the dominion of man, he relin- quishes his natural ferocity, and is converted into a mean, servile, patient and parasitical slave. CHAPTER XIII. OF THE COVERING, MIGRATION, AND TORPIDITY OF ANIMALS. ‘ ALTHOUGH man is naturally the most defenceless of ani- mals, and the most exposed to suffer from the attacks of cold and the rigors of inhospitable climates, yet, by the sagacity with which he has devised means of guarding against the vicissitudes of the seasons, and protecting himself against the various degrees of heat and cold which he encounters, he has been enabled to brave the dangers of every climate, and es- tablish himself over a great part of the globe. Neither the cold of the polar, nor the heat of the equatorial regions, has been sufficient to deter him; but he is capable of enjoying the necessaries, comforts, and even luxuries of life, at either extreme. . ‘ But the constitutions of other animals are not so accom- modating. They do not adapt themselves so readily to skin of a pecujiar and unnatural whiteness, white hair, eyebrows, and eyelashes. The iris is also of a rosy tint, and the pupils still more deeply red. This imperfection seems to consist in an entire absence of the coloring principle of all these parts, which leaves the bare texture of the parts themselves without any color except that of the fluid circulating in them. It occurs among all the varieties of mankind, but more commonly among the dark ones. Stories have been told of whole tribes of Albinoes, or white negroes, but they have proved unfounded. Some persons aré only partially affected in this way, and thus present a spotted or pie-bald appearance; and it is to be remarked that if the eyes or any part of the hair be included in any of the spots which remain in the natural state, they retain their natural color and ap- pearance. The same is the case with inferior animals, as may be frequently observed in the spotted, black, and white rabbits. The white rabbit is a true Albino, as is the white mouse, and they both have red eyes, unless the eyes happen to be included in a spot which remains in its natural state.’ : 270 COVERING OF ANIMALS. a changes in external circumstances, not have they thé sagacity to avail themselves of other means for protecting themselves from the influence of cold and heat. Each species of animals is generally confined to some particular portion of the earth, and it is with difficulty that many of them are made to sur- vive, for a long time, any gteat change of climate. To a certain extent, however, nature has provided means for ob- viating the bad effects which would be produced upon them by the different temperatures of the seasons and of different climates. These means are, a change in the quantity and color of the hair, fur, or feathers, with which they are cov- ered ; migration during the winter to. warmer climates ; or passing it in a state of torpidity. ‘In the colder regions of the earth, animals are covered with thick and warm fur. Inthe warm, they are only cloth- ed with hairs thinly scattered, or have a skin entirely naked. The contrast 1s more striking where the same kind of animals, or kinds closely resembling each other, inhabit different cli- mates. In the dogs of Guinea and in the African and Indian sheep, the fur is so thin that they may be almost denominated naked. In the Siberian dog and Iceland sheep, on the other hand, the body is protected by a thicker and longer covering. In the swine of warm countries, we find a covering of bristles, thinly scattered, and of a uniform size and texture; but in colder countries, there is, beside this covering, another of ‘fine, frizzled wool next to the skin, through which the bristles project. The elephant of the warm regions has scarcely any hair upon his body, whilst that species which 1s supposed to be now extinct, but to have formerly inhabited the northern parts of both continents, was clothed with a thick and warm fur; as is proved from the discovery of a carcass which had been preserved in a frozen state, prokeaialy for some thousand years, in the ice of Siberia. ‘In the same climate, the quantity of covering is accommo- dated to the alternations of the seasons. At the approach of winter, the hair is increased in quantity and in length, as may be observed in any of our domestic animals ; and this increase is proportioned to the rigor and severity of the season. On the contrary, at the return of the warm season, the fur be- . - > - - 135 or 137 Three - ~ - - = 140 Besides these, Parma, in particular, afforded five, whereof Three were - - - ~ - 120 years each. Two - - - - - - 130 One in Bruxelles’ - - - » $95: « One in Placentia > - - 131 One in Faventia- - < - 132 A certain town, then called the Velleiatium, situate in the hills about Placentia, afforded ten, whereof Six were - - - - - 110 years each. Four - - - ~ - - 120 One in Rimino, whose name was 7 Marcus Aponius - - - - 150.” The most extraordinary instance of longevity in Great Brit- ain was exhibited in the person of Henry Jenkins. He was a native of Yorkshire, lived to the amazing age of 169 years, and died on the 8th day of December, 1670. Next to Jenkins, we have the famous Thomas Parre, who was a native of Shropshire, and died on the 16th day of No- vember, 1635, at the age of 152. Francis Consist, a native of Yorkshire, aes 150, died in January, 1768. Margaret Foster, aged 136, and her daughter, aged 104, were natives of Cumberland, and both alive in the year 1771. William Evans, aged 145, lived in Caernarvon, and still existed in the year 1782. Dumitor Radaloy, aged 140, lived in Bienionniewtl and died on the 16th day of January, 1782. James Bowels, aged 152, lived in Killingworth, and died on the 15th day of August, 1656. The Countess of Desmond, in Ireland, saw her 140th year. Mr. Eccleston, a native of ‘Treland, lived to the age of 143, and died in the year 1691. John Mount, a native of Scotland, saw his 136th year, and died on the 27th day of February, 1776. William Ellis, of Liverpool, died on the 16th day of August, 1780, at the age of 130. Colonel Thomas Winsloe, a native of Ireland, aged 146, died on the 22d day of August, 1766. 296 LONGEVITY OF ANIMALS. John Taylor was born in Carrygill, in the county of Cum- berland. He was bred aminer. His father died when John was only four years of age. Poverty obliged him to be set early to work. During two years he dressed lead ore for two pence a day. The next three or four years he assisted the miners in removing the ore and rubbish to the bank, for which he received four pence a day. At this period there happened a great solar eclipse, which was Bs giteesn in Scotland by the appellation of Mirk Monday.* This event, which he al- ways repeated with the same circumstances, is ‘the chief era from which John’s age has been computed. After laboring many years, both in this and the neighboring kingdom, he died, near Lead-hills, in Scotland, in the month of May, 1770, at the great age of asi. | ‘An account is given by Professor Silliman, in his Journal of a Tour to Quebec, of a visit which he paid, near Whitehall, in the State of New-York, to a man who had reached the ex- treme age of one hundred and thirty-four years. His name was Henry Francisco, and he was a native of France. ‘‘He believes himself to be one hundred and thirty-four years old, and the country around believe him to be of this great age. When we arrived at his residence (a plain farmer’s house, not painted, rather out of repair, and much open to the wind), he was up stairs, at his daily work, of spooling and winding yarn. This occupation is auxiliary to that of his wife, who is a weaver, and although more than eighty years old, she weaves six yards a day, and the old man can supply her with more yarn than she can weave. Supposing he must be very feeble, we offered to go up stairs to him; but he soon came down, walking somewhat stooping, and supported by a staff, but with less apparent inconvenience than most persons ex- hibit at eighty-five or ninety. His stature is of the middle size, and although his person is rather delicate and slen-. der, he stoops but little, even when unsupported. His complexion is very fair and delicate, and his expression bright, cheerful, and intelligent; his features are hand- some, and, considering that they have endured through one third part of a second century, they are regular, comely, and wonderfully undisfigured by the hand of time; his eyes are of a lively blue; his profile is Grecian, and very fine; his ; head is completely covered with the most beautiful and deli- cate white locks imaginable ; they are so long and abundant * Mirk, in the Scotch dialect, signifies dark ; and the eclipse happened in the year 1652.