0 19OLI 1M ALISHSAINNA h ¢ FoRFSTRY ZONTO FACULTY O UNIVERSITY VF Tour LIBRARY FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from - University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/plantbreedingbeOObail PLANT-BREEDING Garden-Craft Serics THE HORTICULTURIST’S RuLe-Boox PLANT-BREEDING Of PLANT-BREEDING.- BEING FIVE LECTURES UPON THE AMELIORATION OF DOMESTIVU PLANTS BY L. H. BAILEY ORESTRY EACULTY OF F UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO Lo , eee « Newy Pork MACMILLAN AND CO. LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Lip. 1896 All rights reserved n,\0 \ Free ta LAT COPYRIGHT, 1895, By L. H. BAILEY. Set up and electrotyped December, 1895. Reprinted April, 1896. Norwood 3ress J. S. Cushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith Norwood Mass, U.S.A. PLANT BREEDING. LECTURE I. THE FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. THERE is no one fact connected with horticult- ure which so greatly interests all persons as the existence of numerous varieties of plants which seem to satisfy every. need of the gardener. Whence came all this multitude of forms? What are the methods employed in securing them? Are they simply isolated facts or phenomena of gar- dening, or have they some relation to the broader phases of the evolution of the forms of life? These are some of the questions which occur to every reflective mind when it contemplates an attractive garden, but they are questions which seem never to be answered. Whatever attempt -the gardener may make at answering them is either befogged by an effort to detine what a vari- ety is, or else it consists in simply reciting how a few given varieties came to be known. But there B 1 2 FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. must be some fundamental method of arriving at a conception of how the varieties of fruits and flowers and other cultivated plants have origi- nated. If there is no such method, then the origination of these varieties must follow no law, and the discussion of the whole subject is fruit- less. But we have every confidence in the con- secutive uniformity of the operations of nature, and it were strange if some underlying principle of the unfolding or progression of plant life does not dominate the origin of the varied and in- numerable varieties which, from time unknown, have responded to the touch of the cultivator. Let us first, therefore, make a broad survey of the subject in a philosophical spirit, and, later, discuss the more specific instances of the origination of “varieties. I. THe FAot oF INDIVIDUALITY. There is universal difference in nature. No .two living things are exact counterparts, for no two are born into exactly the same conditions and experiences. Every living object has individ- uality ; that is, there is something about it which enables the acute observer to distinguish it from all other objects, even of thé s%me class or spe- cies. Every plant in a row of lettuce is different from eyery other plant, and the gardener, when PREFACE. THERE is no subject associated with the care of plants respecting which there is so much mis- apprehension and imperfect knowledge, as that of the origination of new forms. Most of the scattered writing touching it treats the subject as if all our knowledge of the matter were and must be derived wholly from experiment. It therefore recites examples of how this and that new form has come to be, and has made little attempt to discover the fundamental causes of the genesis of the novelties. Horticulturists commonly look upon each novelty as an isolated fact, whilst we ought to regard each one as but an expression of some law of the variation of plants. It is the common notion, too, to con- sider any type of plant to be essentially ‘a fixed entity, and to regard any marked departure from the type as a phenomenon rather more to be x vl PREFACE. wondered at than to be explained. It is evident, however, that one cannot understand the pro- duction of new varieties until he has grasped some of the fundamental principles of the on- ward progression of the vegetable kingdom. Any attempt, therefore, to explain the origin of garden varieties, and the methods of producing them, must be at the same time a contribution to the literature of the philosophy of organic evolution. I do not know of any explicit and sustained attempt to account for the evolution of all gar- den forms, and I have therefore brought together in this volume the subject-matter of various lectures which I have been in the habit of giving before my students. The first and third lectures were newly elaborated the present summer for two addresses before the class in biology which came together at the University of Pennsylvania, under the auspices of the American Society for the Extension of Univer- sity Teaching. The second lecture was first presented before the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, in Boston, December 1, 1891. In April, 1892, it was republished, with a bibli- PREFACE. vii ography of the subject, by the Rural Publishing Co., under the title, “* Cross-Breeding and Hybrid- oJ izing.” This publication is now out of print. I have made no attempt to. collect lists or cata- logues of varieties, but have endeavored to make very brief statements of some of the underlying principles of the amelioration of plants, with only sufficient examples to fix them in the mind. I hope that teachers of horticulture and botany may find the book useful in their classes. When it is necessary to abridge the instruction or to present it to untrained students, only Lectures III. and V. may be used, for these contain the matters of greatest demonstrative importance. L. H. BAILEY. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, IrHAca, N.Y., September 1, 1895. 42 ome CONTENTS. LECTURE I. PAGE Tue Fact and PuHivosopny OF VARIATION 5 : : 1 I. The Fact of Individuality . ; ; : , 2 The seed-individual. The bud-individual. Il. The Causes of Individual Differences ; ; 8 a. Fortuitous variation . : : : : 9 b. Sex as a factor in the variation of plants . 11 ¢. Physical environment and variation . ee ELS 1. Variation in food supply. : sills 2. Variation in climate . : : sn ae: 3. Change of seed. Bud-variation Zo d. Struggle for life a cause of variation . Aer 432 Ill. The Choice and Fixation of Variations . ae opi LECTURE II. Tur PHILOsOPHY OF THE CROSSING OF PLANTS, CONSID- ERED IN REFERENCE TO THEIR IMPROVEMENT UNDER . CULTIVATION ; ; ‘ ; : : : . 39 I. The Struggle for Life , : : me whe, Il. The Division of Labor ; ‘ : > 5 182 Ill. The Limits of Crossing : . : . 44 ix CONTENTS. IV. Function of the Cross : The gradual amelioration = the oa . Change of seed and crossing c. The outright production of new Geieies V. Characteristics of Crosses . VI. Uncertainties of Pollination Conclusion : ; : - : LECTURE IIL. How Domestic VARIETIES ORIGINATE I. Indeterminate Varieties II. Plant-breeding Rule 1. Rule 2. Rule 3. Rule 4. 5. Characters of the entire ae most Rule Rule 6. Rule 7. Rule 8&8. Rule 9. Rule 10. Rule 11. Rule 12. Rule 13. Rule 14. Rule 15. Antagonistic features Quickest results in the most Ne groups . : Breed for one thing ae a nee : Contradictory attributes . important , Plants differ in hereditary power Less marked variations more impor- tant : Crossing a means, not an ae Choice of parents to a cross The ideal should be mental Seek to produce variation in the desired direction . Watch for bud-varieties . Progress lies in selection . The type is kept up to standard = continued selection . 3 The best final results are.to be ob: tained by high tillage and intelli- gent selection 98 99 104 105 107 109 112 114 118 120 122 127 CONTENTS. Ill. Specific Examples : ; ; ‘ . : The dewberry and blackberry : , ; The apple : é 2 : 5 3 Beans : - : : 2 mee Cannas. , : E : : - LECTURE IV. BoRROWED OPINIONS ; BEING EXTRACTS FROM THE Writ- incs oF B. Vertor, E. A. CARRIBRE, AND W. O. Fockr ; Verlot’s Classification of Varieties of Ornamen- tal Plants. Il. Carriére’s Account of Bud-varieties 1. General remarks upon bud-vyariation . 2. List of bud-varieties . -. Ill. Focke’s Discussion of the Characteristics of Crosses i. The simple primary cross Proposition 1. Similarity of eed off spring . : . : : : Proposition 2. Dissimilarity of crossed offspring . : : : : d Proposition 3. Vegetative powers of hy- brids Proposition 4. forreearatires fertility of hybrids : ‘ : : . ; Proposition 5. Malformations in hybrid offspring : ii. The progeny of crosses : 1. Progeny of crosses with item own pollen. Xll CONTENTS. 2. Derivative hybridization of crosses with the parent forms . : . 242 3. Hybrids of several species . : . 244 a. Triple hybrids. : . 244 ie Hybrids of four to six species . 246 c. Crosses of plants grown together 247 iii. Cross-breeds and hybrids . ; - . 247 LECTURE V. POLLINATION; OR How To Cross PLANTS . : : . 252 I. The Structure of the Flower. 5 : . 252 Il. Manipulating the Flowers . : 6 : . 265 GLOSSARY. P : : : 4 5 : . 282 NSD EEXe ae : : : = - . . : . 286 INDIVIDUALITY. 3 transplanting them, selects out, almost uncon- sciously, some plants which please him and others which do not. Every apple tree in an orchard of a thousand Baldwins is unlike every other one, perhaps in size or shape, or possibly in the vigor of growth or the kind of fruit it bears. Persons who buy apples for export know that fruit from certain regions stands the shipments better than the same variety from other regions; and if one were to go into the orchards where these apples are grown, he would find the owner still further refining the problem by talking about the merits of individual trees in his orchard. If one were to make the effort, he would find that it is pos- sible to distinguish differences between every two spears of grass in a meadow, or every two heads of wheat in a grain-field. All this is equivalent to saying that plants are infinitely variable. The ultimate causes of all this variation are beyond the purpose of the present discussion, but it must be evident, to the -refleetive mind, that these differences are the means of adapting the innumerable indi- viduals to every little difference or advantage in the environment in which they live. And if the object of variation is better adaptation to the physical conditions of life, then the same motive must have been present in the circum- stances which determined the birth of the indi- 4 FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. vidual. The variation in environment, therefore, must be the cause of much of the variation in plants, since differences in plants were positively injurious if it were possible for the conditions of environment to be the same. If no two plants are anywhere alike, then it is not strange if now and then some departure, more marked than common, is named and becomes a garden variety. We have been taught to feel that plants are essentially stable and inelastic, and that any departure from the type is an excep- tion and calls for immediate explanation. The fact is, however, that plants are essentially un- stable and plastic, and that variation between the individuals must everywhere be expected. This erroneous notion of the stability of organisms comes of our habit of studying what we call species. We set for ourselves a type of plant or animal, and group about it all those individuals which are more like this type than they are like any other, and this group we name a species. Nowadays, the species is regarded as nothing more than a convenient and arbitrary expression for classifying our knowledge of the forms of life, but the older naturalists conceived that the species is the real entity or unit in nature, and we have not yet wholly outgrown the habit of mind which was born of that fallacy. Nature knows nothing about species; she is concerned with the ~ INDIVIDUALITY. 5 ' individual, the ultimate unit. This individual she moulds and fits into the chinks of environment, and each individual tends to become the more unlike its birthmates the more the environments of the various individuals are unlike. I would impress upon you, therefore, as a fundamental conception to the discussion of the general subject before us, the importance of the individual plant, rather than the importance of the species; for thereby we put ourselves as nearly as possible in a sympathetic attitude with nature, and, resting upon the ultimate object of her concern, we are able to understand what may be conceived to be her motive in working out the problem of life. That I may still more forcibly emphasize this thought, let me recall to your minds the fact that the whole tendency of contemporary civili- zation, in sociology and religion, is to deal with the individual person and not with the mass. This is only an unconscious feeling after natu- ral methods of solving the most complex of problems, for it is exactly the means to which every organic thing has been subjected from the beginning. In looking for the ultimate unit or individuality or personality in nature, we must make a broad dis- tinction between the animal and the plant. Every higher animal is itself a unit; it is one. It has a more or less definite span of life, and every part 6 FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. and organ contribute a certain indispensable part to the life and personality of the organism. No part is capable of propagating itself independently of the sex-organs of the animal, nor is it capable of developing sex-organs of its own. If any part is removed, the animal is maimed and perhaps it dies. The plant, on the contrary, has no definite or distinct autonomy. Most plants live an indefi- nite existence, dependent very closely upon the immediate conditions in which they grow. Every part or branch of the plant lives largely for itself, it is capable of propagating and multiplying itself when removed from the parent plant or the colony of branches of which it is a member, and it de- velops sex-organs