Pe a ek cel) iS Fir Go-20 * bar4 A +. Eng Res Cie a LH ae CETA 80-2 WY i : 2 ( DOCUMENT | (AD-A08S $72) COLLECTION / y 4 eas Planting Guidelines for Seagrasses by Ronald C. Phillips COASTAL ENGINEERING TECHNICAL AID NO. 80-2 FEBRUARY 1980 " WHOL DOCUMENT COLL ee Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. Prepared for U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS Té COASTAL ENGINEERING oe RESEARCH CENTER , Kingman Building no. SO-A Fort Belvoir, Va. 22060 Reprint or republication of any of this material shall give appropriate credit to the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center. Limited free distribution within the United States of single copies of this publication has been made by this Center. Additional copies are available from: National Technical Information Service ATTN: Operations Division 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, Virginia 22161 Contents of this report are not to be used for advertising, publication, or promotional purposes. Citation of trade names does not constitute an official endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial products. The findings in this report are not to be construed as an official Department of the Army position unless so designated by other authorized documents. AI fT Mi NIN UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered) REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE T. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER CETA 80-2 4. TITLE (and Subtitle) 5. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED Coastal Engineering PLANTING GUIDELINES FOR SEAGRASSES Technical Aid 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER 7. AUTHOR(s) 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s) Ronald C. Phillips DACW72-79-C-0030 9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK School of Natural and Mathematical Sciences Wa ages aR tS Nett Seattle Pacific University G31632 Seattle, Washington 98119 11. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERRE-CE) ISSINUNGERIORIDAGES Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060 14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME & ADDRESS(if different from Controlling Office) 15. SECURITY CLASS. (of this report) UNCLASSIFIED SCHEDULE Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report) DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abstract entered in Block 20, if different from Report) - SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side if necessary and identify by block number) Erosion Seagrasses Planting guidelines Substrate stabilization 20. ABSTRACT (Continue am reverse side if necessary and identify by block number) An intensive review was made of the historical and present work on trans- planting seagrasses, including eelgrass, turtle grass, shoalgrass, manatee grass, and ditch grass. The best seasons, recommended methods of transplanting, and propagules to use for each species are listed for the coasts of the United States. Some of the more important environmental parameters which directly in- fluence successful transplanting are reviewed. DD van ys 1473 EprTIon oF t Nov 651s OBSOLETE UNCLASSIFIED Dae eee eee ee SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered) Tapks HOTTA FHS WROD a -- ye ee — 1 ink ce eR pubes. tam PREFACE This report is published to assist coastal engineers in the planning, design, and implementation of transplanting seagrasses to restore areas damaged by coastal engineering projects and to stabilize substrates ad- jacent to navigation channels. The report was prepared by Ronald C. Phillips, School of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, under CERC Contract No. DACW72-79-C-0030. Some of the material in the report is based on research supported in part by the National Science Foundation, International Decade of Ocean Exploration. The author expresses appreciation to S. Grant for providing the illustrations. Paul L. Knutson was the contract monitor for the report, under the general supervision of E.J. Pullen, Chief, Coastal Ecology Branch, Research Division, CERC. Comments on this publication are invited. Approved for publication in accordance with Public Law 166, 79th Congress, approved 31 July 1945, as supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th Congress, approved 7 November 1963. Colonel, Corps of Engineers Commander and Director V1 VII VIII IX CONTENTS CONVERSION FACTORS, U.S. CUSTOMARY TO METRIC (SI) INTRODUCTION. SELECTING PLANTS AND PLANTING METHODS . OBTAINING PLANT MATERIAL. PLANTING METHODS. Seeding. : : Planting Sprigs iUnanchored : Planting Plugs : Planting Sprigs Anchored : PWNH PLANTING TIME . 1. Eelgrass Cen Ain oaero iG, (on. Coonan Vewtlens aauiet ce 1 ade 2. Turtle Grass, Shoalgrass, Manatee Grass, and Ditch Grass SEED APPLICATION RATE AND PLANT SPACING enoecedanicr SaaS MRED Dar Hern cus Nitro tae «os ano eam ra ass 2. Sprigs, Plugs, and Sprigs Woven Into E-Z Fabric. ESTIMATING LABOR AND MATERIAL COSTS FERTILIZATION AND HORMONE TREATMENT . SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Depth. Light. Temperature. Salinity . Nutrients. Currents and Waves DAuFPWNFH LITERATURE CITED. TABLES Recommended planting times. Estimated transplantation costs FIGURES Planting decision key, Atlantic coast north of Beaufort, North Carolina . Planting decision key, Atlantic coast south of Beaufort, North Carolina, to Florida and along the Gulf coast. Page 20 21 10 CONTENTS FIGURES--Continued Page Pilemmeime Gieronein Iker, PACMEC CONSEs 6 6 0 6 +o 69 ¢ 6 ao 6 06 6 oo il Fre late SiS cepaststry eae eae Sort acinar a ames enh YS rat ten me arc a aL WERCTRENCIVE: SINOENICARISS 6 5 5 6 oo on o-oo go, 9 0 9 p01 o-oo 007 abe) TERE G TS fee USS Mi ce cy fe St 2 ne RRM ag LA Sai SRR Tol oi cores Relies separa ernie Cs WOASWAEIUE IMENAEOS ACESS: GS Ge SiGe obo a oo oo 556 a 5) dls Vegetative ditch grass.