—S. ~ MAN, - 207 as to fall gracefully from the crown of his head, parting regu- larly from a central point, and reaching down to his shoul- ders; his hair is perfectly snow white, except where it is thick in his neck ; when parted there, it shows some few dark shades, the remnants of a former century. He still retains the front teeth of his upper jaw; his mouth is not fallen in, like that of old people generally, and his lips, particularly, are like those of middle life; his voice is strong and sweet-toned, although a little tremulous; his hearing very little impaired, so that a voice of usual strength, with distinct articulation, enables him to understand ; his eyesight is sufficient for his work, and he distinguishes large print, such as the title-page of the Bible, without glasses ; his health is good, and has always been so, except that he has now a cough and expectoration.” ‘It appeared from his account of himself, which was con- sistent and intelligtble, and confirmed by collateral historical facts, that his father was a French Protestant, who fled from France, in the latter part of the reign of Louis XIV., in con- sequence of the persecutions arising from the revocation of the edict of Nantz; that he took refuge in Holland, and after- wards in England ; that Francisco himself was born in the year 1686 ; that he recollects his emigration from France in 1691, and ‘the coronation of Queen Anne in 1702, at which time he says he was sixteen years old. He fought in all Queen Anne’s wars, and exhibits the scars of many wounds, but only recollects the name of the Duke of Marlborough, among the commanders under whom he served. He came out with his father to New York early in the last century, though he can- not remember the date, and was engaged in most of the wars which occurred until that of the revolution. ‘‘ He has had two wives and twenty-one children; the youngest child is the daughter in whose house he lives, and she is fifty-two years old; of course he was eighty-two when she was born.” ‘He has been all his life a very active and energetic, although not a stout-framed man. He was formerly fond of spirits, and did, for a certain period, drink more than was proper, but that habit appears to have been long abandoned. In other respects he has been remarkably abstemious, eating but little, and particu- larly abstaining, almost entirely, from animal food ; his favorite articles being tea, bread and butter, and baked apples. His wife said that after such a breakfast he would go out and work till noon; then dine upon the same, if he could get it, and then take the same at night; and particularly, that he always drank fea, whenever he could obtain it, three cups at a time, three 998 LONGEVITY OF ANIMALS. times a day.” ‘The oldest people in the vicinity remember Francisco as being always, from their earliest recollection, much older than themselves; anda Mr. Fuller, who recently died here between eighty and ninety years of age, ‘thought Fran- cisco was one hundred and forty.”” ‘‘ He is really a most re- markable and interesting old man : there is nothing either in his person or dress of the negligence and squalidness of extreme age, especially when not in elevated circumstances ; on the contrary, he is agreeable and attractive, and were he dressed in a superior manner, and placed in a handsome, well-furnish- ed apartment, he would be a most beautiful old man.” * The general causes of death have already been mentioned. But in women the operation of these causes is frequently re- tarded. In the female sex, the bones, the cartilages, the muscles, as well as every other part of the body, are softer and less solid than those of men ; neither are they generally so much subjected to bodily exertions. ‘Their constituent parts, accordingly, require more time in hardening to that degree which occasions death. Women, of course, ought to live longer than men. This reasoning is confirmed by the bills of mortality; for, upon consulting them, it appears, that, after women have passed a certain time, they live much longer than men who have reached the same period. The duration of the lives of animals may, in some measure, be estimated by the time occupied in their growth. An animal, or even a plant, as we learn from experience, which acquires matu- rity in a short time, perishes much sooner than those which are longer in arriving at that period. In the human spe- cies, when individuals grow with uncommon rapidity, they generally die young. This circumstance seems to have given rise to the common proverbial expression, ‘‘soon ripe, soon rotten.” Man grows in stature till he is sixteen or eighteen years of age; but the thickness of his body is not completely unfolded before that of thirty. Dogs acquire their full length in one year ; but their growth in thickness is not finished till the end of the second. A man, who continues to * Silliman’s Tour between Hartford and Quebec, in the summer of 1819, p. 172. ‘This old man has, I believe, since died. In the 10th Vol. 2d Series of the Massa- chusetts Historical Collections, there is an account of a number of instances of lon- gevity which have been known to occur in New Hampshire. Within the ten years from 1810 to 1820, eighty persons are recorded who died above the age of ninety, twenty-nine of whom reached or exceeded the age of one hundred. Besides these there have died in the state, within the last century, one person of one hundred and twenty—one of one hundred and sixteen—one of one hundred and fifteen—one of one hundred and ten—one of one hundred and eight—one of one hundred and seven —one of one hundred and six—several of one hundred and five, and there were liv ing, in 1822, at Chesterfield, a woman of one hundred and five, and at Bow, aman of one hundred and twelve. The population of New Hampshire, in 1810, was 214 ,460, and in 1820, 243,136.? MAN, 299 grow for thirty years, may live ninety or a hundred ; but a dog, whose growth terminates in two or three years, lives only ten or twelve years. The same observation is applicable to most animals. Fishes continue to grow for a great number of years. Some of them, accordingly, live during several centuries, because their bones and cartilages seldom acquire the density of those of other animals. It may, therefore, be considered as a general fact, that large animals live longer than small ones, because the former require more time to complete their growth. Thus the causes of our dissolution are inevitable ; and it is equally impossible to retard that fatal period, as to change the established laws of nature. When the constitution is sound, life may, perhaps, by moderating the passions, and by temperance, be prolonged a few years. But the varieties of climate, and the mode of living, make no material differences with regard to the period of our existence, which is nearly the same in the European, the Negro, the Asiatic, the American, the civilized man and the savage, the rich and the poor, the citizen and the peasant. Neither does the change of food, or of accommodation, make any change in the duration of life. Men who are fed on raw flesh or dried fish, on sago or rice, on cassada or roots, live as long as those who use bread and prepared victuals. If luxury and intemperance be excepted, nothing can alter those laws of mechanism which invariably determine the number of our years. Any little differences which may be remarked in the term of human life, seem to be chiefly owing to the quality of the air. In general, there are more old men in high than in low countries. The mountains of Scotland, of Wales, and of Switzerland, have furnished more examples of longevity than the plains of Holland, Flanders, Germany, or Poland. ut, if we take a survey of mankind, whatever be the climate they inhabit, or their mode of living, there is no very essential difference in the duration of life. When men are not cut off by accidental diseases, individuals may every where be found who live ninety or a hundred years. Our ancestors, with few exceptions, never exceeded this period ; and, since the days of David, king of the Jews, it has undergone no variation. Beside accidental diseases, which are more fre- quent as well as more dangerous, in the latter periods of life, old men are subjected to natural infirmities that originate solely from a decay of the different parts of the body. The muscles lose their tone, the head shakes, the hands tremble, the limbs totter, the sensibility of the nerves is blunted, the 306 LONGEVITY OF ANIMALS. cavities of the vessels contract, the secretory organs are ob- structed, the blood, the lymph, and the other fluids, extrava< sate, and produce all those symptoms: and diseases which are commonly ascribed to a vitiation of the humors. ‘The natural decay of the solids, however, appears to be the original cause of all these maladies. It is true, that a bad state of the fluids proceeds from a depravity in the organization of the solids. But the effects resulting from a noxious change in the fluids produce the most alarming symptoms. When the fluids stag- nate, or if, by a relaxation of the vessels, an extravasation takes place, they soon corrupt and corrode the weaker part of the solids. Hence the causes of dissolution gradually, but perpetually, multiply ; our internal enemies grow more and more powerful, and at last put a period to our existence. With regard to Quadrupeds, the causes of their dissolution are precisely the same with those which destroy the human species, with the exception of those which depend upon. the vices and intemperance of mankind. The times of their growth bear, likewise, some proportion to the duration of their lives. The following table will afford a view of the period of arriving at maturity, the length of life‘of some of the principal quadrupeds, —_ the number of young which they produce at a. birth. Names. Period of Maturity. Length of Life. No. of young at a birth. Elephant 30 years 200 years ] Rhinoceros 15 or 20 70 to 80 I Hippopotamus probably about the same 1 Camel 4. 