and other individual features of its own. If any branch is removed, the tree or plant does not necessarily suffer; in fact, the remaining branches usually profit by the removal, a fact which shows that there is a competition, or struggle for existence, between the different branches or elements of the plant. The whole theory and practice of pruning rest upon the fact of the individual unlikenesses of the branches of plants; and these unlikenesses are of the same kind and often of the same degree as those which exist between different plants which are grown from seeds. That is, the branches of a Crawford peach tree, for example, differ amongst themselves in size, shape, vigor, productiveness, and season of BUD-INDIVIDUALS. ' maturity, the same as any two or more separate Crawford trees, or any number of trees of other varieties, differ the one from the others. If any one of these branches or buds is removed and is grown into an independent tree, a person could not tell—if he were ignorant of its history —if this tree were derived from a branch or a seed. This proves that there is no essential unlikeness between branches and independent plants, except the mere accident that one grows upon another branch or plant whilst the other grows in the ground. But the branch may be severed and grown in the ground, and the seedling may be pulled up and grafted on the tree, and no one can distinguish the different origins of the two. And then, as a matter of fact, a very large pro- portion of our cultivated plants are not distinet plants at all, in the sense of being different crea- tions from seeds, but are simply the results of the division of branches of one original plant or branch. All the fruit trees of any one variety are obtained from the dividing up and multiplica- tion of the branches of the first or original tree. — You are now curious to know how this orig- inal tree came to be, and this I hope to tell you before I am done; but for the present, let me impress it upon you that it is equally possi- ble for it to have come from a seed, or to have sprung from a branch which some person had & FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. noticed to be very different from the associated branches in the tree-top. In other words, the ultimate unit or individual in growing plants is the bud and the bit of wood or tissue to which it is attached; for every bud, like every seed, pro- duces an offspring which can be distinguished from every other offspring whatsoever. II. THrE CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. We have now gotten back to the starting-point, to that unit with which nature begins to make her initial differences or individualities ; that is, to the point where variations arise. This unit is the bud and the seed,—one sexless, or the offspring of one parent; the other sexual, or the offspring of two parents. Now, inasmuch as the horticultural variety is only a well-marked variation which the gardener has chanced to notice and to propagate, it follows that the only logical method of determining how garden vari- eties originate is to discover the means by which plants vary or differ one from another. There is probably no one fact of organic nature concerning the origin of which modern philoso- phers are so much divided as the genesis or reasons for the beginnings of variations .or dif- ferences. It seems to be an inscrutable problem, and it would be useless, therefore, for us to at- FORTUITOUS VARIATION. 9 tempt to discover these ultimate forces in the present hour. Still, we must give them sufficient thought to enable us to satisfy our minds as to how far these variations may be produced by man; and, in doing this, we must discover at least the underlying philosophy of plant variation. It is the nature of organisms to be unlike their parents and their birthmates. Why ? a. Fortuitous Variation. It will probably never be possible to refer every variation to a distinct cause, for it is probable that some of them have no antecedent. If we con- ceive of the forms of life'as having been created with characters exactly uniform from generation to generation, then we should be led to look for a distinct occasion or cause for every departure from the type; but we know, as I have already pointed out, that heredity by its very nature is not so exact as to carry over every attribute, and no other, of the parent to the offspring. Elas- ticity, plasticity, is a part of the essential consti- tution of all organic beings. ‘There is probably no inherent tendency in organisms towards any ultimate or predetermined completion of form, as the older naturalists supposed, but simply a laxity or indefiniteness of constitution which is expressed in numberless minor differences in individuals. 10 FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. That is, some variation is simply fortuitous, an inevitable result of the inherent plasticity of organisms, and it has no immediate inciting cause. If we were to assume that every minor difference is the result of some immediate cause, then we should expect every individual plant or animal to fill some niche, to satisfy some need, to produce the definite effect for which the cause stands. But it is apparent to one who contem- plates the operations of nature that very many — certainly more than half — of the organisms which are born are wholly useless in the struggle for life and very soon perish. From these fortuitous variations nature selects, to be sure, many indi- viduals to be the parents of other generations because they chance to be fitted to live, but this does not affect the methods or reasons of their origin. It is possible that, whilst many of these mere individual differences have no direct and immediate cause, they may still be the result of a devious line of antecedent causes long since so much diffused and modified that they will remain forever unrecognizable ; but even if so, the fact still remains that these present differences or variations may be purposeless, and it is quite as well to say that they exist because it is a part of the organic constitution of living things that unlike produces unlike. SEX AND VARIATION. 11 ‘ b. Sex as a Factor in the Variation of Plants. All plants have the faculty, either potential or expressed, of propagating themselves by means of buds, or asexual parts. This is obviously the cheapest and most direct possible method of propa- gation for many-membered plants, since it requires no special reproductive organization and energy, and, as only one parent is concerned in it, there is none of the risk of failure which resides in any mode of propagation in which two parents must find each other and form a union. There must be some reason, therefore, for the existence of such a costly mechanism as sex aside from its use as a mere means of propagation. It may be said that it exists because it is a means of more rapid multiplication than bud-propagation, but such is not necessarily the fact. There are many plants which produce buds as freely as they produce seeds ; and then, if mere multiplication were the only destiny of the plant, bud-production would no doubt have greatly increased to have met the demand for new generations. The only reason for the existence of sex in the vegetable world Seems to be the need for a constant rejuvenation and modification of the offspring by uniting the features of two individuals into one. There thus arises from every sexual union a number of new or different forms from which nature may select 12 FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. the best, — that is, those best fitted to live in the conditions in which they chance to be placed. But whilst sex is undoubtedly one of the most potent sources of present unlikenesses, it is not necessarily an original cause of individual differ- ences, since the two parties to any sexual con- tract must be unlike before they can produce unlike. When once the initial unlikenesses were established, every new sexual union would pro- duce new combinations, so that now, when every new form, from whatever source it appears, comes into existence, there are other intimately related forms with which it may cross. This state of things has existed to a greater or less degree from the moment sex first appeared, so that the organic world is now endlessly varied as the result of a most complex ancestry. The variety which sexual union has introduced into the world performs such an important part in the evolution of the forms of plants, and the prob- lems which it presents are so complex, that I shall leave the whole subject for an independent dis- cussion (Lecture II.). c. Physical Environment and Variation. Every phase and condition of physical circum- stances, which are not absolutely prohibitive of plant life, have plants whieh thrive in them. we ENVIRONMENT AND VARIATION. le Every soil and climate, every degree of humidity, hills, swamps, and ponds,—every place is filled with plants. Even the trunks and branches of trees support other plants, as epiphytes and para- sites. That is, plants have adapted themselves to every physical environment ; or, to turn the propo- sition around, every physical environment pro- duces adaptive changes in plants. ‘There are those, like Weismann and his adherents, who contend, from purely speculative reasons, that these changes do not become hereditary or perma- nent until they have influenced a certain physio- logical substance which is assumed to reside in the reproductive regions of the organism, and that all those changes which have not yet reached this germ-plasm are, therefore, lost, or die with the organism. It is not necessary to combat this philosophy, for we know, as a matter of common horticultural experience, that every change or va- riation in any organism — unless it proceeds from mere accident or mutilation — may become heredi- tary or be the beginning of a new variety; it is only necessary, therefore, for the Weismannians to assume —as they are always ready to do— that ‘any variation which has become fixed or permanent has already affected the germ. Their assumption needs only another assumption to prove it, and, therefore, when we are considering merely plain matters of fact and experience, we need give little 14. FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. attention to the subtleties of this Neo-Darwinian philosophy. Weismann teaches that “acquired characters,” or those variations which first appear in the life- time of the individual because of the influences of environment, are lost, because they have not yet affected the reproductive substance. But if these characters are induced by the effect of impinging environment during two or more generations, they may come to be so persistent that the plant can- not throw them off, and they become, thereby,-a part of the hereditary and non-negotiable prop- erty of the species. Now, it is apparent that in one or another of the generations which are thus acted upon by the environment, there must be a beginning towards the fixing or hereditable per- manency of the new form, and we might as well assume that this beginning takes place in the first generation as in the last, since there can be no proof that it does not take place in either one. The tendency towards fixity, if it exists at all, undoubtedly originates at the very time that the variation itself originates, and it is only sophistry to assume that the form appears at one time and the tendency towards permanence at another time. Since plants fit themselves into their circumstances by means of adaptive variations, we must con- clude that all adaptive variations have the power of persisting, upon occasion. NATAL AND POST-NATAL VARIATION. 15 ' All these remarks, whilst somewhat abstruse, have a most important bearing upon the phi- losophy of the origin of garden varieties, because they show, first, that changes in the conditions in which plants grow introduce modifications in the plants themselves, and second, that wherever any modification occurs it is probable that it may be fixed and perpetuated. It is necessary, at this point, that we distin- guish between natal and post-natal variations ; that is, between those variations which are born with plants, and those which appear, as a result of environment, after the plant has begun to grow. It is commonly assumed that the form and general characters of the plant are already determined in the seed, but a moment’s reflection will show that this is far from the truth. One may sow a hun- dred selected peas, for instance, all of which may be alike in every discernible character. If these are planted in a space a foot square, it will be found, after two or three weeks, that some indi- viduals are outstripping the others, although all of them came up equally well and were at first practically indistinguishable. This means that, ‘because of a little advantage in food or moisture, or other circumstance, some plants have obtained the mastery and are crowding out the less fortu- nate ones. Here is a variation taking place before our very eyes, and we may be able to see the exact 16 FACT AND PHILOSOPHY OF VARIATION. cause of it. Moreover, variations which originate in this way may pass down to the offspring through the seeds, as in the case of * viney” peas, which are grown on too rich soil. spotted. The fruits. The seeds. Variations in color are the most frequent of all modifications in cultivated plants. These depart- ures may be expected to arise under the influence of continued cultivation and repeated sowings ; and the variations must then be selected until they are fixed. Partial albinism, or variegation, is as frequently observed — in spontaneous plants as it is in cultivated ones. It usually occurs in the leaves only, but it is some- 9. Varieties without color, or albinos. VERLOT’S CLASSIFICATION. 