-. . . . . Si ieli et Pgh (us) bee pe ge Se cten tach ee creel) PVC coring device being used to remove plugs of shoalgrass. ..... 18 CONVERSION FACTORS, U.S. CUSTOMARY TO METRIC (SI) UNITS OF MEASUREMENT U.S. customary units of measurement used in this report can be converted to metric (SI) units as follows: Multiply by To obtain inches 25.4 millimeters 2.54 centimeters square inches 6.452 square centimeters cubic inches 16.39 cubic centimeters feet 30.48 centimeters 0.3048 meters square feet 0.0929 square meters cubic feet 0.0283 cubic meters yards 0.9144 meters square yards 0.836 square meters cubic yards 0.7646 cubic meters miles 1.6093 kilometers square miles 259.0 hectares knots 1.852 kilometers per hour acres 0.4047 hectares foot-pounds 1.3558 newton meters millibars 1 OMS ehOmS kilograms per square centimeter ounces DSi 55 grams pounds 453.6 grams 0.4536 kilograms ton, long 1.0160 metric tons ton, short 0.9072 metric tons degrees (angle) 0.01745 radians Fahrenheit degrees 5/9 Celsius degrees or Kelvins! 1To obtain Celsius (C) temperature readings from Fahrenheit (F) readings, use formulae G = (5/19) (Fh —S2e To obtain Kelvin (K) readings, use formula: K = (5/9) (F -32) + 273.15. PLANTING GUIDELINES FOR SEAGRASSES by Ronald C. Phillips I. INTRODUCTION Seagrasses play an important role in the biological and physical functions of the coastal marine environment. However, increased coastal engineering activities in the environment have created impacts which adversely affect this productive coastal resource. Seagrasses, once disturbed, do not reestablish as readily as terrestrial plants. Because seagrass beds may be damaged by coastal engineering ac- tivities, methods must be made available to mitigate these project impacts and further the use of seagrasses to stabilize substrate adjacent to navigation channels. This report provides a state-of-the-art field guide on the planting of seagrasses. II. SELECTING PLANTS AND PLANTING METHODS The appropriate species and planting method may be determined in the following manner. STEP ONE: Select the description from each of the following categories which best describes the site to be planted. GEOGRAPHICAL AREA Atlantic coast (north of Beaufort, North Carolina) Gulf coast and from Beaufort, North Carolina, to southern Florida Pacific coast TIDAL ELEVATION Mean low water (MLW) to mean tide level (MTL) or MLW to -6 feet (-1.8 meters) on the Atlantic and gulf coasts Mean lower low water (MLLW) to lowest high low water (LHLW) or MLLW to -6 feet on the Pacific coast TIDAL CURRENTS 0 to 3.5 knots (6.5 kilometers per hour) >3.5 knots SALINITY 0 to 20 parts per thousand 21 to 40 parts per thousand >40 parts per thousand SOIL PROPERTIES Mostly cohesive (silts and clays) Combination of cohesive and granular Mostly granular (sand) Tidal elevations in most cases should be determined by elevational surveys. Tidal currents are only limiting in some areas of the Atlantic coast where tidal flow is restricted, e.g., the inlets along the Rhode Island coast, and along the Pacific coast where the tidal range between two successive tides commonly exceeds 8 feet (2.4 meters). Tidal current velocities can be found in tide tables published by the National Ocean Survey (NOS). Salinity regimes for local waters are available from State depart- ments of natural resources, academic institutions, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and local U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Refuges, bait houses, or boat marinas. If unavailable, salinity should be measured. Wave energy can limit or prevent seagrass growth. Where wave energy is high, sediments tend to be coarse and seagrasses are sparse or absent. Where wave energy is low, sediments tend to be cohesive and seagrasses are abundant and dense. In the following planting keys (Figs. 1,2, and 3) substrate types indicate protection from adverse wave action. STEP TWO: Turn to the planting decision key (Eig 1 ei satev is located on the Atlantic coast north of Beaufort, North Carolina; Fig. 2 if site is south of Beaufort, North Carolina, to Florida and along the gulf coast; Fig. 3 if on the Pacific coast). Using the appropriate planting decision key and the site description compiled in Step One, begin at the top of the key and move downward following the appropriate path. The path will terminate in a block which either designates suitable plant species and planting methods or indicates the site is not appropriate for planting. III. OBTAINING PLANT MATERIALS No nursery techniques have been developed for growing and distribut- ing seagrasses for revegetation projects. Seagrasses are obtained from nearby native stands of the desired species on the date of intended use. Material can be transported in containers covered with wet canvas or bur- lap. Plants must be kept moist, cool, and shaded until planting. Vegetative and reproductive stages of the various species of sea- grasses used in transplanting are illustrated in Figure 4 (eelgrass, Zostera marina), Figure 5 (shoalgrass, Halodule wrighttt), Figure 6 (turtle grass, Thalassta testudinum), Figure 7 (manatee grass, Syringodium filiforme), and Figure 8 (ditch grass, Ruppta maritima). Begin Elevation (MLW to -6ft) Tidal Currents (>3.5 kn.) * Tidal Currents (O-3.5kn.) Salinity Salinity : | >20 %o (<20 %o)* Soil (Gore or cohesive Eelgrass Zostera marina sprigs * * 3-4 leafy shoots on same rhizome sprigs woven into E-Z fabric * Do not plant %¥¥ Least cost planting method Figure |. Planting decision key, Atlantic coast north of Beaufort, North Carolina. Begin Elevation Elevation (MLW to MTL) (MLT to -6 ft) Tidal Currents Tidal Currents Tidal Currents (O-3.5kn.) (>3.5kn.)