40 to 50 1 | Horse 2or 3 25 to 30 1, rarely 2 Zebra 2 doy do. Ass rs do. do. Buffalo o 15:to 18 1 Ox 2 20 - 1, rarely 2 Stag lorli 30to 35 7 ae Reindeer 2 16 3 1 Large Apes 3 20 1, sometimes 2 Saiga 1 15 to 20 | I, sometimes 2 Roebuck lorl 4 12 to 15 lto 3 Chamois I 20. do Goat 1 8 to 10 1 to 4 Sheep 1 do. 1 to 3 Bear Ss 20 to 25 never above 5 Lion 2 do. 3 or 4 BIRDS. - 301 Names. Period of Maturity. Length of Life. No. of young ata birth. Leopard and Tiger 2 — 20 to 25 - 4ord Wolf ‘ 2 15 to 20 5 to 9 Dog i es 3 to 6 Fox 1 10 to 12 do. Cat less than 1 do. do. Dormouse do. 6 3 to 5 Hog 1] 15 6 to 26 Hare less than 1 1 AOF8 SS. 2 to 4 Rabbit do. day + 4 to 8 Guinea-pig 6 weeks 7 4 to 12. Some birds afford instances of great longevity. In this class of animals, the duration of life is by no means propor- tioned to the times of their growth. Most of them acquire their full dimensions in a few months, and are capable of mul- tiplying the species the first spring or summer after they are hatched. In proportion to the size of their bodies, birds are much more vivacious, and live longer than either men or quadrupeds. Swans have been said to live three hundred years; but though mentioned by respectable writers, the assertion is not supported by any authentic evidence. Mr. Willoughby, in his Ornithology, remarks, ‘‘ We have been assured by a friend of ours, a person of very good credit, that his father kept a goose known to be fourscore years of age, and as yet sound and lusty, and like enough to have lived many years longer, had he not been forced to kill her for her mischievousness, worrying and destroying the young geese and goslings.” In another part of this valuable work, Mr. Willoughby tells us, “that he has been assured by credible persons that a goose will live a hundred years and more.” In man and quadrupeds, the duration of life bears some pro- portion to the time of their growth. But, in birds, their growth, and their powers of reproduction, are more rapid, although they live proportionally longer. Some species of birds, as all the gallinaceous tribes, can make use of their limbs the moment they issue from the shell; and in a month or five weeks after, they can likewise employ their wings. A dunghill cock does not acquire his full growth in less than a year. ‘The smaller birds are perfect in four or five months. 'They grow more rapidly, and produce much sooner than - quadrupeds, and yet live proportionally much longer. In man and quadrupeds the duration of life is six or seven times |more than that of their growth. According to this rule a cock or a parrot, which arrives at its full growth and pow- 26 | | | i i ea 392 LONGEVITY OF ANIMALS. ers in one year, should not live above six or seven. But na- ture knows none of our rules. She accommodates her con- duct, not to our shallow and often presumptuous conclusions, but to the preservation of species, and to the support and gen- eral balance of the great system of animated beings. Ravens, though capable of providing for themselves in less than a year, sometimes have their lives protracted more than a century. The Count de Buffon informs us, that, in several places in France, ravens have been known to arrive at this extraordi- | nary age, and that at all times, and in all countries, they have | been esteemed birds of great longevity. | “ ERagles,” says Mr. Pennant, “are remarkable for their | longevity, and for their power of sustaining a long abstinence | from food. A golden eagle, which has now been nine years in possession of Owen Holland, Esq. of Conway, lived thirty- two years with the gentleman who made him a present of it; | but what its age was when the latter received it from Ireland | is unknown. The same bird also furnishes a proof of the | truth of the other remark, having once, through the neglect of — servants, endured hunger for twenty-one days without any sus- tenance whatsoever.” The pelican that was kept at Mechlin — in Brabant during the reign of the Emperor Maximilian, was — believed to be eighty years of age. ‘‘ What is reported of | the age of eagles and ravens,” says Mr. Willoughby, “ although — it exceeds all belief, yet doth it evince that those birds are | very long-lived. Pigeons have been known to live from twenty | to twenty-two years. Even the smaller birds live very long in | proportion to the time of their growth and the size of their | bodies. Linnets, goldfinches, &c., often live in cages fifteen, — twenty, and even twenty-three years.” 4 Fishes, whose bones are more cartilaginous than those of | men and quadrupeds, are long in acquiring their utmost | growth, and many of them live to great ages. Gesner gives. an instance of a carp in Germany which he knew to be one, hundred years old. Buffon informs us, that, in the Count) Maurepas’ ponds, he had seen carps of one hundred and fifty , years of age, and that the fact was attested in the most satis-) factory manner. He even mentions one which he supposed, to be two hundred years old. ‘Two methods have been devised, for ascertaining the age of fishes, namely, by the circles of the scales, and by a transverse section of the back-bone.. When a scale of a fish is examined by a microscope, it 1s) found to consist of a number of circles, one within nouns f resembling, in some measure, those rings that appear on the; FISHES. REPTILES. Bits} transverse sections of trees, by which their ages are computed. In the same manner, the ages of fishes may be ascertained by the number of circles on their scales, reckoning for each ring one year of the animal’s existence. The ages of Buffon’s carps were chiefly determined by the circles on their scales. The age of fishes that want scales, such as the skate and ray kind, may be pretty exactly known by separating the joints of the back-bone, and observing minutely the number of rings which the surface exhibits. Both of these methods may be liable to deception ; but they are the only natural ones which have hitherto been discovered. ‘The longevity of fishes has been ascribed to several causes. ‘The element in which they live is more uniform, and less subject to accidental changes than the air of our atmosphere. ‘Their bones, which are more of a cartilaginous nature than those of land animals, admit of indefinite extension; of course their bodies, instead of suffering the rigidity of age at an early period, which is the natural cause of death, continue to grow much longer than those of most land animals. As to the age of Reptiles, probably from the uninteresting nature of the animals, we have very little information. But two letters of J. Arscott, Esq. of Tehott in Devonshire, con- cerning the longevity of a toad, deserve some notice. ‘These letters were addressed to Dr. Milles, Dean of Exeter, and by him communicated to Mr. Pennant in the year 1768. “It would give me the greatest pleasure,” says Mr. Arscott, ‘‘ to be able to inform you of any particulars worthy Mr. Pennant’s notice, concering the toad who lived so many years with us, and was so great a favorite.—It had frequented some steps before the hall door some years before my acquaintance com- menced with it, and had been.admired by my father for its size (which was the largest I ever met with), who constantly paid it a visit every evening. I knew it myself above thirty years, and, by constantly feeding it, brought it to be so tame, that it always came to the candle, and looked up, as if ex- pecting to be taken and brought upon the table, where [I al- ways fed it with insects of all sorts.