149 times a feature of the entire plant. A variegated plant does not exist of which we do not know the non-variegated type. These variegated plants appear both from seeds and from bud-variations, and they are most surely propagated in the latter case. It has been said that when the albinism affects the margin of the leaf it is more likely to be transmitted than when it occupies the central part of the blade, but this generalization has many exceptions. Page 157. It is a curious fact that variegation and double- ness of flowers are generally antagonistic, for they do not appear in the same plant. One excludes the other. It is supposed by Morren [and gen- erally accepted] that doubling is the result of excessive vigor and that partial albinism comes of an enfeebling of the vital functions. Variegations sometimes disappear entirely and then, after two or three years, reappear in the same individual. ‘The first leaves of seedlings from variegated plants may be pertectly green, and the seedlings may afterwards take on the varie- gated character. This behavior is well marked in some ferns. Complete albinism, or chlorosis, indicates a pro- found alteration in the tissues, and it is impossi- ble of propagation. This decoloration is most commonly a bud-variation. 10. Double varieties, or those distinguished by 150 BORROWED OPINIONS. the transformation of the stamens and pistils into petaloid organs — There are various degrees of doubling or duplication in flowers. The calyx and corolla alone may be duplicated, in which case the flower is still fertile. Sometimes the sta- mens only are transformed into petal-like organs, and the flower is then fertile if pollen is trans- ferred from another flower. Sometimes all the floral series — calyx, corolla, stamens, pistils — may be duplicated or transformed; then we have a full (pletne) flower, which is incapable of pro- ducing seeds or of fecundating another flower. [Annual plants, and others not propagated by buds and other asexual parts, which bear full double flowers, must be propagated by seeds taken from flowers which are nearly full double, but which bear a few seeds; or, sometimes from a nearly single flower which is fertilized by pollen from a nearly full double flower. In these cases, it is unusual for all the seedlings to produce full double flowers. ] A rich soil, a cultivation which produces a luxu- riant vegetation, are the conditions which gen- erally produce doubling in flowers. But we can repeat with De Candolle, “ That if we are gen- erally ignorant of the causes of the doubling of flowers, we also know that if we gather seeds from an individual with semi-double flowers, the plants which result have a greater tendency to pro- VERLOT’S CLASSIFICATION. 151 duce double flowers than seeds taken from simple flowers.” Doubling may occur in all plants, whether an- nuals, biennials, herbaceous or woody perennials, and in all of them, when they are fertile, we can finally make them reproduce the character iden- tically. We must always choose for seed-parents the individuals of which the flowers are very double, and exclude with the greatest care the single- flowered plants, which are the most fertile and the progeny of which quickly smother the progeny of the double flowers. 11. Proliferous varieties. [These are varia- tions which are characterized by growths arising from unusual places, as one flower springing out of another flower, a branch or rosette growing out of a flower, an unusual production of bulbs or young plants from the root, bulbs from leaves or the fronds of ferns, and the like.] These forms are infrequent in cultivated plants and very rare amongst wild plants. They are generally asso- ciated with the fertility of the soil. The pro- liferous form of Papaver somniferum known as Papaver monstruosum, perpetuates itself per- fectly by seeds, but these variations are usually unstable. 12. Varieties with conjoined parts (variétés par soudures).— We know of a single example of this 152 BORROWED OPINIONS. monstrosity in ornamental plants: it is that of Papaver bracteatum, in which the corolla has become monopetalous by the growing together of the petals. This monstrosity (described and fig- ured in Revue Horticole) is cultivated by Vilmorin. They can propagate it only by cuttings. They have tried in vain to multiply it by seeds. [Simi- lar forms of other species are known. ] 12. Abortive varieties. —This type of monstros- ity, which constitutes one of the most interesting chapters in vegetable teratology, has been ob- served in all parts of the flower. They are mal- formations which have no interest from the point of view of ornament. [The petals, or other or- gans, sometimes almost entirely disappear in this type of variations. ] 14. Peloric varieties. —[Peloria is a name ap- plied by Linnzeus to a form of the toad-flax, Lina- ria vulgaris, in which all of the five petals have spurs, while the normal form has only one petal spurred. The term is now applied generically to all similar regularity of structure in normally ir- regular flowers.] The causes which produce this transformation are not known, but aridity and dry- ness of the soil, and new conditions of vegetation, appear to favor its development. These mon- strosities, at least in linaria, are propagated easily by cuttings or buds, and Willdenow records an ° experiment in which they came true from seeds. VERLOT’S CLASSIFICATION, 153 15. Chloranthic varieties. — Here are included, in a general way and in heu of a better name, all those transformations which render the flowers absolutely sterile, and transform them more or less completely into branches or leaf-like organs. They are purely bud-variations, and can be per- petuated only by cuttings, buds, or other asexual parts. 16. Various or polymorphous varieties, compris- ing the following types : — thornless, spineless, Stems | fastigiate, filiform, weeping, etc. crisped, mata fasciated, bullate or blistered, | laciniate, ete. The various modifications originate both by seed-variation and bud-variation. II. Carriere’s Account or Bup-VARIETIES. The subject of bud-variations or sports never fails to interest the student, and however familiar he may be with these forms he never ceases to 154 BORROWED OPINIONS. wonder at them. I have taken pains, therefore, in addition to what I have already said upon the subject (see pages 28, 117), to translate almost bodily Carriére’s account of bud-varieties (in Pro- duction et Fixation des Variétés dans les Végé- taux), because, although written in 1865, it. is the most extended list of bud-varieties which I know. The catalogue might be greatly extended by inserting the current varieties in commerce in this country, but the original list is sufficiently full for all purposes of illustration. Carriere’s account now follows :— 1. General Remarks upon Bud-Variation. Plants being composed of a certain number of elements disposed in a certain order, and, more- over, these elements, under the influence of organic laws, being able to separate or group themselves in different ways, it follows that the same plant can, upon its different parts, present characters and properties more or less different from those which it normally presents. It is this fact which constitutes that which in practice we call an acci- dent [or bud variety], either of dimorphism? [of form] or of dichroism [of color]. 1 French writers use the word accident in the sense.in which‘ we use bud-variation. The word dimorphism, used by Car- riére for one of the features of bud-variation, is now applied to 4 CARRIERE’S REMARKS ON BUD-VARIATION. 155 We refer to bud-variation the phenomeiton, whose cause is unknown, which allows a bud on any part of the plant to develop a member whose form and appearance differ from those borne on other parts of the plant. Thus the common beech producing a branch with laciniate leaves, Podocar- pus Koraiana producing a branch whose ramifi- cations are whorled and spreading instead of being scattered, and whose leaves are distichous instead of being alternately disposed about the branches as they are normally, are examples of bud-vyarie- ties. Taken in its most absolute sense and considered in the sum of all its characters, bud-variation, aside from the details which it presents, can be divided into two sections: one which includes all the phe- nomena which are manifested suddenly, as in the case of the fern-leaved beech, the hemp-leaved rose, the English willow-leaved cherry, sour grapes with long seeds, etc.; the other includes all slower transformations, as in the case of Rosa Eglanteria, tulips, Iris Xiphium, Viola Rotho- magensis, var. pallida, etc. Strictly, we could establish a third section to include all the trans- formations resulting from the age of the individ- different permanent and characteristic forms of individuals of the same species. It is most commonly observed in the different relative lengths of stamens and pistils. I have substituted other words for it in most places in the text. —L. H. B. eae = BORROWED OPINIONS. ual, which are the consequences of its adultness. However, this last series of phenomena is seen only in polymorphous species, which change in appearance, form, and nature when they grow old and especially when they bear fruit; such are the ivies, Ficus stipulata or scandens, eucalyptus, ete. Horticulture often profits by this peculiar prop- erty of plants; multiplying separately the parts with the exceptional characters, it obtains individ- uals which present an appearance different from the plants from which they arise. [This dissimi- larity between young and mature individuals of the same species is well marked in some of the Conifere, as the cedars and retinosporas. ] In a general way, then, dimorphism refers to a different form on the same individual, whether the change be complete or partial. Dichroism is exactly analogous to it in essential points, only that it refers to color instead of to form. ‘Thus, Flon’s Pink [Dianthus semperflorens of gardens, introduced by M. Flon of Angers], which has red flowers, developing a braneh similar to the plant in aspect and form, but bearing white flowers, the ovate-leaved privet and the Japanese fusain [Euonymus Japonicus] producing buds giving rise to variegated leaves, white kidney-beans pro- ducing black ones, and vice versa, are a of dichroism. Let us say that in bud-variation, less than any- , CARRIERE ON BUD-VARIATION. 157 where else, we can do nothing towards obtaiting or producing the variations. Bud-varieties most often spring up spontaneously, so to speak, and in this respect our work is purely passive, consisting in superintending these digressions or accidents in the endeavor to take advantage of them when they are presented. Let us state, also, that in these series of varieties we find a considerable diversity, either in the habit or aspect of the plants or in their foliage or flowers, or sometimes even in their fruits, and that we oftener find vari- egations than among plants which come from seeds. We ought to recall just here, —what we have said on the subject of plants issuing from seeds, — that variegations are the more constant the more completely they circumscribe the organs upon which they occur, whether upon the flowers or the leaves; also, that when, on a plant whose variega- tions are disposed in stripes or bands, we find a part upon which they are disposed circularly, we ‘an be almost certain that, if we detach and graft or make a cutting of this part, we shall preserve its new character. This phenomenon is very fre- quent in the camellias and especially in the azaleas. ‘The greater part of the varieties of azalea which present these characters have had no other origin.! 1 To. préserve variegations, it is best to resort to graftage, generally speaking, as cuttings tend to produce individuals more vigorous, and which therefore tend to return to the green 158 BORROWED OPINIONS. Certain species are much more disposed than others to produce these bud-varieties, either of dimorphism or dichroism. We give an example from the Chinese chrysanthemum. About 1836, the horticultural establishment of Fromont re- ceived from England three varieties of this chrysanthemum; one had the flowers red, one variegated, and one white flesh-colored. Planted in the open air, the following year we saw the three varieties on one plant, which seems to show that these three varieties were only sports from a common form. A phenomenon analogous to the preceding, and which, like it, concerns the Chinese chrysanthemum, was shown at the Mu- seum! in 1856 upon a variety called Surprise. This, which bore flowers scarcely rose flesh-col- ored, produced, on one of its branches, flowers of a deep rose-lilac. Cuttings having been made, it has preserved all its characters, and to-day it is still one of the most beautiful of the section. We call it Gain du Muséum. In 1862, upon this same Gain du Muséum, a branch developed which bore flowers. perfectly white, of almost the same size and form as those of the type; then upon dif- color, or even to the normal form, if the variety differs also in form. We must select the parts, in perpetuating variegations, in which the variegation is very pronounced, although we must exercise care that the variegation be not too intense, else the offspring will be weak and poor. —Carririre, (See page 149.) 1 Muséum d’ Histoire Naturelle de Paris. : , CARRIERE ON BUD-VARIATION. 