* (0-3.5kn) Salinity Salinity (>20%o) (> 40%) * Salinity y Salinity Salinity (<20%0 or >40%c) (>20%o) (< 20%c) Soil Soil Soil Soil Soil (sandy) * combination\| |/combination (sandy) * | |/combination or cohesive or cohesive or cohesive Ditch Grass Turtle Grass Shoalgrass Halodule wrightii Manatee Grass ||7+o/essie restudinum Syringodium filiforme ‘*% Do not plant * *Do not plant manatee or turtle grass by sprigs Shoalgrass Feuppla maritima Hoalodule wrightit Figure 2. Planting decision key, Atlantic coast south of Beaufort, North Carolina, to Florida and along the Gulf Coast. Begin Elevation Elevation (MLLW to MHT)*| | (MLLW to LHLW) Tidal currents| | Tidal currents (0-3.5kn.) (>3.5 kn.)* Salinity Salinity ( > 20 %c) (<20%)* Elevation (MLLW to -6 ft) Tidal currents (0-3.5kn.) Salinity (> 20%c) Soil (coma) or cohesive Soil Soil ie mbipation) (sandy) or cohesive Eelgrass Zostera marina 3-4 leafy shoots woven into on same rhizome E-Z fabric * Do not plant % % Least cost planting method Figure 3. Planting decision key, Pacific coast. IZI3in. b 2.0 in. Figure 4. Eelgrass-- (a) vegetative plant, (b) part of spadix with mature seeds. Figure 5. Vegetative shoalgrass. 4/5 in. Figure 6. Turtle grass-- (a) vegetative plants, (b) reproductive plant with mature fruit, (c) seed and seedling. Figure 7. Vegetative manatee grass. Figure 8, Vegetative ditch grass. IV. PLANTING METHODS Ike Seeding. Seeding turtle grass has been successful. Seeds are ready for harvest as early as mid-July and can be planted as late as November. If holding methods are used, seedlings could be planted during Sep- tember, October, or November. Thorhaug (1974) discussed various methods for holding seeds. Seeds may be collected from mature fruits (0.5 to 1.5 inches or 1.3 to 3.8 centimeters wide) or as germinated seedlings lying on the sediment surface. To harvest, clip the fruit from the stalk and break open the spongy ovary wall to expose the four to five seeds. Seeds and seedlings may be planted immediately or stored in the field or in the laboratory if irrigated with flowing seawater (Thorhaug, 1974). Be- cause seeding techniques are poorly understood, seeding is not recom- mended for general use by those inexperienced in planting seagrasses. Seeding has not been successful with any other seagrass species. In general, seeds of other species are extremely small and easily washed out, and germination rates are low. 2h Planting Sprigs Unanchored. For eelgrass and shoalgrass, sprigs of leafy shoots have been successful. These sprigs consist of a small bunch of 3 to 4 shoots (eelgrass) or 15 to 20 shoots (shoalgrass) on the same rhizome. The sprigs should be planted by digging a small hole in the substrate (about 3 inches or 8 centimeters deep), placing the sprigs in the hole, and covering over with the same substrate. This technique is only successful where wave or current energies are low. Se Planting Plugs. Plugs are cores of plants with substrate intact. Diameter of plugs can be as small as 4 inches (10 centimeters), for shoalgrass, to a recommended 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 centimeters), for eelgrass, turtle grass, and manatee grass. A cylindrical coring device (e.g., a PVC sewer pipe with a wooden handle) is pushed into a donor grass bed to obtain the plug (Fig. 9). The grass plug is then transplanted in a hole, 6 to 8 inches deep, dug by the same coring device. Phillips, Vincent, and Huffman (1978) recommended that plugs of shoalgrass for transplanting be taken 1.5 feet (46 centimeters) or more apart in natural stands. At Port St. Joe, Florida, several large open spaces resembling blowouts were observed in the shoalgrass donor site where plugs had been taken at 6-inch intervals. Where the plugs had been taken at 12-inch (30 centimeters) intervals no blowouts had occurred, and after 1 year, the bottom had nearly recovered from regrowth of sur- rounding shoalgrass. Figure 9. PVC coring device being used to remove plugs of shoalgrass. 4. Planting Sprigs Anchored. In areas where currents exceed 1.5 knots (about 3 kilometers per hour) or there is slight wave energy exposure from wind, storm, or even boat wakes, it is advisable to use anchoring devices with seagrass sprigs. In Mississippi Sound, Eleuterius (1974) found that construction rods and iron mesh painted with vinyl paint, when used as anchoring devices, did not affect turtle grass and shoalgrass sprigs. He conclu- ded that bare metal would not kill the plants. Phillips (1976) found that turtle grass and shoalgrass in Texas and eelgrass in Alaska were killed when metal anchors were used. In Puget Sound, Washington, eel- grass appeared to be unaffected by iron or metal anchors. Because of the increasing costs of construction rods and wire mesh, and the susceptibility of certain seagrasses to