—You may imagine that a toad, generally detested (although one of the most inoffen- sive of ail animals), so much taken notice of and befriended, excited the curiosity of all comers to the house, who all de- sired to see it fed; so that even ladies so far conquered the horrors instilled into them by nurses, as to desire to see it.” Yn the second letter, Mr. Arscott remarks, “I cannot say how long my father had been acquainted with the toad before I 304 LONGEVITY OF ANIMALS. knew it; but when I was first acquainted with it, he used to mention it as the old toad I have known so many years: I can answer for thirty-six years.’’—‘‘ In respect to its end, had it not been for a tame raven, I make no doubt it would have been now living, who, one day seeing it at the mouth of its hole, pulled it out, and though I rescued it, pulled out one eye, and hurt it so, that, notwithstanding its living a twelve- month, it never enjoyed itself, and had a difficulty in taking its food, missing the mark, for want of its eye. Before that accident it had all the appearance of perfect health.” Most Insects, especially after their Jast transformation, are short-lived. But the species are continually supported by their wonderful fecundity. ‘Those animals whose parts require a long time of hardening and expanding, are endowed witha proportional degree of longevity. Insects grow and their bodies harden more quickly than those of larger animals. Many of them complete their growth in a few weeks, and even ina few days. ‘The duration of their existence is ac- cordingly limited to very short periods. Some species of flies lie in a torpid state during the winter, and revive when the heat of spring or summer returns. The ephemeron flies, of which there are several kinds, seldom live above one day, or one hour, after their transformation. But to continue the species, nature has taken care that myriads of males and females should be transformed nearly at the same instant. Other kinds are transformed more irregularly, and live several days. Here the wisdom of nature is conspicuous; she pro- longs the existence of these animals for no other purpose but to make provision for the continuance of the species. Bees, and flies of all kinds, after lying long inthe water, and having every appearance of death, revive by the application of a gentle heat, or by covering their bodies with ashes, chalk, or sand, which absorb the superfluous moisture from their pores. Reaumur made many experiments upon the reviviscence of drowned bees. He found, that after being immersed in water for nine hours, some of them returned to life; but he ac- knowledges that many of them, in the fourth part of this time, were actually dead, and that neither heat nor the application of absorbent powders could restore them to life. Analogical reasoning is often deceitful, but it frequently leads to useful | truths. As flies of all kinds, after immersion in water, and} exhibiting every mark of actual death, can be restored to life # by covering their bodies with any absorbent substance, with- jj out the assistance of a heat superior to that of the common / LONGEVITY OF PLANTS. 305 atmosphere, might not the ordinary methods employed for the recovery of drowned persons be assisted bythe application of warm ashes or chalk? The structure of a fly and that of a man, it is allowed, are very different. But in desperate cases, when every other method fails, no fact should be overlooked, and no analogy despised. Plants differ as much in the periods of their existence as animals. Many plants perish yearly; others are biennial, triennial, &c. But the longevity and magnitude of particular trees are prodigious. We are informed by Mr. Evelyn, that in the bodies of some English oaks, when cut transversely, three and even four hundred rings of wood have been distin- guished. A ring of wood is added annually to the trunks of trees; and, by counting the rings, the age of any tree may be pretty exactly ascertained. With regard to the magnitude of oaks, some of them are huge masses. Dr. Hunter, in his notes upon Evelyn’s Sylva, remarks, that none “of the oaks mentioned by Mr. Evelyn bear any proportion to one now growing at Cowthorpe, near Wetherby, upon an estate belong- ing to the Right Hon. Lady Stourton. The dimensions are almost incredible. Within three feet of the surface, it meas- ures sixteen yards; and close by the ground twenty-six yards. Its height, in its present and ruimous state (1776) is about eighty-five feet, and its principal limb extends sixteen yards from the bole. When compared to this, all other trees are but children of the forest.” From the facts which have been enumerated, it appears, that all animals, as well as vegetables, have stated periods of existence, and that their dissolution is uniformly accomplished by a gradua! hardening and desiccation of their constituent parts. Noart, no medicine, can retard the operations of nature. It is, therefore, the wisdom and the duty of every human being to sail down the irresistible current of nature with all pos- sible tranquillity and resignation. Life, whether short or long, whether fortunate or unfortunate, when the fatal period arrives, is of little consequence to the individual. Society, knowledge, virtue, and benevolence, are our only rational enjoyments, and ought to be cultivated with diligence. With regard to animals in general, the actual duration of their lives is very different.- But the comparative shortness | or length of life, in particular animals, probably depends on the quickness or slowness of the ideas which pass in their ‘minds, or of the impressions made upon their senses. A rapid succession of ideas or impressions makes time seem propor- 26.* 306 ACTUAL DURATION OF LIFE. tionally long. There is likewise a connection between the quickness and slowness of ideas, and the circulation of the blood. A man whose pulse is slow and sluggish, is generally dull and phlegmatic. Raise the same man’s pulse with wine, or any other exhilarating stimulus, and you immediately quicken his sensations, as well as the train of his ideas. In all young animals the circulation of blood is much more rapid than after they have acquired their full growth. Young animals ac- cordingly are frolicsome, vivacious, and happy. But, when their growth is completed, the motion of the blood is slower, and their manners of course are more sedate, gloomy, and pensive. Another circumstance merits attention. The circu- lation of the blood is slower or quicker in proportion to the magnitude of animals. In large animals, such as man and quadrupeds, the blood moves slowly, and the succession of their ideas 1s proportionally slow. In the more minute kinds, as mice, small birds, squirrels, &c., the circulation is so rapid that the pulsations of their arteries cannot be counted. Now, ani- mals of this description astonish us with the quickness of their movements, the vivacity of their manners, and the extreme cheerfulness of their dispositions. Reaumur, Condillac, and many other philosophers, consider duration as a relative idea, depending on a train of conscious perception and sentiment. It is certain that the natural meas- ure of time depends solely on the succession of our ideas. Were it possible for the mind to be totally occupied with a sin- gle idea for a day, a week, or a month, these portions of time would appear to be nothing more than so many instants. Hence a philosopher often lives as long in one day, as a clown or a savage does in a week or a month spent in mental inactivity and want of thought. | This subject shall be concluded with a single remark: if it be true,—and we are certain that it is so in part,—that animals of every species, whatever be the real duration of their lives; from a slow or rapid succession of ideas, and perhaps from the comparative intensity of their enjoyments, live equally long, and enjoy an equal portion of individual happiness, it opens a wonderful view of the great benevolence of Nature. To store every portion of this globe with animal life, she has am- ply peopled the earth, the air, and the waters. ‘The multifa- rious inhabitants of these elements, as to the actual duration of their lives, are extremely diversified. But, by variation of forms of magnitude, of rapidity of ideas, of intensity of pleas- — ures, and, perhaps, of many other circumstances, she has con- ferred upon the whole nearly an equal portion of happiness. PROGRESSIVE SCALE OF BEINGS. CHAPTER XV. OF THE PROGRESSIVE SCALE OR CHAIN OF BEINGS IN THE UNIVERSE. To men of observation and reflection it is apparent, that all the beings on this earth, whether animals or vegetables, have a mutual connection and a mutual dependence on each other. ‘There is