159 ferent branches beside it were found others bear- ing flowers half red, half white. In making cut- tings from these two kinds of branches, we would then obtain from the Surprise still other varieties. Let us look at the variety Sophie. This, which has dirty white flowers very slightly tinged with red, with yellow centre, has produced, by bud- variation, a plant known as Trophée. The latter, which has flowers of a rose-lilac-violet, bears some resemblance to the Gain du Muséum. There were also upon the same branch, but on different twigs, flowers similar to those borne by the varie- ties Trophée and Sophie. These new flowers were flat and had narrow and imbricated petals, whilst the Trophée has convex flowers, large and slightly serrate petals. . The Madame Richard chrysanthemum, of which the flowers are whitish very lightly bordered with rose, has produced on one of its branches violet flowers stronger than those of the plant from which it sprung; the petals are also larger and more imbricated. In 1863 we observed on certain varieties of chrysan- themum the following sports: the variety called Cedo nulli, with double white flowers very lightly rose, produced a branch which bore flowers much larger and much more spreading than those of Cedo null. The Argentine, with small white flowers, pompon-form, gave a branch more vigor- ous than itself, whose spreading, very large flow- 160 BORROWED OPINIONS. ers, of a beautiful yellow, resembled to a certain extent those of the large-flowered chrysanthemum, a fact which tends to show that from the pompons to the large-flowered sorts there is but a step. In 1864 we saw upon a stem of the Vesta (a pompon chrysanthemum which has white flowers) several branches which bore flowers entirely deep yellow. The dimensions, as well as the form of the flowers, were the same. Varieties obtained by bud-variation are very numerous. There is not a genus among those which comprise a number of species which has not produced them. Although we shall mention, farther on, a certain number of these bud-varie- ties, adding some observations, there are some which, in our opinion, are so interesting that, by anticipation, we ought to speak of them here. One of them relates to a kind of pink which is known in commerce as Flon’s pink. This Flon’s pink, which is closely related to those which we call Spanish pink, Badin pink, ete., has flowers very deep red, almost double, so that it does not produce seeds, and we are obliged to multiply it by cuttings. Nevertheless, it has already given, by bud-variation, several varieties, of which the most remarkable, a very beautiful white, was de- veloped in 1858. Since that time this variety has been maintained with all its characters. ~Ob- tained by M. Paré, horticulturist at Paris, this ’ CARRIERE ON ROSE SPORTS. 161 variety has been called Marie Pare, for oye of the children of the originator. Other varieties, presenting colors different from that of which we have spoken, have been developed from Flon’s pink by M. Pare. [The pinks are fertile in bud- varieties, particularly the carnation. Many of the carnations which are now well known to com- mercial growers first appeared as sports. The Portia, which is a deep self-red, frequently sports, sometimes into almost pure white. | The genus which, probably, has produced the most examples of this nature is the Rose. The examples are so very interesting that we cannot resist the temptation to say something in detail concerning them. We will cite several remark- able examples, commencing with those which have sprung from the Hundred-leaved Rose [Pro- vence rose, Rosa centifolia]. The bud-varieties which have issued from this rose can be arranged in two series: one which includes all individuals which are but little removed from the type, which differ from it only in color or form, either of the flowers or sometimes of the leaves, and comprise the ordinary Hundred-leaved roses; the other series includes individuals possessing the charac- ters of the first series, but which, in addition, are provided with small bracts or glandular hairs which give the name “ Moss-rose.” Bud-varieties produced by Rosa centifolia : — M 162 BORROWED OPINIONS. A. Ordinary Hundred-leaved roses. I. Flowers more or less large. Cabbage-leaved or lettuce-leaved R. cen- tifolia. Celery-leaved. Anemone. Nancy. Peintres. Flore magno, or Foliaceous. Apetalous. Unique white. Unique variegated. Il. lowers small.— Pompons. Burgogne pompon. White pompon. Bordeaux pompon. Kingston pompon. B. Moss-roses. I. Flowers more or less large. Ordinary. Cristata. White-flowered Variegated. Sage-leaved. Unique Provence. Zoé, or Mousseuse partout. II. Flowers small. — Pompons. Pompon. CARRIERE ON ROSE SPORTS. 163 One must not suppose that all the moss-roges which he meets with to-day in commerce are the result of bud-variation. ‘The larger part, on the contrary, come from seeds. ‘The moss-rose is nearly a race. From seeds taken from the moss- rose, we have obtained a certain number of individuals which have preserved the general characters of the plants from which they came ; they are more or less “mossy.” Let us state, however, that this “‘mossy ” character is not pecu- liar to any section of roses, but that we find it in most garden species, as the hybrid remontants, rose-of-four-seasons, etc. The fact of the repro- duction of the ‘“*mossiness” of roses by seeds, proves again, what we have asserted several times, that everything in a plant tends to reproduce itself, that the peculiarities, properties, monstrosi- ties even, may become hereditary. The Zoé moss-rose is one of the most remark- able bud-vyarieties which has been produced by Rosa centifolia. This variety, instead of being “mossy” only upon the peduncle or calyx, as most of the other varieties of this group are, is “mossy” on all its parts, whence the name Mousseuse partout, [mossy everywhere” ]. This variety was produced again in 1864, at M. Ja- main’s, horticulturist, Paris, where we followed the development of it. We also learned that at this place, in two beds planted with ordinary 164 BORROWED OPINIONS. moss-roses, beside the Zoé, there were several stems which tended likewise to modify them- selves, some in their leaves, others in their flowers. We must remark that it often happens that certain individuals of bud-varieties return, on some one of their parts, to the type from which they came. Thus, on a moss-rose from R. cen- tifolia, we have seen a branch of the ordinary Hundred-leaved rose. We should observe, how- ever, that most usually the parts which seem to return to the type present, notwithstanding, differ- ences from it. There has been a step in advance, and it is contrary to nature to retrace completely. The Rose du Roi, known by nearly every one, has produced the following six bud-varieties: — 1. Bernard Perpetual. This rose has the branches more slender than those of the parent; its flowers and leaves are also smaller. Its pom- pon flowers are very pretty, with a rose-color very much brighter than that of the Rose du Roi. 2. Long-peduncled Rose du Roi. This has branches much longer than those of the type; the internodes are more distant, and the peduncles are also longer. It is only a sort of degeneration. 3. Madame Tellier. Very similar to the last, being distinguished only by its flowers, which are less colored, possessing a very bright rose flesh- color. CARRIERE ON ROSE SPORTS. 165 4. Mogador. This rose differs from Rose. du Roi by its stronger flowers, of a more vivid, deeper red; its branches more colored, permitting it to be distinguished even in winter. Horticulturists do not like this variety, because it is hard to force, and because it passes very quickly to a dirty violet. 5. Capitaine Renard, or Variegated Rose du Roi. This variety differs from Madame ‘Tellier by its flowers being variegated or ribboned with white. It was found at Orleans by M. Desfossé- Thuillier. 6. Colina Dubos. Found by M. Dubos, hor- ticulturist at Pierrefitte, near Saint-Denis, upon Rose du Roi. It has the branches more slender and the leaves a little smaller than the parent ; its flowers, very similar in form to those of the type, are white, slightly flesh-colored. The Rose de la Reine has produced two sports : one, Belle Normande, whose flowers, rose flesh- colored, recall those of Souvenir de la Malmaison; the other, Madame Cambel of Isly, or ‘Triomphe de Valenciennes, which differs from the parent only in its marbled-variegated flowers. The Duchesse de Cambacérés rose, which has uni-colored, deep rose flowers, has produced by bud-variation Belle de Printemps, which has rose flowers marbled with brown. The Baronne Préyost has produced, to our 166 BORROWED OPINIONS. knowledge, five varieties, two of which have variegated flowers and one marbled. One of the two variegated varieties, Madame Désirée Giraud, was found at the place of M. Désiré Giraud at Marly, near Valenciennes. It is not vigorous. The second variety, Panachée d’Orléans, which was observed for the first time at Orléans, is very vigorous. Its branches are more slender than those of Baronne Prévost, and the very smooth and shiny bark. has few prickles. In short, its branches recall those of Cuisse de Nymphe. It sometimes happens that this variety produces large branches, vigorous and very thorny, but less so than those of Baronne Prévost; its flowers also resemble the type more closely. It is an intermediate produced by the single matter of vegetation. The Baronne Prévost marbreé dif- fers from the type only in its flowers, which are marbled with brown. Another variety, placed in the trade by M. Pierre Oger, horticulturist at Caen, differs from the type only in the color of the flowers, which are very much paler. The fifth sport produced by the Baronne Prévost is more recent. We observed it first in 1864, at Vitry-sur-Seine, in a garden under the care of M. Lachaume. We called it Madame Lachaume. It differs from the type by its branches being a little less thorny, but especially by its inflores- ° cence, which, long-paniculate, very much branched, CARRIERE ON ROSE SPORTS. 167 recalls that of certain Noisettes. The flower, also. is a little weaker than that of the type. Buta very remarkable fact is that the hip, instead of being very regularly attenuated at its base and becoming confounded with the peduncle, as in Baronne Prévost, is abruptly and slightly in- flated, then contracted, and inflated again near the summit. The peduncles are also much more slender and longer than those of the parent. The Duchesse d’Orleans, whose flowers are violet-rose, produced by bud-variation, in 1858, a variety known as Sur des Anges. This variety differs from its parent particularly in the color of the flowers, which is pale flesh-rose, like that of the flowers of Souvenir de la Malmaison. The rose called Quatre-Saisons has produced the following sports : — 1. White Moss, or de Thionville. This was first observed at Thionville about 1835. It dif- fers from the type by its branches being more slender and supplied with hispid, glandular hairs. Its light green leaves are also softer to the touch and slightly tomentose. Its flowers are pure white. Sometimes it produces strong branches which bear rose-colored flowers. In this latter condition it is the ordinary Quatre-Saisons, a fact observed by M. Duval of Montmorency, later by M. Victor Verdier, Paris, and recently (1864) at the Museum. 168 BORROWED OPINIONS. 2. Quatre-Saisons pompon. 3. White. The Provence roses have likewise produced a number of bud-varieties. Among the best known are :— a am ; Pompon Saint-Frangois. Pompon Saint-Jacques. Camaieu. Panaché semi-double. Tricolore de Flandre. The last variety, which appeared in Belgium some years ago, is remarkable for its variegated flowers; it is a slender grower, although it comes from a very vigorous variety. It sometimes re- turns to the type. The variety Camaieu is remark- able for its striped flowers, very pretty, and al- most unique in the genus. Its wood is meagre and its leaflets are toothed. In the Damask roses, which are sorts of Quatre- Saisons roses, not remontants, we consider as bud- varieties the three following :— Damask York and Laneaster. Damask with blistered leaves. The ordinary Bengal rose has sported into the Bengale 4 bois strié [striped-stemmed Bengal]. The branches are often almost completely yellow. A very curious sport of the rose is the plant which we have called Rosier a feuilles de Chanvre , BUD-VARIATION IN THE ROSE. 169 [hemp-leaved rose]. By its flowers and especially by its leaves, this variety differs considerably from Rosa alba, from which it comes. Its leaflets are hooded, long and narrow, and very coarsely den- tate-serrate, sometimes as if gnawed on the edges, strongly nerved, of a dark green, rugose-scabrous. It happens sometimes, also, that its leaves are opposite upon certain branches. The flowers of this variety are smaller than those of Rosa alba, often irregular, and somewhat monstrous, and always sterile. [Probably no plants are so prolific of bud-varieties as the roses. Every gardener of experience has observed the fact. The follow- ing experiences of a single horticulturist (Ernest Walker, New Albany, Indiana), with one rose, illustrate this fact admirably. “I have had a number of sports of the Perle des Jardins rose,” he writes me, “in our greenhouses. The first one was a double silvery pink with a short bud, and a very double, somewhat quartered flower. The stock of this I sold, as a new variety, for fifty dollars. ‘The next sport was a white Perle. [The Perle is a golden-yellow rose.] I sold a plant of Perle to a local customer, who afterwards com- plained that it was not true to name, because the flower was white. She took it to be Cornelia Cook. I went to see the rose, and found a Perle rose in everything but color. I secured the plant, and was intending to introduce it, when, within 170 BORROWED OPINIONS. a few months, I heard that Nanz & Neuner, of Louisville, Kentucky, had one, and that a London firm had another; and later I found that one had originated in Germany. Another sport of Perle was a single rose, like Isabella Sprunt. Another was like a Madame Falcot. At another time a whole branch sported into a form with a long, slender bud (about two inches long and _five- eighths inch in diameter), with only two calyx lobes, and only two petals,— which were very broad, —in each cycle or series. This sport was really a monstrosity, and I could not propagate it.” | The so-called ornamental plants are not the only ones which present these examples of hetero- morphism. Fruit trees furnish very remarkable examples. We will cite some cases, beginning with those furnished by the cherry called Anglais hatif [Early English]. The most curious sport given us by this cherry is that which we call Cerisier Anglais hetérophylle or a feuilles de saule [heterophyllous or willow-leaved English cherry]. This is the history of the sport: Upon a young tree whose parts are normal, we see, sometimes suddenly and without apparent cause, a vigorous bud develop, which bud, instead of producing leaves of the ordinary form, bears those which are very long and narrow, often a somewhat faleate, and often irregularly erose. , CARRIERE ON CHERRY SPORTS. 