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DEVOTBD TO SCIEMTinC AND PUACTICAL AaRIOrTLTOBR-MASOFACTCRBS-MECnANIOS
HBW INVENTIONS— A SOt-Sn PROTBCnVB POLtCT— FARM BinLD'>W9 — «JT-
TiOE DESIGNS-FUCITTRSIS-FLOWKRS — GARDENmO — BEES.
CATTLE, HORSES, • BOGS. SHEEP. POCLTRT. &C.

, .' ' I • •^^^(^^^^^^^^^M;;jS-|^^^^^g:^^5^

IVE W> V O K K:

PUBLISHED BY MYRON FINCH, 9 SPRUCE STREET.

POR THE PROPRIETOR.

ia53.

JOHN A. GRAY,

PRINTER,

05 & 97 Cliff, cor. Frankfort St.

INDEX TO PART I., VOL VI.

lo M From July, 1853, to December^ inclusive.

Ol Is ^P

Africa and the Red Sea, 9.

" New St;:plf9 tiom, 53.
Agriculture, K^\pti:in, 175.

" It.H U-t-fulness Dignity, Ac, 30.

" and Poelry. 17i>

" of Mcnroe County, 272.

Agricultural D. partiuent of thi Great Exhibition,

227 304.
Agriiulturrtl Education, 76, 219.
American i lock.s, 1-J9.

" Institute, N. Y., 224.
Anuljbis, Chemical, 2'ii.

" " ot the Vcpctnble Oyster, 31 1.

Anlniiil<), The proper treatmeiit of certain, 111.
Apple Trees, U ash for. 24-3.
Aliuo.><pheric Gas IJglit, 316.
Bees agniii, Fsediig 51.
Boqueis, Ovent (iirden, 245.
Breeding Caltle 3C7.
Bret'Uii.g j?tock. 146.
Butter, ^'re^erviug, U.S.
Calceolari I. Cu tivatioii of the, 244.
Canada Thistles. 54.

'^ \V.st, A frw days in. 266.
Canadas, Sti' k and Farm Products of the, 371.
Canal^ in In'lia, 7U.

Carey, Henry 0., His now work on Political Econo-
my. 65.
Castor-oil Plant, 2-4.3.
Castration, Bist mi'dc of, V!3.
Ches8 in k\ heat 2*}.
Cheese-mnking, 2ii6.

" •' t-\vi<s mode of, 143.

China nnd Pi>rcel«in, 17:1.
Chir.e.<e Ma(;ic Mirror, 3G9.
Churning Swi-el 'ream, 27.
City i.nd Country, Su.
Clocks", Ameiicau 134.
Colled thf le:ive.s. 277.
Colleire. The P. .lyt. clinic. 117.
Commerce and C immercial cities, 241.
Compass, -elf-r' si>teriiig, 119.
' opper Mines ot Luke Superior, 160.
Corn, Hoeing, 21.
" conies iroin. Where the, 221.
" Topping. .344.
Cotton, ('on>unipiion of 90.

" (irowing, \n K.xperiment in, 274.
" Applic ition of p.ruviau Guano to, 27?.
" laud, Kxlent of, lu2.
" Plant The, 92.
" ir-e. :i27.
Coup de >oleii. 177.
* Cows, Abortion in. 2-3.
Jjijrops ai the -Ku h, 264.
^■i " Exhiiu-ting 143.
^^ « Plonghing in green, 153.
«' R^^talion of, 87.

Curculio, The, 20.

Cultivation of the Tea-plant, 177.

Dahlias, Blue, 10.

Demind for t=eeds, 2S4.

Ditching Machine, Morrill's improved, 23.

Itrought on Plantf, ■\ction of,

Editor's Jottings, 61, 12it, 135. 25n, 319, 37-3,

Education for the l-'armer, 76, 161.

Kngravinu's, Copper-plate, 29.

Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, 180, 225,

2S9.
Exhibition, New- York Horticultural Society's, 52.
Experiments in feetling pigs, 152.

" i-cientilic, I IS.

Fair of the Maryland lustitute, .337.

" " '• " Agricultural Society, 842.

" " " Franklin County (0.) Agricultural So-
ciety, 840.
Fair of the Vermont .Agricultural Society, 270.
Fall ploughing, why beneficial, 276.
Farm fences, :Vi

" house. The, 267.

" work for July, 35.

♦' " " Augu-t, 95.

" " " Sept<-mber, 153.
Farmer, Chamcler and i>osition of the, 90.

'• in public places, The, 329.
Flax Culture in Inili uia, 35.

'• inanufacluie, 26.
Food. Wholesome. 137.
Founder, Cure of, 21.
Free Trade as an experiment, 129, 193.

" '• and Proiectiou, 41.
Fruit Trees, Setting, 347.
Fuchsia 151.

Fuel. Comparative value of diCTercnt kinds of, .346
Furnaces, Atmospheric, reversing draft, 43.
Garden work for September, 150.
Garget, Cure for, 2US.

Gas, Improvement in the Manufacture of, 807.
German Agriculture, 37 i.
Good Counsel, by Fanny Fern, 16.
Gooseberry Culture, 96.
Grape Culture, 22.

History of the Catnwba, 197.
Grapes for Cold-houses, 'i6.
Grass-lands, Ireatment of, 15:t.

" Laying down to 211.

" Seed a'lid- Turnips, 170.
Great Exhibition, The, I, 18", 225, 289,853.
Green Crops Ploughing in, 153.
Guano, Artilicial. 205

" Experiments with, 19.

" Value of, 27.

Heifers, Chapinan'8,>Iinp'irtation of, 218.
Horse, Anatomy of the, 85.

" The, 141.

" How to subdue a vicious, 205.

^ "bO^l

Index.

Hoi-se-Shoe Machine, Patent. 174.

" Show, The National, 246, 333.
Horses, Mnles versus, 153.

" Pedigree of Arabian, 246.
" PridciQg, 246.
" Small and large, 24.
Horticultural, 151, 245.
Imposts, Increa.se of, 84.
In-eets of the Season, 198.
Introrlnction of Domestic Animals into America,

28J.
Iron, with Copper Coating, 114.
Irri^ati n, 79.
Kulniia Latifolia, 151.
Kentucky Farms and Farming, 203.
Labor can do, What Human, 347.

" in procuring Raw Material and in the Arts,

321.
" Dignity of, 81.
Lattiiig Observatory, The, 812.
Locomotive Trial Trip, II.').
Loom, Mendeuhall's Hand, 50.
Lupin, History find Culture of the, 95.
Blunure, Pish 'and Bones for, 83.

" Willard Bromus, 209.
Manures, Hints as to, 214.

" Peat ai.d Muck, 348.

•' Liquid, 216.

"" Management of, 239.

" Table of Q'lantities of, 98.

" Value of, 164.

" Saving ot. 275.

Monument to Mr. Skinner, 365.
Natural Vegetation and Geological Structure, 278.
New Booljs, 190, 319, 254.
New- York as it is, 127, lyO.
New Method of Mod.lling in Plaster, 366, 378.
Notes from the I'ar West, 828.
Painters and. Painting, 3^0.
Palmer Worm, The, 163.
Paper, Manufacture of, 113.
Patents, List; of, 54, 128, 192, 255, 820, 378.
Pears t.t Boston, 851.
Phonography, 7.

Piclure-Gai:ery in the Great Exhibition, 299.
Pigs, Experiments in feeding, 152.
Plank-roads. 176.
Poetry and Agriculture, 170.
Porcelain and I'liina, 173.
Pork as Food, 108.
Potato Plant. 4.i.
" Rot, 349.
Practice, A bad, 351.
Problems, Useful, 140, 369.
Pump Valves, Improvement in. 46.
Putnam's Illustrated Record, 127.
Railways of Russia, 864.
Railroad Operations, 48. 106, 166, 248, 286.
Railroads in the United States, 5.
Railways, Necessities of, 350.
Red Clover at the South, 330.
Roller and its advantages, The, 150.
Root Grafting, 144.
Roses, Budding, 97.
Rotary, Steam-engine, New, 46.
Rules and FormuUe for tue Construction of Ma-

chines and parts of iMacbines, 352.
Russian Industry. 2 .7, 324.
Sandy Soils, Treatment ot, 102.
Sap. Circulation of the, 40.
Scvthe Snaths, Iron, 24.
Sheep, Care of, .332.

Sheep, Washing and Shearing, 17.
Shoe Manufacture, 136.
Short-born Cattle, Points of. 17.
Soil, Guide to quality of, 278.

" Wants of the, io.
Sowing Seeds, 245.

Statuary in the Great Exhibition. 297.
Steam, Condensed history of, 116.
Steamers belonging to New-York, Ocean, 12.
Stenography and Phonography, 7.
Storms, The Science of, l.<7.
Superphosphate of Lime, 2U0.
Sur aces, Liiying out, 53.
Table for planting Corn, Ac., 55.
Telegraph, Atmospheric, 47.

'" Speaking 20.

Tobacco, The product of. 247.
Tunnels of the World, 222. •

Turnips and Grass Seed, 170.
Verbenas, 97.

Wagon, Improved Dumping, 109.
Washing by Steam, 1U5.
Willard Hronms, 209.
Wdlow Basket, 101.
Wisconsin, Notes from, 138.
Wonderful Trees, 99.
Wool-growing at the South. 86.
" " Profits 01, 370.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF MACHINES, &c.
Blasting in Lead-mines, Stickney's Improvement

in, 3C.
Ditching Machine, IN'orrill's Improved, 28.
Furnace, Draft Atmospheric Reversing, 48.
Governor, Tremper's Patent Pneumatic, 363.
Horse-power, Palmer's Improved, 232.
L;itting Observatory. 312.
Plough, Eagle. 7U. 862.
Reaper and Selfraker, Denton's, 808.
Stave-cutler and Jointing Machine, by Charles

Morey, 304 305.
Steam Gamie-Telegraph, Dunn's Patent, 3.J8.
Thresher, Palmer's Improved, 231.

" " Rotary Seed and Grain, 283.

Tobacco Plug-pressing Machine, Parke: 's Patent,

360.
Wagon. Improved Dumping, 109.
Washing-macliiue, India-rubber. .309.

NEW BOOKS NOTICED.
ABC Primer and Song Book, 2."i5.
Bertini's Pi^no Method, (new arrangement,) 190.
t'la'emontTales,or Illustrations of the Beatitudes,

2.55.
Cloud with a Silver Lining, 190.
Ed icator, The, -.'55.
Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology,

254.
Emigrants, The. 191.
Golden Link, 378.
Harper's Mag 'zine, 2.55.
Historic Douht-*, relntive to Napoleon, 191.
Humorous Speaker, The, 2.')5
Illustrated Record of the Industry of all Nations,

127. 255.
Illustrated Magazine of Art, 255.
New Music, 191.
Opera of Noima, 190.
Philosophy of Sir W. Hamilton, 254.
Pregressive Farmer, 2,54.
Pu'.n-im's Magazine, 2.o5.
Star in the hesert, 190.
Manual of Elementary Geology, 264.

r^^

Clje piottgl), tl)e f 0om, anti i\)t Jlnuil.

Part I.— Vol. VI. JULY, 1853. No. 7.

THE GREA.T EXHIBITION.

We hope we shall be able to chronicle in the next number of our journal
the opening of the Great Exhibition, which the public have so long been anti-
■cipating. The building is now drawing rapidly towards completion, and on
the fifteenth of the present month it is expected the doors will be flung open
for the admission of the public. It is a matter of regret that the work could
not have been done earlier, so that all the advantage possible might be taken
of the season. Yet we presume that little if any difference will be noticeable
on account of numbers or of the contributions to the exhibition.

We hail these international Lyceums of Industrial Art and Science — the
grand World-Jubilees of Labor and Invention — as the earnest of a better
spirit than that which moved the ages of old. The race for artistic and
mechanical superiority is one in which the world may safely engage. It will
<;ost no nation its millions of gory and slaughtered victims ; it will impose
upon empires no tax on behalf of tens of thousands of pensioned wrecks of
humanity, or of widows and orphans ; it will create no national debt of
thousands of millions of dollars. The dominion in the empire of the human
mind is better and nobler than the rule over the bodies of men, estimated by
devastated acres and impoverished millions. The subjugation of the wilder-
ness and of sav'age hordes by the arts of peace and the discoveries of science,
by the construction of mighty highv/ays for commerce, and the international
exchange of living, radiant Ideas, is a nobler conquest than the forcible and
oppressive thraldom of the unsubdued although entrammelled races of the
world.

We trust that this second World's Competition, now held on the shores of
'the New World, will be eminently successful in all its details. We regret the
■delay in the construction' of the edifice and the opening of the exhibition, as
it is not in harmony with the characteristics of the American mind — prompt-
ness and success in execution of plans and enterprises. Yet circumstances
may be admitted in justification, and we hail the Art Festival as a significant
and important event in the American chapter of the history of 1853.

From the published statement of the "Association for the Exhibition of the
Industry of all Nations," we select the following facts, not merely for their
own interest to mechanics and Americans generally, but as a fitting introduc-
tion to the records of the exhibition itself, a part of which we expect to furnish
our readers hereafter.

"No edifice entirely of iron yet exists in the United States, and the want
of experience on the part of both architects and engineers presented serious
obstacles. Many ingenious plans were offered. Sir Joseph Paxton, with great

VOL. VI. PART I. 1

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

liberality, furnished one of singular beauty ; but the peculiar shape of the
ground to be occupied rendered it impossible to use it. The late lamented
Mr, Downing — a name dear to this country — offered another of striking
ingenuity, but this was also excluded by the terms of the grant from the city,
which, as has been said, peremptorily required that the building should be
exclusively of iron and glass. Mr. Leopold Eidlitz presented a plan with a
suspension roof, intended to obviate the difficulty of spanning great widths by
arches. Mr. James Bogardus submitted one of a circular building consisting
of successive colonnades placed one over the other, somewhat resembling the
Colosseum at Rome, and involving a new mode of joining for which he has
obtained a patent. Mr. Julius W. Adams presented one of a great octagonal
vault or dome, supported by ribs made of fasces or clusters of gas pipe. Sev-
eral other plans were offered, of great beauty and originality. The task of
selection was difficult and delicate ; the Board, however, after much consulta-
tion, finally determined on one submitted by Messrs. Carstensen and Gilde-
meister. Mr. Gildemeister has been some time established among us, and
is not only an architect, but an artist. Mr. Carstensen is the designer of the
Tivoli and Casino of Copenhagen, the principal public grounds of that city,
and had at this time recently arrived here.

"The plan was adopted on the 26th of August, and no time was lost in
putting the work under way,

"The masonry contracts were signed with Messrs. Smith & Stewart and
Mr. Lorenzo Moses, on the 4th of September, and on the 25th of the same
month the principal part of the iron work was contracted for. By the masonry
contracts, the foundation was to be delivered on the 21st of October, and by
the iron agreements the delivery of castings was to commence at the same
time. In order to secure uniformity, a pattern-shop was established in the
city of New-York, under the charge of Messrs. Shepard & Purvis ; and to
insure dispatch, the first contracts for the delivery of the iron castings were
divided among Messrs. Jackson, Stillman, Allen & Co., Hogg & Delamater,
Buckup & Pugh, and F. S. Claxton, of New- York; Slater & Steel, of Jersey
City ; the Matteawan Company, of Fishkill ; the Messrs. Templins, of Eas-
ton, Pennsylvania; Betts, Pusey, Jones & Seal, of Wilmington, Delaware ;
and Miller & Williamson, of Albany.

" We shall now go into the details of the site and size of the building.
Reservoir Square, on which it is erected, lies at the northern extremity of the
city of New- York, west of the Croton Distiibuting Reservoir, and between
that mighty mass of stone and the Sixth Avenue. The precise distance from
the Reservoir to the Sixth Avenue is 445 feet, and the width, north and
south, from Fortieth to Forty-second street, is 455 feet.

" It will be observed that this piece of ground is nearly square. The shape
is unfavorable for architectural purposes. In other respects no better spot
for the purpose could be found in the city. The Sixth Avenue Railroad runs
directly past it ; the Fourth Avenue Railroad runs near it; and it lies imme-
diately in the vicinity of the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Avenues, the main tho-
roughfares of that part of the city.

" The main features of the building are as follows : It is, with the excep-
tion of the floor, entirely constructed of iron and glass. The general idea of
the edifice is a Greek cross, surmounted by a dome at the intersection. Each
diameter of the cross will be 365 feet 5 inches long. There will be three
s.railar entrances; one on the Sixth Avenue, one on Fortieth, and one on
Fi rty-second street. Each entrance will be 4Y feet wide, and that on the
Sixth Avenue will bo approached by a flight of eight steps ; over each front

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

is a large semicircular fan-light, 41 feet wide and 21 feet high, answering to
the arch of the nave. Each arm of the cross is, on the ground plan, 149
feet broad. This is divided into a central nave and two aisles, one on each
side ; the nave 41 feet wide, each aisle 54 feet wide. The central portion or
nave is carried up to the height of 67 feet, and the semicircular arch by
which it is spanned is 41 feet broad. There are thus in cft'ect two arched
naves crossinor each other at rijiht angles, 41 feet broad, 67 feet hiiih to the
crown of the arch, and 365 feet long; and on each side of these naves is an
aisle 54 feet broad, and 45 feet high. The exterior of the ridgeway of the
nave is 71 feet. Each aisle is covered by a gallery of its own width, and 24
feet from the floor. The central dome is 100 feet in diameter, 68 feet inside
from the floor to the spring of the arch, and 118 feet to the crown; and on
the outside, with the lantern, 149 feet. The exterior angles of the building
are ingeniously filled up with a triangular lean-to 24 feet high, which gives
the ground plan an octagonal shape, each side or fcice being 149 feet wide.
At each angle is an octagonal tower 8 feet in diameter and 75 feet high.

"Ten large and eight winding staircases connect the principal floor with
the gallery, which opens on the three balconies that are situated over the
entrance-hails, and afford ample space for flower decorations, statues, vases,
<fec. The ten principal staircases consist of two flights of steps with two
landing-places to each ; the eight winding staircases are placed in the octa-
gonal towers, which lead also to small balconies on the tops of the towers and
to the roof of the building.

"The building contains on the ground floor 11 1,000 square feet of space, and
in its galleries, which are 54 feet wide, 62,000 square feet more, making a
total area of 173,000 square feet for the purposes of exhibition. There are
thus, on the ground floor, two acres and a half, or exactly 2-jYo \ i" the
galleries, one acre and -,Yu 5 total, within an inconsiderable fraction, four
acres.

" There are on the ground floor 190 octagonal cast iron columns, 21 feet
above the floor, and 8 inches in diameter, cast hollow, of different thicknesses,
from half an inch to one inch. These columns receive the cast iron girders.
These are 26^ feet long and 3 feet high, and serve to sustain the gal-
leries and the wrought iron construction of the roof, as well as to brace the
whole structure in every direction. The girders, as well as the second story
columns, are fastened to the columns in the first story by connecting pieces of
the same octagonal shape as the columns, 3 feet 4 inches high, having proper
flanges and lugs to fasten all pieces together by bolts. The number of lower-
floor girders is 252, besides 12 wrought iron girders of the same height, and
41 feet span over a part of the nave. The second story contains 148 columns
of the same shape as those below, and 17 feet 7 inches high. These receive
another tier of girders, numbering 160, for the support of the roof of the
aisles, each nave being covered by 16 cast iron semicircular arches, each com-
posed of 4 pieces.

"The dome is supported by 24 columns, which go up above the second
story to a height of 62 feet above the floor, and support a combination of
wrought iron arches and girders, on which rests a cast iron bed-plate, so con-
structed as to receive the 32 libs of the dome. The light is communicated
to the dome through the lantern, as well as from the sides, on which 32
escutcheons, in colored glass, representing the arms of the Union and its
several States, or the emblems of the different nations, form a part of the
decoration.

"The quantity of iron to be used for the building, will amount to about

THE GREAT EXHIBITIONe

1,250 tons. The roof will cover an area of 144^000 square feet. The glass
for the building will amount to 39,000 square feet, in 9,027 panes, 16 by 34
or 38 inches,

" On entering this building, the observer's eye will be greeted by the vista
of an arched nave 41 feet wide, 67 feet high, and 365 feet long ; while
on approaching the centre he will find himself under a dome 100 feet across
and 118 feet high.

" It is certain, therefore, that the edifice will be larger and more effective
in its interior view than any thing in the country.

"The general mode of erection by base- pieces, columns, eonnecting-pieces
and girders, is the same with that of the great Hyde Park building. But the
construction of the arched nave and of the dome is of course entirely pecu-
liar, and the general effect of the building is completely different The Lon-
don building was certainly deficient in architectural eft'ect. The form of the
New-York edifice affords the requisite scope for a pleasing variety of embel-
lishment, by which all monotony can be avoided, and allows a very economi-
cal use of the ground. The dome, independent of its effect in the interior
arrangement of the edifice, will give height and majesty to the exterior.

"The following are the objects which the architects appear to have striveis
to combine in their plan :

" 1. The greatest possible area compatible with the ground employed.

" 2. Perfect safety and elegance of construction,

"3. A well-calculated and pleasing admission of light.

" 4. A variety of coup cfceil in the interior.

"This building will compare, in point of size, and it is thought of beauty^
with some of the greatest edifices of the old world ; and until the extension
of the Capitol at Washington is completed, it will be altogether the largest in
this country. It is hoped that it will be a great permanent architectural
ornament to the city."

The sole charge of the interior of the building, its division, arrangements^,
classification and police, has been confided to two officers of the Navy of the
United States, Captains S. F. Dupont and C. H. Davis.

These gentlemen have organized their departments as follows :

J. M. Batchelder, Secretary of the Superintendent.

Samuel Webber, Arrangement of Space and Classification,

Prof. B. Silliinan, Jr., Mineralogy and Chemistry.

B. P. Johnson, Agricultural Implements,

Joseph E. Holmes, Machinery.

Edward Vincent, Textile Fabrics.

Felix Piatti,' Sculpture.

The classification and arrangement of articles presented for exhibition is
such that by the catalogue the visitor will be able to find any department he
may wish to find, and also any article in it.

The machinery will be driven by two powerful and highly finished engines
of 60 horse-power, built by manufacturers of note — the Lawrence Machine
Works, and Nightingale, of Providence, R. I. The boilers are six in number,
40 feet long, 3 feet in diameter, and are in a building on the north side of
Forty-second street, about 260 feet from the engines, to which the steam is
conducted under the street through an 8-inch cast iron pipe.

We shall not occupy our pages with extended remarks upon ih\< interesting
event. The transactions will soon become matters of review, when we may
speak of them as facts suggesting high and important considerations to all
engaged in industrial pm'suits.

RAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES.

RAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES.

On tbe first of January, 1853, 13,227 miles of railroad were completed in
the United States. About 13,000 were iu progress, and about 7 000 more
were under survey. These items make an amount total in course of construc-
tion and actually built, of 33,000 miles. Supposing the average cost to be
^30,000 a mile, this entire cost amounts to 8990,000,000. The amount yet
to be expei.ded, and pi-obably within the next five years, is, in round num-
bei-s, $600,000,000.

It is a question of some interest where this immense payment is to come
from. It is nearly one fifth of the "cash value of all the farms" in the United
States, as estimated iu the last census. It exceeds in amount the " total value
of live-stock,"" and is more than thirteen times the " total expenditures of the
Government' of the United States for the year ending June, 1852.

Some portions of these roads consume a much greater amount of cost than
we have here estin^ated ; and very few fall below it. The expenses of some after
the roads are constructed are almost incredible. The Erie Railroad, with its
necessary furniture, has cost its stockholders, it is officially stated, over
$30,000,000. The road extends 446 miles, and, including switches, side
tracks and double tracks, has 701 miles of rails, and requires 140 locomo-
tives, 131 passenger and baggage-cars, and 1885 freight and burden-cars, with
the addition of a large sum expended for steamboats, car-houses, station-
houses, freight-houses, telegraph line, &c.

But who receives the untold thousands, to earn which, requires the expendi-
ture of these immense amounts ? *'0b, the lich, of course." We beg pardon.
The best roads seldom pay the " rich'"" stockholders — who, by the way, are
often widows and orphans — so much as 8 or 10 per cent, on their investment
The chief part of these millions goes to the support of those who labor by
the montli and by the day. The engineers, firemen and switch-tenders, the
shovel-and-spademen, the woodsawers and porters, and a host of others, all
live on the vital heat imparted by the fiery iron horse. And how many of
this class do you think there are, every one of whom, were i-ailroads annihi-
lated while you read this statement, would scarcely know where to earn the
next dollar, but who are essentially dependent upon their daily labor for the
daily support of themselves and their families ?

There were employed on six of the principal roads in Massachusetts, as
reported to the Legislature, 2,035 men, exclusive of those engaged in their
construction. The length of these roads is 274 miles. Taking this as the
basis of calculation for the roads above referred to, we shall find that when
' constructed they will furnish employment to more than 245,000 men ; that
is, to more than the entire white male population of either Alabama, Con-
necticut, Maryland, New-Jersey, or Michigan, and exceeds that of Arkansas,
Delaware, Florida, Texas, and New-Mexico added together, by more than
40,000. They, with their wives and children, may be said to people the
Eailroad State.

But the construction of these roads gives employment to an immense mul-
titude of men, each one of whom must otherwise be a public pauper, with
his family, if he has one, or a rival in some oth«r trade or calling.

But even this is only the fraction of this account. Who manufactured
these rails s Some of our economists would send abroad for them. We are
for doing this at home. But the rails alone for the roads now contemplated
will cost over $100,000,000. And who gets this immense sum ? The owners
of stock in mines ? They will do well to get from 6 to 10 per cent, on their

MINNESOTA.

/'

investments. See that crowd of miners, and those other hosts of shops^
crews, symbolic, in their appearance, of the workshops of Vulcan, in the glare
of the lurid light of the furnace and forge. Their life is also dependent upon
the success of the Railroad enterprise.

Suppose that gigantic plan which many of us will live to see completed,
the Pacific Railroad, were all in the hands of sub-contractors at once ; would
we have such an army of able-bodied beggars thronging our larger cities as
we now witness ? What an immense host in the various trades and callings
this work would put into operation I how many would find in this project a
permanent and thriving business.

The Railroad interest is not sectional. Like the air we breathe, the more it
is wrought upon, the greater is its tendency to expansion. One city unites
itself with the producer in the far interior, and, presto, its ambitious rival in
the race for wealth adopts the same means "in self-defense," anJ both are
benefited. And the third follows on, and so it goes from ocean to ocean.
Thus these projects are found to-day, in every stage of progress, in the State of
Maine and through New-England and New- York, on and still on, south and
■west and north, till the waters of the lakes in their tempestuous roar answer
§flong these iron pathways to the noise of the waves that dash against the
shores of the St. Lawrence, and the mouth of the Mississippi, as if with a
tongue that can articulate, welcomes the traveller with his merchandise
from the far East and North. We have thus found the promised land — not
the land of rest and indolence, but of respectable and remunerating labor.

There is still another department in this immense interest which must not
be overlooked. We refer to the labor expended in repairs. This, of itself,
is of very great importance. We have before us a statement by the President
of the Erie Railroad, which estimates " the annual self-destruction of motive-
Kower" alone, referring only to their locomotives, at $311,311 16. He also
^ys: "Were all the engines of the first-class dimensions and in full use,
tliis amount would be increased far beyond your highest estimate of
1^1,000."

Having estimated the value of these incidental benefits resulting from the
construction of railroads — benefits which were not even considered by those
who were engaged in securing their construction — we are better prepared to
appreciate their importance as the means of creating and improving the mar-
kets of the whole interior of the continent. This view we have partially
presented in previous numbers of our journal, though the story is scarcely
begun. We should be glad to give a condensed view of these effects, but
must wait for more complete statistics.

MINNESOTA.

The following information is gathered from " The Minnesota Year-Book for
1851." If all our new States would present us their statistics, from time
to time, in a similar form, a mass of information would be collected, in a
course of years, of great value to the future historian:

It appears that general attention was first drawn to this Territory by
accounts published by fur-traders in 1654, and by Jesuits who penetrated
that wilderness " to convert the heathen to their faith," The first mission was
in 1634, on Lake Huron. In 1796, the trading-posts on the Lakes were
surrendered by Great Britain to the United States. In 1805, Fort Snellin^
was purchased by Lieutenant Pike, and since 1819 has been occupied by th"^
United States troops. In 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Unio

STENOGRAPHY AND PHONOGRAPHY.

There were then some 3000 people in Minnesota, and they sent a delegate to
Congress. In 1849, the Territory was organized, and an actual enumeration
of all the inhabitant?!, except Indians, gave a total of 4,680. Of the twenty-
seven counsellors and representatives, nine are from New-England. By pro-
vision of law, every township, if not less than five families, is considered a
school distiict, and a majority may vote a tax for school purposes, to be levied
upon the property of the district, said tax not to exceed 8600 in any one
year.

St. Paul is the capital of the Territory. Its population is 1,294. Number
of families, 257. It is about nine miles from St. Anthony. Among the
industrial occupations enumerated, are five blacksmiths, four bar-keepers, five
cooks, two cigar- makers, two editors, seventy-seven farmers, ten grocere, six
gamblers, four liotel-keepers, seventeen lawyers, three livery stable-keepei-s,
twenty-one mechanics, three ministers, six physicians, one sailor, three school-
teachers, &c., (fee.

Twenty other settlements are described, all of them on the upper Missis-
sippi. " The cash value of farms," by the census, is §193,003. The number
of cows, 534 ; working oxen, 067.

The northern part of Minnesota is covered with forests of heavy pine. The
lumber-trade is very lucrative. During the winter of 1849-50 one team
made $2,000 in the pinery. The average of green lumber at the mill is $12
per thousand. Dry lumber at St. Paul's in 1850 was S30 per thousand feet.
160 acres of land cost from §120 to $100. In St. Paul's, flour is $7 per
barrel ; potatoes, 50 and 75 cents; beef, 8 cents; pork, 10; lard, 14; eggs,
25 ; oats, 50 to 75 ; butter, 25.

STENOGRAPHY AND rHONOGRAPHY.

The meaning of these two terms is substantially the same. The former
is compounded of two Greek words, signifying, the one "close," the other,
"to write." The latter is taken from the same language, the first half of
which signifies "sound," with the same word for a termination, "to write."
The literal tianslation of the two may be, of the first, to write concisely, and
of the second, to write as sounded. Both systems would use characters cor-
responding to the following example :

" The condishun of sum peple is reched enuf," — meaning, obviously, "The
condition of some people is wretched enough." The mode of spelling, there-
fore, is essentially the same in both.

The two systems, however, differ very substantially in the form of the cha-
racters used, and, of course, in the facility with which they are made; and in
this respect the system of Phonography has, in our opinion, a decided advan-
tage over all other kinds of shorthand. Many years ago we devoted con-
siderable time to Byrom's system — we think that was the name, though
even the name is almost passed out of our recollection — and we found it
quite practicable to learn to write it, though it was far more difficult to read
what we had written. But to do either required a long time. We after-
wards met with another system which wo attempted to acquire, and in which
we made some progress, but we soon abandoned the idea of making it prac-
tically useful. In 1846 or 1847 we were brought into contact with a "pro-
fessor" or teacher of Phonography, and obtained the necessary books and
began the study and practice of the art. In a week or so, spending an hour
or two each day, we could read with tolerable ease i\\Q first form of the lan-
guage, and write it, slowly, with tolerable accuracy. We continued to give

8 STENOGRAPHY AND PHONOGRAPHY.

the subject such attention as other avocations would permit, until we had
secured quite a command over the characters, and we had advanced into the
mysteries ot" the third or reporting stjle ; and though there have been several
months together in which we have not given the subject the least attention,
we have never lost our interest in it, but have rather made progress in the art.
But to acquire a facility in writing requires time and thought. As in every
other good thing, patience must be exercised. A boy of twelve years old
will write easily any word he may wish to use after as many hours' study, and
can read, slowly, his own writing or printed books with little trouble. But
to be able to command his pen or pencil so as to follow a speaker, is a work
of months of constant and laborious effort. The ability to write as rapidly
as we can wilh the common English alphabet will ordinarily require only the
practice of some thirty or forty hours; often much less than this will suffice. A
good memory is of advantage in this art, though not essential. We have
known persons begin this study and abandon it in despair.

Phonography is written in three forms: the long hand, the corresponding
style, and the reporting style. In the first, every consonant which is sounded
is written, and the vowels are inserted. But every consonant is made by a
single mark. In the second form, part of the vowels are omitted, and about
a hundred words of frequent occurrence are represented by the characters
representing single letters. Other characters also represent the more common
prefixes and suffixes; as de, in, com, inter, &c., and ly, tion,&c. In the third
form the vowels are chiefly omitted,' the number of characters I'epresenting
words are increased two or three-fold, and various other contractions are
used.

To gratify not only the curiosity but the rational desire of some whose eye
may fall on these pages, we will point out, by a few examples, the manner m
which the wonderful conciseness of this mode of writing is secured, and the
chief sources of difficulty which the pupil must encounter.

1. Every consonant sound, whether single or double, is made by a single
character. Thus I , \, ,-^, ^, stand for the consonant sounds of d, b, m,
and n.

The characters \ and ^ stand for p and n, and when united form the
words pan, pen, pin or pun, without the addition of a vowel, or any vowel
may be inserted at the option of the writer.

Again, I stands for t ; but with a hook on one side ( f ) it stands for tl, and
On the other ( 1 ) tr ; if a circle on the right side is substituted, we get an s
instead of ], for t is st ; but if the circle were on the left side, we should get
str. \ 1 united, pt, may express pat, pet, &c., as the sense may require, or
any vowel may be written before, between, or after them, making apt, pat, pit,
put, pot, pate, peat, or pout, or, by using two vowel dots, patty, petty, pity or
putty. The connection would readily show which word was intended. But
the vowels, if inserted, would show the word at a glance.

The vowels are mere dots or some other simple form that can be written
at a dash of the pen, and their sound is determined by their position. In some
few of the following examples they are written. Thus a small dot bofore the
top of the t makes the Avord it ; before the middle of the t, et or ate ; and before
the bottom of it, at. The vowel sounds wa, we, wi, &c., and ya, ye, &c., are
expressed by a very small curve. Thus 1 is wit, and if at the middle of the
f, it would become wait or wet.

These vowels are often omitted without any inconvenience. Thus, ths pn
s bnt may readily be recognized as this pin is bent. So, a gd mmr s imprtnt.

AFRICA LEVEL OF THE RED SEA.

with very little practice would instantly be rendered, a good memory is im-
portant.

3. No silent letters are ever written. Instead of the troubled stream of
time, we should write, the trubld strem of tlm.

4. Words of very frequent occurrence are expressed by the simplest cha-
racters.

Terminating syllables and prefixes are represented by a single movement
of the pen: thus, 'v stands for f. But with a curve turned from the bottom,
which curve means tion or sion, thus Vo-, we have fashion ; again, if made
heavy it becomes v, and this, with the turn Vo, becomes v-sion, or vision ; or
an s mny be added at the end, as \s ; and again, con, com, &c., as prefixes,
are written by a dot above the next syllable of the word. Hence, while the
last character stands for passions, a small dot before or above it renders it
com-passions.

Writing a letter only half length adds t or d to it. Thus, if p is written
but half its proper length, it expresses pt, and/ standing alone expresses the
word if but when of half-length only, it expresses /« or if it. The d stands
for the verb do, but wlien of half-length, it is did. The n is the word-sign
for no or know, but if of half-length, it expresses not.

Lastly, these simple marks stand for entire words. Thus ' ' ^ / stand
for of, on, but, who. The letter (g) ~ above the line stands for give and
given; on the line, for together; made half the ordinary length, the former
becomes God, and the latter good. These toord-signs amount to three or
four hundred in number. These characters may also be grouped, and by a
little experience the eye recognizes them at once, and you read a whole phrase
at a single glance of the eve. Each movement represents an entire word.
Thus the following are examples. .

{, which it-would-not; ^ with-which it-is-not ; L it-is-not; ^^ I-have-
not-had.

We give these examples only as samples of the modes adopted by this sys-
tem. O hM- forms of contraction are used, quite as important as either of these,
while all combined form an admirable system of short-hand which, as the
result of careful study, is scarcely equalled by the original invention of any
one mind. This was no accident, but the result of a careful and critical analy-
sis of the sounds of the language, and is applicable alike to all languages.

Phonograj hy has been introduced into many of the common-schools, and
has been Ibund a very profitable exercise. We understand that Mr. Webster
purposes to commence instruction in this city the coming autumn. He is
abundantly competent, and we wish him success.

AFRICA— LEVEL OF THE RED SEA.

We find by a series of levellings recently carried across the Isthmus of
Suez, that instead of there being a difference of thirty feet between the level
of the Red Sea and that of the Mediterranean, as has so long been believed,
there is in reality little or none : an interesting fact, which will be still further
verified during the progress of the railway works to be set on foot in that
locality under the superintendence of Mr. R. Stephenson. How the past and
present will be brought together by having light thrown on ancient geography
by modern enterprise ! Besides this, an attempt is being made to solve another
important problem in the Valley of the Nile. Lepsius has stated in his great

10 THE WANTS OF THE SOIL AND OF FARMERS.

work on Egypt, that this river formerly flowed at a much higher level than now,
having in the course of ages worn away its bed to a depth of twenty-seven feet ;
and this statement being disputed, a deep pit or well is to be sunk at Heliopolis,
with a view to examine the strata and deposits through which it flows, and there-
by determine if any and what change has taken place. The work for this pur-
pose is under the direction of Mr. Leonard Ilorner, who defrays the cost with
a poilion of the annual grant placed by Government at the disposal of the
Royal Society, which has lately received a consignment of cases filled with
specimens of the earth taken from the excavation. Meanwhile it appears
that, like Sweden, the Arabian Gulf region and Abyssinia are undergoing
slow and gradual upheaval. In addition to these researches, active explora-
tions are going on in the north, east, west, and south of Africa, and more
than one treaty of commerce has been signed between England and the petty
monarchs of the interior. The Rev. Mr. Livingston announces the existence of
another large lake, 200 miles north-west of that now known as Lake Ngami ;
the great Lake Tchad is being navigated by European boats ; and efforts are
being made to reach those mysterious mountains in which the Nile is sup-
posed to rise, for, as Captain Smyth observes, " no European traveller, from
Bruce downwards, has yet seen its true source." — Chambers' Journal.

THE WANTS OF THE SOIL—AND OF FARMERS.

The Genessee Farmer publishes a short article with the first part of the
title above given, which contains some very curious statements. It cites a
memorial to Congress on the subject of a National Normal School of Agri-
culture, written by the editor referred to, which he seems to regard as of
immense importance. If true, these statements certainly are important, and
demand immediate attention.

We first give the article, and then our own comments.

"At present, not far from three fourths of the entire labor and capital of
the United States are employed, either directly or indirectly, in the great
work of robbing the soil of the few things that God hath placed in it for the
support of vegetable and animal life, without making or pretending to make
any adequate restitution. All tillage is a most unnatural operation, and the
matter removed in crops by no means indicates the whole of the loss of
the elements of fertility that arated fields sustain. An intelligent wheat-
grower in Wisconsin writes to the agricultural department of the Patent
Office, that lands which have been cultivated twelve years in that new
State, now yield but half the annual harvests that they did when first tilled
and seeded. An extensive corn-grower in Indiana informs your memorialist,
that the rich river bottoms of that State now yield seventy bushels per acre.
Maize being by far the most important crop grown in this country, much
pains have been taken to learn the commercial value of the raw material
necessarily consumed to form a bushel of grain ; of which over six hundred
million bushels are annually extracted from American soil.

"A gentleman in Connecticut writes, that his farm, of some two hundred
and fifty acres, has been cultivated two centuries, and consequently has
reached what may be regarded as the normal condition of long-tilled earth.
He finds it necessary to apply ten cords of compost manure to an acre, to
raise forty bushels. The manure costs him a dollar a cord, and twenty-five
cents per bushel of his crop. A corn-grower in Virginia has tried many
experiments with guano, and findi that one hundred pounds, which cost two
dollars and fifty cents, will generally add ten bushels to his harvest. The

THE WANTS OF THE SOIL AND OF FARMERS 11

manure, like that used in Connecticut, costs a quarter of a dollar for enough
to produce a bushel of corn. Many letters from practical men of close
observation and large experience have been received at the agricultural
department of the Patent Office, going to show that if one draws not upon
the natural fertility of land to form his corn plants, the raw material to
make a bushel of corn can rarely be obtained for a less sum than twenty-6va
cents. There is collateral evidence worth naming, that corroborates this esti-
mate. Long experience in France and Belgium establishes the fact that the
excreta from an adult person are worth five dollars a year for agricultural
purposes. The night-soil obtained from the human species is equal to the
production of twenty bushels of corn to each inhabitant ; and for the obvious
reason, that no animal has the power to annihilate a single atom consunaed
in its daily food, nor to create one, if needed to prevent starvation. Field
laborers at the South consume about thirteen bushels of corn meal, and as
much bacon as from ten to thirteen bushels of corn will make, as the yearly
allowance to each. Children consume less, but often waste more than adults.
Taking our entire population of 25,000,000 at this time into account, and
each consumes, in one form and another, fertilizing atoms drawn from the
bosom of the earth, equal to those contained in twenty bushels of maize ;
showing an aggregate annual consumption of 500,000,000 bushels, which
the soil loses as effectually as it would if that amount of grain were cast into
the sea every year."

The subject is two-fold. The first relates to the "unnatural operation" of
" tillage." When the word unnatural is used as in this connection, we sup-
pose it must be defined as something essentially opposed to nature. But we
hav^ supposed that crops were natural productions ; not something contrary
to nature. Again, we have supposed that the original object of the physical
creation was to afford a residence for its future inhabitants, and to furnish
them with food and other products, calculated to promote the comfort of the
living beings which should dwell upon it. Was Adam placed in the garden
for an unnatural purpose? To us the idea is only ludicrous.

But is tillage in any sense " unnatural ?" We can attach no possible
meaning to the ])hraso which would make it the expression of truth. The
whole science of farming is professedly in accordance with the laws of
nature. In no other way can crops be raised. If there is any sense in
which the phrase we criticise is admissible, it can only be when applied to
the forchvj system resorted to, not by farmers, but b)' a few horticulturists ;
who, by a concentration of nature's energies, light, heat, and gaseous ele-
ments, secure a more ra]>id growth than, when left to herself, dame Nature is
accustomed to exhibit. But our brother editor is speaking of tillage in gen-
eral ; and to prove it, apparently, he cites numerous instances in which the
amount of crops has es^ntially diminished. Now we should say that this was
for the want of tillage. It is because nature is left to her own resources in
producing our crops. The harvesting of crops may be called unnatural in
some sense ; for nature, if left to herself, would work up her previous pro-
ducts into new growths. But we abstract them from her for our own benefit,
and fail essentially to replace them ; that is, if we neglect " tillage^'' we rob
her of the means of continuing her own accustomed processes ; processes
without which her nature — that is, herself—must change from being fertile
to a barren waste. Tillage alone enables nature to remain herself, while we
appropriate her annual growths to our own use. But we take the o|)portu-
nity offered by this short extract, to say that we have no confidence whatever
in the Doctor's prescription as a remedy for the evil, by whatever name it is

12 NEW-YORK OCEAN STEAMERS.

called. Want of cultivation, neglect of tillage, an attempt to obtain from
nature what she cannot give, good crops without suitable cultivation — this is
the great, the almost universal mistake of our farmers. They must cultivate
the soil, or nature itself will become as inefficient as they are.

But why do f hey not cultivate ? We answer, that, as a general thing, it
is not bee iuse they are not satisfied that cultivation would secure better crops.
There is not a farmer living in civilized communities that does not believe
that increasing the supply of suitable manure would increase his crops. But
where is he to obtain his supply? He keeps all the cattle he thinks he can
afford to keep; he uses all the manure he can collect; and still he earnestly
desires more, much more. But he " can't afford " to buy. He " can't afford "
to buy and compound artificial ingredients that furnish a very good substitute
for barnyard (vegetable) manure. So he thinks ; and though he is proba-
bly mistaken, he is nevertheless obliged to act according to his own convictions.
The first thing to be done, in our view, is to correct this opinion, and satisfy
him that " tillage " is not only not " unnatural," but absolutely indispensable ;
that without it, no man eventually can afford to plant his seed. The crops will
not pay the cost of obtaining them. Now, how will the Doctor's prescription,
"a National Normal School" of agriculture, correct his opinions on this sub-
ject? He can't attend that school ; nor can he send his son there. Those
only who till and cultivate in a high degree can afford to send to such an
institution. "But they will publish their very successful experiments, and
thus produce conviction." And will they publish "gratis?" Oh no. He must
take "the national agricultural organ of the National Normal School;" and
pay for it, too ; and pay in advance. But will that paper be any better than
some that are now published ? We have them now regularly issued by the
would-be editors of that N'ational Farmer, We doubt very much whether
we should get any better.

Besides, this idea of " all the wisdom" in any one journal, in any one depart-
ment of science, is suited only for a one-man government, and the said editor
would be very apt to transform himself into a one-idea man. Some of us
are quite assuming enough now.

Disseminate — disseminate — this is our idea. Let every State paper, every
country paper, every village sheet which is published, every school, every
academy and every college teach the reverse of the doctrine we have been
criticising, and proclaim that the command of nature is, Cultivate — cultivate —
cuLTivATK — and we shall by and by discover that reform is already secured,
and that we are following the law that God established in every department
of the natural world, namely, that to furnish the best possible materials in
the best possible condition is the only way in which we may confidently anti-
cipate the best possible results.

OCEA.N STEAMERS BELONGING TO THE PORT OF NEW- YORK.

A LATE number of the Journal of Commerce contains an article from
which we gather the followino: facts. The several lines of Ocean Steamers
consist of the number of ships and of the tonnage given below :

AGGRBOA.TE

TONNAGE.

Cunard Line, 9 - 10,000

New York and Liverpool and United States

Mail Steamers, (Collins's,) ... 6 - 13,000

Ocean Steam Navigation Company, ... 2 - 3,300

3
1

17
13

4,400

1,962

21,912

13,000

10
10

19,600
18,000

4
3

7,400
6,800

AN AMERICAN SCHOOL OF MINES. 10

New- York & Havre Steam Navigation Corapauj,

Glasgow and New York Steamship Company,

New- York and Southern Cities, - - -

Pacific Mail Steamship Company, - . .

United States Mail Steamship Company, (Atlantic
side,)

Vandt-rbilt's Line, via Nicaragua, ...

New- York and San Francisco Steamship Com-
pany, -

Empire City Line, .--...

Total number of ships, - - - 69 - 119,374

Where there is surplus production, there will be commerce. Com-
merce follows industry, and never leads it. Profitable industry, actually in
operation, or the confident belief in it, alone can open the channels of the
seas.

FOR TUB PLOrOH, THE LOOM, AND THH ANVIL.

AN AMERICAN SCHOOL OF MINES.

Messrs. Editors: — The mining interests of this country are worthy of
the special attention of all who are attracted towards the consideration of "our
productive industry. A vast territory, so rich in its mineral treasures as is
ours, cannot safely neglect so important a branch of its internal resources as
that offered by its stores of metals, and it is a promising sign that so much
attention is of late given to these great interests. Among these, we are re-
minded of the vast repositories of valuable ores in Sussex county, New-
Jersey, where the celebrated red oxide of zinc and Franklinite occur in
mountainous profusion. Until a few years ago, these ores were thouo-ht to
be almost too impracticable to be reduced, and for a long time they were
entirely neglected. But a new spirit was infused into the mining affairs of
the country, and it reached the Sussex hills, and the zinc paint, beautiful and
economical, is now abundantly produced. The Franklinite is undergoino"
careful and extensive examination and experiment, and we have little doubt
it will be found to furnish a strong and valuable iron for the market. It is
pronounced superior for axles and similar purposes, and we believe that this
long-neglected ore will soon become an article of general demand in the
manufacture of choice machinery. But it requires, beyond doubt, all that
scientific and practical knowledge can do, to give it its true value. This is only
one of the numerous indications of the growing interest in mining- enter-
prises.

The constant development of the vast mineral resources of this country is
one of the most prominent results of the progress of population westward
and northward, and points in the future to sources of national wealth and
independence of which we can now form but a moderate estimate. A few
years since, when the tradition of the Copper Rock of Lake Superior was
almost all that was actually known of the immense quantity of that metal in
a pure state which was treasured up with the various ores and oxides on the
Ontonagon and the lake shores, no one could have dreamed of the vast
masses which a short time was to expose to view, or of the future yield of
ordinary, not to say of scientific mining.

A few leagues distant to the south and west of the copper region, the
great depositories of lead in Illinois, Iowa, and the region of the Mississippi,

14 AN AMERICAN SCHOOL OF MINES.

have for many years measurably rewarded the labors of capitalists and
miners who have chosen to make their investments in that field. Unques-
tionably but a portion of these treasures has been discovered, as the recent
penetration of several extensive caves, said to contain immense quantities of
lead, and much of it highly argentiferous, seems to prove.

The gold mines of the Southern States, more particularly the placers of
California, are a clear evidence that a more economical and scientific system
of mining is indispensable to the full development of the auriferous wealth
of our country. As soon as the placers and stream-beds of California shall
have been overrun, wastefully as they have been and will be, until exhausted,
the gold of that rich region will be sought, as it is now beginning to be, in
situ^ in the veins of the mountains, and in the massive rock, whence the
golden sediment has been washed by the storms and floods and erosions of
thousands of years. Scientific raining in California would have added
probably thirty per cent., if not more, to the yield which has been hastily
snatched from its various localities.

But in addition to these, the extended area of the interior continent, from
a short distance west of the Mississippi to the borders of the Pacific, is yet
to be explored. In this portion of the country explorers are no doubt des-
tined to uncover silver, lead, copper, iron, and gold, while tin, quicksilver, and
blende may yet be found in quantities which shall afford the richest remu-
neration. The Great Basin, Utah, New-Mexico, Oregon, California, Mis-
souri Territory, and the western parts of Missouri, are fields in which coal,
not less than the metals, may be found in almost exhaustless quantities.

Yet it is not to the precarious and adventitious products of the gold and
silver mines that we look for the true mineral wealth of the country. An
accessible deposit of iron ore, of the right per centage to make it yield an
iron of good quality, with the natural facilities of fuel, water-power, &c., &c..
would be a greater treasure to each State than a gold mine.

But the metals are not alone the field for the scientific and practical
man. The unlimited coal regions of our country, extending from the heart
of Pennsylvania southward and westward, and covering so much of the
Valley of the Mississippi, with the wide fields beyond, open a domain in
which enterprise and capital are yet to find a rich reward.

Many and disastrous have been the undertakings in which a want of
scientific and practical knowledge has brought only disappointment and
ruin to the adventurers. Professor (now Sir Charles) Lyell, in his lectures
at the Broadway Tabernacle, when in New- York, during his first visit, in
speaking of the benefit resulting from our State geological surveys, made
the following remarks, which cover our whole ground :

" I have been favored with a map, illustrating these points, by Prof Hall,
one of the State geologists engaged in surveying this State, whose labors
will soon be made public. And here I cannot avoid saying, that I have been
over much of the ground which they have surveyed, and it gives me great
pleasure to bear testimony to the accuracy of their labors, to the great pains
they have taken, and the science with which they have conducted the survey.
I look forward to the appearance of their work, embracing the results of
their labors, as an era in the advancement of science; and the patronage
which has been afforded by the different States of the Union to these sur-
veys is much greater, in proportion to the population, than any European
power has ever extended to the advancement of geological science. "When
we remember, too, the complaints that may be heard in different parts of the
State, that the geologists have failed to discover any mineral wealth, even in

AN AMERICAN SCHOOL OF MINES. 15

an economical point of view, these scientific researches are of high value,
though their fji-eatest interest arises from the promotion of the knowledge of
the structure of the globe.

" But merely in estimating the mischief they have prevented, we shall see
an ample remuneration for all the expense attending the survey. I have
been told that in this State alone more than a million of dollars have been
expended since the Revolutionary War in boring for coal in formations where
it is impossible to find any — below the carboniferous strata. I should not, to
be sure, have ventured to generalize from Europe as a type, and say that the
rocks in the crust of the earth occupy the same relative position here, and
that coal would be found always in this country under the same conditions as
in Europe. But when for twenty years or more we find coal accompanied by
the same plants, and that no valuable fuel has ever been found under any
other circumstances, we should be safe in saying that none could be found in
the older strata. If we begin in the newer beds, we may come down to the
coal, and find enough coal to pay the expense of boring for it. But if we
begin in the strata beneath the carboniferous, we should never reach the coal
until we had bored through the whole earth : we might find it at the anti-
podes, but not before.

" Thus complaints are made against these geologists, not only that they have
found no coal, but that they have passed sentence of sterility upon the State,
for they say that through all time no coal shall be found within its borders.
And when" we reflect on the enormous sums that have been wasted upon
strata more ancient than the coal, in searching fur coal, we shall see the great
saving made in consequence of this survey ; for when all its maps and sfc-
tions are published, it will be seen how impossible it is to find coal in those
more ancient beds. This is a kind of advantage vjhich is never easily ap-
preciated ; because, to prevent mischief is never so clear and palpable a
benefit to the multitude as to find mineral wealth. But one of the greatest
advantages which have resulted from these surveys in England — and it will be
among the greatest here — is the prevention of this rash and absurd speculation
to find coalin strata below that in which those plants known to be essential
to the formation of coal are found to exist : and after examining the whole
ancient strata, both in the United States and in Europe, there has never been
found a single bed of coal where these plants do not exist."

Such being the results of scientific discovery and long experience, it is
obvious that the services of men who have given tae subject their careful at-
tention and laborious study must be of prime importance. The best miners
may sometimes be mistaken, and the results far other than flattering, yet
the general rule of economy and policy would be to employ competent men
as engineers in mines.

The mineral wealth of the country being of so much importance, and the
wants of the rapidly increasing population becoming so much grea:er every
year, the value of a large body of scientific and thorough miners becomes
more and more apparent. Yet we believe there is no institution in this
country which pays any thing more than an incidental attention to this de-
partment of practical science and engineering. We think the time has come
when a school for the formation of scientific miners, embracing in its instruc-
tions the whole field of Mathematics, Engineering, Geology, Chemistry,
Mineralogy, and Natural Philosophy, could be abundantly sustained. The
whole course of teaching should be adapted to the education of young mep
to act as miners, with scientific and practical knowledge sufficient to antici-

16 GOOD COUNSEL BY FANNY FERN.

pate and prevent those frequent Utopian enterprises that often absorb splendid
fortunes, as well as ruin men of only moderate means.

We invite the attention of the public to this suggestion. Whether the
remodelling of some institution already established, or the founding of a new
school, be resolved upon, we are convinced that an American School of
Mining is needed, and will yet render signal service to the great industrial
interests of the republic.

GOOD COUNSEL BY FANNY FERN.

We have not a very great regard for much of the productions of the Tri-
phenas and Sophronias and Jerushas who adorn the pages of so many weekly
sheets, but the following " Chapter for Nice Old Farmers," by Fanny Fern,
in the Olive Branch, is too good to be unnoticed, and we give it a place in
our pages :

Can any body tell why country people so universally and pertinaciously
persist in living in the rear of the house ? Can any body tell why the front
door and windows are never opened, save on the Fourth of July and at
Thankso-ivino- time ? Why Zedekiab, and Timothy, and Jonathan, and the
old farmer himself, must go round the house in order to get into it ? Why
the whole family (oblivious of six empty rooms) take their " vapor bath" and
their meals, simultaneously, iu the vicinity of a red-hot cooking-range in the
dog-days ? Why the village artist need paint the roof, and spout, and window-
frames brio-ht crimson, and the doors the color of a mermaid's tresses ? Why
the detestable sunflower (which I can never forgive " Tom Moore" for notic-
ing) must always flaunt in the garden? Why the ungraceful, prim poplar,
fit emblem of a stiff old bachelor, is preferred to the swaying elm, or droop-
ino- willow, or majestic horse-chestnut ?

°I should like to pull down the green paper window-curtains and hang up
some of snowy muslin. I should like to throw wide open the hall door, and
let the south wind play through. I should like to go out in the Avoods, and
collect fresh, sweet wild-flowers to arrange in a vase, in place of those defunct
dried grasses, and old maid "everlastings." I should like to show Zedekiah
how to nail together some bits of board for an embryo lounge ; I should like
to stuff" it with cotton and cover it with a neat " patch." I should like to
cushion the chairs after the same fashion. Then I should like, when the
white haired old farmer ca.ne panting up the road at twelve o'clock, with his
scythe hanging over his arm, to usher him into that cool, comfortable room,
set his bowl of bread and milk before him, and after he had discussed it, coax
him (instead of tilting back on the hind-legs of a hard chair) to take a ten-
minutes' nap on ray "model" sofa, while I kept my eye on the clouds to see
that no thunder shower played the mischief with his hay.

I should like to place a few common-sense, practical books on the table,
with some of our fine daily and weekly papers. You may smile ; but these
inducements, and the comfortable and pleasant air of the apartment, would
bring the fVimily oftener together after the day's toil ; by degrees they would
Hft ttie covers of the books, and turn over the newspapers. Constant inter-
change of thought, feeling and opinion, with discussions of the important and
engrossing questions of the day, would of course necessarily follow.

The village tavern-keeper would probably frown upon it; but I will venture
to predict for the inmates of the farm-house a growing love for home, and an
added air of intelligence and refinement, of which they themselves might
possibly be unconscious.

POINTS OF CATTLE. 17

FOR THE PLOUGH, THB LOOM, AND THE AMVIL.

WASHING SHEEP— MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP AT SHEARING.

Messrs. Editors: — The old practice of washing sheep, or, as may be
properly said, besmearing them with a decoction of tobacco, should be aban-
doned, although it may be a sure exterminator of the vermin. I have
known the poor animal entirely prostrated by the intoxicating effects of the
tobacco wash, and have heard of its causing instant death : at any rate, it
cannot be agreeable to the animal, and can produce no good effect but to
destroy the vermin, while a wash of strong salt brine is quite as efficient ixx
doing this as the above-named decoction, and is productive of many good
results besides. When the sheep are sheared, take a stiff brush dipped in
the solution, and rub them all over with the saturated brush, which will pro-
duce a white lather or foam. This stimulates the skin to redness, and prevents
the animal from taking cold ; it loosens the scurf, and promotes the future
growth of the wool, and also improves its quality, I have known this recipe
to be used for several years with excellent effect. Yours,

Ariel Hdnton,

POINTS OF CATTLR

The New-York State Agricultural Society has taken the matter of uniform-
ity of points in cattle in hand. A scale for four breeds — Short Horns,
Devons, Ilerefords and Ayrshiros, by Francis Rotch, Esq., a gentleman ade-
quate to the task, is already published. We give below from the Boston
Cultivator the points of the Short Horn.

SHORT-HORNS — THE COW.

Pedigree. Showing unbroken descent, on both sides, from known animals,
as found in the English Herd-Book; 40.

The Head. Small, lean and bony, tapering to the muzzle ; the face some-
what long ; 2.

The Nose. Of a light delicate color; 1.

The Eye is of great significance, and should be prominent, bright, and
clear; "prominent" from an accumulation of "adeps" in the back part of
its socket, which indicates a tendency to lay on fat ; " bright," as an evidence
of a good disposition; "clear," as a guaranty of the animal's health;
whereas a dull, sluggish eye belongs to a slow feeder, and a wild, restless eye
betrays an unquiet, fitful temper; 2.

The Horns. Light in substance and in color, and symmetrically set on
the head ; the ear somewhat large, thin, and with considerable action ; 1.

The Neck. Rather short than long, tapering to the head ; clean in the
throat and full at its base, thus covering and filling out the points of the
shoulders; 2.

The Chest. Broad from point to point of the shoulders ; deep from the
anterior dorsal vertebras to the floor of the sternum, and both round and full
just back of the elbows ; sometimes designated by the phrase, " thick through
the heart." These are unquestionably the most important points in every
animal, as constitution must depend on their 'perfect development, and the
ample room thus afforded for the free action of the heart and lungs ; 8.

The Brisket, however deep and projecting, must not be confounded with
capacity of chest ; for though a very attractive and selling point, it in reality
adds nothing to the space within, however it may increase the girth without.

VOL. VI. — PART I. 2

POINTS OF CATTLE.

It is, in fact, nothing more nor less than a muscular adipose substance, attacheiJ
to the anterior portion of the sternum, or breast-bone, and thence extending^
itself back. This form, however, of the brisket, indicates a disposition to lay
on fat generally throughout the frame, and in this point of view is valuable ; 4,

The Shoulder, where weight, as in the short horn, is the object, should
be somewhat upright and of good width at the points, with the blade-bone
just sufficiently curved to blend its upper portion smoothly with the crops ; 3.

The Crops must be full and level with the shoulder and back ; and is
^perhaps, one of the most difficult points to breed right in the short-horn; 4.

The Back, Legs, and Hips should be broad and wide, forming a straight
and even line from the neck to the setting on of the tail ; the hips or bucks-
round and well covered ; S.

The Rumps laid up high, with plenty of flesh on their extremities ; 3.

The Pelvis should be large, indicated by the width of the lips and the
breadth of the twist ; 2.

Tlie Twist should be so well filled out in its "stem" as to form nearly
an even and wide plane between the thighs; 1.

The Quarters, long, straight, and well developed downwards ; 3.

The Carcass, round; the ribs nearly circular, and extending well back; 4.

The Flanks, deep, wide, and full in proportion to condition ; 1,

The Leg, short, straight, and standing square with the body ; 2.

The Plates of the belly strong, and thus preserving nearly a straight line ; 1 .

The Tail, flat and broad in its root, but fine in its cord, and placed high
ap and on a level with the rump ; 2.

The Carriage of an animal gives style and beauty ; the walk should be
square and the step quick ; the head up ; 1.

Quality. On this the thriftiness, the feeding properties, and the value of
the animal depends, and upon the touch of this quality rests, in a good
measure, the grazier's and butcher's judgment. If the " touch " be good,
some deficiency in the form may be excused ; but if it be hard and stiff,,
nothing can compensate for so unpromising a feature. In raising the skin
from the body between the thumb and finger, it should have a soft, flexible
and substantial feel, and when beneath the outstretched hand,it should move
easily with it, and under it, as though resting on a soft, elastic, cellular sub-
stance ; which, however, becomes firmer as the animal " ripens." A thin, papery
skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate ; 8.

The Hair should be thick, short and mossy in water; fine, soft and glossy
in summer; 1.

The Udder, pliable and thin in its texture, reaching well forward, roomy
behind, and the teats standing wide apart, and of convenient size ; 1.

POINTS OF THE SHORT-HORN BULL.

As regards the male animal, I have only to remark, that the points desir-
able in the female are generally so in the male, but must, of course, be attend-
ed by that masculine character which is inseparable from a strong, vigorous
constitution. Even a certain degree of coarseness is admissible, but then it
must be so exclusively of a masculine description as never to be discovered in
the females of his get. «

In contradistinction to the cows, the head of the bull may be shorter, the
frontal bone broader, and the occipital flat and stronger, that it may receive
and sustain the horn ; and this latter may be excused if a little heavy at the
base, if its upward form, its quality and color be right. Neither is the
looseness of the skin, attached to and depending from the under jaw, to be

BLUE DAHLIAS. 19

deemed other than a feature of the sex, provided it is not extended beyond
the bone, but leaves the gullet and throat clean and free from dewlap.

The upper portion of the neck should be full and muscular^ for it is an
indication of strength, power, and constitution. The spine should be strong
the bones of the loin long and broad, and the whole muscular system wide
and thoroughly developed over the entire frame.

EXPERIMENTS WITH GUANO.

As many of our planters are now about trying guano on their crops, we
publish for their benefit the following experiments made by Col. T. E. Law,
of Darlington District, which were published in the Darlingtrn Flag of
the 17 th:

Experiment 1st, made on land in a higb state of improvement from
former manurings. — 100 lbs. guano per acre produced 1872 lbs. of seed
cotton.

Hog-pen manure produced 1*768 lbs. seed cotton.

Difference in favor of guano, 104 lbs.

Cost of 100 lbs. guano, $2.50. Worth of 104 lbs. seed cotton, $2.60, or
equal to 104 per cent, on cost of guano, over hog-pen manure heavily put on.

Experiment 2d. — On poorer land, 100 lbs. guano per acre produced 988
lbs. seed cotton ; without manure of any kind, 670 lbs. seed cotton.

Difference in favor of guano, 312 lbs. seed cotton, equal to 312 per cent, on
cost of guano applied.

Experiment 3d. — 150 lbs. guano per acre made 1508 lbs. seed cotton;
hog-pen manure, 1352 lbs.

Difference in favor of guano, 156 lbs., equal to 104 per cent, on cost of
guano.

Experiment 4th. — 150 lbs. of guano per acre made 978 lbs. ; 200 lbs,
guano per acre made 962 lbs.

Difference in favor of 150 lbs, guano, 26 lbs.

This experiment was made on two rows of each, instead of one, as in the
other cases ; and it so happened that it was where a fence had stood several
years, and had been moved, which I think is the cause of giving advantage
to the smaller quantity of guano applied.

Experiment 5th. — 50 lbs. guano per acre made 676 lbs.; without manure,
698 lbs.

Difference in favor of guano, 78 lbs., equal to 150 per cent, on cost of
guano.

Experiment 6th. — 300 lbs. guano per acre made 1313 lbs. ; without manure,
568 lbs.

Difference in favor of guano, 715 lbs., equal to 238 per cent, on cost of
guano.

BLUE DAHLIAS.

"The Gardener's Chronicle says that a celebrated cultivator of dahlias ex-
pects in a year or two to produce a blue dahlia, by keeping constantly watered
the root of a white one with a solution of sulphate of iron. The sulphate of
iron turns hydrangeas blue, and why not other flowers as well? Of course
the solution must be very weak when used. Try it."

This idea of coloring flowers seems to be an epidemic in these days. For
ourselves, we have no faith in it. If a given plant can be thus operated upon

20 THE CURCULTO : WATCH HIM.

by this means, with success, we do not believe it would be permanent. The
next generation would not follow in the footsteps of its immediate, but of its
remoter ancestry ; and if but a single plant is affected, and for a single season
only, the color desired may be imparted in efftct, by covering it with colored
glass, just as blue and red and yellow lights are obtained in our shop windows.

A SPEAKING TELEGRAPH.

It is mentioned in a late Paris paper, that at a private reunion in that
city, a very curious system of telephony, for the transmission of language at
great distances, by means of musical sounds, was exposed by its inventor, M.
Budre. The plan is most ingenious, only making use of three notes placed at
given intervals, and which, combined or repeated according to certain rules,
are capable of rendering the most complicated senrences. Thus, one of the
company writes a few lines, and on M. Sudre reading them, he strikes his
three notes alternately, according to his method, when a third person, without
any previous knowledge of the writing, repeats the words merely from hear-
ing the notes. The system has been, it is understood, tried on a very exten-
sive scale, to test its applicability to naval and military purposes, and is stated
fully to justify the high encomiums the Institute and other scientific bodies
have bestowed on it. — Exchange paper.

The plan above described seems to us nothing more than a change of
form of a custom long in use in military, if not in civil matters. The bugle
has long been the medium of communicating orders from the officer in com-
mand, and is one of the means most reHed upon in battles and elsewhere for
their rapid and safe transmission. — Eds. P. L. and A.

THE GURCULIO: WATCH HIM.

Now is the time to commence your attack on this enemy of the Plum
Grower. A writer in the Farmer^s Journal gives the following as his ex-
perience in ridding himself of these " insects :" —

" Ignorant of the character of the enemy of my fruit," says he, " I deter-
mined to try an experiment with one of my trees. I accordingly procured a
pound of flour of sulphur, and placing a small iron furnace filled with live
coals on a high stock, as near to the lower branches as I could with safety,
sprinkled the sulphur lightly on the coals. This was early in the morning,
while the atmosphere was perfectly calm. As the fumes of sulphur ascended
through the tree, I watched closely, for the purpose of ascertaining whether
any effect had been produced upon my unknown foe. Scarcely had the
vapor arisen to the topmost branches, when I observed several round-look-
ing objects falling. Upon examination, I found them to be insects which
were entire strangers to me. I showed them to a friend somewhat skilled in
entomology, who at once pronounced them to be the dreaded curculio — the
Bcamps that had the preceding year destroyed my plums.

" Much delighted with the discovery, I immediately renewed the sulphur
fumigation, continuing it for more than a week, and always with success
against the foe. The result was most gratifying. The tree which had been
fumigated bore me a fair crop of excellent fruit, while on the other scarcely
a single plum came to perfection.

"This spring my two trees blossomed profusely. I again caused the sulphur

CURE FOR A FOUNDER. 21

to be applied, and at the period of writing, I am rejoicing in the prospect of
a fine crop of plums."

C. Belts, of Detroit, publishes the following in the Albany Cultivator:
" Eere is a remedy for the curculio which proved entirely successful in the
garden of one of our citizens.

"As soon as the fruit began to form, and the curculios were found to be
about the trees, he took a barrel of air-sl;iked lime into the garden, and with
a large shovel threw the lime among the trees, covering them completely,
and, to use his own expression, ' miking a perfect smudge.^ At this they
seemed displeased, and left; he observed them crawling over the lime covered
fruit in a few instances, but they appeared restless and uneasy, and soon all
left. Along in June they again made their appearance, and the liming was
repeated, which was again successful in driving them away ; and once again,
just before the plums began to ripen, he gave the trees another dose, having
observed some curculios about. His trees were loaded with fruit, while there
were but few grown elsewhere in the city. A large branch, loaded, was ex-
hibited at the August exhibition of the Detroit Horticultural Society. I have
no doubt this course would prove successful if thoroughly tried, and where
the trees, as in this case, are sheltered from violent winds."

HOEING CORN.

The Granite Farmer talks wisely, we think, when it says, as in a late
number, "Some ask how many times it is best to hoe corn and other crops;
The best answer to that question was given us a few days since by a farmer
whom we had observed often at work in a field of corn in sight of oar win-
dow. In going over the piece with him, and remarking the remarkable
growth, we asked him how many times he usually hoed his corn. ' Why,*
said he, * 1 do as I was brought up bv my father to do. He never had any
particular number of times, but hoed it all he could. I find it grows faster,
aud stands dry weather better, the oftener it is hoed.' This is the true phi-
losophy of culture : stir the ground. The direction for early and good crops,
after the i)roper previous preparation, would be, to stir the ground. Crops are
Hke animals — they need petting and care. A friend was remarking to us,
one evening, the difference in the growth of melon vines in a neighbor's gar-
den and in his own, side by side, of the same kind of soil, and both rich ;
with the same kind of preparation for the seed, and the seed sown at the
same time. The neighbor's melons were in blossom, while his own, he said,
were but three or four inches in height. The difference had been produced
by the constant labor and care of the gardener in stirring the ground and
regulating the amount of sun and shade, air and moisture they received."

Cure for a Founder. — The Ohio Cultivator gives the following recipe
for curing the founder — more correctly speaking, the water-founder: Bleed
the horse from the neck as long as he can stand up ; then make him
swallow one pint of salt; anoint well around the edges of his hoofs with
spirits of turpentine ; keep him from drinking too much water, and he
will be well in a few hours. The writer says: "The above recipe cured a
valuable horse for me, last spring, after trying nearly every other remedy
without success. The six d liars paid for the back numbers of the Culti^
valor has saved me a horse worth upwards of $100 : otherwise he must have
died.

22 GRAPE CULTURE.

HooFAiL. — Says another writer in the same paper: "This disease is
usually attributed to driving on hard or muddy roads ; but we have seen it in
its worst form where cattle scarcely left the barn during winter, and
having all the appearance of an epidemic. So severe was the disease that
the feet of the animals affected became livid, and finally parted at the lower
joint, as if the feet had been frozen. The best remedy in our experience is,
on the first discovery of the disease, to drive the animal upon a plank floor,
and with a broad chisel and mallet cut off the points of the hoofs to produce
a flow of blood. A cleansing wash of weak brine, followed by an ointment
of corrosive sublimate and lard, will be found beneficial. The animal should
be kept from going in mud or water.