a graduated scale or chain of existence, not a link of which, however seemingly insignificant, could be broken without affecting the whole. Superficial men, or, which is the same thing, men who avoid the trouble of serious thinking, wonder at the design of producing certain insects and reptiles. But they do not consider that the annihilation of any one of these species, though some of them are incon- venient, and even noxious to man, would make a blank in nature, and prove destructive to other species, which feed upon them. These, in their turn, would be the cause of destroying other species, and the system of devastation would gradually proceed, till man himself would be extirpated, and leave this earth destitute of all animation. In the chain of animals, man is unquestionably the chief or capital link. As a highly-rational animal, improved with science and arts, he is, in some measure, related to beings of a superior order, wherever they exist. By contemplating the works of nature, he even rises to some faint idéas of her great Author. Why, it has been asked, are not men endowed with the capacity and powers of angels? beings of whom we have not even a conception. With the same propriety it may be asked, Why have not beasts the mental powers of men? Questions of this kind are the results of ignorance, which is always petulant and presumptuous. Every creature is per- fect, according to its destination. Raise or depress any order of beings, the whole system, of course, will be deranged, and a new world would be necessary to contain and support them. Particular orders of beings should not be considered sepa- rately, but by the rank they hold in the general system. From man to the minutest animalcule which can be discov- ered by the microscope, the chasm seems to be infinite; but that chasm is actually filled up with sentient beings, of which the lines of discrimination are almost imperceptible. _ All of PROGRESSIVE SCALE OF BEINGS; them possess degrees of perfection or of excellence propor- tioned to their station in the universe. Even among mankind, which is a particular species, the scale of intellect is very extensive. What a difference between an enlightened phi- losopher and a brutal Hottentot! Still, however, nature observes, for the wisest purposes, her uniform plan of gradation. In the human species the degrees of intelligence are ex- tremely varied. Were all men philosophers, the business of life could not be executed, and neither society nor even the species could long exist. {ndustry, various degrees of knowl- edge, different dispositions, and different talents, are great bonds of society. ‘The Gentoos, from certain political and religious institutions, have formed their people into different castes or ranks, out of which their posterity can never emerge. To us such institutions appear to be tyrannical, and restraints on the natural liberty of man. In some respects they are so; but they seem to have been originally results. of wisdom and observation ; for, independently of all political institutions, nature herself has formed the human species into castes or ranks. ‘To some she gives superior genius and mental abili- ties; and even of these, the views, the pursuits, and the tastes are most. wonderfully diversified. In the talents and qualities of quadrupeds of the same species there are often remarkable differences. These dif- ferences are conspicuous in the various races of horses, dogs, &c. Even among the same races, some are bold, sprightly, and sagacious. Others are comparatively timid, phlegmatic, and dull. Our knowledge of the chain of intellectual and corporeal beings is very imperfect; but what we do know gives us ex- alted ideas of that variety and progression which reign in the universe. A thick cloud prevents us from recognizing the most beautiful and magnificent parts of this immense chain of beings. We shall endeavor, however, to point out a few of the more obvious links of that chain, which fall under our own limited observation. Man, even by his external qualities, stands at the head of this world. His relations are more extensive, and his form more advantageous, than those of any other animal. His in- tellectual powers, when improved by society and science, raise him so high, that if no degrees of excellence existed among his own species, he would leave a great void in the chain of beings. Were we to consider the characters, the manners, and the genius of different nations, of different prov- etter — — a a a PROGRESSIVE SCALE OF BEINGS. 309 inces and tewns, and even of the members of the same fam- ily, we should imagine that the species of men were as various as the number of individuals. How many gradations may be traced between a stupid Huron, or a Hottentot, and a pro- found philosopher! Here the distance is immense; but na-— ture has occupied the whole by almost infinite shades of dis- crimination. ‘In descending the scale of animation, the next step brings us to the monkey tribe. Man, in many particulars, undoubt- edly resembles the animals of this tribe, more especially in his bodily structure. But even in this respect, the lowest variety of the human species does not nearly so much resem- ble the highest of the apes, as the latter do the majority of quadrupeds. In short, notwithstanding the attempts of some philosophers to confound their own species with monkeys, it requires only a small share of knowledge of the anatomical structure of animals, and the general principles of natural history, to convince oe of the folly and absurdity of such speculations. ‘In the families of bats, of carnivorous, and of gnawing - animals, there is a gradual departure i in their form and struc- ture from that of the original standard, man. Instead of fingers fitted for delicate motions and sensations, they are possessed only of claws which are capable of far less varied application and utility; and passing on still farther, we find in the ruminating and pachydermatous animals the toes en- veloped in hoofs of different sizes and numbers, which totally prevent them from being used for any thing but locomotion. ‘There is not only this regular gradation among individu- als belonging to the same class, but there are instances in which the individuals of different classes very nearly approach each other in certain particulars. The bat, the flying squirrel, the flying opossum, are instances of animals of the class mam- malia, approximating to that of birds in the possession of wings, or organs resembling them, whilst the ornithorhynchus resembles them in the structure of its mouth, and its mode of producing its young by eggs. On the other hand, the ostrich, the cassowary and the dodo, which have wings so short as to be incapable of flying, and therefore always run or walk, are instances of birds approaching, in some degree, to the char- acter of quadrupeds. So, too, the cetaceous tribe affords an example of the transition from the mammalia to fishes; the filying-fish, of the transition from birds to fishes; the dragons, of that from birds to reptiles. Many other examples might SL PROGRESSIVE SCALE OF BEINGS. be adduced in illustration of the same principle among the vertebral animals; and) among the invertebral, the connec- tions and relations of this sort are so numerous, as to form a great obstacle to the proper division of them into classes and orders. Ls ‘ All. the substances we recognize on this earth may be di- vided into organized and animated, organized and inanimated, and unorganized or brute matter. ‘The whole of these pos- sess degrees of perfection, of excellence, or of relative utility, proportioned to their stations or ranks in the universe. Change these stations or ranks, and: another world would be neces- sary to contain and support them. Beings must not be con- templated individually, but by their rank, and the relations they have to the constituent parts of the general system of nature. Certain results of their natures we consider as evils. Destroy these evils, and you annihilate the beings who com- plain of them. The reciprocal action of the solids and fluids constitute life, and the discontinuation of this action is the natural cause of death. Immortality on this earth, therefore, presupposes another system; for our planet has no relation to immortal beings. Every animal, and every plant, rises, by gentle: gradations, from an embryo, or gelatinous state, to a certain degree of perfection exactly proportioned to ‘their several orders. An assemblage of all the orders of relative perfection constitutes the absolute perfection of the whole. All.the planets of this system gravitate toward the sun and toward each other. Our system gravitates toward other sys- tems, and they to ours. Thus the whole universe is linked together by a gradual and almost imperceptible chain of existences, both animated and inanimate. Were there no other argument in favor of the unrry oF peITy, this uniform- ity of design, this graduated concatenation of beings, which appears not only from this chapter, but from many other parts of the book, seems to be perfectly irrefragable. ‘In contemplating man as the head of those animals with which we are acquainted, and viewing him in connection with the economy of the world about him, it appears obvious that no sentient being, whose physical construction was more deli- cate, or whose mental powers were more elevated than those of man, could possibly live and be happy here. If such a be- ing really existed, his misery would beextreme. With senses more refined and acute; with perceptions more delicate and penetrating; with a taste so exquisite that the objects around him could by no means gratify it; obliged to feed upon PROGRESSIVE SCALE OF BEINGS. 