171 Grafted, this variety presents very singular pecu- liarities, as follows: so long as it preserves its exceptional characters the plant does not flourish, but as it constantly tends to lose them we observe that when the leaves have almost returned to the normal form the trees flourish and bear. Never- theless, this variety never resumes identically the characters of the type from which it came. Its aspect is always distinct. The tree is never fertile, and its fruit also differs from that of the Early English. The young shoots preserve their accidental character, and each year the leaves which it develops are nearly identical to those which the variety produced when it was first developed. This variety is not the only one which is. pre- sented by the Early English. Thus, when the trees are old, it frequently happens that we find on the same individual three kinds of fruits, dis- tinct in their times of maturing. ‘There is, first, the Early English, whose fruits become black ; the Late English, whose fruits, of a beautiful deep red, shining as if varnished, ripen later. Finally, we nearly always find another variety, very late, whose fruits, a little smaller, are still entirely green when the other two have been gathered a long time. In these three sports, the differences are shown only on the fruits. The Indule cherry is also only a sport from the Early 172 BORROWED OPINIONS. English. It is distinguished by its foliage and earliness. ‘The Early English cherry is not the only one which furnishes bud-varieties pertaining to the fruits. We find analogous examples in the May Duke, Cherry Duke, and Reine Hor- tense. These varieties, indeed, have produced on different branches of the same individual sub- rarieties whose fruits ripened a fortnight later than normally. Grafted, each of these sub- varieties preserves its accidental character. A phenomenon analogous to the preceding ones is shown each year at the Museum upon an or- dinary double-flowered cherry. The tree upon which this anomaly was developed is nearly four- teen inches in diameter, is grafted on the Sainte- Lucie about twenty-seven inches above the ground. Above the junction the stem is naked for about six and a half feet. At this height is a large branch, which every year is covered with extremely double flowers, whilst the flowers of other branches, ex- panding very much later, are scarcely half double, and yield fruits. The Coé violette plum is an example of dichro- ism. It is a bud-variety which was produced on the White-fruited Coé, and which, grafted, is maintained with all the characters which it pre- sented at the time of its appearing. We have very often observed upon the Damas de Tours plum an instance almost the same as the preced- J CARRIERE ON SPORTS OF FRUITS. 173 ing. On the same tree there were branches which bore fruits different in form and color, and differing a fortnight in time of maturing. Thus, while the fruits of the type are very large, length- ened, of a deep red color which recalls the Pond Seedling, marked only on one side by a very slight furrow, the fruits of the later sub-variety are a little smaller, and their form is that of the ordinary Reine Claude; they are of an herba- ceous green, which passes more or less into a very clear red ; the stem, arched, swollen at the base, is inserted in a cavity quite large by the widening of the furrow, whilst the stem of the typical fruits is erect, little or not at all swollen, inserted in a very small cavity placed almost on the surface of the fruit. - Another plum, the Prunier Puget, presents the following peculiarities: Upon the same branch it very frequently happens that there are fruits of a violet-red, dotted or striped with red-green. We find some, also, which present all the inter- mediate tints and others which are almost uni- colored. By multiplying them separately, there may be a chance to establish these varieties and to obtain several from one tree. We have seen on a red-fruited currant bush a branch which bore fruits as white as those of the Hollande a fruits blancs [White Dutch]. The fact of the nectarine coming suddenly from 174 ~ BORROWED OPINIONS. a peach can no longer be doubted. Recent ex- amples have come to support the experiments of certain authors, notably Sieulle. Two other similar examples, of which we ought to speak, are furnished by two varieties of Chasse- las grapes, one known as Chasselas panaché [ Va- riegated Chasselas} and Chasselas Suisse [Swiss Chasselas]. Both appear to have come from a va- riety with black fruits, the color which predomi- nates in them. These are the peculiarities which they present: almost all the bunches bear some fruits more or less variegated or striped, white in Chasselas Suisse, red in Chasselas panache. But it happens frequently that the elements are separated and that we have then, upon different shoots, sometimes upon the same shoot, bunches of grapes of different color, almost entirely white if they belong to the Chasselas Suisse, and red if they belong to the Chasselas panaché. One of the varieties is only a modification of the other, which is itself only a modification of some other. The pear Saint-Germain gris, whose deep gray fruits are very different in appearance from those of the ordinary Saint-Germain, is a bud-variety which was produced upon a branch of the latter, and which, multiplied by grafting, is maintained in all its characters. A similar variety was pro- duced on the Messire-Jean, so that at present we possess in the gardens a Messire-Jean, gris, and , CARRIERE ON SPORTS OF FRUITS. 175 a Messire-Jean jaune [gray and yellow Messire- Jean]. ‘To these examples we will add two other analogous ones, which were recorded in the Bul- letin de lV Académie des Sciences, xxxiv., meeting of May 17th. One, given by M. Dureau de la Malle, refers to the Bon Chrétien pear, which produced sometimes typical fruits and at others “of a form entirely different and unknown.” The other example, cited by M. Mourriere, professor at Bernay, has reference to an apple which, on the same branches, produced fruits which had the appearance of a Reinette rousse and others which resembled a kind of Reinette du Canada. The latter is smooth, punctated, and often of a bright red upon one side. [The recent experiments of Waite, in this country, respecting the imme- diate influence of pollen, raise the question if some of these minor variations in form of the pear fruit may not have arisen from vagaries of pollination. | The various examples which we have cited are common to a very large number of plants, among which we will cite the banana and sugar-cane. Indeed, although these plants do not produce seeds, we find in each species a large number of varieties which are very distinct in vigor, aspect, habit, and in the banana in form, size, and quality of fruit. All these varieties are produced by bud-variation. These remarks can be applied to 176 BORROWED OPINIONS. other monocotyledonous plants, as Arundo, Pha- laris, Bamboos, Dracena, Yucca, ete. [Carriere cites the different shapes and colors of beans in the same pod as examples of bud- variation, but it is a question if these differences are not determined in the seed of the previous year. At all events, since there is only a single year in the life of the bean, we prefer to ascribe variations in it to the generation of the parents trom which it has just sprung. ‘There is no pre- vious year’s growth of the same individual with which to compare variations and to ascertain if they are bud-departures from the type. Page 118. ] 2. List of Bud-varieties After having sought to present certain examples of bud-variation which, by their importance, seem - to be sufficient to fix the attention, we will con- tinue by the enumeration of a certain number of others, without, however, entering into details for each one of them. Sometimes we shall give only the name of the variety. If, however, they pre- sent particular interest, either in a practical or scientific point of view, we shall dwell upon them more at length, considering either their origins or peculiarities. [The garden names of the plants 1The student should also consult Darwin’s ‘‘ Animals and Plants under Domestication.”’ CARRIERE’S LIST OF BUD-VARIETIES. 177 are given essentially as they stand in the original, for, as the purpose of this list is to acquaint hor- ticulturists with the nature and frequency of bud- variations, I have considered it unnecessary to make any particular attempt to revise the nomen- clature. The names are familiar, and, therefore, useful as they stand. | It would have been easy to extend this enumera- tion of examples of bud-variation. We have not thought it necessary because, aside from leading us too far, the real interest of the subject would gain nothing by it. We have, then, thought it our duty to put limits upon a subject which has no limits. Acer eriocarpum, fasciatum. Very remarkable for its much fasciated branches. This variety showed itself at the Museum in 1857 upon a seedling which, during the first two years, presented nothing abnormal. In the third year, when the tree had been cut back, the sport appeared, since which time it has maintained itself with all its characters. This variety is to A. eriocarpum what the variety montrosa is to Sam- bucus nigra. Acorus gramineus, variegata.! 1 When a name is not followed by remarks, the reader is to understand that it represents a known variety and that the name of the species indicates the origin of the variety. — L. H. B. N 178 BORROWED OPINIONS. A‘sculus rubicunda, variegata. [ d4sculus Hippocastanum, double - flowered. Upon a well-known Horse Chestnut tree in the environs of Geneva the owner, in 1822 or 1823, detected a single branch bearing double flowers. This still continues to bear double flowers and grafts from it do the same. It is thought to be the original of all the doubled-flowered Horse Chestnuts in the world. — A. De Candolle in Acad. Sci., Paris, 1875, quoted: by Asa Gray, Silliman’s Journ. 3d ser. x. 238]. Agatheea amelloides, variegata. Ageratum Mexicanum, nanum. This plant, which is now used to so much ad- vantage for borders, is the product of a branch which developed accidentally from A. Mexicanum. Its heads are almost sessile and a little irregular, borne so close to the leaves as to make the plant undesirable from some points of view. The type plants, on the contrary, which are very much larger, have the heads large and regular and raised on long peduncles. Ageratum Mexicanum, intermedium. This variety, which is a bud-variety of sec- ond degree, that is, a sport from a sport (from the variety nanum), is intermediate. The plants are very floriferous. Their heads are also better 4 CARRIERE’S LIST OF BUD-VARIETIES. 179 than those of the type, and as they are bome upon longer peduncles, the plants are not only suitable for garden ornament but for cut flowers. The dimensions of this variety are intermediate between the last variety and the specific type. Ageratum Mexicanum, variegatum. This differs little from the type except by its leaves being variegated with yellowish-white on the margins. Its inflorescence is, however, a little more slender and its heads are smaller. In gen- eral, the plant is *‘ leggy,” weak. Almond with variegated leaves. Leaves bordered and made satin-like with white ; vegetation delicate. It sometimes returns to the type. Anemone Japonica, Honorine Jobert. Very vigorous and very beautiful. This vari- ety, of which the flower is white, is a bud-variety from the so-called A. hybrida or A. elegans, which was obtained in England by M. Gordon by crossing A. Japonica with A. vitifolia. The va- riety was produced some years ago at M. Jobert’s, amateur at Verdun. Apricot with variegated leaves. 180 BORROWED OPINIONS. Avalia trifoliata, Cookii. This plant has its leaves, in general, simple, long, and narrow. Arundo Donax, variegata argentea, and A. Donax, variegata aurea. These varieties differ from the type by the leaves being bordered with white in the first, and with yellow in the second. They are much more delicate than the type. Aspidistra elatior, variegata. Aster bicolor. This plant, which we believe not to be a dis- tinct species but simply a dwarf form, very prob- ably a bud-variety of A. versicolor, produced at the Museum in 1856, upon one of its stems, a vigorous bud which presents all the characters of A. versicolor except that it is a little smaller. This variety, to which we have given the vari- etal name Major, has preserved all its characters when multiphed by root-cuttings, and to-day is still one of the most beautiful perennial plants. Azalea Indica, Dieudonné Spae. Flowers salmon, margined with white. It. is a sport from A. formosa, Ivery, which has rose flowers. 4 CARRIERE’S LIST OF BUD-VARIETIES. 