GRAPE CULTURE.

In the February number of Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture we find a
communication from a successful grape culturist in Maine, Mr. Wm. Gore, of
Freeport, who has succeeded admirably in the cultivation of the Isabella
grapes. Mr. Hovey pronounced some specimens of this variety, raised by
Mr. Gore, " superior to any he ever saw." By request of Mr. Hovey, Mr.
Gore communicates his method of cultivating the grape vine on which the
specimens were produced. We extract the following particulars from the
Magazine in which it was published : —

" The vine on which the sample bunches were grown has been planted in
its present place six years, and trimmed the usual way, the growing season,
and 'spur' pruned in the fall. In the autumn of 1851, the vine had five
canes, (or branches,) from fourteen to eighteen feet in length ; but one being
somewhat injured by mice the preceding winter, and the canes rather too
near together on the trellis, I cut it off, leaving four canes, which, after cover-
ing the ground well with stable manure and boards, were loosened from the
trellis, let down upon the boards, and covered with spruce limbs for the
winter. In the spring, the vines were uncovered as early as the season would
admit — early in April ; but they were left down until the last of May, as
they suffer less from the cold winds in that position than they would upon
the trellis ; besides, it is supposed the sap flows better through the canes,
and consequently that the leaves put forth more uniformly. After securing
the vines upon the lattice, which is twelve feet high and twenty-five feet long,
at the south end of the house, and eighteen inches from it, I commenced
weeding it, leaving but one shoot or fruitful branch to each eye or joint, and
these were secured, from time to time, as they advanced to the trellis.

"The flowers did not make their appearance till the 2d of June; and the
middle of July, the fruit being formed, I took off all but two bunches from
every strong shoot, and reduced others of weak growth still more.

" I have been in the habit, before last season, of shortening in the young
fruit wood at the second leaf or joint above the fruit ; but the present season
I have let all grow, excepting such as injured the symmetry of the vine — they
growing from'five to twelve feet before September, when they were all short-
ened in about one quarter of their growth.

" The fruit was gathered on the 20th of October, having been protected
from the cold winds and frost one month by an awning of cotton cloth.

" I have pruned again this month (November) as usual, cutting all the fruit
wood, or nearly all, to within one or two joints of the main canes, leaving the
canes prolonged from eight to twelve, and put the vines under cover as in the
previous year.

BEST MODE OF CASTRATION. 23

" I should mention that I watered freely in the first of the summer with soap-
suds, and syringed often towards evening with rain-water. The summer pack-
ings or weedings [prunings] are buried by the roots of the vine, with a good
sprinkling of plaster, and by the first of August mulch well about the vine."

Mr, Hovey, who is an experienced nurseryman and horticulturist, as every
one knows, approves of Mr, Gore's method of treatment or culture of this
vine, and suras it up as follows: — Thorough weeding of the young growth —
protecting the vine during winter — allowing a free growth all summer —
shortening in the new shoots only one fourth their length — early watering,
and syringing freely during the season, and mulching after August when the
fruit is rapidly swelling.

ABORTION IN COWS.

The able Editor of the Cultivator says :

" Without being able to assign the cause in this particular instance, we can
only state what are usually regarded as the most prominent causes, viz. : con-
:fined or impure air iu stables, stall feeding without sufficient and regular
•exercise, impure water, bad hay or stale grain, &c,, which are supposed to
•cause flatulency, and increase the danger, Ofl'ensive odors, especially of
putrid flesh or putrid blood, are supposed to produce a nervous influence, and
strongly to contribute to this result. The ergot of rye is known to have a
powerful tendency in the same direction, and it is thought that the ergot
which grows upon other plants, as some species of grass, on wheat and Indian
-corn, and which are found more abundantly in certain localities and in certain
seasons, may also tend to produce abortion. All the cows of a herd being
alike aflected by all these causes, when the first animal loses her calf, the
peculiar odor which she imparts, and which the others by their keen sense
quickly perceive, tends powerfully to produce the same disaster throughout
the herd.

The remedy consists in avoiding all the exciting causes, and in moderate
atid regular feeding, wholesome food, pure water, pure air, moderate exercise,
•clean bedding, currying, and general attention to comfort" ^

WHAT IS THE BEST MODE OF CASTRATION?

The London Veterinarian contains the following advice, written by a veter-
inary surgeon of the King's Hussars :

Which is the best mode of castration ? If you ask this question of five or
six men, you will probably receive as many different answers, I have tried
the actual cautery, the clams, the ligature, and scrapings; and I prefer the
last, it being simple, safe, and speedy.

You have, doubtless, tried it, and perhaps most of your readers have per-
formed the operation. However, at the risk of telling a twice-told tale, I will
endeavor to describe the mode of scraping. You begin, as for castration, in
the ordinary way. Free the testicle, and grasp it with the left hand ; divide
the seminal part of the cord, and with a tough-edged knife scrape the vascu-
lar cord lengthways, until you scrape through it. Simple eno'ugli, and
speedy too, since from first cut to last scrape takes rather less than twenty
seconds. I have done it in sixteen, and safely ; for I never knew a horse bleed
more than I wanted, and you have a simple wound, without any foreign sub-
stance to deal with. The horse stands quiet for nearly tliree days, being

24 IRON SCYTHE SNATHS.

merely rubbed down. On tbe third day the coagulura is washed away, aiwS
the parts cleansed, and nothing more is required after than to continue to
keep them clean. Tetanus is not a frequent sequel to castration ; though I
saw last month you had put a (?) after what I wrote. As to the time most
likely for an attack, I have always found it to come on just as the wound
has healed, no matter in what part of the body it may be. Those attacka
arising from castration generally manifest themselves from the fifteenth ta
the twentieth day ; but I have seen them both earlier and later. As a rule,
I do not castrate during the hot months, nor during the heavy rains..
Wounds and ulcers generally take on an unhealthy action at those seasons^
and particularly during rains. But I have operated in every month of the
year.

Will Mr. Gavin excuse me if I say, in any future cases of tetanus, "us©
camphor^ I think he will find it one of the most useful medicines. He
■will, I venture to say, agree with me, that blisters are of no use in tetanus.

SMALL VERSUS LARGE HORSES,

The arguments may all be in favor of great size, but the facts are all the
other way. Large horses are more liable to stumble, and to be lame, than
those of middle size. They are clumsy, and cannot fill themselves so quick.

Overgrown animals, of all descriptions, are less useful in most kinds of
business, and less hardy than those of a smaller size. If theory is to be
resorted to in order to determine such questions, we suggest to the lovers of
overgrown animals the following: The largest of any class is an unnatural
growth. They have risen above the usual mark, and it costs more to keep
them in that position than it would were they more on a level with their
species.

"Follow nature," is a rule not to be forgotten by farmers ; large men are
not the best for business ; large cows are not the best for milk ; large oxen
are not the best for travelling ; large hogs are not the hogs that fatten best ;
and^arge hena are not the hens to lay eggs.

Extremes are to be avoided. We want well-formed animals, rather than
such /is have heavy, large bones. Odd as it may seem to the theorist, short-
legged animals invariably prove to be better travellers than any. Short-legged
soldiers are better on a march, and the officers say they endure hardships
loncrer than those of loncrer limbs.

In choosing a horse, take care by all means that his hind-legs are short.
If they are long, and split apart like a pair of dividers, never inquire the price
of the horse-dealer ; run for your life, and make no offer, lest you be taken up.

Horses that are snug-built are not always ftist travellers. It is no easy
mdtter to select a horse that is perfect in all points. Snug and tough horses
are not fast on the road. The fastest trotters are not always made for very
hard service. So says the New-England Farmer^ and we agree with him.

Iron Scythe Snaths. — Inventors and manufacturers of machines could
have learned much, if they had only given attention to the extraordinary
examples of contrivance so numerously displayed in the works of creation.
We may cite achromatic lenses as one example of this sort, which even
Newton pronounced impracticable, while at the very moment he was writing
that assertion he was looking through two most perfectly constructed aehro-

FLAX MANUFACTURE. 25

matic lenses, just like millions of othei's which had been in existence for
thousands of yeai-s. The ancients were puzzled for a substance to write upon —
wasps had been making paper since the creation — a crude, brown fabric,
to be sure. Flies and tree-frogs had for the same period illustrated practi-
callv the pressure of the atmosphere, and the principle of the suction pump,
with beautifully constructed miniature machines ; and the structure of the
arch, which the more ancient nations, notwithstanding their superlative skill
in masonry and architecture, knew nothing about, was well understood and
constantly practised all that time by a little mining ant. The most perfect
form of a rod, shank, or beam, to combine strength and lightness, is illus-
trated by the tube of birds' quills, and by the straw of grains and grasses — the
hollow rod or tube. This principle has been already applied iu a number of
instances ; but not till now, the middle of the nineteenth century, has the
hint been taken in the construction of scythe snaths, — implements in which
lightness and strength are preeminently required. We observe by the
Patent Office records, that these have been successfully manuf^ictured by A.
C. & C. N. Clow, of Port Byron, N. Y., and learn that they promise great
advantages on the score of durability, strength, lightness, and facility of being
bent into any desirable form.

FLAX MANUFACTURE.

The American Linen Company at Marcellus, N. Y., was originally
organized in October, 1851, with a moderate capital. Last summt'r they
demonstrated the practicability of producing linen yarns for about the cost of
cotton yarns, and the cajiital stock was increased to $100,000. The woollen
factory of Messrs. Machan & Moses was bought with the view of intro-
ducing gradually flax machinery.

From experiments already made in the use of machinery and processes
invented by the Secretary of the Company, and some machinery imported
from England, the following results are obtained :

The cost of breaking and cleaning unrotted flax-straw sufficient for 100
pounds of pure flax fibre, is less than $2.

Cost of refining, jjurifying, bleaching, and preparing the same for heck-
ling, by the use of four machines, recently invented for the purpose, and a
chemical process, about $1.

It is found that the very expensive process of heckling in the ordinary-
way can be dispensed with by the use of a machine recently invented, which
takes out only the shortest fibres and impurities, leaving the heckled and
purified flax in the sliver form, ready for drawing-frames, for less than two
cents per pound.

The tow or waste taken out by this, consisting entirely of the shorfc
fibres of flax, with such impurities only as are easily separated by picking
and carding, is suitable for combining with wool, being fine, white and
strong. It is far better for this than cotton, which is now extensively used
in tweeds and other mixed goods.

The coarsest flix, such as is grown extensively in this country for seed,
is rendered quite as fine and soft as the fine flax straw ; and even liemp, by
this new mode of manufacture, is capable of being made into fine linen.

Great improvements have been made in drawing-frames, by which they
are made to cost much less than the English, while they will do about
double the quantity of work, and in the most perfect manner. The roving
and spinning-frames have also been greatly improved.

26

GRAPES FOR COLD-HOUSES.

Unrotted flax-straw, in great abundance, can be procured here, after the
seed has been takeii off, for $10 per ton, and at the West, cheaper still.

The American Linen Compan yexpect to be prepared to supply a large
amount of machinery the coming season, either for manufacturing linen,
cordage, or bagging by the use of either hemp or flax.

To these statements, which are condensed from the Tribune, we append the
following from the Agricultural Society's Journal :

All the rain that falls upon our fields must either be carried away by na-
tural or artificial drainage, or, having thoroughly saturated the soil on which
it falls, be left upon the surface to be carried off by evaporation. Now, every
gallon of water thus carried off by evaporation requires as much heat as
would raisefive and a half gallons from the freezing to the boiling-point.
Without going to extreme cases, the great effects of the heat thus lost upon
vegetation cannot fail to be striking, and I have frequently found the soil of
a field well drained, higher in temperature from 10 to 15*^ degrees than that
of another field which had not been drained, though in every other respect
the soils were similar. I have observed the effects of this on the growing
crop ; and I have not only seen a much inferior crop on the undrained
field, but that crop harvested fully three weeks after the other ; and the setting
in of unsettled weather, I have seen that crop deteriorated fully ten per cent.
in value.

MAPLE SUGAR.

*'An intelligent farmer in Waitsfield, Vt., has discovered an effectual
method of removing the coloring matter from maple sap, so that it will make
sugar nearly as white as common crushed sugar. His method is to filtrate
all his sap, before boiling, through a hopper or box of sand, which he says
takes out not only all the dirt, but all the stains derived from leaves, tub?,
crumbs of bark, and all other coloring matter that can prevent the sugar from
being pure and white."

This little piece of intelligence is cut from one of our exchanges. But it is
all gammon. Years ago, we saw specimens of maple sugar at the Windsor
County Show, made in Woodstock, as white as loaf-sugar from the cane. In
fact, most of the sugar used in Vermont is of domestic manufacture, and that
used in their own families is often far more free from impurities than are the
imported sugars. We could give names of the makers of some of these
beautiful specimens, which date as far back, at least, as 1846. This, however,
is a fair sample of many of the " new discoveries" of our times.

GRAPES FOR COLD-HOUSES.
J. FiSK Allen, of Salem, Mass., widely known as a most skilful cultivator
of the grape, succeeds admirably, by means of his forcing, cold, and retarding-
houses, in furnishing a supply of this delicious fruit during the entire yearly
circle. _ Forcing grapes, so as to ripen them by the first days of summer,
and raising them in cold-houses, for a supply throughout autumn, are well
understood and commonly practised. A retarding-house, for winter ripen-
ing, and for keeping them hanging upon the vines in safety till wanted, is a
greater rarity, and it may prove very desirable with those who shall attempt
it, to know what sorts do best for this purpose. The late Report of the Fruit
Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society furnishes the following
list for this purpose, from Mr. Allen, which he states is the result of ten years'
experiments : —

VALUE OF GUANO.

27

Those which continue fresh or without drying in the retarding-house, are
Prince Albert, Queen of Nice, Syrian Porteau Noir, Black Portugal, Whortley
Hall Seedling, Muscat of Alexandria.

Black Hamburg, Wilmot's New Black Hamburg, and Victoria Hamburg,
dry up some. .

The following dry badly :— All the Fontignans, Black, White, and Grizzly,
and Zinfindal; Black St. Peter's is uncertain.

We have seen much of Mr. Allen's fruit, and are confident tliat he deserves
the commendation given him in the foregoing paragraph from the Albany
Cultivator. Tlie regard him as one of the most intelligent and most suc-
cessful fruit growers in the country.

CHURNING SWEET CREAM.

Mr. True, writing from Phillips, Me., for The Soil of the South, says :

" Milk should be strained as soon as convenient after milking, and agitated
as little as possible, so that, while cooling, it may commence throwing up the
cream undisturbed. The cream should be skimmed off while the milk is
sweet, and be sure that the milk is not allowed to go in with the cream, for
it will sour and curdle, which will be seen in the butter in white streaks, that
many cannot account for. Cream should be churned when sweet, and while
cool ; the buttermilk drained off,*and cold water put into the churn, and
churned a little, then drained off, and some strong brine put in, and worked
again ; because the water will turn the butter white, if allowed to remain.
When it oozes out, it is better to work it in the churn than to work it by
hand, for it prevents its being greasy, which hurts the sale and flavor very
much.

One or two spoonfuls of salt to the gallon of cream will prevent its be-
coming bitter in a great degree.

A piece of saleratus, the size of a walnut, to the gallon, when the cream is
bitter, or frothy when churning, will be of great service.

Do not put sugar into your butter, unless for immediate use.

Salt according to the market which it is designed for, but not very salt for

Put a layer of salt in the bottom of the tub, then a cloth ; fill within one
inch, then a cloth and salt ; be sure that the cloth does not come over the
sides of the tub ; cover wilji a good tight cover ; keep it from the ground, m
a cool place, from the current of air. Follow these rules, and you may expect
that your butter will be sought after, and from one to ten cents per pound
in advance of a common article will be your reward.

VALUE OF GUANO.
At a late agricultural meeting, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder being called upon,
made the following remarks in regard to guano: He believed that at the
present high price of labor, the cust of barn-yard manure on a piece of land
would exceed that of an amount of guano sufficient to produce an equal crop.
He considered it the very best kind of manure. It always succeeds best in
a moist climate, and hence the immense quantities introduced into England,
where $8,000,000 per annum is expended for it. Mr. Wilder related some
instances of its great fertilizing effects. Mr. Venable, M. C. from North Caro-
lina, had communicated to him the results of its use upon his farm. He had

28

Morrill's improved ditching machine.

several tliousand acres which he regarded as hardly worth cultivatiou. He
applied guano to it, ploughing it in deep, at the rate of only 150 pounds to
the acre ; and from the whole of this land he obtained an average of 2'3 bush-
els of wheat per acre ; whereas before applying the guano he got only 5
bushels. Another instance was that of Mr. Holcorab, of Delaware, who pur-
chased a farm of 2300 acres, with a brick house thereon, for $2500, owing to
the miserable condition of the land. He sowed 75 acres of it with wheat,
ploughing in about 10 tons of guano; and the first crop paid for the farm
and all its expenses, and left a small surplus besides.

Mr. Wilder's plan was to compound one part of guano with six parts of
meadow mud, pulverizing it, and adding another part of charcoal ; placing it
in a heap (which must be kept covered) three weeks before using it. He
had found by experiment that half a handful of this compost was as good as
a whole handful put in dry. In sandy soils it should be placed pretty deep,
but in clayey lands, shallow. It should be applied early in the spring.
Seven years ago he reclaimed a piece of meadow, and dressed it with 300 lbs.
guano to the acre. The first year the crop was so heavy that it mildewed,
and had not been obliged to renew it.

MORRILL'S IMPROVED DITCHING MACHINE.

This engraving is a perspective view of a ditching machine, patented by
Jonathan W. Morrill, of Hampton Falls, N. H., May 10th, 1853.

A A are the wheels ; B is the axle of the same, across which the beam
lever, C, is secured. The cutters for ditching are placed and secured in this
lever. D D D are the cutters for cutting the sides and front edge of the sods.
These cutters are united together, and are braced and supported by the stirrup
brace, E, which has a vertical bar, F, secured to the front edge, and passes up
through the slot, G, in the lever, C. This bar, F, has a slot, H, cut in its
upper end with a pin, I, passing through it to make it fast to the lever. As the
cutters are raised and lowered, the slot in the bar, F, admits of the lever, C,
being depressed and raised. J is a spade, cutter, or scooper ; it has a bent

COPPERPLATE PRINTING.

29

handle, K, L, which turns on a fulcrum pin, a, which passes through the har,
F. The part L is secured to a link, M, which passes up through a mortice,
N, in the beam, and is loosely secured in the same by a pin, c, which it
allows to move back and forth, as the cutters, D D D, and spade, J, are de-
pressed or elevated. O P are thin plates of metal for guiding the sod as it
is raised up, and for throwing it out at the side of the ditch. The plate, P,
is only to incline the sod to the one side.

Two men take their position at the handle of the
lever, facing the wheels. They press down the lever,
which causes the spado to fly out, at the same time
cutting the sod on three sides ; then, raising the
lever, (without changing their hold.) forces the spade
in, cutting the sod off at the bottom. The machine,
being now on the surface, swings forward seven
inches, when the same operation is repeated, one sod
pressing out the other, throwing them upon the side
of the ditch. Or the lever can be extended across
the axle, a man working at each end.

The machines can be made to cut ditches one, two,

or tliree feet deep, and seven inches wide, or fourteen

I or twenty-one inches wide, by going over the ground

twice or thrice, or wider by repeating the operation.

It is comparatively easy work for two men. It is

fitted to the large wheels of a single-horse wagon.

It may be used to good advantage without the wheels and lever, by having
attached to it a piece of wood two feet long, with handles, as represented in
the small cut. It cuts a ditch smooth on the sides and bottom.

Applications for machines or rights may be made to the patentee Jis a

COPPERPLATE PllINTING.

Few persons have correct ideas of the manner of accomplishing this im-
portant work. The engraving, the plate from which the picture is produced,
is not so rare a sight ; almost every body has at least seen a simple form of it
in the plate of an engraved visiting-card, which may be taken as a sample of
the whole. Unlike the process of printing, the ink is suffered to remain only
in the cutlings or "lines." The smooth parts of the surface are intended for
the white or uncolored portions of the picture. Ilence, after the plate is
thoroughly covered with the ink, it is carefully wiped, for the purpose of
removing all the superfluous ink, leaving only the "lines" or sunken parts
blackened. After it is thus prepared, the plate is covered with the paper on
which the impression is to be taken, which should be slightly damp, as it is
also in printing. On this sheet are laid several thicknesses of cloth, when the
whole is passed between two rollers. These rollers may be made of very
hard wood or of iron. The " impression " is the result of the elasticity of
the cloth, which forces the paper upon the plate into the lines, absorbing the
ink contained in them, which adheres to its surface, leaving the plate com-
paratively clean. This process may be repeated at pleasure, till several
thousands of copies are obtained. The earliest impressions, however, are the
best, and are called "proof impressions." Even a moderate use will aft'ect
the condition of some of the sharp lines or edges, so that an experienced eye
readily detects imperfections. These impressions are also taken with more

30 AGRICULTURE.

than ordinary care. On this account they command a higher price than is
obtained for impressions taken after the plate has been worn by use, or when
less care is taken to secure the best possible impression.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

AGRICULTURE: ITS USEFULNESS, ANTIQUITY, DIGNITY, AND
PROGRESS.

As a farmer was sitting under the hands of his hairdresser, and the latter
was tying up his queue, or what is vulgarly denominated a pigtail, which
then was almost universally worn, he asked the agriculturist what was the
diflference in each other's occupation, to which the farmer replied in one word,
viz., utility ; i. e., you till.

The command the Creator gave to Adam in Eden, is well worth being-
borne in mind by the tiller of the soil in the present day. The injunction
given to our great ancestor was, " to dress and to keep it," from which we
gather that the working of the soil was an occupation from the very highest
authority, was deemed truly honorable, and the employment of tilling the
ground was neither degrading nor humbling, but doubtless conducive to
health, happiness, morality, and independence.

No employment or profession can boast of more numerous or more noble
patrons than that of agriculture. From the most ancient records, tradition
and history have handed down to us names high among men, who have not
b^en merely patrons, but partakers of the labors and toil of the husbandman,
and thus have sweetened their repasts, softened their nightly couch, and given
a higher zest to all the enjoyments of life.

We read in Holy Writ, that Uzziah the Jewish king was fond of husbandly;
that Elisha was found ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen, when Elijah sum-
med him to bear the prophetic office ; and Gideon was threshing his grain
when God deputed him to drive the enemies of his country back into their
own territory.

Cyrus, the great Persian king, often worked his garden with his own hands,
and was extremely fond of horticulture. Cincinnatus was found by his dis-
tressed countrymen driving the plough, from which he was called to direct the
destinies of the state, and when he had saved it, returned joyfully to the same
manly occupation.

And at tlie present day it is customary for the Emperor of China always,
one day in the year, to take hold of the plough and turn a few furrows, that
he may honor the labor of the field, and thus give it his royal sanction in
the eyes of his numerous subjects.

The Romans gave the name of pecunia to their coin, which literally means
cattle, thus showing that they regarded the produce and care of the field as
the only real wealth of the country, as it ever has been, and must ever re-
main so.

It has been justly said, Stop the plough, and you will starve the world.
And no greater truth has ever been uttered. We may ransack the bowels of
the earth for the precious metals, invent all sorts of machinery, build steam
vessels, and erect telegraph lines ; but all these mighty developments of the
human intellect must yield to the more ancient and indispensable usefulness
of the plough. It is the main-spring by which all other arts and occupations
become effective.

If we reflect upon the improvements .which have been made in agriculture,

AGRICULTURE. 31

no one calling or profession can boast of greater progress. The time was, when
a limb cut fi-om a tree served the purpose of a plough ; and the classic phrase
of Virffil was truly descriptive, curvum arairum; and a bough cut from the
same took the place of the harrow.

When our missionaries in southern Africa introduced the plough at their
stations, and the wondering chiefs saw how rapidly and neatly it turned over
the soil, they declared that every plough was worth twelve wives, as the
labors of the field among these savages were altogether performed by the
females.

The great increase of produce per acre obtained by the scientific applica-
tion of artificial and natural manures, and the practical knowledge spread
abroad by our agricultural papers and Societies, attest the rapid advance that
has been made in every branch of field occupation.

When conversing with farmers in the mother-country, the writer has often
heard the remark that now he could graze and fatten as many shocp as he
occupied acres of land, while the generation before dare not venture to keep
half that number upon the same homestead.

The hop antl the broom-corn are two remarkable instances of progress,
and also of what great efiects result often from trivial causes. The former,
not many years ago, was proscribed by the British Gove'nment as a plant
whose properties were pernicious, and prohibited from being cultivated ; but
it has now become a staple commodity, pays an immense tax, gladdens the
hearts of the peasantry, and furnishes employment for thousands of her
hardy sons,

Whi.sk in this country was first raised by Franklin from a single seed, which
he took from an imported broom and planted in his garden. The Canada
thistle, of which so great complaint is made, and which our Legislatures have
endeavored to prevent from spreading by enacting penal laws, was introduced
by au emigrant emptying his straw bed, in which were some of the downy
seeds of this hardy weed. This is a plant exceedingly diflicult to kill, as it
has a single tap root, which runs down to an amazing depth, and nothing but
deep and frequent ploughing will exterminate it.

Where this plant luxuriates, the land is generally good, and the elm tree
is often seen to rear its branching tops in the same vicinity, as both seem to
find a congeniality in the same kind of land. A blind man once took a boy
with him to visit a farm which he had a desire to engage, and when arrived
in one of the fields, told the boy to tie his horse : the boy replied, he could find
nothing to fiisten him to, except a thistle, of which there was an abundant
and a luxurious crop. The blind man, hearing this, made up his mind to
engage the land, declaring that if it would grow thistles, it would grow any
thing he chose to plant upon it.

To a studious, inquiring, and a philosophical mind, the occupation of the
field, the rural scenery of the country, and the care of the various animals
which collect around the farmer's homestead, afford the most abundant
matter for observation and experiment. Here, the botanist, the naturalist
and the chemist are surrounded with favorable opportunities for the gratifica-
tion of their taste to any extent. The habits of the feathered tribe alone
yield a theme which is always interesting, nor need we feel alarmed at the
increase of these winged songsters, as it has been proved beyond controversy
that they are a blessing rather than an evil, by destroying the grubs and the
insects which would otherwise eat up the produce of the soil.

The writer once kept for years a large tame-male buzzard hawk, whose use
in the garden was of no small amount. No fowl from the yard dare venture

32 FARM FENCES.

within the limits of his domain, and even strangers of the human ppecies had
to be guarded when they ventured there without some of tlie family. He
has been seen to chase and kill a weasel with dexterity and dispatch, and
when any of the ground was dug. Jack was always in attendance, devouring
the worms which were turned up by the spade. In the spring he generally
built a nest in one corner of the arbor, and would shriek with a loud, shrill
voice for a mate ; but having his wings always clipped, he was unable to make
any visits to the lady hawks, and thus was obliged to waste his days in single
blessedness. One morning, he was found dead in the garden, but not cold:
some thieves had entered it during the night, and by a blow had terminated
the hfe of this faithful guardian, over whose remains the writer ought to have
written an epitaph, as Cowper did over his hares.

It is pleasing to observe that agriculture is beginning to be thought es-
sential to a complete college education. This would have a tendency to
ramove that odium which many of our youth feel towards a country residence.
Many a clergyman and men of other professions have sighed for the time
when, after long years of service, they might retire and pass the evening of
life in some quiet spot in the country, but have been disappjinted because of
their io-norance of the proper management of rural aflfairs.

We want writers also who will interest us in the avocations of the field. It
is well to have philosophical digests of agriculture, but the poet and the es-
sayist should use their pens to make the subject captivating. R. S.

Madison, y. J., May lUh, 1853.

FARM FENCES.

The best fence is a good stone wall ; but if wood is used, skill and judg-
ment are necessary in the selection of the material and the mode of pre-
paring it.

The first item for consideration, in this matter, \?> first cost, and the second
is durability. Sometimes a third item may be important, to wit, the land
used up by the fence. The second is the only one of these that can be esti-
mated with any degree of accuracy by any general formula, and even this one
is far from being uniform. But let us say a word of each.

1. The stone wall. If material is at hand, on or in the soil, and no espe-
cial obstacle or objection comes in to vary the result, our own opinion is de-
cidedly in favor of stone fences. When properly laid, they outlast the build-
ers. We know of fences of this kind, apparently as good as new, that have
stood at least fifty years. These samples are chiefly of faced walls, with deep
foundations, costing originally two or three times as much as an ordinary
fence. But if they last as they now promise, the amount expended in their
construction was a capital investment. We remember many miles of stone
wall in our native place, which have stood an equal length of time, but which
have needed occasional renewal or repairs. Portions have been thrown down,
and were of necessity rebuilt.

It is well known that, in most parts of New-England, stone wall is the pre-
vailing style of fence, both on the highway and for dividing lots; and in all
that region with which we are well acquainted, we have never known a farmer
who did not prefer stone to any other material for this purpose.

To secure durability, the foundation should be placed below the action of
frost, and the whole should be laid by a skilful man, so as to secure to the
greatest extent the aid of gravitation and friction in resisting all violence from

FARM FENCES. 33

either side. When thus laid, this fence is a good security against domsetic
animals of all sizes.

But sometimes stones are scarce, and timber is very cheap, while labor may
also be expensive. So it often is where pine barrens or other forests abound.
There is also a great difference in the amount of defense^ so to speak, which
is required. Sometimes, it is chiefly a mere landmark to point out a highway,
and some of the oldest parts of New-England furnish evidence that even this
is unnecessary. The path beaten by the hoofs of horses or oxen, and worn
by the friction of wheels, is the only index of the existence of a road, while
nothing but a marked tree or a post or stone, indicates a plurality of owners
of the soil. Such regions of country, however, furnish no occasions for the
application of any general rules on this subject.

As to wooden fences, cedar, no doubt, is the most durable of all woods,
and where it is abundant, so as to be cheap, should be preferred, especially
for posts.

AH woods are made more durable by being charred before they are set in the
ground. Decay or decomposition is a chemical process which requires the
presence of certain elements which in charcoal are essentally wanting. Char-
coal, we suppose, is never chemically decomposed by exposure to the air or
water. It may crumble. It may be attacked in certain situations by elements
not generally encountered. It may ibsorb moisture, so as to be broken by
frosts, and the like; but still charring well pays its way, when timbers are to be
set in the ground. But they should not be charred so extensively as to weak-
en materially their strength.

Many experiments go to prove that the smaller end of timber should be
set downward. The rationale of this is rather hypothesis than physiological
demonstration, since we know of nothing which has been actually discovered,
which implies an upper or under side to the circulating vessels which com-
pose the wood. The tubes and cells present similar appearances at each
extremity, though their form or shape, tapering or otherwise, may have an
important bearing on this phenomenon.

Saturated solutions of corrosive sublimate, sulphate of copper, acetate of
iron, and creosote, prevent the decay of timbers: so does tannic acid and an
atmosphere of carbonic acid, however obtained. Pyrolignate of iron is also
eflScient and economical, as well as melted tar. On the other hand, alkalies
and alkaline earths facilitate decay. Hence the character of the soil in which
posts are to be set should be considered, and if unfavorable, foreign materials
should be used in filling in around them. The deposition of insoluble gyp-
sum in the body of the wood is a very efiScient mode of preventing decay.
This process may be performed usually by immersing the end of the wood in
a solution of gypsum when the tree is fii-st cut, though it requires consider-
able time to secure the entire success of the experiment. The timber should
also be thoroughly enveloped with it.

We might give an estimate of the cost of various styles of farm fence, as
some of our contemporaries have done on kindred topics, but no one would
perhaps be a safe basis of calculation, for one hundred miles square. Hence
we leave the subject here, giving in a tabular form the items which each man
must estimate for himself. These will vary, of course, with the season of the
year, even on any given territory and for the same job. These items embrace
the following :

1. Cost of material it, and of preparing it.

2. Cost of transporting to the spot.

VOL. VI. — PART I. 3

34 FARM WORK FOR JULY.

3. Preparing the ground for the superstructure, whether a wall or posts
and rails.

4. Cost and amount of labor to be employed.

5. Value of land affected by the fence, whether by occupying space or by
casting shade.

As to the age of timber and the season of the year when it should be cut,
to secure the greatest durability, — young, or at least sound timber should be
selected, and the spring or early summer is probably the best time for cut-
ting it. The latest growth will then have become somewhat hardened, and
the condition of the sap at that time is said to be favorable to their remain-
ing sound for a long time. We do not attach much importance, however, to
that hypothesis.

Wire fences are not generally approved, so far as our observation extends.
When wires are stretched across a cheap frame, they may be very convenient
for enclosing temporarily a small plot of ground, but for a permanent fence
they will not pay. If they are used, they should be confined in their place
by passing through substantial wooden posts, sufiQciently near each other to
attract the notice of animals. For one objection to them is, that cattle do not
see them, and hence they are exposed to a degree of violence, even from quiet
animals, which will severely try their strength. Live posts, earthen or burnt
clay posts, and the like, we regard as ingenious, rather tban practically use-
ful. They may sometimes answer well, but not as a general practice.

A fence the lower half of which is stone, and the upper half rails or wires,
may serve a very good purpose, and where stone is scarce, it may be the best
form of fence.

But, whatever style is adopted, let the materials be of good quality, and
the work be done skilfully. Sham fences are among the most expensive
forms in which a lack of practical skill in farming operations is often
exhibited.

FARM WORK FOR JULY.

HoEiNG-TiME is an important season for the young crops. The earth needs
to be loosened : the young weeds will have grown faster than the seeds that
were planted, and will steal the food that may be made to pay better than
by growing into hogweed or any other of the pests of the field.

The growth of the young corn and of other crops may be improved by a
slight sprinkling of a mixture of charcoal dust, plaster of Paris, and guano —
the last being a small fraction of the whole, or say one part, by measure, of
the guano to ten or more of either of the others, on the hills or around the
roots. Charcoal is an excellent fertilizer in almost every kind of soil, and
there is no danger of its doing harm, in any quantities in which it would be
likely to be used.

Cultivators will be found very useful in the extensive operations of most
farmers, though a skilful hand with a hoe does the work better than any
labor-saving machinery can do it.

Haymaking is also close at hand. We gave our views very fully on this
subject last year, and need scarcely repeat them here. The seed should be
well formed, but not dried, before the grass is cut. Clover should always be
cut before the flower goes to seed, and so should herds' grass, and all the other
varieties.

There is such a thing as drying hay too much. All drying is in excess
which is not necessary to preserve the hay in the mow. If it could be kept

FLAX CULTURE IN INDIANA. 35

^weet as it is cut, it would be mucli preferred by cattle to the same grass in
a dry state, A slight sprinkling of salt tends to preserve hay on the mow,
when not thoroughly dried, and it does no harm to the hay or to the cattle.

The earlier part of July is a drier season than the latter part, and should
therefore be used by the farmer, as far as is possible, for the curing of his
hay. We know a judicious farmer in Connecticut, whose acres indeed are
comparatively few, but who took advantage of the seasons from year to year,
so that he very seldom had his cut grass wet by the rains.

Fruit trees require constant attention now, to preserve them from the ra-
vages of insects. Remove also the excess of fruit from your favorite trees at
least, and from all if you have opportunity, and the fruit will improve in
size and quality much more than is lost by the operation.

In severely hot and dry seasons, occasionally watering gardens is highly use-
ful. We have tested this to our entire satisfaction. This should be done at
night, and the whole of the water may be secured to the soil. If done earlier
in the day, much of the water will evaporate. It should not be colder than
rain-water.

Bulbs should be taken up soon after the flower is gone. Dry them care-
fully and keep them cool, but safe from frost, till they are reset. Tall flowers
should be supported by stakes or frames, otherwise the stems may be broken.

Keep your garden walk clean. A little salt sprinkled over it, or brine
poured upon it, will assist ; and look out for thistles, &c., and not allow them
to go to seed. Sow at your leisure green crops, intended for ploughing in in
the fall. This work may be done at almost any convenient time.

Ley made from horse-manure is an excellent tonic for rose bushes, &c., if
not used too freely. Forcing plants too much often destroys them.

Lastly, continue to add to your manure-heaps any sort of oft'al, vegetable
or animal, that comes to hand ; and if dead animals or other active agencies
are found, add Hberally of muck, or turf, or any thing in the shape of soil.

FLAX CULTURE IN INDIANA.

Mil. R. T. Browx, of Crawfordsville, in a communication to Governor
Wright, President of the Indiana State l>oard of Agriculture, says :

"I send you enclosed a few samples of 'Flax Cotton,' presented to me by
the Hon. H. L. Ellsworth, of Lafayette. Mr. Ellsworth has secured the ma-
chinery necessary for the manufacture of the cotton, and will have it in oper-
ation early in the season. He has on hand the 'stem' grown on 120 acres
last season, which, from experiments already made, will, he supposes, yield
about 300 pounds per acre of 'cotton' similar to No. 2 of the enclosed speci-
mens. The expense of reducing the fibre to this state, after the stem is pro-
duced, is about two cents per pound, which, at the usual price of cotton,
(10 cents,) will leave eight cents per pound, or $24 per acre, for the farmer
who produces it. To this must be added the value of the seed, which will
range from $6 to 88 per acre, giving a final result of 820 at least for each
acre. This is Mr. Ellsworth's calculation : it may be too high ; but if wo
allow for the magnifying effects of his zeal one third, or even one half, still
flax will be as profitable a crop, in proportion to the amount of labor required
to produce it, as any of the staples of the country.

" Mr. E.'s method of flax farming is to break his ground in the fall, and
secure it from being trodden in the winter. Between the middle and last of
April he harrows it well, sows his seed, harrows in, and passes the roller over

36 ULSTER LEAD MINE.

it, leaving a level surface. He harvests it witli a horse-power reaper, cutting
about two inches from the ground. As soon as it is dry, the seed is threshed
off", (for which operation we yet need an appropriate machine,) nl the ' stem'
baled for transportation to the factory. The amount of labor is about the
same as that required for a wheat crop."

ULSTER LEAD MINE.— STICKNEY'S IMPROVEMENTS IN BLASTING.

We lately embraced an opportunity of visiting the mine and works of the
Ulster Lead Mining Company at Ellenville, and were much gratified at the
state of the enterprise, and the judicious and prudent arrangements made for
the economical and successful working of this mineral deposit. We had
intended giving in our own words a full description for the information of our
readers, but we avail ourselves of the Report submitted by Mr. James T.
Hodge, as being a careful and accurate statement of the locality, capabilities,
and probable productiveness of the mine. Mr. Hodge says :

"The Ellenville Lead Mine, recently opened at the foot of the western slope
of the Shawangunk Mountain, in Ulster county, N. Y., is situated just without
the village of Ellenville, eight hundred feet east from the Delaware and Hudson
Canal. The mouth of the mine is about thirty feet above the level of the
canal, towards which the ground slopes gently down. Above the mine the
mountain rises, faced by a wall of rock, which slopes upward at an angle of
forty-eight degrees with the horizon. This rock is known by the name of the
' Shawangunk Grit.' It is a coarse, grayish- white sandstone, hard and durable,
lying in broad sheets, which repose upon each other at the above angle. The
course of the mountain is N.N.E. — S.S.W., and the dip of the strata is towards
the W.N.W. The vein containing the lead ore crosses these strata obliquely,
running into the mountain in a direction S. fifteen degrees E., and inclining
towards the north at an angle of seventy-eight degrees with the horizon. A
portion of the vein, near the mouth of the drift, crosses over to the N.E. and
takes a position between the strata of sandstone, dipping with them under
the valley in front of the mountain. This portion has the appearance of, and
is in fact, an included bed, but its connection with the true vein is apparent
on examination. The metalliferous contents of the vein, introduced through
and filling the vein fissure, appear to have been carried between the strata
on the north side, forming there a collection of ore of uncertain extent. This
bed is represented in the accompanying section at the point marked ' C

" Standing in front of the ridge, the outer edge of the vein is seen up the
face of the rock for forty or fifty feet, sometimes presenting on the outside a
thickness of several inches of galena, and sometimes shutting into a mere
crack. It is accompanied by other parallel fissures or cracks, some of which,
in the immediate vicinity, have been filled with quartz vein stones more or
less metalliferous. All these running across the strata in one direction, no
question can arise as to these repositories of ore being a system of true veins.
Several of these veins are favorably noticed, as occurring along the Shawan-
gunk Mountain, by Professor Mather, in his State Geological Report. (See
pp. 358, 359, (fee.) Sometimes they take the form of included beds, but,
with rare exceptions, he found them all transverse veins. He expresses an
opinion that valuable repositories of lead ore may be found along the range
<rf the mountain.

38

ULSTER LEAD MINE.

" The Ellenville vein was first opened by Captain Rickard, by an adit fol-
lowing its course, driven in from the base of the ridge. In the preceding
section, (Fig 1,) drawn on the plane of the vein, a represents the western
slope of the mountain. The parallel lines, 5, the sandstone strata. The
included bed of lead ore, already referred to, is seen at c. The drift d is
run in on the line of the vein, which extends downwards along its floor, and
its edge is seen up the slope e. f is the limestone formation, resting
against the sandstone, and g the superficial loose earth and stones.

FiGUEE 2. " The position of the vein

will perhaps be better under-
stood as it appears in front,
and sketched in Fig. 2, where
a represents the vein of ga-
lena, and a a are parallel fis-
sures.

"The vein, which on the
outside appears as a mere
crack, with some scattering
quartz and galena, rapidly en-
larges within, and between its
sides are included large
bunches of rich galena, in-
termixed with some quartz,
blende, or sulphuret of zinc,
and copper and iron pyrites.
For a distance of several feet,
the galena, nearly pure, was
found from eighteen to twenty-
four inches in thickness. At
the end of the drift, some
twenty feet in, the vein con-
tracted again, but in the floor the ore still continued downwards, retaining its
richness and width. To further develop it in this direction, Capt. Rickard
very judiciously came back, taking up a stope, or level, five feet lower down,
and this will be followed by another of the same depth, which is as low as
can be convenienly drained. This is done preparatory to sinking, upon the
vein near the edge of the hill.

" There being no question as to the value of the ore when extracted, the
great point to be considered is the probability of finding a large available
supply of it. We have seen that it occurs in a true transverse vein ; and
such veins never give out, however irregular they may be in form and pro-
duction. Several of these veins have been, at various periods, opened and
partially worked in the sandstone along the Shawangunk Mountain. They
have all the pecuhar features of productive veins of other regions ; the same mix-
tures of gangue with diSerent ores ; the opening of cavities or ' vugs,' lined with
quartz, crystals, and containing red clay ; and the occurrence of this red clay,
or ' flucan,' between the lode and one or both of its walls. Almost every thing
concurs to the probability of this proving to be a valuable mineral district.
More lime than lead ore has been usually found in the veins, and this has
been the principal cause that the mining operations were not more extensively
prosecuted. In this mine, so far as opened, galena is found to be the prevailing
ore, the others being hardly more than noticeable. It is reasonable to expect
this will continue so. No fallino; ofi" of the ore in the floor of the drift was

ULSTER LEAD MINE.

8^

found up to the time of my last examination of the mine, on the 23d to
June. On the contrary, there was the greatest encouragement to look for a
most productive lode in sinking below the level of the valley ; and this I
should strongly recommend, as well from the fact that veins usually yield best
at some deprh below the surface, as for the purpose of reaching the limestone
formation, which under the valley will be found inclining against the sandstone,
and the veins extending across them both. For it is the limestone^ that, in
most places, is found to be the lead-producing rock, and this belt of it that is
known to be along the valley, resting against the sandstone, is the continuation
of the lead-bearing Hmestone of Wisconsin."

After considerable detail on other points, too general for our pages, Mr.
Hodge says :

"With all these advantages, and the prospect of abundant ore, presented
by the large quantity already taken out, I know of no new mine offering as
great inducements for the investment of capital."

We give the al)ove statements as printed by Mr, Hodge for the information
which they contain, and without reference to any influence for or against the
enterprise. We believe it to be important that our mining interest should be
well understood, and for that purpose reliable statements from every source
will be welcome to our pages.

Since Mr. Hodge's report was published, Capt. Rickard struck into a large
cavern, lower down in the vein, by some twenty or thirty feet, than the drift
represented in the figure, the sides of which are rich in the ore, while the
vein, which we followed down the sides about forty or fifty feet, is solid galena,
in some places two feet in thickness. The work necessary to lay this mass of
mineral in a conveniently accessible position, by the clearing away of the super-
fluous rock, is vigorously prosecuted ; and not a long time must elapse before
the true value of the Ulster Mine will be ascertained with a fair measure of
certainty. That a large body of rich galena, with a share of copper sulphuret,
is contained in the vein, is beyond a doubt. The continuous vein of fifteen
to twenty-five inches of pure galena is followed down the whole depth as far
as gone in the cavern, while the structure of the rock is an indication of no
little importance to the miner.

Since our visit, we learn that the Company have put their smelting furnace
in operation experimentally, and that there is every reason to believe that the
works will be fully equal to the demands of the undertaking. The washing
and smelting-houses are plain, capacious, and fitted for the purpose ; and we
are glad to record the favorable auspices under which the Company appear to
be prosecuting their labors. We trust that they will be abundantly rewarded.

At the time of our visit, Mr. A. Stickney, of Norwich, Vt., was at the mine,
experimenting with his new mode of blasting, by operating in the very bard
sandstone grit of this locality.

Mr. Stickney's method consists in drilling a hole i- the usual way into the
rock, and then, at the extremity, no matter what the depth of the drill, a hole
is burned in the rock by means of fuel, and a current of air kept up by a
bellows for the purpose. The tube attached to the bellows is an ingenious
and admirable application of scientific principles, and eminently serves the
design of the inventor. The hole burned gradually enlarges, and with the
increased capacity, of course a larger quantity of fuel is admitted ; and conse-
quently a larger fire is kept up, the tendency being to a more rapid enlargement
with each increment of fuel. The object of this cavity is obviously to aflford
a receptacle for a larger amount of gunpowder than can be contained in an
ordinary drill, this cavity being formed in the only practicable mode by which

40 CIRCULATION OF SAP.

it can be obtained artificially. For dry and compact rocks this will be of vast
service. Where the rock is shelly, it may be unnecessary, as the powder may
be easily introduced into the natural seams of the mass. A charge of two
kegs was thrown into the cavity formed while we were on the ground, and its
explosion, though not performed under as favorable circumstances as were
desired, caused an extensive rupture of the rock, which is very hard, and was
j udged to be a satisfactory exhibition of the plan of the inventor. We think
the question rests chiefly here : Is it desirable to produce an extensive dis-
ruption of rock at a small expense of time, and a reduction of the great labor
of drilling a large number of holes for blasting ? If so, then we believe Mr.
Stickney's plan accomplishes these desiderata ; and by burning a hole, which
requires one man to blow a bellows, and one to feed the pulverized fuel, which,
indeed, may be done by the blower, a cavity can be obtained in a few hours
of easy labor by one or two hands, which many, by excessive toil, can scarcely
execute in a much longer period. The mechanical force of a large quantity
of powder is thus made available at a small cost, while the economy of the
plan, we think, must be evident to all interested in mining or quarrying
enterprises.

Mr. Stickney's invention, if we are rightly informed, has never been made
public, although he has sold the right for several of the Southern and Western
States, and England and the Colonies in part. The facts which we witnessed
we communicate for the benefit of those whom they may concern. Should
this new mode be adopted extensively, (we think it is used at Quincy,) we
believe the labor and expense of mining and quarrying will be to a great
extent reduced. We shall be glad to have facts on these and similar questions
of industrial economy from all sources.

CIRCULATION OF SAP.

A CLERGYMAN of somc distinction not long since commenced his Sabbath
discourse as follows: "There are some things that I know I know, some
things that I think I know, and some things that I know I do not know."
We have often thought of this comprehensive sentence when we have read
the philosophical explanations of some of our contemporaries, in regard to
subjects which we are very much inclined to think might better be classed in
the last division of subjects above given, while they speak as if with authority.
One of our most judicious writers, who seldom mistakes the imagination for the
actual perception, (the learned editor of the New-England Farmer^) in a recent
number says, " The sap is elevated (i#n the tree) in the same manner as oil
rises in the wick of the lamp." We " do not know " that this is not true,
but it seems to us safer and therefore wiser to give only as hypothesis what
must be acknowledged so very far from absolute demonstration. Perhaps
the elaborated sap descends "in the same manner," and perhaps too it does
not. There are very serious difficulties attending any theory which has un-
dertaken to provide for the circulation of fluids in vegetables. We have
little doubt that it is the same system of influences which causes the entire
circulation of vegetable juices, which first sets it in motion at the root. But
we should be unwilling to assert any thing on this subject, as a matter of
absolute truth, beyond the mere fact that this circulation is actually carried on.

Some recent investigations in Europe have been published, which are of

FREE TRADE PROTECTION. 41

considerable importance. They refer to the formation and propagation of
cells, (fee, and to the circulation of the sap. The former are too purely
scientific, without much practical importance, to receive very general attention.
The theory on the latter branch of the subject approaches the point of actual
deraonstra'tion. The results arrived at are, that the nitrogenized elements,
which are used by the plant, are conveyed upwards from the root exclusively
throucrh the woody tissue of trees, while oxygen and carbon are absorbed and
o-iven out only by the leaf. As this process is essential to growth, the infer-
ence is inevitable that there can be no growth when there are no leaves.
Whether this is in accordance with supposed facts, we are not so clear. The
descending sap, after its preparation in the leaf, descends only in the bark,
forming new layers on the outside of the wood already formed. Hence cut-
ting a ring through the bark does not prevent the ascent of sap, nor its ela-
boration in the leaf, nor its descent until it encounters the ring. Here its
progress is stayed. The result is a greater growth above the ring, more wood,
and more fruit. Ilence this may prove of practical benefit to the fruit-grower.
The excess of sap, or that portion which is not used up in new formations,
enters the wood through the horizontal organs, and again ascends, thus mak-
ing a constant circuit, as in animals. We cannot believe that capillary attrac-
tion does all this.

FREE TRADE— PROTECTION.

A WRITER in our able contemporary, the Merchants^ Magazine, utters the
following paragraph in the June number :

"The fallacy of the 'protective policy' can be made quite apparent, by
applying it to each of the States of our Confederacy. No matter on what
pretense it may be, for protection, or it may be for revenue, the effect would
be the same. Louisiana produces sugar and cotton, and Maine produces
timber and potatoes. Each State needing the products of the other, exchanges
are constantly going on. But suppose each State should subject the product
of the other State to a large duty before it could sell the goods, and suppose
this to be the general arrangement between all the States : the delay, the
expense, and the evasion of the law would be vexatious and ruinous."

Well, suppose it would, what then? " Why, it will be equally so between
nations." Who denies that duties, injudiciously laid, will be productive of evil,
rather than good ? If Louisiana really wants the potatoes of Maine, it surely
would not be wise to demand a high duty on them. But how would it be
if she had 10,000 men idle, and 100,000 acres of arable land lying waste,
on which potatoes would yield a good crop, after it was properly subdued, and
inducements were held out to her own citizens to supply their own State :
would this produce such horrible results ? If Louisiana is, and wishes to be,
dependent on Maine, she would properly decline any restrictions to the prompt
and bountiful supply of her markets. If she wishes to be absolutely indepeiir
dent of them, she must take the opposite course. We can scarcely believe
that even the partisan reader of that paragraph would fail to see that the
evils resulting from a senseless, heedless, reckless mode of doing a thing would
not furnish good reason for refusing to do the same thing in a judicious
manner.

ATMOSPnERIC KEVERSING-DRAFT FURNACE.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 43

ATMOSPHERIC REVERSINO-DRAFT FURNACE,

The opposite engraving represents a very ingenious and valuable im-
provement in Hot Air Furnaces, owned by William Ennis and R. W, Fen-
wick, for which a patent was granted to the inventor, Mr. Ennis, of the firm of
Keyser & Co., Furnace Manufacturers, this city, (New-York,) on the 29th of
March, 1853.

The fire is shown in the furnace I. The grate is supplied with fresh air
through a back tube or channel, F, above the ash-pit or pan, E. A pipe or
passage, J, connects the fire-chamber or stove, I, with the radiator-chamber,
B, in which is placed an inverted hollow cone of cast iron, A, to deflect the
fine solid particles of coal that are sometimes carried off from the fire when
fresh coals are put on, and also to absorb and retain a great amount of heat,
and give it out by radiation so as to economize heat ; also to make a portion
of air return and feed the fire along with any carbonic oxide that may escape,
and thus economize fuel. The pipe F can be closed to regulate the feed of
fresh air. The atmosphere is admitted through the hollow cone at K, and
passes up as shown by the arrows, then out by the pipe M. The large part of
the cone being placed near the pipe J, compresses the smoke into a smaller
space before it reaches the top, where it expands and creates a partial vacuum,
thus combining the element of an artificial draft without the employment of
any mechanical force to do so. This furnace, therefore, must always draw
well. If used for burning bituminous coal, from which much volatile matter
escapes, the supply of fresh air by the hollow cone, if any flame passes up,
will saturate the gas with air, so as to render it combustible, and burn; and
thus this stove will be a smoke-consuming one, well adapted for all places
where they burn bituminous coal. The arrows show the reversing draft of
heated air to support combustion when F is closed.

More information about rights and furnaces may be obtained by letter
addressed to William Ennis & R. ^^^ Fenwick, at the furnace manufactory
of Messi-s. Keyser & Co., 398 Broadway, New-York.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

The first pages of this number are devoted to this subject ; but since that
sheet was put to press, we have been favored with important additional in-
formation in reference to this interesting show. We are glad to have it in
our power to give these statements to the public, for many have expressed
their disappointment at the comparative size of this structure and that in
Hyde I'ark. At the same time, it should be remembered that size is not the
true criterion of merit. In taste and elegance, looking either at the propor-
tions of the building or at the minuter details, this is pronounced, by all who
have seen both, as by far superior to that. This is said both of the exterior
of the building, and of its interior arrangements. When it is well filled with
a selection of the goods oftered, (for many articles have been rejected for want
of room,) we doubt not that the covj) d^oeil, to use a technical phrase, will be
quite satisfactory. If deficient in the rich and splendid, compared with the
former exhibition, it will no doubt be far superior, even in these respects, to
any thing we have ever seen in this country.

But this building is not to contain the whole show. Finding its limits too
small for carrying out the objects of the enterprise, and not adapted to the
proper display of one of the most important elements of American industry —

44

LOWELL MANUFACTORIES.

to wit, machinery — the Directors of the Association deternained to add a build-
ing, about 450 feet long, and averaging nearly 30 feet wide, for the purpose
of containing machinery on the ground floor, and paintings in the second
story. The exhibition will therefore contain a display of machinery in motion
hitherto unequalled in this country, and a show of paintings equally without
a rival heretofore. This gives about an acre of additional area for the exhi-
bition, making the total nearly five acres.

The day of opening is at hand, and the public are beginning to catch not
a little of the spirit which it is so well calculated to inspire.

LOWELL MANUFACTORIES.

On a recent visit to Massachusetts, we spent a day at this centre of Amer-
ican industry, and were allowed by our excellent friend, Mr. Battles, pay-
master of the Tremont corporation, to examine the improvements that are
just introduced into the mills of that company.

They have erected two turbines, each 12 inches deep, and 100 inches dia-
meter, with which they are to drive the machinery of the whole mill, amount-
ing to 16,600 spindles, with the other machinery connected with the estab-
lishment. These wheels operate by means of an immense iron shaft, 450
feet long, weighing at the larger end 180 lbs. to the foot, and tapering to a
diameter of six inches.

We were again reminded of the fact, which we had seen stated elsewhere,
that the soldiers of Calcutta are clothed in American cottons. We were
also furnished with their annual table of the statistics of the manufactures
of Lowell for the year 1852, which is condensed as follows

No. of Manufacturing Corporations,

No. of Mills,

Amount of Cotton consumed in 1852, bales.

pounds,

tons, .

tons,

bushels,

cords, .

gallons,

gallons,

pounds,

barrels,

Wool
Iron
« Coal

" Charcoal

" Wood

« Oil

" Lard

Starch
Flour
Total Capital,
" Spindles,
" Looms,
Females employed,
Males "

Cloth woven per week — Cotton, yards
Usnaburgs,
• I " Woollens,

" Carpets, .

Cotton Dyed and Printed — yards.

Average wages of Females, clear of board, per week.
Average wages of Males, clear of board, per day, .
Medium produce of a Loom, No. 14 Yarn— yards per day

12

51

91,650

5,148,000

4,500

30,575

68,350

3,J20

69,677

47,000

1,409,000

1,565

13,000,000

342,722

10,606

8,470

4,163

1,460,000

90,000

27,000

25,000

705,000

|2 00

0 80

45

THE POTATO PLANT.

h

Medium produce of a Loom, No. 30 Yarn — yards per day, 33
Average per Spindle — yards per day, . . . . -3*
The Middlesex Company make use annually of 6,000,000 Teasels
2,000,000 lbs. fine Wool, 50,000 lbs. Glue, $30,000 worth Dye Stuffs and
$13,000 worth of Soap.

In addition to the above, the Merrimack Manufacturing Company use
1,000,000 lbs. of Madder, 380,000 lbs. Copperas, 60,000 lbs. Alum, 50,000
lbs. Sumac, 40,000 lbs. Soap, 45,000 lbs. Indigo, per annum.

The Lowell Bleachery use 40,000 lbs. Indigo, and $25,000 worth of other
dyeing materials per year.

Other manufactures are produced in the city than those specified above, of
a value of $1,500,000, employing a capital of $400,000, and about 1,500
hands.

There are four Banks; the Lowell, capital, $200,000; the Railroad,
capital, $600,000 ; the Appleton, capital, $150,000 ; the Prescott, capital'
$100,000. ^ '

The population of Lowell in 1828 was 3,532 ; in 1840 it was 20,V96 ; in
1850 it was 33,385. Increase in ten years, 12,580.

The Lowell Machine Shop, included among the above mills, can furnish
machinery conoplete for a mill of 6,000 spindles, in three months ; and a
mill can be built in the same time.

The several manufacturing companies have established an hospital for the
convenience and comfort of persons employed by them respectively, when
sick, which is under the superintendence of one of the best of surgeons and
physicians.

There are two institutions for savings, the Lowell and the City, The
Lowell had on deposit the first Saturday in Nov. 1850, from 4,609 deposi-
tors, $736,128 12; the City, Jan. 8, 1853, had on deposit, from 2,374 de-
positors, $192,006 01. The operatives in the mills are the principal de-
positors in the above banks.

A vast amount of laudable and successful enterprise of a more strictly
private character might not be inappropriately alluded to in this sheet, not
the least of which are the extensive Powder Mills of Oliver M. Whipple, Esq.,
and the Paper and Batting Mills of Perez 0. Richmond, Esq., both on the
Concord river, within the precincts of the city. Messrs. Fiske <fe Norcross's ex-
tensive lumber-yard and saw-mill, on the Merrimack, are also worthy of notice.

A reservoir of great capacity has been built on the high ground in Belvi-
dere, east of the city, for the purpose of furnishing a ready supply of water
to any part of the city, in cases of fire. The water is conveyed into the
reservoir by means of force-pumps from the Lowell Machine Shop. Pipes
are laid from the reservoir to various parts of the city, at which points hose
can be attached to the hydrants without delay, when necessary.

Estimated population of Lowell ii;i 1853, 37,000.

The Potato Plan?^.— Potat9e^ ^rc not strictly roots, and the plant is not
m that sense a tuberous, r.ooted > plani^ Its true root is fibrous, and consists
solely of those small fibres which are attached to the base of the stem. The
potato (the fruit) is not supported directly from the root, but like the balls,
or like all other fruits, its nutriment is drawn up chiefly through the root,'
goes through the stem to the leaves, and thence descends in the bark to the
potato. A circuitous route this, surely ; but unlike some men. Nature never

46

NEW ROTARY ENGINE.

does violence to her own laws, even to expedite a good work. The food of
the buried potato is prepared by the same process as if it were placed in a
more eminent position.

IMPROVEMENT IN PUMP VALVES.

Mr. Nehemiah Dodge, of this city, has
taken out a patent for a new arched
valve which may be applied to various
purposes, and which seems to us a very
great improvement over those now in
use. A representation of this valve, is
here given, which may be described as
follows : A is the valve, turning upon a
hinge at b ; a is the valve socket, or one
of the two plane surfaces upon which it
rests when closed ; e is the staple which
holds the box together ; d is the bottom
ring on which the outside hydraulic
packing rests; f is the space designed
for the packing inside when the valve is
open : it rests against one side of the
staple E, which keeps it in its place.
When it is closed, it shuts down upon
the two surfaces beneath, which may be
packed, if desired, though for ordinary
purposes this would be unnecessary.
The spear is fastened at m. The valve
should be constructed of a thin piece of
metal.

The peculiar excellences of this valve
consist, first, in giving a large passage
through it when it is open. This passage
is not more limited at the valve than on
the lower parts of the piston. Second,
it is simple, and not liable to get out of

order ; and third, it is durable, being made of materials that will not wear out

in many years.

It may be applied to various purposes, being useful not only for common

water pumps, but equally applicable to steam engines. It may be fitted into

small metallic tubes as readily as into, larger bores.

NEW ROTARY ENGINE.

Br the invitation of the inventor, Capt. Barrows, we were o f the small
company on board the little steamer Rotary on the 19th ult., in a trip of
twelve or fourteen miles, designed to exhibit her capabilities. 'Ihe readers of
the Farmer and Mechanic will remember an engraving with a description of
this new engine, under date of Oct. 23, 1852. We can now give only a
general account of its arrangements. The power is applied directly to the
shaft of the wheels, or, more accurately, to the steam-wheel, the axis of which
is the shaft of the paddle-wheels. The machinery is thus brought into a very

ATMOSPHERIC TELEGRAPH. 4*7

small compass. The steam passes from the boiler into the top of the cylinder
which encloses the steam-wheel. Four sMding pistons project beyond the
circumference of the wheel, and fill the vacant space between it and the
cyhnder. The power of the steam acts directly upon one of these pistons,
driving it forward and causing the wheel to revolve. By a very simple cam-
arrangement, the moment the next piston comes under the power of the steam,
the first piston slides in towards the centre, opening a passage for the steam
behind it to escape, so as to prevent all resistance to the power acting upon
the second piston. This process is repeated as either piston is brought in
contact with the steam. This action is also "double," the steam being admit-
ted on each side of the cylinder at the same time, so that the power is applied
to each half of the wheel. An escape-valve is also provided on opposite sides
of the cylinder, near the entering valves. We need not here refer to the
details of the engine, any further than to say, that the anti-friction rollers, the
stuffing-boxes, packing-pieces, &c., by which a very perfect action is secured,
are of the simplest form, and of thorough workmanship. Information on these
subjects can be obtained of the inventor, at the corner of Beekman and Water
streets. We regard this as a quite successful experiment. An engine is here
presented to the public, at a much less cost than those of the usual form, occu-
pying but a small part of the space they require, the power of which is appa-
rently capable of being increased indefinitely. The boat " Rotary" is about
36 tons burden. The machinery, except the boiler, scarcely occupies a cubic
yard. The paddle-wheels are 8 or 9 feet in diameter ; the paddles, ten in
number, are each ten inches wide and three feet four inches long. Two are
immersed at one time. The wheels revolve, under a pressure of 80 lbs.,
which her certificate allows her, about forty-two times per minute, and give
her a speed of quite ten miles an hour, in still water.

ATMOSPHERIC TELEGRAPH.

This seems to be the next step in the order of progress, and one which
presents fewer apparent difficulties than most of the great mechanical inven-
tions of the day led us to anticipate when they were first proposed.

This plan contemplates the sending of packages, mail bags, <fec. in all
their huge bulk, through a given distance at a very rapid rate, and yet a rate
which may be substantially under the control of the operator. Suppose a
tube were extended from New-York to Boston, having a diameter of two
feet. The plug or plunger or piston is at the Boston end, and pumps are set
in motion on this side. The pressure of the atmosphere becomes constantly
diminished on the inner surface, while on the outer it remains the same. As
soon as the difterence of these pressures equals, or rather exceeds by a small
amount the resistance of friction within the tube, the plunger will be set in
motion, and the amount of motion will depend upon the extent to which the
pnmps are operated. Were the plunger forcibly detained till the exhaustion
was pretty thorough, when set at liberty its velocity would be very great and
perhaps in practice it might be found that, to overcome certain obstacles in
passing curves, or from other causes, a considerable velocity would be neces-
sary to prevent its progress from being entirely checked. The more rapidly the
exhaustion is carried on, the more speedily, of course, would the obiect be
attained ; and the only practical difficulty which seems to us to present itself
IS the possibility that the friction of the plunger, increased by the weight to
be earned, would be too great for the pressure of the atmosphere on the tube

48 RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

This friction of the plunger must be something essential, to insure it from
admittino- the air between its own surface and that of the tube. And if this
pressure is equivalent to a force of many pounds, it may exceed the efficient
pressure of the atmosphere on the outer surface, which must be less than
fifteen pounds to the square inch. This would be the greatest possible work-
ing power, were the vacuum behind it perfect. If the air is only partially
exhausted, the working pressure will, of course, be much less. Probably this
difficulty may be overcome, if found to exist, by applying forcing pumps
behind the plunger. If this were done, we can see no reason to doubt that
almost any weight could be driven through a pipe free from short curves or
other prominent obstructions. We shall be glad to see this project commenced
and carried through forthwith.

RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

Portland and Montreal Railroad. — The grading of this road beyond
Island Pond, and the junction with the Canadian terminus, is completed,
and the placing of the rails has been commenced. This section extends
about thirteen miles.

Albany and Binghamton Railroad. — The contracts have been let,
on the condition that it shall be completed in the fall of 1855.

Reading Railroad. — This company are about commencing four new
stone bridges, in the place of wooden ones. One is to be at Peacock's Locks,
over the Schuylkill ; one at Orwigsburg Landing ; one at Black Rock, and one
at the Falls of Schuylkill. The last will consist of six oblique arches, each
of seventy-eight feet span, with an elevation of roadway forty-eight feet above
the water. They are also adding ten new locomotives of the first class.

Cleveland, Medina, and Tuscarora Railroad. — The route of this road
is laid down as follows : the Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Columbus Railroad is
used to Grafton, twenty-five miles ; thence to Medina and to Dalton, through
Seville, and through Dover to New-Philadelphia. From thence to the Ohio,
opposite Wheeling. Its length is 418 miles.

Attica and Alleghany Valley Railroad. — Ten miles of this road are
graded and nearly ready for the rails. This road connects with the New-York
Central line at Batavia, and runs to the south line of the State, there con-
necting with the Alleghany Valley Railroad to extend from Pittsburgh to
the northern line of Pennsylvania, connecting these flections of country with
the far West.

The St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad Company has declared a
dividend of 27| per cent. This includes all the back interest from the com-
mencement of the work, and is a final settlement of the road stock previous
to the amalgamation with the Grand Trunk Company. It is supposed that
the cars will run regularly from Portland to Montreal by the middle of July
next.

Kennebec and Somerset Railroad. — The stock of this railroad is taken
up. It extends from Augusta to Skowhegan, through Vassalborough and
Waterville.

Nashua and Lowell Railroad. — The income for the year ending March
31, 1853, was $142,129 26 ; expenditures, |86,108 05 ; earnings, $56,021 21 .
Two dividends of 4 per cent, have been declared, and there is a nett surplus
on hand of $8,021 21.

RAILROAD OPERATIONS. 49

Vermont and Massachusetts Railkoad. — Earnings for the year ending
April, 1852, were 815,442 18 ; for that ending April,l853, $22,577.

Boston, Concord, and Montreal Railroad has commenced running to
Woodville, opposite Wells river, and the event was celebrated by a great
gathering, with a dinner, speeches, toasts, &c.

Girard Railway. — This road, as surveyed, will be about 225 miles in
length, from Girard, Alabama, to Mobile. This city. Mobile, has subscribed
$1,000,000 towards its construction to Greenville.

Marietta and Cincinnati Railway. — This Company have advertised for
contracts.

Railroad in California. — It is proposed to build a railroad from Benicia
to Marysville, a distance, as surveyed, of about eighty-five miles. The report
of the surveyor is favorable.

Ohio and Pennsylvania Railroad. — An indignation meeting has been
held at Massillon, on account of alleged mismanagement of this road. Sundry
resolutions were adopted.

Dubuque and Pacific Railroad Company. — A Company has been
organized for the construction of this road, with a capital of $11,000,000.

Railroads in Virginia. — Completed roads measure 600 miles, and 610
more are now in progress.

North Carolina has completed 280 miles, and proposes some 500 more.

Ohio has 1,285 miles completed, and 1,719 in process of construction,
besides others advertised for contract.

The Pacific Railway Company has completed a road for fifty miles west
of St. Louis, and it is under contract for 135 miles. Its length is to be 600
miles to the boundary of the State. The point where the road intersects the
Kansas river, is the point from which Mr. Edward Beale is to take his departure
on the survey of the Benton and Fremont route for a railroad to the Pacific.

Philadelphia, Easton, and Water-Gap Railroad. — Twenty-two sec-
tions were allotted to contractors on the 28th ult. The Company expect to
finish the road through to the Lehigh river next year.

The Albany and Susquehanna Railroad is said to be contracted for by
Governeur Morris, George L. Schuyler, Sidney G. Miller, Jonah W. Baker,
James S. T. Stranahan, and C. G. Case.

New-York and New-Haven Railway. — Receipts for the year amount to

$806,713 19, and the expenses, $380,052 32— leaving a profit balance of

8359,490 31.

The whole cost of the New-York road and equipments is $4,318,606 60,

exclusive of real estate and buildings, amounting to over half a million.

The capital stock is $3,000,000, and tie bonds of the Harlem road and Canal

lease, $1,840,000.

The whole number of passengers carried over the road the past year is

956,753— as follows:
Between New-Haven and New- York, - - - - 614,715

Commuters, - - - - 130,115

Between New- York and Naugatuck road, - - - - 21,789

Between New-Haven and Junction of Naugatuck, - - - 39,517

VOL. VI. PART I. 4

50 mendenhall's hand-loom.

Between New- York and Bridgeport, 19,725

Through passengers between Hartford, New- York, and New-Haven, 48,603
Between New- York and Boston both ways, - - - - 42,167

From Canal Raih-oad, both ways, 4,407

To and from Hartford, - - - - - - - 112,513

There has been a large outlay in capital for the completion of the second
track, a most important and necessary work, which will enhance the receipts
of the Company, and immeasurably increase the protection of travellers.

The first passenger train from Syracuse to Rochester, by the direct route,
passed over the road on the 11th ult.

On the l7th ult., direct railroad communication, it was expected, would be
open from Columbus to Macon, Ga., by the completion of a branch uniting
the South-western and Muscogee roads.

The vote in Milwaukie on the loan of the city credit to the amount of two
hundred thousand dollars to the Lake Shore Railroad, was 1,566 in favor, to
409 against the measure.

Arrangements have been made between the Danvers and Georgetown
and Newburyport Raih'oads, which will secure a route from Haverhill and
Newbury port through the centre of Essex county to Boston, by these railroads,
in connection with the Boston and Maine Railroad.

It is reported that the Boston and Maine Railroad have taken a lease of
the Danvers Railroad for one hundred years, guaranteeing five per cent, on
the cost, with all that it may earn above that amount.

These roads, when completed, will open a new avenue of travel between
Salem and Haverhill, and also between Salem and Danvers and Boston, via
the Salem and Lowell, Danvers, and Boston and Maine Railroads.

Wisconsin has given charters for fifteen thousand miles of railroad, that
will require $300,000,000 to construct.