iron, it is recommended that E-Z fabric be used. E-Z fabric is a combination of synthetic-fiber netting (polypropylene yarn) interwoven with biodegradable paper strips (Gulf States Paper Corp., Tuscaloosa, Alabama). The material is in- expensive, $85 for a roll 300 feet (91.4 meters) long and 54 inches (137.2 centimeters) wide, 1979 prices. Fonseca, et al. (in preparation, 1980) cut the netting into 8- by 8-inch (20 by 20 centimeters) - squares and wove 15 eelgrass shoots through each mesh square, leaving the rhi- zomes on the underside of the mesh. The square was then pinned to the substrate surface. In 3 months the bottom coverage of the plants ex- panded 400 percent, and the plants became anchored. Many plants can be quickly planted by this technique. Labor is required for weaving sea- grasses through the mesh, but this is done in the field. The only work to be done in the water is collecting the plants, washing them free of the substrate, and then pinning the squares to the substrate. The only problem encountered using this method was in Puget Sound where dungeness crabs rooted out the plants. V. PLANTING TIME Generally, the best time of the year for transplanting seagrasses is in the spring. However, transplanting may be done anytime during the year on the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic coast south of Beaufort, North Carolina, and the Pacific coast from Washington State to southern California, i.e., areas free from sea ice in winter, although specific times (see Table 1) have been recommended by prior studies (Churchill, et al., 1978; Phillips, 1976; Phillips, Vincent, and Huffman, 1978; Thorhaug, 1974, 1976). North of Beaufort on the Atlantic coast and in Alaska on the Pacific coast, where there is sea ice in winter, trans- planting should be done when the ice melts and vegetative plants begin growing. Table 1 lists the recommended transplanting times by species and location. Ik, Eelgrass. a. Atlantic Coast North of North Carolina and Alaska, Pacific Coast. Transplanting should be done as soon as vegetative plants appear following the melting of sea ice. This could be March in mild winters or mid-May if ice persists until March. Transplanting should be completed by mid- June to ensure establishment and growth of the eelgrass before the next winter. b. Atlantic Coast, South of Beaufort, North Carolina, and Washington State to California, Pacific Coast. The best time to transplant in these areas varies. At Beaufort most of the eelgrass produces seeds from late January to April. Late September to early December is the best time for transplanting at Beaufort. This period escapes the heat stress of the summer when water temperatures are up to 86° Fahren- heit (30° Celsius). From Washington State to southern California, January to May is the best time to transplant. This is the period of active vegetative growth. However, transplanting can be done throughout the year. Bo Turtle Grass, Shoalgrass, Manatee Grass, and Ditch Grass. Prior studies show that winter plantings (December to April) give the best results with respect to survival and growth throughout the range of these species. Table l. Species Eelgrass Shoalgrass, Ditch Grass Turtle Grass, Manatee Grass Recommended transplanting times. Location Alaska and Atlantic coast north of North Carolina Beaufort, North Carolina, south of Atlantic coast Washington State to southern California, Pacific coast Gulf coast, Atlantic coast south of Cape Canaveral, Florida Gulf coast, Atlantic coast south of Cape: Canaveral, Florida Recommended time Mar. (mild winters) or May (severe winters) to late July Late Sept. to early Dec. Jan. to May (but can be done throughout the year) Anytime during year Plugs: Dec. to Apr. Seedlings of turtle grass: Aug. to Nov. as they are produced in the field. Shoalgrass can probably be transplanted successfully any time of the year. Turtle grass appears to be less tolerant of summer heat stress, so transplanting should be limited to December, January, and February. There is not enough information on manatee grass and ditch grass to in- dicate a best time for transplanting; however, manatee grass appears to be similar to turtle grass in its requirements and tolerances. VI. SEED APPLICATION RATE AND PLANT SPACING IL - Seeding. Seeding is not recommended for eelgrass (Phillips, 1972; Churchill, Cok, and Riner, 1978). year to year. stalks. Flowering stalk production is variable from Only 6 to 14 percent of the plant population produces Seed germination at ambient water temperatures is low (about 2 percent in Puget Sound, Washington, and never more than 30 percent in Great South Bay, New York). Thorhaug (1974) and Thorhaug and Austin (1976) reported on a large turtle grass seeding project in Biscayne Bay, Florida. 