181 Azalea Indica, Beaute de Europe. ‘ This variety has flowers white at the base, variegated with red. It is a sport from A. deli- cata, which has deep salmon flowers. Azalea Indica, Criterion. Flowers deep rose bordered with white. This is a sport from A. Iveriana, which has flowers white, striped with rose. Azalea Indica, alba rosea. Flowers rose, slightly bordered with white. Ce Fria. 8. — Squash flowers of each sex. are the sterile flowers, which are wholly stami- nate. - On the left, the flowers with larger sepals —the petals are absent — have a cone of pistils in 262 POLLINATION. the centre, and a few short and sterile stamens spreading from the base of the cone. These dif- ferent flowers are borne on different plants in this species of clematis, and the plants are therefore practically dicecious, because the stamens of the pistillate flowers generally bear no pollen. A sim- ilar mixed arrangement occurs in some strawber- Fic. 9. — Flowers of clematis (Clematis Virginiana). ries, except that there are no purely staminate flowers. There are purely pistillate varieties, others, like the Crescent, with a few nearly or quite abortive stamens at the base of the cone of pistils, and others in which the flowers are per- fect or hermaphrodite, that is, containing the two: sexes. COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS. f 263 The compositous flowers — like the asters, daisies, goldenrods, sunflowers, dahlias, zinnias, chrysan- themums, and their kin —need to be considered in still a different category. In these plants, the head, or so-called flower, is an aggregation of sey- eral or many small flowers or florets. Each seed in a sunflower head, for example, represents a dis- tinct flower. Sometimes all of these flowers are perfect, — contain the two sexes, — and sometimes they are pistillate or staminate in different parts of the head; and in some cases the plants are dicecious. In many plants of the composite fam- ily, the flowers near the border of the head are unlike those of the centre or disc, in having a long ray-like corolla; and these ray-flowers are frequently of different form from the others in the character of the essential organs. Very frequently the ray-flowers are pistillate, whilst the disc-flow- ers are generally hermaphrodite. The anthers, in these plants, are united in a ring closely about the style and below the stigma. The ovary, as we have seen, ripens into the pod, berry, or other fruit; but it is not able to bear seeds until it is assisted by the pollen. The pollen falls upon the roughish or sticky surface of the stigma, and there germinates or sends a minute tube downwards through the style and finally reaches the ovule, which, when fertilized, rapidly ripens into the seed. The nature of this 264 POLLINATION. fecundation is not germane to the present subject ; but it may be said that only one pollen grain is necessary to the fertilization of a single oyule, but the addition of a superabundance of pollen greatly stimulates the growth of the fleshy or enveloping parts of the fruit. It is important that the person who desires to cross plants should become familar with the stigma when it is “ripe,” receptive, or ready to receive the pollen. This condition is gen- erally indicated by the glutinous or sticky or moist condition of the stigma, or in those stigmas which are not glutinous it is told by the appearing of a distinctly roughened or papillose condition. This receptive condition generally occurs about as soon as the flower opens. If pollen is withheld, the stigma will remain receptive much longer than when fertilization has taken place, — in some flow- ers for two or three days. The pollen is discharged from the anther in various ways, but it most commonly escapes through a chink or crack in the side of the anther. Sometimes it escapes through pores at one end of the anther; and in other cases there are more elaborate mechanisms to admit of its dis- charge. In most plants, the anthers and stigma in the same flower mature at different times, so that close-fertilization or in-breeding is avoided. This is well illustrated in the bell-flower,-Fig. 1.’ Here the anthers wither and die before the stig- PREPARING THE FLOWERS. 265 matic lobes open. In other cases, the stigma matures first, although this is not the usual con- dition. I]. MANIPULATING THE FLOWERS. We are now familiar with the essential principles in the pollination of flowers. Before a person pro- ceeds to operate upon a flower with which he is unfamiliar, he should carefully study its structure, so as to be able to locate the different organs, and to discover when the pollen and the stigma are ready for the work. The first and last rule in the pollinating of plants is this: Kvercise every precaution to prevent any other pollination than that which you design to give. The anthers, therefore, must be removed from the flower before it opens. This remoyal of the anthers is known as emasculation. Just as soon as this is done, tie up the flower securely in a bag to protect it from foreign pollen which may be brought by wind or insects. As soon as the stigma is ripe, remove the bag and apply the de- sired pollen, placing the bag on the flower again, where it must remain until the seeds begin to form. The stigma may be receptive the day fol- lowing emasculation, or, perhaps, not until a week afterwards. Much depends upon the age of the bud when emasculation takes place. It is gener- 266 POLLINATION. ally best to delay emasculation as long as possible and not have the flower open; but the operator must be sure that the anthers do not discharge or that insects do not get into the flower before he has emasculated it. The bud at B, in Fig. 3, is Fic. 10.—Tobaceo flowers, showing the parts of the flower, a bud ready to be emasculated, and an emasculated subject. nearly ready to emasculate. The older buds on the top of the spike of bugbane, Fig. 6, are ready to operate upon; and so is the bud seen at the left in Fig. 7. % The manner of emasculating the flower varies EMASCULATING. 267 with the operator. It is a common practice, to clip off the anthers with a pair of small scissors, or to hook them out with a bent pin or a crochet hook. Others use tweezers. For myself, how- ever, I do not like any of these methods, because the anthers are apt to drop into the bottom of the corolla, where it is sometimes difficult to rescue them; and if one uses tweezers, there is always danger that the anthers may be crushed and that some of the pollen may adhere to the instrument and contaminate future crosses. I therefore usu- ally cut the corolla completely off just above the ovary, with a pair of small, long-handled surgeon’s scissors (see Fig. 12), removing everything but the pistil. The operation is explained in Fig. 10, which shows the tobacco flower. The flower at the left shows the pin-head stigma in the centre of the throat, and the five anthers surrounding it. The second flower is spread open for the purpose of showing these organs. The third figure is a bud in the right condition for operation. The right-hand figure shows this bud cut around with the points of the scissors, leaving only the pistil. The line at W, in Fig. 2, shows where the flower of the lily might be cut off. The manner of oper- ating upon a compositous flower is shown in the picture of the zinnia, Fig. 11. In this plant the outer florets of the head are pistillate, whilst those of the dise are perfect. It is only necessary, 268 POLLINATION. therefore, to remove the central stamen-bearing flowers before any of them open, and to cover the flower up before any of the pistils near the border Fic. 11.— Zinnia flowers; the upper head ready for emasculation, the lower one showing the operation performed. have protruded themselves. The upper head in Fig. 11 shows the untreated sample, whilst the’ lower one shows the same with the cone of central EMASCULATING. ¢ 269 flowers pulled out. This treated head should now be covered, to await the maturing of the stigmas. In many compositous plants, however, the case is not so simple as this, because all the flowers are perfect. In such cases, nearly all the florets should be removed from the head, and a few remaining ones emasculated in essentially the same manner as described for the tobacco, Fig. 10. Whenever flowers are borne in clusters, nearly all of them should be removed and the attention confined to only two or three of them. One is then more cer- tain of getting seeds to set. In some cases, like the apple cluster, only one or two flowers of any cluster ever set fruit, and the operator should then choose the two or three strongest and most prom- ising buds, and cut all the others off. Flowers which bear no stamens, as the pistillate flowers of squashes, strawberries, and many other plants, of course do not require emasculating. They should be tied up while in bud, however, to prevent the access of any foreign pollen. Indian corn is a case in point. The pistillate flowers are on the ear, each kernel of corn representing a single flower. The silks are the stigmas. If it is desired to cross corn, therefore, the ear should be covered before any silks are protruded, and the pollen should be applied some days later, when the silks are full grown. © The staminate or male flowers are in the tassel. 270 POLLINATION. The pollen should be derived from a flowe1 which has also been protected from wind and in- Fic. 12.—Instruments used in pollinating flowers, natural size. Pin scalpel, scissors, lens. APPLYING THE POLLEN. é OTF sects, because foreign pollen may have been dropped upon an anther by an insect visitor and it may be unknowingly transferred by the operator. The pollen-bearing parent needs no operation, of course, but the flower should have been tied up in a bag when it was in bud. The pollen is best obtained by picking off a ripe anther and crush- ing it upon the thumb-nail. Then it is trans- ferred to the stigma by a tiny scalpel made by hammering out the small end of a pin, as shown, full size, at the left in Fig. 12. The stigma should be entirely covered with the pollen, if pos- sible. It is often advised to use a camel’s hair Fia. 13. — Ladle for pollinating house tomatoes. brush to transfer the pollen, but much of the pollen sticks amongst the hairs of the brush and is ready to contaminate a future cross ; and where the pollen is scarce it cannot be conserved to advantage by a brush. In some cases the pollen is discharged so freely that the anther may be rubbed upon the stigma, or even shaken over it, but in most instances it will be necessary to actu- ally place the pollen upon the stigma with some hard instrument. When pollinating house-grown melons and cucumbers, the staminate flower is broken off, the corolla stripped back, and the Pal yy POLLINATION. anther-cone inserted into the pistillate flower, where it is allowed to remain until it dries and falls away. In pollinating house tomatoes, an implement shown in Fig. 13, one-third size, is used. This is simply a watch-glass, T, secured to a handle. When the house is dry, at midday, the watch- elass is held under the flowers, which are tapped, and the pol- len falls into the glass. The glass is then held up under another flower until the stigma rests in the pollen. It should be said, however, that this pol- lination of tomatoes is for the purpose of making the fruit set in the absence of insects, not to effect a cross. If the latter purpose were the object sought, the flowers which are to bear the seeds would need to be emasculated. Sometimes it is impossible to secure the pollen at the time the stigma is ready. In some cases of this kind, the intended parents can be grown under glass so as to bring them into bloom at the saine time. In other cases, it is necessary to keep the pollen for some time. The length of time ‘ that pollen will keep varies with the species and Fic. 14. — Bag for coy- ering the flowers. € KEEPING THE POLLEN. 273 probably also with the strength and vigor of the ‘ plant which bears it. As a rule, it will not keep more than a week or two, and, in general, it may eas eee’ L Ses ar : BS = = Fig. 15.— Fuchsias, showing the stamens and pistils, and a bud ready to be emasculated. be said that the fresher it is the better it may be expected to act, It is best kept in dry and tight 7 274 POLLINATION. paper bags, such as are used for coyering the flowers. Something more should be said about the bags which are used for covering the flowers. After having tried every kind which is recommended, I find grocer’s manilla bags much the most satis- factory. For most flowers the four-ounce size is the handiest. When the bags are still flat, as Fic. 16.— Fuchsia flower emasculated. they come from the packages, a hole is made through the two overlapping folds near the open- ing, and a string is passed through it and then tied at one of the folds, as shown in Fig. 14. The bag is then ready for use. Before it is put on the flower, the lower end of it is dipped in water to soften it so that it can be puckered ° tightly about the stem and thereby prevent the BAGGING THE FLOWER. Z Pal Gs entrance of any in- sect. A bag is put upon the seed-bear- ing flower when emasculation is per- formed, and upon the intended pol- len parent when the flower is still in bud. The bag may be removed from the emascu- lated flower from time to time to ex- amine the stigma, and again when the pollen is ap- plied; but it should not be taken off permanently until the pod or fruit begins to grow. By way of re- capitulation, let us consider the cross- ing of a fuchsia Fre. 17.