Canadian Railways. — Arrangements have been made for an immediate
survey of the route from Port Whitby to Lake Huron.

The contract for this road has been taken by Messrs. Mallish, Morrill, and
Russell, of Brantford, for about $600,000, the work to be finished in two
years.

The Town Council of Brockville has before it a by-law to enable the
municipality to take £50,000 in the railroad from Brockville.

The City Council of Toronto has refused to sell the £100,000 stock held
by the city in the Toronto and Guelph Railway, at par, by a vote of
13 to 10. I J^ f , J

It is expected that the Great Western road will be completed to Port
Sarnia by the first of July, 1854.

St. Lawrence and Champlain Railroad. — Receipts for the year were
$140,000, being $36,000 more than the receipts of 1851.

Mendenhall's Hand-Loom. — We copy from the Pittsburgh Post the
following notice of S. C. Mendenhall's hand-loom : —

"Another most beautiful and truly valuable new invention that I examined
with some care, is a hand-loom which has very lately been patented by S.
C. Mendenhall, of Richmond, Indiana. This loom is constructed, as are al-
most all other really meritorions inventions, in the most simple manner. It

FEEDING bees" AGAIN. 51

is light, and very neat in its appearance; and may be easily worked by a child
of ten years old. It is worked without cams or gear-wheels : the ells are
raised and the shuttle thrown at each movement of the beam ; and in less
than five minutes a change can be made on the same warp from a twill to
plain goods — from satinet to flannel, or from either of these to any other
goods that are woven on a common loom. This invention is peculiarly
adapted to the newer settlements of our country, where manufactories have
not been started ; and if extensively introduced, may retard the advance of
manufacturing establishments, (which I should look upon as a great blessing,)
because of the cheapness of the machine, the ease with which it may be
worked, and the increased amount of cloth that may be made in a given
time : for I am told that on this loom one man may weave thirty yards a
day of any common cloth."

•'FEEDING BEES" AGAIN.

Our neighbor of the Scientific American, in his journal of the 18th,
copies our notice of his statement, that a pound of sugar will make two
pounds of honey, as follows : —

" Our neighbor must revise his chemistry. IIow can a stalk of corn pro-
duce more weight of fruit than the guano a})plied to manure it ? The ques-
tion is not how much honey is produced from a pound of food, but a pound
of sugar. Does not honey contain more moisture than sugar? Let our
neighbor put 20 pounds of honey in a sugar evaporating-pan, and expel all
the moisture, and then weigh the product, and see if he gets any more than
10 pounds of a gummy sugar."

While we admit that we know very little about the transformation of food
into secretion, or of the manner in which plants grow, we suppose there is an
important difference, well established. The stalk of corn is not made from
the substance of the guano, wholly or chiefly. Nearly 98 per cent, of all
plants is from something else than the soil, or the manure applied to it.
This is established by numerous careful experiments. But with the conversion
of food into animal secretions, the fact is perhaps equally well established,
that the secretion is invariably less than the quantity of food. In other
words, there is always more or less of excrement, while the quantity of se-
cretion is not materially increased by the appropriation of free gaseous matter.
An animal probably never increases in weight to the whole amount of his
food, nor does, probably, the amount of his food fall essentially below the
sum of his secretions and excrements. In the case of bees, they are known
to void a considerable amount of excrement (which comes originally from
the food) when at work, though very little while idle, and their food goes to
sustain their bodies in a healtby condition, and to form the peculiar secretion
honey, and also wax. In the animal, the food is the entire material, perhaps,
with the exception of oxygen ; while in plants, the soil seems to be chiefly
a medium for conveying nourishment to the plant. Without intending to
assert expressly the truth of either of the two theories on this subject, we
suppose it is and must be admitted, that if the soil gives up a portion of its
own substance to the plant, it gives up far less than the plant receives, a great
portion of it being conveyed through the soil as a medium, from the atmosphere.
We do not doubt, by the way, that our neighbor possesses a thorough
knowledge of chemistry, but should rather have said that he misapplied his
knowledge. Nor is he alone in the same misapplication, in reference to this

52 HORTICULTURAL EXHIBITION.

article of honey. Ap'arist^ of years' experience have asserted the same
doctrine. Our statement was made on the strength of actual experiments, a
given quantity of food being given and eaten, when they had no access to
other food. This seems the surest mode of testing the truth on this subject.

NEW-YOKK HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY'S EXHIBITION.

We paid a visit to this annual show, held at Metroplitan Hall, June 14,
15, and 16, and found, as usual, quite a collection of plants, most of them in
flower. We failed, however, to see many individual plants that were
especially worthy of notice, further than for their comparative merit, as inti-
mated in the list of premiums. Fuchsias seem to be the flower of the
season, almost as many pots of this being exhibited as of all other kinds.
Mr. Cope's splendid Victoria regia again made its appearance from Phila-
delphia. One of the finest things in the show was a cut specimen or two of
the Magnolia mycrophylla, from a tree of Dr. Kearns, Hudson street.
The flowers are very fine. The usual varieties of hot-house plants were ex-
hibited by the well-known florists of the city and neighborhood. There was
a good show of cut flowers, by Isaac Buchanan ; of the Cactus tribe, &c., by
Thomas Hogg & Son, and various plants by J. B. Lenoir, Alfred Bridgeman,
Andrew Keid, and others. Mr. Dunlap's fine sago plant, Cycas revoluta,
was there, and some excellent lemon trees, with the banana plant, from
Shepherd Knapp, Esq., and others of less imposing appearance. The
Cupressus funehris, by Thomas Hogg & Son, is a beautiful plant.

The following is the award of premiums, so far as we are informed.

Ericas. — First premium, L. Menard, Albany.

Geraniums. — First premium for six Pelargoniums to George Hamblin,
gardener to W. C. Langley, Brooklyn ; 2d premium, three Scarlet Gerani-
ums, to Wm. Vandermenter, Astoria. Mr. Chorlton, of Staten Island,
showed some fine specimens.

Fuchsias. — First premium to John Humphrey, gardener to F.Howe, Esq.,
Brooklyn ; 2d premium to Mr. J. H. Prentice. Discretionary premium to
George Hamblin, gardener to Mr. Langley, of Brooklyn. — very fine plants.

Hot-house Plants. — There was quite an extensive show of these, though
limited in varieties. First premium to James Weir, Yellow Hoop, L. I. ;
2d premium to M. Colman, gardener to Mr. Cummin, of Williamsburg.

Orchis. — First premium to L. Menard.

Cactus. — A discretionary premium to Luke Mullen.

Carnations. — First premium to Wm. Chorlton, gardener to J. C. Greene,
Esq., Staten Island.

Fruits. — In this department we noticed good specimens of strawberries and
cherries, but no grapes, gooseberries, &c. "The 1st premium for cherries was
given to Joseph Cudlepp, Jr; strawberries, 1st premium to Isaac Buchanan,
Astoria ; 2d, to Isaac C. Winans ; 1st premium for three quarts do. to J.
Hardman, gardener to W. H. Paine ; good specimens were also shown by
Wm. Smith, West Farms.

Vegetables. — This part of the show was good, but limited.

Cauliflowers, 1st premium to Martin Collophy, gardener to J. H. Pren-
tice ; 2d do. to A. Gordon, gardener to E. Hoyte, Astoria.

Bhuharb, 1st premium to A. Gordon ; 2d do. to John Brill.

Potatoes, 1st premium to James Angus, gardener to W. W. Fox, West
Farms ; 2d do. to J. Hardman.

NEW STAPLES FROM AFRICA. 53

Peas, 1st premium to James Angus ; 2d to J. Hardman.
Beets, 1st premium to Joseph Cudlepp, Jr. ; 2d do. to John Brill.
Cabbage, 1st premium to Joseph Cudlepp, Jr.; 2d do. to John Brill.
Radishes, 1st premium to James Angus.
Cucumbers, 1st premium to A. Gordon, gardener.

Lettuce, 1st premium to John Brill ; 2d do. to Joseph Cudlepp, Jr.
Best Vegetables, 1st premium to John Flick, Bloomingdale.

LAYING OUT SURFACES.

A FEW simple rules are oftentimes convenient to thoso who are not convere-
ant with surveying operations, and a writer in the Western Horticultural
Review has coraraunicated to that work some very good ones, some of which
we copy, and to which we add a few others.

To lay out an acre in a circle. — First fix a centre, and with a rope as a
radius, seven rods, three links and three eighths long, one end attached to the
centre, and kept uniformly stretched, the sweep of it at the other end will
lay out the acre.

For one quarter of an acre, a rope three rods and fourteen links will be the
right length.

For one eighth of an acre, a rope two rods and thirteen links will be the
right length.

Triangles. — If you wish a triangle to contain just an acre, make each side
nineteen rods, five and a half links long.

A triangle whose sides are six rods and twenty links long each, will contain
one eighth of an acre.

To lay out an ellipse or oval. — Set three stakes in a triangular position.
Around these stretch a rope. Take away the stake at the apex of the
triangle, which will be where the side of the oval is to come ; move the stake
along against the rope, keeping it tight, and it will trace out the oval.

A square to contain an acre, or just one hundred and sixty rods, should
have each of its sides just twelve rods, ten feet and seven tenths long.

To draw an oval of a given size. — The long and short diameter being
given — say twenty feet for the shorter, and one hundred for the longer —
divide the short diameter into any number of equal parts — say ten — and
from each point draw a line parallel to the long diameter ; then divide the
long diameter into the same number of equal parts, (ten,) and from each
point draw a line parallel to the short diameter. Then draw aline from point
to point where each corresponding line cuts the other, on the outside, and
this connecting mark will describe the oval or ellipse required.

NEW STAPLES FROM AFRICA.

A London correspondent has recently sent to the North American a letter
on this subject which is worthy of attention. It appears that a new trade is
now opened with that continent, which contains 160,000,000 of inhabitants.
One of the articles recently received in England is a fibrous substance, sent
by a missionary from Abbeokuta, as red cotton. It is not cotton, but a new
species of silk. It is brought from the Houssa country, in great quantities,
and is supposed to have been colored with alkanet root. Another article,

54 CANADA THISTLES.

sent also as cotton, is a peculiar description of wool, from Gratta, on the west
coast of Abbeokuta. It is tolerably fine, of a buff color, worth about one shilling
and three pence a pound, and proves very acceptable to wool-dealers. It may
be bad in large quantities.

The finest merino textures, like those used in the manufacture of the finest
shawls by the Persians and others, are also grown in Africa. The sugar-
cane is beginning to receive attention, and finds there a congenial soil and
climate. Rice is also grown. Grapes and oranges are found every where " in
wild luxuriance," and are found to pay the gatherer very liberally. That
continent must eventually prove of great value to our commerce.

rOK THB PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AMD THE ANVIL.

CA.NADA THISTLES.

July and August are the months to exterminate Canada Thistles. Some
people doubt whether they can be killed even by perseverance ; but I am
no doubter on this point. Thistles can be eradicated, and with much less
diflBeulty than quack-grass. The best way to get rid of them is to mow
them when they have attained to their full size. Any man Avho has had
experience in mowing and killing them, can judge as to the time when they
should be cut down. The stalks are hollow ; the blossoms are red — not
much faded ; the lower leaves are dead ; and the weather warm and dry.
When these appearances present themselves, you should make an attack
upon your beds of thistles. Several years since, we had a large and thrifty
" patch" of them, on rich soil, and the land was seeded down to timothy,
though, in consequence of the luxuriant growth of the thistles, the grass did
not amount to much ; and the whole mass of stuff was mowed down in the
month of July, and not one bit of it removed from the field. The second
year after they were thus mowed, they were scarce, a few only remaining in
the field. The lot has been mowed every year since, and to my certain know-
ledge there is scarcely a thistle to be found in the field. Another " patch" was
served the same way, and the lot is now clear of thistles. Ploughing them
out by the roots is adopted to some extent in this section of New-York ; but,
on the whole, mowing them down in the months of July and August seems
to be the best mode of extirpating them. I do not look upon them with
one-half as much horror, either in the meadow or corn-field, as I do upon
quack-grass. This is decidedly a bad grass, and will soon take advant;ige
of a large field.

I am of opinion that Canada thistles can be killed by deep and thorough
ploughing. For instance, if you have a piece of land which you wish to
summer^fallow, and which has been and is burdened with thistles, you
would doubtless make money by ploughing it at least three times, and not
let your plough run less than ten inches deep. I think this mode of manag-
ing them would result in their final extermination. When they are mowed
down close to the ground, the remaining portion of the stalk is usually filled
with water ; and this leads to the decay of the roots, and the death of the
thistle.

In Central New-York we are troubled a good deal with thistles, though
we are gradually getting rid of them, and ultimately shall free ourselves en-
tirely from them; or, at least, I think such will be the case if we adopt the
system of mowing them in hot weather, and at the right stage of their
growth. W. Tappan.

Baldwinsville, N. Z, June, 1853.

TABLE FOR PLANTING CORN, &C. -55

Serpentine. — We are surprised that no more account is made of this
rock for ornamental purposes. Much of it is as elegant as any vo-d antique,
and localities of it are not very unfrequent. We have personally visited
some half dozen of them, and are persuaded that the supply is abundant.
It is of various colors ; and while some of it is of a uniform green, other
specimens are as handsomely variegated as any of the mottled marbles.

For fire frames and ornamental hearths, it is said to be superior to marble.
There is an extensive supply of serpentine in Cavendish, Vermont, which
for a time was o];ei-ated ; and though the mill where the rock was sawed is
still standing, and scores, if not hundreds of slabs are lying about the build-
ing, many of tliein handsomely polished, nothing has been done with it for
years. Again, in Orange county, in the same State, immense masses of this
rock are found al! along the Green Mountain range. It again crops out in
Oj'ange county, in and around Troy, in connection with the iron ore.

In Newbury, Massachusetts, there is a bed of it, which, however, is proba-
bly less extensive than in the other places named ; but from personal obser-
vation, we have no doubt that all the other localities might be turned to
good account. All are in the vicinity of a railroad, (that at Ti'oy being most
remote,) and in places quite accessible. We have seen elegant fireplaces from
Cavendish locality, that would compare well even with the choicer kinds of
Italian marble.

TABLE FOR PLANTING CORN, TREES, &g.

The following table may be useful for pointing out the number of hills of
potatoes, corn, plants, trees, &c., required for an acre of land, when planted
at any of the distances given : —

Distances apart No. of Plants.

i ft. by ^ ft. - 174,240

43,560

19,360

21,780

10,890

6,969

14,520

7,260

4,840

3,555

10,890

6,445

3,630

2,722

8,712

4,356

2,904

2,178

1,742

1,210

888

680

531
435

1

u

1

u

2

u

H

1

2

((

2

s

1

3

u

2

3

u

3

4

u

H
1

4

u

2

4

u

3

4

11

4

5

((

1

5

'(

2

5

il

3

5

(i

4

5

u

5

6

u

6

7

^l

7

8

a

8

9

((

9

10

u

10

56 SCIENTIFIC AND MECHANICAL MONTHLY RECORD.

SCIENTIFIC AND MECHANICAL MONTHLY RECORD.

The Gauge Question. — ^Edward H. Brodhead, civil engineer, has a long
article in the MilwauTcie News on the subject of the gauge of railways. In the
course of it he says :

" I passed over portions of the New- York and Erie Railroad last season, on
foot, for the purpose of examining the effect produced on the rails, and especially
on the curved portions, by the passage of the trains. I knew theoretically that
the pressure against the outer rail was much increased by an increase of the
width between them, and also, that it might be lessened by elevating the outside
rails, though this would only be true for a given rate of speed. Still I was sur-
prised to find that the flanges of the wheels acted, to a greater extent than I had
before seen on the narrow gauge, as a plane to shave off the inside of the top of
the outside rail, in consequence of the increased resistance by reason of the
extra width, and found that a shaving of iron was left in the track for nearly the
entire length of the curve after the passage of trains.

"Now, it requires some considerable power, with a sharp-edged tool in a plan-
ing machine, to cut off a shaving of the same size. How much power, then,
must have been exerted to produce a like result by pressing the smooth surface
of the flanges of the wheels against an equally smooth surface of the rail?"

To Keep Felloes Tight. — Soak each felloe before the tire is put on, for one
hour, in hot linseed oil. This will essentially prevent it from absorbing water,
and thus it prevents decay. We get this from a writer in the Southern
Planter.

New Cotton Mattkess. — A patent has been secured for a new mattress of
cotton, so prepared that it will not mat, but retain its elasticity as well as hair.
If the plan succeeds, it will be of value in two ways : one in giving a good bed
at a cheap rate ; the other, in opening a new and general market for one of our
chief staples.

Refining Sugar. — John Mcintosh, of Surry, England, has patented a new
process for refining sugar. The improvement consists in placing evaporating
pans, used in the concentration of saccharine fluids, in rooms, the air of which
is heated to such a temperature as will evaporate the fluid. A current of air is
made to circulate through the room, so as to carry off the vapors as the saccha-
rine fluids are raised by endless bands passing over and under rollers, in and
above the pans, to expose an extended surface to the action of the heated air.

India Rubber and Coal Tar. — Mr. C. Goodyear, of this city, has recently
taken out a patent in England for a new compound, composed of India rubber
and coal tar vulcanized with sulphur. Coal is heated in an open boiler until it
requires the consistency of melted rosin, when it is mixed with India rubber, in
proportions which may vary according to the character of the material to be
produced for a specific purpose. It is mixed with sulphur, and then heated to
vulcanize it.

India Rubber Teeth. — This article, in the form of purified white India rubber,
has been patented in England for making artificial teeth, gums, and palates.
By its adoption, many advantages, hitherto impossible to be attained, have been
introduced. The adhesion is complete ; it can be moulded with perfection to suit
every inequality of the gums and teeth, and supplies an artificial periosteum, as
it were, to the teeth, which often become painful by the wasting away of the
gum. Added to these, is the elasticity of the material, which completely obvi-
ates the inconveniences that arise from any motion with artificial teeth as made
by other means. Combs are also manufactured from the same material.

Wonderful Pegging Machine. — It is said that a machine has been invented
that will peg a shoe in two or three minutes, with one, two, or three rows of
pegs, and mahe its own pegs as it does the work. The Buffalo Express stands
godfather to this statement.

SCIENTIFIC AND MECHANICAL MONTHLY RECORD. 57

New Scbew-Cutter. — Mr. D. M. Robertson, of Piermont, N. Y., foreman in
the machine-shop of the Erie Raihoad, has lately invented and constructed a
machine for cutting screws on iron bolts, which has two peculiarities : one is,
that the driving-power is applied to a pulley, giving the pulley and the cutting-die
one uniform rotary motion, and thus avoiding the reverse motion of the common
machines, and thus saving at least one third of the power and time of bolt-
cutting. Another advantage is, that the cutting edge of the cutting die is per-
pendicular to and parallel with the centre of the bolt when fitted to its place to
be cut. The machine promises to be of much utility. Patent pending.

Cast Iron AVelding. — In the foundry connected with the railroad repair-shop
at Piermont, N. Y., Harvey Rice, Esq., Superintendent, the experiment has been
successfully tried of casting fused iron upon unmelted iron. A flange had been
broken from the out surface of a locomotive cylinder. Mr. R. E. Falkenberry,
foreman of casting, so adjusted the moulding-sand to the broken flange and to
the cylinder, and so applied the fused iron as to restore the part wanting. The
minutiae of the process he will explain to those who inquire. The new part
added to the flange is so skilfully welded on, that the precise line where the new
and old parts unite cannot be detected after the parts are polished. Broken
bills have been mended in this same manner, at these works.

Use op Coke on Railroads. — The Cumherland Alleghanian says that the
passenger engines on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, west of Piedmont, are
now using coke as a fuel, instead of wood, and that it meets the most sanguine
anticipations of the Company, as to economy and eflBciency. The coke was fur-
nished from the mines of tlie Swanton Coal and Iron Company, The introduc-
tion of coke instead of wood on all the roads on the Atlantic seaboard must now
soon follow ; thus opening a new and immense market for the products of our
mines. It is doubtful if any other section of the United States than our own
Alleghany region can furnish a suitable coal for the purpose of making coke for
locomotives.

Colored PnoTocKApns. — A new process of coloring photographs has been pa-
tented by J. Leon Jardieu, of Paris. It is applicable to pictures taken on paper
rendered transparent, or on glass, and consists in applying oil or other colors at
the back of the picture, so as to give the requisite tints to the several parts of
the photograph, without interfering with the extreme delicacy of effect which
characterizes this class of productions. Application has been made for a patent
in this country.

Street-cleaning Machines. — A man named Nurton Ramkin, of St. Louis)
has invented a machine for cleaning streets, which is thus spoken of by the
Hepvblican :

" It is a scraper so peculiarly constructed, that as it passes over the street it
throws the earth on the street up in rows, at the curb-stones, much as a plough
will throw the sod over in a particular direction. When the earth and clean-
ings of the street are thus deposited, another machine throws the whole into
heaps convenient to be carted away. It is said by mechanics and others who
have examined the model, that with two horses and two men, the labor of fifty
men can be performed in less time."

Improvement in Joining Stones. — An improved method of uniting or locking
stones together in building light-houses, and for other like purposes, by which
the necessity of using mortar is entirely superseded, has been invented by John
P. Avery, of Stonington, Connecticut, who has taken measures to secure a
patent. It consists in dovetailing together the sides of the stones used for the
foundation, and joining them again in a similar manner with others, so that it is
impossible to separate them without first breaking the stones in pieces. In
order to unite them more firmly, a bolt or key is employed for pressing the dove-
tails firmly in their corresponding slots ; or pieces of stone or other material
may be employed for this purpose, and the crevices filled up with mortar.

Straw Paper. — This manufacture was first introduced about fifty years ago,
but was only partially successful. By an interesting and important improve-

a

58

SCIENTIFIC AND MECHANICAL MONTHLY RECORD.

ment in the mode of preparation, the use of straw as a material for paper may
now be considered permanently established in England, Ireland, and the United
States.^ So little difference is perceptible between rag and straw paper, that the
latter is used by one of the London journals regularly. One peculiar feature of
the manufacture is, that although the article can be produced at a price not
exceeding that of ordinary printing paper, it is applicable for both writing and
printing purposes.

Novel Mode of Bridging. — The method adopted for bridging the Great Pee-
dee river, on the Wilmington and Manchester Railroad, is worthy of remark, as
showing another purpose to which iron may be extensively applied. The piers
for the bridge are composed of large hollow cylinders of cast iron, nineteen feet
in circumference : their bases are sunk many feet into the bed of the river by
exhausting the air from within them, by the method know as the Pneumatic
Process, for forming foundations. The cylinders are filled with concrete, and
thus form hills of great strength and permanency.

HoRSE-PowER. — On the trial of the Broadway Railroad question, it was testified
by James Lorey, civil engineer, that the power of a horse is about sufiBcient to
draw twenty tons on a level railroad. The weight of 60 men, at 140 lbs. each,
would be about four and a half tons, and car and passengers, ten and one fifth
tons. " Two horses cannot be depended on to draw this weight up a grade of
110 feet to the mile. It would be equal to 64 tons on a level. A horse could
draw four times as much on a level, in a car on a railway, as in an omnibus
over a cobble-stone pavement."

Curious Device in Grafting. — The gardeners of Italy sell plants of jasmins,
roses, honeysuckles, &c., all growing together from a stock of orange, myrtle, or
pomegranate, on which they say they are grafted. But this is a mere deception ;
the fact being, that the stock has its centre bored out, so as to be made into a
hollow cylinder, through which the stems of jasmines and other flexible plants
are easily made to pass, their roots intermingling with those of the stock. After
growing for a time, the increase in the diameter of the stems, thus enclosed,
forces them together, and they assume all the appearance of being united to one
common stem.

Compressed Air Carriage. — The Paris Presse says that it has seen, upon the
Champs Elysees, a carriage containing two persons, proceed for twenty minutes,
at the full speed of a horse, by means of a cylinder of compressed air, of so
small a volume that you might put it in your pocket. The inventor thinks he
has obtained a practicable plan of utilizing compressed air, and has discovered a
means of compressing it at a merely nominal cost. A paper on this subject has
been read to the Academy of Sciences. M. Julienne proposes to adapt the prin-
ciple to carriages and street vehicles merely, to which it may be applied with
great economy and perfect safety. With a small cylinder, a party may take an
airing at the Bois de Boulogne, at any rate of speed, from a walk up to a gallop.

Important Invention. — At a late sitting of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
at Vienna, Ilerr Von Amer read a paper upon a newly discovered process of
printing from all sorts of objects with comparatively plain surfaces. Among the
articles mentioned which have been copied by the new process, are plants, some
of them in flower, embroideiy, etched agate, insects, fish-scales, &c. The
speaker calls this " Natursolbetdruck" — printing from Nature — and said that this
discovery forms a new era in the pictorial illustration of works on science and
art. The objects copied were given with singular fidelity to the originals. No
hint was given as to the process.

Improved Lithographic Press. — An improved press for lithographic printing has
been invented by II. C. Spaulding, of Hartford, Connecticut. The object accon>-
phshed by the improvement consists in giving a uniform and forcible impression
to all parts of the stone, with the expenditure of but a very small amount of
power. The arrangement of Mr. Spaulding for effecting this object is this : a
wood or metallic air-tight chamber or tube, containing water or other fluid, with
its bottom or one side composed of India rubber or some other water-proof,

SCIENTIFIC AND MECHANICAL MONTHLY RECORD. 59

elastic or pliable material, is used to give the impression ; said chamber being
furnished with a tub and plunger, and the pliable bottom or side of the chamber
serving as the tympan. By applying pressure to the plunger, an equal amount
of pressure is transmitted by the water or fluid to every part of the tympan, and
by using a small plunger an immense pressure may be obtained with a small
expenditure of power. Measures have been taken to secure a patent

Glazed Ware— American Porcelain.— G'fe^e, with which our "china ware"
is covered, is variously prepared. Gypsum, silica, and a little porcelain clay are
ground together, and mingled with water. Into this mixture each article is
dipped, and immediately withdrawn, when the glaze is left evenly spread over
its surface. It is then dried, and exposed afterwards for several hours to a pow-
erful heat.

The glazing for common earthenware is a mixture of the oxides of lead and
of tin.

The glazing of " stone ware" is made by volatilizing common salt in a heated
furnace, which combines with the silex of the ware. The substance of "stone-
ware," is a kind of porcelain clay, containing an oxide of iron and of lime. The
Editor of the Trihme says :

"The custom-house valuation of china, porcelain, earthen and stoneware,
imported into this country in the year ending June 30, 1846, was $2,261,331 ;
in 1850, 82,601,803 ; in 1851, $2,320,002. The sum actually paid for these
articles during the last year by our jobbers was probably not less than five mil-
lions, and by the consumer at least eight millions of dollars. And there is not a
particle of reason for our importing these wares from the Old AYorld, outside of
the fact that Europe had the start of us with regard to them, and has so far
managed to keep ii. We have every natural requisite to their cheap and elegant
production, as we trust will soon be made evident. Old dealers have assured us
that while almost every ware or fabric extensively produced in this country has
been steadily and materially cheapened, the wares we are contemplating now
sell at very nearly the prices of thirty years ago.

Opalescent Paper. — How can we make one kind of paint or liquid produce
many different colors; and this with an amount of material almost beneath the
power of man to weigh or measure? Mr. De la Rue has solved this question by
the production of his beautiful iridescent and opalescent paper. Water is poured
into a flat vessel ; and when quite tranquil, a very minute quantity of spirit
varnish is sprinkled upon the surface ; this, by a species of attraction between
the two liquids, spreads out on all sides, and covers the whole surface with a film
of exquisite thinness.

A sheet of paper, or card board, or any other article, is then dipped ftiirly into
the water, and raised gently, with that surface uppermost which is to receive
the color ; it lifts up the film of varnish from off" the surface of the water, and
the film becomes deposited upon the paper itself The paper is held in an
inclined position, to allow the water to drain off from beneath the film ; and the
varnish then remains permanent on the surface of the paper.

The paper thus coated with colorless varnish exhibits the prismatic tints with
exquisite clearness. The film of varnish is so extremely thin, so far beneath
any thing that could be laid on with a brush or pencil, that it reflects light on
the same principle as the soap-bubble, exhibiting differences of color on account
of minute differences in the thickness of the film at diflferent parts. And not
only so, but the self-same spot exhibits different tints acording to_ the angle at
which we view it. It is a means of producing a beautiful result with a marvel-
lously small expenditure of materials.

Hemp. — The New-Orleans papers speak highly of specimens of hemp made from
the fibres of the okra, or "gumbo" plant. They state that the merit of this
hemp consists in the cheapness of its culture, the abundance of the raw material,
the quickness with which it grows— giving, they understand, three crops a year-
its superior yield to the acre — five times as much as the Kentucky hemp — its
more durable qualities in water or damp than any other hemp, and its easy
manufacture into bagging. It is stated that the article can be produced at the
North as well as at the South, though not so profusely, and that it will supersede
all other sorts of hemp in the manufacture of bagging.

60 SCIENTIFIC AND MECHANICAL MONTHLY RECORD.

Great Improvement in the Treatment op Flax. — A great improvement in
the early preparation of flax has been discovered in Ireland by a Mr. Watt. By
it the flax is prepared for scutching without fermentation in 24 hours. The
coarse flax Is steamed along with some lime-water, or high-pressure steam itself
will answer, for five hours in a close, tight vessel : it is then taken out, run be-
tween heavy fluted rollers, and dried, when it is fit for scutching. By this pro-
cess the woody matter is rendered easy of separation from the fibrous ; in scutch-
ing, very little tow is made. It is a plan highly spoken of by the Royal Flax
Society.

Plastic Materials for forming various Objects. — Five parts of sifted whit-
ing are mixed with a solution of one part of glue. When the whiting is worked
up into a paste with the glue, a proportionate quantity of Venetian turpentine is
added to it, by which the brittleness of the paste is destroyed. In order to pre-
vent its clinging to the hands while the Venetian turpentine is being worked
into the paste, a small quantity of linseed oil is added from time to time. The
mass may also be colored by kneading in any color that may be desired. It
may be pressed into shapes, and used for the production of bas-reliefs and other
figures, such as animals, &c. It may also be worked by hand into models, during
which operation the hands must be rubbed with linseed oil ; the mass must also
be kept warm during the process. When it cools and dries, which takes place
in a few hours, it becomes hard, and may then be employed for the multiplication
of these forms.

This is no doubt practicable, and we give it as one mode, but probably gutta
percha is now the cheapest and best material for all such uses. We purpose to
prepare a paper on this material in our next number.

Ship Ventilation. — A new mode of accomplishing this important service has
been devised and put in practice in a new Liverpool ship. The masts are hollow,
and are furnished with valves to open or shut at pleasure. Those who have
noticed the effect of a tall chimney-glass or a common solar lamp, will appreciate
the efficiency of this plan. An argand burner at the bottom of such a tube
would greatly add to its efficiency.

The following analysis of wheat bran, made by Professor Norton, of Yale
College, shows that it contains ingredients valuable for feeding. The Nos. indi-
cate different qualities of wheat and bran :
No. 1, No, 2,

Oil, - - - 5.16 6.17

Water, - - 11.29 11.82

Ash, - - - 6.90 6.09

Iron Railroad Bridge. — A bridge of this kind is nearly completed, over the
Monongahela, above Fairmount, Va. It is second only to that over the Menai
Straits, in England, having no rival on this continent.

The Clipper-Ship "Northern Light" has made the most successful voyage
from California that has been made by any vessel, including the steamships.
Her time was only 76 days. She was built by Messrs, Briggs, South Boston,

Another Yacht Victory. — The American yacht " Truant," the property of
Mr. Robert Grinnell, has recently beaten all her competitors at a regatta on the
Thames. She was built in this city by Mr. Robert Fish,

New Use for Mustaches, — The stone-masons of Glasgow are cultivating these
appendages of the face, to screen the mouth from the fine sand to which they
ai'e exposed in their trade. If found useful, we submit and might recommend
them to some other tradesmen, but the evidence ought to be conclusive ere such
a custom is regarded with much favor.

Important " Strike." — The wood-choppers, we learn, are determined on a
strike. Some demand more wedges^ and threaten to sj^lit unless acceded to.
After some time of log-rolling and larJcing on both sides, this knotty question
was settled by their demands being granted.

No. 3.

No. 4,

No. 5.

6.16

6.53

6,49

12.02

12.06

12.91

9.09

7.08

6.07

editors' jottings, etc. 61

EDITORS' JOTTINGS, ETC.

Steamboats from Netv-Yoek to Boston. — The author of An UnglisTiman'a
Experience in America came from Boston to this city in the Empire State, one
of the boats of the Fall River route. He uses, in this work, the following well-
deserved commendation :

"The word boat gives a very imperfect idea of this floating palace, which ac-
commodates, at the very moderate charge of four dollars each, from five to six
hundred American citizens and others, of all classes, in a style of splendor that
Cleopatra herself might envy. Her barge with suits of purple silk, in which she
received Marc Antony, was nothing to it. There is little to remind one of ma-
chinery, for the paddle-wheels are covered, and the engine is rendered invisible
by being surrounded with glass and drapery. However, one thing is certain : the
vessel moves smoothly and quickly through the water. I followed a crowd of
five hundred up a handsome staircase, through splendidly furnished saloons,

covered with carpets of velvet pile, to the upper deck Tea being

announced, we all adjourned to the gentlemen's cabin There were

three tables the entire length of the room, covered with every thing that was
beautiful, but nothing that seemed eatable except pineapples and some small,
delicate, delicious-looking things, that, for want of a better word, I shall call rolls,
though it vulgarizes them sadly. Notwithstanding this unusual appearance, you
no sooner wished for any thing than a ministering spirit was at your elbow to
gratify you. At his touch, pineapples became butter, pyramids tea-cakes, and
magical boxes savory pies. Tongue, ham, and all kinds of delicacies issued from
their flowery retreats at his bidding. At the end of the banquet, you heard
whispered in your ear, " half a dollar." It was produced and silently disappeared ;
not a chink was heard.

Harlem Railroad. — This road has a shop for repairs of cars and locomotives.
Mr. Sloat, Superintendent of road ; John Leach, Superintendent of repairs.
This road has 132 miles of track, and sends out daily three through trains;
nineteen trains to AVilliam's Bridge, three to Croton Falls, and fifteen shorter
trains. Two daily through freight trains are sent out, and fifteen Sunday trains
go out and return ; one going as far as White Plains : 2,000 miles are run daily,
and 37 locomotives and 350 horses are used on short routes.

The Company's machine-shop has five lathes, and other tools in proportion.
It is soon to be further enlarged. The carpenter-shop, on Forty-second street,
has, on an average, sixty hands.

New- York and New-Haven Railroad. — G. W. Whistler, Superintendent of
road ; G. B. Simonds, Superintendent of motive-power. This road has seventy-
nine miles of single, and seventy miles of double track. The canal road has
thirty-eight miles of track, and eighteen miles of branch track, connected with
the New- York and New-Haven Road.

The machine-shop has five lathes, two drills, and other tools. The carpenter-
shop has fifty hands, and the blacksmith-shop, eight fires.

They send out seven trains to New- York and back daily, two each way to
Port Chester, two each way to Bridgeport, and two daily freight trains. Twelve
through express cars from Boston to New -York have just been added; twelve
more for this road only are soon to be added. The largest locomotive has 16 by
22-inch cylinder, and weighs 26 tons. The driving-wheels are 6 feet in
diameter.

Hartford and New-Haven Railroad — From New-Haven, Connecticut, to
Springfield, Massachusetts. E. M. Reed, Superintendent of locomotion ; M. L.
Sikes, Superintendent of road. This road has sixty-two miles of track, and in
six months will have sixty-two miles of double track. It has sixteen locomo-
tives, the largest of which has 16 by 20-inch cylinder, and weighs 25 tons. It
runs six daily trains to Springfield, four to New-Haven, and two through freight
trains daily.

The machine-shop has seven lathes, two planers, and other tools in proportion.

62 editors' jottings, etc.

The carpenter- shop employs eighteen hands, and the blacksmith-shop has seven
fires. The repairs are all done in Hartford.

New-Haven and New-London Railroad. — Repair- shop in New-Haven. R.
M. Dowd, Superintendent of road ; Henry A. Lincoln, Superintendent of repairs.
This road has fifty miles of track, six locomotives, and runs two passenger and
one freight through trains daily. The machine-shop has two lathes and other
tools in proportion. All the buildings and shops are new, and are continually
enlarging.

Camden and Amboy Railroad.— On this road, which connects New- York with
Philadelphia, we noticed a new, but very good arrangement for the comfort of
invalid passengers. This is a medicine-chest put up in the Ladies' Car. We
were assured by the conductor that it was often found of great service to children
and others. The road, under the successful agency of Captain Bliss, of New-York,
and \Vm. H. Gatzmer, Esq., of Philadelphia, is one of the best paying roads in
the country.

Latting Observatory. — The most attractive building in the vicinity of the
Crystal Palace is the Latting Observatory, now in course of completion. It is
situated on the highest part of the island, in full view of all the surrounding
country, and will reach the height of 350 feet. The structure is of an octagon
form, with a base of seventy-five feet in diameter, and will accommodate 2,000
people at one time on its various landings. It is of timber, well braced with
iron, and anchored at each of the eight angles with about forty tons of stone and
timber. At distances of 100, 200, and 300 feet, passengers will be lifted by a
steam car to landings.

At the highest point will be placed a telescope of great power, which will be
the largest in the country, with a 16-inch glass, or a glass one inch larger than
the Cambridge telescope. The glass is now manufacturing in Europe, and until
it is completed, a 10-inch glass will be used. The instrument will cost about
$24,000. At the lower landings, the vision will be aided by achromatic telescopes,
with 4-inch openings. From the second landing, the ascent, to those who do
not choose to avail themselves of the steam car, will be by means of a spiral
stairway. The Observatory will cost about $75,000.

A Simple Fire Annihilator. — A paragraph is going the rounds urging the
use of burning sulphur in extinguishing a burning building. A package of two
or three pounds of sulphur thrown into the kindling fire before the air rushes
into the building, is said to be very efficient in extinguishing the flames. This
is no doubt true. But we fear that the application of this extinguisher would
not always prove, in the event, unlike the man who burnt the wasps' nests that
were in his barn. The barn was consumed with the wasps. The gases so
plentifully evolved by burning sulphur are very destructive to life. They can-
not be breathed with impunity, and hence the use of this material might prevent
the trial of other means of very great importance. "Water could only be thrown
upon it from a distance. When fires are in the hold of a ship or between decks,
or in other conditions where human life is not put in jeopardy, these means
would no doubt prove very efficient.

Artesian Well at St. Louis. — One of these deep borings was commenced
in St. Louis in 1849, by Mr. Wm. H. Belcher, which has now attained the depth of
1,590 feet. It is bored or drilled by a "sinker" which is 34 feet in length, 2i
inches in diameter, and between YOO and 800 lbs. in weight. It is attached to
poles, each of which is about 30 feet long, which are screwed together as they
are required. The whole is moved by a "doctor," worked by the boilers used
for the refinery engines. The object of Mr. Belcher is to obtain pure water,
limestone water only being found near the surface. At the present depth, a
stream of water, strongly impregnated with sulphur, issues from the well. The
different strata which have been pierced are as follows :

1st, Limestone, 28 feet ; 2d, shale, 2 feet; 3d, limestone, 231 feet; 4th, cherty
rock, 15 feet ; 5th, limestone, 74 ; 6th, shale, 30 ; 7th, limestone, 128-^ ; 8th,
shale, 1^; 9th, hmestone, 88^; 10th, sandy shale, 6^; 11th, limestone, 128-i-;
12th, red marl, 15 ; 13th, shale, 30; 14th, red marl, 50; 15th, shale, 30; 16th,

editors' jottings, etc. 63

limestone, 119; 17th, shale, 66; 18th, bituminous marl, 15; 19th, shale, 80;
20th, limestone, 134; 21st, cherty rock, 62; 22d, limestone, 138; 23d, shale,
70; 24th, limestone, 20; 25th, shale, 56; 26th, limestone, 34; 27th, white soft
sandstone, 15 feet.

The first appearance of gas was at the depth of 466 feet. It was strongly
impregnated with carbonated hydrogen. At 520 feet the water became salty ;
200 feet lower, the water contained 1^ per cent, of salt, which afterwards, at
near 1,200 feet, increased to 3 per cent. The level of the sea is reckoned about
532 feet below the surface of the city.

Crime in London. — A recent official report gives an abstract of returns of the
children below the apparent age of fourteen, found by the police as mendicants
and thieves, as follows : Without parents, 94 ; having parents who appear to be
in a condition of life to maintain and educate them, 231 ; having parents capable
of contributing to their maintenance and education, 580 ; whose parents send
them to beg and live in idleness and profligacy on their earnings, 411 ; total
number of children at large, 1316. The total number of children in common
lodging-houses is 1782, distributed respectively under the foregoing heads in the
following numbers : 54, — 105, — 1190, — 433, making a total of 1782. This num-
ber, added to the former, 1316, gives a total of juvenile mendicants and thieves
amounting to 3098. The number of children at large, and living in idleness
without education, and apparently neglected by their parents, of the lower classes,
who are generally in the receipt of wages, amount, as nearly as can be ascer-
tained, to 20,641 xinder 15 xjears of age, and there are 911 who have been charged
with other offenses than as mendicants and thieves.

The Village of Cohoes, N. Y., on the lower Falls of the Mohawk, contains
two axe factories, making about 2,200 axes and tools every day; four large cot-
ton mills, employing about twelve hundred operatives; three extensive knitting
mills, giving employment to about six hundred han^Js ; one linen thread factory
on a very extensive scale ; one mill for making carpet and other yarns, manufac-
turing 1,000 lbs. of wool per day; one bobbin and spool factory; one large mill
for sawing veneering ; one extensive bedstead factory ; one mill for manufactur-
ing omnibus wheels ; two machine-shops ; one furnace ; one marble-yard and
works ; one flouring-mill. The population of the place is estimated at one thou-
sand, and the capital invested at two millions of dollars and over.

Destroying Wasps. — A method of destroying wasps is recommended by a cor-
respondent of the Retne Horticolc. It consists in mixing up plaster and empty-
ing it while liquid into the nest. This plaster introduces itself perfectly into the
cracks. It forms a mass and envelops all the wasps, so that their larva, eggs and
all, are destroyed. It should be practised at the close of the night, so that all
may have returned into the common abode.

Another equally efficacious plan to destroy wasps which have taken up their
quarters in mud walls, is to make a sort of glue by boiling old hides, and mixing
this with soot. Several coats of this mixture were applied over the surface of
the wall with a hair broom. The wasps, closed up by the coats of glue in their
nests, perish by hunger.

A Gigantic Steamship. — The following are said to be the dimensions of an
iron steamer about to be built by Mr. Scott Russell, of London, for the Eastern
Steam Navigation Company. She is to be 620 feet long, 100 feet beam, 6,000
horse-power, and 12,000 tons burden. She is to be propelled by four paddles,
and a screw. The horse-power will be proportioned as follows ; 2,000 for the
screw, 2,000 for the midship paddle-wheels, and 2,000 for the fore paddle-wheels.

Horse Statistics. — The New- York Herald has an elaborate article in relation
to the horses kept in this city. The number is stated to be 22,540, and their
value, $2,495,000. The number of persons directly dependent on the labor of
horses for subsistence is 12,710. The annual value of the labor of the horses is
put down at $4,443,860. The construction of railroads through the principal
thoroughfares of the city, on which are used cars drawn by horses, will probably
lessen the number employed in omnibuses. The Sixth Avenue railroad, which
has been in operation about seven months, employs 236 horses.

64

LIST OF PATENTS RECENTLY ISSUED.

List of Patents Issued from May 24 to June 21.

Duncan E. McDougaU, of Troy, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Door Fasteners.

Philip H. Keck, of Morgantown, Va., for Im-
provements in Cultivators.

R. H. Middleton, of Alexandria, Va., for Im-
provement ill Compound Rails.

Charles Neer, of Troy, N. Y,, for Improvement
in Fire Places and Stoves.

Marie Louise Roucout, of Paris, Frnnce, for
Improvement in Grate Bars. Patented m trance,
Sept. 10, 1851.

Arnold Butfum, (assignor to J. D. Lynde,) of
New-York City, for Improvement in Gold Washer
and Amalgamator.

William II. Jenison, assigrnor to Charles Mil-
lington, now deceased, and John Jordan, assignor
to James M. Parker, all of New- York City, for
Improvement in Compositions for a Filter.

Henry Baker, CatskiU, N. Y., for Converting
Rotary into Reciprocating Motion.

T. A. Dugdale, Richmond, III., for Improvement
in Washing Machines.

Henry W. Hewett, New-York, for Improvement
in Propellers.

William S. Hubhell and Amos Barnett, Kings-
yille, Ohio, for Improvement in Compositions tor
Treating Wool.

S. P. Kitde, Buffalo, N. Y., for Improvement in
Door Fasteners.

R. W. Betson, Philadelphia, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Boilers for Cooking Stoves. ■

Oliver Ells-worth, Hartford, Ct., for Improve-
ment in Knob Bolts.

R. J. Falconer, Washington, D. C, for Improve-
ment in Hose Coupling.

P. G. Gardiner, New- York, for Improvement in
Quartz Pulverizer and Gold Amalgamator.

Herman Goldsmith, jr., New- York, for Improve-
ment in Water Closets.

Leon Jaresson, Jersey City, N. J., for Improve-
ment in Painting on Ololh.

Gerard Sickles, Brooklyn, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Platform for Ferry Bridges.

George W. Wright, New-York, for Improve-
ment ia Screw Presses for Packing Boxes.

Ebenezer Talbot, Windsor, Ct., for Improve-
ment in Boring Rock.

Julius Hornig and Ludwig Suess, Union Hill,
N. J., for Improvement in Artificial Stone.

H. L. Smith, Cleveland, Ohio, (assignor to FI. L.
Smith, of Cleveland, and Levi Battles and H. A.
Swift, of Ravens, Ohio,) for a Paper File.

L. P. & W. F. Dodge, Newburg, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Pumps.

Charles B. Fitch, of Galena, 111., for Improve-
ment in Mode of Cutting Tenons.

William G. Hnyett, of Williamsburg, Pa., for
Improvement in Harvesters of Grain and Grass.

Sherm.in S. Jewett and Francis H. Root, of
Buffalo, N. Y., for Improvement in Stoves.

Harvey Murch, of Lebanon, N. H., for Improve-
ment in Mop Heads.

George F. Muntz, Jr., of Birmingham, England,
for Improvement in the Manufacture of Metal
Tubes.

Lea Persey, of Patterson, Pa., for Improvement
in Self-waiting Dining Tables.

Fergus Purden, of Baltimore, Md., for Improve-
ment in Mortising Machines.

Alexander A. Sampson, of New-Orleans, La., tor
Improvement in Brick Machines.

E. H. Smith, of New-York, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Copying Presses.

John H. Sturgis, of New-York, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Type-casting Machines.

Giles I. Filley, of St. Louis, Mo., for Improve-
ment in Cooking Stoves.

James M. Brookfield and Ephraim V. White, of
Honesdale, Pa., (and Jacob Faatz, having been
decided to be a joint inventor with said White) the
said Faatz and White, assignors to Andrew K.
Hay and James M. Brookfield, for Improvement in
Manufacturing Glass.

John L. Kingsley, of New-York, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Moulding Guita Percha Stereotype
Plates.

John J. Greenongh, of Boston, Mass., for Im-
provement in Manufacture of Plate Glass.

Horatio Allen and D. G. Wells, of New-York,
N. Y., for Improvement in Cut-Off for Steam
Engines.

Benjamin E. CoUey, of Cambridge, Mass., for
Improvement in Piano-Fortes.

William H. Danforth, of Salem, Mass., for Im-
provement in Power Printing Presses.

Juo. A. Elder, of Weslbrook, Maine, for Im-
provement in Jacquard Apparatus of Looms.

Edmund L. Freemin, of Ann Arbor, Mich., for
Improvement in Bog-Cutting Cultivators.

Frederic W. Howe, of Windsor, Vt., for Im-
provement in Machines for Planing Metal.

William S. Hyde, of Townsend, Ohio, for Im-
provement in Cultivator Ploughs.

Simon IngersoU, of New- York, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Feed Motion in Plug-Cutting Ma-
chines.

Jno. H. Manny, of Waddam's Grove, 111., for
Improvement in Cutters to Harvesters.

David A. B.Newcomb, of Conewango, N. Y., for
Improvemeni in Hill-side Ploughs.

Augustus R. Pope, of Somerville, Mass., for Im-
provement in Eleclro-Maguetic Alarms.

George Rohr, of Charlestown, Ya,, for Improve
ment in Seed Planters.

I. R. Shank, of Buffalo, Va., for Improvement
in Lath Machines.

Walter Sherrod, of Providence, R. L, for Im-
provement in Expanding Mandrels for Turning
Machinery.

William McK. Thornton, of Bloomsburgh, Pa.,
for Improvement in Horse Collars.

Jos. H. Tuttle, of Seneca, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Saws.

Jonas B. Wilder, of Belfast, Maine, for Improve-
meni in Hill-side Ploughs.

Benjamin R. Norton, of Syracuse, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Metalhc Pointed Pens.

William F. Tyson, of Orwigsburgh, Pa., for Im-
provement in Propellers for Canal Navigation.

Enoch Hidden, of New-York, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Side Lights for Ships.

R. L. Hawes, of Worcester, Alass., for Improve-
ments in Envelop-Foldiug Machines.

tlje llottgl), ti)e 1*00111, nnb tlje ^nml.

Part I.— Vol. VI. AUGUST, 1853. No, 2.

CAREY'S NEW WORK ON POLITICAL ECONOMY— ABSTRACTION AND

RESTITUTION.

The progress of agricultural science during the last half century has been
very rapid, and has kept an even pace with the most successful of its com-
petitors in the labor of subduing the material world to the complete control
of man, and making it contribute to the wants and purposes of the intelligent
beings by which it is peopled. Although the triumphs of the laboratory, and
the demonstrations of the severest analyses, have thus opened a wide domain
to man, the practical ado]~>tion of the truths and the measures they prescribe
is, however, but slow. The time-honored usages of the past are invested
with an air of sacredness which repels the novelties of the innovator; and the
prejudices of the majority of producers in favor of ploughing in the same
field, and following in the beaten paths of their predecessors, serve to keep
up customs which the true light of scientific demonstration proves to be im-
perfect, if not actually pernicious.

If it is true that " he who makes two blades of grass to grow where but
one grew before, is a benefactor of the race," then the agricultural chemist of
our day, and the scientific agriculturist of our age, are truly benefactors;
for they show conclusively that vast improvements may be made in our agri-
cultural methods, and that largely increased rewards of labor may be won,
oftentimes by slight improvements or changes in the mode of cultivation.
As production is the true basis of the national wealth, as well as of that of
the individual, and labor is the agent in production, it is clear that the inter-
est of producers of every class lies in the direction of the largest return for
the least labor — thus dignifying and investing with a moral power, and in a
better form, the debasing maxim of commerce, to sell dear that which is
bought cheap, or, in other words, " get the largest return for the least
outlay."

Of all the developments and facts of modern chemical science, none have
a more important concection with the interests of the world than those indi-
cated by the caption of this article — those which relate to the abstraction of
the properties of the soil, and the restitution in some shape of those elements
which impart fertility and value to the soil. The analysis of the various
soils and their products show, beyond doubt, that there is a law of nature
operating in a thousand forms, so universal and so rigid, that a disregard of its
demands leads surely to poverty and decay. Those products which contain
phosphate of lime must be fed with phosphate ; those containing a distinct pro-
portion of sulphate of lime must be fed with sulphate of lime or gypsum ;
and so of ail other elements whatsoever. The law of supplying the proper
elements of fertility, which is but aflfording food for the plants upon which

VOL. VI. — PART I. 6

66 CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY.

they may subsist and grow, is just as stern as the same law in the animal

economy. The animated organism must have food, or exhaustion, disease,
and death must ensue. It must have that kind and quantity of food which
will furnish elements of growth to the bones, the tissues of the integuments,
and the various parts of the animal frame, or one will be developed and
another will be weakened. The assimilation must be complete and suited to
all the wants of the system, or the system will fail and lose by so much as it
is deprived of its needful nourishment. As an illustration of the exhaustion
of the soil, the following facts are given by the eminent Liebig :

"A field in which phosphate of lime or the alkaline phosphates form no
part of the soil, is totally incapable of producing grain, peas or beans.

"An enormous quantity of these substances, indispensable to the nourish-
ment of plants, is annually withdrawn from the soil, and carried into great
towns, in the shape of flour, cattle, etc. It is certain that this incessant re-
moval of the phosphates must tend to exhaust the land and diminish its ca-
pability of producing grain. The fields of Great Britain are in a state of
progressive exhaustion from this cause, as is proved by the rapid extension
of the cultivation of turnips and mangel wurzel — plants which contain the
least amount of the phosphates, and therefore require the smallest quantity
for their development. These roots contain eighty to ninety-two per cent, of
water. Their great bulk makes the amount of produce fallacious, as respects
their adaptation to the food of animals, inasmuch as their contents of the in-
gredients of the blood — i. e., of substances that can be transformed into flesh —
stand in a direct ratio to their amount of phosphate, without which neither
blood nor flesh can be formed.

" Our fields will become more and more deficient in these essential ingre-
dients of food, in all localities where custom and habit do not admit the col-
lection of the fluid and solid excrements of man, and their application to the
purposes of agriculture. In a former letter I have shown you how great a
waste of phosphate is unavoidable in England, and referred to the well-known
fact that the importation of bones restored in a most admirable manner
the fertility of the fields exhausted from this cause. In the year 1827, the
importation of bones for manure amounted to 40,000 tons, and Huskisson
estimated their value to be from £100,000 to £200,000 sterling. The im-
portation is still greater at present; but it is fur from being sufficient to
supply the waste.

" We believe that the importation of one hundred- weight of guano is equi-
valent to the importation of eight hundred-weight of wheat; the hundred-
weight of guano assumes, in a time which can be accurately estimated, the
form of a quantity of food which corresponds to eight hundred-weight of
wheat. The same estimate is applicable in the valuation of bones.

" If it were possible to restore to the soil of England and Scotland the
•phosphates which during the last fifty years have been carried to the sea by
the Thames and the Clyde, it would be equivalent to manuring with millions
of hundred-weights of bones, and the produce of the land would increase
one third, or perhaps double itself in five years."*

To such accuracy has this scientific application of chemistry to agriculture
■attained, that, as remarked by the same author,

" We can calculate exactly how much and which of the component parts
•of the soil we expect in a sheep or an ox ; in a quarter of barley, wheat, or

* Familiar Letters on Chemietry, in its Relations to Physiology, Dietetics, Agricul-
ture, Commerce, and Political Economy. By Justus Von Liebig. London, 1851. p. 522.

CAKEY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY.

potatoes ; and we can discover from the known composition of the excrements
of man and animals, how much we have to supply to restore what is lost to
our fields." — p. 498.

This exportation of the valuable fertilizing elements has been going on for
a long time ia Ireland, by the shipping of grain and live stock to England,
and leaving the potatoes to be consumed by the people of that country.
According to the London Times, the day will probably come, and is not
remote, when Ireland will be a grazing country, to furnish cattle for the
English market. This is announced in the following extract from that jour-
nal : —

" When the Celt has crossed the Atlantic, he begins for the first time in
his life to consume the manufactures of this country, and indirectly to con-
tribute to its customs. We may possibly live lo see the day when the chief
product of Ireland will be cattle, and English and Scotch the majority of
her population."

The destruction of the soil implied in the above paragraph is appalling, in
an economical point of view. During the ten years from 1841 to 1851, the
population of Ireland decreased 1,659,330, while, by a true course of things,
it should have increased three fourths of a million ; so that Ireland is now
nearly two millions and a half poorer in population than she should be. The
impoverishment of the soil produced poverty and disease of her chief article
of food ; this decay of the potato occasioned disease, and death, and expa-
triation among the people, and hence England has been making the rich
soil of Ireland poorer by a three-fold process — exhaustion of her soil, exhaus-
tion of her men by famine, and expatriation to a foreign land. To the cli-
max of the two latter, she purposes to add a fourth — the exportation of all the
cattle which can be tantalized into a marketable form for English dinner-tables.

But to quote again from the distinguished author of the Letters : —

"The principal problem for agriculture is, how to replace those substances
which have been taken from the soil, and which cannot be furnished by the
atmosphere. If the manure supplies an imperfect compensation for this loss,
the fertility of a field or of a country decreases; if, on the contrary, more
is given to the fields, their feitility increases." — p. 499.

The principal problem for political economy, to apply the above proposi-
tion to our theme, is, how to replace those elements of wealth which are
abstracted from a nation, and which cannot be replaced by commerce. If
labor supplies an imperfect compensation for this loss, the wealth of a coun-
try decreases. If, on the contrary, a greatly increased amount of diversified
labor is employed, its wealth increases.

The application and proper elucidation of these principles in connection
with the great question — In what does the wealth of nations consist? is a
work of no little consequence to the economist. We may be satisfied with
clinging to old truths until new ones shall have been thoroughly tested ; but
when new truths demonstrate and brighten the old, then every reason is
to be found in favor oft he speediest adoption of these better guides. So in
the present instance : if the history of the world, and the enlarged experience
of to-day, proves that the reasoning of the philosopher and the maxims of
the economist are abundantly confirmed by the triple force of history, expe-
rience, and analytical and synthetical demonstrations, then wisdom points out
but one path to her enlightened children.

The work * which the present brief notice is intended to introduce to the

* The Slave Trade, Domestic and Foreign : Why it exists, and how it may be
extinguished. By H. C. Carey. Philadelphia: A. Hart. 1 voL 12mo, pp. 426. 1863.

68 CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY.

reader, we believe we may characterize as being based upon this truih for its
corner-stone. It takes no narrow or sectional view of the leading subject
which appears on the tille-page, but, with a broad and masterly grasp of the
philosophy of natural, moral and physical action, it discus^ses boldly and nobly
the relations of the material and the moral world, and points out, with an
uneriing finger, some of the causes of social bondage, and the means by
which it is to be overcome.

There can be no doubt that the rewards of labor are to form the central
point in some of the questions connected with the social problems of our
age. "Why do some men grow richer while others grow poorer at their side?
"Why do some communities increase in splendor, ostentation and magnifi-
cence, while beneath tlie tinselled drapery which attracts the eye of the spec-
tator there is a vast and terrible derangement and corruption which is appal-
ing to the lover of his race? Why do milhons " bleed gold for ministers to
sport away," and pour out the heart's blood of a nation for the purpose of
clothing with richer robes the few who hold or usurp the chair of state ?
Why do millions become enslaved in all that makes freedom precious, in
lands boasting constitutions, and liberty, and law ? The answer is found by
recurring to first principles, and detecting the fact, every where obvious, that
abstraction is not followed by the restitution demanded by the laws of nature
and the true economy of the race.

We are not disposed to find fault with the title of the work. Yet it does
not, by any means, convey a true idea of the comprehensive discussion con-
tained in its pages. The sensitive "State Rights" or "Union" man, who is
jealous of any interference with what he conceives to be his guaranteed
rights ; the passive sleeper, who sustains his country, " right or wrong," and
the ultra abolitionist, are alike, by the title, unprepared for the complete
unveiling of the system of universal enslavement enforced by the industrial
policy of one nation occupying a commanding position in the affairs of the
world.

The author opens with a review of slavery and emancipation; how con-
tinued, how effected, and why ; and why and how emancipation has failed
in the West Indies. In successive chapters of the work, these views are
unfolded and applied to Ireland, Scotland, Germany, Russia, India, China,
the United States, Turkey, and other nations ; and the colonial, commercial,
and industrial dependence of these countries upon the great centre of the
world's forces is illustrated convincingly, we think, by abundant testimony.
The philosophy of the book may be summed up in one sentence : Abstraction
from the soil produces the abstraction and exportation of man, while resti-
tution to the soil occasions the increase of man and his means for social and
national happiness, by multiplying the rewards of his labor. Hence, to
make man frte, he must make the most direct exchange, 1st, with the soil,
2d, with his neighbor, and 3d, with other communities or nations.

The reader will probably be curious to know how this theory is worked
out, as it is, into one of the most important contributions to political philoso-
phy which have appeared for many years. Speculations of profound think-
ers are valuable for the truths they often teach ; but philosophers who spend
their time, like the ancient Athenians, in " hearing or telling some new thmg,"
are often led to view as moral facts the conclusions at which they arrive,
when, indeed, their starting-point, or their stand-point, is seriously wide of
the truth. As a consequence, speculations submitted to the test of experience
often vanish as dew before the rays of the sun.

The author of " The Slave Trade " is eminently a man of facts. Nothing

CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY. 69

is of any value in his esteem which is not based upon past experience, or
which anticipated experience will not confirm. The multitude of facts fur-
nished as iiUistrations of the truths he pro[)ounds, are themselves worthy the
attention of thinking reaiiers of every class.

Among the forcible exhibitions of the slavery occasioned by this exhaus-
tion of the soil by the fiilse commercial and industrial policy which aims to
make Great Britain the workshop and exchange factor of the world, com-
pelling all nations to send the fertilizing properties of their soils to England
in ravv products, to receive back again nothing in return, the chapter on Ire-
land is valuable and thrilling in painful inter.'st. Our space forbids a quota-
tion of the whole, and we confine ourselves to a selection of passages from
the author's argument :

1. "That if there is to be but one -nlaOP, nf PVphnnnPA or mnnnfjnfm-Q frvi.

f ERRATUM.

There should be inserted (before these propositions) the sentence of two
lines printed on p. 75 — " The impression," &c. And the paragraph follow-
ing those lines should not be marked as a quotation.

^wcu „,.i^ .Mijjv/icii^^iiiueTiL oi lue lana renaers necessary a remova! to
new and more distant lands.

6. "That this renders necessary a larger amount of transportation, while
the impoverishment of the farmer increases the difficulty of making roads.

7. " That the increased distance of the market produces a steadily increased
necessity for limiting the work of cultivation to ihe production of those cora-
modiiies which can be obtained from high and dry lands, and that the
quantity of products tends therefore to diminish with the increased distance
from market.

8. " That with each step in the progress of exhausting the land, we are
compelled to separate more widely from each other ; and that there is there-
fore a steady diminution in the power of association for the making of roads,
or the establishment of schools ; and that the small towns, or neaT- places of
exchange, tend gradually towards depopulation and ruin.

9. " That the more men separate irom each other, the less is the power to
procure machinery, and tlie greater necessity for cultivating the poorest soils,
even though surrounded by lead, iron and copper ore, coal, lime, and all
other of the elements of which machinery is composed.

10. "That with the diminished power of association, children grow up
uneducated, and men and women become rude and barbarous.

11. " That the power to apply labor productively tends steadily to diminish ;
and that women, in default of other employment, are forced to resort to the
field, and to become slaves to their fathers, husbands, and brothers.

12. "That the power to accumulate capital tends likewise to diminish;
that land becomes from day to day more consolidated ; and that man sinks
gradually into the condition of a slave to the landed or other capitalist.

13. "That with this steady passage of man from the state of a freeman
to that of a slave, he has steadily less to sell, and can therefore purchase
less; and that thus the only effect of a policy which compels the impoverish-
ment of the land and its owner is to destroy the customer, who, under a

68 CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY.

reader, we believe we may characterize as being based upon this truih for its
corner-stone. It takes no narrow or sectional view of the leading subject
which appears on the title-page, but, with a broad and masterly grasp of the
philosophy of natural, moral and physical action, it discusses boldly and nobly
the relations of the material and the moral world, and points out, with an
uneriing finger, some of the causes of social bondage, and the means by
which it is to be overcome.

There can be no doubt that the rewards of labor are to form the central
point in some of the questions connected with the social problems of our
age. Why do some men grow richer while others grow poorer at their side?
Why do some communities increase in splendor, ostentation and magnifi-
cence, while beneath tlie tinselled drapery which attracts the eye of the spec-
tator there is a vast and terrible derangement and corruption which is appal-
ing to the lover of his race? Why do millions " bleed gold for ministei-s to
sport away," and pour out tbo lioart'o ki^-..i -" - - ••

joniuus ui any iiiierierence with what he conceives to be his guaranteed
rights ; the passive sleeper, who sustains his country, " right or wrong," and
the ultra abolitionist, are alike, by the title, unprepared for the complete
unveiling of the system of universal enslavement enforced by the industrial
policy of one nation occupying a commanding position in the aflfairs of the
world.

The author opens with a review of slavery and emancipation; how con-
tinued, how effected, and why ; and why and how emancipation has failed
in the West Indies. In successive chapters of the work, these views are
unfolded and applied to Ireland, Scotland, Germany, Russia, India, China,
the United States, Turkey, and other nations ; and the colonial, commercial,
and industrial dependence of these countries upon the great centre of the
world's forces is illustrated convincingly, we think, by abundant testimony.
The philosophy of the book may be summed up in one sentence : Abstraction
from the soil produces the abstraction and exportation of man, while resti-
tution to the soil occasions the increase of man and his means for social and
national happiness, by multiplying the rewards of his labor. Hence, to
make man frte, he must make the most direct exchange, 1st, with the soil,
2d, with his neighbor, and 3d, with other communities or nations.

The reader will probably be curious to know how this theory is worked
out, as it is, into one of the most important contributions to political philoso-
phy which have appeared for many years. Speculations of profound think-
ers are valuable for the truths they often teach ; but philosophers who spend
their time, like the ancient Athenians, in " hearing or telling some new thmg,"
are often led to view as moral facts the conclusions at which they arrive,
when, indeed, their starting-point, or their stand-point, is seriously wide of
the truth. As a consequence, speculations submitted to the test of experience
often vanish as dew before the rays of the sun.

The author of " The Slave Trade " is eminently a man of facts. Nothing

CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY. 69

is of any value Iq his esteem which is not based upon past experience, or
which anticipated experience will not confirm. The multiiude of facts fur-
nished as illustrations of the truths he pro[)ounds, are themselves worthy the
attention of thinking readers of every class.

Among the forcible exhibitions of the slavery occasioned by this exhaus-
tion of the soil by the false commercial and industrial policy which aims to
make Great Britain the workshop and exchange factor of the world, com-
pelling all nations to send the fertilizing properties of their soils to England
in raw products, to receive back again nothing in return, the chapter on Ire-
land is valuable and thrilling in painful inter>.'st. Our space forbids a quota-
tion of the whole, and we confine ourselves to a selection of passages from
the author's argument :

1. " That if there is to be but one place of exchange or manufacture for
the world, all the rest of the people of the world must limit themselves to
agriculture.

2. "That this necessarily implies the absence of towns, or local places of
exchange, and a necessity fur resorting to a place of excl)ange far distant.

3. "That the distance of the place of consumption from the place of pro-
duction forbids the possibility of returning to the land any of the manure
yielded by its products.

4. "That this in turn implies the exhaustion of the land and the im-
poverishment of its owner.

5. "That the impoverishment of the land renders necessary a removal to
new and more distant lands.

6. " That this renders necessary a larger amount of transportation, while
the impoverishment of the farmer increases the difficulty of makino- roads.

7. "That the increased distance of the market ])ro(-luces a steadily increased
necessity for limiting the woik of culti\ation to ihe production of those cora-
modiiies which can be obtained from high and dry lands, and that the
quantity of products tends therefore to ditninish with the increased distance
from market.

8. "That with each step in the progress of exhausting the land, we are
compelled to separate more widely from each other ; and that tliere is there-
fore a steady diminution in the power of association for the making of roads,
or the establishment of schools ; and that the small towns, or near places of
exchange, tend gradually towards depopulation and ruin.

9. " That the more men separate irom each other, the less is the power to
procure machinery, and the greater necessity for cultivating the poorest soils,
even though surrounded by lead, iron and copper ore, coal, lime, and all
other of tlie elements of which machinery is composed.

10. "That with the diminished power of association, children grow up
uneducated, and men and women become rude and barbarous,

11. " That the power to apply labor productively tends steadily to diminish ;
and that women, in default of other employment, are forced to resort to the
field, and to become slaves to their fathers, husbands, and brothers.

12. "That the power to accumulate capital tends lAiewise to diminish;
that land becomes from day to day more consolidated ; and that man sinks
gradually into the condition of a slave to the landed or other capitalist.

13. "That with this steady passage of man from the state of a freeman
to that of a slave, he has steadily less to sell, and can therefore purchase
less; and that thus the only effect of a policy which compels the impoverish-
ment of the land and its owner is to destroy the customer, who, under a

70 CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY.

different system of policy, might have become a larger purchaser from year

to year."

*****

" The government which followed the completion of the Revolution of 1 688,
pledged itself to discountenance the Avoollen manufacture of Ireland, with a
view to compel the export of raw wool to England, whence its exportation
to foreign countries was prohibited ; the effect of which was, of course, to
enable the English manufacturer to purchase at his own price. From that
period forward, we find numerous regulations as to the ports from which
alone woollen yarn or cloth might go to England, and the ports of the latter
through which it might come ; while no effort was spared to induce the peo-
ple of Ireland to abandon woollens and take to flax. Laws were passed pro-
hibiting the export of Irish cloth and glass to the colonies. By other laws,
Irish ships were deprived of the benefit of the navigation laws. The fisheries
were closed against them. No sugar could be imported from any place but
Great Britain, and no drawback was allowed on its exportation to Ireland ;
and thus was the latter compelled to pay a tax for the support of the British
government while maintaining its own. All other colonial produce was
required to be carried first to England, after which it might be shipped to
Ireland ; and, as Irish shipping was excluded from the advantages of the
Navigation Laws, it followed that the voyage of importation was to be made
in British ships, manned by British seamen and owned by British merchauts,
who were thus authorized to tax the people of Ireland for doing their work,
while a large portion of the Irish people were themselves unemployed.

" While thus prohibiting them from applying themselves to manufactures
or trade, every inducement was held out to them to confine themselves to the
production of commodities required by the English manufacturer, and wool,
hemp, and flax were admitted into England free of duty. We see thus that
the system of that day, in reference to Ireland, looked to limiting the people
of that country, as it limited the slaves of Jamaica, and now limits the people
of Hindostan, to agriculture alone ; and thus depriving the men, the women,
and the children of all employment, except the labor of the field, and of all
opportunity for intellectual improvement, such as elsewhere results from that
association which necessarily accompanies improvement in the mechanic arts.

" During our war of the Revolution, freedom of trade was claimed for Ire-
land ; and as the demand was made at a time when a large portion of her
people were under arms as volunteers, the merchants and manufacturers of
England, who had so long acted as middlemen for the peo2)le of the sister
kingdom, found themselves obliged to submit to the removal of some of the
restrictions under which the latter had so long remained. Step by step
changes were made, until at length, in 1783, Ireland was declared indepen-
dent. Shortly after which, duties were imposed on various articles of foreign
manufacture, avowedly with the intention of enabling her people to employ
some of their surplus labor in converting her own food and wool, and the
cotton-wool of other countries, into cloth. Thenceforward, manufactures and
trade made considerable progress, and there was certainly a very consider-
able tendency towards improvement. Some idea of the condition of the
country at that time, and the vast lamentable change that has since taken
place, may be obtained from the consideration of a few facts connected with
the manufactui-e of books in the closing years of the last century. The
copyright laws not extending to Ireland, all books published in England might
there be reprinted ; and, accordingly, we find that all the principal English
law reports of the day, very many of the earlier ones, and many of the best

CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY. 71

treatises, as well as the principal novels, travels, and miscellaneous works, were
republished in Dublin, as may be seen by an examination of any of our old
libraries. The publication of such books implies, of course, a considerable
demand for them, and for Ireland herself, as the sale of books in this coun-
try was very small indeed, and there was then no part of the world to which
they could go. More books were probably published in Ireland in that day,
by a single house, than are now required for the supply of the whole kingdom.