20 They obtained (233 10d saperq £6 ized »90°$ uo paseq) 18a g°Q UT zy aed sopetq sgt 30 1eA0d 493 03 71S‘777$ (z33 10d saperq £6 10d ~90°$ uo peseq) 1804 g°Q UT 233 tod sepetq ¢6 JO 1209 © IOJ 98Z‘ITI$ (,23 19d sapetq ¢6 10d 790'$ uo paseq ‘ peSyzeno SATIBIISTUTUPB JO ‘S3S0) uoTIeTIeIdep ‘sysoo uoTIBII0d -Su@ij opnyoUT Jou s90p) s1eak ¢*z UT z33 od sepetq g4z Jo 19A0D & 103 SEs‘ee$ (ssea8{0e 30 723 gO°1 .uBTd pue ‘acca ‘ute3qo 03 papasu 1y-uem { {e198 10d 00S'09$ = Burseds ut-9¢ 103 popaou e1oe sed s8nqd opg’py fa1oe saad gos‘zHz$ = Buyoeds ut-g]{ 103 papeou a198 aed s8ntd oop‘6I {s3n{d |emrou oma IOJ YUSTITZZNS) sse1iBjae jo 233 aod sz7¢ ¢(ty-uee 6gT ‘daep 33 4 uey3 ssey poquetd ‘Burseds 13-¢) spo‘tg z(4y-uem Tp ‘deep 33 wey ssot poquetd ‘Burseds 33-2) ove‘s$ (ay-uem sso‘ ‘deep az » ueyr Sset pequerd ‘Burseds 33-1) Szc‘zI$ (2ooys 19d ys09 uo paseq) Sps‘oug (daap az ¢ uBYyI SSazT 103eM UT poquetd ‘skep 0SZ UT 1aA05 a eTdwWoD 393 03) OLE‘ I$ ? (a198 1ad) s3so9 *$3s09 uoTqejueldsues, pazewt3sy ‘uosBas BurtMols 19310YS 943 JO eSNBdeq papusmmorar ON ‘9381 YIMOIZ pus s3sod 01 Butmo Butoeds pepuamuoray7 ‘ames eq p[noys setreds ootxey 30 ZIND 103 380), s8ut [poss 158014 (puey Aq paquetd awozty1 awes uo sjooys @ATIBIABAA py 02 ¢) SsBtads y53"Id ysou dT1qeJ 7-g yBno1y2 uaAom SJOOYS 9AIIBIABaA UaaIzTY Pasn poyrew (9261) ssei8 uT3sny pue 8neysoyy arqany (9261) 12310q pue plel{[tqoy (8261) qauty pue ‘yoD “TT TYyouNyD (0861 ‘uot3eiedaid ur) “TB Ja Bdasuoy ssei3jaq oO eee 901n0S satoeds “Z a1qey 2| 80 percent success in germination and establishment of seedlings. Seed application rates varied from 19 to 0.09 per square foot (200 to 1 per square meter). Success rates did not differ for the varying appli- cation rates. Che Sprigs, Plugs, and Sprigs Woven Into E-Z Fabric. There has not been extensive research into determining optimal spacing for seagrass transplants; however, several successful spacings have been reported (see Literature Cited). Churchill, Cok, and Riner (1978) planted sprigs and plugs of eel- grass spaced at 13-inch (33 centimeters) intervals on dredged materials in Great South Bay, New York. Fonseca, et al. (in preparation, 1980) planted sprigs of eelgrass woven into 8- by 8-inch squares of E-Z fabric, spaced at 3-foot (0.9 meter) intervals. When planted in October the eelgrass extended bottom coverage 400 percent in 3 months. Phillips, Vincent, and Huffman (1978) planted shoalgrass plugs at 3-, 6-, and 9-foot (0.9, 1.8, and 2.7 meters) intervals on dredged materials at Port St. Joe, Florida. The shoalgrass planted at 3-foot intervals joined together from adjacent plugs within 9 months. Growth at 6-foot intervals was also good. The number of plant units (sprigs, plugs, or E-Z fabric squares) required for a given project is based on spacing requirements. For example, 18- and 36-inch (46 and 91 centimeters) spacing requires 19,400 and 4,840 units per acre, respectively. VII. ESTIMATING LABOR AND MATERIAL COSTS Estimated costs of transplanting seagrass, from four sources, are given in Table 2. Although costs on planting the Gulf of Mexico seagrasses by plugs are not available, it is assumed that the costs would be similar to those for eelgrass (Table 2). The same holds true for transplanting by sprigs or sprigs woven into E-Z fabric mesh. Caution should be taken in using these estimates. The costs relate to the year the research was done, the hourly wages of the workers, and the experience of the workers. The costs have been developed by small- scale field intensive research rather than by large-scale projects. Therefore, the cost of transplanting can be extremely variable. VIII. FERTILIZATION AND HORMONE TREATMENT The use of fertilizer is discouraged in transplanting seagrasses. No improvement in transplant success or growth from adding fertilizer was observed by Churchill, Cok, and Riner (1978) and Phillips (1976) for eelgrass and Eleuterius (1974) for turtle grass, shoalgrass, and manatee grass. Thorhaug (1974) reported substantial root growth in turtle grass seedlings, which led to more successful establishment, when the seedlings were dipped for 1 hour in naphthalene acetic acid (NAPH). However, (Me Churchill, Cok, and Riner (1978), van Breedveld (1975), Eleuterius (1974), and Phillips (unpublished research, 1974-1979) found that NAPH did not aid in the growth of vegetative plants. Eleuterius stated that the hormone treatment may have killed some plants. IX. SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS LS Depth. The depth distribution of seagrasses depends on a complex of interrelated factors: waves, currents, substrate, turbidity, and light penetration. In the temperate zone eelgrass occurs from low tide to about 33 feet (10 meters) deep (Phillips, 1974). Cottam and Munro (1954) observed eelgrass down to 100 feet (30 meters) where the water was clear. In the tropics shoalgrass grows in the intertidal to 45 feet (14 meters) deep (personal observations at St. Croix, Virgin Islands), while turtle grass and manatee grass grow from the low tide line to 35 and 55 feet (11 and 17 meters) deep, respectively (personal observations). Phillips (1960) observed turtle grass down to 100 feet in extremely clear water in the Bahamas. In very turbid waters seagrasses are restricted to less than a 3-foot depth (Thayer, Wolfe, and Williams, 1975). Bo Light. Backman and Barilotti (1976) demonstrated that eelgrass flowering and density in a southern California lagoon were inversely related to light intensity and penetration through the water column. Using canopies over growths in shallow water, they reduced down-welling illuminance by 63 percent, simulating light conditions extant at the lower limit of eelgrass growth. After 18 days, mean shoot densities under the canopies decreased relative to that of adjacent unshaded growth. After 9 months, shoot densities declined to 5 percent of the adjacent control unshaded growth. Flowering was also reduced under the shading canopies. Some shading could occur with increased water turbidity caused by an increased silt load from sewage effluents, nearby dredging, or even oilspills. Long- term shading could reduce seagrass density, increase erosion of bottom sedi- ments, and affect seagrasses in adjoining areas. 