—Fuchsia flower tied up after flower. In Fig. 15 emasculation. two flowers are shown in full bloom, with the long style and the eight shorter stamens. The single 276 POLLINATION. bud is just the right age to emasculate. We therefore cut off the two flowers and emasculate the bud, as in Fig. 16. The pollen of another flower is applied and the bag is tied on, as seen in Fig. 17. The best label is a small merchandise tag, and this records the staminate parent and the date. It will be seen that in the operation of emascu- lating the fuchsia flower we cut off the sepals as Fic. 18. — Tomato and quince, showing how the sepals were cut off in emasculating. well as the petals. In some plants the calyx adheres to the full-grown fruit, as on the apple, pear, quince, gooseberry, or persists at the base of the fruit, as in the tomato, pea, raspberry. In these fruits, therefore, the cutting away of the calyx leaves an indelible mark which at once dis-' tinguishes the fruits which have been crossed, CROSSING IN FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 277 even if the labels are lost. In Fig. 18 a tomato and quince are shown which are thus marked. All the foregoing remarks do not apply to the crossing of ferns, lycopods, and the like, because these plants have no flowers; yet cross-fertiliza- tion may take place in them. When the spores Fia. 19. — Pollinating kit. of these flowerless plants are sown, a thin green tissue, or prothallus, appears and spreads over the ground. In this tissue the separate sex-organs appear, and after fecundation takes place, the fern, as we commonly understand it, springs forth. Thereafter, this fern lives an asexual life and 278 POLLINATION. produces spores year after year; but it is only in this primitive prothallic stage that fertilization takes place, once in the lifetime of the plant. If these plants are to be crossed, the only procedure open to the gardener is to sow the spores of the intended parents together in the hope that a nat ural mixing may take place. There are various well-authenticated fern hybrids. The pollination of flowers is such a simple work that few implements are required for its easy performance. Great care is more important than Ui i i Fig. 20. — Pollinating kit. any number of tools. Every one who expects to cross plants should provide himself with the three instruments shown in Fig. 12,—a pin scalpel, sharp-pointed scissors, and a large hand-lens. If one contemplates much experimenting in this direction, however, it is economy of time to have some sort of a box in which there are compart- ments for the various necessities. These various compartments suggest at once whatever accesso- ries are wanting, and they hold a sufficient supply ’ IMPLEMENTS USED IN CROSSING. 279 for several hundred operations. There should be a compartment for bags, string, lens, scissors, and pencils, tags, note-book, and the like. Figs. 19 and 20 show a convenient case for an experi- menter, and one which I have used with satisfac- tion for several years. This kit is twelve inches long, nine inches wide, and three inches deep. The chances of success in pollinating are dis- cussed in Lecture II. (page 83). « I. GLOSSARY. Tue FLoweERr. Anther.— That portion of the stamen which bears the pollen. It is the uppermost portion of the stamen. Calyx. — The outer series of floral envelopes, usually green. The various separate parts of the calyx are sepals. Corolla.— The inner series of floral envelopes, usually colored and forming the showy part of the flower. If it is divided into separate parts, these are called petals. Essential organs. — The stamens and pistils. Female. —Said of flowers which have only pistils or the seed-bearing part, or of plants which bear only such flowers; applied also to the pistils in any flower. Filament. — The stalk or stem of a stamen, bearing the anther. Floral envelopes. —The calyx and corolla. Male. —Said of flowers which bear only stamens, or of plants which have only staminate flowers; also applied to the stamens or pollen-bearing organs of flowers. Ovary. — The lowest part of the pistil, containing the ovules. It is the most thickened portion of the pistil, and it may stand either below or above the petals. The ovary ripens into the fruit. Ovule. — A body in the ovary which ripens into a seed. Pet'-al. — The separate portions or leaves of the corolla. Pistil. — The seed-bearing organ of the flower. It always comprises two parts, the ovary —which becomes the pod or fruit—and the stigma. Usually there is a 281 282 GLOSSARY. bo style connecting the two. Often called the fertile or female organ. Pistillate. —Said of a plant or flower which has only pis- tils or female organs. Pollen. — The contents of the anther, capable of fertil- izing the ovules. It is usually composed of minute yellow or brown grains. Se'-pal. — The separate portions or eyes of the calyx. Spore. — The reproductive organ of flowerless plants, by means of which they propagate, as other plants propa- gate by means of the seed. The spore is asexual. Stamen. — The pollen-bearing organ of the flower. Often called the male or sterile organ. Its essential part is the anther. The stalk, when present, is called the filament. Staminate. — Said of a flower or plant which bears only stamens or male organs. Stigma.— The top end of the pistil, where the pollen lodges and germinates. It is usually a somewhat ex- panded surface, and is roughened, or sticky, or moist when ready to receive the pollen. Style. —The more or less slender portion of the pistil which lies between the stigma and ovary. The pol- len-tubes pass through it in reaching the ovary. CROSSING. Bigener; bigeneric-hybrid. — A hybrid between species of different genera. Bigeneric half-breed.— The product of a cross between varieties of species of different genera. Close-fertilization ; self-fertilization. — The action of pollen upon the pistil of the same flower. Close-pollination ; self-pollination. — The transfer of pollen to a pistil of the same flower. Cross. — The offspring of any two flowers which have been cross-fertilized. GLOSSARY. 283 Cross-breed ; half-breed ; mongrel ; variety-hyhrid, — A cross between varieties of the same species. Cross-fertilization. — The action of pollen upon the pistil of another flower of the same species. Crossing. — The operation or practice of cross-pollinating. Cross-pollination. —'Phe conveyance of pollen to the stigma of another flower. Derivative- or derivation-hybrid ; secondary-hybrid. — A hy- brid between hybrids, or between a hybrid and one of its parents. Fertilization ; fecundation ; impregnation. — The action of the pollen upon the ovules. Half-hybrid. — The product of a cross between a species and a variety of another species. Hybrid. — The offspring of crossed plants. of different species. Hybridism ; hybridity. — The state, quality, or condition of being a hybrid. Hybridization. — The state or condition of being hybrid- ized, or the process or act of hybridizing. Hybridizing. — The operation or practice of crossing be- tween species. Individual cross. — The offspring of two crossed flowers on the same plant. Individual fertilization. — Fertilization between flowers upon the same plant. Mongrel. — A cross. Mule. — A sterile (seedless) hybrid. Pollination. — The conveyance of pollen from the anther to the stigma (page 252 The term cross is used to denote the offspring of any sexual union between plants, whether of different species or varieties, or even different flowers upon the same plant. It is a general term. And the word is 284 GLOSSARY. also sometimes used to denote the operation of per- forming or bringing about the sexual union. There are different kinds of crosses. One of these is the hybrid. A hybrid is a cross between two species, as a plum and a peach, or a raspberry and a blackberry. There has lately been some objection urged against this term, because it is often impossible to define the limitations of species, —to tell where one species ends and another begins. And it is a fact that this diffi- culty exists, for plants which some botanists regard as mere varieties others regard as distinct species. But the term hybrid is no more inaccurate than the term species, upon which it rests; and, so long as men talk about species, so long have we an equal right to talk about hybrids. Here, as everywhere, terms are mere conveniences, and they seldom express the whole truth. In common speech the word /ybrid is much misused. Crosses between varieties of one species are termed half-breeds ov cross-breeds, and those between different flowers upon the same plant are called individual CTrOSSES. 3. CLASSIFICATION. Break. — A radical departure from the type. Ordinarily used in the sense of sport, but in its larger meaning it refers to the permanent appearance of apparently new or very pronounced characters in a species. Bud-variation. — Variation or departure from a type through the agency of buds (pages 28, 153). sud-variety. — A variety resulting from bud-variation. Bud-sport. Family (Order in botany.)—A group of genera and species; as Cupuliferea, the Oak Family, Rosaceae, the Rose Family. : Form. — A minor variety, usually transient, produced by some local environment ‘ GLOSSARY. IR5 Genus (plural, genera). — A group or kind comprising a ereater or less number of closely related species; as Acer, the maples, Fragaria, the strawberries. Race. — A fixed cultural variety; that is, a cultural va- riety which reproduces itself more or less uniformly from seeds. é Seedling. — A plant growing directly from seed, without the intervention of grafts, layers, or cuttings. Seed-variation. — Variation or departure from a_ type through the agency of seeds. Seed-variety. —- A variety resulting from seed-variation. Species (plural, species). — An indefinite term applied to all individuals of a certain kind which come or are supposed to come from acommon parentage. A per- ennial succession of normal or natural similar indi- viduals perpetuated by means of seedage. “All the descendants from the same stock.” — Gray. Sport.— A variety or variation which appears suddenly and unaccountably, either from seeds or buds; more properly restricted to varieties originating from buds, and so used in this book. Stock. — The parentage of a particular strain or variety. Strain. — A sub-variety, or individuals of a variety, which has been improved and bred under known conditions. Variation. —1. The act or condition of varying or be- coming modified. 2. A transient variety, more or less incapable of being fixed or rendered pernianent. Variety. — A form or series of forms of a species marked by characters of less permanence or less importance than are the species themselves. Wilding. — A wild individual from a cultivated species. INDEX. ee Abortive varieties, 152. Aralia, bud-variety, 180. Abutilon, crosses, 220, 288, 250. Arthur, 108, 116. Accident, 154, Arundo, variation, 176, 150. Acclimatization, 24, 26, Asexual propagation, 7. Acer, bud-variety, 177. Aspidistra, sport, 180. Achimenes, crosses, 245, 246, 247. Aster, varieties, 180. Acorns, bud-variety, 177. Atavism, 106, Acquired characters, 14. Atragene, 184. Adult forms, 156. Atropa, crosses, 223, Xgilops, crosses, 243, Azalea, bud-yarieties, 180. Asculus, bud-vartety, 178. Esculus, crosses, 239. Bag for covering flowers, 272. Agathwa, bud-variety, 178. Bamboos, variation, 176. Ageratum, bud-varieties, 178. Banana, varieties, 175. Agrostemma Ceeli-rosa, dwarfs, 144. Bartel, T. C., 130. Albinos, 148. Barteldes, 140. Allut, Cazalis, 211. Bean, bud-variation, 176. Almond, bud-variety, 179. Beans, types of, 135, Alnus, crosses, 226, Beet, crosses, 56. Alopecurus, crosses, 230. Begonia, crosses, 224, 226, 227, 229, Altitude and plants, 25, 230, 281, 288, 284, 289, 245, 246, Amelioration, gradual, 50. 247. Amygdalus, crosses, 239. Begonia pollinations, $6. Anagallis, crosses, 222, 228, 231. Bell-tlower, 252. Anemone, crosses, 224, 229. Berberis, crosses, 245. Anemone, varieties, 179. Bigness, variation in, 18. Animal and plant contrasted, 5, 91, Blackberry, crosses, 79, 111. Année, 141. Blackberry, introduction of, 129. Antagonistic features, 95, Bletia, crosses, 222. Anther, 254. Bohnhof, 80. Apple, Wealthy, 108, Bornet, 232. Apples, bud-variation in, 118, 175, Bouschet, Henri, 212. Apples, hybrid, 66, 79, 111. Brassica, crosses, 223, 239, 240, 241, Apples, races of, 90. Braun, Alexander, 17. Apples, variations in, 8, 27, 87, 99, 131. | Breaking the type, 19, 23, 93, Apricot, bud-yariety, 179. Bruant, 113. Aquilegia, crosses, 224, 229, 2384, 239, | Buckwheat, crosses, 56. 240, 250. Budd, Professor, 133, 287 288 Bud-yariation, 6, 21, 126, 153. Bugbane, 258. Burpee, 139. Buxus, bud-varieties, 181. Cabbage, crosses, 56. Cacti, crosses, 235. Calceolaria, crosses, 239, 245, 247. Calceolaria plantaginea, dwarfs, 144. Calliopsis tinetoria, dwarfs, 144. Callistephus hortensis, dwarfs, 145. Calyx, 253. Camellia, bud-varieties, 182 Camellia, crosses, 251. Canary-grass, crosses, 57. Cannas, 140. Capsella, crosses, 226, 231. Carman, 79. Carnation, 115. Carri¢re, 96, 116, 153. Caspary, 229. Cedars, 156. Cephalotaxus, sports, 183. Cereus, bud-variety, 154. Cereus, crosses, 226, 280, 233, 239. Cereus, night-blooming, 256. Change of seed, 28, 59, 116. Checking growth, 116. Cheiranthus, sport of, 185. Cherry, hybrid, 112. Cherry, sports of, 171. Chloranthie varieties, 153. Chlorosis, 149. Choice of variations, 31. Chrysanthemum carinatum, 100, Chrysanthemum, sports of, 158. Cimicifuga racemosa, 258. Cinchona, crosses, 225. Cirsium, crosses, 229, 233, 239. Cistus, crosses, 219, 222, 231, 234. Clematis, crosses, 224. Clematis, tlowers, 262. Clematis, varieties, 184. Climate and variation, 24, 114, 146. Coleus, sports in, 120, Coloration, 148. Colors, modified by climate, 25. Conifer, 156, 28, 37, 101, 118, 229, 299, 933, 234, INDEX. Contradictory attributes, 98. Convolvulus pollinations, 55. Coreopsis tinctoria, dwarfs, 144. Cornus, bud-varieties, 185. Corolla, 253. Cotyledon, crosses, 229, Crabs, hybrid, 66, 111. Crategus, crosses, 239. | Crinum, crosses, 218, 225, 229, 232, 234. | Cross-breeds, Focke on, 247. Cross, function of, 50 Cross, primary, 215. Crosses, characteristies of, 65. Crosses, Focke on, 215. Crossing a means, 107. Crossing and change of seed, 59. Crossing, limits of, 44. Crossing, philosophy of, 39. Crossing, rule for, 109. Crozy, 118, 140. Cucumber pollinations, $5. Cucumis, crosses, 222. Cucurbita Pepo, 75, 84. Cucurbitacez, crosses, 46, 58, 74, 82, 229, 280, 235. Cultivation, philosophy of, 22. Currant, sports of, 175. (See Ribes.) Cypripedium, 254. Cypripedium, crosses, 218, 227, 246. Cytisus Adami, 155, 229, Dactylis, bud-variety, 155. Darwin, 17, 23, 82, 42, 47, 51, 54, 56, 60, 63, 69, 72, S4, ST, 117, 119, 121, 176, 228. Dating back, 106. Datura, crosses, 222, 223, 224, 226, 228, 234, 239, 240, 249, 250. Decaisne, 229. De Candolle, 150, 