"With 1801, however, there came a change. By the Act of Union, the
copyright laws of England were extended to Ireland, and at once the large
and growing manufacture of books was prostrated. The patent-laws were
also extended to Ireland ; and, as England had so long monopolized the
manufacturing machinery then in use, it was clear that it was there improve-
ments would be made, and that thenceforth the manufactures of Ireland must
retrograde. Manchester had the home market, the foreign market, and, to
no small extent, that of Ii eland open to her, while the manufacturers of the
latter were forced to contend for existence, and under the most disadvantageous
circumstances, on their own soil. The one could afford to purchase ex-
pensive machinery, and to adopt whatever improvements might be made,
while the other could not. The natural consequence was, that Irish manu-
factures gradually disappeared as the Act of Union came into effect. By
virtue of its provisions, the duties established by the Irish Parliament for
the purpose of protecting the farmers of Ireland in their efforts to bring the
loom and the anvil into close proximity with the plough and the harrow,
were gradually to diminish, and free-trade was to be fully established; or,
in other words, Manchester and Birmingham were to have a monopoly of
supplying Ireland with cloth and iron. The duty on English woollens was
to continue twenty years. The almost prohibitory duties on English calicoes
and muslins were to continue until 1808, after which they were to be gradu-
ally diminished, until in 1821 they were to cease. Those on cotton yarn
were to cease in 1810. The effect of this in diminishing the demand for
Irish labor is seen in the comparative view of manufactures at the date of
the Union, and at different periods in the ensuing forty years.

"Deprived of all employment, except in the labor of agriculture, land
became, of course, the great object of pursuit. ' Land is life,' had said,
most truly and emphatically. Chief Justice Blackburn ; and the people had now
before them the choice between the occupation of land at any rent, or starvation.
The lord of the land was thus enabled to dictate his own terms ; and therefore
it has been that we have heard of the payment of five, six, eight, and even as
much as ten pounds per acre. ' Enormous rents, low wages, farms of an enormous
extent, let by rapacious and indolent proprietors to monopolizing land-job-
bers, to be re-let by intermediate oppressors for five times their value, among
the wretched starvers on potatoes and water,' led to a constant succession of
outrages, followed by Insurrection Acts, Arm Acts, and Coercion Acts, when
the real remedy was to be found in the adoption of a system that would
emancipate the country from the tyranny of the spindle and the loom, and
permit the labor of Ireland to find employment at home.

"That employment could not be had. With the suppression of Irish manu-
factures the demand for labor had disappeared. An English traveller, de-
scribing the state of Ireland in 1834, thirteen years after the free-trade pro-
visions of the Act of Union had come fully into operation, furnishes numerous
facts, which will now be given, showing that the people were compelled to
emain idle, although willing to work at the lowest wages — such wages as
ould not by any possibility enable them to do more than merely su tain life,,
and perhaps not even that :

CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY.

** ' Cashel. — Wages here only eiyhtpence a day, and numbers altogether
without employment,'

"'Cahir. — I noticed, on Sunday, on coming from church, the streets
crowded with laborers, with spades and other implements in their hands,
standing to be hired; and I ascertained that any number of these men
might have been engaged, on constant employment, at sixpence per day
without diet,'

♦" WiCKLOW. — The husband of this woman was a laborer, at sixpence a
day, eighty of which sixpences— that is, eighty days' labor — were absorbed in
the rent of the cabin. In another cabm was a decently-dressed woman, with
five children, and her husband was also a laborer' at sixpence a day. The
pig had been taken for rent a few days before. I found some laborers r%-
ceiwing or\\y fourpence per day.^

"It might be thought, however, that Ireland was deficient in the capital
required for obtaining the machinery of manufacture to enable her people
to maintain competition with her powerful neighbor. We know, however,
that previous to the Union she had that machinery ; and from the date of
that arrangement, so fraudulently brought aboift, by wliich was settled con-
clusively tlie destruction of Irish manufactures, the annual waste of labor
was greater than the whole amount of capital then employed in the cotton
and woollen manufactures of England. From that date, the people of Ire-
land were thrown, from year to year, more into the hands of middlemen,
who accumulated fortunes that they would not invest in the improvement
of land, and could not, under the system which prostrated manufactures,,
invest in machinery of any kind calculated to render labor productive, and
all their accumulations were sent therefore to England for investment. An
official document published by the British Government shows that the trans-
fers of British securities from England to Ireland — that is to say, the invest-
ment of Irish capital in England — in the thirteen years following the final
adoption of free-trade in 1821, amounted to as many millions of pounds
sterling ; and thus was Ireland forced to contribute cheap labor and cheap
capital to building up 'the great works of Britain.' Further, it Wi»s pro-
vided by law that whenever the poor people of a neighborhuod contributed
to a saving fund, the amount should not be applied in any manner calcu-
lated to furnish local employment, but should be transferred for investment
in the British funds. The landlords fled to England, and their rent followed
them. The middlemen sent their capital to England. The trader or the
laborer that could accumulate a little capital saw it sent to England, and he
was then compelled to follow it. Such h the history of the origin of the
present abandonment of Ireland by its inhabitants.

"The form in which rents, profits, and savings, as well as taxes, went to
England, was that of raw products of the soil, to be consumed abroad,
yielding nothing to be returned to the land, which was of course impover-
ished. The average export of grain in the first three years following the
passage of the Act of Union, was about 300,000 quarters ; but as the domes-
tic market gradually disappeared, the export of raw produce increased, until
at the close of twenty years it exceeded a million of quarters ; and at the
■date of Mr. Inglis's visit, it had reached an average of two and a half mil-
lions, or 22,500,000 of our bushels. The poor people were, in fact, selling
their soil to pay for cotton and woollen goods that they should have manu-
factured themselves ; for coal, which abounded among themselves ; for iron, all
the materials of which existed at home in great profusion, and for a small
■ quantity of tea, sugar, or other foreign commodities, while the amount

CAREY OX POLITICAL ECONOMY. 73

required to pay rent to absentees and interest to mortgages, was estimated
at more than thirty millions of dollars. Here was a drain that no nation
could bear, however great its productive power; and the wholii of it was
due to the system which forbade the application of labor, talent or capital
to any thing but agriculture, and thus forbade advance in civilization. The
inducements to remain at home steadily diminished. Those who could live
without labor found that society had changed ; and thus fled to England,
France, or [taly. Those who desired to work, and felt that they were qualified
for something beyond mere manual labor, tied to England or America ; and
thus by degrees was the unfoitunate country depleted of every thing that
could render it a home in which to remain, while those who cjuld not fly
remained to be, as the Times so well describes it, n ere ' hewers of wood
and drawers of water to the Saxon.' Happy when a full-grown man could
find employment at sixpence a day, and that, too, without food !

'"Throughout the west and south of Ireland,' said an English traveller in
1842, four'years before the exhaustion of the soil had produced < isease
among the potatoes, the traveller is haunted by the face of the popular
starvation. It is not the exception ; it is the condition of the peojtle. In
this fairest and richest of countries, men are suft'eriiig and starviny by mil-
lions. There are thousands of them, at this minute, stretched in the sun-
sliine at their cabin doors with no work, scarcely any food, no hope seera-
in<rly. Strong countrymen are lying in bed, "'foT' ihe hunger'''' — because a
man lying on his back does not need so much food as a man on foot.
Many of them have torn up the unripe potatoes from their little gardens,
and to exist now must look to winter, when they shall have to suffer starva-
tion and cold too.' — Thackeray. 'Every where', said the Quarterly Review^
'throughout all parts, even in the best towns, and in Dublin itself, you will
meet men and boys — not dressed, not covered — but hung round with a
collection of rags of unrivalled variety, squalidity, and filth — walking dung-
hills. ... No one ever saw an English scarecrow with such rags.'

" The diff'erence in the condition of these poor people — even the slave of
Jamaica of that day — consisted in this, that the negro slave was worth buying,
whereas the others were not; and we know well that the man who pays a
good price for a commodity attaches to it a value that induces him to give
some care to its preservation ; whereas he cares nothing for another that he
finds himself forced to accept. ' Starving by millions,' as they are here
described, death was perpetually separating husbands and wives, parents
and children, while to the survivors remained no hope but that of being
enabled, at some time or other, to fly to another land, in which they might
be permitted to sell their labor for food sufficient lo support life.

" The existence of such a state of things was — said the advocates of the
system which looks to converting all the world outside of England into one
great farm — to be accounted for by the fact that the population was too
numerous for the land; and yet a third of the surface, including the richest
lands in the kingdom, was lying unoccupied and waste.

"'Of single counties,' said an English writer, 'Mayo, with a population of
389,000, and a rental of only £300,000, has an area of 1,364,000 acres, of
which 800,000 are waste ! No less than 470,000 acres, being very nearly
equal to the whole extent of surface now under cultivation, are declared to
be reclaimable. Even the Union of Glenties, Lord Monteagle's ne plus
ultra of redundant population, has an area of 240,000 acres, of which 200,-
000 are waste, and for the most part reclaimable to its population of 43,000;
while the barony of Ennis — that abomination of desolation — has 230,000

74 CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY.

acres of land to its 5000 paupers — a proportion which, as Mr. Carter, one of
the principal proprietors, remarks in his circular advertisement for tenants, is
at the rate of only one family to 230 acres ; so that if but one head of
a family were employed to every 230 acres, there need not be a single pauper
in the entire district ; a proof, he adds, that nothing hut employment is
wanting to set this country to rights. In which opinion we fully coincide,'

"Nothing but employment was needed ; but that could not be found, under
the system' which has caused the annihilation of the cotton manufacture of
India, notwithstanding the advantage of having the cotton on the spot, free
from all cost for carriage. As in -lamaica, as in India, the land had been gra-
dually exhausted by the exportation of its products in their rudest state, and
the country had thus been drained of capital ; a necessary consequence of
which was, that the labor even of men found no demand, while women and
children starved, that the women and children of England might spin cotton
and weave cloth that Ireland was too poor to purchase. Bad, however, as
was all this, a worse state of things was at hand. Poverty and wretchedness
compelled the wretched people to fly in thousands and tens of thousands
across the Channel, thus following the capital and the soil that had been
transferred to Birmingham and Manchester; and the streets and cellars of
those towns, and those of London, Liverpool, and Glasgow, were filled with
men, women and children in a state almost of starvation ; while throughout
the country men were offering to perform the farm labor for food alone, and a
cry had arisen among the people of England that the laborers were Wkely to
be swamped by these starving Irishmen ; to provide against which, it was
needed that the landlords of Ireland should be compelled to support their
own poor, and forthwith an act of Parliament was passed for that purpose.
Thence arose, of course, an increased desire to rid the country of the men,
women and children whose labor could not be sold, and who could therefore
pay no rent. The ' Crowbar Brigade ' was therefore called into more active
service, as will be seen by the following account of their labors in a single
one of the ' Unions' established under the new poor-law system which, in
many cases took the whole rent of the land for the maintenance of those who
had been reduced to pauperism by the determination of the people of Man-
chester and Birmingham to continue the colonial system under which Ireland
had been ruined.

" ' In Galway Union, recent accounts declared the number of poor evicted
and their homes levelled within the last two years, to equal the numbers in
Kilrush — 4,000 famihes ; and 20,000 human beings are said to have been
here also thrown upon the road, houseless and homeless. I can readily
believe the statement, for to me some parts of the country appeared like an
enormous graveyard — the numerous gables of the unroofed dwellings seemed
to be gigantic tombstones ! They were, indeed, records of decay and death,
far more melancholy than the grave can show. Looking on them, the doubt
rose in my mind, Am I in a civilized country ? Have we really a free con-
stitution ? Can such scenes be paralleled in Siberia or Caflfraria?'

"A single case described in a paper recently published by Mr. Dickens,
in his ^Household Words,'' will convey to the reader some idea of an evic-
tion, that may be taken as a specimen, and perhaps a fair one, of the fifty
thousand evictions that took place in the single year 1849, and of the hun-
dreds of thousands that have taken place in the last six years.

'"Black piles of peat stood on the solitary ground, ready after a summer's
cutting and drying. Presently, patches of cultivation presented themselves ;
plots of ground raised on beds, each a few feet wide, with intervening

CAREY ON POLITICAL ECONOMY. 75

trenches to carrv oflF the boggy water where potatoes had grown, and small
fields where grew more ragwort than grass, enclosed by banks cast up and
tipped here and there with a brier or a stone. It was the husbandry of
misery and indigence. The ground had already been freshly manured by
sea-weed, but the village — where was it ? Blotches of burnt ground, scorched
heaps of rubbish, and fragments of blackened walls, alone were visible.
Garden-plots were trodden down and their few bushes rent up, or hung
with tatters of rags. The two horsemen, as they hurried by with gloomy
visages, uttered no more than the single word — Eviction 1"

Our pages forbid a complete analysis of this valuable work, or a further
quotation from its pages. The argument above given in relation to Ireland,
is applied with equal power to other nations, from the poor and suffering,
emancipated, black slave of Jamaica, who is compelled to send his sugar to
England to be refined, to the sturdy Teuton ; from the famished rice-grower
of India, who is too poor to buy the rice which he grows, while it is shipped
ofi" for a market, to the more advanced subject of the Flowery Land. Slavery
in all lands, whether that of the negro race in the East or West, in the United
States or in South America; whether existing among the Coolies of India or
China, or among the oppressed and degraded people of the British Islands,
made slaves by a commercial policy — this universal slavery is held up to
view in the light of science and philosophy. The numerous facts, gleaned
with the industry of a thorough student of history and human nature, are
valuable as materials of thought for all readers, even though the application
of the argument is not welcome.

The impression left on the mind of the reader we think must be in accord-
ance with the following truths, stated by the author in a series of propositions :

*' England is eftectually working out her own destruction with that of all
other nations which place themselves in a colonial dependence upon her,
through commercial regulations. The power of England is now that of
machinery. She employs hundreds of thousands of steam engines and
spindles. The coal and iron for the supply of these imderlie her own area.
But she has millions of human machines which depend upon the consumption
and combustion of a large quantity of phosphate of lime and other elements.
She has robbed her own soil, as well as that of Scotland and Ireland, of
the phosphates, and seeks to restore it by digging up the bones of the Eng-
lishmen slaughtered at Waterloo, by importing guano from distant islands,
and by attracting and compelling the soils of ail other nations to lay their
phosphates down on her shores in a superabundance of cheap fuel or food,
to be consumed by her human machines, and then to be washed away from
large manufacturing cities into the ocean. For this enormous waste, she
offers the world the privilege of buying her fabrics at her own prices. For
^11 which we are bound to be duly thankful."

We believe the work under review is calculated to produce a profound
sensation among thinkers every where. We have read it with the interest of
a romance, and we shall be greatly surprised if it does not attract unusual
attention in every part of Europe. We commend it to the careful perusal
of every man and woman who desires to know how man may be made freb.

76 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

A BILL has recently passed the Legislature at Albany, establishing an Agri-
cultural College. Of its details we have not informed ourselves, chiefly for
want of opportunity. We are not aware that tho bill has ever been printed
in any of tlie public journals.

We congratulate the friends of agriculture in view of this result, as we do
all other interests, when they obtain a public grant. We doubt whether it
is possible to find any provision of this kind that has been made fur a useful
purpose, that did not accomplish some good. At least, such instances must
be exceedino-ly rare. In this act of legislation, we have no doubt that good
will result, and if a bird in the hand is worth a whole flock on the wing, tbe
ultimate results cannot fail to be very desirable.

But if any one supposes that a collegiate institution is an eflicient means
of speedily reforming the agricultural practices of the mass of farmers, we
are very sure he will find himself mistaken. It will do no such thing. It
will not approximate to it in any essential degree. We would not oppose
its establishment, because it will do some good. It is another light kindled
in the midst of darkness. It tends to dissipate some of the ignorance which
envelops the community. It will do this by giving new energy to intellect
now dormant. Some youth, otherwise destined to go without any education
above that of a horribly deficient district school, will be placed there, and
have his eyes opened so as to discern what would otherwise be beyond the
reach of his vision. There may be scores of such cases. If so, we shall
get a rich recompense for the outlay of bags full of gold and silver. The
indirect or secondary results of such measures are far greater than the pri-
mary. It is the snow-ball which accumulates as it is rolled. All, or nearly
all, educational efforts, ever so unwisely conducted, present this same feature.

But this is nearly all that can be expected. How many will become
pupils there? If, in three years, five hundred students should go through
a systematic course, we presume "the experiment" would be pronounced
"wonderfully successful." But how many farms are there in the State?
According to that official document called the Census, which is, perhaps, as
accurate as the responses of rapping spirits, there are about twelve and a
half millions of acres of improved land. How long, at this rate, would it
take to educate the owners of these and the seven millions of unimproved
land ? But this would not be necessary. Educate one in ten, and the rest
would imitate, eventually, the SMcce.sv^w^ experiments of the graduated operator.
But how long would it take this tenth man to come into the possession of
his farm, and, when there, to acquire such a knowledge of his own land as
to qualify himself to exhibit any very marked results from his new modes of
farming. If three seasons would prove sufficient, we should admire the
remarkable skill of the new professors of the new institution. But, meanwhile,
many failures would nearly counterbalance, in popular effect, the more success-
ful attempts at reform.

Even this degree of success, we believe, is Utopian — a mere picture of the
fancy. As we said in our previous number, farmers already know that they
need much more manure. They know that a liberal outlay for enriching
their land will eventually return them much more than its cost, in increased
crops. They know equally well that, on a majority of farms, movable steam
engines, reapers, mowers, and other machinery, would save them much hard
work. But they cannot find the means of buying them, and they dare not

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 77

incur debt in the purchase. What our farmers need, is an actual conviction
that ihe remedy is wiihin their reach ; that it is possible for them to enrich
their lands without incurring debts they can never pay, and that, with these
facilities for their work, they can afford to run some risks. IIow can such
convictions be produced ? We answer :

1, By contriving manures that actually will be within their reach. Now,
the Peruvian guano and the bone manures, the prepared charcoal and the
"improved superphosphates" are "to be had," but they are locked up by
patent-rights, or in secret recipes, or in " terra cultu7'e" or in some other
terra incoynita^ if not terra imaginata^ and are held at prices that frighten
the timid man. He is not sure that they are so very good, or, if good on
some soils, that they will pay on his. Now, if these gentlemen would be
the real friends of agriculture, willing and wishing in their heart that iheir
neighbors should grow rich, even though it does not enrich themselves, let
them sell their wares at actual cost of time and material. Guano often pays
a profit, we are quite sure, of much more than a hundred per cent, ere it
reaches the consumer, and charcoal preparations quite as much; and our
learned friend of the Working Farmer can tell how much profit he makes
out of i\\Q farmer who works on his own land, before the latter can avail himself
of his v;duable compound. We doubt the propriety of making men jiay great
profits for that which is their life. Were a drowning man to call upon us
for a rope or a board, we ought not to stand and higgle about the cumpen-
sation for our services. Men are starving, because then- crops can't get vital
air. These gentlemen of the patent-right and 200-per-cent.-profit class tell
them, " You are dying by inches, and you may die for all we will do, unless
you will make for us a handsome fortune. We have the remedy just suited
to your wants in casks and bags, but not a pound shall go out of our store-
house— not an item of our valuable discoveries shall you possess, unless you
pay us a large tribute." Men may be taxed for luxuries, but we contend to
the death against high taxes on the essentials of life.

While crops are exported, and other fruitful sources of loss are constantly
open, barn-yard manures cannot be had to a sufficient extent to secure per-
manent fertility to the soil. There will be a great waste, as in cities, for
example, and in what is consumed by ships at sea. The whole crop cannot
be returned to the soil : and unless there is an entire reform in this matter;
unless more prudence is exhibited in securing the immense amount of offal,
excrement, and various kinds of waste in cities and elsewhere, there must
be an immense loss. Taking "swamp-mud" and other deposits from our
farms, is only borrowing what was collected in other places. This is as much
the annual product of vegetation as any other manure, although the collection
of these masses may have been the work of years. It is also obvious that
another portion of annual growth which is incorporated in human organisms
at their death, is essentially lost; and this is not a small item. We need not
give statistics on such a topic, but a little calculation will satisfy any one that
here is an immense loss that cannot be avoided. It is true that much of
these crops came from the atmosphere, but the growth of every leaf and
of every stalk uses up a portion of the soil, or at least tends to destroy its
fertility. What was furnished by the atmosphere will be furnished again, of
course, but only on condition that the soil shall be in as good a state to act
as a medium.

2. The next requisite is to teach ftirmers the proper u?e of manures. How
shall this be done? In the lecture-room of a college? This is not, in our
view, the best place for giving or receiving such instruction. The machinery

78 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

now in use seems to us not only the best, but, in some important sense, the
only available means. To give in detail all the information necessary on this
subject, would be to read to the pupil the better part of all the agricultural
publications in the land. This the college professor cannot do. He lays
down general principles, and leaves the pupil to carry them out as best he
may. But this is just what the periodicals of the day are doing, with the
addition of full statements of actual experiments in the very district where
the pupil's farm is situated. And besides this, periodicals are permanent.
Their statements and instructions are in black and white, and may be referred
to as required. The lecture is heard and forgotten. Let the State, or the
" boys" and " girls" who are asked to give their small earnings to this col-
lege, expend ^10,000 a year on the gratuitous circulation of the best agricul-
tural journals, sending them to those who cannot or who will not pay for
them from their own pockets, and, in our opinion, much more good would
be accomplished than by the best course of collegiate instruction.

3. Without the invaluable aid of the well-conducted journal, ten good
lecturers, going over the State eight months of the year, not so much to talk
about "phosphates," and " chlorine," and " primary elements," and "alluvium,"
and " diluvium," &c., as to present simple facts and successful experiments,
and to give judicious advice to those who have not self-confidence, would do
more good than a dozen colleges which should require an annual payment of
$200 or more from each of those who are placed under such instruction.

We regard well-informed itinerant lecturers, in the present condition of our
farming population, as altogether the most efficient means of securing agri-
cultural reform. What has this kind of effort done in temperance! It
would do much more in agriculture, for it would have to contend not so much
against established and determined prejudice as against ignorance and tim-
idity. These teachers would visit the farmer in his home, and walk with
him over his fields, and point out to him his important mistakes, and encour-
age him with assurances of success. Various modes of exerting a good
influence would present themselves to such men.

Unite the free or the general circulation of journals and the constant
efforts of good lecturers, and we should have, in our judgment, the most
efificient reformatory measures that can be devised.

4. We would add to these, well-arranged county and State shows, where
farmers would congregate to exhibit the results of their more successful
experiments, and learn, also, the experience of others who tried processes
different from their own. But this should not be the whole. Ministers meet
in "Associations," &c., to discuss points of doctrine or of practice. Physi-
cians do the same. Musical conventions are becoming common, where lec-
tures are delivered, and each member gives his views. Teachers' conventions
afford an opportunity to listen to a studied and formal presentation of some
useful topic, but this is followed by extempore discussion, in which all are
invited to join.

So it should be in agricultural meetings. Let the doors of our hospitable
farmers be throv?n open for two or three days, or a week, to those who will
attend such gatherings ; let mutually pleasant and profitable acquaintances
be formed ; successful, and even unsuccessful, experiments be " talked over,"
both in and out of doors, and ideas be interchanged in various ways and on
a variety of subjects, according to circumstances. They all might sit at a com-
mon table, furnished with material brought from the homes of those who
are assembled; imposing only upon the wives and daughters of the place
where they meet, the labor of its preparation : or, still better, in one view of

CANALS IN INDIA. IRRIGATION. 79

the subject, these farmers might bring their own wives and daughters, who
should each show her own skill in preparing the table ; or the labor of cook-
ing might be done at home, so far as meats and pastries, &c., are concerned,
while in the coflfee, and tea, and chocolate, &c., each might exhibit her own
skill : and we add, there is no branch of this subject in which there is more
universal need of instruction. Good coffee and good tea and good chocolate
are among the rarities of the country. Do this, or any thing like this, and
your colleges will, by and by, find they must go into the farm-house for the
matter of their lectures ; and writers on agriculture, to be read, can only
retail what they learn directly from the practical farmer. In fact, what other
than this is now the condition of things on this subject ?

CANALS IN INDIA.— IRRIGATION.

Bayard Taylor gives the following description of some works of this sort
in the East : —

" i he Ganges Canal has rarely been heard of out of India, but it is one
of the grandest undertakings of the present day. It is being constructed
under the direction and at the expense of the Government, mainly for the
purpose of irrigating the level fertile tracts between the Ganges and Jumna,
but also to afford the means of transporting the productions of the country
to the head of navigation in the former river, at Cawnpore. The labor of
more than ten years has already been expended on it, and four or five years
more will be required to complete it. It will be 80 feet wide, varyino- in
depth according to the season, but probably averaging eight feet, and, includ-
ing its numerous branches, will have an extent of 800 miles ! It taps the
Ganges at Hundwar, and returns to it again at Cawnpore, a distance of more
than 400 miles. The total cost, when completed, will not fall much short of
£2,000,000, but it is expected to yield a return of £500,000 annually. This
calculation is based upon the success of the East and West Jumna Canals,
which are comparatively on a small scale. The former of these was finished
in 1825, since which it has paid all the expenses of construction, together
with an annual interest of 5 per cent, thereupon, and £320,000 clear profit.
The latter, finished a few years since, has paid the cost and interest, with
£30,000 profit.

" The use of the water for irrigation is not obligatory upon the inhabitants,
but they are generally quite willing to avail themselves of it. There are
three ways in which it is furnished to them : First, by villages or companies
of cultivators contracting for as much as they want ; secondly, by a fixed
rate per acre, according to the kind of grain, rice being the most expensive,
and cotton the cheapest ; and thirdly, by renting an outlet of a certain fixed
dimension, at so much per year. Along the Jumna Canals, the people do
not wait, as formerly, to see whether the crops will be likely to succeed with-
out irrigation, but employ it in all seasons, and are thereby' assured of a con-
stant return for their labor. The Ganges Canal will be of vast importance
in increasing the amount of grain produced in Hindostan, the design of the
Government being to render famine impossible. It is to be hoped that such
a dreadful spectacle as the famine of 1838, when hundreds of thousands
perished from want, will never again be seen in India. That such things
have happened is the natural result of the tenure by which land is held and
cultivated. The Government is the proprietor, and the zemindars, or tenants,
pay 15 per cent, of the assessed value of the products. The land is sub-let

CITY AND COUNTRY.

by the zemindars to the ryots, or laborers, and these, the poor and ignorant
millions of India, of course gain little or nothing beyond a bare subsistence.
If the crops fail, they have nothing at all. The Ganges Canal will there-
fore, to a certain extent, prevent famine, V)y assuring perennial crops. It
will enrich the Government, because, in addition to the sale of the water, it
will increase the rent of the lands as they become productive, but it will very
slit'htly mitigate the condition of the ryots.

"The greatest modern work in India is the Canal Aqueduct over the Selanee
river, at tliis place. It is entirely constructed of brick, and, including the
abutments, is about a quarter of a mile in length, by 180 feet in breadth.
There are about sixteen arches of about seventy feet span, and rising twenty
feet above the river, the foundations of the piers being sunk twenty feet
below the bed. The arches are four feet thick, in order to support the im-
meiise pressure of such a body of water. Hundreds of workmen are at
present (nnployed on tlie structure, and a small railroad has been laid down
for bringing the materials. A locomotive was imported from England, but,
tbrouijh the nei^lect of the native firemen, soon became a wreck. During
the short time it was in operation, a great number of accidents occurred. It
was found almost impossible to keep the natives off the track. Their stupid-
ity in this respect is astonishing. If you have a hard heart, you may run
over as many as you like in a morning's ride, for they will assuredly not get
out of your way unless you force them to it."

CITY AND COUNTRY.

" If the towns grow, the country grows. Show us an old-looking, rickety,
paintless, dilapidated town, and we will show you a country of shiftless and
thriftless farmers near it."

So says the editor of the Prairie Farmer; and among the volumes of good
thino-s that have come from his pen, he ha^ never published a more truthful
sentence, nor one more worthy of serious thought. "Town vs. country,"
"country vs. city!" Did you ever see the two blades of a pair of scissors
worrying and bullying and fighting each other ? It is not llie head saying
to the foot, " I have no need of thee," nor the " vessel of honor" turning with
disdain from the " vessel of dishonor." There is no such inequality of posi-
tion. If one presents to the eye piles of brick and stone, with markets and
merchandise, the other spreads out fields of green, and quiet and tasteful
homes ; and the land waves its golden harvests in graceful obeisance to the
traveller from the city, as if it would bid him welcome to the spot where the
su-^tenance of the world is grown, and to the families to whom he owes
much of his own prosperity.

No, they are not head and tail, nor lord nor peasant; they are rather the
two aims of the lever by which the world is moved. They are the two
noble steeds, unlike in regard to color, form, &c., which lift out of the fog
and darkness the chariot of day, while neither, alone, would give motion to
its ponderous wheels.

Without the city there is no market. Without the country there can be
no city. Cities do not grow at hap-hazard. They will not extend their busy
streets and marts at the command of men's fancy or caprice.

Nor, on the other hand, can the country flourish without cities. Where
are our rich farmers? Invariably where they have access to large markets.
Exceptions are such only in appearance. The ancestor from whom the

THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 81

wealtb was first inherited, if a farmer, acquired his profits where he could
sell readily the products of his land.

Who constitute the throngs in the streets of cities? Many of them are
strangers frofn the country. Wbo occupy the stores and counting-rooms of
the city ? The former companions and schoolmates of those strangers, if
not their brothers and sisters, who chose to try their fortunes in a new and
more venturesome pursuit.

Does the agricultural State of Vermont wish to raise large sums with
which to endow her colleges, where do her agents go ? Among her own
sons in Boston and New- York. Does agricultural New-Hampshire wish to
get up a splendid social feast, where the natives of the State can assem-
ble and renew old acquaintances, and revive old associations, and honor
dear memories ? What more fitting place could have been found than that
selected in the city of Boston ?

Would her "only seaport," which has sometimes been thought to look
down with an air a little too lordly upon the interior portions of that State,
assure themselves of a "glorious Fourth," that shall not ever be forgotten ?
Who could better have made assurance sure than her sons in Boston and
New-York for the day just approaching ? They will not fail. When were
they known to fail?

We once kept the tally for the President of that old "aristocratic" insti-
tution, "The Old Massachusetts Bank," himself a country minister's son, as he
counted over the Boston boys among the (then) sixty Boston members of the
State Legislature, and the whole sum to'al was less than a dozen. The rest
were from the country, and yet there is sometimes a jealousy between city
and country ! If this is reasonable, then a house may properly be divided
against itself — father against son, brothers and sisters, mothers and daughters,
cousins and uncles, and even betrothed lovers against each other. Such a
contest is essentially a family feud.

In the olden times, and even in many cities now scattered over the
Eastern Hemisphere, the flocks and herds which, during tlie day, are led out
into the broad fields of the rural districts, at night are collected around or
within the walls of the city for protection. This is an apt illustration of the
relative position of the country and the city. When these shepherds and
herdsmen are ready to conspire together to destroy that which protects them
and their flocks — to kindle a blaze under the walls and roofs which allbrd
them comfort and shelter, then may jealousies spring up and be fanned into '
bitter quarrels and angry fightings, and all contend manfully for the com-
mon destruction of all classes.

FOR THE PLOUQH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

THE DIGNITY OF LABOR.

Messrs. Editors : — No one will deny the necessity of manual labor, yet
too few are willing to av.-ard to the toiling millions that position in society to
which they are justly entitled.

Without effort and without labor nothing can be accomplished. The
heavens might pour forth refreshing showers ; the gentle dews descend, and
the sun send forth its geni.-il rays; the seasons regularly return and cover the
face of the earth with verdure ; but without the effort of man to profit by
the bounty of Omnipotence, all would be in vain. By the hand of the

VOL. VI. PART I. 6

THE DIGNITY OF LABOR.

laborer the forest falls, seeds are planted in the ground and yield many-fold
for the sustenance of man.

The artisan erects comfortable dwellings, builds ships, spreads an iron net-
work over the face of the earth, and provides those means of conveyance to
facilitate intercourse which are fast rendering the inhabitants of the earth
one people, and enabling them to exchange the productions of one clime for
those of others By the skill of the mechanician, machines are constructed
to relieve man fi'om much laborious exertion and from too heavy burdens.
It must be evident to all who will bestow any thought upon the subject, that
those who apply the powers that the Creator has bestowed upon them to
some useful purpose, are benefactoi-s, and entitled to the respect of the good
and the wise, and must receive the approving smiles of Heaven. And, on
the other hand, those who spend their time in idleness are unworthy of the
society of the virtuous, recreant to their duties, and rebellious against the
laws of nature and the commands of Heaven. These undeniable truths being
admitted, we propose examining into the cause of the insignificant position
awarded to the sons of toil, and the inadequate remuneration for their
services.

The greatest obstacle in the way of progress for the laborer, and of his
advancement to the dignity and honor to which he is justly entitled, may be
attributed to his own fciults — his voluntary acknowledgment of inferiori^ty,
and his obsequious cringing to those who have wealth and station. And
especially does he lower himself when, lacking self-reliance, he enters into
combination with others to effect that which his own merits ought and, if
properly presented, would command. The operation of " Trades' Unions "
has had a most deleterious eifect upon the interests of the most worthy and
useful members of society. The sober, industrious and intelligent man who
joins one of these Associations, lowers himself in the estimation of the public,
and often in his own mind, to the level of the most intemperate, slothful and
ignorant member of the Society to which he is attached.

The judgment of the world, and often of individuals, is ungenerous and
unkind. Many a well-disposed person, with the purest motives, has left hon-
orable and profitable employment on account of some imaginary v/rong in-
flicted upon a worthless member, and in doing so, has unintentionally incurred
the disrespect of those who previously honored him for moral worth and
unimpeachable integrity. The worst feature of these Associations is their
effect upon individual members. We venture the assertion without fear of
contradiction, that the first stipend any person ever received, while in health
and able to earn a living, from any Association, lowered him, in his own esti-
mation, from the dignity of an independent citizen to the condition of a
feeder upon charity. Sucli are the inevitable effects of Associations that
attempt to control the conduct of individuals in their business transactions
with others. No combination ever established as high a rate of wages as
could be commanded, at any and all times, by the best workmen of the art;
nor did they ever put the rate so low but that the poorest workmen would
be more than paid. Consequently, the whole burden falls upon the best
members, and the benefits are received by the most worthless hangers-on of
those Associations. Another evil effect of these Associations among mechan-
ics is the tendency that strikes among workmen have to induce employers to
take incompetent men to fill the places of those who, in obedience to the
rules of the Society, leave their situations. We must not be understood as
arguing that the laborer is overpaid ; on the contrary, the wao-es received by
the industrious workman hardly ever approach a just reward, and often are

AMERICAN MINES. 83

entirely insufficient to yield the necessaries of life for himself and family. If
we believed that these Associations were calculated to increase the respecta-
bility, inielligence and comfort of the members, they would receive our hearty
concurrence and support ; but they must not be confounded with purely Bene-
ficial Societies, those that allow their members to work at such prices as they
see fit and can obtain ; and when the resources of the members of such Soci-
eties are exhausted, they can conscientiously and without humiliation, receive
assistance from the common treasury. But to compel a member to quit a
situation where he receives for his services eight, ten, or twelve dollars per
week, and accept from the funds of the Society three or four dollars, and
spend his time in idleness, with opportunity and example to contract habits
of intemperance, is at least a doubtful policy, the consequence of which should
receive the careful consideration of all those who are disposed to unite their
interests in the cause of human amelioration.

" The laborer is worthy of his hire ;" and he who unjustly withholds the
hard earnings of an employee is a robber, and no less a criminal than he who,
under cover of night, robs his neighbor for gain. And little less guilty is
that man who, while overloaded with wealth, seeks to wring from the poor
laborer the greatest possible amount of work for a miserable pittance.

J. S. G.

Media, Delaware Co., Fa., June 25, 1853.

AMERICAN MINES.

The mining interest of these Slates is just beginning to be developed,
and we do not hazard much in prophesying that those of iron and lead and
copper, (fee, will be of more substantial value than those of gold and silver.

VVe intend to give these matters especial attention, and invite those
interested to send us statements of facts for our pages. A correspondent of
the Tribune writes thus of the Copper Mines of Lake Superior :

" The Norwich is situated on the west branch of the Ontonagon river,
about 18 miles from the mouth, and 12 miles from Collins' Landing. It is
a well-defined vein, and has been traced and partially opened for more than
half a mile in extent. The lode is well charged with copper, from good
stamp ore to masses of 4,000 lbs. One shaft has been sunk to the depth of
245 feet on the vein ; another 80 feet, and two others to an inconsiderable
depth. The ten-fathom level has been extended about 240 feet ; the twenty-
fathom level 220 feet ; the upper part of the mine has been partially stoped
out, producing about 800 tons of stamp and barrel-work, and 30 tons of
masses. There is sufficient copper in sight to guarantee a shipment of 15
tons this season without robbing the mine. They are driving a working adit
level 440 feet in length, which will give a back of 250 feet, and enable the
Company to work the mine to great advantage. This adit will be completed
about the first of August.

"The Windsor is situated about half a mile east of the Norwich. One
shaft has been sunk 105 feet; two others about 80 feet each. Levels have
been extended 290 feet, but there is not sufficient work to develop the mine.
It produces good stamp and barrel-work, and a few small masses. This
mine is worthy of a large expenditure to prove it up.

"The Ohio Trap Rock Company are working on the north side of the
Norwich Bluff. They have sunk one shaft 260 feet, one 200 feet, and several
others 10, 20, and 30 fathoms. Levels have been extended for 200 and 300

84 INCREASE OF IMPORTATION.

feet; an adit level driven 150 feet, and cross-cuts north and south. It does
not present a very flatteiing show at the point wl)ere they are now working,
although good stamp and barrel ore has been raised. This Company own a
large and good tract of land, have erected stamps, and are prepared to work
with vigor when they get a paying mine.

"The Derby is about five miles west of the Norwich. They have been
working two veins on the south side of the bluff, both of which are of very
fair promise : one shaft is down about 30 feet; an adit is being driven in
the course of the vein, which will give a back of 225 feet. There is every
indicntion of this making a paying mine.

"The Hudson is a half mile west of the Norwich, and has sunk a shaft
40 feet, on what appea's to be the same vein that the Ohio Trap Rock are
working on the other side of the bluff. It is a good show.

" Yours, W. D. K."

INCREASE OF IMPORTATION.

The New- York Journal of Commerce says, that the total receipts of dry-
goods at this port since January 1st, is $12 945,509 greater than for the cor-
responding five months of last year, and $8,592,14 1 greater than for tho
same period of 1851, as will appear from the annexed comparison:

IMPORTS OF DRY-GOODS AT THE PORT OF NEW-YORK DURING THE MONTH&
OF JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH, APRIL, AND MAY.

ENTEKKD FOR CONSUMPTION.

1861. 1852. 1853.

Manufactures of woo\ - - - - $5 513.126 $4,588,869 $8.495 111

colt<;n, - - - 5,355,438 4,295.267 6.718,790

silk, - - - - 10.296 506 8,156 557 13.395,311

" fl^ix, - - - - 3,291,168 2,643.389 3,799.591

Miscellaneous dry goods, - - - 1,742.901 1,858.5!;2 2,539,874

Total, $26,199,139 $21,542,604 $33,948,683

■WITHDRAWN FROM WAREHOUSE.

1851. 1852. 1853.

Manufactures of wool, - - - $474386 $779,610 $498,791

c.tlon, - - - 822,057 1,1104.230 554,598

silk, 520,655 1,163,650 671,656

Ahx, - - - - 332,322 566 149 117,230

Miscellaneous dry goods, -'• - 220,667 219,324 201.758

Total, $2,370,087 $3,732 963 $2,044,033

Add entered for consumption, -26,199.139 21.542,604 33,948,683

Totalthrown onmarket, -$28,569,226 $25,275,567 $36,992,716

ENTERED FOR WAREHOUSING.

1851. 1852. 1853.

Manufactures of wool, - - - . $589,058 $683,435 $767,202

cotton, - - - 763,854 536 073 610,254

f'ilk, 861,037 1,434610 826,778

flax, .... 322,561 187,772 160,294

Miscellaneous dry goods, - - - 190,080 187.967 204,659

Total, $2,726,590 $3.u29,757 $2,569,187

Add entered for consumption, - 26,199,139 21.542 6ii4 34.948,683

Total entered at port, - $28,925,729 $24,572,361 $37,517,870

A>rATOMY OF THE HORSE. 85

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The following abstract of one of Dr. Slade's lecture?, as reported in the
Traveller^ will be useful to all those who have the care of that noble
aniiiial :

"The posterior extremities are divided into the haunch, the thio-h, the
hock, leg, and foot, being the bones concerned in forming this portion of the
animal. The hind legs of the horse resemble very much the le^-s of man.
The branch or pelvis forms the posterior boundary of the trunk, and is con-
nected with tho spme. It presents a large, irregular cavity, open before and
behind, and contains the urinary and genital organs, with a portion of the
intestines. It is composed of four bo les. Two of these, called the hgiuuch
bones, or ossa mnominata, form the lateral and inferior portions of the pelvis.
Each of these two bones consists of three bones, termed the ilium, ischium,
and pubis. The pubis is the smallest, and sustains the bladder, and uniting
with the opposite bone, forms the symphisis pubis. From the loins to the
setting on of the tail, a line should be carried almost straight. The width
of the haunch is of great importance, as it atfords more room for the attach-
ment of muscles.

"The thigh bone is the largest and strongest in the skeleton, is short and
thick, and has prominences, hollows, and roughnesses for the attachment of
powerful muscles. The lower extremity is very comi)licated, and presents
two prominences which are received into corresponding depressions in the
next bone, and a depression in front in which the bone of the knee plays as
over a pulley. The stifle bone, corresponding to the knee-pan in man,
glides over the pulley-like surface in front. Tliis and the two prominences
below and behind constitute the stitle joint.

" The leg bone of the horse, or the lower bone of the thigh, as it is called,
is composed of two bones, the tibia and fibula. The tibia is the largest,
and in front reaches from the stifle to the back. The fibula is very small,
and reaches a third of the way down.

" The lower bone of the thigh forms an angle with the upper one,
exactly the reverse of the one between the upper one and the pelvis. The
object of this is to obviate concussion, on the princi|)le of the spring, and
also to give a favorable direction to the muscles. This part of the thigh
should be long, in order that the contraction of the muscles may be as great
as possible.

" The inferior extremity of this bone enters into lhe formation of the
hock joint, which consists of three sharpened projections and two deep
articular grooves — one of these projections separating the grooves and the
others forming the lateral prominences.

" The line of direction below the hocks should be perpendicular to the
fetlock. The weight and stress will thus be equally diffused not only over
the entire back, but also over the pasterns and foot. Some horses have their
hocks closer than usual to each other, and the legs and feet turn outwards.
These animals are said to be cow-hocked, and are thought to have consider-
able speed. This may be the case, but the advantage gained is more than
counterbalanced by many evils to which they are liable, such as spavins,
windgalls, and curbs.

'I The other bones of the hind legs are very similar to those of the fore legs
which have been described.

"lhe muscles of the posterior extremities are more powerful than those

86 WOOL-GROWING AT THE SOUTH.

of any other part of the frame, and provision is made to confine them in their
respective positions, and to contribute to their security and strength. When
the skin is stripped off, the muscles are not found naked, but they are covered
and closely compacted together by a dense, strong membrane which is called
^a fascia.

" The diseases of the posterior extremities are numerous.

" The stitf joint is often sprained, and sometimes dislocated. Sprain is
indicated by swelling, and is of little harm to the horse. DislocaMon is
much more serious, and often the horse never recovers, but always remains
lame. Thorouo'h-pin affects the hind legs, and is similar to a windgall.
The treatment is bandaging, blistering, or firing if necessary. It is not a
serious disease, but should be watched, lest the causes which produce it should
weaken other parts.

" There is sometimes a sprain of the hock, or inflammation of that part of
the leg, which may be abated by applying blisters and allowing the horse to
rest. Sometimes it will not yield to treatment ; and although a horse may-
work moderately for three or four years, yet when called on to do any extra
day's work, lameness comes on and may always continue.

" The ligaments of the leg sometimes become sprained, and then arises a
tumor called a ' curb.' Blistering should be tried, and sometimes firing is
necessary. A horse affected with the curb should be regarded with suspicion.
The swelling is best observed when looking sideways at the leg. A horse
with the curb should be allowed to rest at least a month after the treatment
is commenced. It is often an hereditary disease.

" Bone-spavin is a very common dieease. When it first comes on, the
horse is quite lame, and suffers great pain. Soon both disappear, the parts
becoming used to the tumor on the hock joint. If the disease does not
interfere with the ligaments, it is of little disadvantage; if it does, the disease
is more serious. It is a peculiarity of the spavined horse that when first
taken out he is very lame, but after travelling a while, he becomes almost
entirely free from the limping. Spavined horses are best fitted for farming,
where no great speed is needed. Little can be satisfactorily said of the
treatment of spavin. Continued blistering sometimes is eftectuah

"A disease sometimes affects the meuibrane between the bones of the
hock joint. It causes lameness, but little is known of its character.

" Swelled leg arises from irregular exercise and seldom use. If not
properly attended to, it may result in trouble. The limb should be bound
firmly, and physic applied.

"'Grease' is a disease arising from wetting the legs and then allowing
them to dry. When the hind legs are washed, they should be well wiped.
The 'grease' appears as an itching near the top of the hoof, and cracks
often are found as the result of the disease. The disease often debilitates the
horse, and he becomes useless. In carriage and pleasure-horses, the hair on
the fetlock joints should be cut off. In cart-horses, the hair should be allowed
to remain, and the legs should not be washed, but brushed.

WOOL-GROWING AT THE SOUTH.

There seems to be a disposition in a few of our friends in Virginia to enter
upon this business. We rejoice to see this. They must succeed in it, far
better than in the modes of farming hitherto prevalent in that State. The
Richmond Dis^iatch has a short article on the subject, in which he says:

ROTATION OF CROPS. 87

" Vir^rlnia has stood aside, and seen the wealth derivable from the growth
of wool absorbed and appropriated by her neighbors. But a new era has
been opened, and we boldly predict that our State will shortly rank among
the first in furnishing wool fur the marts of the world. We saw, yesterday
morning, a sample of fine Saxony wool grown in this State, that would
bring, in any market, from 85 to 90 cents per pound. We also looked over
some samples of Merino, grown within 20 miles of Richmond, that brought
60 cents in this market. The grower remarked, that at such rates he could
not engage in a more profitable business. It seems that he had entered upon
wool-growing merely as an experiment, and had only 170 sheep in his flock.
For this season's clip he received about $350. He informed us that he had
100 lambs for sale, for which the butchers had repeatedly oflfered $5 per
head, but that, as they were full-blooded Merino, he had sold most of them
at llO each, and expected no difficulty in selling the remainder at the same
price. At this rate his profits for a single year will be from $750 to $1,350
upon 170 sheep ! On being asked the annual cost per head of feeding them,
he replied, forty cents ; but added, that since their manure was worth three
times that sum, he concluded that his wool had really cost him less than
nothing. Considerable attention is now being paid to the growth of wool
upon the poorer lands of Fairfax and Prince William, and the business is
steadily increasing throughout the whole Piedmont region, from Harper's
Ferry to the North Carolina line. We doubt not that even in the tide-water
sections of our State, the growth -of wool will be found profitable."

Let many others of the Ancient Dominion go and do likewise.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

In English papers, this is a constant subject of discussion. The precise
order of rotation, and the number of years to be occupied by the series, for
producing the greatest crops, are regarded as questions of very great prac-
tical importance. In that country, where the lands are highly cultivated, it
may be deserving all the attention given to it. Some crops seem to possess
the power of rendering available elements over which others have no power.
Their roots penetrate more deeply, or are more abundant, or perhaps have
a peculiar organization which gives them some special adaptation to appro-
priate nutriment inaccessible to other plants.

The same question is sometimes brought before us in our own journals,
and even here it is no doubt worthy, oftentimes, of careful consideration.

But we would guard our readers against one grand mistake. When a
soil contains all that is necessary to make it fertile, a given crop exhausts
the available portions of one or more of its elements much more rapidly
than it does others. Hence the repetition of the same crop for several years
may in the end leave the land utterly destitute of those given elements,
while it contains an abundance of all others. When this is the state of
things, it is obvious that it cannot produce another similar crop, while it
may be able to produce one of a different character or requiring dift'erent
elements.

But what is the result of thus ta-^king the land? Continuing the same
crop, a small one only can be obtained ; but by changing it, it_may, for the
time being, be more productive. But what is the final consequence ? While
manure is withheld, instead of being destitute of one, it becomes destitute of
several elements, and if the process is continued, is made totally barren, and

88 FISH AND BONES FOR MANURE.

requires a general and thorough renovation before it can produce any
thin or.

We have seen this course pursued by tenants for a term of years. Having
exhausted the power of the soil to produce one growth, they plant another
with tolerable success. This exhausts in its turn, but in a different way, and
eie long there is no crop for which it has the necessary aliment. But his
lease has expired, and he has no further use for the land. The owner can do
with it as he pleases.

The first course alluded to is like driving away one swarm of insects with
which your horse or yourself may be covered, to make place for a fi'esh sup-
ply of others as hungrv as the first were at the beginning, and so progressing
from bad to worse. But the second, the process of rotation without manure,
is but another illustration of sacred writ: 'that which the cankerworm hath
left hath the palmerworm eaten." Thus, corn requires more silex than peas;
peas and kindred plants more nitrogenous manuie than cucumbers or
melons, &c.

Ortlinary farmers overlook one very important feature in the system of
rotation. We refer to a season of rest and of ])loughing in green oops, with
which it may be qualifying itself for abundant harvests in future years.
They see the evil of cropping the same growth year after year; their scanty
harvests proclaim this in a voice that cannot be unheeded ; but if they can
change the crop and receive in return a bare recompense for their labor,
they are satisfied. Thus they go on, till at last they cannot gather even a
crop of beans. What then ? Do they thoroughly manure, and allow a season
of rest? Not at all. They sow grass seed, perhaps; and mowing the growth
of every year till they find this unprofitable, they turn it into pasture, and
require their cows and oxen to find on it what they could not find — a liberal
supply of feed. It is thus we imitate the habits of others, leaving out, par-
tially if not exclusively, those very things which give value to the general
system, omitting tliat which can alone secure for any growth an abundant
harvest

But even this season of rest is not enough. Manures, as we have seen,
are as essential with a rotation of crops as without. The kind of manure
may be modified with the nature of the growth, but the supply of some
manure, and that which is suited to the condition of the soil, is indispensable
in any system of farming, and in the growth of any variety of crops.

The rotation system has been thought unwise, because unnatural. If left
to itself, each plant scatters its seed around its own roots, thereby securing a
permanent succession of the same growth. But in this case, nature does
what the farmer does not. She returns the entire growth to the same soil
which produced it, with the addition of a large amount of organized ele-
ments derived from other sources, as air, water, &c. But, again, this is not
always true. In forests, when the growth is cut off, we often see a different
species growing in its stead.

FISH AND. BONES FOR MANURE.

Every one knows that bones are exceedingly valuable as manure, but
many are deterred from using them by the labor and cost required to pre-
pare them for the soil. Their value consists chiefly in the phosphate of lime
which they contain.

Au interesting experiment is detailed by Mr. C. L. Flint, in the Journal of

FISH AND BONES FOR, MANURE. 89

Agriculture, showing how easily fish can be converted into manure. It
answers, as will appear, the same purpose, essentially, as guano. Mr. Flint
says :

'" We have ourselves formed a compost, which for fertilizing properties is
nearly equal to guano, by dissolving tish with sulphuric acid. The process
is so simple, and the result so valuable for those living in the vicinity of the
sea-shoie, who can procure fish in considerable quantities, that we will state
it, in the hope that it may prove of value to others. Sul|»hunc acid can be
procured at about three cents a pound, more or less, depending upon circum-
stances. We applied the sulphuric acid from the laboratory to the flesh and
bones of a large codfish, simply pouring the liquid in a small quantity over
the fish. In less than two days the decay had been so rapid as to be distinctly
perceptible; when a little more acid was sprinkled over the fish. In less than
a week, flesh and bones were in a state of decay, and shortly after, we mixed
it with a little earth, and applied it around the roots of plants. It caused
them to grow with the most astonishitig rapidity.

Circumstances did not allow us to try the experiment on a large scale, but it
is easy to perceive how simply it could be done. Let fi;h, which can ordinarily
be procured, in summer, in large quantities around the wharves, or the refuge
of the fish market, consisting of heads, bones, &c., be first procured. Dig a
hole in the earth, of any desirable size, in the shape of a bowl, into which put
all such animal substances as can be procured. Obtain from the apothecary
or manufacturer good sulphuric acid, (vitriol,) and dilute it slightly with water.
The rapidity of the decomposition will be in proportion to the strength of the
acid. We used it undiluted, though for practical purposes it would be better
to dilute it somewhat, — perhaps four or five, or even ten parts water to one
of acid; — additions can be made from time to time, as convenience may dic-
tate ; and the ap[)lication of acid renewed in any quantities. A few experi-
ments may be nef^ded to ascertain the most economical management of these
quantities, &c. No loss of any valuable properties, like ammonia, (fee, need
be feared from exposure to the air ; though if a great rain should occur soon
after the application of acid, a fresh application should be made. The former
one would be too much diluted.

"After this mass has lain some days, till the bones are sufficiently dissolved,
sand or loam may be added, and the whole mixed together. It will now be
in a state to be used, and may be applied on the surface, or ploughed in. If
used in the garden, it will be convenient to cover it slightly with the spade.
Here has been produced a rapid decomposition of a substance containing a
very large amount of phosphate of lime, the bones of fi.-h being mostly com-
posed of it, and the flesh containing it in a state very easily soluble. This
decomposition has been attended with no great difliculty ; no stench has
been produced, no nuisance caused. All applications of hme to this simple
compost should be carefully avoided.

"Any other than fish bones may be used with equal success. We mention
them in particular from their containing so large an amount of phosphates,
and being so easily attainable. We have no doubt this mode of forming a
very rich fertilizer will be tried with great success by gardeners and farmers
who have the enterprise to use all the means in their power to enrich the
soil, and who prefer to manufacture their own guano to paying the expense
of freight, and the profit which the importer and the retailer expect to
realize; at the same time running the risk of frauds, which can hardly be
detected without an expensive analysis.

"The use of guano is attended with much labor in the preparation, and

90

CHARACTER AND POSITION OF THE FARMER.

some danger in the application ; nearly as much, perhaps, as the whole trouble
of forming this rich compost of phosphate of lime will cost. The substance
produced as above described is very easily soluble in water, and thus acts
very soon, while bone-dust, being less soluble, will be found to act more
slowly, and, unless very finely ground, will scarcely be felt before the second
year. All bones, however, contain a large amount of phosphate of hme, and
are easily prepared for use by the farmer, or obtainable at no very great ex-
pense at the manufactories."

CONSUMPTION OF COTTON.

The following table was published by Messrs. Du Fay & Co., of Man-
chester, and exhibits a view of the quantities of raw cotton consumed by
various countries, from 1836 to 1852 inclusive. The figures express the
number of millions of pounds.

COUNTRIES.

183fi

1837|1838

1839|1840|18411842 1843 1844

1845

1846

1847

1848

1849

1850

1851

1852

Great Britain,,

350
57

118

3t)9
58

121

435
61

133

362

48

110

473
.72

157

422' 4fi9. fisi

343
86

146

597
96

158

604
97

159

425
103

126

591
112

127

627
160

186

584
133

142
29

45

188

648
118

149

34

45

138
2i

1175

745
172

199
44

55

232
29

1481

Russia, Germany, Holland,
and Belgium

65
154

78 82
163 132

France (including adjacent
countries)

Spain

Countries bordering on the
Adriatic

28
86

32

82

26
92

26

OS

29

PR U

')fi

38
158

39
175

31
175

29

209

47
205

United St. of North America.
Sund's, Mediterranean, &c„

103 111

113 105' 13i| 143

1 — 1 — 1 — 1""

113'

Total

fi'^c)

662 1 7-17

649l 8-11 1 78a' Rifi' <Wl 044

1047

1074

862'inii8

l^i

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

CHARACTER AND POSITION OF THE FARMER.

Messrs. Editors : — At a fair held at Hyde Park, Lamoille county, in
1849, an address was delivered by a farmer, who complained that the class
to which he belonged were neglected and looked down upon by professional
men. I write this to assure him and the rest of his class that tliere is one
professional man who does not look down on them. Our Declaration of
Rights avers, we are all born equal ; and I contend, all the difference with us
(aside from degrees of intellect) is our morals. I esteem myself as good as
any man, if my morals are of as high a grade. It is not the case in our
republic that one man is born a prince, and the other a peasant. I was
inured to fiirming to the age of twenty ; have worked in the black pines two
weeks at a time ; was familiar with all kinds of agricultural labors. Farm-
ers are indispensable to a community; prosperity cannot attend us without
them. Professional men must look to them for their bread. I wish this to
be borne in mind by gentlemen, as well as by coxcombs. The American
farmer is the most independent man on the globe. He is the lord of the
soil. Taxes are trifling here in comparison with countries where there is a
crowned head, a nobility, and an established piiesthood to support; and the
greatest of all curses is the tithe system. The clergy assist the despot to
keep the peasantry in ignorance and servitude. Their teachings are, fear
God and honor the King — his sacred Mnjesty — his most gracious Majesty —
the divine right of kings — I would as lief say divine right of devils/ The

CHARACTER AND POSITION OF THE FARMER. 91

farmer is dependent on many of his fellow-men. He cannot begin his work
until he is furnished by the smith with an axe to fell his forest ; and as he
progresses with his labor, he must draw more largely on the smith and other
mechanics, who are all useful in their sphere, and we cannot dispense with
their services. The farmer must exchange his bread for the implements he
needs; and thus he feeds the mechanic, which is a mutual benefit. We all
may be of use in some station, and each be of benefit to another. I must con-
sider agriculturists the most useful of men. They enjoy the best health,
being nearly exempt from sickness ; and would he study the laws of his
being, and practise them, he would seldom lose a meal or an hour's labor
from indisposition. Inhaling the pure air impregnated with the delicious
effluvia of the thousand blossoms whose fragrance conduces to health and
longevity, the out-door laborer is the most healthy and long-lived of any
class of men. My grandfather was a farmer, and lived to his ninety-fourth
year ; my father is a farmer, is now living in his ninetieth year, retaining a
good degree of health and intellect. The farmer is also the most moral
class in community. There is no other calling whose ethics will compare
with those of the tillers of the soil. It is seldom a farmer is convicted of gam-
bling, libertinism, or any heinous crime. It is not common for them to prac-
tise tippling and drunkenness. There are ten men of other callings that are
guilty of those and other misdemeanors, to one farmer. Well Informed
farmers would form for us a better code of laws than professional men ; but
with due deferehce, and great regret, I am compelled to say that, as a body,
they are deficient in the science of agriculture, and have not that general know-
ledge they can and ought to possess. There are many honorable excep-
tions, and these are fast multiplying; but there are many now who "carry
a stone in one end of the bag," because their fathers did, and aver they want no
book-farming. They need chemical and ar/ricultural knowledge : and if they
neglect to obtain this for themselves, let us urge them to secure it for their
children. Convince the farmer that it is oi greater utility to put money into
the heads of the young than into their pockets, and the work is nearly
accomplished. I have a great desire that the rising generation shall culti-
vate their minds, become familiar with the sciences, have a general knowledge
of themselves and that which surrounds them, be capable of doing their
own thinking, and have the full exercise of the reasoning powers which the
God of nature has bestowed on them. Then the earth will be a paradise.
Astronomy, Botany, Geology, Chemistry, and all the departments of natural
history are important, but a knowledge of chemistry is indispensable to the
farmer. He cannot cultivate his farm to advantage without it; but it is
lamentable that so few are imbued with this necessary knowledge, and the
number is still smaller that would pay one dollar for an analy'sis of their
soils, which to them, in many cases, would be an advance of fifiy dollars.
They should know what soil requires lime, and what plaster, &c., &c,

I occasionally read an interesting communication from Professor Mapes.
God bless him, and every other man who, by his labors, is attempting to
benefit the human family ! Farmers frequently complain they are not noticed
by the people as they ought to be ; that professional men, more especially
attorneys, hold the offices. Let us look around and see where the difficulty
lies. In New-England there are some twenty farmers to one professional
man. Then you have the 'poioer in your own hands. Why do you not use
it? Have you no confidence in your own cla^s ? You may answer, It is in
part diffidence. The ostensible cause is lack of qualification or information
which you can and ought to possess. Many of you say, I hav e no lime *

92 THE COTTON PLANT.

read. I think it is not so. How do you spend your long winter evenings?
Sitting idly by your fire, or. what is far worse, at the public-house and shops
•in your villages. I know there ave many honorable exceptions.

Should you spend the evenings of one winter in study, you might store a
vast amount of information in your mind, which would be of vast benefit
during your lif>.-; and this knowledge you can impart to others fur their
benefit, and not impoverish the original stock. By a])plying yourselves in this
manner, and the wet days in summer, you may quahfy yourselves for agricul-
ture, legislation, or other useful employments. A well-informed "yeouiatu-y
is our country's pride." The State of Vermont has been very democratic.
Our Governors, a majority of them, have been tillers of the soil ever since
we have been a State. Our Legislature has usually had a majority of farm-
ers, and it would be greater if you were better qualified. In that case, the
artifice of sycophants and designing knaves would not influence you. I
wish you to cast about and see where your power lies. It does not lie in
your hair or muscles, but in your intellect; you will bear in mind, ^^ know-
ledge is powerj^ My advice and entreaty is, that you set about so noble a
work immediately. Books and periodicals are i)lenty and cheap, and time in
abundance to read them. No man at this time has any valid excuse for
ignorance. Qualify yourselves for legislators, then you are capable of judging
of the acts of legislation — their merits or demerits.

Sloven years ago last January, the citizens of Lamoille county organized an
Agricultural Society. The first two years I served as President, and was
more pleased, and experienced more gratification in serving the Society in
that capacity, than any other offices I ever held, which have been but few ;
for I can safely say, I never was an aspirant for office. Our Society has
been the means of improving all our domestic animals. Good breeders
have been sought, and the value of the animals has nearly doubled. The
value of fowls has quadrupled. Attention is aroused to the whole routine of
husband r\r. In the formation of our Society, I regret to state, not one half
of the farmers could be induced to engage in the enterprise.

More agricultural papers are taken in the county than when the Soc'ety
was organized, but not one half the farmers take them now. Every one
should take some paper. Take the Plough, Loom, and Anvil, all who feel
able ; those who do not, take a cheaper paper; but take some one. I respect
the farmer ; I will encourage him by any means in my power ; I will remem-
ber I obtain my bread by the sweat and labor of the industrious hus-
bandman. Ariel Hukton, A.M., M.D.

Hyde Park, Lamoille county, June IQth, 1853.

THE COTTON PLANT.

We find a very lucid article on this subject in the last number (July) of
De Bow's Review. The writer (E. U. S., of Charleston) had examined three
varieties of soil, supposed to illustrate the average cotton soils of the Sea
Island plantations. There were two specimens of each, one from the surface,
and one from eleven or twelve inches below the surface. Of these soils, the
writer says :

"The basis, and, indeed, almost the sole mineral constituent, is a fine
siliceous sand, precisely identical with that which forms (he sand beaches of
our sea-coasts. They are enabled to support vegetation by the presence of a
trifling proportion of aluminous earth, of oxide of iron and vegetable matter,

THE COTTON PLANT. 93

to which are added small quantities of the carbonates of lime and magnesia,
and traces of phosphates and sulphates of the same basis, and of alkaline
carbonat s; all of which, taken together, fall considerably below 10 ))er cent.
The alumina, the oxide of iron, aud the organic matter, perform an import-
ant service in the soil, by rendering it binding, and retentive of the moisture
and gaseous matter which are essential to the nutrition of plants ; while the
salts enumerated, either wholly or in part, enter also into the general circula-
tion of the vegetable growth, and are more or less there detained, as indis-
pensable constituents of the same. But it is also clear that a soil thus consti-
tuted B'ould be unfit for supporting vegetation, except for the fact that it is
situated directly contiguous to the sea, and in a temperature neaily tropical,
thus giving rise to an atmosphere perpetuallj' loaded with moisture.

" Compared with inland and river-alluvion soils, the character of the Sea
Island Soil is very remarkable. The former rarely have more than 65 per
cent, of silica, while their alumina and oxide of iron together often mount
up to 10 or 12 per rent., and the proportion of organic matter and hygro-
metic moisture to 12 or 15 per cent.

"This contrast will indicate the direciion in which the efforts of the planter
should be made for the improvement of the Sea Island soils. Every addition
he can afford to make of alumina, oxide of iron, and organic njatter will
raise the character of his soils."

The soluble matter in these soils consists of the chlorides of potassium,
sodium, and calcium, and of the sulphates and carbonates of potash, and the
sulphate of lime; all of which, however, will not equal one part in a thousand
of the soil.

The following table gives the entire analysis, each column expressing the
contents of one of the three varieties:

A. B. 0.

Silira, in the form of sand 92.85 91.73 87 53

Water, 2 50 2 50 3.50

Oij^anic matter, mostly vegetable 2.75 2.75 7.50

Alumina ami peroxide of iron, with traces of

plio.sphoric acid 1.40 2 30 0.12

Carbiinate (if linie and mague.-ia, 0.50 0.72 075

Peroxitie of iron, probably the carbonate of iron, 0.60

The third variety, containing an excess of organic matter, pos.«esses a much
greater power for retaining moisture. Of this variety the author says :

"I should suppose that this soil is not at present adapted to tlie cotton
plant. The organic matter is in excess, and in quality it is too nearly al lied
to that found in peaty land. Thorough drainage, successful cropping with
corn, with the addition of the marsh mud and aitificial manures, miyht pre-
pare it for cotton. This opinion, however, is advanced with re.-erve, being
wliolly suggested by chemical theory, and may, therefore, require considerable
modification in practice.

" I notice that the carbonate of magnesia is more abundant in this soil than
in A. and B. This suggests the idea that magnesia may be an important
ingredient in the cotton plant, even when compared with its sister element,
lime; for soils which have been under long cultivation in cotton, although
they still contain magnesia, nevertheless contain less of it than this newer
and more unexhausted soil presents. It occurs to me, also, that one pecu-
liarity of the Sea Island cotton may be owing to the larger proportion of
magnesia in seashore soils, this element being ever i)lentifully derived from
the waters of the ocean, in which, in one form or another, it is ever found
dissolved."

94 THE COTTON PLANT.

A careful analysis of the cotton plant and the cotton seed, -which were
proved to consist of the same elements and nearly the same proportions, and
also of marsh-mud, leads the writer to recommend the use of marsh-mud,
for the reasons following :

" In the first place, the carbonate of iron, when blended with the soil, (in
considerable quantity,) slowly turns into peroxide of iron, with the extriea-
cation of nearly one third its weight of carbonic acid, (which, it will be kept
in mind, is the chief aliment of vegetation,) the peroxide of iron acting
together with the alumina as a cement or binder to the loose grains of sand,
and as an attracter of moisture and a retainer of nutritious gases. In the
next place, the soluble substances present in the marsh manures are all
of essential consequence to vegetable life ; not to omit the organic matter,
which is very considerable, and, in the case of the marsh-turf, very abund-
ant, thus giving, as might be supposed, a preference to this over the marsh-
mud, unless the difficulty of reducing it to a powder, and of incorporating
it with the soil, presents an obstacle which overbalances the advantage aris-
ing from this superabundance of organic matter. Finally, it may be added
that the silica or sand in the marsh manures is in a more comminuted
condition than that in the soil, and therefore serves an important purpose in
rendering the land to which it is added closer and more retentive of moisture.

"The question may now arise, Can the planter with advantage substitute
any artificial manure or mixture for that of the marsh soils ? The quantity
of saline matter in it is certainly small — only about six pounds of common
salt to the ton, about one pound chloride magnesium, and one of the sul-
phates of lime and magnesia ; of insoluble constituents, twenty-three of
carbonates of lime and magnesia to the same weight, and not far from 260
lbs. of good white clay. Of these ingredients, all but the clay could be
cheaply obtained ; nor would this be very expensive, as it exists in 'great
quantity near Augusta, contiguous to the Savanuah river ; but I apprehend
the great difficulty would still remain, and which would be neaily fatal to
the use of the mixture. This would consist in its uniform application to the
soil. In some cases it would be in excess, and in others in a corresponding
deficiency ; whereas, applied as at present, in a copious vehicle of fine sand,
its good eflfects are every where visible. It may be concluded, therefore, that
the Sea Island planter is in no danger of using the marsh manures to excess,
nor have we any intelligent grounds for thinking that any substitute will
ever be discovered which shall render their employment superfluous."

All the elements that are found in plants being essential to their growth,
however small in proportion to other elements they may be, the writer con-
cludes that the following kinds of artificial manures may be recommended to
the cotton planter, viz. :

"First of all, the superphosphate of lime mixture of Prof. Mapes. It is
composed of 100 lbs. bone-dust, 5G lbs. sulphuric acid, 36 lbs. Peruvian bark,
20 lbs. sulphate ammonia.

"Secondly, wood ashes; and the more these are mixed with charcoal, (if
in a somewhat pulverized condition, in which state it is a valuable condenser
of moisture and nutritive gases,) the better.

"Thirdly, compost, formed, as far as possible, of the following materials:
stable manure, forest leaves, straw, (small quantities, perhaps, of rice chaff,)
saw-dust, sweepings of houses and cabins, rubbish of old clay :ind plaster
walls, lime, refuse of gas-works from Charleston, soot, drainings from stables
and gutters, soap-suds, and refuse saline liquids of all kinds.

" It does not appear to me that the cotton lands require either quick-lime,

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE LUPINE. 95

common salt, or gypsum. They certainly will not need the last-mentioned
fertilizer, if the improved mixture of Prof. Mapes is employed.

"The more perfectly the compost is worked up together, and reduced by
decomposition to the character of a powder, the better will be the effects it
is capable of producing. If it could be treasured up for years, partly under
the protection of a roof, and guarded from the action of the sun, its value
would still be more highly enhanced."

FARM- WORK FOR AUGUST.

The farmer of a few acres may have a little space between his harvest of
grass and that of grain, although with many the seasons interfere with each
other, and one or the other is allowed to suffer. On our sea-coasts, access is
had to the salt meadows, and the labor of cutting and curing this grass im-
mediately follows that of the upland. Salt grass is much cheaper by the
ton than fresh, although there is usually much more labor in gettino- it.

Thistles should be attended to without delay. Look again at an article on
this subject in our last number.

Weeds may be pulled in large quantities for your hog-pen and compost-
heap. Other offal should be collected for the same purpose. If this is omit-
ted, do not complain, by and by, of lack of manure.

Cucumbers, and other plants for pickling, may still be sown, but they
should be planted in a mellow soil, deeply dug, and kept carefully from.
drought.

Keep beds free from weeds, and in good condition for the growth of roots.
Such plants cannot grow if compressed by a hard soil wh'ich will not be
moved.

This is also a season for draining wet lands, and the muck which is thus
dug out is wanted in your barn-yard.

Budding may also be done now and onwards, at the farmers leisure.

Plant ruta bagas, or other turnips, in ground from which your peas or
other early crops have been taken.

See that no weeds go to seed on your manure-heaps or in your barn-yard,
else you will cultivate some crops that will not be profitable.

HISTORY AND CULTIVATION OF THE LUPINE.