3. Temperature. All seagrass species appear to have upper and lower temperature tolerance levels (McMillan, 1978; Thayer, Wolfe, and Williams, 1975). These levels vary with the local area (McMillan, 1979; Phillips, unpub- lished research, 1974-1979). Eelgrass at the northern and southern extremes of distribution on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts appears to tolerate a much broader temperature range than that in the middle of the range. In Alaska, Biebl and McRoy (1971) found that tidepool eelgrass showed increased photosynthesis up to 95° Fahrenheit (35° Celsius) while photo- synthesis in subtidal plants declined above 86° Fahrenheit (30° Celsius). The tidepool plants were also more cold-resistant. 23 Zieman (1975b) reported that photosynthesis in turtle grass sharply declined both above and below 82° and 86° Fahrenheit (28° to 30° Celsius). Thorhaug and Stearns (1972) reported that turtle grass growing at artifi- cially elevated temperatures produced flowers but no fruits. McMillan (1979) found that turtle grass from a wide latitudinal gradient formed an adaptive tolerance to chilling, the broadest tolerance range in the northern Gulf of Mexico and the narrowest in St. Croix. Wood and Zieman (1969) reported that blades of turtle grass formed large necrotic and discolored areas when stressed by high temperature. Persistent thermal stress resulted in the loss of leaves and eventually raised sediment temperatures by heat conduction. Higher sediment temperatures increased the respiration of rhizomes and caused the complete collapse of stressed populations. 4. Salinity. Salinity changes do not appear to be as critical as temperature changes, although seagrasses do have a tolerance range to salinity. The range for eelgrass appears to be 10 to 30 parts per thousand (Phillips, 1972). Phillips (1960) reported a range of 20 to 35 parts per thousand for turtle grass. The range of manatee grass is nar- rower, 20 to 35 parts per thousand (McMahan, 1968). Shoalgrass in the tropics has the widest tolerance range (3.5 to 60 parts per thou- sand). McMillan and Moseley (1967) found that shoalgrass has the greatest resistance to high salinity, turtle grass intermediate, and manatee grass the least resistant. A more restricted range of salinity is recommended for areas designated for transplanting seagrasses than these seagrasses will actual- ly tolerate (cf., Figs. 1, 2, and 3). This restricted salinity range should aid in a faster establishment on a soil type which is possibly different from the source and could ameliorate possible plant-substrate nutrient interactions. So Nutrients. Nutrients in the water column are not a limiting factor for sea- grasses. The major nutrient activity is in the sediment. The reducing environment created in the substrate forms a sink for many heavy metals (Parker, 1962; Parker, Gibbs, and Lawler, 1963; Zieman, 1975a). There is no evidence that these metals affect the seagrasses. Seagrass meadows are extremely important in the cycling of nutrients. Nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and other nutrients are converted into more usable forms for other organisms. These nutrients are absorbed by the plants through the roots and pumped into the water mass. Patriquin and Knowles (1972) found nitrogen fixed in the rhizosphere of eelgrass. McRoy and Barsdate (1970) reported that eelgrass leaves absorb phosphorus, but the major pathway is from the roots to the leaves and into the water column. 24 Seagrasses appear to maintain an active sulfur cycle (Wood, Odum, and Zieman, 1969). An accumulation of detritus leading to anaerobiosis below the sediment surface and an abundance of sulfur bacteria lead to this cycle. The thin, oxidized sediment surface layer promotes sulfate accumulation, but sulfides are produced in the lower layers. Fenchel (1973) found the decomposition of material in the underlying anaerobic sediments slow but favoring the release of mineral nitrogen, phosphorous, and readily assimilable organic constituents. Seagrass detritus is extremely important in nutrient cycling within and across ecosystem boundaries. Detritus from decaying leaves is de- posited in sediments in seagrass meadows, but may be flushed out of the system. Fenchel (1977) reported that microbial decomposition of sea- grass detritus is of prime importance in nutrient release and cycling. Many nutrients are released as plant exudates during plant growth. Bacteria form a film around detritus particles, enriching the particles with nitrogen and phosphous which, in turn, provides enriched nutrients for animal ingestion. 