3ll nourishment too gross for his frame; he must be born only to be miserable, and the continuation of his existence would be utterly impossible. Even in our present condition, the sameness and insipidity of objects and pursuits, the futility of pleasure, and the infinite sources of excruciating pain, bring constantly to our minds a conviction of the imperfections attendant on our present state of being. Increase our sensi- bilities, continue the same objects and situation, and no man could bear te live. Let man therefore be contented with the powers and the sphere of action assigned him. ‘There is an exact adaptation of his powers, capacities, and desires, both bodily and intellectual, to the scene in which he is destined to move. His station in the scale of nature is fixed by wis- dom. Let him study the works of nature, and find in the - contemplation of all that is beautiful, curious, and wonderfu! in them, proofs of the existence and attributes of his Creator. Let him see in his own structure, and that of all other animals, and in the whole economy of the universe, animate and inan- imate, the evidences of the wisdom, the skill, the benevolence, and the justice of that great and overruling Intelligence, who has made all things, and who upholds all things. Let him find in the contemplation of the final destiny which is prom- ised him, a source of consolation for the imperfections, pains, and trials, of the present state of being. Let him fill up his rank here with dignity, and consider every partial evil as.a cause, or an effect, of general ultimate good; and let him adore and worship that great and good Being, who has, even in this state of discipline and probation, dispensed so many blessings to alleviate its necessary and. unavoidable evils. = 2 2 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. OF THE NATURE OF LIVING BODIES AND THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. Common division ef natural objects into the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms not perfectly accurate ..... eee span (thse. diMiolatn opajal ater eid ase opel =e Division into those possessed of life and those not possessed of life ........ 2 Distinctions between these two ........esceseees islets easiest epee - 2-6 Distinction between animals and vegetables ..... Sluis bis iste ola via aja piesa -o 6—12 CHAPTER II. — GENERAL REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF VEGETABLES. Great simplicity and uniformity in the structure of plants ..........seeee0 12—13 Circulation of the sap in annual plants...... cae cet sotemeee Ce vcctnverece 13 Differences in the circulation in plants of larger growth and trees, and the formation of, the bark:and .W00d i. vie. oe wlescian ect Uictele's oi a Biers . 13—l4 Object of this arrangement .......... bce wa RN EL dietals Sais bo sletoneareansine 14 Of the ailter sunctious of -veretables i .)...fieiccicse so ewticsiaee sax cee cavssee se Ja—15 CHAPTER. Ill, OF THE STRUCTURE OF ANIMALS. Sect. I. General Classification of Animals. Necessity of some system of arrangement ...... aie aeie as asia dais tepes ea G Two grand divisions of animals, Vertebral and Invertebral ........ ioe iene tae Lh Vertebral division subdivided into warm-blooded and cold-blooded ......... 17 Warm-blooded vertebral animals, two classes, Mammalia and Birds........ 17 Cold-blooded vertebral animals, two classes, Reptiles and Fishes .......... 17 _ Invertebral divisions subdivided into five classes, Insects, Crustacea, Mol- lusca, Vermes or Worms, Zoophytes ........... See ce Sere Hee ep 18 } Objects and nature of the divisions into orders, genera, and species ........ 18—19 27 314 CONTENTS. Sect. Il. Class f. Mammalia. This class at the head of the animal kingdom, and contains Man .....-.... General similarity in the anatomical structure of the Mammalia .........+« Description of the anatomy of Man; head, vertebral column, spinal mar- row, ribs, cavity of the chest, cavity of the abdomen, pelvis, and limbs e@eeeeseecese @eeseesceeeeeoe eevee eeeeseeenpeeeeeeeee2 08 @eeeseeeseee egeesee Digestion; action of the jaws and teeth; function of the stomach and gastric juice @eeeoeesesesces @eeseevese2es @esoeeveveewseseaes es @eeeoesee @eeeeeaneeeceaenes Functions of the intestines ; effect of the bile and pancreatic juice ; absorp- tion of the chyle by the lacteals, and passage into the left subclavian ew omy ae ee aie jnle| e’eie Rie ss alehar see aie ce eee w clea ietayeteieytiscalcione ae eens ° Circulation of the blood. Structure and office of the heart ............... ° Course of the blood from the left subclavian vein through the heart, lungs, and body, and influence of the air upon it ............00.. Scletoaiaai aise Ss Termination of the circulation in the capillary vessels ......secccccccceeees Of the brain, nerves, amd SENSES‘... oi. oc's visise cio vp me ate ala elaine eerie Structure of other Mammalia......... RATS ERR seating atone uae Seen yee we pare Mel cate A! Division into nine orders. Characters of the orders .....ccccccceceee Syn © bea 1. Bimana. Man the only instance of this order. Attempts to con- found him with apes. How distinguished .........ccecscscccece Causes of man’s superiority to other animals ...........+2200% aids Races of mankind; Ist, Caucasian; 2d, Mongolian; 3d, African ; 4th, American; 5th, Malay. Accounts of these varieties ...... : Progress of man to the civilized state ......ssseeeveeees BC ere 2. Quadrumana. Structure, habits, &c. Apes, Monkeys, Baboons, Sapajous, Ourang-outang, Chimpanze, Pongo .....-sseceseseeee 3. Carnivora. Divided into several families ; Ist, Bats; 2d, Insectivo- » 20 20—22 22—23 23 23—24 24—25 25 25—26 27 27—28 28—29 29—30 34—36 ra,—Hedge-hog, Mole, &c. ; 3d, Truly carnivorous animals,—Dog, | Lion, Tiger, &c. ; 4th, Amphibia,—Seal and Morse ............. . Rodentia. Beaver, Jerboa, Hamster, Marmot, &C. ...-.-ssescceeceee . Edentata. Sloth, Armadillo, Ant-eater, &C. .....sesseesees etal . Ruminantia. Camel and Dromedary, Lama, Bison, Camelopard, &c. . Pachydermata. Elephant, Mammoth, Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, Ta- pir, Hog, Horse, Ass, &C. ....-.+es00% «oa chain eintora dias ere tial aetais stein a 8. Cetacea. Manati, Sea-cow and Dugong. Blowers, Whales, Por- POISES, GEC.) sectwclce a } bea vue he one ee = Otelolatn inion aie ES Ses 9. Marsupialia. Account of their structure. Opossum, Phalangers, Kangaroo, Ornithorhynchus ....cesceseccccccccccccccccscceces ae 1D OF Secr. III. Class II. Birds. Peculiarities in the structure of birds to adapt them for flight ........c..+-- Organs of Digestion. Senses .....----+++-- ode ORs 5 die siels aes See tae nie we Orders of Birds. 1. Accipitres. Birds of Prey ....... FF a SIO, abreuiee 2. Passeres. The Sparrow tribe; Birds of Paradise, Humming- WIWAS, GCS). eect cece wei CENS sok te CORE . Mies Seeiieee cetek Oa eee eltars 3. Sconsores. Climbers ;—Woodpecker, Cuckoo, Parrot, Toucan, &c... 4, Gallinacee. Gallinaceous Birds ;—Peacock, Turkey, Cock, Quail, &c. 49-44 44 45—48 48—51 51—52 52—55 53 56—57 57—58 58—59 59—69 60 — eel —~ agi CONTENTS. 315 5. Gralle. Waders or Shore Birds ; Flamingo, Ostrich, Rail, Plover, &c. 60—61 6. Anseres. Web-footed Birds ;—Goose, Duck, Petrel, Cormorant, &c... 61 “Secr. IV. Class II. Reptiles. Peculiarities in the structure of Reptiles ........c.cccccccccccece 2 61—€2 Orders of Reptiles. 1. Chelonia. Tortoises .............0- Be a ae 62 2. Sauria. Lizards ;—Crocodile, Chameleon, Dragon, Alligator, &c.... 62—63 3. Ophidia. Serpents; venomous and not venomous ............ «oe. 6364 4. Batrachia. Frog, Toad, Salamander, Proteus, Siren, &c.......... - 64—65 Secr. V. Class IV. Fishes. Peculiarities in the structure of Fishes. @ecouaeee@vneseceseeeeeeeeseeseveeneor*seen08 & 65—67 Sect. VI. Class V. Insects. Structure of insects. Dorsal vessel. Mode of respiration. Nervous sys- SEA MISES fos Shes cane G5 oe lee o'ae ae Peete acts ee oe viele aie Soe oot Bate 67 Pewrcrmal sclera, external COVETNG ..... asst ie Sec ctecst coves. Basic 67 Head of Insects, mouth and organs around it, jaws and mode of action .... 68 Legs and wings of Insects. Abdomen ............ Sercichia os oe ee ae Aoke Se - 68—S69 Metamorphoses of Insects ...... pn A Reg ay patch a Det ietas Ieee see oene 69 Three stages of existence—Larva, Chrysalis, Perfect Insect............... ° 70 Orders of Insects. 1. Coleoptera. Beetles, &c........ Pearse ie ~ssendout : 71 2. eminera,.. Grasciiopner, Cricket, GC.icc ete snc dinsce cence s ee 71 Da Srerephere. Seriya NOL aes os. Ss 5c c eo wceces pc ccoccennccseves : 71 4, Neuroptera. Dragon-fly, Ephemera, &C. ..2.....2..22ccceceee Sates 71 3. saunenepiera. mat, Wasp, Bee, 600: caer cals ceccsen cece Spore 7 6. Diptera. House-fly, Gnat, Musquetoe, &c. ............ Sate closes sere 72 7. Apiera. Millepedes, Plea, Louse, 8&6... 626.665 te oo Sache gacee se 73 Family of the Arachnides.or Spiders..........cee0- od: oaeyaye Salsas wore Spore cc ih Their mode of transporting themselves through the @ir ........seeseeeeeeee 73 Sect. VII. Class VI. Crustacea. BeCSOOUNANTE Il SOMERMEEIIS TOMNSECES. . 0's aoe ojaiaa « <'siein ei aye's » o(n ..2c..ccccscesdceccecnevecescoasess 209-910 Dear Sie WHE TAa) UESEFOVED <. oi. onc ace es cas ec aces esccsscdcwescaqunsace CLU0—O19 Carnivorous Quadrupeds,—Lion, Tiger, Wolf, & c. ....-sccccccscsseceses 2I2—214 Rapacious Birds, their number less than of Quadrupeds .....ccssccccecee Q14—215 PEE SeAACIOMS: cic ono wine o o\s ace vs oes t'elc'esic'cin's wales ac cs ce sGiciwdaceceee Cid — 10 Rapacity of different species of Insects .......cccsccccccccccscccsccccsss 2IO—219 Man not the only animal that makes war with his own species .......... 219 Massacre of the male Bees by the neuters. Wars of Bees .......00.ce0s 220 Bayeemnd cmelty among! W ASPs ie. ci diciehnw knee edie dices Ss Medaces devs DQ—891 Of the final causes of this system of animal destruction, and the balance which it preserves in the creation between different kinds of CED UIAIUIN nic 'n'nin piv a apie > aoe n'a ain Sino mis Saleitala ale «ers nea) DI Eee etaaes eel —— er CHAPTER X. OF THE ARTIFICES OF ANIMALS. Seurecs aeiieartsices Of Animals i.4s 6 0cside vie o'vvBine Gore cvin duds ee dabidecide 227 ares et ses,, MOR CYS 6c ncn 2 on ns nes scjnowe mics oun te sie ain db gievaass + 22i—200 Arts used by the Stag, Fallow-deer, Roe-buck, and Hare, when hunted .. 228—230 GCraniness ame address of the FOX ....so002+.0e0p oaccthe coach eebecesse 230—232 Glee ror eek ene ah let RAL ses asic ovate saie died onc basinswiedede a lvies dads f° 232—933 Of Birds. Singular artifice of the Nine-killer ........cccecccsseccececcs Qad—230 Of the inhabitants of the ocean,—Fishes, Shell-fish, &c. ......0eeseeee00 230—236 Of the Insect tribes ..........- Sees s/s ainin Vivis sid uanicsip nalwGiemlane 2s aveicuee® DOO—oOr CHAPTER XI. OF THE SOCIETY OF ANIMALS. Not confined to the human SPEBICS i. ics ucimagne SEEN ae wow oe Be kOe wees |: 238 Origin of society among mankind) «2+ «igs 6 cous eoccwabcescccccccecsvetes 238—240 The associating principle natural to man; advantages of society ......... 240 1. Proper Societies. Man, Beaver, Hampster, Pairing birds .......... 240—243 Of the Honey-bees, Common Caterpillar, Processionary Caterpil- Far, wepublican Caterpillar, AMS 045.2. Haccis: oe stv cence eciiss Oe DAS— O18 2. Improper Societies. Ox, Deer, Sheep, Hogs, Wild Dogs ........... 249—250 Society between animals of different species .......ccccecencececs 250 CHAPTER XII. OF THE DOCILITY OF ANIMALS. Man superior to all other.animals in ductility of mind ..........ccccee-e» 200-251 Accounts of the Ourang-Outang by Buffon, Brosse, Pyrard, &c. ......0.0. 251—253 320 CONTENTS. Of the Elephant, its sagacity, docility, utility, &c. ...ssscserccseccssecess Q3—260 Of the Dog, Horse, Oxen of the Hottentots:.s jcisec.ccccecccncdaccesceass 200—205 Articulation of words by some birds ...4...cescccccccescscevccessesccses 2O0—200 Musical and imitative faculties of singing birdS ......s-cececsccccccccecs 266 Effects of Domestication upon different animals, in size, shape, color, &c. 266—268 OF AIDINGES ...SicccscosecacdtessccccucucesdssueUaregecmbn smaeeane eine Seis CHAPTER XIII. OF THE COVERING, MIGRATION, AND TORPIDITY OF ANIMALS. Man capable of inhabiting in every climate .....ccccccccccsccccccccccece 269 Constitutions of other animals not so accommodating .......... eecccecee 209—270 Means by which they are protected against climate and seasons .......... 270 1. Changes in the color and quantity of hair, fur, feathers, &c., in different climates and. Seasons ......sseeseees TTe Tk 271 How these changes operate to maintain the proper animal tem- POCTALETO 1s Cae cwineil sie x a i et lect rae alls fein ie aves slat toda B71 2. Migrations of Birds. Swallows, question as to their torpidity or TAISTALION ace dais wc'sn\ats oh be siaie minnie emis awsipinimaia Siw einige ieee 272—273 British species of Swallows ; their times of appearance and disap- OE ERS a cs .ctr lp Sintn sols siajearom ers sat ge Gate wiisnews ace folin ac was ae oe ee Different opinions concerning the periodical appearance and dis- appearance of Swallows ....eesecees 0 ue Sete oases coccesces 214—279 Of Summer and Winter Birds of Passage; their residence in dif- LEFEHV SEASONS aniec-eeee on 000 cb eee et et ule se cise ew selvie Siemans sts oe 279 Of the Wild Goose, Solan Geese or Gannets in the Frith of Forth, and At. Sts Kd da wovwsnes tage don Ue iil oly Bellas eRe . Sere 2880 Of partial migrations. Circumstances attending migrations ...... 280—282 The great rapidity of the flight of Birds removes one objection to their Migration ....sesesceee Giles ove dsnpe wee on ESE eeeecee 202—283 Migration not peculiar to Birds. Migrations of the human species 283—284 Migrations of Quadrupeds and of Reptiles ....... Me te eee 284—285 Migrations of Fishes ;—Salmon, Herring, Mackerel, &c., and of the Land-crab ......- Hb dels ches ode awe Sobran ott SpR a IG. wcleia's sv cere - 285—289 Migrations of Insects. Migration to a certain extent a universal PFINCIPLE «.- a. c:o0 cMeweienals.ege o.c0.c000e's's gees oees coeecees pease 289—250 3. Torpidity. Quadrupeds echicls eat! COMPUT Ses Sou ecds ae ae 290—291 Temperature diminished in the torpid state ............ ee ee 291 Diminution in the force and rapidity of the ciréUlation ......00s6. 291 Causes of torpidity, and some phenomena attending it ............ 291 Of the torpidity of Birds, Reptiles, &c. .........ssseeeeee Pe state<;e 292—293 CHAPTER XIV. OF THE LONGEVITY AND DISSOLUTION OF ORGANIZED BODIES. Dissolution of organized bodies a general law of nature .......-s.seeee0e 293 Length of the life of Man s.....0.. ccs cee cecccrecncnesecscsccscscancaces 993—294 CONTENTS. 321 Pere MMM Ee vseY LEO PUNY oo oo :5:s-ace\e,s-05% sececenecledoen vis vig.e's acne tec 294 Instances of longevity in modern times .........2.0. ieee erika ate eptse ake ol 295—296 Professor Silliman’s account of a very aged man in the state of New York 296—298 In Women the operation of the causes of death often retarded ..... areisiate 298 Circumstances which favor longevity in Man and other animals...... esee 299—300 Table of longevity of Quadrupeds, their period of maturity, and number Elia lg or onlin! dl a'or's 6) colaln iu a dlgie #5 so sieeve aie oe s. oiPuieieuicsesiaes OO -—OOL Great longevity of Birds and Fishes 2... ...ccccducccccccccccccoccsccsses JUI—303 Length of the life of Reptiles. Remarkable Toad ..........ceccseecceee SUd—d04 Siem Gt CNC Fife Of MNSECES 2605s. oc ewes owned cnces cue evinced sce cinects 304 Great diversity in the longevity of Plants .........e.. ean owen eeinesnsccic . 305 Actual duration of life in Man and other animals ..........cccceccccscese S00—UG Benevolence of the provisions of nature in this respect .....csccsccecccce 306 CHAPTER XV. OF THE PROGRESSIVE SCALE OR CHAIN OF BEINGS IN THE UNIVERSE. Mutual connection and dependence of all created things ........seseccecs 307 Man the chief link in the chain of animals .........c.ceccccceseccsseses SUI—a08 _ His structure and powers adapted to the rank which he holds ..........s. 308 Unter Slaw of Sradation i NACUTE . 2... Tic ccs ccccesecsocseccwcsscvscce 308 Gradation from Man downwards, through the Monkeys, Bats, &c. ....... 308—309 Instances in which individuals of different classes approach each other in PERIGLUIEC: (IE EOWETS 5.2 oho c.0.0 «400 0.00/50 0c 0.c'uin annie 0.0.0.00.0.0.0,0.0 010.040 eee 309 All substances possessed of powers, qualities, &c. eee proportioned to the relations they maintain in the UNIVEerSE .. 