We have given our readers an excellent account of the Mignonette, from
the pen of Mr. Dennis Murray, a practical gardener of Boston, which ap-
peared in the Journal of Agriculture. We find another, on the Lupine,
from this writer, in the same journal. It is so rich in historic interest that
we give it entire :

" The lupine, which we cherish as an ornament in our gardens, formed an
important article in the husbandry of the Romans, who cultivated it not only
as a subsistence for their cattle, but as food for themselves also. Pliny says
he could not recommend any diet more wholesome and lighter of dio-estion
than the white lupine when eaten dry. Their bitterness was taken off by
soaking them in hot water, or covering them with hot ashes. The same
author says that this food gave those who ate it generally with their meals, a
fresh color and a cheerful countenance. The eating of lupines was also
thought to brighten the mind and quicken the imagination. It is related of
Protogenes, a celebrated painter of Rhodes, who flourished about three hun-
dred and twenty-eight years before Christ, that during the seven years he

9G GOOSEBERRY CULTURE.

was em|ilojed in painting the hunting-uitce of Talysius, who was supposed to
be the fuiinder of the state of Rhodes, te lived entirely upon lupines and
water, with an idea that this ahment would give him greater tlights of fancy.
It was in this picture that he wished to introduce a dog panting, with foam
at his mouth ; but not succeeding to his satisfaction, he threw his sponge
upon the painting in a fit of anger, when chance brought to perfection what
the utmost of his art had failed to accomplish ; for the sponge, falling upon
the wet paint which he had intended to represent the foam, gave it so much
the appearance of reality that the piece was universally adnjired. Another
anecdote of this lupine-eating painter may he related, to show in what reve-
rence the artists were held in those days : When Demetrius besieged Rhodes,
he refused to set fire to a part of the city which might have made him mas-
ter of the whole, because he knew that Protouenes was then working in that
quarter. Wlien the town was taken, the painter was found closely employed
in a garden, finishing a picture ; and upon being asked by the conqueror why
he showed no more concern at the general calamity, he replied that Demetrius
made war against the Rhodians, and not against the tine arts.

"The lupine is a plant that loves a poor, light, sandy soil, and it was much
employed by the Ronnans as a manure for such situations, being ploughed or
dug into the ground just as it began to blossom.

''Mr. Svvmburn observes that lupines are still sown in the neighborhood
of Na])les, to manure the land, which are hoed up before they begin to fruc-
tify. This is also practised in the South of France, in poor, dry soils, as a
meliorating crop to be ploughed in where no manure is to be had, and the
ground is too poor for clover and other better crops.

The ancients named this plant hipinus, from lupus, a wolf, on account
of its voracious nature, because these plants were thought to devour the fer-
tility of the soil ; and the name of lupinus is of great antiquity, and the
seeds are said to have been used by the ancients in their plays and comedies,
instead of pieces of money ; hence the proverb, Nummus lupinus, a i>iece of
money of no value ; as that also of Horace : Ntc tamea ignurat, quid distent
oera Lupines.

" To pi ocure a succession of these flowers, they should be sown at two
difierent sea>ons, that is, in May and June. The best mode of sowing them
is by forming small clum[)s of them ; but they should not be sown too thick,
and they seldom succeed when transplanted. The following would make a
good show in a flower-garden, viz. : yU^MS, white; Vanus,h\\.\Q and white;
Pi/osws, flesh ; Nanus, blue and variegated; Texensis, ^te^ blue; Luleus,
yellow — all annuals. There are some very fine perennials of this family,
which are Lupims pofyphillus, and variety alba; Lupinus nootkatensls, Lxi-
pinus mutubilis, lucopht/llus, &c., that should be in every garden.

GOOSEBERRY CULTURE.

This fruit seems not to be appreciated. We regard it as one of the finest
of our cl mate. It is sometimes found to fail from mildew or other causes,
but by consulting nature, good sticcess in their cultivation is almost certain.

The gooseberry requires a cool situation, considerable shade, and a moist
soil. Salt has a good effect upon its growth. There is a great choice in the
varieties, but the poorest is better than none, and amply repays its cost of
cultivation.

VERBENAS. 97

BUDDING ROSES.

Look attentively at any rose branch, and you will find at the bottom of
every leaf a small, scarcely perceptible swelling or protuberance, looking
altogether as innocent of growth as a cup of cream, llemember, at the bot-
tom of every leaf. Find another bough which has had its extremity injured
or amputated. Do you not see with what eagerness this little " bud" has
shot forward to conceal and repair the damage ? This modest little " bud''
is the epitome of a rose tree, and though nursed in the bosom of the lordli-
est rose that ever bore a title, if you will detach it gently and apply it to the
freshly peeled surface of the thorniest, scraggiest old dog of a rose, it will soon
repay you for your trouble by turning " bright leaves to the air, and a dedi-
cation of its beauty to the sun."

I think those buds grow best which have already taken a start on the pa-
rent stem. I have certainly put in La Marques of half an inch in length,
which are now masses of buds and foliage.

Take a Hmb of the current year's growth, which has become firm ; slice
oflf the bud with a little of the wood ; detach the bark with the bud on it by
a little handling ; cut off the leaf, but leave the stem to hold it by ; place it
between your lips while you prepare a place for it.

Select a similar limb on any other bush ; if thorny, knock them off ; draw
a sharp penknife downwards through the bark, an inch or less ; cross it with
another cut, shorter, but always through the bark. Carefully raise the little
corners thus made from the wood ; hold firmly on each side, and you can
raise with the knife without breaking or tearing. Now put your Httle bud
under these corners, and press all together ; confine firmly with soft cotton
thread, which may remain until it produces an evident indentation. Cut o&
the branch a few inches above, and keep down the original buds as they show
themselves.

This is the whole matter. The finest roses will grow without any subse-
quent care. Indeed, I have inserted many, and forgotten them until they
forced themselves on my attention by their elegance and vigor.

Any bush will do to bud on. Some are merely preferable, as the " Pride
of France," " Daily," and " Multiflora." I am very partial to the last, as it
b common, affords a stock from cuttings in a few months, is vigorous, smooth,
and easily backed. Well manured, one stock will support a great many
varieties of the finest roses.

The rose bush requires an annual spading, and of course a rich soil. For
heavy micaceous loams, nothing is better as a manure than rotten chips,
spaded in and spread an inch or more in depth on the surface. ;

VERBENAS.

The different varieties of the verbena afford many shades of color, from
the most brilliant to the most delicate, and no family of plants better pays
the labor bestowed upon them. Some of them, too, possess a fine odor.

The proper mode of cultivation is as follows : Prepare a bed of convenient
size by digging it thoroughly to a good depth. Lift the plants from their
pots, and set them into this bed, a distance of one and a half or two feet
from the edge of the bed, and about two feet from each other. They multi-
ply by sending down roots from their joints. The species that are not creep-
ing should have their twigs fastened to the earth by hooked or forked pegs.
In the fall they must be placed in pots and protected from the frost.

VOL. VI. — PART I. 7

98

TABLE OF MANURES.

TABLE OF MANURES, WITH THE QUANTITIES TO BE USED, AND
MODE OF APPLICATION.

We take the following table from one of our English papers, and give it
to our readers as we find it. It cannot be taken as an exact statement of the
wants of land for the purposes named, but may be useful as a general guide.
The quantities required will vary with the nature and condition of the land
on which the manure is to be used.

Name of Ma-
nure.

Nature and Compo-
sition.

For Farm Crops.

For Garden Crops.

Weight
per Bushel.

GUAKO

The dung of sea
birds, imported from
Peru, &c., and con-
taining various salts
of ammonia and phos-
pliates.

3 to 4 cwt. mixed
with its own weight
of ashes or mould,
and drilled, or sown
broadcast, for grass,
turnips, mangold-
wurzel. or other
green crops.

3 lb. per square rod,
equal to SOM square
yards. This, and all
soluble salts, are best
applied in solution,
containing not more
than 5 ozs. in 2 galls,
of water.

80B)S.

Nitrate OP Soda,

Nitric acid and so-
da, a natural pro-
duct imported from
Peru, &c.

IH cwt. per acre,
sown broadcast with
half its own weight
of ashes or mould, for
wheat, oats, grasses,
&c.

1 lb. per square rod,
in solution, like gua-
no.

801>8.

Nitrate of Pot-
ash, Saltpetre,

Nitric acid and
potash, a natural
product, imported
from the East Indies.

1 cwt. per acre,
sown broadcast, in
the same manner as
nitrate of soda, for
wheat only.

1 ft. per square rod,
in solution, like gua-
no.

90 tm.

PetreSalt,

Common salt and
nitrate of potass, the
residuum of a manu-
facture.

5 cwt. per acre,
sown broadcast, as a
purifier of grass land.

4 as. per square rod,
in solution, like gua-
no.

76ft8.

Gtpscm, Sul-
phate OF Limb,

Sulphuric acid and
lime, an abundant
mineral in several
parts of England.

2M to 3 cwt. per
acre, sown broadcast
on clover, trefoil,
sainfoin, and other
grasses.

3 »s. per square rod.

80 to 84 lbs.

Sulphate of Am-
monia,

Sulphuric acid and
ammonia, the resi-
duum of a manufac-
ture.

2 cwt. per acre,
mixed with a little
mould, and sown
broadcast, for clover,
oats, &c., and drilled
for turnips.

1 lb. per square rod.

70tte.

Bone Dust and
KlNCH Bones,.

Calcined Bones,

Phosphates of lime
and magnesia, car-
bonate of lime and
animal matter yield-
ing ammonia.

The same constitu-
ents as the above,
with the exception
of the animal matter.

IX quarter to 20
bushels drilled, or
sown broadcast, mix-
ed with ashes, for
turnips, vegetables,
wheat, Ac.

For mixing with
farm-yard dung, and
other manures con-
taining amminia.

19 to 20 fts. per
square rod.

4ato45D>8.

Phosphate of

Phosphoric acid and This manure is 3 Rs. per square rod.
lime. easily blended with
farm-yard litter, &c. !

Superphosphatb
OP Limb,

Phosphoric acid and For mixing in com- : For garden culture,
lime in a more solu- posts, fixing the am- 1 X fti. to the square
ble state than in ; monia of dung-heaps rod.
bones, prepared by i and urine-tanks, and i
dissolving bones in ' forming phosphate of i
sulphuric acid. ammonia. ]

Phosphate op
Ammonia,

Phosphoric acid and 1 For mixing in com- 1 lit., to the square rod.

ammonia. 1 post, and furnishes

from its constituents j

much nutriment to i

vegetation. l

MtmiATB OP

Ammonia,

Muriatic acid and
ammonia.

Applicable in the
same manner as sul-
phate of ammonia.

1 lb. to the square rod.

65 to 70 as.

Mori ATE of
Limb

Muriatic acid and
lime.

For mixing with
compost-heaps.

2 Sis. per square rod.

65to70fts.

SlTLPllATE OP

Magnesia,

Sulphuric acid and
magnesia.

Mixed with night-
soil for potatoes, 1
cwt. per acre, or to 8
loads of stalge-dung.

^ lb. per square rod.

Soda Ash

Lime,magnesia,aln-
mina, charcoal, sili-
ca, and a few other
ingredients in small-
er proportions.

For destroying wire-
worms and other pre-
dacious insects, 1
cwt. per acre. This
quantity must not be
exceeded.

COM.

J

WONDERFUL TREES. 99

WONDERFUL TREES.

Among the remarkable trees in the world, the following, of which we have
•ompiled brief descriptions, are some of the most curious. We take it from
the Journal of Education :

The Great Chestnut Tree. — On the one side of Mount Etna there is a
famous chestnut tree, which is said to be one hundred and ninety-six feet
above the surface of the ground. Its enormous trunk is separated into five
divisions, which give it the appearance of several trees growing together. In
a circular space formed by these large branches, a hut has been erected for
the accommodation of those who collect the chestnuts.

The Dwarf Tree. — Captains King and Fitzroy state that they saw a tree
on the mountains near Cape Horn, which was only one or two inches high,
yet had branches spreading out five feet along the ground.

The Sack Tree. — There is said to be a tree in Bombay called the sack
tree, because from it may be stripped very natural sacks, which reserq^Jjle
" felt" in appearance.

The Ivory-nut Tree. — The ivory-nut tree is properly called the Tagua
plant, and is common in South America. The tree is one of the numerous
family of palms, but belongs to the order designated as screw pine tribe. The
natives use the leaves to cover their cottages, and from the nuts make buttons
and various other articles. In an early state the nuts contain a sweet milky
liquid, which afterwards assumes a solidity nearly equal to ivory, and will
admit of a high polish. It is known as ivory-nut, or vegetable ivory, and
has recently been brought into use for various purposes.

The Brazil-nut Tree. — The Brazil-nut tree may justly command the atten-
tion of the enthusiastic naturalist. This tree thrives well in the province of
Brazil, and immense quantities of its delicious fruit are annually exported to
foreign countries. It grows to the height of from fifty to eighty feet, and in
appearance is one of the most majestic ornaments of the forest. The fruit,
n its natural position, resembles a cocoa-nut, being extremely hard, and of
about the size of a child's head. Each one of these shells contains from
twelve to twenty of the three-cornered nuts, nicely packed together. And to
obtain the nuts, as they appear in market, these shells have to be broken
open. During the season of their falling, it is dangerous to enter the groves
where they abound, as the force of their descent is sufficient to knock down
the strongest man. The natives, however, provide themselves with wooden
bucklers, which they hold over their heads while collecting the fruit from the
gi'ound. In this manner they are perfectly secure from injury.

The Cannon-Ball Tree. — Among the plants of Guinea, one of the most
curious is the cannon-ball tree. It grows to the height of sixty feet, and its
flowers are remarkable for beauty and fragrance, and contradictory qualities.
Its blossoms are of a delicious crimson, appearing in large bunches, and
exhaling a rich perfume. The fruit resembles enormous cannon balls, hence
the name. However, some say it has been so called because of the noise
which the ball makes in bursting. From the shell, domestic utensils are
made, and the contents contain several kinds of acids, besides sugar and gum,
and furnish the material for making an excellent drink in sickness. But,
singular as it may appear, this pulp, when in a perfectly ripe state, is very
filthy, and the odor from it is exceedingly unpleasant.

The Sorrowful Tree. — At Goa, near Bombay, there is a singular vegeta-
ble— the sorrowful tree, so called because it only flourishes in the night. At
sunset no flowers are to be seen ; and yet, half an hour after, it is quite full
of them. They yield a sweet smell, but the sun no sooner begins to shine

100 WONDERFUL TREES.

upon them, tlian some of them fall oflf, and others close up ; and thus it con-
tinues flowering in the night all the year.

The Coxo Tree. — This tree is a native of Venezuela, South America. It
grows in rocky situations, high up the mountains. Baron Von Humboldt
gives the following description of it : — On the barren flank of a rock grows
a tree with dry and leathery leaves ; its large woody roots can scarcely pene-
trate into the stony soil. For several months in the year, not a single shower
moistens its foliage. Its branches appear dead and dried ; yet, as soon as the
trunk is pierced, there flows from it a sweet and nourishing milk. It is at
sunrise that this vegetable fountain is most abundant. The natives are thenr
to be seen hastening from all quarters, furnished with large bowls to receive
the milk, which grows yellow and thickens at the surface. Some drain their
bowls under the tree, while others carry home the juice to their children ;
and you might, as the father returned with this milk, fancy you saw the
family of a shepherd gathering around and receiving from him the production
of liis kine. The milk, obtained by incisions made in the trunk, is tolerably
thick, free from all acidity, and of an agreeable and balmy smell. It was
offered to us in the shell of the calabash tree. We drank a considerable
quantity of it in the evening before going to bed, and very early in the morn-
ing, without experiencing the slightest injurious effect.

The Bread-Fruit Tree. — This tree is found on the islands in the Pacific
Ocean. The trunk rises to the height of thirty to forty feet, and attains the
size of a man's body. The fruit grows to about the size of a child's head.
When used for food, it is gathered before it is fully ripe, and baked among
ashes, when it becomes a wholesome bread, and in taste somewhat resembles
fresh wheaten bread. This is a very useful tree to the natives ; for, besides
its fruit, its trunk furnishes timber for their houses and canoes ; the gum
which exudes from it serves as pitch for their vessels, and from the fibres of
the inner bark, a cloth is made to cover their persons.

The Upas Tree. — For some ages it was believed that a tree existed in the
East Indies which shed a poisoning, blighting and deadly influence upon all
animals that reposed under its branches ; and that so fatal were its effects,
that birds attempting to fly near it, fell to the ground and perished. For
several years past, there being no reliable authority that such a tree really
existed, it has generally been supposed among the intelligent to be fabulous,
and hence termed the " fabled Upas tree." But, a few years since, a tree
was discovered in a peculiar locality in the East Indies, which it is believed gave
rise to the wonderful accounts of the Upas tree. In the location where this
modern Upas tree was discovered, there is a constant and dense collection of
carbonic acid gas ; consequently, all animals that come near it, die by breath-
ing the poisonous gas. The cause of such an abundance of gas being col-
lected in the locality of these trees is unknown. A few months since, a tree
was discovered on the Isthmus of Darien, which appears to have a similar
influence on animal life. The Panama Star says : — "A man named James
Linn, being tired, laid down under a tree to sleep, and on waking, found his
limbs and body swollen, and death soon followed." Cattle avoid eating and
ruminating under this tree.

The Talloio Tree. — This tree is found in China. It is called the tallow-
tree, because a substance is obtained from it resembling tallow, and which is
used for the same purposes. It grows from twenty to forty feet in height.

Lace Bark Tree. — In the West Indies is found a tree, the inner bark of
which resembles lace, or net- work. This bark is very beautiful, consisting of
layers which may be pulled out into a fine white web, three or four feet wide.
It is sometimes used for ladies' dresses.

BASKET WILLOW. 101

BASKET WILLOW,

Much has been wntten in our agricultural journals on the cultivation of
the willow for the market, and much light has been thrown upon the subject
where before but little was understood. It is no doubt a profitable crop in almost
any section of the country. In some districts, convenient to a good market,
perhaps no crop pays better for the labor bestowed upon it than this. It
requires no attention after the first year, and will last twenty years without
renewal.

Several species are cultivated for baskets, hoops, &c., and practical men
are not agreed always in respect to the qualities of the different kinds. We
are inclined to beheve that soil and climate may have an influence in modi-
fying the qualities of the tree.

The species most generally approved as the best, is the Salix viminalis.
There are two varieties of this, the narrow-leafed and the broad-leafed,
{sangustifolia and latifolia,) which in Europe are extensively used for these
purposes.

But a Southern writer, of considerable experience, says, that these varie-
ties are " coarse," and mostly used for hoops. He has grown the Salix
vitellina, and commends it as the best basket-willow. The twigs are not so
long and slender as those of the species before named, but this is the only
point in which they are inferior. The viminalis is of quick growth, and the
shoots are long and very strong. An acre of the growth will produce
annually 1^ tons of material for the market.

The S. Fabenira is cultivated in England for fine baskets, and also the
S. Rubra. Mr. Chisholm, of Beaufort, S. C, (before referred to,) recom-
mends the Golden Willow, [S. vitellina,) after several years' experience, as
well suited to the South, and giving more tough twigs than either of the
other varieties.

Michigan, it is said, abounds with the osier willow, which is already exten-
sively used for these manufactures. In the winter the branches are cut off,
and new shoots appear in the spring, which are gathered at the proper
season.

When the willow is planted for cultivation, the twigs should be net out
late in the fall, or in the early spring. Ten thousand to fourteen thousand
are required per acre. They should be set about three feet apart, and be
eighteen inches long. The land should previously be well ploughed. The
cuttings should be growths of three or four years old.

The soil may be mire or clay, but should be wet by a running stream.
The plants do not succeed so well in stagnant water.

If the twigs are intended for home use, they may be dried a few days,
and stowed away in bundles. If intended for market, they should be
scalded with boiling water or steam, after which the bark may be stripped
off, and the twigs dried and preserved as before. Before working them into
baskets, they should be soaked about two hours.

An ingenious implement is used in the West for stripping the bark from
the twig. It consists of a round stick of hard wood, about an inch in
diameter, quartered about half its length, and having the two diagonal
quarters removed. This leaves a sharp edge on two opposite sides. The
stick is held in the right band, and the twig inserted with the left, when the
two quarters are pressed together by the thumb and finger, and the twig is
drawn through. Some modification of this tool is in general use.

102 EXTENT OF COTTON LANDS.

EXTENT OF COTTON LANDS.

A LETTER from Mr, E. Emmons, civil engineer or surveyor, we believe, to
His Excellency, Governor Reid, appears in one of our Southern exchanges, in
which he uses the following encouraging language :

"I am often surprised at the amount of excellent land which I meet
with every day. The cotton lands are not confined to Edgecombe, Wayne,
or exclusively to the eastern part of the State ; the valleys of the Yadkin and
Catawba are equally good for cotton, equally fertile and productive in all the
great staples of this latitude. From the Jersey Settlement to Salisbury, from
' Salisbury to Charlotte, and then south to the State line, excellent and pro-
ductive lands are never out of sight for any length of time. With attention
and cultivation but little beyond the ordinary routine, large tracts may be
made to produce continuously 2,000 lbs. of seed cotton to the acre. This is
the product of the plantation of Mr. D, B. Peebles, of Providence District,
in Mecklenburg county. The expense of cultivation to produce this result is
by no means great; in this yield of seed cotton there is 600 lbs. of lint.
This result appears still more remarkable when it is known that there are no
natural fertilizers ; no marks of lime ; and also that these lands belong to the
oldest cultivated lands of the State. Indeed, one is almost inclined to fall
into the common opinion that they will never wear out. This idea, however,
is delusive. When we find such results may be obtained with ordinary skill
in cultivation, or with ordinary tillage^ we are led to surmise what might not
be effected by additional attention and skill, combined with a free use of such
fertilizers as the successive crops require. These lands are distinguished from
others by their dark brown color — they are called mulatto lands. I have
spoken of their adaptation to cotton. Now, it would not be right to regard
them as adapted only to this crop, for if there are soils which are universal in
their adaptation, these dark red soils of Cabarrus, Mecklenburg, and Rowaa
are of this description. It is true that there are degrees of excellency with
those which bear the color I have spoken of. The Providence soils are looser
than those of some other tracts, for the latter are stiffer and more liable to
bake under the sun than the former. It is not, however, to be concealed
that these red soils are impatient under droughts. The crops are liable to fail
when the rams fail : in this respect they rank below the sandy soils of the
Union. The latter are based upon and derived from the slates, while the
former are based upon and derived from certain varieties of granite. This
granite contains a large amount of iron in the shape of a protoxide, which on
exposure to the air becomes a peroxide, which has the red color of the soil.
The iron, however, may be in combination with sulphur, which in decompos-
ing passes into a state of peroxidation. This latter condition of the iron
appears from the color of the soil where the roots of the oak are found, and
especially when they are wounded. In this case, the gallic acid exuding
from the wounded roots finds in the soil sulphate of iron. Ink will, therefore,
be formed by this combination, and the purple or black streaks which often
appear in the railroad cuts are due to the formation of ink. Ink soils require
for correction lime, inasmuch as any considerable quantity of this astringent
salt of iron is poisonous to vegetation ; yet this salt (sulphate of iron) is use-
ful in small quantities in the soil. It seems to act upon vegetables as it acts
upon 'animals, viz. : as a tonic. These astringent soils are very common
throughout the State. They are in this condition from the great abundance
of the proto-sulphuret of iron which is disseminated through the rocks from
■which the soils are derived.

TREATMENT OF SANDY SOILS. 10$

Wake county is remarkable for astringent soils. In the dry parts of the
season the efflorescence of this salt is a common occurrence ; and any one
may satisfy himself of the fact by tasting the soil. I have already said that
the corrective for such soils is Hme. This substance, however, is not only a
corrective, but it becomes, under these circumstances, an active fertilizer.
Gypsum is the product formed by this application. In this connection I may
be allowed to say that the most important results of the internal improve-
ment system will reach the planter. It must give him the fertilizers — it will
also open the door to the market which has, up to the present hour, been
closed upon him. The time is not far distant when North Carolina will be-
come one of the great producing States, and the taunt which has often been
thrown into her teeth, 'Alas for poor North Carolina I she has nothing to sell,'
will pass away. It is a remarkable fact that the raining lands of this State
are usually as productive and valuable for plantations as the lands of oth
States. She has, therefore, a double source of wealth, extending over large
tracts of country. In other countries mining lands are mostly poor and un-
productive under the best systems of tillage. I have collected many samples
of the soils peculiar to this part of the State, and I believe that the agricul-
ture is equally interesting with that of the eastern part of the commonwealth.

TREATMENT OF SANDY SOILS.

Thb term *' sandy soils" may mean very different things. It includes a
great variety of states and conditions. It may describe a dry sand or a
clayey sand. Some "sands" are little else than silex, and the clays which
others contain may also be of various character. Hence the term conveys no
very precise idea. They all agree, however, in one thing ; they contain an
excess of siliceous matter. If the silex is nearly pure, like that on a large extent
of our northern sea-shore, it may be thrown into water without producing
much effect upon it, for it speedily settles at the bottom, leaving the water as
clear as before. If the water is left muddy, it may be poured off into another
vessel, leaving the silex at the bottom, and allowed to settle gradually. The
nature of the deposit can then be examined, and may be found to be clay,
lime, vegetable mould, etc. The character of this sediment and the propor-
tion it bears to the silex or pure sand may also be estimated with some accu-
racy- Portions of the soluble matter, however, may be dissolved in the
water, and only general results, therefore, can be reached by any such process.
The evaporation of the water is one step onward towards accuracy, and may
sometimes be desirable. The addition of an acid to the solution may also
determine with certainty as to the presence of hme and other alkaline bases,
by the presence or absence of effervescence when the acid is poured into it.

Some sandy soils produce good wheat. For this, there should be from
fifty to eighty per cent, of clay, ten or twenty per cent, of lime, and a similar
proportion of humus, or vegetable mould.

Some sandy soils contain over ninety per cent, of silex. These, of course,
must be extremely barren. But although sixty or seventy per cent, may be
silex, if clay is present in considerable quantities, with some lime and vegetable
matter, decent crops may be obtained.

This view points out the mode of determining what is required by a
" sandy soil." It will, however, be perfectly safe to apply bone manures, and
other forms of lime mixtures, in connection with barn-yard manure. Bones
supply not only lime, but phosphorus, which is often wanting in soils from
vhich wheat and other grains have been gathered.

104 MULES.

The best manure for sandy soils is found in the compost-heap. Peat, turf,
weeds, etc., mingled with ashes or bones treated previously with acid, and
with barn yard manure, will be found very effective. If clay can be had
conveniently, this too should be added. Ten loads of stable-manure, five
to ten loads of clay, thirty bushels of ashes, and ten bushels of lime may-
be mixed together. It should be allowed to remain a few weeks before
it is applied to the land. These proportions may be varied according to the
condition of the soil. It is also of great service to sandy land to haul clay
upon it in the fall. After it is spread over the surface, the frosts of winter
will prepare it for the plough in the spring. This stratum and proper culti-
vation will secure a thorough mingling among these elements, after which
the addition of the manures described (omitting the clay, perhaps) will
insure an ample return for the labor and cost bestowed upon it.

But, better than this, most sandy soils have a clay subsoil. This may be
plouo-hed up, and by proper cultivation mixed with the sand without the
cost of transportation.

MULES.

The following statement of the history of mules in this country is from
anexchano-e — we know not what; but we commend the subject to our North-
ern farmers. Our opinion of mules has been changed of late, and we believe
that the substitution of mules for oxen or horses, in the ordinary work of a
farm, would result in a great saving of expense. They endure great labor,
and are kept at much less cost than horses.

" Few of the farmers of this country are aware what a debt of gratitude
they owe George Washington for the introduction of mules into general use
for farm purposes.

"Previous to 1783 there were but very few, and those of such an inferior
order as to prejudice farmers against them, as unfit to compete with horses
in work upon the road or farm. Consequently there were no good jacks, and
no disposition to increase the stock ; but Washington became convinced that
the introduction of mules generally among Southern planters would prove to
them a great blessing, as they are less liable to disease, and longer-hved, and
work upon shorter feed, and are much less liable to be injured by careless
servants than horses.

"As soon as it became known abroad that the illustrious Washington de-
sired to stock his Mount Vernon estate with mules, the King of Spain sent
him a jack and two jennies from the royal stables, and Lafayette sent another
jack and jennies from the island of Malta.

" The first was of a gray color, sixteen hands high, heavily made, and of a
.sluggish nature. He was named the Koyal Gift. The other was called the
Knight of Malta ; he was about as high, but lighter made, black color, and
lithe and fiery, even to ferocity.

" The two difterent sets of animals gave him the most favorable opportunity
of making improvements by cross-breeding, the result of which was a favorite
jack which he called Compound, because he partook of the best points in
both of the original jacks. The General bred his blooded mares to these
jacks, even taking those from his family coach for that purpose, and produced
such superb mules that the country was all agog to breed some of the same
sort, and they soon became quite common. This was the origin of mules in
the United States, now about sixty-five years since the first start, and no

WASHING BY STEAM. 106

doubt there are now some of the third and fourth generations of Knight of
Malta and Royal Gift to be found in Virginia, and the great benefits arising
from their introduction to the country are to be seen upon almost every cul-
tivated acre in the Southern States, Notwithstanding the enormous increase
of late years, arising from a systematic course of breeding in the Northerm
States for the Southern market, mules were never more valuable than at
present, or more ready of sale at high prices."

.WASHING BY STEAM.

Many of the mechanical inventions and improvements of the presens day
are of practical utility in the every-day business of life ; so that the labor of
individuals or of families is materially diminished. One of this character is
that denoted by our title.

The following account is a description of the wash-room of the St.
Nicholas Hotel of this city, from a personal examination by the editor of
the Tribune:

"A strong wooden cylinder, four feet diameter, and four and a half feet
long, is mounted on a frame, so as to be driven by a band on one end of the
shaft. This shaft is hollow, with pipes so connected with it that hot or cold
water, or steam, can be introduced at the option of the person in charge.
The cylinder being half full of water, a door at one end is opened, and SOO
to 500 pieces of clothing are thrown in, with a suitable quantity of soap,
and an alkaline fluid which assists in dissolving the dirt and bleaching the
fabric, so that clothes after being washed in this manner increase in white-
ness without having the texture injured.

" When the cylinder is charged, it is put in motion by a small steam
engine, and made to revolve slowly, first one way a few revolutions and then
the other, by which the clothes are thrown from side to side, in and out and
through the water. During this operation the steam is let through a double-
mouthed pipe, which has one mouth in and one mouth out of water ; the
steam entering the water through the immersed end and escaping through
the other, by which means it is made to pass through the clothes, completely
cleansing them in fifteen or twenty minutes. The steam is now cut oflF, and
the hot water drawn through the -waste pipe, and then cold water introduced,
which rinses the articles in a few more turns of the C3'linder. They are now
suffered to drain until the operator is ready to take them out, when they are
put into the drying machine, which runs like a millstone ; and its operation
may be understood by supposing that millstone to be a shallow tub, with
wire net-work sides, against which the clothes being placed, it is put in rapid
motion : the air passing in a strong current into the top and bottom of the
tub and out of the sides, carries all the moisture with it into the outside case,
from whence it runs away. The length of time requisite to dry the clothes
depends upon the rapidity of the revolving tub. If it should run 3000
revolutions a minute, five to seven minutes would be quite sufficient. When
there is not sufficient steam to run the dryer with that speed, it requires
double that. In washing and drying there is nothing to injure the fabric.
Ladies' caps and laces are put up in netting bags, and are not rubbed by
hand or machine to chafe or tear them in the least, but are cleansed most
perfectly.

"It can readily be imagined what a long line of wash-tubs would be
required to wash 5,000 pieces a day, and what a big clothes-yard to dry

106 RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

them in ; while here the work is done by four persons, who only occupy part
of a basement-room, the other part being occupied by the mangle, and
ironing and folding-tables. Adjoining are the airing-frames, which are
hung "with clothes, and then shoved into a room steam-pipe heated, when
they are completely dried in a few minutes.

""Smalf Fainihj Machines. — Almost the first thought, after witnessing the
operation of this machine, was, can washing be done upon the same princi-
ple in small families ? To our inquiries upon this point, we have received
the following satisfactory information :

*' For common family use, hand-machines are made to cost from $40 to
$50, with which a woman can wash 50 pieces at a time, and complete 500
in a day without laboring severely. For the purpose of washing, without
driving the machinery by steam, a verj'- small boiler will be suJScient. It is
not necessary to have a head of water, as that can be found in the cyHnder,
which can be turned by horse or any other convenient power. The plan of
cleansing clothes by steam is not a new one, but it is contended by the
inventor that his process is an improvement upon all heretofore applied to
that purpose."

The washing of this hotel varies in amount from 3,000 to 5,000 pieces a
day. It is all done by one man and three women, with less work for each
than two dozen pieces in the ordinary mode of hand-rubbing, or by washing-
boards.

RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

Cleveland and St. Louis Railroad. — An air-line railroad, under the
name of the " Cleveland and St. Louis Railroad," according to The Toledo
Blade, is in contemplation. The road, according to the programme, is to
run direct to Paris in Indiana, where it will unite with the Terre Haute
and Alton Railroad. A Company under the General Railroad Law is already
formed in Indiana, and stock taken, sufficient in amount to secure the
construction of the Indiana portion of the work. This road will cross
the State of Ohio almost midway between the Bellefontaine and Indian-
apolis Road on the south, and the Toledo, Wabash, and St. Louis Road on
the north, and will intersect with the Dayton and Michigan Road at Lima,
making the distance between Toledo and St. Louis by this route 390 miles.
At Tiffin it will intersect with the Mad River and Lake Erie Road, thus
furnishing a connection between Sandusky and St. Louis over a route of 418
miles, and the length from Cleveland to St. Louis will be 460 miles. It will
also intersect with the Toledo and Norwalk Road, and the Sandusky and
Mansfield Road.

Pittsburgh and Connelsville Railroad. — This extends from the city
of Pittsburgh to Cumberland, Md., 150 miles, where it intersects the Bal-
timore and Ohio Railroad, forming a direct line from Pittsburgh to Bal-
timore. The estimated cost of the road is about four millions of dollars.
Its grades are quite favorable, the maximum through the mountains being
less than 70 feet. The low cost of this line, and the very large amount of
freight and other traffic which now passes to Baltimore from Pittsburgh
over the I'ennsylvania Railroad, will, it is believed, make it a very profitable
work. Gen. Wm. Larimer, ,Jun., of Pittfsburgh, is the President of this
Company, in whose energetic hands it is likely to progress with great rapidity,
he being one of the most popular, able, and public-spirited men in that com-

RAILROAD OPERATIONS. 107

munity. The means of the Company ah-eady secured are large, amounting
to considerably over two and a quarter millions of dollars, including the gua-
anty of one million from the city of Baltimore, recently secured.

The consolidation of the different railroads composing the Central Line
from Albany west was recently confirmed by the unanimous vote of the
shareholders of the different Companies.

Consolidation. — The basis of the arrangement between the Toledo, Nor-
walk and Cleveland, and the Junction Roads, is understood to be that the
latter is put into the consolidation at cost, while to the stockholders of the
former a new issue of stock is made of 1300,000, distributed as a bonus
before the connection is made. This is equal to about 45 per cent, on the
old stock. The Toledo, Norwalk and Cleveland then stands $950,000 stock,
$900,000 unconvertible bonds. This is to receive the earnings up to 1st Sep-
tember, equal to a dividend of 10 per cent.

Savannah. — The railroads which transport cotton to Savannah are 13 in
number, and in length, 1,053 miles. Eight of these roads are completed
and in operation, and the remainder are in the process of construction.

Lkwiston and Topsham Railroad. — We learn that the surveys on
this road will be completed very speedily. The prospect for an eardy com-
mencement on the work of grading is flattering. The people of Bath
are in earnest, and will doubtless do all in their power to have the road built.
The people living on the proposed line certainly have as much at stake as
Bath, and we see no reason why the work should not commence as soon as
the necessary arrangements can be made.

Wisconsin has given charters for fifteen thousand miles of railroad, that
will require $300,000,000 to construct.

Jeffersonvillk Raileoad. — The Directors have taken steps for the
immediate construction of the road between Edenburg and Indianapolis, a

distance of 30 miles.

Southern Indiana. — As regards railroad facilities, and the consequent
proximity to markets. Southern Indiana will be unsurpassed, as soon as the
various lines projected and in course of construction are completed. No
less than four lines of railroad, commencing at points on the Ohio river,
and running into the interior, are already in operation, while two or three
others are contemplated. Here we have the Madison and Indianapolis
Road, connecting those two points, and passing nearly through the county
north and south. But the Ohio and Mississippi (six-foot guage) Road, con-
necting the cities of Cincinnati and St. Louis, (and which passes through
the country from east to west, crossing the other near the centre,) is destined
to be the great commercial channel through which the resources of South-
ern Indiana and Illinois are to be opened up. This will be the longest con-
tinuous railroad in the West, and, with two or three exceptions, in the
world ; and it must eventually become an important link in the iron chain
which, we trust, is soon to unite the Atlantic sea-board with the golden
regions of the Pacific.

ViNCENNES AND EvANSviLLE Railroad. — The grading of this railroad
between the former place and White river has been completed for some
months, and is ready for the iron, which is being laid down as fast as
possible.

We are able now to add, that the railroad from Burlington to Peoria is in

108 PORK AS FOOD.

a state of forwardness, and its eastward extension from Peoria to the Indiana
State line (in the direction of Logansport) has just been contracted for by-
New- York and Boston Companies — the whole to be completed by Decem-
ber 31, 1864. At a late meeting at Kuoxville, 111., subscriptions were
announced by Tazewell and Iroquois counties, and the city of Peoria, of
$250,000, and 8300,000 by the contractors — 5 per cent, being paid in. By-
January, 1855, the Air Line will be in operation to the Mis&jssippi, at Bur-
lington ; and from thence some considerable portion of the distance towards
the Missouri, at the mouth of the Platte ! But this will not be the first
railroad connection of the south of Iowa with the commercial metropolis.
At Galesburg, 111., the road to Peoria strikes the Central Military Tract
Railroad, the speedy completion of which through the best agricultural
section of Illinois to Chicago, is urged forward by the means and energy of
the Michigan Central Eailroad Company. From Burlington to Galesburg,
the grading is done, except four miles opposite Burlington, and the track
dressed off, ready for the ties and rails. Two hundred tons of iron and
eight freight-cars arrived at Burlington a few days since, and twelve hundred
tons, and two locomotives, (built at Taunton, Mass.,) are expected in a few
days. An arrangement was made at Knoxville, by which freight and pas-
sengers from Chicago, via the Military Tract Railroad, will be passed from
Galesburg to Burlington, at the same rates as from Peoria.

Effect of Railroads. — A citizen of this county sold recently a body of
piney woodland at the rate of ten dollars per acre. The land Mes near or
on the line of the New-Orleans and Jackson Railroad, and previous to the
contemplation of that project, was valued at very little, if any, more than
Government price. This is one of the many beneficial effects produced by
the construction of railroads. — Gallatin (Copiah co., Miss.) Argus, '3d inst.

In the above little paragraph as strong and, at the same time, as practical
an argument in favor of railroads can be found as could be drawn from a
volume of elaborate discussions on the subject.

Railroad Tpnnels. — There are some pretty extensive holes in the ground
on the line of the Covington and Lexington (Ky.) Railroad. Grant's tunnel,
10 miles from Covington, is just finished. It is 2,16*7 feet long, and about
300 feet below the surface of the earth. Anderson's tunnel, on the same
road, is 763 feet long, and 100 feet below the surface.

MiDDLETOWN Railroad. — The work on that section of the railroad
oetween Middletown and New-Haven is progressing with considerable
rapidity.

Remarkable Railroad Management. — Late statistics of the Albany
and Schenectady Railroad show that during the last eleven years, 2,882,457
passengers have passed over the road, and not one, while in the cars, has
been injured, and only two slightly injured while standing on the platform.
Ezra Foster, Esq., has had the immediate superintendence of the road during
this time.

PORK AS FOOD.

In giving our views of the proper mode of fattening calves and other
animals, on page 111, we have introduced soi^e suggestions in reference to
pork, and other excessively fat meats. Since that paper was given to the
printer, we have received a copy of The Boston Medical and Surgical Jour-
nal, which contains a striking confirmation of our views, chiefly experiment-
al, and worthy of more consideration than many people, perhaps, will be

IMPROVED DUMPING WAGON. 109

inclined to give it. We only add here, that the mere fact that any article
has been used as food for many years and even to old age, comes far
short of demonstration on this point, so long as so many diseaes abound in
persons of all ages and both sexes.

" For many years past, [says that journal,] the Shakers of Massachusetts
and perhaps those of other States, have wholly abandoned swine-raising,
although an acknowledged source of profit to farmers like themselves.
Some very wise men may be found among those excellent agricultural
broad-brims, who on many subjects, supposed to require the exercise of very
elevated intellectual endowments, exhibit powers and acquirements which
would command respect in any society. They make no display of their
knowledge beyond turning it to a practical account on their own industrial
territories. In medicine there are individuals among them who are vigilant
students, and prescribe, when occasion requires, Avith a clear understanding
of the symptoms and the value of the medicines they may give. Their
village health is proverbial. They seem scarcely liable to the prevailing
maladies in their vicinity. . . . Pork is not eaten hy them, because
they find satisfactory evidence that the flesh of domesticated swine is more
or less diseased."

"Again, a prominent Shaker recently stated to the editor of that journal
* that the children in his community never had measles, and stranger still,
they could not take the disorder.' A few weeks since, an experiment was
instituted which confirmed the truth of this alleged immunity. In order
that the disease might be contracted by their children while young, upon the
supposition that they were destined, of course, to undergo that specific sufier-
ing, as others did, they were sent to see some children ' among the world's
folks' who were then sick with measles. But the httle Shakers did not
imbibe the sickness, having remained perfectly well ever since. The reason
given by the Shakers themselves, why their children did not contract rubeola
in this "case, and why they are not liable to its invasion, is, that they have
never eaten pork. Whether this be the only cause, or whether it be the
eflfect of the general hygienic regulations of their community, we will not
undertake to decide, but leave the subject for the consideration of others."

IMPROVED DUMPINa WAGON,

The accompanying engravings represent an improved Dumping Wagon,
patented August 3, 1852, by Mr. Thomas Castor, of Frankford, Philadelphia
county, Pennsylvania.

This valuable improvement possesses many advantages over all other
wagons of the kind hitherto invented. It is becoming a great favorite among
farmers and teamsters, and will eventually, in a great measure, take the
place of carts and the ordinary farm wagon. It combines all the properties
of a Burden wagon, with the facility of dumping its load with much more
ease than the ordinary cart. It is simple in its construction, and therefore not
so liable to get out of repair. The facilities of dumping its load are not at all
afiected by an increase of weight. Mr. William W. Smedley, of Whitehall,
Pennsylvania, who has been using it for some months, says, that his team
can haul (and teamster dump) with as much ease 6,500 lbs. on the wagon,
as 5,000 lbs. on an ordinary cart. And Mr. Minor Rogers, of Aramingo, Pa.,
after having given it a fair trial in hauhng lumber, coal, wood, stoue, lime,

110

IMPROVED DUMPING WAGON.

and various other heavy materials, recomraends it to the public as having
exceeded his expectations in many respects : particularly in the ease M^ith
which heavy loads can be discharged. And all who have yet tried it, recom-
mend it for usefulness and economy. The principle can be applied to
burden- cars for railroads, heavy ox-carts, or to burden-wagons for any pur-
pose, at a small additional cost. Farmers and others are requested to examine
its construction and try it for themselves.

Figure 1 represents a perspective view, and figure 2 a side elevation of the
wagon.

Fig. 1.

AA are the front wheels, and BB the hind ones, CC being the side timbers
of the frame ; D is the body, which is balanced on anti-friction rollers, E,

/

PROPER TREATMENT OF CERTAIN ANIMALS. Ill

wticli turn on a rod extending across the frame, C ; the said rollers form a
fulcrum and bearing for the wagon body to rest upon and slide over, as here-
tofore shown, and they are so situated in relation to the length of the wagon,
that the body is balanced upon them in the manner of a scale-beam, so that
a small weight upon either end will tip or tilt the other end of the body.
An outside plate, &, is bolted to either side of the frame or pieces, C, and is
formed with hooks and stops, c d. The side timbers, e, are faced with metal,
forming runners or rails for balancing the wagon body upon, and on which it
moves over the rollers. An anti-friction roller, /, is hung in the back extre-
mity of both the side-pieces, C, projecting slightly above their top surface.
Upon either side of the body, D, is a braced stop-pin, g, which projects from
the side timber, e, and when the body, D, is brought home for loading, as in
fig. 1, serves to determine its proper position by striking and bearing against
the hooks, c. These pins also form trunnions for the body to turn upon, in
dumping the wagon, by catching within the lower hooks, a. A cam, A, is
fitted to work through either side piece, C ; these cams are mounted on a
shaft extending across the frame, which shaft is operated by the lever, t, so
that on turning the lever upward, as in fig. 1, and securing it by a strap or
catch, H, the cams, A, slightly lift the back end of the wagon body, and sup-
port it ; but when the lever, i, is turned down, as in fig. 2, the cams permit
the wagon body to descend and run backward ; 1 1 are lock-rods attached to
disks or double cranks, o, which are turned by the lever, n, and work longi-
tudinally to lock and unlock the body by sliding through c, within catches or
openings formed on the standards, m, as rei:)resented. When it is desired to
unload the wagon, the lever, n, is turned, unlocking the body of the carriage,
and the lever, i, brought down so as to permit the body to fall upon the
rollers, when a slight pressure by the hand will carry the body backwards,
and prepare it for unloading, which is easily done by the hand. When un-
loaded, depress the body at n, and bring it to its place ; then raise the lever, i,
and lock the standard, w, and it is again ready for reloading.

Further information maybe obtained by letters addressed to the patentee,
Frankford, Philadelphia Co., Pa.

THE PROPER TREATMENT OF CERTAIN ANIMALS.

All animals require treatment corresponding to their habits. This is so
evident that it sounds like a truism, and yet some need advice of this
kind. No man would think of feeding carnivorous species on vegetables,
nor cows and horses on animal food. But perhaps the management of some
people is as essentially unwise, if not so obviously absurd. We do not refer
to those few and despicable persons, like one whom we have seen, who
actually fed his skeleton of a horse on rum, but to those who seem to do well
while they are violating the primary laws of life.

Milk from still-slops is universally condemned, and the milk produced from
such feed is pronounced unwholesome, and even poisonous. That it is
unhealthy, is obvious from the fact that cows thus fed rapidly become dis-
eased, losing thfeir teeth, becoming thin in flesh, &c., v/hile a very few years
of such keeping destroy their lives. But we know many families that
give their cows the same thing, under the name of kitchen-slops or swill.
If hogs are kept, they usually monopolize these choice condimente, while the
cow is required to practise total abstinence. Whether or not much harm is
done by such diet, we will not affirm, but we do know that sour swill is very

112 PROPER TREATMENT OF CERTAIN ANIMALS.

like the slops of the still. That is, it contains the same objectionable ele-
ments, and very little that can be called nutritive food. Whether such
" moderate drinking" ought to be utterly abandoned, perhaps it is not neces-
sary to inquire at present; but we do say that it is a partial adoption of the .
still-slop system.

Again, we have recently seen in the Genesee Farmer the following re-
markable advice :

" In fatting calves for the butcher, they should be suckled regularly, have
as much milk as they can take, after they are ten days old ; they should be
tied up in a dark, clean stable, and have a little fresh, clean straw given them
every day. Much depends on their being kept clean and quiet.

•' For rearing calves, of course, a different treatment is necessary. You
must have an eye to health and the development of muscle, and not, as in
the other case, to the accumulation of fat. They should be allowed more
light and exercise."

We must be allowed to say that we prefer the meat of healthy animals to
that of fat ones which are diseased ; and though the learned doctor would
not admit that he has other preferences, he has certainly given different
advice: "If you are intending to kill, keep dark and quiet; but if to rear,
you must regard the health of the animal, and give more light." Trees and
all plants are found to illustrate the same principle. Cover your grass from
the light, and it grows rapidly, and even monstrously, but it is weak and
withcat color. Every farmer knows, or may know, that such food is almost
worthless for his stock. But it is probably very tender.

All excess of fat is abnormal, whether in men or animals. An excessively
fat man is never found to be a very vigorous man. He cannot endure severe
labor, even of the more sedentary kind. He is not in a healthy condition.
Neither is the excessively fat animal. No wild animal accumulates an
excessive amount of fat, save those which are torpid in winter, and those only
in the fall. Ere the spring arrives, the excess of fat disappears.

*' But is not fat pork wholesome ?" We answer by referring the inquirer
to the facts already noticed, and call upon him, in our turn, for his answer.
That many eat it and thrive, is very certain. Whether they are made strong
by fat is another matter. How much weight of muscle can be organized
from 1000 lbs. of pure fat? '^q ^aiiiVf ex, not a fraction of an ounce. There
is no nitrogen in it, and not a single fibre of muscle can be made without
that element. You might as well make atmospheric air without oxygen.

An excess of food destitute of nitrogen — that is, of fat-producing food — does
not promote the health of biped or quadruped ; and such culinary prepara-
tions ought to be indulged in with moderation, both at the table and the
crib. We should prefer also healthy meats, the flesh of healthy animals.
The laws of Moses were not merely arbitrary commands, and, apart from
these considerations, why were these kinds of food prohibited by his code ?

Thousands of children are killed every year by the use of still-slop milk,
as the statistics of some of our cities abundantly show. How many of
various ages are injured by the use of animal food, " tender," no doubt, but
fed in the " dark," and "tied," so as to forbid all exercise, during its whole
life, we do not know. •

Our counsel is. Give calves moderate exercise, clean and pleasant quarters,
and liberal feed, and our veal will not only be tender, but healthful.

Do not kill calves too young. The flesh of a calf is not in a good condi-
tion before it is at least a month old. It is soft, slimy, and unsubstantial,
or else equally objectionable in other respects. We would as soon eat the

MANUFACTUR]^ OF PAPER. 113

substance of a premature birth, as of an animal soon after it first sees the
light.

Calves that are to be reared may be allowed more severe exercise. No
matter if their muscles are made tough and hard. They will be the stronger
for it. Let them run through the pastures and take as much exercise as they
please.

We know not why the same principles should not be applied to all animals
that are under our care, whether intended for the table or for other use.
Were they universally applied, we believe that animal food would less fre-
quently be found hurtful, and that the various kinds of food, in suitable
quantities, would be found alike healthful for all ages.

All animals, especially those designed for the table, should be kept clean.
Cleanliness will be a defense against divers afflictions to which animals are
liable, and which tend to produce disease. Even a hog is not an exception.
They seek the mud, perhaps, because they are diseased. They are so kept
that they are feverish in their habit, and need the cooling effect of the gutter.
Daily ablution might put an end alike to the desire and to the cause of it.

PRESERVING BUTTER.

The farmers of Aberdeen, Scotland, are said to practise the following
method for curing their butter, which gives it a great superiority over that
of their neighbors :

" Take two quarts of the best common salt, one ounce of sugar, and one
ounce of common saltpetre; take one ounce of this composition for one
pound of butter, work it well into the mass, and close it up for use. The
butter cured with this mixture appears of a rich and marrowy consistency
and fine color, and never acquires a brittle hardness, nor tastes salty. Dr.
Anderson says : ' I have eaten butter cured with the above composition that
has been kept for three years, and it was as sweet as at first.' "

It musi be noted, however, that butter thus cured requires to stand three
weeks or a month before it is used. If it is sooner opened, the salts are not
sufficiently blended with it, and sometimes the coolness of the nitre will be
perceived, which totally disappears afterwards. The above is worthy the
attention of every dairywoman.

MANUFACTURE OF PAPER.

It is well known that paper which is very white when first made, often
becomes yellow some time after being used. The yellow color is not always
uniform, but often comes out in spots more or less large, of a circular out-
line and a rusty tint. In some Paris manufactories, this defect (which is
incorrectly attributed to an alteration of the fibre) is remedied in a simple
manner ; and as the process of decoloration may not be commonly used in
America, judging from some paper I have seen, I make a brief mention of
the subject.

The researches were made here by a manufacturer who combines in a high
degree science and technology. M. Gelis recognized at first that the change
of color was not due to any alteration in the ligneous fibre, and was owing

VOL, VI. PART I. 8

114 COATING IRON WITH COPPER.

to iron. But what the source of the iron ? and how is it introduced ? An
examination of the manufacture, through its process, shows that there is less
iron in the pulp than in the paper made from it. The origin of the iron is
hence not in the preparation of the pulp, but it must be attributed to the
drying-cylinders of steel under which it is passed while yet moist. The chlo-
rine contained in the paste, and which it is very difficult wholly to remove
by the washing process, becomes suddenly vaporized under the heated
cylinders, attacks these cylinders, and forms the protochloride, (Fe CI,) which
thence impregnates the paper. Colorless^itself, this chloride gradually absorbs
oxygen on exposure to the air, and thus the coloration takes place.

It is therefore not a remedy against iron but against chlorine that is re-
quired. The hyposulphite of soda is the simple antidote, and a very small
quantity suffices to eliminate a large quantity of chlorine, since one equivalent
of hyposulphurous acid requires four equivalents of oxygen, and therefore
four equivalents of chlorine, to transform it into sulphuric acid.

For testing the complete removal of the chlorine, M. Gelis uses a liquor
made of iodide of potassium and araidon, (starch.) This liquor becomes in-
stantly blue if there is the least trace of chlorine.

The above is from Silliman's Journal of Science and Art, a work un-
equalled in this country, and unsurpassed in real merit in any country, in
the higher departments of science.

COATING IRON WITH COPPER.

A PATENT has been granted to Theodore G. Bucklin, of Troy, N. Y., for
a new and improved mode' of coating iron with copper, which promises to
be an invention of no small importance to the arts. It has long been a
desideratum to coat iron with some other and less oxidizable metal, in order
to render it more durable in exposed situations. It is more essential to have
sheet and plate iron than any other kind covered with copper. For example,
sheet iron covered with copper would be cheaper than tinned iron for roofs
of buildings, &c. ; and plate iron, if covered with copper, would be>excellent
for making steam-boilers so as to prevent incrustations, (kc. Cheapness is an
important item in the process. If the process is expensive, then it can be of
no general benefit, for pure copper would be preferable ; if cheap, it is a
most important discovery. A method of covering iron with brass, copper,
&c,, has long been known ; but to cover it and make the copper unite with
the iron, like tinned iron, has hitherto been considered problematical. The
invention of Mr. Buckhn promises to fulfil every condition desired in making
coppered iron. Cast, malleable, and wrought iron can be coated with copper
by the new process.

The process consists in first removing the oxide fi'om the iron to be coated,
then covering it with a medium metal which has a great affinity for the iron,
and afterwards dipping the iron so prepared into molten copper, which, by
the galvanic action of the medium metal, makes the copper intimately com-
bine with the iron, and form a complete coating. The oxide is removed from
iron by means of diluted sulphuric acid, in which the castings or sheets are
rubbed with sand ; after this they are washed and dipped into a solution of
the muriate of ammonia, dissolved in a suitable vessel, when they are ready
for the next process. This consists in dipping the sheets or plates into molten
zinc, immediately after they are lifted out of the sal ammoniac solution. The
uurface of the molten zinc should be covered with dry sal ammoniac, to pre-

LOCOMOTIVE TRIAL TRIP. IIST

■1^ — — ■.■ ■ ■ j' -^ — .

▼ent tlie evaporation of the metal. The iron is soon covered with a coating
of zinc, and forms what is termed galvanized iron. At hand the operator
has a crucible or pot containing melted copper covered with some incom-
bustible substance as a wiper, and he at once dips the zinked iron into this,
in which it is kept until it ceases to hiss, when it is taken out and found to
be covered with a complete and durable coating of copper. By dipping the
iron thus coppered into the solution of s^l ammoniac, then into the zinc and
the copper, repeating the process, coat upon coat of the copper will be
obtained, until it acquires any degree of thickness. The black oxide is pre-
vented from forming on the copper by dipping it afterwards in the sal ammo-
niac solution, and then washing it in pure water.

LOCOMOTIVE TRIAL TRIP.

An experiment made on the 18th ult., upon the Delaware, Lackawanna,
and Western Railroad, seems to challenge the world for its equal in the
capacity and draught of locomotive engines :

The Ontario is a ten-wheel engine, six drivers, 4 feet G inches in diameter,,
connected; cyhnders 1*7 inches in diameter, 24-inch stroke; manufactured
by Rogers, Ketchuni & Grosvenor, Paterson, N. J.

Weight on drivers, 50,000 lbs.

Weight on trucks, 17,000 "

Total weight of engine, 68,200 lbs.

Weight of tender with wood and water, - - 40,400 "

Weight of engine and tender, . - . . 108,600 ''

The Wyalusing is a ten-wheel engine, six drivers, 4 feet 6 inches diameter,
connected; cylinders 17 inches diameter, 24-inch stroke; manufactured by
Danforth, Cooke & Co., Paterson, N. J.

Weight on drivers, 48,200 lbs.

Weight on trucks, ------ 17,600 "

Total weight of engine, 65,800 lbs.

Weight of tender, wood, and water, - - - 40,000 "

Weight of engine and tender, - - - - 106,200 lbs.

The first experiment was made with a train composed of 100 four-wheel
cars of coal,

Whose gross weight was - - - - 706 tons 1,100 lbs.
Deduct weight of cars, - - - 300 " 100 "

Total weight of coal, - - - - 496 tons 1,000 lbs.

The Ontario, T. Duncan, engineer, I. T. Puterbaugh, conductor, attached
to the above train at Tunkhannock Station, and started up a grade of 21 feel-
in the mile, at the rate of five miles an hour for one mile, and came to a
stand ou a reverse curve ; cut off" nine cars, leaving ninety-one cars, weight
725 tons, with which she went to Hopbottom Station, a distance of about six
miles, at the rate of seven miles per hour, the grade continuing the same.

116 CONDENSED HISTORY OF STEAM.

The Wyaliising, John Warren, engineer, A. Hunt, conductor, was then
attached to the whole train of one hundred cars, at 10.28 o'clock, and
arrived at Oakley's Station at 10.55, making the run up a grade of 21 feet,
through continuous curves of about 1,000 feet radius, at four miles an hour.

The Ontario again attached to the same train of one hundred cars at Oak-
ley's, and drew the train at the rate of six miles an hour, under circumstances
similar to the Wyalusing, grade and, curves continuing the same.

At New-Milford another hundred cars were added to the train, making a
train of two hundred cars, 2,652 feet long, or over half a mile.

Total weight of train, including engine, tender, &c., 1,653 tons 400 lbs.
Deduct weight of engine, tender and cars, - - 655 " 1,300 "

Total weight of coal, - - . . 997 tons 1,100 lbs.

The Ontario, attached to the above train, started the whole train on a
level, out of a switch, both ends of the train being on the curve at the same
time. The trip was made from New-Milford to Great Bend, a distance of
six miles, in thirty minutes, being at the rate of twelve miles an hour, over-
coming in the distance a grade of fifteen feet to the mile, for about three
fourths of a mile.

CONDENSED fflSTORY OF STEAM.

About 280 years B. C, Hiero of Alexandria formed a toy which exhibited
some of the powers of steam, and was moved by its 2:)0wer.

A. D. 450, Anthemius, an architect, arranged several caldrons of water,
eacli covered with the wide bottom of a leathern tube, which rose to a narrow
top, with pipes extended to the rafters of the adjoining building. A fire was
kindled beneath the caldrons, and the house was shaken by the efforts of
the steam ascending the tubes. This is the first notice of the power of steam
recorded.

In 1543, June 17, Blasco D. Garoy tried a steamboat of 200 tons, with
tolerable success, at Barcelona, Spain. It consisted of a caldron of boiling
water, and a movable wheel on each .side of the ship. It was laid aside as
impracticable. A present, however, was made to Garoy.

In 1660, the first railroad was constructed at Newcastle-on-Tyne.

The first idea of steam engines in England was in the Marquis of Worces-
ter's "History of Inventions," A. D. 1663.

In 1710, Newcommon made the first steam engine in England.

In 1718, patents were granted to Savary for the first application of the
steam engine.

In 1764, James Watt made the first perfect steam engine in England.

In 1736, Jonathan Hulls set forth the idea of steam navigation.

In 1778, Thomas Paine first proposed this application in America.

In 1781, Marquis Jou9"ry constructed one on the Saone.

In 1785, two Americans published a work on it.

In 1789, William Symington made a voyage in one on the Forth and Clyde
Canal.

In 1802, this experiment was repeated.

la 1782, Ramsey propelled a boat by steam at New-York.

In 1787, John Fitch, of Philadelphia, navigated a boat by a steam engine
on the Delaware.

EUROPEAN MANUFACTURES. 117

In 1763, Robert Fulton first began to apply his attention to steam.

In 1793, Oliver Evans, a native of Philadelphia, constructed a locomotive
steam engine to travel on a turnpike road.

The first steam-vessel that crossed the Atlantic was the Savannah, in the
month of June, 1819, from Charleston to Liverpool. — Hunfs Merchant^
Magazine.

THE POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA.

This institution, recently chartered by the Pennsylvania Legislature, has
secured an edifice in Pliiladelphia, and will soon be in active operation. This
college is designed to include in its organization a College of Mines, of Agri-
culture, of Arts, and of Manufactures, and to aflbrd those destined for these
important branches of industry, a thorough scientific education. The appli-
cation of science to the arts is daily rendering them more powerful sources
of national progress, and demanding increased intelligence in those engaged
in their prosecution. The civil and the mining engineer, the architect, the
manufacturer of chemicals, of sugar, and of glass ; those engaged or inter-
ested in the productions of the plough, the anvil, the furnace and the loom ;
all these have, under the stimulus of modern science and of modern compe-
tition, assumed a new and nobler position ; and hence their proper education
has become an object of deep public moment, and one closely aft'ecting
national prosperity.

The plan of organization will comprise the following departments :

1. Mathematics and Civil Engineering.

2. Mechanical Philosophy and the principles of Machines.

3. Metallurgy, and Industrial, Agricultural, and Analytical Uhemistiy,

4. Mining Engineering, Mineralogy, and Geology.

A well-supphed analytical laboratory, sections and models of mines and
machinery, a geological and mineralogical cabinet, field operations, and archi-
tectural and mechanical draAving, will aftbrd ample facilities for thorough and
practical instruction. Students will be enabled to pursue one or more studies
for a year, term, or less period, and after examination, will be granted certifi-
cates of capacity accordingly.

EUROPEAN MANUFACTURES.

France. — The mortgage debt of France as recorded is 12,-500,000,000
francs; deduct from this questionable debt 2,500,000,000, it leaves 10,000,-
000,000 ; interest yearly at 9 per cent, is 900,000,000 ; net annual reve-
nue of all the real estate in F^:ance is 1,600,000,000 ; interest on mortgage is
900,000,000 ; direct land tax is 160,000,000 ; additional tax is 80,000,000 —
making 1,140,000,000 — balance left in the hands of owners is 460,000,000
francs. Divide that sum by 20,000,000, representing 4,000,000 families at
five persons each, and it leaves in the hands of each twenty-three francs; but
as the mortgages are not all paid, call it fifty francs, or ten dollars a head.

Germany now manufactures about sixty million pounds of native wool
in addition to what she imports. Formerly she exported her wool to Eng-
land, and paid 12 per cent, duty in addition to expenses. She has learned
better since. In 1834, the population of the States having the Zollverein
was 23,478,120 ; in 1847, 29,461,381, showing an increase of 25^ per

118 SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS.

cent, in fourteen years, notwithstanding famine and emigration. The late
census showed a population of 30,009,639. The customs duties per head
in 1834, 18.5 silver groschen ; 1845, 29.4; 1845, 23.5 ; 1852, 26.1. The
chief cause for the decline in duties is the diminution of sugar imports,
owing to home manufacture. If the home-made sugar had paid the same
taxes as the imported, the receipts from customs would have been 27.9 per
head, or little less than in 1845.

Russia presents an example of progress with most of the European States.
By a system of protection she has largely augmented her wealth and re-
som-ces. In 1812, Russia had 136 doth factories; in 1824, 324; in 1812,
129 cotton factories ; in 1824, 484. From 1812 to 1839, her manufactur-
ing establishments more than trebled, and since then in a much greater ratio.
In 1843, but one sixth of her manufactured articles were imported. Imports,
exports, and revenues are all increasing. Her imports of indigo from Eng-
land increased from 3,225 chests in 1849 to 5,1*75 in 1852, an increase of
60 per cenr. in three years. These figures show forcibly her industrial tend-
encies, which must in time, and with the help of favoring internal political
changes, transform the nation from a warlike and barbarous nation into a
civilized and peaceful one.

Portugal, Turkey, and the Papal States are the only countiies in
Europe that are not increasing in wealth.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS.

The Chuomatype. — The Chromatype, discovered by Mr. Hunt, consists in
washing good letter-paper with the following solution : — Bichromate of
potash, 10 grs.; sulphate of copper, 20 grs. ; distilled water, 1 ounce. Papers
prepared with this are of a pale yellow color : they may be kept for any
length of time without injury, and are always ready for use. For copying
botanic oil specimens or engravings, nothing can be more beautiful. After
the paper has been exposed to the influence of sunshine, with the objects to
be copied interposed between them and it, it is washed over in the dark with
a solution of nitrate of silver of moderate strength; as soon as this is done,
a very vivid positive picture makes its appearance ; and all the fixing these
photographic pictures require, is well washing in pure water.

Magic Laxtern. — To 'paint the Glasses. — Draw on a paper the subject you
desire to paint. Lay it on a table, or any flat surface ; then draw the out-
lines with a very fine pencil, dipped in varnish mixed with black paint, and
when dry, fill up the other parts with their proper colors. Transparent
colors must be used for this purpose, such as carmine, lake, Prussian blue,
verdigris, sulphate of iron, tincture of Brazil-wood, gamboge, &c. ; and these
must be tempered with a strong white varnish, to prevent them from peeling oflT.
Then shade them with black, or with bistre, mixed with the same varnish.
Movements of the figures are easily made by painting the subject on two
-glasses, and passing them at the same time through the groove.

Amusing Transmutations. — Have in one vessel some sulphuric acid, and
in another an infusion of nut-galls ; they are both colorless and transparent :
mix them, and they will become black and opaque. Put into a wine-glassj
of water a hvf drops of prussiate of potash ; and into a second glass of water,
a little weak solution of sulphate of iron in water ; pour the colorless raixtur©

SELF-REGISTERING COMPASS. 119

together into a tumbler, and they will be changed into a bright, deep-blue
color. Mix a solution of prussiate of potash with that of nitrate of bismuth,
and a yellow will be the product. Mix a solution of prussiate of potash with
that of sulphate of copper, and the mixture will be of a reddish-brown color.
Put a drachm of powdered nitrate of cobalt into a phial containing an ounce of
the solution of caustic potass ; cork the phial, and the liquid will assume a blue
color, next a lilac, afterwards a peach, and lastly a light red.

Tue visiBLY-TjKowiNa AcoRN. — Cut a circular piece of card to fit the top
of a hyacinth-glass, so as to rest upon the ledge and exclude the air. Pierce
a hole through the centre of the card, and pass through it a strong thread,
having a small piece of wood tied to one end, which, resting on the card, pre-
vents its being drawn through. To the other end attach an acorn, and
having half filled the glass with water, suspend the acorn a little above the
surface. Keep the glass in a warm room, and in a few days the steam which
has generated in the glass will hang from the acorn in a large drop. Shortly
after, the acorn will burst, the root will protrude and thrust itself into the
water, and in a few days more a stem will shoot out at the other end, and
rising upwards, push against the card, in which a hole must be made to
allow it to pass through. From this stem small leaves will be observed to
sprout, and in the course of a few weeks you will have a handsome oak plant,
several inches in height.

SELF-REGISTERING COMPASS.

M. Deleuil has presented to the French Academy a self-registering com-
pass of his own construction. Its object is to register the changes in the coui-se
of a vessel for every three minutes during the twenty-four hours. The markino-
is made on a compass-card, and it enables the captain to overlook most
effectively the manoeuvres of the steersman and pilot.

This self-register consists (according to Silliman^s Journal) of three prin-
cipal parts: 1, a clock-movem_ent placed at the centre of the apparatus, for
causing the point or pivot carrying the needles to move up and down at
regular intervals ; 2, an endless screw, furnished with a nut carrying the point
for piercing the paper ; 3, the compass-card, made of three needles fixed to
a sheet of mica, a material as little hygrometric as possible. The mica is
covered with a disk of velvet firmly glued to it by means of sti'ong glue, and
whose tissue has been saturated by a kind of glue that is soft when cold ;
on cooling, the glue has an even surface, pierced with an infinity of pores,
into which the point will readily penetrate after having pierced the paper
compass-card. Owing to this addition, the process of puncturing does not
stop the movement of the needle — a principle essential to the success of any
method of self-registering.

When the needle is fixed towards the north, the axis or diametral line of
the compass-card is placed in the line of the axis of the ship, and the punc-
tures, made every three minutes, will indicate the deviation of this axis with
reference to the magnetic needle ; the succession of points, or the nearly con-
tinuous line which they trace, shows to the eye the course of the route.

120 MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC.

MECHANICAL AND AGRICULTURAL RECORD, ETC.

(Coffee. — There arc about a dozen species of the genus to which coffee belongs,
but all of them ave inhabitants of tropical countries. The Cqfea arabica alone
is cultivated, and yields the article known in commerce. Its favorite locality is
on hill-sides, afan elevation of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the level of the
sea. The following is an estimate of the coffee produced in eveiy part of the
world at the present time :

Brazil, 176,000,000 lbs.

Java, 120,000,000 "

Cuba and Porto Rico, - 30,000,000 "

St. Domingo, 35,000,000 '•

Laguavra, 35,000,000 ''

Costa Rica, 9,000,000 "

British West Indies, 8,000,000 "

Ceylon, - - 40,000,000 "

Malabar and Mysore, - 5,000,000 ''

French and Dutch West Indies, ... - 2,000,000 "

. The Philippines, - - - - - - - 3,000,000 "

Sumatra, 5,000,000 "

Celebes, 1,000,000 "

Arabia, 3,000,000 "

Total, 476,000,000 lbs.

The cost of all this to the consumers is not less than one hundred millions of
dollars a year. The yearly consumption of coffee in the United States is 5.57 lb.
per head, five times more than in Great Britain. It is thought that the intro-
duction of coffee and tobacco have conduced to the promotion of sobriety, and
that the enormous sums expended in these commodities would M'ithout them be
thrown away in buying intoxicating drinks.

Mr. Samuel C. Dowxes, a pattern-maker |at the Acushnet Foundry, has
invented a machine for punching copper, which is said to be a great labor-saving
affair.

A Railroad Fact.— A North Carolina correspondent of the New-York Times
makes the following statement :

" The advantages offered by railroads to the farms of inland districts are strik-
ingly shown by the following, which was narrated to me as a fact : A gentleman
near Raleigh, who had a quantity of wheat to dispose of, and seeing it quoted
at high prices in a paper of Petersburg, Va., and seeing at the same time the
advertisement of a commission-house there, wrote to the latter, making an offer
of it. The next day he received a reply by mail, and by the train a bundle of
sacks,' in which he immediately forwarded the wheat, and by the following return
mail received his pay at the rate of $1.20 a bushel, the top price of the winter.
At the same time, forty miles from where he lived, off the line of the railroad,
wheat was selling at GO cents a bushel. There was one county, during the time
I was in North Carolina, to and through^which the roads were absolutely impass-
able, and which had not been heard from at the capital for a month. It is not,
therefore, incredible that it should cost 60 cents to move a bushel of wheat forty
miles."