6. Currents and Waves. Churchill, Cok, and Riner (1978) reported that tidal currents as low as 0.82 knot (1.5 kilometers per hour) completely washed out trans- plants of eelgrass sprigs within 3 months in dredged materials in Great South Bay, New York. Plugs of eelgrass were washed away within 2 weeks in currents of 1.3 knots (2.4 kilometers per hour) in Great South Bay. In Puget Sound, Washington, some of the most vigorous eelgrass flourished where tidal currents approached 3.5 knots. Shoalgrass plugs were presumably washed away by 2 weeks of heavy surf with waves 4 to 6 feet (1.2 to l.8 meters) high at Port St. Joe, Florida (Phillips, Vincent, and Huffman, 1978). This occurred after a year of excellent growth of the plants on dredged materials. Thorhaug (1976) reported that heavy wave action and periodic boat wakes adversely affect the establishment and growth of turtle grass seedlings. Eleuterius (1974) found that planting sites with bottom slopes of more than 12° and heavy wave and current action did not favor the establishment of turtle grass, shoalgrass, and manatee grass. He added that submerged transplanting operations were hindered by wind velocities above 8 knots (15 kilometers per hour) and that low tides favored submerged transplanting. In the Mississippi Sound, anchors were required for seagrass sprigs. Waves and currents washed all un- anchored sprigs from control and dredged material sites. All transplants in dredged materials failed because of instability of the bottom. Erosion in the area was severe because of very strong tidal currents. In one 6-month period, 24 inches (61 centimeters) of sand was deposited over the transplants. Eleuterius (1974) reported that sediment deposi- tion rates greater than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) per month exceeded the growth rates of turtle grass and manatee grass, and a deposition rate greater than 2 inches (5 centimeters) per month exceeded the growth rate of shoalgrass. He theorized that initial transplants could not adjust to rapid increases in substrate elevation. He found that few transplants were killed by moderate erosion rates of 2 inches per month or less. ZS) LITERATURE CITED BACKMAN, T.W., and BARILOTTI, D.C., "Irradiance Reduction: Effects on Standing Crops of the Eelgrass Zostera marina in a Coastal Lagoon," Marine Btology, Vol. 34, No. 1, Jan. 1976, pp. 33-40. BIEBL, R., and MCROY, C.P., "Plasmatic Resistance and Rate of Respiration and Photosynthesis of Zostera marina at Different Salinities and Temperatures ,'' Marine Btology, Vol. 8, No. 1, Jan. 1971, pp. 48-56. CHURCHILL, C.A., COK, A.E., and RINER, M.I., "Stabilization of Subtidal Sediments by the Transplantation of the Seagrass Zostera marina," Rept. No. NYSSGP-RS-78-15, New York Sea Grant, Garden City, N.Y., 1978. COTTAM, C., and MUNRO, A.D., "Eelgrass Status and Environmental Relations," Journal of Wildltfe Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, Oct. 1954, pp. 449-460. ELEUTERIUS, L.N., "A Study of Plant Establishment on Spoil Areas in Mississippi Sound and Adjacent Waters,'' Report No. FR-74, U.S. Army Engineer District, Mobile, Ala., Nov. 1974. FENCHEL, T., ''Aspects of the Decomposition of Seagrasses," Internattonal Seagrass Workshop, Review Paper, Office of International Decade of Ocean Exploration, National Science Foundation, Leiden, The Netherlands, Oct. 1973, pp. 1-18. FENCHEL, T., "Aspects of the Decomposition of Seagrasses," Seagrass Ecosystems: A Setenttfte Perspective, C.P. McRoy and C. Helfferich, eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1977, pp. 123-145. FONSECA, M.S., et al., "Transplanting of Eelgrass and Shoalgrass as a Potential Means of Economically Mitigating a Recent Loss of Habitat," (in preparation, 1980). MCMAHAN, C.A., 'Biomass and Salinity Tolerance of Shoalgrass and Manatee Grass in Lower Laguna Madre, Texas," Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 32, No. 3, July 1968, pp. 501-506. MCMILLAN, C., "Morphogeographic Variation under Controlled Conditions in Five Seagrasses: Thalassia testudinum, Halodule wrightit, Syringodium filtforme, Halophtla engelmannt, and Zostera marina,'' Aquatte Botany, Vol. 4, No. 2, Mar. 1978, pp. 169-189. MCMILLAN, C., "Differentiation in Response to Chilling Temperatures among Populations of Three Marine Spermatophytes, Thalassta testudinum, Syringodium filtforme, and Halodule wrightit,"' American Journal of Botany, Vol. 66, No. 7, Aug. 1979, pp. 810-819. MCMILLAN, C., and MOSELEY, T.N., ''Salinity Tolerance of Five Marine Spermatophytes of Redfish Bay, Texas," Ecology, Vol. 48, No. 3, Late Spring 1967, pp. 503-506. 26 MCROY, C.P., and BARSDATE R.J., "Phosphate Absorption in Eelgrass," Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 15, No. 1, Jan. 1970, pp. 6-13. PARKER, P.L., "Zinc in a Texas Bay, ''Publtcatiton of the Institute of Marine Setence of the Universtty of Texas, Vol. 8, 1962, pp. 75-79. PARKER, P.L., GIBBS, A., and LOWLER, R., ''Cobalt, Iron, and Manganese in a Texas Bay," Publtcatton of the Institute of Marine Science of the’ UNCVETELCUNO VE LELAS a VON ao el 965—) Ppl. S540. PATRIQUIN, D.G., and KNOWLES, R., "Nitrogen Fixation in the Rhizosphere of Marine Angiosperms,' Marine Biology, Vol. 16, No. 1, Sept. 1972, pp. 49-58. PHILLIPS, R.C., "Observations on the Ecology and Distribution of the Florida Seagrasses,'' St. Petersburg, Florida State Board of Con- servation Marine Laboratory, Professional Papers Series, No. 2, Oct. 1960. PHILLIPS, R.C., “Ecological Life History of Zostera marina (Eelgrass) in Puget Sound, Washington," unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, Aug. 1972. PHILLIPS, R.C., "Temperate Grass Flats," Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States: A Source Book for Estuarine Planning, H.T. Odum, B.J. Copeland, and E.A. McMahan, eds., Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C., June 1974, pp. 244-299. PHILLIPS, R.C., 'Preliminary Observations on Transplanting and a Pheno- logical Index of Seagrasses,'' Aquatte Botany, Vol. 2, No. 2, June 1976, pp. 93-101. PHILLIPS, R.C., VINCENT, M.K., and HUFFMAN, R.T., "Habitat Development Field Investigations, Port St. Joe Seagrass Demonstration Site, Port St. Joe, Florida,'’ Technical Report D-78-33, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., July 1978. ROBILLIARD, G.A., and PORTER, P.E., "Transplantation of Eelgrass (Zostera marina) in San Diego Bay,'' Undersea Sciences Department, San Diego, Calif., July 1976. THAYER, G.W., WOLFE, D.A., and WILLIAMS, R.B., "The Impact of Man on Seagrass Ecosystems," American Sctenttst, Vol. 63, No. 3, May-June 1975, pp. 288-296. THORHAUG, A., "Transplantation of the Seagrass Thalassia testudinum Konig,” Aquaculture, Vol. 4; No. 2, Oct. 1974, pp. 177-183. THORHAUG, A., "Transplantation Techniques for the Seagrass Thalassta testudinum," Technical Bulletin No. 34, University of Miami Sea Grant, Coral Gables, Florida, June 1976. THORHAUG, A., and AUSTIN, C.B., ''Restoration of Seagrasses with Economic All Analysis," Environmental Conservation, Vol. 3, No. 4, Winter 1976, pp. 259-267. THORHAUG, A., and STEARNS, R.D., "A Preliminary Field and Laboratory Study of Physiological Aspects of Growth and Reproduction of Thalassia testudinun," Amertecan Journal of Botany, Vol. 59, No. 6, Pesce 25 dwuly i972, joo. O/O=O/1l. VAN BREEDVELD, J.F., ''Transplanting of Seagrasses with Emphasis on the Importance of Substrate,"' Florida Marine Research Publications, No. 17, Florida Department of Natural Resources, Marine Research Laboratory, St. Petersburg, Florida, Nov. 1975, pp. 1-26. WOOD; EsJ-E. and ZIEMAN,, JAG. ; the Ettects of Memperature onsEstuaramne Plant Communities,'' Chesapeake Sctence, Vol. 10, Nos. 3-4, Sept. and Dec. 1969, pp. 172-174. WOOD, E.J.F., ODUM, W.E., and ZIEMAN, J.C., ''Influence of Seagrasses on the Productivity of Coastal Lagoons," Memortal Stmposto Internacto Lagunas Costeras, UNAM-UNESCO (28-30 Nov. 1967), 1969, pp. 495-502. ZIEMAN, J.C., "Tropical Seagrass Ecosystems and Pollution," Tropical Marine Pollution, E.J.F. Wood and R.C. Johannes, eds., Elsevier Oceanography Series, No. 12, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1975a, pp. 63-74. ZIEMAN, J.C., ''Seasonal Variation of Turtle Grass, Thalassta testudinum Konig, with Reference to Temperature and Salinity Effects," Aquatic Botany, Vol. 1, No. 2, June 1975b, pp. 107-123. 28 £9 GOO} = OH BIL8sn* €07ZOL “0€00-0-62-ZZMOVE 3OPTRU0D =*19}UeD YO1PeSSYy SupTioeuTsug [TeISeOD *S'N iSeTteg ‘III °7-08 VIED “pre TeoTUYyDeR SuTiosuTsue Tejseo) ‘aque YOTessey BuTAseuTSuq TeqseoD *S*n :SeT1 “9S ‘Il ‘eOTITL ‘I ‘woTIezITTWQeqS “E€ ‘Sesser3eag *Z7Z ‘uOoTSOAG *{ *sqseod “S*f 984} OJ paqSTT eae setToeds yoea 10z Bsn 07 satTn3edoid pue *ZutqueTdsueaq Jo spoyjeu pepuoumose1 ‘suosees 4sSeq sy] *pemMaTAer sem *‘ssei3 yoqTp pue ‘ssei3 sejeuew ‘sseisTeoys ‘ssei3 eT}1in} ‘sseastee But -pn[our ‘sessea3ees SuTquetdsueizq uo 410M Queseiad pue TedTAOISTY sy "gz-9z ‘d : Aydeazo0tTqT¢ “98TITF 19A0p (0€00-9-62 -Z/MOVG £ TeqUeD YOTesSey BuTAseuTSsuq Teqseog *S'm — 39e1R2U0D) (7-08 VLAO : pte TeoTuyoeq BuTiseuTSsue Teqyseoj) — -wo /z £ “TTT : ‘*d gz ‘OB6L ‘e0TAZOS UOTJeEWAOFUT TeoTuYyoe], TeUOTIeN WoOrTF STqeTTeae : “eA *pretzsutadsg £ tequeD YyoARPesey BuTAsveUTSUY TeqISeOD *S'n : “eA SATOATEG 330g — ‘sdIT{TTWd *9 preuoy Aq / SasseiZees A0jF SoUTTeptTns ZuTjueTg ‘Oo preuoy ‘sdtTTTud Le9 Ge} © Oe eBa1gsn’ €0ZOL “0€00-0-62-Z7ZMOVA JOPAIUOD = *TeqUSD Yo1ReSeY Suptiseupsug TeISeoD *S*N :SeTIeS “III ‘72-08 VLAD ‘pre TeoFUYyIe SuTiseuTZue Tejseop ‘*1ej,UaD YOTeesey BuTAseuT3uy Teyseon *S'n :SseTta -2S ‘Il ‘eTIFL ‘I ‘wotqeztTTTqeris *‘¢ ‘sasser8eag *Z ‘uUoTSOIA ‘|[ *sqseod *S' ey TOF pa sTT ere satoads yorea Aoz asn 07 satnsedoad pue *‘gutjueTdsueij Jo spoyjzeu papueumooei1 ‘suoseas 4Seq sy, *pamMaTAer sem *‘ssei3 yoqTp pue ‘ssei3 seqeueu ‘sseisTeoys ‘sse1i3 eT 1in} ‘sseastee But -pnyTout ‘sasseisees SutTjuetdsueizq uo y10M Quesead pue TeodTIoAsTY sy *gz-9c ‘d : AyderSorTqtgE *8TITQ Jaaog (0€00-9-62 =Z/MOVG £ JejUeD YyOTeeSeYy SuTAseuTZuq TeAseoDg *S*n — 320eB19U0D) (7-08 VLG) : PT TeoTuyoe SuyirseuTsue Teqyseop) — ‘wo fz £ ‘TTT : *d gz "O86, ‘e0TAIeG UOTIeWAOJUT TeOTUYOE], TeUOTIEN WOAF SeTGeTTeae : “eA ‘pretysupads {£ tequepg yoreesey BuTAvouTSuyq Teqseop *Ss'n : ‘eA SAPOATEg qiog — *SdtTTTUd ‘0 preuoy Aq / sesseaSees 10jf sauTTeptn3s Zurquetg *O preuoy ‘sdtTTTud GO}, “Ou Baresn” £0701 *0€00-0-6/-ZZMOVE JORAQUOD ‘*1aqUaD YOAeaSaYy SuTrseuTSsUuq TeISeOD *S'N :SeTIeS “III ‘7-08 VLAD “pre TeoTuyoeq SuTiseuTZue TeJseoD ‘1eqUeD Yoieasey BuTAeeuTZuq TeqIseoD *S*p :SaTI -29S ‘Il ‘OTIEL ‘I ‘woTqeztTTqeis ‘¢ ‘sessea8eag +z ‘uoTsoIy “| *sqseod *S*f ay} AIOF peqRSTT eae satoeds yore AoF asn 0} satTnsedoad pue *SuTqueTdsueij Jo spoyjew papueumoser ‘suoseas 4Seq sy, ‘pamaTAet sem *ssei3 yoqTp pue ‘sse1i3 sejeuew ‘ssea3dtTeoys ‘ssei3 oT,A1nq ‘sse1i8tee But -pnjTour ‘sassei3ees ZuTquetdsueij uo y10M Juaseid pue TeoTIOAsTY sUuL *gz-9z ‘d : Aydesrz0tTqTgq ‘8TITI TeA09 (0€00-9-62 =“ZLMOVd § JeqUeD YyoAeesey BuTAseuTsug TejseoDg *S‘n — JOeIRUOD) (7-08 VLAD : pre TeoTuyde, BuTiseutT3ue Teqseoj) — ‘wo /z7 £ “TIT : *d gz ‘O86L SP80TAIeS UOTJeEWIOJUT TeOTUYDeT TBUOCTIEN WOIF STqeTTeaAe : "eA *‘pretysutids { taqueg yoieesey SuTissuTSuq Teqseon *S'n : “eA SATOATOg qaoq — ‘sdtT{Ttud *9 prTeuoy 4q / sassei3eas 1OJ souTTepTn3 B8uTjueTg ‘oO preuoy ‘sdtTTtud é=08) 70u B318cn* £07201 *0€00-0-62-ZLMOVE J9PTIUOD = *TaqUeD Yo1PEsSsy SutiseuTsug [ejseoD *S*n :SeTIeS “III ‘7-08 VLAD “pre TeoTUYyoeR SuTAsdUTZUS TeJseoD ‘*19}USdD YOAReesey BuTAsvseuTSsuq Teqyseog “S'n :saTI -29S ‘Il ‘OTAFL ‘I ‘uoTezTTTqGeIS *¢ ‘Sasseiseeg *Z ‘uoTSOIG ‘| *sqsBOd *S'N BY. 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