2.2 cccccccccccccccccve 310 Unity of design in the universe an argument for the unity of God........ 310. No being superior to man could exist in this world .......ccccccsccsccces 310 SRNR ee Ia Ee oie nist oials wialainibs dips vais niaiurwiaistereln tha ttsave eae Sinwesbs 311 " h n = , EXPLANATIONS SOME OF THE SCIENTIFIC TERMS OR UNUSUAL WORDS WHICH OCCUR IN THE COURSE OF THIS WORK. Accipitrine, belonging to the first order of birds, called Accipitres, Birds of Prey. Alburnum, the outer and most recent layer of wood in trees. Alluvia, soils formed from the muddy sediment of rivers, or from the earth washed down by rains and torrents from mountains. Ammonia, or Ammoniacal gas, a pungent air which gives its peculiar qualities to volatile salts or hartshorn drops. : Antenne, organs of touch situated near the mouths of insects, having many joints. Anther, a small body which contains the poilen or fertilizing dust of flowers; the anthere are fixed generally on the ends of slender filaments, and surround the germ or seed-vessel. Articulations, joints formed by the union of bones. Auricles, two appendages to the heart, so called from their supposed resemblance to the external ear (auricula). They are holiow and muscular. Their office is described, pp. 24, 25. Azote, see Nitrogen. Bimanous, two-handed ; belonging to the order Bimang. Bivalved, having two valves or shells ; applied to shell-fish, as the oyster, clam, &c. Calcareous, composed of lime. Caloric, the ultimate principle of heat. Canine, as applied to the teeth, designates those commonly called dog-teeth or eye- teeth. They are peculiarly adapted to tearing flesh, p. 27. Capillary, hair-like. The extreme vessels of the body are so called on account of their indefinite minuteness. Carbon, pure charceal; it is a component part of most animal and vegetable sub- stances. Carbonic acid gas, fixed air; the gas produced by the burning of charcoal, and the effervescence of chalk, marble, and other calcareous substances, with acids. Carbonic oxide, a gas composed of carbon and oxygen. Carbureted hydrogen, hydrogen combined with a portion of carbon. Cartilage, gristle. Cellular, composed of celis. Cetaceous, of the whale kind ; belonging to the order Cetacea. Chlorine, a highly irritating and deleterious gas, produced by the distillation of manganese with muriatic acid. 324 EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS. Chrysalid, an insect in its second or chrysalis state, p. 70. Cod, the case or envelope formed by many insects to enshroud and protect them during the chrysalis state. Comminution, grinding, or breaking up into small parts. Condiments, substances taken with the food, not containing any nourishment, but used as seasoning, to promote appetite and digestion, as salt, pepper, &c. Congeries, a collection, a heap. Crustaceous, belonging to the class Crustacea, having a shelly covering with joints, allowing the free motion of the body and limbs. Crystalline lens, a double convex lens, formed of a transparent animal substance, situated within the eye, and serving to collect the rays of light passing in at the pupil, and to transmit them to the retina. Diaphragm, the midriff; a broad, thin, muscular membrane, extending across the cavities of the trunk of the body, and separating the thorax or chest from the abdomen or belly. Dornant, as applied to animals, designates those which pass a part of the year ina state of torpidity. Elytra, cases, the horny or shell-like external wings of some insects. Espalier, trees planted and cut so as to join. Extravasate, to pass or force out of the proper containing vessels. Blood which settles under the skin in consequence of a blow, is said to be extravasated. Farina, the dust which bees collect from the anthere and flowers of plants to form into wax. Filament, a substance long and slender like a thread. Frugivorous, feeding upon fruits. Fulcrum, the point of support on which a lever is moved. Gallinaceous, belonging to the fourth order of birds, Gallinacee. Gas, a term used in chemistry, nearly synonymous with air. Al fluids which remain in an aériform state at the ordinary pressure and temperature of the atmosphere are called gases. Gastric, appertaining to the stomach. Gastric juice, a fluid prepared by the stomach to assist in dissolving and digesting the food. Gelatinous, of the composition or consistence of jelly. Glands, organs in living bodies intended for the secretion, or separation from the blood, of fluids of various kinds; as the l-ver, which separates the bile; the kidneys, the urine, &c. Graminivorous, feeding upon grass. Gregarious, living in flocks and herds. Herbivorous, feeding upon herbs, i. e. plants whose stems are soft and have but little that is woody or fibrous in their texture. Homogeneous, having the same nature or principle. Hydrogen, one of the elements of water; it can only be obtained in the state of a very light and inflammable gas. Imbricated, arranged like slate or shingles on a roof, or like the scales of fish. Incisors, Incisive teeth, the front or cutting teeth, p. 27. Incubation, the sitting upon and hatching of eggs. Tntumescence, swelling, enlargement. Invertebral, without vertebre, or back-bone ; used to designate one of the two grand divisions of the animal kingdom, including those which have no internal skeleton. Larva, an insect in its first state, commonly called a worm or caterpiliar, p. 70 EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS. B25 Lens, any circular transparent body, with either convex or concave surfaces, for the purpose of collecting or dispersing the rays of light, Locomotion, motion from place to place. Macerate, to soak a substance in any liquid, till its texture is softened. Marsupial, Animals having a pouch or bag (marsupium) for containing their young after dirth are called Marsupial animals; in this work they are all arranged under one order, Marsupialia, but have been usually distributed among the other orders. Mastication, the act of chewing the food and mixing it with saliva. Membranes, thin, broad expansions of animal substance, covering all the important organs, and lining all the organs and cavities in the bodies of animals. Thus the nose is lined by the Schneiderian or pituitary, and the eye covered by the conjunctive membrane ; the stomach and bladder are each formed of several membranes laid together. Menstruum, a dissolvent ; any substance in which another substance may be dis- solved. Molares, Molar teeth, the grinders or double teeth, p. 27. Mucus, a viscid animal fluid; such as the phlegm which is poured out from the nose, or raised up from the throat in common colds. Multivalved, having many valves or shells; applied to some shell-fish, as the sea urchin, sea-egg, &c. Muscles (in Anatomy), bundles of fibrous flesh, fixed by tendons or sinews to the bones, and serving to move them one upon another at their joints. In the mam- malia, birds, and some reptiles, they are of a red color ; in other animals, for the most_part, white. They constitute the greatest portion of the flesh of animals, and are the parts principally used as food. Nectariferous, bearing or producing honey; applied to certain parts of plants from which honey is collected. Nidus, a nest; any place where the eggs of animals are deposited for hatching. Nitrogen or Azote, one of the gases which compose atmospheric air: its qualities are negative, and its principal use seems to be merely to dilute the oxygen. Nitrous oxyde, a gas composed of oxygen and nitrogen in different proportions from those in which they exist in atmospheric air ; remarkable for its power of in- toxicating and exhilarating those who breathe it. Nymphe, nymphs, insects in their second or chrysalis state. @sophagus, the gullet ; the passage through which the feod passes from the mouth to the stomach. Oviparous, producing young by means of eggs. Oxygen, vital air; the principle upon which atmospheric air depends for its power of supporting life and combustion. It forms also one of the component parts of water. Pachydermatous, thick-skinned ; belonging to the order Pachydermata. Palpi, organs situated near the mouth of some insects, resembling in some degree the antenne in their structure. Papier maché, chewed paper. Papille. The terminations of the nerves in the skin and other organs of sense are supposed to form little eminences, which are called papille. Papion a perruque, baboon with a wig. Parachute, a machine often attached.to an air-balloon, and constructed so as to open like an umbrella, and break the fall of a person descending from any great height in the air. Passerine, belonging to the order Passeres, or birds of the sparrow kind. 28