A Cheap Filteu.— As efficient a filter as can possibly be constructed may be
made in a few minutes by any person, and at the cost of a very few pence.
Procure a clean flower-pot of the common kind ; close the opening of the bottom
with a piece of sponge, then place in the inside a layer of small stones, previ-
pusly well cleansed by washing; this layer may be about two inches deep, the
upper stones being very small ; next procure some freshly-burnt charcoal which

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC. 121

has not been kept in a damp or foul place, as it rapidly absorbs any strong
smells, and so becomes tainted and unfit for such purpose ; reduce this to pow-
der, and mix it with about twice its bulk of clear, well- washed, sharp sand : with
this mixture fill the pot to within a short distance of the top, covering it with' a
layer of small stones ; or, what is perhaps better, place a piece of thick, close
flannel over it, large enough to tie round the rim of the pot outside, and to form
a hollow inside, into which the water to be filtered is to be poured, and which
will be found to flow out rapidly through the sponge in an exceedingly pure
state. The flannel removes the grosser impurities floating in the water, but the
filter absorbs much of decaying animal and vegetable bodies actually dissolved
in it. AVhen it becomes chai'ged M-ith them, it loses this power ; hence the neces-
sity for a supply of fresh charcoal at intervals.

Railway Axles. — Mr. D. Cokley, of Pittsburgh, Pa., has shown us the model
of a new compound axle invented by him, designed to obviate the mischief and
perils now encountered on railroad curves, where the wheels on one side of the
car must necessarily travel farther and faster than those on the other, pro-
ducing a tremendous strain on the axle, and frequently breaking it. We con-
sider the object sought by this invention an important one, and trust it is
attained. Whether this invention is preferable to others, especially that of
Mr. P. G. Gardiner, of our city, is a question not for editors but for practical
engineers, to whom we earnestly commend it. The old-fashioned axle is clearly
vicious and dangerous. Let the best attainable substitute be designated and
adopted forthwith.

MAcnraE Fou tunnelling the Alps. — A very ingenious apparatus has been
devised to facilitate the progress of the Piedmontese railroads, in which tunnels
have to be cut under mountains. The excavating machine cuts the channels in
the rock by means of several series of chisels placed one beside the other, in
straight lines ; these lines of cutting tools are so arranged as to be capable of a
slight motion in the direction of the grooves after every stroke; the object of
this is to bring the chisels to bear upon all the spaces lying between the several
cutting tools situated in the same line, so as to produce not a succession of
holes, but a continuous channel similar to a very wide saw-cut. This lateral
shifting of the lines of chisels, which takes phtce alternately from right to left
and from left to right, is caused by a corresponding motion given to the frames
in which they are fixed. Each chisel is driven against the rock by a spiral
spring coiled around it. This spring, driving the chisel forcibly against the rock,
obliges it to act efiicaciously, notwithstanding the slight inequalities at the bot-
tom of the channel, arising from a want of uniformity in the resistance of the
stone. When the machine is in operation, the several lines of chisels are all
drawn back simultaneously, by means of a species of cam, or movable bar.
The apparatus is so arranged as to enable each chisel to strike 150 blows in a
minute. The machine at the same time sets in motion a pump which forces a
constant supply of water into a reservoir, the upper part of which is filled with
compressed air. By this means the water is driven out in jets, through small
pipes placed between the chisels, and is thus made to play upon the grooves,
where it performs the double office of preventing the cutting instruments from
becoming heated, and removing the dust and broken stone which would other-
wise accumulate in the grooves, and thereby prevent the effectual working of
the excavator.

The Cotton Gin. — Whitney, the inventor of the cotton gin, placed oi;l- upon
his plantation in Georgia, the first that was used in Wilkes county, and perhaps
the first in the State. He and his partner, Durkee, erected a gin-house, into
which women only were allowed to enter. Mr. Lyon, who lived a few miles
distant, by dressing himself in women's clothes, obtained an entrance, and after
viewing the machinery made his improvement, the saw gin. Mr. Whitney got
his first idea of the invention fi'om a gin used to prepare rags for the manu-
facture of paper.

HoRTicuLTUKE AT BosTON. — At ouc of the weekly exhibitions of flowers and
fruits of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, early in July, which was re-

122 MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC.

ported as "very meagre,'' we notice* Flowers by several contributors; fine
Chekries, by six contributors; Grapes, "noble specimens," by Mr. Nugent;
"magnificent specimens" of various varieties of do., by Mr. Durfee, Fall River,
and also by three others ; Peaches, " splendid," from Otis Johnson ; Giant
Rasprekries, by another contributor ; Potatoes, " fine," by another ; and Vege-
tables by another, making in all about twenty contributors. They do this up
in capital style in the " city of notions."

List op State Fairs for 1853.

Indiana, , Sept. •

Vermont, Montpelier, " 13, 14, 15.

Kentucky, Lexington, "1.3,14,15,16,17'.

New- York, . . . . Saratoga, " 20, 21, 22, 23.

Ohio, Dayton, " 20, 21, 22, 23.

Pennsylvania, - - - . Pittsburgh, " 27, 28, 29, 30.

Michigan, Detroit, " 28, 29, 30.-

Wisconsin, - - . . Watertown, Oct 4, 5, 6, 7.

Illinois, Kane co.,

Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Boston, Sept. 21, 22.

North-western Fruit-Growers' Asso., Chicago, Oct 4, 7.

The following table gives the time for holding county fairs in Massachusetts :

Worcester County Society, Sept. 21 and 22.

Norfolk County Society, ' Sept. 27 and 28.

Essex County Society, Sept. 28 and 29.

Housatonic Society, Sept. 28 and 29.

Worcester West Society, Sept. 30.

Bristol County Society,' Oct 4 and 5.

Middlesex County Society, Oct. 4 and 5.

Berkshire County Society, Oct. 5 and G.

Plymouth County Society, Oct 6.

Franklin County »Society, ----- Oct. (3 and 7.

Barnstable County Society, ,' Oct. 7.

Hamden, Franklin, and Hampshire County Society, Oct. 11 and 12.

Hamden County Society, Oct. 13 and 14.

Hampshire County Society, .... Oct. 20.

Water-proof Frock. — The following is recommended by Mr. Johnson, of Lou-
isiana, as a cheap mode of providing water-proof sacks or frocks for negroes.
The quantities named are for a plantation of fifty or one himdred negroes : 20
gallons linseed oil, into which mix 3 lbs. of litharge, well pulverized, after the
oil has boiled a few minutes, which should be well stirred in. Into this, when
boiling hot, dip a sack or over-coat, &c., well made of common cotton cloth,
wring as diy as possible, and then hang in the sun a few days. It costs less
than sixty cents, and will last a year or two.

Chinamen in Calii'Oknia. — In Yuba county, by a recent State census, there
^rc 2,100 Chinese; in Nevada county, 3,886; in Placer county, 3,019; and in
Sacramento county, 804. It is estim'ated that there are at least 25,000 ('hinese
in the State.

Vineyakos in Caluornia. — In Los Angelos county are 105 vineyards, con-
taining 450,000 vines, each of which produces, on an average, five pounds of
fruit Mo.st of this is manufactured into Avine and brandy, of each of which
there are produced about 2,000 barrels. The grapes are of the most delicious
quality, and the wine is said not to be inferior to the "sparkling Catawba." This
growth i.^; also found in otherc ounties.

Statistics of France..— Present population is 35,781,821. The number of
mairiages is constantly decreasing, the number of births is little more than that
of deaths, so that the increase of population is considerably less than formerly.
About $8,000,000 is annually appropriated to the support of religion, of which,
all but about half a million is bestowed upon the Roman Catholic Church. The
number of Protestant.^ is about one and a half millions.

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC.

123

Rejiarkable Growth. — A correspondent, who gives no name, writes us that
on the land of Mr. Duncan Hood, Stockport, N. Y., is a tree, grown from the
stone of a rare-ripe, given him by a friend, on which are to be seen both nectar-
ines and peaches. He says the tree is four or five years old. Not having any
responsible voucher for these statements, we publish them in this form. When
their truth is ascertained, it will become a subject of examination by the
curious.

Industry of Philadelphia, &c. — In Philadelphia and vicinity, in 1831, was
estimated as follows: — 104 warping-mills at work, sufficient to employ about
4,500 weavers, more than 200 dyers, 3,000 spoolers, 2,000 bobbin-winders. The
wages of these operatives amount to $1,470,000; 81,000 j^ards a day are manu-
factured, or $24,300,000 per annum, of the estimated value of $3,888,000. The
capital now invested in manufactures is $33,737,911, and number of hands era-
ployed is 59,106.

According to an official statement, it appears that we raise annually $143,000,-
'000 in wheat; $391,200,000 in Indian corn; $490,275,000 in oats; $74,125,000
in Irish potatatoes, and $129,000,000 in cotton; the whole crop being $1,209,-
480,000.

The Railroads in France, now completed, are twenty in number, and 1,531
miles in extent. The longest is the Northern, which is 368 miles, including
branches. Five other lines are to be constructed, and are already commenced,
extending 843 miles. All the railroads have received aid from the State, which,
in all, has disbursed more than $66,000,000 in money on works, and $11,000,-
^000 in loans.

Cakkots for Horses. — The stable-keepers are beginning to find that these
vegetables form a cheap and nutritious food to mix with grain for their horses.
It is better to give a working horse a peck of carrots and four quarts of oats or
corn-meal a da}^, than to give him six quarts of meal.

Glass Pens. — It is reported that glass pens are now made, possessing the
requisite qualities to Avrite with, and that they will soon supersede all others.
They ai-e anti-corrosive by the most impure ink, at least as much as gold, and
their cost will be but that of the making.

A PRACTICAL mechanic and engineer of high standing in this city suggests, as a
preventive of accidents'at drawbridges, that, in addition to the usual, signal, a
gate should be erected across the track at a distance of a quarter of a mile from
the bridge. This gate could be so arranged as to be closed by the draw-tender
when the draw is open. It could be made high enough to strike the funnel of
the locomotive, and would, in case of carelessness on the part of the engineer,
give the brakemen ample warning of the danger, and would give time to stop
the train before reaching the bridge. The expense of such a gate would not
exceed $500, and as a mere matter of economj-, something of the kind should
^ be adopted by eveiy railroad. The recent accident on the New-Haven road will
cost the corporation more than it would require to erect and perpetually maintain
a dozen such gates.

The Geology of the Sierra Nevada. — Professor Trask has made a report
to the Legislature of California on the geology of the great mountain range
forming the eastern boundary of the State, which is not yet published, but
which promises to supply a great deal of interesting information. It would seem
that the earth of the country is almost as rich in platinum, silver, and copper, as
it is in gold. Chromium, too, a most valuable pigment, abounds in many places,
sometimes in large amorphous masses of sixty pounds weight.

There arrived at the port of New-York during the ijionth of May, 30,234
emigrant passengers, of which number 12,179 were Irish, 10,986 German, 2,388
English, 1,214 Scotch, 1,072 French, 857 Swiss, and the remainder were from
several other countries of Europe. During five months of the present year,
80,031 emigrants were landed at that port ; the year previous, 100,225 ; in
1851, 100,560 ; and in 1850, 7t),402.

124 MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC.

Ikon in Tennessek. — From tables published in Runfs Merchants' Magazine^
we learn that there are now in operation on the Cumberland ■ river, Tennessee,
nineteen furnaces, nine forges, and two rolling-mills, which produce 44,500 tons
of iron per annum, valued at $1,673,000. The capital invested is $1,216,000.
There ai'e employed in the works 1,395 white laborers, and 1,810 negroes, who
consume 1,460,000 pounds of pork, and 35,000 bushels of corn per year. The
iron interests of Tennessee are rapidly growing into importance, and we have
no doubt will constitute a large element in that wonderful prosperity which the
State seems destined to enjoy.

New Compound Rail. — A new rail for roads has been invented by Wells &
Serrill. It is compound, consisting of an interior and exterior rail, so arranged
that the joints are broken, that is, that the parts lap over one another. No
rivets or bolts are used, and an ordinary workman can lay or repair it. The
rail may be used with or without chairs. When the exterior rail is worn out, it
can be renewed, whilst at least two^fifths of the entire bar, which is not subject
to wear, is saved. It will be patented. The plan strikes us as a good thing,
and is at least worth the attention of railroad men.

Fall Rr'er — Additional Boat. — The travel on this route has become so
great that the Company has been compelled to put on the " State of IMaine," as
a day-boat to Newport. Leaving New-York at 8 A. M., on Tuesdays, Thursdays,
and Saturdays. Returning, it leaves Newport at 7 A. M. on the alternate days.

Another Potato Secret out. — The country gentleman is informed that the
secret of E. C. Roberts in regard to the prevention of the potato disease, is to
leave the potatoes in the ground all winter. For this he asks a dollar, with a
pledge not to tell of if. The secret is neither new nor good. It was thoroughly
tried years ago in England and Ireland, and, like most other prescriptions for the
disease, was found ineflFectual.

Sugar in Ireland. — The manufacture of beet-root sugar has been introduced
into Ireland with great success. The produce of last year amounted to 142 bags,,
containing from three to four hundredweights each. These have been sold ; and
it^is now contemplated to start two other establishments, on which 40,000 tons
of the root maybe produced in a year. At present 240 persons are employed in
the manufacture ; but if the project be carried out, this number will be largely
increased, and a great addition made to Ireland's industrial resources.

Special Manure for Grapes. — The Wine Committee, at the exhibition of the
Cincinnati Horticultural Society, reported that of two specimens of wine, one
from grapes to which a special manuring of potash had been given, the wine
from the manured grapes was " bright, clear, and mellow, like an old wine." The
other was declared to be less matured in all its qualities, nor was it clear. The
grape.s themselves from the t^vo portions of ground were also presented to the
Committee. "Both were delicious and well ripened, but it was considered that
those from the manured land were sweeter, and that the pulp was softer."

Improvement in Cultivators. — An improvement in these useful implements
of husbandry has been made by Samuel Churchill, of West Henrietta, N. T.
The nature of the invention consists in a pecular manner of elevating and
depressing the frame which holds the shares, and the shares themselves, by
means of which they may be made to penetrate the earth the required distance,,
and make deep or shallow furrows as desired, or be raised and kept entirely
from the earth when the implement is being drawn from one locality to another.
The mode adopted by Mr. C. to accomplish this object is by means of levers and
connecting rods or stirrups attached to the frame, which are under the immediate
control of the driver. Measures have been taken to secure a patent.

Manufacture of Bohemian Glass. — A French Company, of ample means,
have purchased a tract of land at a short distance east of the Crystal Lake, near
New-Kochellc, where they have commenced the erection of a magnificent

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC 126

establishment for carrying on the manufacture of Bohemian glass-ware. The
Westchester JSTews states that the buildings will be of brick and stone, and put up
in the most substantial manner. The principal building will be upwards of 300
feet long, and four or five stories high ; while there will be several other buildings
<►€ smaller dimensions, adapted to the wants of the various branches of the busi-
ness. One furnace alone will occupy a space of 50 feet square. The whole
work is to be pushed most vigorously ; as soon as finished, quite a colony of
workmen and their families are to be brought from France to carry on the busi-
ness, which is expected to be very extensive. For the accommodation of the
French families who are expected to be employed in the establishment, about
fifty dwellings will be erected by the Company. New streets are being laid out
around the works.

Making Paper in Nobth Carolina. — There are five paper-mills now in opera-
tion in North Carolina, and anothei', with a capital of $25,000, is in process
of erection, about six miles from Raleigh. The two mills near Raleigh (the
"Manteo" and the "Neuse" mills) consume annually about one million and a
half pounds of old rags ; and the other four mills, viz. : at Fayetteville, Shelby,
lincoln and Salem, as much more ; making 3,000,000 pounds of stock used an-
nually in North Carolina.

A New Mode of Manufacturing Paint-Brushes. — A very simple and effectual
iQode of manufacturing paint-brushes, without involving the necessity of driving
the handle through the centre of the brush, has been invented by Adonij ah Randel,
of Williamsburg, N. Y. The nature of his invention consists in placing
the hair of which the brush is to be made in a metal ring, and securing it therein
by cementing or sizing the roots, so as to prevent the escape of the hairs, and
then uniting the back end of the ring, by riveting or otherwise, with a back plate
which receives the handle. The hair is most effectually secured in this manner,
and it forms a solid brush ; it is easily constructed, durable, and more convenient
than those in use. Measures have been taken to secure a patent.

A New Apple Tree Enemy has made its appearance in Maine. It is a slender
worm, about half an inch long, striped with greenish-white and dark stripes.
When jarred, they spin down and hang by a fine thread. They move about by
rapid crawling. They eat leaves, buds, and fruit indiscriminately. They are
aalike the canker-worm or any other known to the oldest inhabitant.

The latter worm has done a great deal of damage this year in Connecticut and
Massachusetts. In a recent trip through portions of these States, we saw many
apple trees that looked as brown as though killed by fire. They also attacked
many other trees, particularly elms.

The Shingle Trade of Chicago is enormous, amounting last year to over
77,000,000. The increase this year has thus far been 25 per cent., and it is
quite safe to estimate this year's business at over 100,000,000. They are shipped
to the West and South in great quantities, thus furnishing freights for canal-
boats, and increasing the canal revenue.

The Rm:R Amazon is likely to be opened to steam navigation much sooner
than was expected ; and if it is freely opened, it will be the great event of the
day. General Echenique, the President of Peru, has already taken steps, on
behalf of that Government, to put on the Amazon two iron steamers, each to
cost about $100,000, whose business is to be the exploration of the river and its
branches. All nations are to enjoy the benefit of this trade and commerce.
The Emperor of Brazil, we are gratified to learn, so far from resisting this
Peruvian movement, is cooperating with it. He has oonceded a national Com-
pany the right of navigation, with certain privileges, in conjunction with Peru.
The Company was to commence its work in May last ; and although we have no
definite information that it has really l)egun, yet there seemed to be no doubt
that it was intended to go into operation either in June or July.

The Potato Rot. — Professor BoUman, a Russian Councillor of State, has pub-
lished a work on the prevention of potato rot. He discovered accidentally, and
Stas subsequently verified by experiment, the fact that seed potatoes thoroughly

126 MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC

dried will produce a sound crop. The Courier, which gives an account of this
discovery, says :

"The temperature required to produce the desired result is not very clearly
made out. Mr. Bollman's room in which his first potatoes were di-ied was
heated to about 72'', and much higher. By way of experiment, he placed others
iu the chamber of the stove itself, where the thermometer stood at 136'', and
more. He also ascertained that the vitality of the potato is not affected, even if
the rind is charred."

Cheeokee and Beaver Copper Mines. — Mr. J. D. Whitney, the geologist,
has made a report upon the Cherokee and Beaver copper mining locations,
situated in Polk county, Tenn. The distance of these mines from market has
thus far prevented tlie w^orking of them, but this difficulty is about to be obviated
by making a road to Cleveland, on the East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad,
when the ores will have but 35 miles of cariiage by wagon. The deposit of '
black oxide of copper on these locations Mr. "Whitney says he has never seen
equalled in any other location. At the Hiwassee Mine this black ore is said to
. be 45 feet m width, and averages about 2 feet thick. Beneath this is the
undecomposed ore. Should this black oxide prove to average 10 feet only in
width, it would yield 6,300 tons to the mile, worth $750,000. Mr. Whitney's
report says :

The Gherol'.ee Com/pany's location is the one next south of that of Tennessee,-
and has the same vein extending through it for a distance of about three quarters
of a mile. The tract contains about 400 acres. The outcrop of gossan is as well
defined as any where on the vein, and appearances indicate that the vein is as well
developed on this location as on those farther north. These are very favorable
situations, where the work of mining can be carried on with small cost by driving
in levels on the side of the ridges at right angles to the course of the vein. Such
a one has been commenced near a small saw-mill at the base of the ridge, and
has been can'ied in about 80 feet, but not sufficiently extended to develop the
character of the vein.

Agricdltckal Premiums in VERMONx.^The amount of premiums offered by the
Vermont Stale Agricultural Society, at its next annual Fair in Montpelier, Sept. IS,.
14 and 15, 1853, is $3,401 : On hors'es, $721 ; cattle, $638 ; sheep, $414 ; swine, $146 ;
poultry, $24 ; dairy, $93 ; maple sugar, §35 ; honey, $13 ; manure, $25 ; field crops, $187 ;
fruit and fruit tree?, $76 ; vegetables, $26 ; ploughing, $136 ; farm implements, ^100 ;
donfiestic manufactures, $37; essays, $101 ; discretionary premiums, $600.

REDUciNa Bones for Manure. — The American Farmer gives the following method
of reducing crushed bones without sulphuric acid : — Mix two bushels of ashes and
one of salt witli each bushel of crushed bones ; moisten the bones first, and leave the
■whole in pie four or five weeks before using the mixture, sliovelling it over two or three
times during that period.

The above process will answer very well for soils deficient in soda, chlorine, potash,
and phosphate of lime ; but for soils deficient in sulphuric acid, as most soils are, we
should prefer dissolving the boue, and then adding the other constituents if required.

Charcoal for Swine. — It is perhaps not generally known that one of the best arti-
cles that can l)e given to swine, while in preparation for the tub, is common charcoal.
The nutritive properties are so great, that they have subsisted on it without other food
for weeks together. Geese confined so as to deprive them of motion, and fattened on
three grains of corn per day and as much coal as they can devour, have become fat
in eight days. The hog eats voraciously after a little time, and is never sick while
he has a good supply. It should always be kept in the sty, and be fed to the inmates
regularly, like all other food.

How TO MAKE Crayons. — Every school room has, or should have, black boards. On
these, chalk is almost universally employed. There are many objections to the use of
chalk, not the least of which is, that after a problem is performed, the fingers and cloth-
ing present a dirty white appearance. Crayons are far preferable. Could they be gen-
erally employed, it would be a favor done to some delicate hands, to say nothing of a
large amount of wearing-apparel.

■White crayons may be made of Paris white or Spanish white, which are nearly

NEW-YORK IN THE SUMMER OF 1853. 127

the same, and wheat flour and water. The correct proportions are : five pounds of Paris
white, one pound of flour, and sufficient water to make a dough of these materials,
hard enough not to crumble, and soft enough to roll. Little balls of this are then rolled
out into cylinders about the size of a pipe-stem, and laid away in a warm place, or in
the sun, to dry ; the drying will generally require from 12 to 24 hours.

The process of rolling may be performed upon a table, or any flat board. This article
J8 far superior to chalk.

Fattening Animals. — The Shakers of Lebanon, N. Y., say, after an experience of
thirty years, that in fattening swine upon Indian corn, one third is saved by grinding
into meal, and that one fourth is saved by cooking — boiling it. This, as we under-
stand it, makes a saving of one half, which is probably somewhat exaggerated, but the
saving is no doubt considerable. There can be no doubt that, on all farms where there
are considerable numbers of cattle and swine to be fed, a mill and boiling apparatus,
though they may be a little costly at first, would ultimately, and soon, indeed, reim-
burse all the expense. Grind and boil, we say, therefore, to all farmers. The apathy
that prevails upon this point in general is very strange. Farmers are generally slow
in adopting improvements in agriculture and agricultural implements, and compara-
tively few feed their cattle on cooked food, while "some kinds of it are almost as grate-
ful to the quadruped as to the biped, his lord and master.

Illustrated Record of the Industry of all Nations. Nos. 1 and 2. Large

quarto. G. P. Putnam & Co. pp. 20. 25 cents.

A double number of this elegant journal is now issued. It is filled with well-
engraved illustrations (forty-two in number) of objects of interest to be found
in the Crystal Palace, with remarkably good descriptions of each. Every thing
about it is in good taste, and is worthy of the publishers and worthy of the
Exhibition. Subscribe for it at once, and encourage a commendable object,
while you enable the publishers to present a permanent memorial of this great
collection, that shall itself do honor to the artists engaged upon it, and at the
same time secure a volume that will be an ornament to your library and to your
table, and a fund of entertainment in j'-ears to come. There will be twenty-six
numbers and a supplement. Mr. Putnam's address is 10 Park Place. Mr. P.
has also a Catalogue of the various articles to be found in the Crystal Palace,
so arranged and numbered that any one of them can readily be found. It is of
great convenience to any one who wishes not to overlook that in which he has
especial interest, and which he might otherwise pass by without uoticiufj its
presence.

NEW-YORK IN THE SUMMER, OF I85S.

For the benefit of our friends from a distance, we give below a list of a few
of the more prominent and interesting features presented by our city. Wc
cannot begin better than by referring to Castle Garden and Madame Sontag.
The corps of operatic artists which Madame Sontag has engaged is of the very
highest order. In herself she is a host, as we have often repeated. But her assist-
ants form a host seldom equalled in any country. Signora Steffanoni is the best
operatic soprano we ever had in this country before the an-ival of Madame Son-
tag. Madame Patti Strakoscu has lost none of her power in her temporarj-
absence from the stage. Salvi is the most wonderful tenor. He was one of
the chief attractions in the celebrated Havana company that so delighted us a
few years since ; and no man on the continent pretends to be his equal in that
department. Badiali wears his honors alike untarnished. Rossi and Bene-
vantano would be distinguished in anj^ other company, and the minor parts are
represented with uncommon ability.

Madame Anna Tiiillon, at the Broadway, attracts crowded houses as ever
but we cannot speak of her from our own knowledge.

The Dusseldorf Gallery of Paintings presents attractions unrivalled in that
department The pictures are numerous, and the entertainment suited alike for
the day or evening.

128

LIST OF PATENTS.

Sattler's Cosmokamas, near Union Park, arc admirably painted representa-
tions of the most striking views on both continents. Here is somfething for an
entire half day, whicli will insure perfect satisfaction.

The Bryan Gallery of Christian Art is a collection of paintings, forming
an historic series from the commencement of the Christian Era. Such is the
description given us by friends vpho have seen it, and who pronounce it abun-
dantly worthy of attention.

The Velasquez is one of the best specimens of portrait-painting to be seen
in this or any other country.

Lattixg Obsekvatory. — The view fi-om this, the loftiest tower on the conti-
nent, we believe, is admirable. The whole of New- York and the adjacent coun-
try, the North and East rivers, with the cities and villages which almost cover
the adjoining territory, lie before you as on a map. The view is assisted by two
or three telescopes.

The Hippodrome, the Circuses and Theatres, and Barnum's Museum, last
hut not least, open their doors for the entertainment of the citizen and the
stranger.

The view from Trinity Church Spire is perfect in its way ; Broadway, extend-
ing under your feet, like a ribbon, for two and a half miles, to Union Square,
being seen at a glance.

The Cemeteries, especially that at Greenwood, present attractions of a differ-
ent character, but not inferior nor less worthy. Stages run the whole distance,
and carry and return you for a shilling, after crossing the ferries.

High Bridge, near Harlem, is well worth a visit.

The public institutions of the city are worthy of notice, according to the tastes
and the time to be devoted to such objects.

List of Patents issued from June 21 to July 5, 1853.

Barnabas H. Bartol, of Philadelphia, Pa., for I Amzi C. Semple, of Cincinnati, Ohio, assignor
Improvement in Refrigerators for Cooling Liciuids. to William C. Semple, of same place, for Improre-
Patented in Cuba. meut in Presses.

Horatio Clarke, of Dedham, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Bobbins.

Christopher Duckworth,of Thompsonville,Conn.,
for Improvement in Shuttle-box Motion in Looms.

Horatio N. Goodman, of New-Haven, Conn., for
Improvement in Melodeons.

Daniel H. Hovey, of Kilborn, Ohio, for Improve-
ment in Machines for Twisting Waxed-ends.

Edmund Slorwood and George Rogers, of Lon-
don, England, for Improvement in Coating Lead
with Zinc. Patented in England.

Levi S. Reynolds, of Indianapolis, Ind., for Im-
provement in Bran Dusters.

Christian Sharps, of Hartford, Conn., for Im-
provement in Percussion Pellets. Patented in
England.

E. E. Shepardsou and Edwin Lucas, of New-
Bedford, Mass., for Improvement in Tuning Melo-
deons and other Reed Instruments.

Lauren Ward, of Naugatuck, Conn., administra-
tor of Richard Ward, deceased, of same place, for
Improvement in Machines for Turning Irregular
Forms.

James Foster, Jr., and Piatt Evans, Jr., of Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, for Improvement in Metallic Boxes
for Presses, &c.

Napoleon B. Liicas, of Otter Creek, 111., for Im-
provement in Threshers and Separators of Grain.

Alanson Abbe, of Boston, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Instruments for correcting Lateral Devia-
tions of the Spine.

J. Cross, of New-London, Ohio, for Improve-
ment in Brushes.

A. M. Day, of Bennington, Vt., for Improvement
in Clavicle Adjusters.

George H. Hazlewood, of Boston, Mass., for Im-
proved Cradle and T6te-a-T6te.

Chas. W. Lancaster, of New-Bond St., England,
for Improvement in the manufacture of Cannon
and other Fire-arms. Patented in England.

Thos. L. Mitchell, of Birkenhead, England, for
Improvement in Propelling Vessels. Patented in
England.

John North, of Middletown, Conn., for Improve-
ment in Trusses.

Wm. Porter and Edward A. Tattle, of Williams-
burg, N. Y., for Improvement in Lanterns.

Amzi C. Semple, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for Im-
provement in Paddles for Vessels.

Noah J. Tilghman, of Salisbiiry, Md., for Im-
provement in Crow KiUers.

f l)e p0nol), tl)e ism, mt tlje JliiDil.

Part L— Vol. VI. SEPTEMBER, 1853. No. 3.

FREE TRADE AS AN" EXPERIMENT.

We must confess that our veneration for the principles of trade which are
advocated and acted upon by Great Britain is becoming less and less, as our
reading and observation are more extended. In her journals, and in conver-
sation, we have often met with the remark, that " England has proved the
exellence of free trade by actual experiment." She has proved the excellence
of free trade, sure enough, but where, in what sense, and to whose advantage,
and with what results ? She has proved this : that when she has crowded
her cities and towns with spindles, and mules, and looms, and other forms
of mechanical inventions, and, by a series of measures planned and con-
trived for that end, has lowered the prices of manual labor, at home and
in her colonies, and has restricted and even utterly prohibited the right,
and taken away even the ability, to manufacture from all her dependencies ;
then she " has proved " that free trade, either in the rough product, in her
own ports, and in breadstuffs, which are so essential to her starving thou-
sands, will produce a favorable result to herself at home ; the one in increasing
the importation of raw materials, which can be wrought into various fabrics,
and the other in enabling those starved thousands to buy moderately of the
flour of this and other countries at a price not quite so far beyond their
reach as it otherwise would be. This, we admit, is proved, and this is all
that is proved, in respect to the benefits that have in fact resulted from
free trade in England.

Were our mills, and furnaces, and forges, and other appliances of manu-
facturing industry, in successful action, our laborers in those departments
thoroughly taught in their several trades, and abundantly supplied with raw
materials for manufacture, while they were almost starved for want of bread,
we too might be disposed to open our ports, and invite the wheat, and rice,
and sugar, and other kinds of food jiroduced in other countries, into our
harbors, and by the reduction of duties do what we could to place these
articles within the reach of the sufferers. We should then do just what
England has done — no more and no less.

We are sure that our countrymen are too intelligent to be duped by names
and forms while things constitute the essentials. " Free trade" upon the
statute book is one thing among nations and tribes who have ability to
engage in it, and quite another thing when the local administrations, under
the resistless power of the Imperial Parliament, actually forbid them to keep
in their possession the machinery which is indispensable in engaging in any
trade. For example : Of what benefit to the poor East Indian that the
ports of Great Britain are free for all the manufactured goods he can send
there, provided they tax his materials and his tools for making the requisite
machinery, and then tax the machinery so exorbitantly as entirely to consume

VOL. VI. — PART III. 9

130 FREE TRADE AS AN EXPERIMENT.

all possible profits that can be anticipated by his labor and traffic? And is
it not " adding insult to injury" thus to tie up a man's hands, and then, with
an air of self-complacency for his own unexampled generosity, bid him work
in any way that may suit his inclination ? Such will be found an essential
element in the boasted liberality of Britisli free trade.

Are there any of our intelligent readers who suppose that there is a real
and available liberty among the colonial people of Great Britain to carry on
free trade in looms and in spinning-jennies, or in exporting from their own
soil and importing into England wrought goods and manufactures ? Can
the people of India manufacture for themselves or procure from " home,"
from Birmingham, or other city of England, such implements for their
own use, so that they could manufacture the cotton they grow into cloth
for their own consumption, for their own wives and children; still less,
so as to compete with English manufacturers on English soil ? Can the peo-
ple of Jamaica expend profitable labor on their own sugars ? Can Ireland
manufacture and export cloth and glass at her pleasure ?

Mr. Carey observes on this subject :

"The negroes of Jamaica have never been permitted to apply their spare
labor even to the refining of their own sugar, nor are they so at this day.
They must export it raw ; and the more they send, the lower is the price and
the larger the proportion taken by the Government — but the poor negro is
ruined. Spain, on the contrary, permits the Cubans to engage in any pur-
suits they may deem most likely to afford them a return to labor and capital;
and, as a necessary consequence of this, towns and cities grow up, capital is
attracted to the land, which becomes from day to day more valuable, labor is
m demand, and there is a gradual, though slow, improvement of condition.
The power to resort to other modes of employment dimini-^hes the necessity
for exporting sugar, and when exported to Spain, the producer is enabled to
take for himself nearly the whole price paid by the consumer, the Govern-
ment claiming only a duty of 15 per cent.

" The Hindoo, like the negro, is shut out from the workshop. If he at-
tempts to convert his cotton into yarn, his spindle is taxed in nearly all of
the profit it can yield him. If he attempts to make cloth, his loom is sub-
jected to a heavy tax, from which that of his wealthy English competitor is
exempt. His iron ore and his coal must remain in the ground, and if he
dares to apply his labor even to the collection of the salt which crystallizes
before his door, he is punished by fine and imprisonment. He must raise
sugar to be transported to England, there to be exchanged perhaps for Eng-
lish salt. For the sugar, arrived in that country, the workman pays at the
rate perhaps of forty shillings a hundred, of which the Government claims
one third, the ship-owner, the merchant, and others, another third ; and the
remaining third is to be fought for by the agents of the company, anxious
for revenue, and the poor ryot, anxious to obtain a little salt to eat with his
rice, and as much of his neighbor's cotton, in the form of English cloth, as
will suffice to cover his loins."

See too what was quoted on the position of Ireland, in reference to this
point, on the 7 1st and 7'2d pages of our August number.

Many of our public men have urged a " tariff for revenue," in distinction
from a " tariff for protection." The unsoundness of this distinction, as a
matter of principle, is admitted by a writer in a recent number of Hunt's
able journal ; but if any one wishes to see the effect of free trade carried out,
m taking away from a nation its resources, and demanding heavy direct taxes^
he may aee it in the well-ascertained effects of this " British free trade," as

FREE TRADE AS AN EXPERIMENT. 131

carried out in Turkey. We again quote from p. 120 and onward of Mr.
Carey's new work on the Slave Trade:

"By the terms of the treaty with England in 16Y5, the Turkisli Govern-
ment bound itself to charge no more than 3 per cent, duty on imports,* and
as this could contribute little to the revenue, that required to be sought else-
where. A poll-tax, house-tax, land-tax, and many other direct taxes, furnished
a part of it, and the balance was obtained by an indirect tax in the form of
export duties ; and as the corn, tobacco, and cotton of its people were obliged
to compete in the general markets of the world with tlie produce of other
lands, it is clear that these duties constituted a further contribution from the
cultivators of the empire in aid of the various direct taxes that have been
mentioned. So far as foreigners were interested, the system was one of per-
fect free trade and direct taxation.

" For many years Turkey manufactured much of her cotton, and she exported
cotton-yarn. Such was the case so recently as 1798, as will be seen by the
following very interesting account of one of the seats of the manufacture :

*' 'Ambelakia, by its activity, appears rather a borough of Holland than a
village of Turkey. This village spreads, by its industry, movement, and life,
over the surrounding country, and gives birth to an immense commerce,
which unites Germany to Greece by a thousand threads. Its population has
trebled in fifteen years, and amounts at present (1798) to four thousand,
who live in their manufactories like swarms of bees in their hives. In this
village are unknown both the vices and cares engendered by idleness ; the
hearts of the Ambelakiots are pure and their faces serene ; the slavery which
blasts the plains watered by the Peneus, and stretching at their feet, has
never ascended the sides of Pelion, (Ossa ;) and they govern themselves, like
their ancestors, by their protoyeros (primates, elders) and their own magis-
trates. Twice the Mussulmen of Larissa attempted to scale their rocks, and
twice were they repulsed by hands which dropped the shuttle to seize the
musket.

"' Every arm, even those of the children, is employed in the factories:
while the men dye the cotton, the women prepare and spin it. There are
twenty-four factories, in which yearly two thousand five hundred bales of
cotton-yarn, of one hundred cotton-okes each, were dyed, (6,138 cwts.) This
yarn found its way into Germany, and was disposed of at Buda, Vienna,
Leipsic, Dresden, Anspach, and Bareuth. The Arabelakiot merchants had
houses of their own in all these places. These houses belonged to distinct
associations at Ambelakia. The competition thus established reduced very
considerably the common profits ; they proposed therefore to unite them-
selves under one central commercial administration. Twenty years ago this
plan was suggested, and in a year arteiward it was carried into execution.
The lowest shares in this joint-stock company were five thousand piastres,
(between £600 and £700,) and the highest were restricted to twenty thou-
sand, that the capitalists might not swallow up all the profits. The workmen
subscribed their little pro6ts, and uniting in societies, purchased single shares ;
and besides their capital, their labor was reckoned in the general amount ;
they received their share of the profits accordingly, and abundance was soon
spread through the whole community. The dividends were at first re-
stricted to 10 per cent., and the surplus profit was applied to the augment-
ing of the capital, which in two years was raised from 600,000 to 1,000,000
piastres, (£120,000.)'

* Equivalent to light port-charges, the anchorage being only sixteen cents per ship.

132 FREE TRADE AS AN EXPERIMENT.

" ' It supplied industrious Gennany, not by the perfection of its jenuie*,
but by the industry of its spindle and distaff. It taught Montpellier the art
of dyeing, not from experimental chairs, but because dyeing was with it a
domestic and culinary operation, subject to daily observation in every kitchen ;
and by the simplicity and honesty, not the science of its system, it reads a
lesson to commercial associations, and holds up an example unparalleled in the
commercial history of Europe, of a joint-stock and labor company, ably and
economically and successfully administered, in which the interests of industry
and capital were long equally represented. Yet the system of administra-
tion with which all this is connected is common to the thousand hamlets of
Thessaly that have not emerged from their insignificance; but Ambelakia
for twenty years was left alone.'*

"At that time, however, England had invented new machinery for spinning-
cotton, and, by prohibiting its export, had provided that ail the cotton of the
world should be brought to Manchester before it could be cheaply converted
into cloth."

It is useless to multiply words upon such a topic. These facts stand out
palpably, and are not denied. There are, indeed, other reflections which the
facts connected with this subject are calculated to excite, and one among
these the moral effects, we purpose to elucidate at an early day. But for the
present, and in reference to the economical bearings of the subject, we beg
leave to copy a very important question propounded by the London Times
in reference to Ireland, from which all mechanic and manufacturing arts
are prohibited by enormous taxes or else by direct legislation :

" How are the people to be fed and employed ? That is the question
which still baffles an age that can transmit a message round the world in a
moment of time, and point out the locality of a planet never yet seen.
There is the question which founders both the bold and the wise."

What will be the ultimate result of the free trade which is permitted
to the people of this country in competition with English manufactures,
when such reforms are introduced into that country as the condition of her
working classes imperatively demands, yet remains to be seen. We have
recently stated, and more than once, that at this day British soldiers, in
Calcutta, are clothed with Lowell cottons. In our view this is at least
ominous.

How any one can persuade himself that English diplomatists can have
one object and aim in their system of colonial trade, and another and antago-
nistic aim in their policy towards foreign governments, we are not wise enough
to discei-n ; and if England's commercial policy is to build up domestic industry
at the price of the ruin of her own colonies, much more must this be her
intent in her foreign policy! We only add that it is not often, in individual
contests, we hear those parties which have the advantage in position, and are
thereby peculiarly protected^ calling out for " a fair field and equal rights."

We append to these statements of Mr. Carey and others, a recent account
given by the Bombay Times, in reference to the present condition of India,
and its causes. The editor says :

" We have famines occurring almost decennially, some of which, within
our time, have swept their millions away. In 1833, 50,000 persons perished
in the month of September in Lucknow ; at Khanpoor, 1,200 died of want ;
and £500,000 were subscribed by the bountiful to relieve the destitute. In
Guntoor, 150,000 human beings, 74,000 bullocks, 159,000 milch cattle, and

* Beaujour's Tableau du Commerce de la Greece, quoted by Urqubart, 4*?.

FREE TRADE AS AN EXPERIMENT. 133

300,000 sheep and goats died of starvation. Fifty thousand people perished
in Marwar; and in the North-west Provinces, 50,000 human beings are sup-
posed to have been lost. The living preyed upon the dead. Human imagina-
tion could scarcely picture the scenes of horror that pervaded the land. In
twenty months' time, 1,500,000 persons must have died of hunger, or of its
consequences,

" The direct pecuniary loss to the Government, by this single visitation,
exceeded £5,000,000^sterling — a sum which would have gone far to avert the
calamity from which it arose, had it been expended in constructing thorough-
fares to connect the interior with the sea-coast, or districts where scarcity pre-
vailed with those where human food was to be had in abundance ; or on
canals to bear forth to the soil, thirsty and barren for want of moisture, the
unbounded supplies our rivers carry to the ocean.

"Nearly seventy years since, Burke, in one of his speeches, said, iu sub-
stance, this :

" ' The Barbarians and Mussulman conquerors of India have left behind
them some monument of their glory or munificence ; but if the English
Government should be withdrawn from India this hour, it would leave behind
it once fertile and populous provinces, fit residences only for the tiger and
ourang-outang.' Matters have grown worse since the time of Burke.

" The policy of the India Government has been remorselessly cruel a©,d
selfish : that Englishmen might grow rich, and go home before an Eastern
Ciinaate should break them down ; that a monopoly for English goods might
be established in the India markets ; that Christians iu Manchester and Cal-
cutta might thri\'e at the expense of the East India Pagan, the commerce of
the East Indies has been annihilated, her manufactures destroyed, the im-
portation of machinery prohibited, the artisan and mechanic driven from the
side of the ploughman, and the whole people forced into the single pursuit
of agriculture. The taxes have been without parallel for enormity : the
laud-tax takes from 50 to 80 per cent, of the produce of the land, and the
aggregate of taxes has not diminished since Burke charged that it amounted
to eighteen shillings in the pound.

" Under this revenue and commercial system, the same system in part
which made a wholesale slaughter of the West India negroes, India has
gone down lower and lower in physical, moral, and intellectual being. Towns
and cities, once populous, busy, and thriving, are in ruins, overgrown by the
jungle ; lands once yielding a handsome income have been abandoned ; the
comforts which the Barbarian and Mussulman spared are unknown in the
records of the present generation ; and provinces yielding two harvests
annually have been cursed with famines increasing in intensity and fre-
quency.

"According to the English authorities, one famine in one province of India
swept 500,000 victims to the grave. Corpses lined the roads and swelled
the waters of the rivers; mothers threw their children into the Ganges
rather than that they should stiffen in their arms ; the dead and the dying
were moved from under the wheels of the Governor-General's carriage as he
went on his progress of investigation ; carrion-birds gathered by tens of
thousands to the horrid carnival ; and this was in the reign of Victoria the
First ! Misery, ignorance, and crime in the British East Indies are in pro-
portion to the time the country has been held by British arms. The older
the province, the more profound the degradation, the more intense the
wretchedness.

"The poverty of the country diminished the revenues: the revenues must

134

AMERICAN CLOCKS.

be kept up, no matter the cost. Hence new provinces are conquered and
annexed ; hence the infernal trade in opium. The best lands were appro-
priated to this purpose ; their owners were told they must abandon the land
or raise the poppy. They were forced to sell at the prices and to the traders
the Government designated. The traders were in their turn taxed so much
a chest. The Government gathered in about £15,000,000 revenue; and the
opium, forced on China, killed and still kills 400,000 Celestials annually.

" Such is British India. God alone is powerful enough to raise her up from
that profound depth where cupidity has sunk her. It is a task too great for
Mrs. Sutherland, the reason probably for the inaction of that philanthropic
lady."

We add but one more extract, and that is by Sir Thomas Moore, (Ram-
bles, vol. 1, p. 4,) quoted by Mr. Carey on p. 164 of the work already cited.
It shows what India was and might still be, but for the principles and prac-
tices of ihe British Government :

"I do not exactly know what is meant by civilizing the people of India.
In the theory and practice of good government they may be deficient. But
if a good system of agriculture, — if unrivalled manufactures, — if a capacity
to produce what convenience and luxurv demands, — if the establishment of
schools for reading and wrilinr, — if the general practice of kindness and
hospitality, — and above all, if a scrupulous respect and delicacy towards the
female sex are amongst the points that denote a civilized people, — then the
Hindoos are not inferior in civilization to the people of Europe."

This eminent author has furnished numerous proofs of the general order,
neatness, and thrift of the people of India at the time he wrote. We omit
them here for want of room. Let these descriptions be contrasted with
those given by residents and travellers at the present time.

AMERICAN CLOCKS,

The manufacture of clocks in this country has grown into a business of
vast magnitude. We have recently seen in the Boston Traveller an historical
sketch of this business, which is interesting in various particulars, not the
least of which is the exhibition which it gives of individual enterprise. This,
of course, must always underlie every important enterprise, or it will come
to naught. We give below a pretty full abstract of the account referred to.
The writer, Dr. William Alcott, says :

"Furty-five years ago, a plain man, of few words, but great mechanical
ingenuity, purchased an old grist-mill in Plymouth, at the south-eastern
extremity of Litchfield county, Connecticut, and converted it into a wooden
clock factory. Wooden clocks had indeed been made long before that time,
by Leonjwd Harrison of Waterbury, Gideon Roberts of Bristol, and perhaps
others. They were, however, few in number, and sold at enormous prices.
It was even said that the parts of some of those which were first made were
cut out with the penknife. They were, many of them, inserted in long
cases, reacliing from the fioor almost to the ceiling, and were at best made
very slowly.

" The name of our taciturn Plymouth adventurer was Eli Terry. He pro-
ceeded to manuftvcture clocks, at his new factory, at the rate of several hun-
dred, perhaps a thousand, a year. His stream, however, had many tributaries.
All the forest hills and valleys for many miles around, in some directions

AMERICAN CLOCKS. 135

from twelve to twenty, were ransacked by his neighbors for hard wood, such
as laurel, (popularly ivT/,) box-wood, sugar-maple, &c., whereof to make the
wheels, pinions, and pillars ; and from remoter regions they procured cherry
and pine for other purposes. The fields also, far and near, were laid under
contribution to furnish flax, whence the cords were made by which the
weights were suspended. And then, again, the price of labor on the farms
around was raised because so many young men were employed in connection
with the factory, or in selling them in adjacent towns when made. Of these
last individuals, ycleped clock-pedlars, some of the more bold and enterpris-
ing ventured abroad with their one-horse wagons fifty or one hundred miles
from home, and sold their clocks at the amazingly low price of twenty-five
or thirty dollars !

" The business now rapidly increased, and Mr. Terry was ere long able to
manufacture more than a thousand clocks a year. The public mind in a
Yankee county was not content that Eli Terry should make his thousands of
dollars a year, while they only got an old-fashioned living at one dollar a
day or so; and one after another, in the contiguous towns above mentioned,
they found their way into the same business. The mania spread farther even
than Bristol and Waterbury. It extended to Watertown, Litchfield, Har-
winton, and Southington.

" Mr. Terry soon sold out his establishment to two enterprising young
mechanics, who, after making such changes and adopting such improvements
as enabled them to manufacture several thousand clocks yearly, at length
separated, and each had a factory of his own. Mr. Silas Hoadley, one of the
two, remained in the business several years, and also engaged in the manu-
facture of cutlery, but met with only partial success in his business. His
former partner, Mr. Seth Thomas, in his new location, at a place called Ply-
mouth Hollow, not only made himself extremely rich, but built quite ' a
city.' He has done more good, as well as gained more money, than almost
any other mechanic in that region. He has manufactured his thousands of
clocks yearly, and, it is believed, in some years his tens of thousands, besides
much cotton-cloth and other goods. The pioneer in the business, Mr. Terry,
with his sons and other associates, continued to make clocks till the time of
his death, which happened only a few years since, when at an advanced age.
In a pecuniary view, he was more fortunate than most pioneers, though he
was never so wealthy as some of those who succeeded him.

"Thirty years ago, Chauncey Jerome, of Plymouth, a young man of enter-
prise, also engaged in the business. Mr. Jerome, with his coadjutors, was
destined, as a clock-maker, to eclipse all his predecessors. The price of clocks
had indeed somewhat fallen before he commenced the business, but it was
reserved for this gentleman to reduce it to three or four dollars.

"Mr. Jerome moved from Plymouth to Bristol nearly thirty years ago,
where he remained till nine years ago, when he removed to New Haven,
where he still resides. He has had many reverses of fortune ; but, like the
fabled phoenix, that rises again from its own ashes, each reverse in his affairs
has seemed only to increase his energies. He has probably manufactured as
many wooden clocks as all the world besides. Of late, however, the material
of his clocks has been of brass; but he began with wood, as did his prede-
cessors and coadjutors. Besides his factory in New-Haven, which em-
ploys nearly a hundred and fifty hands, he employs another hundred in
Bristol, Derby, and elsewhere ; and his clocks are found all over the civilized
world. He has a depot for them in Hanover street in Boston, as well as
another in each of the cities of New-York, Liverpool, and London. Some
of these are exceedingly beautiful.

136 SHOE MANUFACTURE.

" Mr. Jerome has for tbe last three years manufactured clocks at the rapid
rate of more than five hundred a day. At this rate yearly, the product of
his efibrts would be one hundred and fifty thousand clocks.

" It is truly wonderful to observe what results sometimes follow from the
efforts of a single individual. How many social circles in the older United
States, California, Oregon, Peru, England, Continental Europe, Turkey, China,
Hindostan, and even Australia, have been enlivened by the ticking of Jerome's
clocks 1 Had but half as many circles been made mourners by his efforts;
had he been, like Napoleon or Caesar, the means of destroying hundreds of
young men, the flower of their respective families, he might, ere now, have been
lauded as a hero, if not crowned as an emperor. But to no such honors
does he aspire. He seeks not his own glory in desolating the earth, but
rather in making it a cheerful abode of cheerful men. May we not hope the
time will come when the lives of such men as Terry, Thomas, and Jerome
will attract more interest, whether written out or preserved by tradition and
memory, than the lives of our warriors and conquerors ?"

SHOE MANUFACTURE.

This has became a great business, and though every body is aware of this,
very few are aware of the actual extent to which it is carried on.

In the State of Massachusetts, it is the second in importance, agriculture
being the first. It has not only a greater number of persons engaged in it
than any other handicraft, but it probably pays better. The Andover Adver-
tiser has an article giving the statistics of this business, from which it appears
that the aggregate value of boots and shoes manufactured in the State is
estimated at 137,000,000 ; which equals the manufacture in all the other
States combined, and exceeds that of any other manufacture in this Common-
wealth, the item of cotton goods of all kinds amounting to but $12,103,449.
Of the above value, $12,000,000 worth are annually shipped to New- York,
where there are 250 boot and shoe warehouses, many of which sell from
$100,000 to $1,000,000 a year, and three of them even exceed the highest
sum named. The remainder, that* are not used at home, are sent to the
South and West, to California, the West Indies, South America, Australia,
the Sandwich Islands, to England and the continent of Europe.

The sale of " findings," which does not include leather, employs thirty-eight
firms in New-York city, and amounts to $600,000 a year. Most of the pegs
used in this immense business are made in New-Hampshire, and one firm, it
is said, manufactures fifty bushels daily. The pegs are cut by machinery.
A machine has been invented recently to drive them in an incredibly short
space of time, and another machine for sewing and stitching has come in use.

Lynn is engaged in this business more extensively than any other town.
With a population of 14,257, the number of manufacturers is 144, and of
operatives, 3,787 males, and 0,422 females ; and the number of pairs made
annually, 4,633,900 ; from 1840 to 1850, there were 707 dwelling-houses
built, and the number of ratable polls almost doubled. Danvers, population
8,109 ; manufacturers, 35 ; operatives, 1,184 males, 693 females ; pairs made,
1,123,000 ; dwelling-houses increased from 479 to 1,020, from 1840 to 1850,
and the number of ratable polls in a similar proportion. Stoneham, popula-
tion 2,885 ; manufacturers, 24 ; operatives, 415 males, 376 females; 850,000

WHOLESOME FOOD. ^"^'

pairs of children's shoes made annually. There is more than one naale shoe-
maker to each family. In Grafton, one manufacturer uses 100 bushels ot

^ TheThole number of persons engaged in the business within the State, by
the census of 1850, is 34,944.

WHOLESOME FOOD.

We took occasion, in the August number, to make some suggestions m
reference to the treatment of calves and other animals, as havmg aneflect
upon the healthfulness of their flesh as food. Wo have since met with an
article in the New- York Tribune bearing upon the same point, which we
publish almost entire. With regard to its special references to Aldermen
&c., we have no immediate concern as agricultural journalists, but tear that
no one has a right to complain of them while others, m all parts ot the
country, partake more or less in the same sin. .

" Cattle Market AsusES.-The Grand Jury of Kings county are Qccupied
with the discussion of a question of vast importance, which should be brought
at once before the same body in this city. It is on the maltreatment of cattle
by the drovers during their long peregrinations from the West, and by the
butchers after they have ariived here. ^ ,^ -> ^e

" It is truly said, ' One half of the world do not know how the other halt
live ' and it is equally true that if one half knew what sort of food they eat,
they would cease to live, through very disgust at what they feed upon.
What think the beef-eaters of this city of the condition of their favorite tood
under these circumstances : First, they are confined in a crowded space fave
davs on a steamboat, tossing over the waves of Lakes Michigan, Huron and
Erie with but little opportunity or disposition to eat or sleep, though m
stormy passages with no lack of chances to drink. Then, by way of change,
they are shut up in a railroad car three or four days longer, until almost
exhausted in the hot sun, and, as has been proved, in some instances fatty-
seven hours without water. Then they are allowed to drink till they look
full and fat enough to stand another- day in the cattle market, and endure all
the hooking and pushing of infuriated beasts. Then they suffer all the
punchino- and beating with clubs of their unfeehng owners and half-savage
boys, who drive them through the streets, until they finally reach the pens
of the abattoirs, either excited to madness, or so exhausted with want ot
food and rest, and consequent fever, that bullocks, once as lithe as deer, go
like lambs to the slaughter, without resistance. • ■. i x

" We have, in fact, repeatedly stood by and seen them bow their heads to
the fatal noose, with which they had just seen their prison-mates drawn up
to the bullring, with looks and actions seeming to show that they understood
their fate as well as the butcher could tell them, but deemed it a relief to
their misery. After having been put up in the shambles, snuffing the blood
of their fellows for three or four days without tasting food or water, then-
sufferings may be imagined.

" We have read of savage nations who fit their beef for eating by baiting
the cattle to death with ferocious dogs. By this they are thrown into a state
of high fever much more rapidly, and hence humanely, than by our steam-
boat, railroad, and butcher-pen process. But they were savages--we are
civilized. They were heathen— we are Christians. Other nations fit their

138 NOTES FROM WISCONSIN.

beef for human food by first binding the animal neck and heels, and tben
beating him to death with clubs. This makes the meat tender. We have a
different process of producing the same effect. Theirs is barbarous — ours
belongs to an enlightened and humane people, who live in the nineteenth
century, and boast of their intelligence, and make laws to ' prevent cruelty
to animals.'

" We do not allow a man to beat and misuse his horse, because, if he dies,
the dogs may eat him. But we do eat beef, and we do not ask the question
how it is prepared for our delicate stomachs.

" If such a singular phenomenon should ever happen in this city, that a
Grand Jury should be disposed to ask whether cattle are treated quite as
humanely as would be altogether acceptable in the sight of Him who made
both man and brute, we hope they will send us a polite invitation to attend
their investigation. In such case let them not be contented with mere hear-
say evidence. Let them personally visit some of the places we can point out
to them, where beef is prepared for a people so refined that they would be
horrified at the public exhibition of cruelty to animals in the plaza de toros,
but who pander to worse cruelties every day inflicted upon the animals whose
flesh, after being duly prepared and spoiled, will be served up as their own
daily food."

If any of our readers partake of these sins, in any form, we hope they will
repent forthwith, and amend their ways. Something more than mere taste
is concerned in these matters.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

NOTES FROM WISCONSIN.

[Our friend, who is already well known to our readers, has furnished us
with an account of his new home in the West, with other useful information,
which we give below. — Ed.]

" Vegetation here is more rapid, and matures in less time than in the
Jerseys, where I had resided some sixteen years. I found plants in my new
garden here even more forward than I had left at my residence there ; and
that although the spring does not commence perhaps quite so early here, yet
when it has arrived, every thing runs to maturity almost at once. This
spring has been one of great productiveness. Heavy showers at intervals
have pushed forward the crops in an extraordinary manner; indeed, many
of the old settlers tell me they do not recollect a season so promising and so.
fruitful. In some parts we have heard of the wet damaging the wheat, and
a few spots^ are affected by it around us, but, I believe, hot to any consider-
able extent in this vicinity.

" We are now extremely busy with our hay, which is a heavy crop with
us. I have about thirty acres of marsh meadow, which will mow about two
and a half tons per acre, and perhaps more. Some of it is intermixed with
timothy and red-top grass, so that instead of having to buy hay, or grass to
make into hay' for the winter, as in Jersey, I have almost double what I want
to mow for my own use. The winter grain, as also the barley, will be fit for
cutting wi hin a few days, but the summer wheat does not ripen quite so
early. .

" We have all the extremes from heat to cold that I have ever experienced
in any part of the States. The thermometer has been up to 100°, and then

NOTES FROM WISCONSIN. 1^9

a few mornings afterwards the air has been bordering upon frosty reminding
me very much of the climate of Upper Canada, where I had formerly i^-
sided. Still the country here is healthy, and the heat by day is generally
moderated by a cooling breeze, although heavy rains never leave the ground
loDff wet, but are soon evaporated. The soil generally is of a dark, rich, and
light nature, and although the surface soon becomes dry, yet the moisture is
retained below, which prevents the crops from suffering. Our roads are
beautifully smooth and soft, free from those rugged stones and rocks which
jolt and rack a traveller so much in the more eastern States.

"This is a fine section for rearing and fattening all sorts of cattle, particu-
larly sheep, which have now risen in price, owing to the value of wool, which
this season has sold as high as fifty cents per pound. This rise in wool
doubtless is occasioned by the short supply of that article from Australia, as
numbers there have neglected their flocks and repaired to the gold mines.
Horses and cows are now with us high in price, I hardly know why, while
swine are comparatively cheap. A great deal of pork is raised here and put
down for New- York and other markets.

" There are two things in which new States abound, namely, game and
snakes. The former are a blessing. We have the quail in abundance, the smpe,
the plover, and the rabbit. The prairie or Indian hen is a fine bird, and
broods of them are now visible. The young ones have all the appearance ot
a young chicken, and can hardly be distinguished from them. _ Attempts
have been made to hatch these eggs under a common hen, but it does not
succeed, as they partake too much of a wild nature, and go off, as soon as
they get an opportunity, and join their wild compeers upon the praine.

"As it regards the snake tribe, there is no need to be apprehensive ot
them : some are venomous, and we meet with them in the hay and by the
water-side, but most of them are small, and their numbers are dmiinish-
ino- every year, in the fulfilment of that enmity which the^ Creator has put
between man and the seed of the serpent. The rattlesnake and the pilot
are becoming scarce. It is said that the hog tribe devour greedily all they

can get hold of. , , /• i

" Of course society here is of all hues, but there is an abundance ot plea-
sant, intelligent, and even city-like companions. Among the working classes
you have Irish, Dutch, and the Norwegian, and yet we have a scarcity ot
hands, as all aim to get occupations of their own. r^ ^ v.

" Our residence is upon a bluff, at the foot of which flows the Catfash
stream, which empties itself into the Rock river, both of which abound with
fish, such as the pickerel, bass, pike, and the catfish, with other varieties.
We have also the wild raspberry and the blackberry, also an excellent plum
and the crab-apple ; but at present I have not seen the wild cherry nor the
whortleberry. There is also a species of black currant, and a small goose-
berry which appears to be indigenous. We have many beautiful specimens
of flowers growing wild upon the prairies, which would adorn our Eastern
gardens. Among them are the tiger lily, Indian moccasin, wild sweet pea,
and several varieties of the dwarf prairie rose, from the deep red to the pale
white. There is seldom an evening that we do not hear the whip-poor-will s
plaintive note, and in the daytime that of the moaning dove. There
appears to be as much mystery about the former as there is about the Eng-
lish cuckoo, and no one appears to be able to describe it to you. The general
opinion is, that it is a sort of hawk." ^' ^'

Fulton, Wis., July Uth, 1853.

140

USEFUL PROBLEMS.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOU, AND THE ANVIL.

USEFUL PROBLEMS, &c.

Rules for finding the quantity of ivater in any pipe of any length or
diameter in gallons and lbs. :

This table only gives the contents
of a pipe one inch in diameter, yet it
will answer as a standard for pipes of
any other dimensions, by • observing
the following rule:

Multiply the number found in the
table against any height or length by
the square of the diameter of the
pipe of -which you wish the contents,
and the product will be the number of
cubic inches, avoirdupois ounces, and
wine gallons of water that given pipe
will contain.

Examples. — How many wine gal-
lons of water are contained in a pipe
6 inches diameter, and 60 feet long?
I find 2.4480 in the table against
60 under wine gallons, which multi-
plied by 36, the square of the diame-
ter of the given pipe, I have 88.1280
wine gallons, the answer. Also for
the solid contents, 565.49x36 =
20357.64 inches.

The wine gallon contains 231 cubic
inches, and the imperial gallon 277.274 cubic inches; therefore, to reduce
the wine to the imperial gallon, divide by 1.20032, which is obtained by
dividing the cubic inches in the imperial by the cubic inches in the wine gallon;
and for a like reduction of the ale, which contains 282 cubic inches, divide
by 0.98324.

Recipe : Varnish for Toys. — Dissolve two ounces of gum mastic and
eight ounces of gum sandarac in a quart of alcohol ; then add four ounces
of Venice turpentine. The addition of a little of the whitest part of gum
benzoin will render the Varnish less liable to crack.

A Cement for Iron Pipes or Wooden Logs used for Aqueducts. —
Take 12 or 14 lbs. of fine cast iron filings or borings or turning chips, put
them in a vessel with as much water as will just wet them thi-ough ; mix
with them half a pound of sal ammoniac, and two ounces of flour of sulphur;
mix all well together, and let it stand three or four days; it is then ready for
use : if not used immediately, cover it with water till used.

An Excellent Salve for a Green Wound. — Take one and a half
ounces olive oil, two ounces white'dracula, and two ounces bees' wax ; let
these ingredients be dissolved together, and the salve is formed.

ESTABAN.

Feet

Contents

Pounds

Wine

High.

in Inches.

Avoir.

Gallons.

1

9.42

5.46

.0407

2

18.85

10.92

.0816

3

28.27

16.38

.1224

4

37.70

21.85

.1632

5

47.12

27.31

.2040

6

56.55

32.77

.2423

7

65.97

38.23

.2448

8

75.40

43.69

.3264

9

84.82

49.16

.3771

10

94.25

54.62

4.080

20

188.49

109.24

.8160

30

282.74

163.86

1.2240

40

376.90

218.47

1.6300

50

471.24

273.09

2.0400

60

565.49

327 71

2.4480

70

659.73

382.33

2.8560

80

753.98

436.95

3.2640

90

848.23

491.57

3.6700

100

942.48

546.19

4.0800

200

1,884.96

1,092.38

8.1600

THE HORSE.

141

THE HORSE.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM URINARY ORGANS— BREEDING, FRACTURES,

AND SHOEING.

We add another to tlie series of reports of the lectures of Ur. Slade, at
Boston, as given in the Boston Traveller :

"The nervous system of the horse, the lecturer remarked in opening, is the
grand motive-power of the animal. It is centred in the brain and spinal
marrow. The brain is very small in proportion to its bulk, contrasted with
that of man. From the brain proceed cords called nerves, by which he
receives pleasurable or painful feelings. To the eyes, the nose, the ears, we
find these cords extending. Nerves of involuntary motion are those which
are kept in action although the animal may be asleep. From the brain is
also given off the spinal marrow, running through the spine and sending out
into various parts of the body branches known as spinal nerves. Sym-
pathetic nerves surround the heart and other vital parts.

" Neurotomy, or division of the nerves, has for years been practised on men,
but only lately in veterinary science. The nerve is divided just above the
fetlock joint often, to relieve pain in the foot.

" The urinary organs the lecturer next described. The kidneys are employed
in separating the watery substance, and drawing from the blood the urine,
which would prove highly injurious if allowed to remain. Dietetic medicines
are often applied with great success in removing water from the chest, abdo-
men, &e. When applied, the horse should be allowed to drink all the water
he pleases. Inflammation of the kidneys often occurs. The horse looks at
his loins, separates his legs, and will not lie down. He also desires to urinate
continually. Over-exertion, strains on the parts, exposure to wet, and the
eatino- of burnt mown hay, or kiln-burnt oats, cause the disease. Sufficient
care °is not taken in this country to protect the loins of the horse when
exposed in bad weather. The secretions of the horse differ very much at

tiinGS.

" The urine, after being secreted by the kidneys, passes into the bladder,
a small vessel, having a neck through which it escapes. The bladder is
sometimes inflamed, both the body and the neck. Sometimes we find stone
in the bladder and kidney, and sometimes by skilful physicians they are

removed.

" The breeding of the horse is a subject of great importance. Nature has
provided for the reprodution of the species, and from the month of April to
July we find the female in ' heat,' when the genital organs experience a
change which peculiarly fits them for breeding.

" The period of going with foal is from eleven to twelve months, although
the time varies much in°different mares. The mare is capable of reproduc-
tion at three or four years of age, and should not be used before that age.
The animal also should not be too old, as the colt inherits much of the
weakness of the mother, and lacks that stamina so requisite for a good horse.
The peculiarities of both parents are inherited by the colt, and attention
should be paid to the breed of both animals.

" ' Breeding in and in,' or the production of colts from blood relatives, is
favored by some, and by others deemed a depreciating process. The lecturer
thought that breeding in and in did not deteriorate the good qualities of the
horses, although there are often hereditary evils which crossing will remove.

142 SWISS MODE OF MAKING CHEESE.

The English blood-horse, the best in the world, is a cross between the native
English and the Arabian. Crossing, when properly conducted, improves the
animal, but when abused produces poor horses.

" Fractures, caused by blows, falls, and external violence, may sometimes
be relieved by man. There are three kinds of fractures — simple, compound,
and complicated. If old horses have their limbs fractured, it is of no use to
attempt any relief. Horses with fractures, if rendered useless for work, can
be sometimes profitably used in breeding. In most cases of fracture the
animals should be killed.

"The shoeing of the horse was first introduced into England by William
the Conqueror. Shoes are necessary, and yet subject the foot to the liability
of many injuries. The removal of old shoes is a most important part of the
process of shoeing. The clinched nails should be removed with care, and
not wrenched out, as is often the manner pursued by our blacksmiths. Rasp-
ing is the next process, and removes all pieces of nails.

" Paring is a most important part of the operation, and few blacksmiths
understand how to pare out skilfully. The heel should not be much pared,
and good care should be taken of the bars. They should not be cut away,
but should be respected. The portions between should be cut out. The
frog should always be left on a level with the edge of the shoe. The selec-
tion of the shoe is also an important point, and often the foot is made to fit
the shoe instead of the shoe the foot. The shoe should be bevelled out on
the outer surface, and should fit exactly to the parts of the hoof, and for this
purpose the shoe is applied hot, to show the parts necessary to be pared off
to make it fit."

SWISS MODE OF MAKING CHEESE.

The high reputation of Swiss cheese is well known. The following is the
first of a series of articles on this subject, by Mr. C. L. Fleischraann, one of
the editors of the American Polytechnic Journal, published in that work :

'I The general mode of making cheese is nearly the same throughout
Switzerland, with the exception of the Schabzeiger. The difference in quality
and flavor of the various kinds of Swiss cheese is principally produced by the
milk used for it. They make over fat, fat, half- tat, and lean or dry cheese.
The most celebrated throughout Switzerland is the Emmerthaler. the ordi-
nary Swiss cheese, as it is brought into market, is made more or less of
skimmed milk; we must not, however, forget that the milk of the Alps is of
such a superior quality, that cheese made from skimmed milk after twelve
hours' standing, is better than in many other places made from fresh milk.
But it is an erroneous idea that the pastures of the Swiss mountams are of such
excellent and extraordinary quality that it is impossible to produce Emmer-
thaler cheese any where except in Switzerland. Swiss cheese is now made
in the south of Germany, and in some places in the north of that country,
which is equally as good as the genuine Swiss cheese. It is true that the
different kinds oPfodder and management of the cows influence the character
and pecuhatitiesof the cheese; it varies even in Switzerland according to the
locality of the mountains, and according to a higher or lower position of the
pastures.

''The following is a description of the manufacture of fat Swiss cheese,
which contains also the variations which must be observed in the manufacture
of the over-fat, lean, or dry cheese :

SWISS MODE OF MAKING CHEESE. 143

" The fresh milk, after it has been strained over a bunch of rushes, {equi-
seto palustre,) is put in the caldron, and in summer gradually heated to 90
to 100 deg. Fah. ; in cold weather the temperature is raised higher. The
Swiss dairyman ascertains the right degree of heat by immersing the upper
part of his arm into the milk. He is not always correct as to the exact
degree of temperature ; but a few degrees, more or less, does not aflfect the
quality of the cheese. It is, however, a fault to make the milk too warm,
because it causes the cheese to get hard. The milk fresh from the co\y has
the right temperature for making cheese. The richer the milk, the higher
must the temperature be raised ; for lean cheese the milk requires less heat.
For over-fat cheese, cream is added, or evening milk with its cream is mixed
with morning milk. The cream is taken from the evening milk and is heated
separately, and carefully mixed with milk already in the caldron. For half-
fat cheese, the evening milk is skimmed on the following morning, and also
the morning milk, after it has been standing for two or three hours ; both
the evening and morning skimmed milk is made into cheese. For lean
cheese, the Swiss take milk of which one half of it has been skimmed after
twelve hours', and another half of it after twenty-four hours' standing. As
soon as the milk has reached the proper degree of heat, the necessary quan-
tity of rennet is added, well mixed with the milk, and the caldron removed
from the fire and left quiet.