178. Derivative crosses, 238. - Dewberry crosses, 79, 111. Dewberry, introduction of, 129. Dianthus Chinensis, dwarfs, 145. Dianthus, crosses, 218, 219, 225, 226, 227, 229, 288, 284, 2387; 239, 240, 243, 244, 245, 246,250. Dianthus semperfiorens, - 4156. Dichroism, 154. INDEX. Digitalis, crosses, 218, 219, 221, 223, 226, 227, 229, 280, 232, 237. Dimorphism, 154. Dicecious plants, 260. Divergence of character, 23. Division of labor, 42. Doubleness in hybrids, 287. Doubleness of flowers, 149. Dracaena, variation, 176. Duval, M., 167. Dwarfing, 25, 114, 143. Early varieties, 146. Echinocactus, sports, 186. Eckford, 113. Egg-plant, crosses, 57, 74. Egg-plant pollinations, 89. Egg-plants, variation in, 95. Egypt, plagues of, 40. Elwagnus, bud-varieties, 186. Emasculation, 265, Envelopes, floral, 252. Environment and yariation, 12. Epilobium, crosses, 218, 222, 229, 230, 233. Equilibrium of organisms, 20, 61. Erica, crosses, 229, 238, 239, 240, 246, 247, Essential organs, 255, Euonymus Japonicus, 156, 186. Fagus, fern-leaved, 187. Fall sowing, 115, 148. Ferns, crossing, 277. Fertility of soil, 18, 22. Ficus, forms of, 188. Filament, 254. Fittest, survival of, 82, 39. Fixation of plants, 31. Flavor, modified by climate, 25, Flon, M., 156. Flowerless plants, crossing, 277. Focke, 68, 81, 108, 215. Fontanesia, sport, 188. Food supply, 16, 116, Fortuitous variation, 9. Fragaria, crosses, 229. Fraxinus,. bud-varieties, 188. Fromont, 158. Fuchsia, crosses, 229, 283, 239, 247, _U Be Fuchsia flowers, 273, 274, 275. Function of the Cross, 50. r Fusain, 156. Galium, crosses, 222. Gardenia, bud-variety, 189. Giirtner, 216, 218, 219, 220, 228, 233, 235, 289, 240, 243, 244, 248, 249, 250. Gazania rigens, 146. Genera, monotypic, 97. Gesneracew, crosses, 227, 229, 246. Geum, crosses, 219, 229, 239. Giant forms, 145. Gibb, Charles, 133. Gideon, Peter M., 108. Gillyflower, bud-variety, 189. Giraud, Désiré, 166. Gladiolus, crosses, 226, 229, 234, 245, 246. Gleditschia triacanthos, 207. Glossary, 282. Goff, 103. . Gordon, 229, 241, 244. Gourd, crosses, 58, 74, 82. Grape, bud-varieties, 174, 210. Grapes, hybrid, 66, 78, 110, 111. Gray, Asa, 38, 178. Greenhouses, produce variation, 115. Hallock, V. H., & Son, 124. Hardy varieties, 145, Hartogia Capensis, 192. Hedera, forms of, 189. Helianthemum, crosses, 223, 226, Helichrysum bracteatum, dwarfs, 144. Henderson, 138. Herbert, 248. Hibiscus, bud-varieties, 190. Hibiscus, crosses, 225, 250, Hibiseus Syriacus, 257. Hieracium, crosses, 220, 238, 234, 237, 239, 250. Hippeastrum, crosses, 226, 229, 234, 289, 245, 246, 247. Holly, sports, 191. Horse-chestnut, bud-variety, 178. Husk-tomato, 60, $5. Hyacinth, forms, 190. Hybrids, characters of, 68, 215. Hybrids, Focke on, 215, 290 INDEX. Hybrids, multiple, 246, 247. Leafiness, 25. Hybrids, rarity of, 53. Lecogq, 227. Hybrids, seven-eighths, 243. Lemoine, 113. Hybrids, three-fourths, 243. Lens for pollinating, 270. Hybrids, triple, 244. Leptosiphon densiflorus, dwarfs, 144. Hydrangea, 146, 191. Lettuce, crosses, 56. Hymenocallis, crosses, 230. Ligustrum, sports, 193. Lilac, bud-varieties, 193. Tberis umbellata, dwarfs, 145. Lily, white, 253. Ignotum tomato, 123. Lima beans, 138. Ilex, bud-varieties, 191. Limits of crossing, 44. Impatiens Balsamina, dwarfs, 145. Linaria, crosses, 222, 227, 288, 289, In-breeding, 72. 241. Indeterminate varieties, 87. Lindley, 68. Individuality, causes of, 8. Links, missing, 41, 48. Individuality, fact of, 2. Linneus, 81, 152. Instruments for pollination, 270. . | Linum, crosses, 223. Ipomeeas, colors of seeds, 104. Lobelia, crosses, 219, 222, 282, 2338, Iris, bud-variety, 192. 234, 235, 245. Isolation of the plant, 22. Luffa, crosses, 232. Isoloma, crosses, 226, 227, 231, 283, | Lupines, heredity in, 106. 246. Lychnis Ceeli-rosa, dwarfs, 144. Ivy, forms of, 189. Lychnis, crosses, 240, 241. Lycium, crosses, 218, 226. Jamain, M., 163. Lycopods, crossing, 277. Jobert, M., 179. Joigneaux, M., 204. Maize, crosses, 56. Juniperus, bud-varieties, 192. Malle, Dureau de la, 175, Mamillaria, sports, 194. Klotzsch, 226, 229. Maple, Wier’s, 109. Knight, Thomas Andrew, 17, 54, 227, | Meadow, plants in, 23. 229. Medicago, crosses, 220, 233, 240. Kohl-rabi, 80. Melandrium, crosses, 220, 222, 223, Kolreuter, 54, 78, 216, 217, 219, 228, 225, 281, 283, 240, 244, 245. 229, 243, 244, 250. Mendel, 239. Kumerle, W. J., 140. Mentha, bud-variety, 194. Kuntze, 225. Mentha, crosses, 229, 241. Mersereau, 131. Labor, division of, 42, 48. Mimulus, crosses, 222, 251. Lachaume, M., 166. Mirabilis, crosses, 222, 226, 227, 228, Lactuca, crosses, 238. 234, 241, 250, 251. Ladle for pollinating, 271. Mirabilis pollinations, 85, - Lamium, bud-variety, 192. Missing links, 41. Lamium, crosses, 239, 241. Mixing in the hill, 118, 201. Lantana, crosses, 222. Molinia, bud-variety, 194. Large-tlowered varieties, 145. Moneecious plants, 259. Late varieties, 146. Monotypie genera, 97. Latitude and plants, 25. Moore, Jacob, 110. Laurocerasus, sports, 192. Morning-glory, 54. Lavatera, crosses, 284, 289, 248. Morong, Dr. Thomas, 60. INDEX. Morren, 149, Mourriére, M., 175. Mulberry, Teas’, 109. Multiple hybrids, 246, 247. Munson, Professor, 53. Munson, T. V., 79, 111. Musa, bud-yariety, 194. Muskmelon pollination, $5. - — - Myrtle, bud-yariety, 195. Nanz & Neuner, 170. Narcissus, crosses, 220, 225, 236. Natal variations, 15. Natural selection, 82, 51. Naudin, 216, 229, 248, Nectarine, origin of, 118, 178. Nepenthes, crosses, 220, Nicotiana, crosses, 72, 217, 219, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 288, 234, 237, 238, 239, 241, 248, 244, 245, 246, 250. Nicotiana pollinations, 85, 86. Nuphar, crosses, 226, Nymphwa, crosses, 218, 225, 227, 231, 234, 250. Odoriferous varieties, 147. (£nothera, crosses, 219, 239. (Enothera Drummondii, dwarfs, 144, Oger, Pierre, 166, Olea ilicifolia, 195, Opuntia, bud-variety, 195. Orange, bud-variety, 195. Orchid, crosses, 229, 233, 235. Orchids, hybrids, 79. Orontium, sport, 195, Osmanthus, sport, 195. Ovary, 255, 263. Palmer, Asa, 139. Pansy, 146. Papaver, crosses, 218, 224, 226, 229, 281, 237. Papaver, forms of, 151. Paré, M., 160. Parents, influence of, 81, 217. Passiflora, crosses, 220, 226, 250, Peach, bud-variation in, 118, 173, 196. Peach, hybrids, 47. Peaches, races of, 91, 99 Dis , 280, 291 Pear, bud-vyarieties, 174, 197. Pears, hybrid, 66, 79, 111. ¢ Pears, variation in, 99. Peas, viney, 16. Pelargonium, crosses, 215, 230, 233, 234, 237, 245, 246, 247. Pelargonium, sports in, 198. Peloric varieties, 152. Pentstemon, crosses, 241. Pepino pollinations, $6, Pepino, variation in, 95, Pepper, red, pollination, 55. Peppers, variation in, 96. Persica, 196. Petal, 253. Petunia, crosses, 218, 240, 241, 251. Petunia pollinations, 85, 56. Phalaris, sports, 195. Phaseolus, crosses, 223, 258, 241. Phlox, bud-varieties, 199. Phragmites, bud-yaricties, 199. Physalis, 60. . Physalis, variation in, 96. Picea, bud-variety, 199. Pink, 156, 160. Pinus, bud-varieties, 199. Pinus, crosses, 226. Pistil, 255. Pisum, crosses, 223, 238, Pittosporum, sport, 200, Plant-breeding, 91. Pliny, 131. Plum, hybrids, 47, 112. Plum, sports of, 172. Plums, Japanese, 27. Podoecarpus, 155, 158, Pollen, 254, 264. Pollinating kit, 277, 278. Pollination, 252. Pollination, uncertainties of, 83, Polymorphous varieties, 153. Polytypie genera, 97. Populus, bud-variety, 200. Populus, crosses, 222. Position, advantage of, 22. Post-natal variations, 15. Potamogeton, crosses, 227. Potato, 37, 117. Potato and tomato, 95. Potato, bud-vyarieties, 201, 209. 220, 229, 292 INDEX. Potato, seedlessness, 99. Secondary crosses, 238. Precocious varieties, 146. Seed, change of, 28, 59. Primula, crosses, 239, 240, 241. seeds, colors of, 104. Progeny of crosses, 237. Seeds, early, 147. Proliferous varieties, 150. Seeds, immature, 103, 147. Propagation, asexual, 7. Seeds, large and small, 101. Pruning, 23. Selection and progress, 120, 122, Prunus, bud-yariety, 205, Selection, natural, 32, 51. Prunus, crosses, 229, 239. Self-fertilization, effects of, 54. Pumpkin, crossing, 46, 58, 74, 82. Senecio cruentus, dwarfs, 144. Pyrus, crosses, 229, 239. Sepal, 253. Seven-eighths hybrids, 243. Quercus, crosses, 226, 229, 239. Sex and variation, 11, 43. Quince, pollinated, 276. Silene, crosses, 234. Sinningia, crosses, 231. Races in fruits, 90. Solanum, bud-varieties, 209. Radish pollinations, $5, . | Solanum, variations in, 95. Raphanus Raphanistrum, 116, 231. Spencer, 61. Raphanus sativus, 231. Spirwa, bud-varieties, 209. Raspberry, flowering, 260. Sports, 22, 28, 37, 153. Raspberry, hybrids, 79, 111. Sprengel, 54. Representative species, 66. Squash, crosses, 58, 74, 82. Retinosporas, 156. Squash flowers, 261. Rheum, bud-yariety, 206. Squash, Hubbard, 46. Rhododendron, crosses, 145, 218, 222, | Stamens, 254. 225, 226, 229, 230, 239, 245, 246, 247. | Stigma, 255. tibes, bud-varieties, 206. Strawberry, Wilson, 125. Ribes, crosses, 280, 283. Struggle for life, 20, 29, 39. Robinia, bud-varieties, 206. Sturtevant, 103. togue, 89, 127. Style, 255. Rosa, 161. Sugar-cane, varieties, 175. Rose, bud-varieties in, 118, 161, 207. Survival of the fittest, 32, 39. Roses, crosses. 233, 247. Swamping effects of inter-crossing, 46. tubus, crosses, 227, 230, 282, 234. Sweet, 247. tubus odoratus, 260. Symphoricarpus, sport, 209. cunning out of varieties, 36, 125. Symphytum, bud-varieties, 209. tussia, fruits from, 27, 90, 133. Synchronistic variations, 117. Rye, hybrids, 79. Tagetes, dwarfs, 145. Salix, bud-variety, 208. Teas, 109. Salix, crosses, 219, 225, 226, 227, 229, | Teleology of hybrids, 286. 231, 284, 239, 244, 245, 246, 247. Thinning, 28. Salter, 119. Three-fourths hybrids, 243, Salvia, crosses, 228. Thuyopsis, sport, 209. Sambucus, sports, 208. Tillage and food supply, 17, 22. Satyrium hireinum, 148. Timbal-Lagrave, 217. Scabiosa atropurpurea, dwarfs, 145. Toad-tlax, 152. Scalpel for pollinating, 270. Tobacco flowers, 266. Schizanthus retusus, dwarfs, 145. Tobacco pollinations, 86. Scissors for pollinating, 270. Tomato and potato, 95, ‘* INDEX. Tomato, crosses, 58. Tomato, Ignotum, 123. Tomato, pollinated, 276. Tomato pollinations, 55. Tomato, Trophy, 37. Tomato, variation in, 98. Tomatoes, breeding, 103. Tragopogon, crosses, 238. Triple hybrids, 244. Tropwolum, crosses, 222, 226, Ulmus, bud-variety, 209. Ulmus, crosses, 226. Variability, variation in, 25. Variation and enyironment, 12. Variation caused by sex, 11, 43. Variation, fortuitous, 9. Variation, philosophy of, 1. Variations, choice of, 31. Variations, fixation of, 31. Variations, natal and post-natal, 15, Variations, origin of, 8, 41. (157. Variegation, perpetuating, 120, 149, Varieties, running out, 56, 125. Variety, what is a, 35. Verbascum, crosses, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 229, 285, 289, 250. ce 298 Verdier, Vietor, 167. Verlot, 121, 143. Veronica, crosses, 285, 239, ‘ Viburnum, sports, 209. Vilmorin, 152. Vilmorin, Henri L. de, 100, 105, 142. Vilmorin, Louis Leyéque de, 106. Vine, bud-varieties, 174, 210. Viola, bud-variety, 210. Viola, crosses, 229, 231. Vitis, crosses, 229, 239, 245, 246. Walker, Ernest, 120, 169. Wallace, 47, 60, 67. Watermelon pollination, 85. Weismann, 13, 14. Wheat, hybrids, 79. Wichura, 216, 246. Wier, D. B., 109. Wigandia, sport, 215. Willdenow, 152. Yucea, variation, 176. Zinnia, crosses, 241. Zinnia, flowers, 268, NEW EDITION. The Horticulturist’s Rule-Book. A COMPENDIUM OF USEFUL INFORMATION FOR FRUIT- GROWERS, FRUCK-GARDENERS, FLORISTS, AND OTHERS. By L. H. BAILEY, PROFESSOR OF HorTICULTURE IN THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Third Edition, Thoroughly Revised and Recast, with Many Additions. 12mo. 302 pages. Limp Cloth. 75 cents. This volume is the only attempt ever made in this country to codify and condense all the scattered rules, practices, recipes, figures, and histories relating to horticul- tural practice, in its broadest sense. 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Amongst the additions to the volume, in the present edition, are the following : A chapter upon “ Greenhouse and Window-garden Work and Estimates,”’ comprising full estimates and tables of heating glass-houses, lists of plants for forcing, for cut flowers, for window-gardens, aquaria, and the like, with temperatures at which many plants are grown, directions for making potting-earth and of caring for plants, etc.; a chapter on “ Literature,’’ giving classified and priced lists of the leading cur- rent books and periodicals on American horticulture, and directories of officers of whom the bulletins of the various experiment stations may be obtained; lists of self- fertile and self-sterile fruits; a full account of the methods of predicting frosts and of averting their injuries; a discussion of the aims and methods of phenology, or the record of climate in the blooming and leafing of trees; the rules of nomenclature adopted by botanists and by various horticultural societies; score-cards and scales of points for judging various fruits, vegetables, and flowers; a full statement of the metric system, and tables of foreign money. MACMILLAN & CO., “NEW YORK: 66 FIFTH AVENUE. The Rural Science Series. NOW READY. The Soil. By FRANKLIN H. KING, Professor of Agricultural Physics, University of Wisconsin. 16mo. Cloth. 75 cents. IN PRESS. The Spraying of Plants. By Ernest G. LopEMAN, Cornell Uni- versity. IN PREPARATION. The Apple in North America. By L. H. Battey, Editor of the Series. The Fertility of the Land. By I. P. Roserts, of Cornell University. Milk and its Products. By H. H. WING. Under the editorship of Professor L. H. Bailey of Cornell University, Mac- millan & Co. purpose issuing a series of books upon agricultural subjects to be known as the Rural Science Series. Professor F. H. King, of the University of Wisconsin, has written upon The Soil, treating the subject from the new attitude which considers it as a scene of life rather than as a mere mechanical or chemical mixture. 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