" The quantity of rennet depends upon its quality, as well as upon the qual-
ity of the milk, and the temperature which the latter has obtained; and it is
consequently difficult to determine the exact quantity. The richer the milk
is in cream or cheese, the greater must be the quantity of rennet ; therefore
more is required in summer than in winter ; the warmer the milk, the less
rennet is necessary. It may be that a quantity of rennet equal to the five-
hundredth or thousandth part, or thereabouts, of milk is required. Experi-
ence is the only guide in this operation. When the dairyman is not sure of
the efficiency of the rennet, he must try it in the following manner : some
milk is taken from the caldron and mixed with a few drops of rennet, and
watched if it curds within five minutes ; if it requires longer time, or it does
not coagulate at all, more rennet must be added, and continued until it is
ascertained how much is necessary. But in all cases care should be taken
that not too much rennet is employed, because the cheese obtains a bitter
taste, gets britile, and swells. It is much better to take less rennet; and
should the milk not curd within a proper time, it requires only a weak addi-
tion of rennet to efiect the perfect coagulation ; yet it must be understood
that too small a quantity of rennet does not curd the milk at all, and that in
hot weather, and especially when the atmosphere is much charged with
electricity, or at the time of a thunder-storm, the operation ought to be has-
tened, so that the milk does not get sour before the artificial separation of
the curd takes place. After ten or fifteen minutes, the milk should be per-
fectly coagulated. The Swiss, immediately after the rennet is put into the
milk, place a wooden trowel upon the surface of the milk, and after five or
six minutes the trowel is removed; and when it leaves a distinct hollow mark,
it is a sign of a perfect coagulation ; but if the milk has not coagulated after
twenty minutes' time, there must be one third or one fourth of the original
quantity of the rennet added, and the temperature of the milk raised a few
more degrees. When the milk is properly coagulated, the Swiss dairyman
describes near the rim of the caldron, with a long wooden knife, a circle, and
passes the knife down perpendicularly through the whole curd. The distance
from the rim where the circle is to be made, is about one third of the whole

144 ROOT-GRAFTING.

diameter of tlie caldron. When the curd is cut through in the manner de-
scribed, the middle portion, separated from the outer part near the sides of
the caldron, is gradually turned with a wooden trowel in such a manner that
the bottom part comes to the top. This operation, simple as it may
appear, requires much practice and a powerful arm to accomplish it ; the
object of it is to bring all impurities which settle on the bottom during the
time the coagulum forms, to the top to remove them. The curd is then care-
fully broken up, first with the curd-sword and afterwards with the trowel ; be
continues this operation with the Land, and at last uses the cheese-breaker.
This simple instrument is made of a young pine stem, on which the hmbs
are left at a convenient length, and the bark nicely taken otF. It is very
important that the curd be divided into as many particles as possible, because
the more it is broken up, the better will be the cheese ; this operation must
be continued at least for a quarter of an hour. About the time when the
cheese-breaker is to be used, the mass gets somewhat cold ; the caldron is
ao-ain placed over the fire and the breaker diligently applied, in the beginning
slow, but faster as the heat increases ; it is continued about five minutes, or
till the mass has acquired a temperature of about 100 deg. to 120 deg. Fahr.
The dairyman then continues the breaking up with the hand, to make the
division of the curd as perfect as possible.

" The increase of temperature has also the object to make the curd some-
what touffher, in order to be easier formed into a ball."

ROOT-GRAFTING.

The subject discussed in the article below is a very important one, and
few have had more experience in it than Mr. Hovey. He had elsewhere
expressed an unfavorable opinion of root-grafting, and being called upon by
Mr. Barry, of the Horticulturist, for the reasons of this opinion, he expresses
himself in his magazine as follows : i

" First, let us say a few words in regard to the means we have had of
making up our opinion. In 1840 we commenced purchasing apple trees,
with a view to forming a collection of every variety in the country. We
continued to buy, and are still buying when we can get a new kind, and we
now have in bearing upwards of one hundred sorts, and about two hundred
more which, to use a common phrase, promise well. We had trees from
various parts of Western New-York and Ohio ; nearly all of them were root-
grafted ; the others, from our own State and from New- Jersey, were stock-
budded or grafted, but mostly budded, and they now form our finest trees ;
but of the Western ones, about one half of them look, to this day, in poor
condition, not yet able to stand up straight without a stake, and if that is
taken away, some of thera will fall over almost of their own weight. Buds
taken from trees the first year after receiving them, and put into good stocks,
are three times as large in five yeai-s. In fact, some of the former have come
to a stand-still, and are not worth transferring from the nursery row where
they were put when first received, to gain strength. These are facts which
any one who will take the pains to look can see at any time.

" The explanation we take to be this — that many kinds of apples arc
naturally weak or slender growers ; they are root-grafted, and, when trans-
ferred to their own roots, which they will be in a year or two, they still
remain weak. Mr. Barry knows the theory of this very well. How long is

ROOT-GRAFTING. 14S

it since he found out the value of a new fasti giate or upright quince, which
was to make the best stock in the world for the pear ? it grew so rapidly,
propagated so readily, &c. "Why the best stock ? Because, as he said, it
imparted v\gox to the scion. Mr. Barry knows that cultivators always take
thrifty-growing camellias for cuttings on which to march or graft the weaker
ones ; root-grafted would be no better than cuttings, as the plants would soon
establish themselves. Some azaleas, like Indica variegata, are hard to keep
alive on their own roots, but grafted in the Pkoenicea, they thrive almost as
well as the stock. The practice of making standard trees of small shrubs is
on the same principle. A root-graft of a weeping elm would never make a
good tree ; but a stock graft soon produces one. The explanation is so simple
that we are surprised at the question. The R. I. Greening and Roxbury
Russet are slow-growing, low-headed trees — hence they do not do well root-
grafted. The Baldwin, on the contrary, is a very rapid grower, and soon
establishes itself, and grows away rapidly enough. There is in all seedlings
an inherent vigor which many hybrid or choice varieties do not possess.
This may be seen wherever seedlings of any kind are grown. The plant once
established, and then budded or grafted, receives no check. Root-grafting,
by taking the whole of the root, is nothing more than stock-grafting at the
surface of the ground, and Mr. B. don't certainly intend to call it by any
other name. What is meant and what is practised by every body is, to take
a root of a seedling and cut it into pieces, four or six inches long, which are
then whip-grafted ; or pieces of roots of old trees are just as good. It is done
to save time and expense. To take up a whole root, then graft it, and set it
out again, would be the most expensive way of getting a tree, for nothing
would be gained and much lost, as there would be the cost of resetting and
the loss of time in reestablishing the plant.

Our theory, therefore, is, that a great many varieties of apples, as well as
other fruits, are so different in habit from the original species, that they do not
grow freely on their own roots ; and that root-grafting, from not impartino- a
growth to the young scion, induces a weakness in the young tree, from which
it will not quickly recover ; just as a tree grown on a poor and stinted soil
makes its first sap-vessels so small and contracted that no after-treatment will
enable it to acquire a vigorous condition.

Such is our explanation of the superiority of stock-budded or grafted trees •
and whether our theory is the correct one or not, of the facts there is no
doubt. If we are wrong, it will give us pleasure to be set right. Our friend
Barry is " very confident " we don't speak from experience. If he means by
this that we have not root-grafted one apple tree to his thousand, he is quite
right. We own up. But if he means experience in observing the effects of
his own root-grafted trees, as well as those of other cultivators, we " are very
confident '' he is entirely mistaken.

We will mention one particular case. We had some [melon apple trees
of Messrs. Elwanger & Barry, in the spring of 1849 or '50. When we
received them, we cut off a few scions. The trees were set out carefully, in a
good situation, and the scions were grafted into stocks set in the nursery
rows one year. The latter are now more than twice as large as the former,
with the promise of being ten times as large in two years more.

What Mr. Barry says about the Western nurserymen using "spongy,
pithy wood " for scions, and " abusing root-grafting," we shall turn over to
our agreeable friend. Dr. Warder, the champion of all clever fellows."

VOL. VI.— PAKT III. 10

146 BREEDING STOCK.

BREEDING STOCK.

This subject is less understood by the people of this country, or indeed of
any country, than is almost any other which falls under their daily observa-
tion. Few have taken the pains to examine it, and of those, still fewer have
understood the proper mode of arriving at satisfactory results. We find the
following in the American Veterinary Journal, and commend it to the
notice of all interested in the subject :

ON AN INFLUENCE AFFECTING THE PURITY OF BLOOD IN STOCK.

The breeding and rearing of stock, especially animals of high and pure
blood, is daily attracting an increased attention from the scientific and enlight-
ened aoriculturist ; and when the farmer succeeds in obtaining animals pos-
sessing the qualities sought for, there is no branch of his business that j)ays
more generously in dollars and cents than this ; but so many failures are
met with, and so many are disappointed in the progeny of animals of even
the purest and most renowned pedigree, that even among the enlightened, it
is not seldom that we hear the advantages of hlood questioned, if not denied;
and it is more than intimated that animals possessing superior qualities owe
their excellence mainly to the care that has been bestowed upon them in
rec^ard to their feed, &c. In regard to other departments of agriculture,
similar discrepancies of opinion do not obtain ; and it would seem of import-
ance to determine why this difference of opinion in this regard.

All are accustomed to rely upon experience, and it must be allowed that
in this matter, many who have been to considerable trouble and expense in
their endeavor to improve their stock of horses, cattle, or sheep, by breeding
from animals of the improved breeds, have experienced a grievous disappoint-
ment, in not finding the young to resemble the sire or the dam, as the case
may be, as closely as they had hoped ; and without being able to account
for this fact, in accordance with any laws that are known to them, and only
knowing that they have failed of the expected improvement in their animals,
they have naturally come to deny, or at least to doubt, what others have told
them. This has been one,' and perhaps the main reason why so little atten-
tion has been paid by the majority of farmers to the introduction of imported
and other improved races of animals.

But the English agriculturists seem to understand the causes of these
failures, and, of course, how to avoid them ; and it would be well if this
information were more generally disseminated in this country.

The reason is this : The mother^s system is influenced and changed hy the
young she carries in her womb ; and if the male parent he of a different breed,
her blood is contaminated, and she rendered similar to a mongrel for the
remainder of her life.

This assertion may startle many who have given the subject no thought ;
but it is believed that no physiological fact is better established, or more
susceptible of proof, than this ; and, as proof, I shall cite a few instances that
have been noticed by Dr. A. Harvey, physician to the Aberdeen Royal In-
firmary. He speaks of a young chestnut mare, seven eighths Arabian, that
belonged to the Earl of Moreton, which was covered in 1815 by a quagga,
which is a species of wild ass from Africa, and marked somewhat after the
manner of the zebra. The mare was covered but once by the quagga, and
after a pregnancy of eleven months and four days, gave birth to a hybrid

BREEDING STOCK. 147

which had distinct marks of the quagga, in the shape of its head, black bars
on the legs, shoulders, <fec. In 181Y, '18, and '21, the same mare (which
had, in the meantime, passed into the possession of Sir Gore Ousely) was
covered by a very fine black Arabian horse, and produced, successively, three
foals, all of which bore unequivocal marks of the quagga.

Another case, similar to the above, is mentioned. A mare belonging t
Sir Gore Ousely was covered by a zebra, and gave birth to a striped hybrid.
The next year this mare was covered by a thorough-bred horse, and the next
succeeding year by another horse. In this instance, also, both the foals were
striped, and in other regards partook of the characteristics of the zebra. It
is a matter of common observation, that when a mare has borne a mule, she
is never after fit to breed colts, as they will have large heads and otherwise
resemble mules.

In the above-mentioned instances the mares were covered by animals, in
the first instance, of a different species from themselves; but others are
recorded, where they had bred only from horses, but by horses of different
breeds on the separate occasions ; and yet the offspring partook of the cha-
racteristics of the horse by which i\\Q first impregnation was effected.

Mr. M'Gillivray, in an article published in the Aberdeen Journal, speaks of
several colts in the royal stud at Hampton Court, that were sired by the
horse Actceon, that did not resemble Actoeon, the paternal parent of the foals,
but did bear a near resemblance to the horse Colonel, from whom the mares
had brought colts the year previous to their being covered by the horse
Actceon ; again, of a colt, the property of the Earl of Suffield, which was got
by the ho\&Q Laurel, that it was strongly intimated by the jockeys at New-
market, that he must have been got by the horse Camel. This resemblance
was, however, satisfactorily accounted for, by the fact that the mare had been
previously impregnated by Camel.

Many instances of a similar character are recorded in regard to dogs : in
fact, the breeders of dogs all seem well aware, if the bitch has been im-
pregnated by a mongrel dog, that even if the father of her next litter is of
pure blood, the puppies will be liable to be mongrels.

Similar instances have also been observed in regard to swine, and the
breedei-s of cattle have recorded similar facts. Mr. M'Gillivray mentions sev-
eral instances, and among them the following : "A pure Aberdeenshire
heifer was served with a pure Teeswater bull, to whom she had a first-cross
calf. The following season the same cow was served with a pure Aberdeen-
shire bull ; the produce was a cross calf, which, at two years old, had very
long horns, the parents both hornless. A pure Aberdeenshire cow was
served in 1845 with a cross-bull, i. e., an animal produced between a first-cross
cow and a pure Teeswater bull. To this bull she had a cross-calf. Next
season she was served with a pure Aberdeenshire bull ; the calf was quite
a cross in shape and color."

After citing other examples with a similar result. Mr. M'Gillivray says,
" Many more instances might be cited, did time permit. Among cattle and
horses they are of every-day occurrence.^''

Dr. Harvey also records many instances of similar results as having
occurred in the human family ; but it is not thought best to include them in
this paper. This mode of impairing the purity of the blood of animals has
been styled crossing the system of the mother ; and it is supposed that the
reason why so many inferior animals are to be met with, the progeny of
parents of pure lineage, is almost wholly owing to the blood of the mother
having been previously contaminated by the cross-bred young she has carried.

14S ROTATION EXHAUSTING CROPS, &C.

Of the modus operandi of this contamination, there is no explanation given
which is generally satisfactory ; but it seems probable to the writer of this,
that, inasmuch as the same blood must circulate through the veins of both
mother and offspring, the system of the dam becomes thus modified, and ren-
dered in a greater or less degree similar to her mongrel young.

ROTATION— EXHAUSTING CROPS, &c.

In our August number we took occasion to refer to this subject, but we
now purpose to suggest a few things which we there omitted. While there
is no such thing as pood farming that does not include a judicious and
thorough system of manuring, he is a ^ooc?/arm^r who does his best with the
means at his command. If his supply of manure is but half what it ought
to be, it may be that he deserves great commendation for his skill in turning
to the best account what he has. Still, his system is not good in itself, it is
only the best that his circumstances will permit him to adopt.

Good farming requires that crops be well adapted to the nature of the
soil. It also has a tendency to produce similar conditions in all soils ; that
is, the compact clay should be converted into a good soil by the mingling
of other elements, perhaps of inferior value by themselves, while sandy soils
should be solidified and strengthened by the addition of clay, &c. We do
not specify here the means of doing this, as our purpose lies in another
direction. We would simply affirm, that by means of the compost-heap,
or some other agency more desirable, the light and the heavy, the wet and
the dry, the cold and the warm, should be made to assimilate more nearly.
There is a proportion among the elements of a soil that is best adapted to
each crop, and though this is not the same for all the products of the farm,
there is a limit to their differences. The planets do not all revolve in the
same plane, but the orbits of all are within a few degrees of the equator.
Such should be the unity of character in all soils. The analyses of the
various crops, presenting a general resemblance, with specific differences,
both illustrate and enforce our position.

Good farming, scientific farming, does not forbid the laborer to pay regard
to the comparative facility of culture with which the different crops may be
raised in his diversified soils. A pasture which has remained a long time
untilled cannot be placed at once in a suitable condition for a strawberry
bed. The sods will not yield thus readily to the plough, the hoe, or the
harrow. They may be removed, and the soil be deprived of their valuable
elements ; but this may not be desirable. Some crops, admitting a ruder
style of culture, will be, of course, better fitted for it, while no law forbids it.

" Exhausting crops" are obviously suited to vigorous soils. The rich and
new lands of the West are capable of producing the most abundant harvests
without apparent detrimQnt. But even in Ohio, so recently settled, we now
see that those exhausting processes which have proved so destructive to the
lands of the older States retain the same characteristics when transferred to
other and distant regions.

But what are exhausting crops ? This is a relative term, and is used in
several senses.^ First, it is applied to those crops which contain the greatest
amount of mineral or inorganic elements. Such elements are drawn ex-
clusively from the soil, while the organic or gaseous elements are obtained

ROTATION EXHAUSTING CROPS, &C. 149

from the atmosphere. Those plants, of course, which contain the greatest
amount of mineral matter, as lime, and soda, and silex, &c., are the most
exhausting. They use up the available elements of a soil most rapidlj', and
it then becomes barren. It may be, however, that those elements which
compose the chief part of a given crop are the very elements which the
soil has in excess. In such case, that crop does not exhaust the soil ; for it
has still all necessary elements, and in due proportion ; and in such case,
that crop is not an exhausting, but a fallow crop — a resting crop^ The
soil is as able to bear wheat and corn, &c., as it was before. Thus silicious
plants may be cultivated successive years on silicious soils without injury
to them.

These suggestions present to us a second application of the term " exhaust-
ing," or its opposite, fallow, or non-exhausting ; those crops being termed
*' exhausting" which use up particular elements, leaving the soil destitute of
them, and of course barren ; while they are termed " fallow crops," if they
use freely those elements only which are in excess.

Again, certain growths act the part of cultivators, and hence are " fallow
crops." Thus, clover, lucerne, &c., under favorable circumstances, send down
their roots to a great depth below the surface, and draw up nutriment which
most crops could not reach. This nutriment, in part at least, if? expended in the
growth of the root nearer the surface, and these roots are afterwards left to
decompose and improve the superficial soil where they are accessible to the
short roots of the cereals. They also improve the soil by making it more
porous, forming channels through which moisture is drawn up from below
in time of drought. Hence these crops also are termed "fallow." They
bring to the surface substantial nutriment for the succeeding crop, while they
tax but lightly the superficial soil for their own growth.

This view sufficiently illustrates the nature of fallow crops ; and the great
practical inquiry of the farmer is. What are properly called '■'■fallow crops?''''
Nor is the inquiry easily or concisely to be answered ; for, as shown in the
preceding remarks, the answer is essentially dependent on the condition of
the soil. If lime is in excess, plants which abound in lime will not exhaust.
If silex is in excess, plants which only absorb silex freely will not exhaust.
Again, peas require but little silex, hence they will not exhaust a soil, though
nut eminently silicious ; but they do require potash, magnesia, and_ phosphoric
acid, and hence these must be found in the soil or be suppHed in manures,
or more or less exhaustion must ensue.

Beans consume little except the alkalies and phosphoric acid. Potatoes
exhaust, by their tubers, the potash, and by their stalks, the lime of the soil.
Turnips abound in potash, beets in potash and soda, carrots and pai-sneps in
potash and in lime. Hence it is that wood-ashes are so serviceable to these
crops ; and hence also these crops are not exhausting where these elements are
abundant. Otherwise, they are exhausting. Buckwheat will grow on soils
capable of producing but very little of other crops. It contains but about
four per cent, of mineral matter, and nearly half of this is lime. Its roots
too penetrate the soil deeply. The straw is of some value as fodder or as
litter ; and if ploughed into the soil in a green or dry state, it improves its
physical condition by its supply of vegetihle humus.

Buckwheat is also peculiarly serviceable as a green crop to be ploughed
in, on account of its rapid growth. It can be planted and ploughed in three
times in a single season, and thus be made to impart a large quantity of
vegetable matter to the soil.

In this connection it occurs to us to observe that all the necessary elements

150 THE ROLLER AND ITS ADVANTAGES.

may exist in a soil, but that soil still be barren. For example : the soil may-
be hard and impervious to the root, or those elements may not be in a solu-
ble form. Magnesian limesLone, for instance, may abound in it, while so
combined in the rock as to be insoluble by the water or acids in the soil, and
entirely beyond the influence of all the vital forces of the plant, and the
crop may fail for want of magnesia. The growth of a ftillow crop is import-
ant in such cases to give opportunity for these necessary changes to be
wrouo-ht out by natural agencies. The processes of disintegration, solution,
&c., are constantly going on in all soils, and time alone would render some
fields fertile that are now barren. Fallow crops furnish the time which
nature requires, though at the same time the farmer avails himself of what
is even now at his disposal. But he may also expedite these processes by
the use of lime or other substance suited to hasten the chemical action that
must be secured ere the soil becomes fertile.

The view we have here presented shows very clearly why clay soils are
not suited to the growth of the cereals. They demand a large proportion of
silex, and clay contains none. But if those clays are calcareous, they will
produce large crops of clover, or of ruta-bagas, &c. These points present
themselves to us whenever we are called upon to adapt our crops to our
soils, or to apply manures.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

THE ROLLER AND ITS ADVANTAGES.

There is no agricultural implement so seldom met with in this country,
perhaps, as the roller, and yet it is one of the most useful of utensils.
Where your ground is soft and loamy, if you have not time to pick up the
stones upon it, you can roll them in, and produce, at little expense, a smooth
and clean surface, rendering your fields free from small hummocks, and fitting
them for ploughing and mowing. And it has been mentioned by some that the
roller is a useful implement upon ground in which the frost has heaved out
the grass and clover roots. It may possess an advantage in this respect, and
no doubt would be a fine thing to level and press down damp land where
clover is sown, and would be likely to heave.

The roller which I would recommend for general use, and one which we
have used with great advantage, is made with two separate rollers, each one
being four or four and a half feet in length, with strong iron bands around
their ends to prevent splitting, and a good wooden or iron shaft running
directly through them, to which is attached the frame work, &c. The rollers
can be made out of large hollow elm logs, or of separate pieces put together.
A gooil, straight, hollow log is, however, preferable, particularly if the outside
of it is sound. You can work it down to your liking, and put strong cross-
arms in the ends of the rollers, through the centres of which the shaft should
run. Some farmers, I believe, use iron rollers, but probably on the whole
wooden ones are better, as they can be made large without incurring much
expense.

The roller is an admirable implement to pass over barley ground after
harrowing it, or even after you have drilled in the barley ; for when the
grain ripens, if you do not care to cradle it, or even if you do, you possess
the advantage of cutting it low to the ground, and in this way secure a
greater amount of straw, not to mention the clean rface which close mow-
/

HORTICULTURAL. 151

ing raakes, thus leaving your barley lot in the finest condition to plough.
We invariably roll our barley ground ; we think it pays in three or four
ways : first, the small stones are rolled into the ground out of the way, so
that they will not dull scythes ; second, you can rake up your barley with a
horse-rake, and not run the risk of collecting stones in the winrows to be
ultimately threshed ; third, you create a smooth surface either for ploughing
or mowing; and fourth, you get more straw, and make your work look
better where the field is rolled than where it is not.

I therefore recommend double rollers. Roll down your grass and barley
and wheat lands ; save money and labor in picking up stones ; and, in a
word, make your lots appear smooth and handsome by using an implement
which is both cheap and simple. W. Tappan.

Baldwinsville, N. Y., August, 1853.

HORTICULTURAL.

Fuchsia. — This is a beautiful genus, and contains a great number of
species and varieties which well repay the labor of cultivation. It flowers
profusely, and remains a long while in bloom. It is also of easy culture.
Large, well-formed specimens are more easily grown from cuttings than
from old plants. These come in very useful for autumn flowering ; but the
symmetrical form, luxuriant foliage, and increased display of blossoms which
young plants furnish when properly managed, can hardly be expected from
old plants.

The same principles apply to the growth of this as of other plants which
are propagated by cuttings. Young wood should be chosen, and these should
be set in a light sandy soil, and placed where they are sheltered from the
sun. The moist atmosphere secured by covering them with a bell-glass
greatly promotes their successful growth. It also tends to check a too-hasty
bloom. A temperature of 45° to 55° is best for them. With this and a
free supply of water, and a liberal amount of pot-room, they seldom disap-
point the grower. Where a sufficient number can be obtained, select the
most vigorous growths, and throw away the rest. Replant these in a pot of
12 or 15 inches, syringe the tops frequently, keep free from insects, and
occasionally supply the roots with manure-lye, and your plants will thrive and
grov*^ till they acquire a size and vigor and beauty never witnessed by those
who bestow no care upon them. When the plants are repotted, give them
a soil composed of sandy loam and peat, with some leaf-mould and well-
rotted dung.

The top will require cutting. A pyramidal form is the best f6r display,
and most in accordance with the natural habit of the plant. We have seen
them ten feet high. Support the more vigorous branches with strips of
matting, if necessary.

In the fall, cut down closely, repot in sandy soil in a smaller pot, place in
a dry situation, and protect from frost and from the sun.

Kalmia Latifolia — Mountain Laurel. — The few attempts that we
have seen to cultivate this splendid shrub, the most beautiful in our Northern
woods, have been so unsuccessful, when the flower is compared with that of
the shrub in its native soil, that we scarcely know whether to commend the
attempt to others. In June and July it is the king among all our indigenous
shrubs.

152

EXPERIMENT IN FEEDING PICS.

We have often seen it grow beyond our reach. The flowers form large
corymbs, with a variety of hues, white, pink, deep red, &c., all intermingled
sometimes in the same cluster.

The natural soil for the laurel is a loose, light sand, mingled with a little
leaf-mould or peat. It should be partially shaded, and have a northern
exposure, on a side hill, if practicable.

The shrub may be transplanted in the ordinary way. October, in the fall,
and March and April, in the spring, in the Eastern States, are the proper
times for this work.

EXPERIMENTS IN" FEEDING PIGS.

We find an account of some experiments on the feeding of pigs, in the
Irish Farmers' Gazette, which bear upon them the impress of accuracy and
of judgment. It is not every man who is competent to commence and carry
out experiments for elucidation of a given topic. Some important points are
suffered to pass unnoticed, and the reader is left in almost as much doubt
upon the subject as he was before. And although in these experiments
nothing is said of the degree of restraint imposed upon either lot ; whether
they were shut up in sties or suffered to roam at pleasure ; we are bound to
infer, no doubt, that their treatment in this respect was the same, whatever
that might be. This is suBBcient for the object the experimenter had in view,
to M it : the comparative value of these two kinds of feed, raw and cooked.
\^ e want, however, one more, to wit: whether the smaller amount of the
steamed or cooked turnips would not have resulted in nearly the same amount
of fat as the larger. We do not believe that the amount of accumulation is
in exact proportion to the amount eaten. Hence, if the steamed food had
been fed in the same quantities as the raw, it might appear that the accu-
mulation of fat would be nearly the same as with the larger amount actually
given.

Experiment made at Glencairn.

Eight pigs were selected and divided into two lots, as evenly as could be,
and put in to fatten on the 27th November, 1852.

6

•^

1

1

2

3

4

2

1

o

3

4

How Fed.

Fedtliree times a day, and
Consumed daily 2 cwt.
2 qrs. of steamed Swede
luruips, mixed with 12
lbs. bf bran and barley
meiil.

Fed three times aday,and
consumed daily Icwt.
1 qr. of pulped Swede
turnips, mixed with J2
lbs. of bran and barley
meal.

W^eight
on

Nov. SiTth,
1852.

cwt.qr.lbs.
1 3 II
1 3 17
1 3 25
1 2 18

1

1 3 4

1 3 IC

1 3 0

1 2 16

0

Weight

on
Jan. 4th,

1853,
when sold.

Increase

of each

pig in

39 days.

cwt.qr.lbs. cwt.qr.lbs.

1 3 2ll 0 0 21

2 0 14| 0 0 25
2 I 0 0 1 13
1 3 16 0 0 26

0 23 0 3 19

2 0 4 0 10

2 0 16 0 1 0

2 0 21 0 1 2

1 3 12 0 0 24

8 0 6 0 3 26

Quantity of
cooked and
raw turnips

used by

each lot in

39 days.

cwt. qr. lbs.

97

Quanlicy

of braa

and barley

meal used

by each

lot.

cwt.qr.lbs.

0 20

Quantity

of coal

used for

steaming.

cwt.qr.lbs.

SAVING ON LOT 2 IN COMPARISON WITH LOT 1.

Turnips, ........

Coal, .........

Difference of increase of weight of pigs,

cwt.

qr.

lb.

48

3

9

20

0

0

0

0

7

TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS. 153

Besides the difference of labor, a quarter of an hour three times a week being
sufficient for a boy and girl to grate and mix the raw food. Both lots were
sold together on the 4th of January, for the sum of £25 10s.
^ The turnips for lot 2 were pulped and mixed with bran and meal three
tmies a week, and put into tubs. In three or four days, the food, having
become warm by fermentation, was used.

Each tub had an orifice near the bottom, to allow the liquor to escape into
ti-oughs, which otherwise was found to check the fermentation. The liquor
received by the troughs was given to young pigs.

The quantity of coal consumed in steaming for lot 1 may be thought ex-
cessive ; however, such was the quantity actually used, although, doubtless,
twice the quantity of food might have been steamed with less than twice the
quantity of fuel.

PLOUGHING IN GREEN CROPS.

One of the mistakes of those who imagine that they are carrying out the
doctrines of an improved system of farming, is forcibly stated in the follow-
ing paragraph from a writer in the Genesee Farmer :

I am becoming every day more satisfied that the science of farming must
look " upwards ;" that the air we breathe is the great fountain that sustains
animal as well as vegetable life ; and that the great primitive source of all
the richness in our soil is from the air. Nothing is destroyed. No sooner
does the animal and vegetable die, than it commences its round of change
until it returns to its original elements, and is prepared to be remodelled into
new animals and vegetables. Let man do his worst, and he cannot destroy
one jot or tittle of substance ; neither can he impoverish the earth so that skilful
agriculture cannot restore it. My neighbor, an intelligent man, has collected
all the barn-yard manure he could buy, and has mingled with it caustic lime,
and has made an immense heap, which is now a perfect crater almost on fire!
Think you, if he could see the wheat, corn, and grass, that is continually
ascending from that heap, he would continue the fire? Far from it. He
can smell at a great distance the ammonia and enriching gases arisino-, of
course. Now, if, as I have said, we could see the enriching gases arise,'and
knew their value, the world would have been convinced long ago ; for " to
see is to believe."

Well, I hear you say, what a destruction ! Not so ; not a particle is
destroyed ; it floats off in the air over your farm, and any farm, ready to be
brought into the harness by the skilful farmer, who has his clover and other
ammonia-absorbing plants in his broad fields ready to catch and devour it.
I hold that air above is and has been fur all time charged with all the organic
properties of plants, and that it is a fountain that will never fail, ever ready
to respond to the demands of science. Yet we must, of course, properly
cultivate the soil. I believe fully in TuU's theory. If I had the ineans of
retaining all the ammonia and visible nourishment for plants that is foolishly
expelled from my neighbor's farm, I am satisfied that I should have the
lion s share.

TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS.
This important subject is ably treated by the Mark Lane Express, whose
opinions we endorse to the>?^. The abuses to which such lands are subject
m Jingland are alike common in this country, and the cure for them is sub-
stantially the same :

154 TREATMENT OF GRASS LANDS.

The majority of parties who take the utmost pains with their tillage,
seem to think that their grass is a different matter, and that it may very
well take care of itself. Nor is it often better treated when fii-st laid down.
Land is by far too frequently first cropped as long as it will produce seed
again, and then laid down to become permanent pasture. Great credit is
taken if the land is made summer-fallow before the close of the corn-crop-
ping; but too often a fallow crop is also taken, to protect the seeds, for fear
they should grow too luxuriantly.

Others take greater care. They grow no crop of corn ; they pay a high
price for well-selected and carefully-grown grass seeds, and possibly they
sow the land in fine mechanical condition ; still they are sometimes disap-
pointed, and blame the seedsman if they do not find his finer grasses grow
as plentifully or luxuriantly as they could wish. The fact is, the wonder
ought to be that any should grow at all.

Sometimes grass land is taken out to improve and lay down again to
pasture. But the process adopted is one of depletion, and not of nutrition.
They crop away with corn so long as crops are obtainable, and then take
great credit if the land gets a dose of lime when it is laid down to grass.
And often the grass, after the improvement, is worse than that which pre-
ceded, carries less stock, and maintains them in a manner far inferior to
what it did before.

The old grass land of the farm is seldom acted fairly by. It must give
up all, and receive nothing in return. If it is mown, a little rotten chaff, or
waste scrapings, is a liberal allowance. If not, it is considered that no
manure is necessary. Though milking cattle and store stock are depastured
upon it, and carry all off year after year, no addition of manure of any value
is made to the soil for this serious abstraction. In rich alluvial feeding pas-
tures it is unnecessary ; but where store cattle of any kind are depastured,
the land must inevitably deteriorate.

To begin with the beginning, land to lay down with grass should be as
carefully prepared as for any other green crop ; the one being permanent,
however, and the other only temporary, the greater care should be taken of the
preparation, this being of more consequence than seeds. There are always
natural grass seeds in every soil, lying ready for germination as soon as the
manurial or feeding elements of the soil are ready for their development.
On this principle it is that a dressing of mountain Hme will bring into action
seeds of white clover where a white clover plant was never known to have
existed before. So on a very rich stubble, on almost any soil, there will be
found the finest grasses growing in rich luxuriance, after the corn crop is
taken oflF, without a single seed being sown. In like manner, one year will
bring a vast smother of trefoil on land where none was ever sown.

Hence, to be rich — to have abundance of phosphoric acid in a free
state — to have a full supply of ammoniacal matter, are of more importance
than being particular to a shade in the selection of grasses. It is only
a question of time. If the land be rich and fertile, there will be found a
growth of the finest grasses which are adapted to the soil, and these will
soon eat out those which are poorer and less suitable.

So, in improving a pasture, it is not always necessary to take it out into
tillage. If hide-bound, a good heavy loaming, a few fresh seeds, and a
compost dressing will soon recover it. If mossy, the moss will soon dis-
appear before good cultivation. It is nature's covering for land too poor to
grow grass; and on stone walls, rocks, and similar places, the moss appears
for simply the same reason — it is a covering preparatory to the production of
more nutrient material.

FARM AND GARDEN WORK FOR SEPTEMBER. 155

Rushes and similar plants, due to the prevalence of stagnant water, are
to be disposed of in another way, namely, by proper and efficient drainage.

But a ready mode of transferring pasture from one field to another has
been adopted, and not without success. A field properly levelled and pre-
pared has had a cover of turf or sods, pared some two and a half inches thick,
and so placed upon it, at a cost not exceeding fifty shillings per acre, includ-
ing cartage ; this haS been slightly manured and well rolled — an advantage
to the turf, and a rapid accession of permanent grass pasture to the arable.
This is a mode far preferable to that of inoculation. Grass will be had at a much
earlier period, and, if well followed up by dressings of manure, it will soon
become a pasture as permanent in appearance as if it had been lying in that
state for ages. In fact, it will have acquired the age of its surface.

For grass land it is not always necessary to apply farm-yard manure.
Guano will have the most powerful and speedy effects on a pasture if applied
before rain. If that does not pretty rapidly follow, there will be great loss
by the application. Bones produce a wonderful effect on the Cheshire
pastures, denuded of their phosphorus by the cheese sold away from the farms,
which it so supplies ; but the majority of clay grass lands will require the
bones to be dissolved before any very striking effect can be produced. The
light grass land— the greatest difficulty of all, which the Scotchman would say
ought always to be converted into arable, and only allowed to lie down for
two or three years — may be dressed with a compost of clay and dissolved
bones with the greatest advantage. If the house bones of most of our farm-
ers were from time to time to be put in an earthenware jar half full of sul-
phuric acid, and this poured from time to time on a heap of clay, a vast
quantity of the most valuable manure would be made from materials at
present wasted.

FARM AND GARDEN WORK FOR SEPTEMBER.

Be prompt in sowing winter grains, so that the roots shall be well set
before the frost. Gather your crops according to their condition. Bud
your trees, if you select the fall for this service.

Ploughing should also be attended to in this and the following month, so
as to bring the substance of the soil into contact with the chemical agencies
that may improve it, and to place it more thoroughly within the power of
the frost of winter and subsequent thawing, to pulverize and disintegrate it.

Sandy soils should be ploughed in in the fall ; but ere this work is done,
do not omit to spread upon it the clay mixtures spoken of last month.

Select your earliest and best ears of corn for seed for the next year.

Horticultural. — This is the time for preparing your beds for bulbous
roots. The crocus, hyacinth, fritellaria, and other bulbs, may be set out in
beds deeply cultivated, and well mingled with the requisite fertilizers. They
need a light, rich loam.

Secure your dahlias with proper stakes, to defend them'from being broken
by the winds. When the flowers are faded, select only the choice specimens
for seed, which may be planted in boxes and kept in the house till spring.
Reset your strawberry beds, giving ample room to each root. Lift your wall-
flowers and stocks, and set them in five or seven-inch pots.

156 PRICKING HORSES.

MULES vs. HORSES.

We find that our opinion on this subject, as expressed in more than one
of our recent numbers, is becoming the opinion of many intelligent agricul-
turists, who have been convinced, by their own experience or observation, of
the superiority of mules, so far as economy is concerned. An estimate has
recently been made by a writer in the Southern Planter^ who supposes that
each costs the same price originally, and the saving being in the feed exclu-
sively, as follows :

Ten horses will consume each 12 bbls. of corn per annum, say
for twenty years, which is equal to 2,400 bbls., worth, on an
average, 12.50 per barrel, $6,000

Shoeing ten horses will cost |30 per annum, ($3 each, or more,

which we have to pay,) say for twenty years, - - - 600

Cost of feeding on corn and shoeing ten horses for twenty years, |6,600

Ten mules will consume each 6 bbls. of corn per annum, say
for twenty years, which is equal to 1,200 bbls,, worth, on an
average, 2,50 per barrel — no expense of shoeing^ - - $3,000

Amount saved in twenty years by mules, - . - - $3,600

According to this estimate we save $3,600 in twenty years, or about $200
per annum, by having mules instead of horses ; but this sum can be fairly
augmented to upwards of $4,000, by taking into the calculation the greater
longevity and exemption from diseases of the mule, which items are not set
down in the above statement. If so, at the end of the twenty years, how
will the matter stand ? In all probability, the horses will all, or nearly all,
be dead, while all, or nearly all, the mules will be living, and be good for
service some five or ten years longer.

Mules have commanded a high price on account of their scarcity. Hence
the breeding of mules would be a source of considerable profit, as they can
be raised for a mere trifle, and come into working condition at an early age.
The writer already referred to is of opinion that the mule can do as much
and as efficient work as the horse, especially if the mule have size and weight,
^hich should be the case. Three good mules will draw a three-horse plough,
and do as good work as three horses ; and in the heat of summer fallow,
which is fatal to so many horses, you never hear of any injury to the mule.

PRICKING HORSES,

This is a process which we always regard with aversion, and wish it might
never be practised. Still it is infinitely better than docking, which is positively
inhuman. We would leave the tail as nature leaves it; thinking not only
that the comfort of the horse is thereby promoted, but also his appearance.
But if the former practice is to prevail, the following suggestions by Mr.
S. W. Jewett, of Vermont, are appropriate. He says :

" There are four cords, or tendons, in the tail of the horse. The two
upper ones are used to raise it, and the lower ones to depress it. When the
tail is raised, the muscles of the under cords are relaxed, and the muscles of

THE SCIENCE OF STORMS. 157

the upper ones at the same time contracted. The lower ones only are to
be cut in setting up the tail ; and sometimes the pulley will give a good set
to the tail when it follows docking alone.

The severing of the under cords, near the body, leaves the muscles of
elevation to act unopposed, and the setting up of a good tail is secured. Short-
tailed carriage-horses are very fashionable in the Eastern cities. They are
often preferred for safety and convenience, as well as gayety and good ap-
pearance.

Many horses, after pricking, carry very poorly; indeed, it would have
been better if nothing had been done. The fault, I think, is the manner in
which the operation is performed. The operator generally makes two, and
sometimes three incisions on each side of the tail. That is wrong ; there
should be one and only one cut on each side, and that at the point where the
turn or elevation is to commence, which is usually about two inches from the
body. If you cut the same cord twice, the separated part is very liable to
drop down by its own weight and the natural attraction towards the body,
uniting again at the lower incision without extension; consequently, the
lower cut has been of no service, as no curve is, at this point, realized, but
at the farther end of the tendon, which, in heahng, may be extended, in
order to unite with the upper and separate part; and by this double cut a
handsome curve is defeated.

The more times the cords and tail are cut, the greater chance for inflam-
mation, and the losing of the hair. Therefore the one cut of the tendon, on
each side, has much the advantage, by healing in half the time, and a greater
certainty of carrying well."

THE SCIENCE OF STORMS— THE STORM OF JULY 1st.

Aerology is a great science, if estimated by its importance; but if by the
actual knowledge of it which we have, it belongs side by side with astrology
and animal magnetism. Messrs. Redlield & Company will differ from us
on this point, but we are sure this difference between us is scarcelv greater
than the differences among themselves. Hence we are safe in our'position.
When doctors disagree, other men cannot really be supposed to know any
thing.

Certain facts, however, are well established. The differences alluded to
arise from the question, whether the acknowledged facts are enough to
form the basis of a scientific principle. Many storms are whirlwinds, the
plane of their motion being either horizontal or vertical. In some respects, all
winds must be whirlwinds, since they must at last return to the place whence
they came, or they would produce a vacuum. In reducing these matters of
detail to system, Messrs. Redfield and Espy, two leading writers, come to
very opposite conclusions, and by very different processes.

We have stated that certain facts are well established. For example: the
great and sudden changes of? temperature which produce hail storms like
that of July 1st in New- York, &c., are an established fact ; but what pro-
duced this marvellous change? The chemistry of it is not certain. Again,
the violence of the storm was within very narrow limits. What is the explana-
tion ? We have surveyed the track of a tornado, where every thing was
prostrated at a given place, when, within five rods, every thing was unharmed.

But this science is in a state of progress, so far as practical matters are

158 THE SCIENCE OF STORMS.

concerned, and we may lay before our readers, in subsequent numbers, some
things of interest in that connection.

Our present business, however, is to give our readers a sort of abstract of
a valuable scientific paper read by Professor Loomis, of New-York University,
before the Scientific Convention now in session in Ohio, in reference to the
tornado of July 1st, 1853 :

After giving a long account of the storm and its results, he proceeds to
inquire :

" What was the cause of the hail ?

The hail was caused by a violent upward movement of the air, carrying
along with it an unusual amount of vapor, which was suddenly condensed,
and at so low a temperature that it was frozen in large semi-crystalline
masses.

That there was a violent upward movement of the air, I infer from the
following considerations :

1. Rev. J. W. McLane, of Williamsburg, was in the street, near his
house, and noticed the coming up of the storm. He says the cloud was
very dense and black, moved rapidly forward, and under the main sheet the
clouds boiled up in a violent and angry manner, which led him to anticipate
a severe blast. Other observers have testified to substantially the same facts.

2. It appears impossible that two currents, in close juxtaposition, should
blow from nearly opposite quarters with sufficient violence to prostrate large
trees, unless there is opportunity for the air to escape by an upward move-
ment. This conclusion is also in perfect harmcfny with what we have fre-
quent occasion to observe in small sand-whirls and water-spouts.

How was the cold which formed the hail produced ?

According to the observations of Pouillet, the temperature of hailstones,
\\hen they fall, is sometimes as low as 25° Fahr. They must, then, have
been formed at a temperature considerably below that of melting ice — a
temperature probably as low as 20° Fahr. How can so low a temperature
be produced in the hottest weather of July ? The temperature of the air
diminishes as we ascend from the earth, and at the height of 8,800 feet
above New-York, is estimated at 32o in summer. At the height of 12,000
feet, the temperature is reduced to 20°, Were the hailstones in the present
case formed at an elevation of 12,000 feet? I think not. In the summer
of 1835, several violent hail-storms passed over the southern part of France,
where there were insulated peaks of mountains, which afforded precise means
of measuring the elevation of the hail. In the storm of July 28, 1835, no
hail fell on the summit of the Puy du Dome, an elevation of 4,800 feet
above the level of the sea; but a few stones fell at the height of 3,700 feet,
while at the foot of the mountain the ground was covered to the depth of
three inches, and some of the stones weighed eight ounces. On the 2d of
August of the same year, a hail-cloud enveloped the summit of the moun-
tain, rising to the height of at least 5,000 feet.

It does not, therefore, appear to be safe to assume that the hail of July
1st was formed at an elevation exceeding 5,000 feet; and here the summer
temperature may be estimated at 46°. This cold is, of course, insufficient
to form ice.

It is believed that during the passage of a hail-storm, the temperature
of the upper air is considerably below the mean. The simple presence of
clouds in the lower atmosphere would tend to produce such an effiect. The
atmosphere derives its heat from the earth, and is but little afl'ected by the
direct passage of the solar rays. The heat which the earth imbibes from

THE SCIENCE OF STORMS.

159

the sun is continually thrown off by radiation ; but when the surface of the
earth is covered by a cloud, this radiant heat is intercepted, and the tempera-
ture of the lower air is thereby elevated. On a still night the presence of
clouds sometimes causes the thermometer to stand ten or fifteen degrees
higher than it would otherwise. But if by the interposition of a cloud the
lower atmosphere becomes unusually hot, the atmosphere above the cloud
must become unusually cold. Moreover, in the storm of July 1st, the hail was
formed in a current blowing violently from the north-west, which came,
therefore, from a higher latitude, and of course brought with it a diminished
temperature. I have no data sufficiently precise for estimating the effect to
be ascribed to this cause, but I think we may conclude that, at the time of
the storm in question, at an elevation of 6,000 feet above New- York, the
temperature could not have differed much from 32°. We have not, however,
yet reached the temperature necessary to the production of hail. Another
source of cold is to be found in the evaporation from the surface of the hail-
stones. If we tie a piece of thin muslin upon the bulb of a thermometer,
and then, having dipped the bulb in water, swing it rapidly through the air,
the thermometer will sink below the temperature of the air several degrees—
sometimes ten or fifteen. This cold is due to evaporation. During a hail-
storm, the hot air from the earth's surface is carried by the upward move-
ment to a considerable elevation ; by expansion it is cooled, and a portion of
its vapor condensed. The drops thus formed, at a temperature not far from
320, are still further cooled by evaporation from their surface, (the evapora-
tion being promoted by this rapid motion ;) the remainder of the [drop is
congealed, and as new vapor is precipitated, it is congealed upon the former,
thus forming concentric layers round the nucleus. Since water, like nearly
every other substance, in passing to the solid state inclines to crystallization,
the ball, as it increases, does not retain the spherical form, but shoots out
irregular prisms.

How does the hailstone remain suspended in the air long enough to
acquire a weight of half a pound ?

This difficulty is not, to my mind, a very formidable one. I conceive
that hailstones are formed with great rapidity. The vapor is condensed with
great suddenness, and almost instantly frozen. I think very large hailstones
may be formed in five minutes. In a vacuum a stone would fall from the
height of 5,000 feet in less than twenty seconds, but drops of water and
hailstones fall with only a moderate velocity. From ray own observations
of the hailstones of July 1st, I could not possibly estimate the velocity of
their fall tt more than 40 feet per second, and I should be disposed to put it
even less than this. At a velocity of 40 feet per second, a stone would be two
minutes in falling 5,000 feet ; and if we suppose it to start from rest, and its
rate to increase uniformly to the ultimate velocity of 40 feet, the time of fall
would be four minutes. The strong upward movement which is known to
exist in the neighborhood where bail is formed, is quite sufficient to sustain
hailstones of the largest kind as long as they can be kept within the influence
of this vortex. As soon as they escape from it, they would, of course, com-
mence falling. I see no difficulty, therefore, in supposing the great mass of
hail to remain in the air five minutes before reaching the earth, and that, in
peculiar cases, stones may remain supported for ten minutes, and even a great
deal longer. This period appears to me sufficient to account for the hail
which fell at New- York.

Why did the hail in the present case attain to such immense size ?
Because the circumstances were unusually favorable to its formation.

160 THE LAKE SUPERIOR COPPER MINES.

The temperature of the air before the storm Was 90°, and it is my opinion
that the dew-point could not have been less than 80° ; in other words, the
atmosphere contained about as much vapor as it is ever known to contain in
this latitude. This vapor was suddenly lifted to a region of great cold, and
rapidly condensed and frozen. The strong upward movement helped to
sustain the crystals as they increased in size, until the upward force was no
longer equal to gravity, or till they escaped from the influence of the vortex.
Most of the stones would fall in five minutes, and be of moderate size ;
others might be sustained ten or fifteen minutes, and attain enormous dimen-
sions.

How did the hail in this storm compare with that of the most remark-
able ones on record ?

There are well -authenticated cases of hailstones having fallen in England
and France weighing half a pound, and even more than this, but I do not
know of any satisfactory account of hailstones weighing as much as one
pound. A mass of ice of the specific gravity 0.93, weighing eight ounces,
must contain nearly fifteen cubic inches, or would make a cube whose edge
was nearly 2.5 inches. I have selected a piece of ice which was estimated
to be about the size of the largest stone which I saw fall on the 1st July,
and found it to weigh eight ounces. But these large stones of July 1st
appeared to me unusually white, and may therefore be conjectured to have
had a spongy nucleus, which would have reduced the weight to perhaps six
ounces.

The hail, therefore, in the present storm, was smaller than has been
observed to fall in France, but I question whether any larger hail has ever
been seen in this country."

THE LAKE SUPERIOR COPPER MINES.

A CORRESPONDENT of the New-York Tribune gives the following account
of these important mines :

The Evergreen Blufi", of which so much has been said during the last
three years, is east of the Minnesota, on the mineral range. It presents a
most decided metalliferous appearance, but whether the copper is continued
in belts of epidote or regular veins, remains to be proven. The title to these
lands has been in dispute for several years. The Land Office, under the late
Administration, decided against the preemptions, but Secretary McClelland
sustains them.

At the Ridge Mine they are working on what is supposed to be a vein ;
but though it has been sunk upon for 330 feet, and levels extended on its
course, its present appearance does not indicate a paying mine. They have
shipped this year 22,657 lbs of copper.

At the Bohemian they have been working an epidote vein or belt, but
Mr. Dickinson has suspended operations for the present. He has shipped
5,086 lbs. of copper.

The Adventure Company have done much towards proving up the belts
of epidote in this region. Five levels have been driven into their blufi", one
or more 160 feet in length. Three shafts have been sunk to connect the
levels, and immense cavities stoped out. The openings have yielded about
fifty-five tons of copper, but it is evident that the copper is not suflBciently
concentrated to make a paying mine. This Company are now working a

EDUCATION FOR THE FARMER. 161

vein on a bluff to the east of the Old Diggings. It looks rather favorable,
the veinstone being of a good character, accompanied with small sheets of
♦opper. They have sunk a shaft thirty feet, and are driving in an adit
from the south, which will prove the veiti and explore the country. Shipped
this season about 24,000 lbs. of copper.

The Aztec was one of the first companies that commenced work in the
epidote belts, and that under the advice of some of the most experienced
men in the country. This Company has expended a large amount of money
without proving any thing, except that copper may be found in large quan-
tities out of veins as well as in them. The tract of land is a good one, and
well worthy of an exploration. Shipped this year about 20,000 lbs. of
copper.

The Ohio has been working in the vicinity of the Aztec, but not so success-
ful in getting copper. They have recently found a vein on the south side of
the bluff that looks as though it might make a mine, but they have only
sunk eight or ten feet, and it will require time to prove it. Shipped this
season about 1,000 lbs. of copper.

The Piscataqua are judiciously driving an adit into their bluff, to prove
up two veins seen on the surface. This is the best and cheapest manner of
proving up bluffs where. the veins are numerous, or where no strong one ap-
pears upon the surface.

At the Douglass Houghton they are working with much success. Al-
though the vein is not large, it produces good barrel and stamp ore, and
appears to be regular. Three shafts have been sunk, two levels extended^
and considerable ground stoped out. Stamps have been erected to be driven
by water. About 9,000 lbs. of copper have been shipped this season.

The "Toltec Consolidated" is the old Farm and Toltec united. They
worked at this mine on what was supposed to be the main vein, until last
October, when in diving east, in the ten-fathom level, the main vein was
cut ; and as all of the work done had been on a feeder or side vein, it was
virtually abandoned, except cross cutting from the level to prove the main
vein. No. 2 shaft is 140 feet deep, the vein looking very well in the bottom.
In the twenty-fathom level, east of this shaft, the vein is about 20 inches
thick, and too strong to be thrown out with a sand-blast. No. 3 shaft is
down 100 feet, the vein filled with barrel work, and small masses from the
surface to the bottom; it is 30 inches wide at the lowest point. Another
feeder has come into the vein 70 feet east of feeder No. I ; two others are
seen upon the surface, which must come in as they drive east. This vein
looks as though it would make one of the profitable mines of the country.
Mr. Sayles, the Agent, is a most energetic man; he has shipped this year
12,000 lbs. of copper, a portion of which has been sent to the World's
Fair.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

EDUCATION FOR THE FARMER— HIS POSITION.

In the August number of the Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil is ao
article on "Agricultural Education," which we presume is by the Editor. As
a whole we think the article is well read and perfectly understood by the
writer.

On reading over the Charter for an Agricultural College, in New- York, we

VOL. VI. PART III. 11

162 EDUCATION FOR THE FARMER.

are inclined to think that tlie foundation for the institution is well laid, and
shall look to it as being a great help to farmers in educating their sons for
practical labor on the farm.

Every student must have a fair English education, a good moral character,
and be sixteen years of age, to gain an admittance into the college. The
charges ibr tuition, and all other expenses, such as board, lodging, lights,
fuel, washing, &c., will be $300 a year, payable, one half ench terra, in
advance. After the college has become endowed with funds from the State,
or individuals, the charges for tuition, &c., may be reduced perhaps to some
extent. As a whole we think the charges are moderate. Still there are a
great many farmers in every town in the State who cannot send their sons to
this college on account of the expense, and who would be glad of sucli
advantao-es had they the means. There is still a large class of farmers who
are well to do in the world ; but, from a want of knowledge and disposition,
they will not send their sons to such a college for instruction. And yet wo
hope and expect to see the college filled to its utmost extent with farmers'
sous, all anxious for instruction in a business which they have been more or
less familiar with duiing their whole lives.

It is plain to all that only a small fraction of young farmers in the State
can have access to this instruction until schools of this kind become more
common throughout the country. For one, we are satisfied that the majority
of all farming improvements must begin with the farmers on their farms at
home. If, in the next ten years to come, one or two young farmers of the
right stamp could be scattered throughout every town in the State, it would
be as much as we shall expect from the influence of agricultural colleges or
schools. The greater part of agricultural improvements must come from
influence and example, and this may bo brought about in time, as we have
named.

There is also an article in the same number on the " Character and Posi-
tion of the Farmer," by Mr. Hunton. He gives the American farmers the
credit of being the real nobility of the land, (if we have any such,) and
that they are more correct in their moral habits than the other classes as a
body, which we believe to be correct as a general thing. But he says —
"Well-informed farmers would form for us a better code of laws than pro-
fessional men ; but with due deference, and great regret, I am compelled to
say that, as a body, they are deficient in the science of agriculture, and have
not that general knowledge they can and ought to possess. There are many
honorable exceptions, and these are fast multiplying ; but there are many
men who ' carry a stone in one end of the bag,' because their fathers did, and
aver they want no book- farming," <fec. Now this may be all very well, but
the farmers are not the only class of men who "carry a stone in one end of
the bag." Manufacturers, merchants, mechanics, artisans, and professional
men, too, have "lugged their share of stone," to our certain knowledge.
Again he says — " Farmers frequently complain they are not noticed by the
people as they ought to be ; that professional men, more especially attorneys,
hold the offices. Let us look around and see where the difficulty lies. In
New-England there are some twenty farmers to one professional man. Then
you have the power in your own hands. Why do you not use it ? Have
you no confidence in your own class ? You may answer. It is in part diffi-
dence. The ostensible cause is lack of qualification or information which
you can and ought to possess." Now, as Mr. Ilunton is a " professional
man," we tell him what he already knows, that the farmers are not left out.
of " offices, &c.," on a lack of qualifications. But Mr. Hunton knows well

THE PALMER WORM. 163

that this whole thing is managed by " wire-pullers" and "log-rollers" of the
parties. So that when you go to the polls it is to vote the " regular nomina-
tions,"' or vote nothing. Farmers not being "impudent talkers," the "pro-
fessionals," &c., have the "offices," and every thing else, all their own way.
But these farmers, working-men, artisans, &c., complain that they are not
noticed as they should be. Whatever qualifications the farmers may lack,
yet this is as true to-day as it ever was.

The State of Vermont is probably more strictly agricultural than any
other in the country. So that mere farmers would more natuially be gover-
nors and legislators than in most other States where mercantile and com-
naercial interests come in for a share of honors. We believe that Mr. Hunton
is a real friend to the farmer and the farmer's interest. His advice to them
is good, and is what ought to be remembered by them and pat in practice ;
but, in candor, we ask Mr. Hunton why it is that so muny young men,
who have been brought up farmers, give up the business and seek the " pro-
fessions" for a living, if they do not think that an A.M., or M.D., attached
to their names is of more consequence to their future elevation and greatness
than the simple name of farmer alone. It must be that there is something
m " titles" after all, or else so many young men who have chances for farming
would not turn their backs upon the business. And would it not be well for
us all to look into this subject, and see if there is not some other cause than
want of capacity, knowledge, or confidence in themselves, which prevents
them from attaining that position in society which Mr. Hunton so justly
complains is withheld from them by their own neglect.

Yours truly, L. Durand.

Dcrhy, Ct., Axcgust ith, 1858.

THE PALMER- WORM.

This insect, which after an absence of many years has returned and re-
newed its depredations upon our apple, cherry, and plum trees, and also
upon some of our forest tiees, is thus described by the well-known and
learned entomologist, Dr. T. W. Harris, of Cambridge, Mass. :—

" In its early stages, this worm, or caterpillar, though varying somewhat in
color, is mostly pale green, with two slender brown lines along°the top of the
back, and a pale brown head. It has sixteen feet, six of which, near the
head, are jointed, and end with a single claw ; the others are merely fleshy
protuberances without joints, the terminal pair being the longest. When
fully grown, the insect measures half an inch, or rather more, in length, and
resembles the common bud-worm of the apple-tree; the back assuming
generally a darker color, and the sides of the body being marked with black
points, arranged throe together on each side of every ring. Two blackish
semicn-cular spots or marks may also generally be observed, ai this period,
on the top of the first ring, A few short hairs may be seen on the body by
means of a magnifying glass. On my own trees, these insects have confined
themselves mostly to the terminal leaves and buds ; on others, in places wher*
they have been numerous, they have spread over all the leaves, and have de-
voured the whole green substance, leaving only the net-work or veins un-
touched. They are exceedingly active in their motions, moving either for-
wards or backwards at pleasure, with a kind of impatient jerking motion

164 WASTE OF MANURE URINE.

which renders it difficult to hold them. AVhen the trees are shaken, these
worms drop, and hang sui^peiided by threads, like canker-worms. Whether
they leave the trees in the same way, when they have finished their course —
if indeed they do leave them at this time — and where they undergo their final
transformations, I have not ascertained, being prevented by other engage-
ments from watching their farther progress. One of my correspondents has
informed me that these worms mostly disappeared after a late hail-storm ;
and another one states that they all took leave during a heavy shower on
Monday last. A few that were kept for observation in a glass jar, have cov-
ered themselves with a thin web of silk, and some of these have already taken
the chrysalis form within their webs. More than half of my specimens have
been stung by ichneumon flies, which have deposited a single egg in each
one of their victims. The maggots bred from eggs are now leaving the life-
less worms, and are spinning themselves up in white, oblong oval, silken
pods or cocoons. If the palmer-worms elsewhere have suffered the same
fate in the like proportion, we have little cause to fear for their ravages next
year. The chrysalis is about one quarter of an inch long, of a pale yellowish-
brown color, and differs from that of the bud- worm in not having transverse
rows of teeth, or little notches, around its body. The final transformation
remains to be observed ; and until the insect is obtained in the winged or
moth state, its scientific name cannot be determined.

On the morning of the 28th of May, I saw in the cemetery at Worcester,
immense numbers of gray or whitish moths, about twice the size of the com-
mon clothes' moth, flying about almost in swarms, being disturbed from the
grass and trees by my passing. Two days afterwards, a few of the same
little moths were seen in my garden ; and Dr. Sanborn informed me that his
garden was alive with them on the 23d of May. They were also very nu-
merous about the same time at New-Haven, and in other places since visited
by the palmer-worms. But whether the latter were, or were not, the de-
scendants of these little moths, it would not be safe now to say. The moths,
though not wholly unknown to me by sight before this spring, have hereto-
fore been so rare that my collection contained only a single specimen, and
that in too poor a condition to enable me satisfactorily to investigate its
scientific character, and ascertain to what modern genus it belonged."

WASTE OF MANURE— UPJNE.

This subject is too important to be lost sight of for a day. Were it not
that too frequent repetition wearies and disgusts, on every topic, we would
have every faimer reminded, daily, of his constant exposure to material loss,
through neglect of this one branch of his business, the preparation of manures.

So far as our own city operations are concerned, we have most emphatic
testimony, it a recent presentment of its abuses by the Grand Jury, in the
month just passed. They say, "among the things brought to the attention
of the Grand Jury, was the practice under the existing laws, of emptying the
contents of privies, sinks, &c., into our public docks. In one instance we
learn that 770 loads were deposited in a single night, in one slip." Here
is a waste, perhaps of $1000, "in a single night in one slip." And when
we add that the water-closets all empty, as we suppose, into the common
sewer, it must be obvious that the waste of fertilizing material in this city is
immense.

But we invite attention in this paper to the general waste of liquid

WASTE OF MANURE URINE. 165

manures. Ifc is now well understood, that a given weight of urine is worth
more than the same weight of solid excrements. There is howev. r a differ-
ence in the liquid as in the solid excretse of different animals. While the
essential elements are similar, the proportions of each differ. Disease also
affects these results.

The value of Peruvian Guano consists principally in its ammoniacal salts and
its phosphates. Mr. C. W. Johnson's analysis of it gives 7 to 9 parts of
water, 56 to 66 of ammoniacal matter, and 16 to 23 of earthy phosphates.

Careful analyses have also been made of human urine. The urine voided
by four persons in 24 hours, was made the subject of careful examination in
Prof. Liebig's laboratory, and also that of individuals under different circum-
stances, and with the following results. 1000 cc. of urine gave, on the
average, 2317 grammes of phosphoric acid; or 24 hours gave 1610 cc* of
urine, containing 3,732 grammes of phosphoric acid. Another experiment
upon "an individual who drank much water," resulted as follows : 1000 cc. of
urine gave 2,027 grammes of phosphoric acid; 24 hours gave 2,086 cc. of
urine and 4,228 grammes of phosphoric acid.. Another experiment upon
the urine of " an individual who drank very little water," resulted in the
following average: 1000 cc. of urine gave 4,062 grammes of phosphoric acid ;
or 24 hours gave 2,988 cc. of urine and 4,015 grammes of phosphoric acid. '

Other experiments upon the same product, discharged after sleeping, and
also that of waking hours, by four persons, resulted as follows : 1000 cc. of
urine, after sleeping, gave 2,284 grammes phosphoric acid ; and during wak-
ing hours, 2,763 grammes of phosphoric acid.

These expei-iments were varied also, so far as regards the time during which
the urine was voided, whether before or after dinner, (that is forenoon or
afternoon,) and the products presented similar differences. We have made a
general average of all these experiments, and find the following results :

The smallest amount was 1,743 grammes of phosphoric acid in 1000 cc.
of urine, voided by a person " who drank much water." The highest amount
was 4,511 grammes, from the same amount of urine of a person "who drank
very little water." That voided before dinner in each of nine experiments,
was richer in phosphoric acid " before dinner" than " after dinner." The
"hours of sleep" were excluded from both these experiments.

The general average of all the experiments is this : 1000 cc. of urine gave
2,883 grammes of phosphoric acid, This is an average of nearly a hundred
experiments, about half of which included the urine of four persons.

Such facts as those hereby brought to light cannot fail to satisfy any person
of the importance of carefully and skilfully preserving the urine both of the
house and stables. The modes of doing this are as follows :

1. If privies are made water-tight, as they should be, all the value of what
is deposited there may be preserved by a daily sprinkling of charcoal dust,
peat dust, or lime, in quantities that shall keep the air free from its odor. If
an excess of these substances is used, no harm is done, as each is valuable in
itself. At proper times the entire contents may be removed to the compost
heap. This should be done without fail, at some time, as it is never well to
apply these concentrated fertilizers directly to the soil, without a divisor.

2. Daily additions of whatever may be at command may be made to the
compost heap, and the substances already named, with an indefinite amount
of turf, leaves, straw and other litter, may be added. But either the lime,
charcoal, or peat should be used without fail.

if * We confess ourselves in doubt liow to read the " ec" of the author cited. jYo
such abbreviation is acknowledged in French weights. It probably m«ans hundreds
of grammes. A gramme is about 15^ grains, Troy.

166 RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

3. There may be drains, so arranged as to pour the contents, of the privy,
witli all the wash of the house, into a large reservoir in the barn-yard, where
the solid materials may be thrown from time to time, which will be constantly
saturated by the liquid received from the drains. If any odor arises from it,
it is certain that one or more of the substances before-named should be ap-
plied without delay.

Should some system like what we have sketched above, be adopted by any
one of our readers, he will be astonished to find the increase of fertilizing
matter which will be placed at his command, and the consequent increase of
his crops.

RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

The Railroad Interest. — It is gratifying to find that this interest, in
which Massachusetts has so many millions of dollars, is gradually recovering
from the depression which I\as for several years reduced the income of the
old roads very materially, and almost destroyed the original investment of
several millions of dollars in others.

The roads in New-Hampshire and Vermont, which have been built mainly
with Massachusetts capital, have a fair prospect of yielding a fair remuneration
for the capital employed in them.

In Massachusetts, the Western, the Worcester, the Boston and Maine,,
the Providence and others, are slowly approaching with their dividends
towards the rate which they were enabled to pay in former times, before com-
petition had increased their expenses and diminished their income.

The Lowell and the Eastern are all which now remain depressed, and after
the projected improvements of these companies are completed, the stock will
no doubt advance. The new track of the Eastern into Boston runs through
a neighborhood which will be thickly covered with dwellings in a few years,
being eligible building land, and is already in the hands of a company of
wealthy capitalists, who are erecting many building?. We understand the
Eastern has a handsome surplus of nearly $60,000, after making the July
dividend. The travel on this road must always be large, and the population
along the whole line will increase rapidly with a few prosperous years for
business in Massachusetts and Maine.

The Newburyport Railroad is also doing a handsomely increasing business.
The income for the last four months has averaged $2,500 a month, which, if
continued through the year, ought to be ample to pay its running expenses,
and six per cent, on the cost. The upper roads, as far into the country as
Lake Cham plain, send so much down over this road that they all express a
wish to see it carried to the deep water of the Merrimack. This will pro-
bably be done next year.

Erastus Hopkins, of Northampton, has been chosen President of the new
Railroad Corporation in Ohio and Indiana, which is about to construct an
air-line road from Cleveland, 0., to Terre Haute, Ind., connecting with a line
straight thence to Alton, 111. The one first mentioned is to extend 375 miles.

Some very favorable reports have been received from the engineers who
are surveying the route of the Iloboken and Canandaigua Railroad, and
easier grades than were anticipated have been found. Considerable enthusi-
asm is apparent on the line of the road, and offers of large subscriptions have
been made.

RAILROAD OPERATIONS. 167

East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad Stock. — So far as we have ob-
served, says the Knoxville Register, there is not a single raih'oad company in the
South whose road is completed, that cannot boast of the fact, that its stock
is above par. Of all the southern roads, none can compare in point of geogra-
phical location with the East Tennessee and Georgia road. It is a line into
which are converged, from south and west, the Nashville and Chattanooga,
Memphis and Charleston, Selraa and Tennessee River, Georgia, South Caro-
lina, Macon and Western, Central and Western and Atlantic, and, indeed,
all the roads south of Tennessee ; and, on the other hand, it is to have a place
in the great lines from New- York to New-Orleans, and from the lakes and
the valley of the Ohio at Louisville and Cincinnati, to the south Atlantic
seaboard and the Gulf of Mexico, at Pensacola and Mobile.

Union of Railroads. — The Mobile Tribiine learns that an arrangement
has been made between the Mobile and New-Orleans Railroad Company, of
Mobile, and the Pontchartrain Railroad Company of New-Orleans, by which
a continuous road will be constructed from city to city.

Blue Ridge Railroad. — The Common Council of Charleston, S. C, have
passed resolutions in favor of subscribing |549,000 to the stock of the Blue
Ridge Railroad. It is understood that the several companies interested have
been consolidated, and a contract entered into with Messrs. A. Bangs & Co., for
the construction and equipment of the road. The whole length of the line
to Knoxsville, Tenn., is 180 miles.

Illinois Central Road. — The contractors are pushing on this work with
energy. At present matters are about as follows : There are over 10,000
men engaged on it. Over 100 miles is already in operation, viz., from Chi-
cago to Kankakee, and from Lasalle to Bloomington. About two-thirds of
the distance from Cairo to the Junction is graded and ready for the rail.
This includes the First and Second Division, upon both of which the track-
layers are about commencing their labors. Within a year from this time the
road will be opened its entire length between Chicago and Cairo.

New-York and New-Haven Railroad. — It has been decided to pass
the usual semi-annual dividend of the New-York and New-Haven Railroad,
in consequence of the heavy payments for damages to parties injured by the
Norwalk accident.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. — Fifty miles of the double track of the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad is in process of construction, and an additional
fifty miles are to be immediately contracted for.

WiLLiAMSPORT AND Elmira Railroad. — About oue thousand men are
at work upon the WlUiamsport and Elmira Railroad.

New-York Central Railroad Company. — The Directors of the New
York Central Railroad Company have resolved that the amount of 90 per
cent, remaining unpaid on the capital stock issued by the late Mohawk Valley
Railroad, on the capital stock issued by the late Syracuse and Utica Direct
Railroad, and on the increase of the capital stock of the late Buffalo and
Rochester Railroad, may be paid by stockholders electing so to do, on the
1st of August next, with interest from" the 1st day of May last, (three months,)
at the rate of 1 per cent, per annum, pursuant to the terms of the consolida-
tion agreement. On all payments made subsequent to the said 1st day of Au-
gust, interest from that day will be charged in addition.

168 RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

Railroad Results. — The Eastern roads coming into the city of Chicago,
says the Prairie Farmer^ have had the effect to add an increase of value
equal to 10 and 25 per cent., to every useable animal with four legs among
us, and all else saleable that animals produce. They have given a cash value
to a hundred things which, though they might be used to a local extent,
could not be sold. Of coui-se, if animals are worth more, the grass and grain
they eat is also worth more, and the land they grow on is also worth more.
All the different parties then reap a portion of the benefit. The Company
prospers by the carriage of men and produce and merchandise ; the farmer,
by the increased value lie gets for his produce ; the mechanic, by the increased
demand and ready pay for his implements or work ; the professional man
and the merchant, by the like growth and remuneration of their business ;
while all are benefitted by being able to go any where and get any thing
from any distance.

Eastern Railways. — A note on the present state of railway enterprise
in the Eastern Empire will interest some of our readers. J3eyond the Danube,
along all the lines of ancient romance, the railway is as yet unknown, with the
sole exception of a spot or two on to which the locomotive Saxon has lately
carried his own wants and the means of meeting them. In the Presidency
of Bengal, and on this side of Bengal — for example, at Bombay and at Suez —
preparations are being made for the speedy introduction of the iron horse.
The first line of railway in Ilindostan is just about to open between Bombay
and Tannah for general traffic ; and the wondering natives of that legendary
country will soon be whirled along at a speed to leave behind the slow-paced
anger of their ancient gods. In the district of Calcutta, the works of the
great trunk line are rapidly progressing, the second section of the line,
that to Rajraahl, having been commenced. Ere long, those wealthy cities
will be wedded with the iron link, and the field operations pushed on towards
Allahabad, Agra and Delhi. The completion of this grand line, with its
several branches to Benares, Patna and Meerut, will throw open the whole of
Upper India to the commercial activities of Calcutta and the seaports. The
" navvies'' are at work near Madras also; and it appears probable that in a
few years, should j^eace continue, the vast public works which now peep out
here and there like specks on the immense spaces of the country will cover
and connect it from the mouths of the Ganges to the north-eastern frontier,
from the coast of Coromandel to the shores of the Arabian Sea. Nor does
the mere material activity and probable moral lesults of these great enterprises
exhaust their interest. The natives themselves have begun to feel the com-
municated inspiration, and one native ruler, the Guicowar, has already
prepared the plans for a railway through his dominions.

The Pacific Railroad was opened thirty-nine miles from St. Louis, a
few days since, with imposing ceremonies.

The Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati Railroad declared a divi-
dend of five per cent., payable on the 1st of August.

Cleveland and Pittsburgh Railroad. — Allegheny county. Pa., has sub-
scribed $300,000 to the stock of the Cleveland and Pittsburgh road, for the
construction of the extension from Wellsville to Beaver. Beaver county
subscribed $100,000.

The Iron Mountain (Mo.) Railroad has called for proposals to build
about eighty-four miles of this road. The work on this road is hearj

RAILROAD OPERATIONS. 169

including three tunnels, and mucli rock work and masonry. About twenty
miles of the road shovrs " side-hill " work, and the balance heavy thorough
work. The Iron Mountain is 700 feet above the river at St. Louis ; but
two principal depressions are to be crossed before reaching that height. The
country passed through is healthy and well watered. The road will here-
after be extended to the Arkansas line, to connect with the Cairo and Fulton
road, and a branch to the Mississippi river, at Cairo or New-Madrid, is also
contemplated.

Memphis and Charleston Railroad. — The work is progressing finely
on the section of this road beyond La Grange. There are about eight hun-
dred men at work now on the first twenty-three miles, and additional laborers
go up from Memphis with almost every train. The iron is laid down on the
Soraraerville branch for a distance of about four miles, and the work is pro-
gr ssing well. The cars will be running over it about the middle of
September.

Fremont and Indiana Railroad. — The stockholders of the Fremont and
Indiana Railroad held a meeting at Rome, Seneca county, on the 18th inst.,
and elected their oflacers for the ensuing year. The contract for constructing
thirty-eight miles of the road has been let to Messrs. Shoemakers and Doo-
little. They intend to have the road completed in twelve months.

Milwaukee and Mississippi Railway. — The Directors of the Milwaukee
and Mississippi Railroad Company, at a special meeting, held on the 22d,
and by a unanimous vote of the Boai'd, closed the contract for the comple-
tion of their road to the Mississippi, at $25,000 per mile, thoroughly
equipped. The contractor is Mr. A. L. Catlin, of Barhngton, Vermont, a
gentleman of ample means and great energy. He takes the entire route
from Rock River to the Mississippi, assuming the Cook and Sherwin contract
from Rock River to Madison, and engages to complete the whole from
Prairie du Chin by the first day of January, 1855.

Cheraw and Darlington Railroad. — The sections of the road between
Darlington C. IL, and the terminus on the Wilmington and Manchester
road, were on the 6th ult. let out for, grading, &c.

Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad. — The $150,000 subscription pro-
mised by the city of Wheeling to the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad
Company, has been duly made. This makes the entire available stock-sub-
scription to this road about $3,500,000. That part of the line lying between
Marietta and Wheeling has been put under contract on advantageous terms.
About one hundred miles of this road, on the west end, will be completed
at an early day this fall or winter.

Indiana Central Railroad. — There are now less than twenty miles of
iron to lay down on this road, and the track-layers are busily engaged at
three or four points. The whole work will be completed by the 1st
September.

Evansville and Crawfordsville Railroad. — That portion of this road
between Vincennes and Terre Haute on the Wabash, has been let out to
contractors. The distance is fifty-seven miles.

170 POETRY AND AGRICULTURE.

TURNIPS AND GRASS SEED.

A NEW experiment has been tested b^y Mr. H. F. French, of Exeter, N.'H.,
which we give in his own words, as detailed in the Nexo-Encjland Farmer.
He says : " I sowed herds'-grass and red-top, at the rate of about half a
bushel of the former, and a bushel of the latter to the acre, with the turnip
seed, all mixed togetlier, on the 28th day of July. The ground was so dry
when I ploughed that no moisture was perceptible at the bottom of a deep
furrow. It was sowed, brushed and rolled, and left literally in dust arid
ashes. (One barrel of bone-dust to twenty-five bui^hels of ashes.) We had
very little rain till the last week in August. The grass seed came up well in
the fall. I sowed clover seed on the snow in spring. The grass was cut
last week, a heavy crop, more than half clover, at the rate of about two tons
to the acre. This fact about the clover deserves notice. No clover seed was
sowed last summer, the land had not been in grass for six years, and the
clover did not grow from the seed sowed in the spring. Sowed in spring, it
does not head before haying time, and this clover was of full size, so as to lodge
in spots. It must have groAvn from seed which had long lain in the ground,
or what perhaps is more probable, which had been carried on in manure the
year before I sowed it. No manure except the dust and ashes was applied
in 1852, and there probably was no clover seed in that! One fact seems to
be indicated by this experiment, namely, that clover sown in July does not
always winter-kill. I sowed one acre of new land with herds'-grass seed
and turnips, on the first day of the present July, with two bags of super-
phosphate of lime, putting on at the same time six pounds of clover. The
turnips and grass seed are up and promise well. I omitted the red-top
because it could not be ])rocured at a reasonable price. Hay is worth |16 a

on here from the field, and turnips are valuable. Try the experiment. Any

ime before the middle of August will be in season."

FOR THE PLOUGH, THK tOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

POETRY AND AGRICULTURE.

Messrs. Editors : It would afford a variety in your useful publication, and
without doubt gratify the taste of some of your readers, if you would insert
n your work occasionally a few selected extracts from standard poetic works,
showing how much the labors of the field, the various changes presented by
he country, and the charms of rural life have added to and enriched our
stores of real poetry.

It has often been a pleasing idea to my mind that nature and agriculture
have formed the subjects of the most sublime and fascinating poetry. What-
ever has been the theme upon which masters in that divine art have written,
their episodes, illustrations, and comparisons have been drawn from these
sources, even from the old Greek writer, Hesiod, to those of the present
time.

In divine writ some of the most important truths are illustrated by the
products of the forest or the field. Witness the parable mentioned in 2
Kings xiv. 9 :

" The thistle that was in Lebanon sent to the cedar that was in Lebanon,

POETRY AND AGRICULTURE.

171

saying, Give thy daughter to my son to wife ; and there passed by a wild
beast that was in Lebanon, and trod down the thistle."

The following extracts I have made, prove the truth of the above remarks,
and may perhaps refresh the minds of some with the impressions they re-
ceived in their younger days when studying the authors from which they
have been selected.

To begin"with Homer, who is one of the most ancient and the most suc-
cessful devotees of the muses. His description of a moonlight scene has
perhaps never been equalled, and certainly does not suffer in the hands of
his translator. Pope :

"As when the moon, refulgent lamp of night,
O'er heaven's clear azure spreads her sacred light ;
When not a breath disturbs the deep serene,
And not a cloud o'ercasts the solemn scene,
Around her throne the vivid planets roll,
And stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole ;
O'er the dark trees a yellow verdure shed.
And tip with silver every mountain's head;
Then shine the vales : the rocks in prospects rise,
A flood of glory bursts from all the skies ;
The conscious swains, rejoicing in the sight.
Eye the blue vault and bless the useful light."

Virgil's description of the appearance of evening is truly natural :

" Jam summa procul," <fec. — Eel. i., line 83.

" The smoke ascends from yonder cottage walls,
A longer shadow from the mountain falls."

Also his approach of spring :

" Et nunc omnis ager," &c. — Eel. iii., line 56.

"A vernal beauty clothes the fruitful land.
And forests robed in leafy verdure stand,
The year's most beauteous season'-a now at hand."

Again we have a luscious painting of rural fruits, the ripening corn and
flowing honey :

" Molli paullatim," itc.

" The swelling corn now ripens in the field,
And the wild grapes their blushing produce yield.
And sturdy oaks from off their moving tops
Honey distil, which falls in luscious drops."

Horace, the great master of lyric song, gives us a view of snow and frost,
and then transports us to the comforts of the domestic fireside :

" Vides, ut alta stet," &c. — Book i., ode 9.

" See now Soractes mountain clothed in snow,
And frosts forbid the icy stream to flow;
The woods beneath the fleecy burden bow.
Now with unsparing hand the fuel ply,
And thus we shall stern winter's cold defy."

I have sometimes wondered how any one pent up in cities, and hedged in
by bricks and mortar, can read the following description which Milton gives
of Eden, without starting at once, on some fine summer's morning, to enjoy

172 POETRY AND AGRICULTURE.

the bracing air and exhilarating scenes of the county, and thus imbibe a
modicum of those elevating feehngs which are left us in spite of the fall :

" Between them, lawns, and level downs, and flocks
Grazing the tender herb, were interposed;
Or palmy hillock, or the flowery top
Of some irriguous valley spread her store ;
Flowers of all hue, and without thorn the rose.
Another side umbrageous grots and caves
Of cool recess, o'er which the mantling vine
Lays forth her purple grape, and gently creeps
Luxuriant, meanwhile, murmuring waters fall
Down the slope hills, dispersed, or in a lake,
That to the fringed bank with myrtle crowned
Her crystal mirror holds." Book iv., line 252.

Cowper had a mind tuned most sensitively to all the beauties of the coun-
try, and has well said, " Man made the town, but God made the country."
Horticulture, and his observations of the habits of wild animals, renewed the
alacrity of his mind when too much absorbed in his literary pursuits. Hovr
naturally, in the following lines, does he describe the laborer proceeding to
his daily calling :

"Forth goes the woodman, leaving unconcerned
The cheerful haunts of men, to wield the axe
And drive the wedge in yonder forest drear,
From morn to eve his solitary tusk.

The sturdy swain
Moves right toward the mark, nor stops for aught.
But now and then, with pressure of the thumb,
To adjust the fragrant charge of a short tube
That fumes beneath his nose; the trailing cloud
Streams from behind him, sceutmg all the air."

Thomson's Seasons are graphic descriptions of the country, its scenery,
labors, and changes; and perhaps are more extensively read by the lovers of
nature than any other of tlie English poets. His genius, if it might be said,
ennobled agriculture, and gave it its proper exalted character in the circles of
wealth and intellect. Of which the following lines are evidence :

"Nor ye who live
In luxury and ease, in pomp and pride.
Think those lost themes unworthy of your ear.
Such themes as these the rural Maro sang
In wide impeiial Rome, in the full height
Of elegance and taste, by Greece refined.

In ancient times the sacred plough employed
The kings and awful fathers of mankind ;

And some
Have held the scale of empire, ruled the storm
Of mighty war, then with unwearied hand,
Disdaining little delicacies, seized
The plough, and greatly independent lived."

Goldsmith's Deserted Village has some beautiful strains of a thriving
country spot, and the desolation caused by aristocratic wealth ; and his de-
scriptions of the etfects of luxury and pride have rekindled the fire of patriot-
ism in many a heart. His warnings have at the present age, we fear,
in some instances been realized, as when he sings in the following strains :

CHINA, OR PORCELAIN WARE. 173

"111 fares the land, to hast'ning ills a prey,
Where wealth accumulates and men decay;
Princes and lords may flourish or may fade,
A breath can make them as a breath has made ;
But a bold peasantry, their countr)''s pride,
When once destroyed, can never be supplied."

The poetry of Burns, and that of Bloomfiekl, though not of so high a
character as the foregoing, are studded with rural gems, and are read exten-
sively among a rural population. The former's Saturday Night is a beautiful
description of the value of the Sabbath, even independently of another world.
The latter composed the " Farmer's Boy," and " Rural Tales," with some
other poetic effusions, while laboring as a mechanic on a shoemaker's bench.
When but a youth he worked as a boy upon a farm, and the impressions he
then received of life in the country never forsook him as long as he lived.
His rural tales give us a beautiful insight into the simplicity and comforts of
a rural life, and are related with great delicacy and modesty, and in whose
religious sentiments we will close this paper :

" Eternal Power, from whom these blessings flow,
Teach me still more to wonder and to know ;
Seedtime and harvest let me see again,
Wander the leaf-strew'd wood and frozen plain ;
Let the first flower, corn-waving field, plain, tree,
Here, round my home, still lift my soul to thee."
Wisconsin, R. S.

CHINA, OR PORCELAIN WARE.

Three centuries ago, such ware was not manufactured in all Europe; the
few specimens that were to be found having been imported from China. In
1518, as a reward for destroying the pirates of the Ladrones,the Portuo-uese
were allowed to establish a settlement at Macao, and thence came the first
importations of China ware into Europe, Specimens of porcelain, in the
time of Augustus, were very costly, the Etruscan vases competing in price
with similar sizes of gold and silver.

The first introduction of enamelled ware into France, from Italy, was in
1565. It was in this latter country where the modern history of the art
began. A crusade was undertaken from Pisa to Majorca, which, in 1115
was taken. Among the spoils were many specimens of Moorish pottery,
which the Pisans stuck into church-walls as ornaments and trophies. These
plates are still to be seen in some of the old churches of Pisa.

The early specimens of Italian manufacture were arabesque patterns,
yellow and green, upon a blue ground — mere copies from the Moorish.

The Italian discoverer of enamel was Zuca della Robbia, the Florentine
sculptor, who died 1481, about thirty years before the birth of Palissy, the
man to whom Europe is most indebted for the elegant specimens of this
ware now to be seen. For enamels, he used tin, lead, iron, steel, antimony,
sulphate of copper, sand, ashes of tartar, litharge, manganese. He spent
fifteen or sixteen years in his experiments, or, till about 1557, ere he met with
any success ; and became so poor that he was forced to take the fuel for bis
furnacesfrom the doors and timber of his humble dwelling. His figures
were chiefly wild animals, reptiles, plants, &c., tastefully combined, and in
color copied with great nicety. With the exception of a few leaves, all his

174 PATENT HORSE-SHOE MACHINE.

figures were moulded from nature, and so accurately were they represented
that the species of each can be accurately determined. His fish are those
of the Seine, and his reptiles and plants those of the environs of Paris.

There is also an elegant ware which was made in France, under the
patronage of Henry II. and Diana of Poitiers, which was called Fayence.
It differs from that of Palissy, but is quite as beautiful. It is made of true
pipe-clay, very fine and white, and does not require any enamel, the orna-
inents being covered only with a thin, transparent varnish. The ornaments
themselves are engraved patterns, of which the grooves are filled with colored
paste, making a smooth surface when finished, of which the decoration is
inlaid. Some of the patterns, however, are ornamented in bold reliefs, in
which pink is a predominant color. The name of the originator of this
kind of ware is unknown. It must have been made during the reign of
Francis I., and was continued under that of Henry II., when it again disap-
pears. No other ware can claim affinity to the Fayence of Henry II.

PATENT H0RSI:-SH0E MACHINE.

We find a description of a machine for making horse-shoes, in an English
paper, the Leeds Intelligencer, which seems worthy of attention:

" Every one must admit that the completeness of a horse-shoe is no insig-
nificant matter ; as Poor Richard says, ' for want of a nail, the shoe was lost ;
for want of a shoe, the horse ;' &c., and so on to the rider himself being lost.
The horse-shoe has been made by a very primitive method through many
ages, with little variation beyond the suggestion of rude empiricism to meet
certain circumstances, or to qualify peculiarities in the horse's foot ; ahd
though individual sagacity and manual dexterity may avoid the more palpa-
ble errors, much uncertainty and frequent mischiefs pervade the art of shoe-
ing. It is rare, says this paper, that so many qualifications are combined in
one mind as have been so successfully employed in the invention of the horse-
shoe machine, patented by our fellow-townsman. Dr. Hobson, the inventor.
Being fond of the horse, and a good judge of its properties, the doctor
has not disdained to apply his professional knowledge of human physiology to
that of an inferior creature, and by the aid also of mechanical science and
ingenuity, has not only devised what is Avanted in the formation of a horse-
shoe, but has invented the mechanism which should unerringly produce it.
We had the pleasure of seeing this machine at woik a few days ago, and,
without making pretence to technical knowledge of the subject, we must
acknowledge both obvious advantages in the process and great beauty of
operation. The iron is rolled in bars in a peculiar manner. They are cut
into suitable lengths, and the superfluous parts cut off by machinery, and
the ends of each piece rounded. Any harsh edges left by the cutting-
machine are then ground down, and the pieces are put on a moveable rack,
which drops them one by one at the mouth of the furnace, and they are
carried gradually through the flame and radiating heat of the furnace
without touching the coals. By a new movement, at the other end of the
furnace, the pieces are passed successively to the block or anvil, where each
is bent and stamped by a veiy beautiful combined action of the machine,
and the horse-shoe, perfectly shaped, drops into the trough to be cooled.
The nail holes are afterwards punched in the cold metal, and it is not neces-
sary again to heat the shoe, so that the hardening effect of hammering (or

EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. 175

stamping) the shoe is not lost. The advantages of the patent horse-shoe
machine, in addition to the economy of labor, (for the apparatus for heating
and bending would turn out shoes for one hundred and fifty to two hundred
horses an hour,) are, that the shoes are formed exactly to a predetermined,
shape, which can be varied, but always with certainty, to particular require-
ments. Dr. Hobson insists upon the advantage of a ' level tread ' for the
horse, and the patent shoe is made to that purpose (exceptional cases omitted.)
It is much lighter than the hand-made shoe, but in no respect inferior in
strength ; and it is so formed that the nail-heads are protected, and by this
means, and the support of the ' clips,' the liability to cast a shoe is dimin-
ished. In a paragraph we cannot attempt a full description of this inven-
tion, but it appears to us to be well worthy of public attention, which we
invite to it."

EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE.

The people have a knowledge of a few domestic mechanic arts, such as
the making of a coarse pottery, the weaving and coloring of cloths, boat-
building, and the making of bricks. They mingle straw with the mud or
clay from which their bricks are made, as was done in the time of the Pha-
roahs. But they find their principal support in the cultivation of the soil,
and in the keeping of flocks and herds. The soil, formed by the overflow-
ings of the Nile, is of great depth and richness. It is irrigated by water
drawn from the Nile. The fields, waving with wheat, barley, lentiles, and
the other products of the country, are not enclosed by fences. Each maa
distinguislies his land from his neighbor's by the large stones placed in
the ground, which serve as permanent marks and boundaries. The soil
and climate are favorable for the raising of cattle. The camels and oxen
and sheep, which we daily saw in great numbers, reminded us of the days
of Jacob, and his descendants, who occupied portions of this land. The
sheep look like those which are seen in England and America ; but the wool
is coarser. The goats and sheep are not separated from each other, but go
in flocks together, and are generally watched by little children, aided by a dog.
I noticed that the sheep and goats are sometimes, during the night, penned
together in a fold in the open field. But generally the sheep and other
animals, cows, goats, donkeys, and camels, are driven into the villages at
night. Each house has an enclosure attached to it formed of mud or of
stalks and reeds open at the top, in which they are shut up. Sometimes
they seem to be otherwise provided for. A number of times in the mornino-
I saw the sheep and goats walking complacently about on the flat roofs of
the houses. The houses are commonly made of unburnt bricks hardened in
the sun.

The oxen of Egypt, those which we first met with, and which are much
the most frequent, are of a large size, resembling somewhat in shape the
Buffalo of America, black in color with scarcely an exception, and with large,
crooked horns, reaching back and depressed almost horizontally with the
neck. I often saw them patiently turning the wheel of the Sakhia, or draw-
mg the plough through the fields. The plough is very simple in its con-
struction, being hardly more than a hard, sharpened stick of wood, though
sometimes pointed with iron. It could not easily have been more simple ia
the days of the Patriarchs. The oxen are very tractable. I have seen thera
with a string round the horn or neck, led home from the fields ?^ night by
little children.

176 PLANK ROADS.

At one time I noticed a herd of the animals, which may be said to make
a part of an Arab's family, on the brink of the Nile, under the care of two
boys. It was just as the sun was setting. They belonged to a village on
the western side, and were on their way home from a pasture-ground, where
they had been feeding during the day. I noticed their appearance, because
they stood crowded together, about twenty in number, silent and thoughtful,
jis if meditating some act of importance. The boys took off their clothes,
tied them in bundles, and fastened them on their own heads. They then
mounted the backs of two of the animals, gave the word of command, and
the whole herd plunged into the river. They passed directly in front of the
boat at a place where the Nile was running more rapidly than common.
The boatmen suspended their rowing. Nothing was seen of the cattle but
their black heads and horns movingtowards the other shore. The boys sat
upright with the bundles of clothes on their heads. They made a singular
appearance, moving rapidly over the Nile, and apparently without any sup-
port, as the backs of the cattle were concealed under the water. They
reached the other shore in safety. The boys put on their clothes. The
cattle shook their wet sides on the sands, and they went together up the
bank. — Prof. XJphawHs Letters to the Congregationalist.

PLANK ROADS.

A DESCRIPTION of the materials for building plank roads and their cost, with
the model of laying the same, by Mr. 0. M. Stowey, of Belfast, civil engineer,
is published in the Working Farmer.

According to his statement, the road-bed for plank roads should be so
formed, either by embankment, turnpiking, or side ditches, as to admit of
thorough drainage.

That part which is to be planked must be prepared so as to leave a uni-
form beaiing for the sills and planks. The planks must be eight feet long,
and four inches thick, where there is much travel or traffic of heavy loads ;
or three inches where the travel is light or the loads small, laid on one side,
instead of centre of road, inclining a little downward towards the nearest
ditch.

For roads constructed on lands which descend across its line, the plank
should be laid on that side of road-bed next the low ground. The plank
should lie crosswise of the road, resting on four sills six inches wide — one
inch thick for three-inch plank, or two inches thick under four-inch plank.
The inside sills should be four and a half feet apart in the clear, and the out-
side sills so placed as to leave six inches space from the inside sills; the out-
side sill to be laid so as to break joint with the inside sill adjoining. The
planks should be pine or hemlock, preference being given to pine at the
same prices.

The cost of turnpiking a road and laying planks, he estimates from 75
cents to $1 25 per rod on cleared lands, depending on the stiffness and other
qualities of the soil.

Wheels with wide tires would undoubtedly be less injurious to planks
than narrow tires ; but greater wear is made by the corks of horses, whicli
cut and split the planks. Still a more serious damage is done by neglect of
a proper di-ainage. On many roads water is allowed to remain under the
planks, causing them to float and acquire an uneven bearing, permitting th.;
planks to spring and break before they are half worn.

THE CULTIVATION OF THE TEA-PLANT. 177

COUP DE SOLEIL.

We publish with pleasure the following short paragraph furnished us by
one of our regular physicians. It is peculiarly apprnpriate to the present
season. Within three or four days from our writing, (August 16th,) we
have had reported over two hundred cases of deaths in this city and vicinity
from this sole cause. — Ed.

" Tills is a French term or phrase, the literal i-ignification of which is, a
blow or stroke of the sun. It is thought by many that there is a peculiar
or specific disease or affection known by the above appellation. This is a
popular error. The disease produced by heat, and by exposure to the sun's
rays, is apoplexy, pure and unmixed, and nothing else. Apoplexy is a disease
characterized by a sudden loss of consciousness, sensation and voluntary
motion, without a suspension of the circulation of the blood, and without a
suspension of respiration. It originates within the cranium, and depends en-
tirely on pressure upon the brain. This pressure is produced either by conges-
tion, hemorrhage, or an etiusion of serum. In enumerating the causes of the
lesion or lesions which constitute apo[)iexy, we may mention hereditary predis-
position, old age, plethora, organic diseases of the heart and lungs, vai'ious
diseases of the brain and its vessels, strong muscular effort, position causing
the accumulation of blood in the brain, compression of the neck by cravats,
or the waist by stays, external stimulation, either by the heat of a fire, or by
the direct rays of the sun, internal stimulation, either by emotion or alcohol,
excessive cold, the hot bath, indulgences of the table, &c., <fec. The person
attacked by apoplexy should be placed in a recumbent position, with the
hearl and shoulders elevated, the clothing should be loosened, the crowd not
concerned in the treatment dispelled, so as to allow the sufferer fresh air. If
the strength of the pulse will permit, blood must be taken from the arm by
a large opening, for the purjiose of producing a retrocession of blood from
the brain. Cups or leeches should be applied to the back of the neck ; cold
must be applied to the head by means of cloths wet in iced water, or by
means of bladders filled with pounded ice. The feet and lower extremities
should be immediately immersed in hot water rendered stimulating by the
addition of mustard. By the lime the above treatment has been instituted,
it is probable the physician will have arrived, into whoso bauds we deliver
the patient."

THE CULTIVATION OF THE TEA-PLANT.

Our readers are already apprised that the cultivation of this important
article of luxury and of trade is commenced in our own country : — not only
the true Canton tea, but sundry substitutes for it, which enable our dealers
to imitate the f^-eign manufacturers in a most extensive and most shameful
adulteration of it. Whether this plant will find here a congenial soil and
climate is not yet proved, although it seems an established fact that the plant
will thrive hern. Whether it will fully develope all its peculiar properties,
as in China and India, the evidence, as yet, is incomplete.

In the ninth century certain Arabian doctors mentioned a fragrant and
fascinating Chinese beverage, prepared from a plant called schah. After the

VOL. VL — PART III. 12

178 THE CULTIVATIO.V OF THE TEA-PLANT.

lapse of some six luiiidred years, in 1663, Olearius discovered that tea was
domesticated as a luxury aiiiung tlie liigher mnksuf socii-ty in Persia. JNow,
all tliroiiuli the wastes of Central Asia, the Calniucks, the liashkira, &c., tea
is supreme.

Travellers or residents in China have given the following statements in
reference to this growth, and the sources whence we diaw them are no doubt
perfectly reliable. The information comes chiefly from Messrs. Fortune and
Warrington. The former of these adopted the Ciiinese costume, and being
familiar with the language, travelled thruuiih the country for the purpose of
obtaining the finest varieties of tea for the East India Company.

The plant in cidtivation about Canton, from which the Canton tea is
jnacle, is the Then bohea, while the more northern variety found in the green
tea country has been called 7 hea viridis. Tlie first appears to have l)een
named upon the supposition that all the black teas of the Boliea mountains
v.ere obtained from this species; and the second was called virid s, because
it furnished the green teas of commerce. These names seem to have misled
the public; and hence many persons, until a few years ago, firmly believed
that the black tea could be made only from Thea bohen, and green tea only
from Tltea viridis. In his Wanderings in Ciiina, published in 1816, Mr.
Fortune has stated that both teas could be made from either plant, and that
the diflference in appearance depended upon man'pulatiun, and upon that
only.

In eight years the leaves of the tea-plant are fully charged widi their
peculiarities. In the ninth year they begin to lose them. Yet tlie plants
are stripped sometimes to the eleventh and twelfth year, and hence the end-
less varieties of tea. Each year there are four harvests, of which, that in
February is the least in quantity and the best in quality. The April harvest
is a kind of rovven, the second cutting is the best. That of June yields
mainly large leaves, and that of August is of the inferior quality. A careful
bath completes the preparation for picking, and then, with gloved hands, the
work is commenced. An industrious workman may collect from ten to fifteen
pounds in a day. But on the same day he must strew them on a heated
platter, and on the same evening wrap them in a cloth, and dip them for
some moments in hot water. After they have dripped during the night,
they are spread the next morning in hot iron pans, in which they are con-
stantly stirred. They are laid upon mats, rolled with the open hand, com-
pletely cooled with large fans during the process, then skilfully packed in
chests.

The two kinds of tea, indeed, are rarely made in the same district; but
this is a matter of convenience. Districts which formerly were famous for
black teas now produce nothing but green. At Canton, green and black
teas are made from the Tina bohea at the pleasure of ihe manufacturer, and
according to the demand. When the plants nrrive from the firms fresh and
cool, they dry off a bright gmen color ; but if they are delayed in their
transit, or remain in their confined state for a long period, they become
heated from a species of fermentation, and when loosened and spread open,
emit vapors that are sensibly warm to the hand. When such plants are
dried, the whole of the green color is found to have been destroyed, and a
red brown, and .sometimes a blacki>h brown result is obtained.

The green trees when wetted and re-dried, with exposure to the air, are as
dark as black teas.

In these statements both Messrs. Warrington and Fortune agree, and
the latter remarks that the same changes may be seen by every one who has

THE CULTIVATION OF THE TEA-PLANT.

179

a tree or bush in his garden. Mark the leaves which are blown down from
trees in early autumn ; they are brown or perhaps of a dullish grceii when
they fall, but when they have been exposed fur some time in their detached
stale to air and moisture, they become as black as our blackest teas With-
out detailing the whole process in the manufacture of eithA- kind of tea, it
may be stated in reference to green tea :

1st. That the leaves are roasted almost immediately after they are gathered,
and

2d. That they are dried off quickly after the rolling process.
In reference to blnck tea, on the other hand, it may be observed, _
1st. That after being gathered the leaves are exposed for a considerable
time.

2d. They are tossed about until they become soft and flaccid, and are then
left in heaps.

3d. That after being roasted for a few hours and rolled, they are exposed
for some hours to the air in a soft and moist state; and

4lh. That they are at last dried slowly over charcoal fires. Genuine
green tea is an article less artificial than black. There is at the same time
100 much foundation for the suspicion that the green teas so much pa-
tronized in Europe and America are not so innocently manufactured. Mr.
Fortune witnessed the process of coloring them in the Hutig Chow Green
Tea country, and describes the process. The substance used is a powder
oonsistiiKJ- of four parts of gypsum and three parts of Prussian blue, which
\v;is applied to the teas during the process of roasting.

The introduction of tea culture into India, says Bayard Taylor, is an in-
teresting experiment, if, indeed, it can still be considered an experiment.
The Government, within the past ten years, have devoted much attention to
it. All the principal varieties cf the tea-plant have been imported, experi-
Tnental gardens laid out at different points of the Himalayas, from Assam
to the norih-western frontier of the Punjaub, and Chinese workmen pro-
cured to teach the preparation of the leaves. Mr. Fortune, whose travels in
China on his mission to etiect these objects have excited considerable notice,
IS now on his way to that country to procure fresh supplies of plants and
workmen. The tea-plant was first introduced into Assaiu, a district north of
Bengal, and lying on the Brahmapootra River. A company was formed
about fifteen years ago for the cultivation and manufacture of tea ; but
throuo-h ignorance and inexperience it was for some time a losing concern.
At present, however, it has so far succeeded as to produce 300,000 pounds
of tea, and to pay 10 per cent, annually to the Company. The experimental
gardens in the northern and western parts of the Himalayas have been
established more recently, and the natives are now beginning to take up the
cultivation of the plant.

One of the gardens is at Kaologir, about three miles from Dehra; and
I visited it in company with Mr. Keene. Mr. Fortune considers that a level
alluvial soil, like that of the Dlioon, is not so well adapted for tea as the
hilly country about Almorah and in the Punjaub, and if he be correct I did
not see the plant in its gieatest perfection, though I should think it difficult
for any plantation to present a more flourishing appearance than that at
Kaologir. It consists of 300 acres of level ground — a rich, dark loam,
mixed with clay — and contains plants in every stage of growth, from the
seedling to the thick bushy shrub, six feet high. It is now (February 15th)
blossoming season, and the next crop of leaves will be gathered before May.
The plant bears some resemblance to the ilex, or holly, but the leaf is smaller,

180 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

of a darker green, and more minutely serrated. The blossom is mostly
white — in some instances a yellowish-brown — and resembles that <jf the
wild American blackberry. The plants were set about three feet apart, in
rows four feet from each other, with small channels between for the purposes
of irrigation. Mr. Fortune, however, considers that irrigation is rather
injurious than otherwise.

Mr. Thomson, the Superintendent of the plantation, assured me that the
average yield of the plants, after they had reached a proper growth for
plucking, nii^ht be set down at 1 cwt. per acre, though, under favorable cir-
cumstances, it might be increast-d to 200 lbs. At present the Dehra and
Alm>)rah teas sell for purely fancy prices, being bought up with avidity at the
annual sales for from two to three rupees a pound. Dr. Jameson, who lias
charge of all the tea-plantations in the north-west, estimates that when the
culture shall have become- general, tea can profitably be produced at six
annas (eighteen cents) the pound.

THE EXHIBITION OF THE INDUSTRY OF ALL NATIONS.

This project, which has been so long before the world, is now a reality.
The Crystal Palace is erected, and its elegant proportions and artistic arrange-
ments seem almost to defy improvement. It h^s received, and will no doubt
receive, all the attention it can justly claim ; and yet, it can not be denied
that very strong prejudice exi-ts, and to a very great extent, against this exhibi-
tion, because it is believed to be a private speculation. But sup]iose it is;
what then? What are all our railroads and steamboats but organized means
of individual profit? Take away this feature, and they would all disappear
even now that they are established. So would our banks, insurance offices,
and the whole list of incorporated societies, with very few exceptions.

"But it is the plan of NtwYork speculators." Very well, suppose it is.
May not New-Yorkers have an equal chance with others? "But it is in-
tended to make New-Yoik prominent as the centre of business." Very
well, ag >in, New-York has been alluded to in our geographies, &c., before the
conception of the Ciystal Palace; and that admirable dome, unequalled on
the continent, and looniing up in the midst of her crowded streets, proves
that New York is not a mere fiction, nor destitute of some enter|)ii~e. It
is useless to pretend that any deception has been practised, or that tliere is or
has been any thing di>honorable in the management of this matter from the
beginning to the present day. If the Directors will now their seed liherally,
in all sections of the country, and enki..dle the thousand centres of light and
heat, which will reach every city and town in the country, they will have a
harvest to reap which it will r< quire years to gather, and the '" piivate specu-
lation" will prove to be a substantial reality, while the ideas of the masses
touching the great industrial pursuits of the country will receive an iiiij)etus
that will not cease to be felt while our country exists, or even while the world
elands.

THE OPENING.

We have witnessed this imposing spectacle. We have sat under that
splendid dome, with the President and other officers of the Government of
the United States, and other gentlemen of distinction before us, and the
products of the art and the industry of all nations around us. The day

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 181

was glorious ; the occasion was glorious, and the results of the plan, so far,
quite satisfactory to those concerned. On the 14th of July, at atV.w minutes
before 2 o'clock P. M., the procession entered the Crystal Palace, already
densely filled at every point from which the stage was visible. The Presi-
dent was greeted enthusiastically on his entrance. The exercises were
opened with prayer by Bishop Wainwright. Then followed an occasional
hymn, sung to the tune of Old Hundred. Theodore Sedgwick, Esq., the
President of the Association, then addressed the President in an admiribly
appropriate speech, to wbich President Pierce made a short reply, both apt
in character and graceful and eftective in manner. The Harmonic Society
then gave the Hallelujah Chorus from the Messiah, and the exercises of the
inauguration closed. The whole occupied one hour.

OF THE EXHIBITION.

It is impossible to present in one view any thing like a description of this
extensive collection, brought from all parts of the world, and embrac ng
every variety of product that ingenuity can devise. Our readers will not
expect any such service. The most that we can do is to give, in each
monthly issue, as complete an account of some section or department as the
circumstances and the character of the articles exhibited will permit. For
those who wish the best and most satisf^actory idea of the show, next to the
actual vision, we commend the subscription list of our good friend Mr. G. P.
Putnam, who publishes serai-monthly his Journal of the Exhibition, expressly
devoted to it, and full of engraved illustrations of the more interesting
articles.

There are, of course, in so large a collection, a thousand articles that pos-
sess no interest to ordinary ninds. Yet these may be specially souoht for
by others. There are, however, some articles which we could have wished
excluded. Among these are hundreds of bottles of hair-oils, pomades,
lotions, &c., corked, sealed, tied, so as to prevent the possibility of knowincr
their contents but from the labels. We cannot test their qualities or worth.
We can do nothing more than if they were in a shop-window. Hence their
presence is a mere advertisement, of no possible use to the visitor beyond
what the card of the dealer would be. In the same list are barrels of flour,
unopmef], hut presumed to be what they are labelled and marked. How do
such exhibitions promote national industry ?

Again, there are scores of piano-fortes, shut, locked, and covered, so that
they cannot be examined by vi>ilors in any respect, either as specimens of
cabinet-work or as musical instruments. They ought to be accessible to
every visitor who knows how to use them, or else should have an attendant
to exiiibit their qualities to all who wish to know them. This list of adver-
tising articles might be greatly extended, provided the object is in fact what
it is j.rofessed to be. Who, for example, would undertake to judge of the
merits of broad cloths and other woven goods, if not allowed to tuuch them?
If they are liable to injury from being thus handled, then the exhibitor
should have taken this into account before he brought them there, and be
governed accordingly. Other exhibitions alike are exposed to these criticisms,
as that which we are now about to examine; but this was designed for a
special purpose, and it would have been well, in our judgment, to have
admitted nothing, in the dearth of space really wanted, that would not con-
tribute to this end.

The most prominent objects which arrest one's attention as he enters are

1S2 THE GIIEAT EXHIBITION.

those wliich occupy the floor under the dome, and the space between the
entrance and the centre.

Diivctly beneath the dome is the equestrian statue of Washington, two and
a half times larger than life, ext^cuted by Baron Marochetti of Piedmont. It
is of phister, in imitation of bronze. This statue has been severely criticised,
and in some points no doubt deserves it. Tiie fore and hind legs are indi-
cative of two distinct conditions, the former of rapid or powerful motion, the
latter of comparative rest. The posture of the rider, too, partakes more of
the sternness of official dignity than of the ease which characterised the great
prototype. Oiher criticisms also may be deserved, but it is still an object of
interest, and is not unworthy the place it holds till a better one can be found
to supplant it.

On both sides the open naves or spaces, between the entrances and the
centre of the building, are marble and bronze statues, chiefly the vvnik of
foreio^n artists, while their central portions are occupied by articles promi-
nent at least for their size.

Ainono" these are the Amazon on horseback, attacked by a tiger; a
wretched statue of Daniel Webster; Genin's show-case of goods whicli he
sells, a capital advertisement; an elegant hose-carriage from Philadelphia; a
coach from Paris, &c., &c. Of these we shall have occasion to speak again.
The various parts of the building are appropriated by the severrd countries
in which the articles exhibited were manufactured. Articles from the United
States occupy one-fourth of the building, France and the German States
one-fourth. Great Britain and Ireland one-fourth, while the remaining fourth
is occupied by Italy, Denmark, Austria, and other foreign states. The num-
ber of articles from our own country, exclusive of machinery, is about 2.000;
from Great Britain and Ireland, about 500 entries ; from German States,
about 650; from France, about 400; from Austria, about 300; and from
Italy more than 100 ; in each instance, exclusive of fine arts, sculpture, paint-
ings, and engravings, which form the 31st class of the official catalogue, the
publication of which is deferred till the picture-gallery is completed. From
other countries the articles are less numerous.

In the foreio^n departments, we shall refer to such as have come under our
ob'ervation, and are deemed of sufficient interest to receive especial attention,
without any attempt at system, and without professing to give the most
deserving the earliest notice. We describe them nearly in the order in which
we examine them.

France. — One of the most elegant shows in the Crystal Palace, and by
far the handsomest in this department of art, is that of elegant painted por-
celain ware by M. Laiioche, from Paris. Our readers will rememl)er our
remarks upon the manufac ure of Sevres ware, in our number for April, and
also a notice of Bernard Pallissy, the Potter, in our number for June, uf the
present year. M. Lahoche exhibits true Sevres ware of the time of Louis XIV.
The ancient Sevres ware is not now made, although it is imitated ; and
the wares manufactured by M. Lahoche, and exhibited on his tables, are
exceedingly beautiful. Some, too, are very cheap, even as low as |3 ])er
dozen of plates. But the true Sevres ware is far beyond the reach of any
modern artist. We can conceive of nothing more elegant than n.any of the
pieces in this large collection of Lahoche. The paintings upon the plates,
&c., are miniatures of various persons of distinction, either royal or something-
less aspiring. These eleg;int specimens include plates or other wares, with
likenesses of the fbllnwing well-known personages:

Diana de Poitiers, Henrietle de France, Marie de Medicis, Marie Stuart,

THE GREAT EXHIBITIC N.

183

Sophie de Noailles, Marie de Savoie, Marie Antoinette, Odette de Champdevers,
Mathilde reine de Danemarc, Gabrielle d'Estrees, Chiisline de France;
Princesses de Bourbon Conri, des Ursins, de Soubise, de Crecy, and de
Lamballe; Countesses d'Armagnac and de Gregnaii ; Duchesses de Berry,
de Bourbon Conti, de Lade, d'Oiletus, d'Aumont ; Mesdames de I'Etang, de
la Treraouille, d'Etragues, d'Etaing, Elizabeth, de Bourbon Conti, de la
Chartre, de Fontanges, de Tencin, de Cosse, DuBarry, and Duple^^sis
Belliere; Madamoiselles de Beaujelais, de Sombreuil, and de Laf,iyette.

Some are landscapes and are worthy of all praise for the perfection of the
art displayed on them. The price of the plates, we are informed, is S25
each, and some of the larger pieces, vases, &c., are of course very much more
expensive. Ornamental lamps, an elegant time-piece, several tea-sets j)acked
in small cases, &c., are especially beauUful. Tlie manner in which the color-
ing of these works of art is produced can be seen at all times in the extensive
and elegant rooms of Messrs. Haughwout & Dailey, at 561 and 563 Broad-
way, where the manufacture of a similar kind of ware, and that too very
handsome, is carried on quite extensively.

The imitations of gems in the collection of M. Lahoche, such as pearl,
turquoise, &c., are very exact. Some thing more than a mere novice might be
deceived by them. The show of M. Lahoche is upon your right as you enter
from the Sixth avenue, midway from the door to the centre.

A carriatre meets your eye as you approach this collection, manufactured
by Alexis Moussard, of Paris. It is of rare workmanship, and its finish is in
equally good style. Its appearance is unlike that of an American coach,
although perhaps it is no better for service, and might not be considered by
many as more elegant than some of our own manufacture. There is, how-
ever, an air about it unlike what we see in our own models, and perhaps a
more desirable general effect. Here, however, tastes differ.

There is also some very handsome porcelain in the gallery, nearly over the
collection of M, Lahoche, which is very handsome. It is from the house of
Haviland & Co,, Lemoges ; some of the specimens are exceedingly beautiful.
There is an agency for this house at 47 John street, in this city.

Near by stands a piece of workmanship of great interest. It is a tree,
in the branches of which are eight birds, all but one of them in motion, and
some of them sing; two or three hop from bough to bough, others move
without quitting their position ; one of them is on her nest, and very
accurately imitates the motions of the living bird. Indeed the whole is an
admirable specimen of imitation. At the root of the tree is a time-piece.
This is exhibited by Bontems, de Paris.

A short distance from the locality last alluded to, in the section of The
German States, a very simple affair attracts very great attention : it is
Gulliver in LilUput. Those who have read the story at once recognize this
illustration of it. Our hero fell asleep among the miniature specimens of
humanity, who are in great alarm at the appearance of so huge a monster.
The civil, religious, and military are all called into requisition, to consult how
they can free themselves from this dangerous presence. After a while, how-
ever, they become more bold, and as he sleeps, they fasten ropes round his
fingers, which are manned by large numbers of them, who exert themselves
in vain upon so huge an object; others, who are soldiers, fasten scores of
arrows in his coat, which adhere to the nap; others, more daring, climb up,
by means of a ladder, &c., and reconnoitre his huge proportions; some enter
his pockets; one bold spirit climbs up on his nose and another on his toe,
though several unhappily meet with dangerous and perhaps fatal falls, as they

184 THK GREAT EXHIBITIOX.

prosecute these bold attempts. The mothers and grandmothers of our
readers are all familiar with the s'ory, which we have not seen for many
years. This exhibition is by Fleischmann, Soniieburg.

Near by stand some exquisite cuttings in wood and ivory, of miniature
size. One of these is a girl standing before a glass, combing her hair. As
you look at her through the mirror, every feature of her face is perfect. By
her side is a girl at a linen wheel. Beautiful flower-pots belong to the same
collection.

Other specimens of carved wood, very handsome, by J. G. Lange, Erben,
are next at hand. Proceeding on, we have a handsome collection of ])aint-
ings, some iwenty-five or thiity in number, of various sizes. '1 hey all are
evidently German, and of course, (almost) all good. These are exhibited by
Mr. Ph. Bohrnlander, Niirnburg.

Next we notice an elegantly wrought cloak, specimens of raised worsted
work, and very handsome straw work bv C. L. Weppler, Wurtetnburg.

Going on to the gallery towards Fortieth street, we find a collection of
statuettes which to a merely casual observer will present no especial points of
interest; but a slight attention convinces you at once that here is the work-
manship of a master. We passed this collection several times without stop-
ping to examine it. When we began to look at the articles, we spent one or
two hours over them ; and shall probably spend much more in future visits.
We refer to the collection of Parian marble statuettes, by W. T. Copeland, of
London. The collection is extensive and all the specimens are good. But
some are of especial interest ; among these are Sabrina ; Rebecca ; Paul and
Virginia, Paul being represented as just returned to his sister, bearing a bird's
nest in his hand; an Indian girl; Nubian girl; the Silent Cupid (the little
fellow's face has something very much like a pout); Ino and Bacchus; the
Love Story Va^e ; theKeiurn from the Vintage, a beautiful design, admirably
executed ; antique Vase, of great value, the price being $63, for what you
could put in your pocket without inconvenience ; the Prodigal's Return ; .the
Struggle for a Heart, two Cupids exerting themselves to the utmost to gain
possession of it; the Etrusean Vase, also of great value, the price being
*148 ; the Four Seasons ; Queen Victoria and four of her children ; the Piper
and companion ; the Conchologist ; and the Four Seasons, after the Dutch >tyle.
Others are worthy of mention, but these are peculiarly noticeable. _ All are
graceful in posture, ingenious in design, and of admirable workmanship.

On a table, side by side with this, is handsome porcelain, or imitation of
Sevres ware, by John Rose & Co. It is of very superior quality.

We have thus made a beginning, though scarcely a drop in the bucket,
bnt yet a beginning of our'report of this exhibition. The mechanical de-
partment is not yet in operation, and the agricultural needs more minute
description and illustration than we are yet prepared to give. The whole
exhibiti(m is immense and admirable, infinitely beyond any thing ever before
seen in this country. About the time our readers receive this, all will be
ready for their examination. The statues and pictures may each occupy an
entire day, and the whole cannot be examined with any degree of particu-
larity without consuming several days. There are, however, prominent
oV)jects, which may be selected, for special notice, while others are merely
glanced at, and it is this list which we have here commenced. We shall
continue it in future numbers, while we shall also commence a methodical
and full examination of the agricultural and mechanical departments. Our
pages now are full, and w^e must wait another opportunity ere we proceed
further.

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC. 185

MECHANICAL AND AGRICULTURAL RECORD, ETC.

Lateral Oar Motion. — Mr. J. M. Smart, of the Harlem railroad, has con-
structed an arrangement to save tlie lateral strike of the lateral motion of cars.
His arrangement consists in the inserting of a spring of proper size and tension
in each end of the hanging beam. The arrangement is much admired.

Safety Platform. — Mr. J. M. Smart has invented and constructed such a
platform now used on the small cars of the Harlem railroad. It consists of a
table suspended on proper wires under the usual platform. Besides being a
safety to brakemen, and others, it protects the passenger against much dust and
noise, produced by the running motion. Patent pending.

The Equalizing Beam is another improvement by Mr. Smart, of the Harlem
road, designed for small cars. In this contrivance the box is in the middle of a
beam, on each end of which are springs, upon which the car rests. Hence the
car rests on four springs per side, and not on two as is commonly the case.

RuGGLEs's Rotary Fan-Blower. — Solomon W. Ruggles, of Fitchburg, Mass.,
has invented some improvements in the Rotary Fan. One improvement is, that
it has more fans than are commonly used. Another is, that the fans on the face-
plate are circular, the circle having a radius to conform to the circumference of
the face-plate. Another improvement is, that each fan diminishes in depth at
the point of extf^rnal termination ; a lip also is constructed on the edge of the
fan, which has i width increasing with the decrease of the width of the ftm.
The advantage claimed for the above peculiarities are: 1st, a steady blast; 2d,
a saving of haw the power needed to secure a given amount of wind. Patent
pending.

Whitney's Supporter. — Mr. George L. Whitney, Fitchburg, Mass., Superin-
tendent of jcomoiion on the Vermont and Massacliusetts Railroad, has invented
an ingenious support for welding iron on to the top surface at the end of a rail-
road rail, which has become flattened by use. It consists of two dies, one
stationary and the other movable, fixed in a substantial frame, one face of each
die bting made to suit the shape of the side of a T rail. The heated end of the
rail is up between the dies, which are made to hug up the rail, and keep it in its
original form, while the process of welding on the addition is carried forward.
The plan works well, and is economical.

New Steam Gauge. — Mr. D. T. Briggs, engineer on the Harlem railroad, has
invented a new gauge for the locomotive. It is constructed with a square-inch
tube inserted into the boiler. To the inner cavity of said tube a movable plug
is fitted, steam tight. This plug is kept in place by the pressure of a spiral
spring on tlie outer end, by which spring the pressure of the steam in the boiler
is countei'balanced. The motion given to the stoam-tight, yet movable plug, is
communicated to a bar and an index on a dial-plate, thus indicating the pressure
of tlie steam in the boiler. The contrivance is simple, easily and economically
applied, and we hope may prove of great utility.

New- York and Erie Railroad. Charles Minot, Superintendent. — The re-
pairs are made in four shops, one shop to a section. The eastern division is at
Piermont, Rockland Co., N. Y. Harvey Rice, Superintendent of motive-power.
At this shop they make and repair cars and locomotives. The iron shops have
nineteen lathes, from 12 to 29 inches sweep; one double car-axle lathe; one
spliner; five power, two compound, and two hand planers ; eight upright drills;
three driving-wheel lathes, from 5 to 8.^ feet sweep ; two driving-axle lathes;
one quartering machine ; three bolt-cutters ; two borers for car-wheels ; and
other tools in proportion. J. P. Lewis, D. M. Robertson, W. W. Willett, John
Wood, M. B. Harrington, and others, are foremen in these shops. In the wood
shops, having all the common machines, M. D. Strickland is foreman of con-

186 MECHAMCAL RECORD, ETC.

struction, with fifty-two liands ; L. Gardner, foreman of repairs, having seven-
teen hands. Forge shop has twenty-two files and one trip-hamnier, J. W.
Denton, foreman. E. E. Roberts is foreman of copper shop ; Chauncy Barnes,
pattern-maker; J. D. Browen, upholsterer. Foundry attached, R. E. Fallcen-
bury, foreman. The road has 143 locomotives, David L. Halstead, Charles
Stott, and others, engmeers.

Railroad Tcxnels. — There are some pretty extensive holes in the ground on
the line of the Covington and Lexington Railroad. Grant's Tunnel, ten miles
from Covington, is just finished It is 2,167 feet long, and about 300 feet below
the surface of the earth. Anderson's Tunnel, on the same road, is 7G3 feet long,
and 100 feet below the surface.

The Great Ship Canal. — It is stated that the projected canal, uniting the
Delaware and Chesapeake Bay, will commence at Chester River, and ternn'nate
at Bombay Hook, passing close up to the town of Smyrna. It will be 100 feet
wide on top, and 20 feet deep, or large enough to pass any vessel that can now
visit the poits of Philadelphia or Baltimore. Its length will be from twenty to
thirty miles. The Agents of the Company express their determination, if there
is any difficulty, to buy all the land along the routes. The Blue Hens Chicken
says that the citizens of Smyrna, who are extremely desirous of seeing the
work in operation, talk of applying to the Governor to call an extra session of
the Legislature.

Barron, the Chinese traveller, computes that there is more material in the
great w^all of China than in all the houses of England and Scotland.

Cotton in Africa. — Thirty varieties of cotton have been found growing spon-
taneously in Africa. A missionary says he has stood erect under the branches
of a cotton tree in a Goulah village, so heavily laden with bolls, that it was
propped up with forked sticks to prevent it from breaking under its own weight.
The cotton was equal to that of any country. The natives manufacture cotton
goods extensively.

Flax Culture and Flax Cotton in Indiana. — Mr. R. T. Brown, of Craw-
fordsville, in a communication to Governor Wright, President of the Indiana
State Board of Agriculture, says :

" I send 3'ou enclosed a few samples of ' Flax Cotton,' presented to me by the
Hon. H. L. Ellsworth, of Lafayette. Mr. Ellsworth has secured the machinery
necessary for the manufacture of cotton, and will have it in operation early in
the season. He has on hand the ' stem' grown on 120 acres last season, which,
from experiments already made, will, he supposes, yield about 300 lbs. per acre
of cotton, similar to No. 2 of the encMsed specimens. The expense of reducing
the fibre to this state, after the stem is produced, is about two cents per pound,
which at the usual price for cotton, (ten cents,) will leave eight cents per pound,
or $24 per acre for the farmer who produces it. To this must be added the
value of the seed, which will range from $0 to $8 per acre, giving a final result
of $20 at least for each acre. This is Mr. Ellsworth's calculation ; it may be too
high ; but if we allow for the magnifying effect of his zeal one-third, or even
one-half, still flax would be as profital)le a crop, in proportion to the amount of
labor required to produce it, as any one of the staples of the country,"

Lumber Trade in Alabama. — Getting out spars for the navy is a profitable
business in Alabama, and the pine forests furnish the finest kind. They are
principally obtained for the French navy. The lumber trade generally has
become a very important one, and the exportation of it from Mobile is quite
extensive. Steam saw-mills are found all along the two rivers and elsewhere.

Preserving Posts. — The Agent of the Copperas Companies, in Vermont, gives
it as his experience that timber which has been saturated with copperas, and
exposed to all weather for forty years, is perfectly sound and hard, and has
become something of the nature of stone.

Timber that has been soaked in copperas water, say one pound copperas to

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC. 187

one pail of water, will last more than twice as long as that which has not been
thus prepared. Copperas is 1^ cents per pound.

Horses and Tobacco. — The Rome Journal gives the following hint whereby
trees may be saved from being gnawed by horses, from which they suffer so
much in exposed situations, when used as hitching-posts :

" Strangers will tie their horses to the trees from which I can least spare the
bark they eat off, while their masters are rambling about, and I have just been
washing the trunks of two or three evergreens with tobacco-juice, (said to be a

six months' disguster for the worst kind of crib-biter,) when neighbor S ,

with his white locks flowing over his shoulders, and his calmly-genial face beam-
ing from under his broad-brimmed hat, drove down the avenue, a moving picture
among the beautiful cedars and hemlocks that made them more beautiful than
before. We tied his horse to one of the tobaccoed cedars, which the fine animal,
a splendid bay, opened teeth upon, and immediately backed off to the length of
his halter, taking an attitude of repugnance, in which we found him on our
return."

Purifying Oil. — J. P. Wilson, of London, patentee. This improvement con-
sists in depriving oleic acid of its objectionable smell, so as to render it fit for
preparing wool for manufacturing. He is evidently not acquainted with the Ame-
rican invention of using steam for the same purpose. The bad odor of the oleic
acid is dispelled by heating it in a vessel heated with high-pressure steam, and
kept at a temperature of 400° Fahr., for about four hours. It is afterwards cooled
down by the introduction of cold water, when it is fit for use.

Another of the Same. — George Hutchinson, of Glasgow, patentee. This
invention consists in imparting additional fluidity to lard or tallow oil, or other
oils of a naturally viscid character, by combining them with chloric ether, so as
to give them a character resembling sperm oil. The chloric is found to produce
the best effect when used in the proportion of one part to two parts by measure
of neutral tallow oil.

A Paint for Brick Houses. — A correspondent of the OTiio Farmer has used
a cheap and very durable paint for the exterior of brick dwellings, which has
already stood several years, and is now quite as fresh as when first applied. It
consists simply of lime-wash, with sulphate of zinc as a fixing ingredient. Any
requisite shade is given by adding the colors used by house-painters. A clear
and rich cream color may be obtained by applying yellow ochre to the common
new brick ; a livelier and warmer shade will be added by a little Venetian red.
Burnt senna may likewise be used. This paint is far cheaper than oil-paint,
and costs but little more than common whitewash.

Texas Salt. — The New-Orleans Ticayune has received a sample of Texas
salt, taken from a salt-lake seven miles from Corpus Christi. It is said the
supply is inexhaustible. Small boats can run up to the beds, and 100 bushels is
the average product to the boat per diem.

Railway in Asia. — The first railway in Asia was opened at Bombay amid a
vast concourse of people, and unprecedented rejoicings, on the 16th of April.

North Carolina Copper Company. — The advices from the North Carolina
Copper Company's Mines continue to be very favorable. The vein grows richer
the deeper it is opened, and the force on the location are now taking out about
six tons per day of 20 and 25 per cent. ore.

The New-London and Willimantic Railroad has just been connected with
the Worcester and Norwich road, by an Act of the Connecticut Legislature,

Geological Calculation. — In a paper read by Sir Charles Lyell, a short
time previous to his arrival in this city, before the Royal Society in London, on
the coal-fields of Nova Scotia, says the Scientific American, he entered into
speculations respecting the solid matter contained in the carboniferous formation

188 MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC.

of that country. He believes it was once a delta like that of the Mississippi,
and that the formations were produced by river inundation drifts. The avciage
thickness of the whole of the coal measures is three miles, and the area, includ-
ing the fields of New-Brunswick, &c., may coniprit^e 3(),0U0 square miles, or
108,000 cubic miles; but taking the half of this, it would be 54,000 cubic miles
of solid matter. It would take more than two millions of years for the Missis-
sippi River to convey to the Ciulf of Mexico an equal amount of solid mattei' at
the rate of 450,000 cubic feet per second, as calculated by Mr. Forshey. This
is a subject for deep reflection and examination by all Biblical geologists espe-
cially. Sir Charles Lyell found fossil reptilian remains, and a land-shell in the
interior of a fossil tree in a Nova Scotia coal-field.

Cherky Stains. — These can easily be removed from white fobrics, by dipping
the stained parts in a pretty strong solution of saleratus. The stains of most
other fruits may be eradicated by the same process.

A Monster Cherry Tree. — There is in the town of Shawangunk, Ulster
county, on the premises of John Bruyn, Esq., a cherry tree of such size, btauty,
and productiveness, as cannot, perhaps, be excelled in our country. This tree
measuies 13 feet in circumference around the trunk immediately under the limbs,
and 50 feet across the extreme point of one limb to that of another immediately
opposite. It cannot be IcbS than 45 feet in height. It is in full bearing, and is
estimated to produce a wagon-load of fruit in one season.

Ancient Pear Tree. — The pear tree standing near the corner of Twenty-
third street and Thiid Avenue, in this city, and known as the " Stuyvesant ptar-
tree," which is nearly 250 years old, is now in fruit. The tree was planted by
the hero of " Knickerbocker," the well-known Governor Stuyvesant.

Remarkable Clock. — The following is a description of an ingenious and
elaborately-finished clock, manufactured by E. Henderson, LL.D., of Liverpool,
Eng. It is said that it will not vary one minute in a thousand years :

The clock will show the minutes and hours of the day ; the sun's place in the
ecliptic ; the day of the month perpetually, and take leap-year into account ; the
moon's age, place, and phases ; the apparent diurnal revolutions of the moon ;
the ebb and flow of the sea in any port in the world ; the golden number, epact,
solar cycle, Roman indiction, Sunday letter, Julian period; the mean time of
the rising and setting of the sun on every day of the year, with its teims and
fixed movable feasts. The day of the week will be indicated, and the year will
be registered for ten thousand years past and to come : — the quickest wheel
revolving in one minute, the slowest in ten thousand years from the date. To
show the very great accuracy of the motions in this complicated clock, a few of
the periods may be noted, namely : the apparent diurnal revolution of the
moon is accomplished in 24 hours, 50 minutes, 58 seconds, and 879,882,268
decimals of a second, which makes an error of one minute too fas*, at the end
of 1,470 3'ears. The stars will make a revolution in 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4
seconds, and 09,087,284 decimals of a second, which gives an error of one minute
too slow, at the termination of 589|- years. The synodical revolution of the
moon is done by the wheels in 29 days, 12 hours, 3 minutes, 2 seconds, and
872,544,288 decimals of a second, and this will give an erior of one minute too
fast in 1,167 years. The sidereal year is done in 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes,
11 seconds, and 53,322,496 decimals of a second, which will make an error of
one minute too slow in 1,806 years. The clock will go one hundred years with-
out requiring to be wound up, which is unequalled in horological science. It
contains about one hundred and seventy wheels and pinions, and upwards of
three hundred distinct pieces.

New Rock Drill. — George Stancliif and Robert J. Gaines, of Middletown,
Conn., have made an improvement in the construction of drills for drilling rocks,
&c. The drill is made in the form of a chisel with a long vertical square stem,
which has ratchets upon each side of it, by which it is raised. Two clutches or
inverted palls, hung in a clutch-box, which is operated by a long forked lever.

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC. 189

catch the stem of the drill where it passes through the said clutch-box, and raise
it until the opposite end of the clutches meet the incline of a wedge-shaped
recess projecting below a cross beam in the frame of the drill. Upon the top of
this beam is a ratchet wheel, and the drill-rod passes through a square opening
in its centre. Motion is given to the drill by means of a pall, which is operated
by a vertical rod, worlced by the lever which raises and lowers the drill. Mea-
sures have been taken to secure a patent.

MAcnixE FOB Cutting and Sawing Bevels.— A machine for cutting and
sawing bevels of every description has been invented by Alfred C. Cook, Rus-
selville, Ky. The nature of Mr. Cook's improvement consists in making the
bed or platform upon which the plank or board to be cut is placed, so that it
will vibrate to give the required bevel. If it be desired to adjust the position of
the platform to any particular mitre or incline, it is readily done by means of an
mdex plate set vertically at the end of the platform. By means of a metallic
pomter upon this index a bevel of any required number of degrees may be
given to the platform taken in connection with the saw, which is hung in the
stationary part of the frame which supports the bed-piece. Any required taper
lengthwise, may at the same time be given to the board cut, by adjusting guide
pieces, or side rails, attached to the saw-bed. The inventor has taken nfeasures
to secure a patent.

MAcnixE FOR Making Nuts and Washers. — D. Howell, of Louisville, Ky.
has invented a machine for this work, for which he has made application for
letters patent. The mandrel in this machine is moved by eccentrics upon the
driving-shaft of the machine ; it works very rapidl}^, and cuts the nuts and
washers, and punches the holes by the same operation or motion to the mandrel.
The iron is fed to the machine in a heated state, and the nuts are deposited by
the action of the machine in a receptacle provided for the purpose.

Improvement in Machines for Harvesting Grain.— A new machine for har-
vesting grain has been invented by James N. Wilson, Isaiah Marsh, and George
Kirk, of Waukegan, III., in which several new and important features have been
introduced. Among them is a mode of preventing the teeth or cutters from
becoming clogged by leaves of grass, &g. ; this is effected by making the fingers,
through which the sickle or cutter-bar slides, open upon the top, and adding a
set of small clamps to keep the cutter-bars in their proper place. Measures
have been taken to secure a patent.

Unloading of Hay.— We have lately seen a method of unloading hay with very
greai rapidity, which may sometimes be of much service, and if barns are con-
structed with reference to such operations, it will always be valuable.

This method consists in preparing a sort of net-work, made of strong cords or
ropes, one of which is laid on the floor of the hay wagon. VYhen half or other
convenient portion of the load is pitched on to the wagon, another similar netting
is laid over the top of the load, and more hay is pitched on, as it may be desired.
Pulleys suspended from the ridge-pole are attached to these ropes, when the
wagon has been driven into the barn, and by such purchase as may be necessary
the contents of the several nets are hoisted and thrown into the mow in a few
seconds. The cost of such contrivances is said to be about fifteen dollars.

Franklin Co. (0,.,) Fair.— We have received from Mr. Brush, the President of
the Agricultural Society of this County, a list of premiums for the apj)roaching
fair. Pretmums are offered for f\irms, farm-crops, cattle, sheep, swine, horses
(blood and roadsters, and draft,) poultry, f\irm-implements, domestic manufac-

r^l' /•'^^'^•^' ,^^^^ese, vegetables, apples, peaches, quinces, pears, and flowers.

Ihe fair is held on the 28th, 29th, and 30ih September.

They have, for their fair grounds, "a beautiful site, of eight acres, within two
nailes of the centre of the city of Columbus, well enclosed, and two-thinls of it
clear of timber and stumps, with offices, two halls, one 125 and the other 75 feet
on^, and each 30 feet wide; stalls for horses, cattle, &c. A dining-hall and
kitchen are about to be erected. The whole cost of this is about $i,000, and the
Jbociety is not in debt. ^ > i

190 NEW BO(^KS.

To Purify a Stable. — Besides the means alluded to on another [age of this
number, in an article on Manures, a mixture of Epsom salts and plaster of Paris
is very efficient in destroying the efBuvia.

Hudson River Railroad. — Edmund French, Superintendent of road ; E P.
Gould, Superintendent of repairs. Road has one hundred and forty-four miles
of track, and fifty miles of double track. Locomotives, fifty. New-York Repair
Shop, iron, has eight lathes, two planes, two drills, and other tools in projiortion.
Wm. Buchanan, foreman. Forge-shop has ten fiies, one trip-hammer. Wood-
shop has one hundred and fifty men employed to watch the track and lift the
signals.

Back Numbers Wanted. — For the following numbers of the Plough, the
Loorti, and the Anvil, first cost will be allowed. Please forward :

Volume 1, Nos. 4, 5, and 7.

"2, " 3, 6, and 12.

" 3' " 1 and 2.

"4. "7.

NEW-YORK AS IT IS,

Sundry places and objects of interest in and around New- York were described
in our la^t journal, and we need not repeat. Inadvertently, however, we made
one mistake :

Madame Thillon is at Niblo's, and has appeared only in that favorite place
of amusement. She alternates from day to day with the Ravel Family, who,
three timt s each week, go thioueh their wonderful perfoimances. Theirs is the
only exhibition of that kind which we have ever witnessed with decided satisfac-
tion. Madame Thillon is as attractive as ever, so that every evening the house
is crowded.

Madame Sontag and her admirable troupe, while we write, are just closing a
triumphant series of operas at Castle Garden. Never has New-Yoi k witnessed
the like. Sontag, Steffanone, Patti Strakosch, Salvi, Badiali, Makini, Poz-
zoLiNi, RovERE, Rosi, aiid others, form a company that never has had an equal
on this contintnt.

Slie is to be succeeded by the " Monstbe Ouchestre" of Jullien, Paris, said
to be the best in the world.

NEW BOOKS.

The Opera of Norma. By V. Bellini, with Italian nnd Englifch words. Boston:

Oliver Dit on, 115 Washington street. 4to, 165 pages.

Mr. D tson has here given the iiuisical pi.bl c a real gem, in a setting -worthy of
'the com] ost-r and of his beautilul work. In this edition, there is an occasional
transposition of the key, to hriiig the music with n the range of voices of ordinary
compass, op^ra mi. sic often extending much hiyher in the scale than most of that
arrangt d for the piano-forte. In tlie jireparation of tliis work, the highest nuii-ical
l.alenl has been employed, and so far as we can perceive, wiih very t-atisfactory
results. Tliis is the first of a seiies of operas, to be publisrhed in uniform style.

BertiwbS Piano Method Abridged. Boston: 0. Ditson, 115 Washington street. 115

pages.

The oiiginal of this standaid work was a cumber^-ome volume. This abridge-
ment, \\hich i> by the author himself, contains all that is really valuable ; is of a
more convenient size; in fact, just what was needed.

1. The Ch'vd with a Silver Lhdng,

2. Tie Star in the Desert

These two juhnirable stiries are by the author of "A Trap to catch a Sunbeam,"
&c., and are published by James Munro & Co., Boston. They are among the very

LIST OF PATENTS.

191

best of the works of this popular w.iter. No one need hesitate a moment, about
b.ym;^ either of them. Of .bese two. while both are so excellent, probably the
laiter has more to interest than the former. ' '"'""''•'^^y ^'^^

The Eongranfs; or First and Fhial Step. A True Story. By Almira Seymouh
Boston and Cambridge: James Munio <fe Co., 1853. 122 pp.
This is an interesting little volume, calculated to exert a good moral influence.

Historic Doubts, Relafive to Napoleon Bonaparte. 4th edition, from 11th London

edition. James Munru <& Co. Boston: 1853. 75 pp.

A very readable liitle work, doubting, v/\\\i more or less reason some of tho
historical statements currently believed in reference to this most remarkable man.

Wm. Hail & Sons have recently published an excellent assortment of music some
of which we ought to have noticed before this. Of these the following may be safely
purehiised though unseen: — ° -' '=°''^'='J'

"L'Heliotrope Wall z," and also six elegant waltzes, by Vincent Wallace ; "Sailor
Prince Polka,' by Chs.D Albert; "Parade Polka," by'E. Boulanger • "Friends! in
Polb.," arranged by Chs. Hcffert; " Quadribes,' from the opera o'f the PeH o^f
the Enchanted Fountain, arranged bv Dre.-sler; "Les Clociiettes " by Chs 0 D'Al
bert; "The Wellington March," (the "Gypsy Song" being heard in ii ) by the" same
xVn.ongthe song:* are, "Home is where there's one to love us " by Henry Goold •
"The Kight of Loving Thee," by W Stephen Rooke ; " Mary of the Glen "by G p'
Loot; "Song of the Breeze," and "Cottage Rose," both by L. Lavenu- "The Sm-iiia'
time of the Heart," by U. W. Glover. All these are good '^ °"

E. H. Wade & Co. have published "Beauties of Rossini's Opera " "Moses in Ea-vnf "
arranged as a fantasi.^ by G F. Hayter, 5.) cts. ; and the "Bird Song," perlormed by
Jael, and composed by Rudolph Williams, 38 cts. These are diftieult to play but
are wo, th a very lon^ practice. Whoever does not delight in them has no music
in his soul — our word for it

List of Patents issued from July 5 to August 12, 1853.

E. n. Ashcroft, of Boston, Mass., for Imjirove
ment ill Pevimssion Gauges.

C. W. Camp, of Hartford, Conu., for Improve
meut in Shot Charges.

E. H. Dickey, of Hopewell Cotton Works, Pa.,
for Impro\euieiit in Butter-wurkera.

G M. Dimmock, of Sprinafield, Mass., for Ap-
paratiis lor Iilustratins^ the Motion of a Pendulum
on the Earth's Surlace.

, f.- ?: ^'^"^' Uriionlown, Pa., for Machine for
Adjusting Dishing Saws.

J. P. Smith, of Rochesti-r, N. Y.. and 0 W
Seily. (assi iinr to O. W. Seily, of Albany, t*'\ )
lor Improved Straw-Cutters. "

N. T Coffin, of KniKhtstown, Ind., for New Mode
o F orming and Filing Teeth of Will Saws.

Charles F. Brown, of Warren, R. I., fur Improve-
ment in Acljnstable Screw Propellers.

J J. Fulton, of Allegheny City, Pa., for Improve I Linus Yale, Jr , of Newport, N Y for Lock for
ment in M.,de of Tanning. Banks. ^ , i . i ., lor i.ock lor

Smith^Gro.,ni, of Troy, N. Y., for Improvementl C. P. Baily, of Muskingliam, 0., (assi-'nor to
-n Hose Coupling. Union Patent Sola and Rlilroad Car Seat °Unu°

Richard Montgomery, assignor to EMzabeth lui'lroLd'carleat ^ ''^ ^
Montgomery, of JSew-Vork City, for Sheet Metal ^^^*-

T loo Ml a

iJeams.

Meyer Phineas, of New-York City, for Improve
ment ui Metallic Pens.

H. G. Robins..,,, of SchujlkiU Haven, Pa., for
Coin Sate and Detector.

S. T. Sindiord, Fall River, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Boring Machiues.

S. T. Barnes, of Cohimbus, O., for Improvement
m Press Mould Candlesticks

J. C. Booth, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Improve-
ent in the Processes for Obtaining Chromates.
Patented in England, Nov. 9, 1853.

A. H. Brown, of Washington Citv, D. C, for
Feathering Paddle Wheels for Steamers. Patented
m England. March 5, 1853.

192

LIST OF PATENTS.

Isaac Brown, of Baltimore, Md., for Improvement
in Diii'iug Saws.

N. T. Coffin, of Knightstown, Ind., for Impi ove-
ment in Hanging Saws.

C. J. Conway, of New-York City, for Iraprove-
meut in Lamps.

J hn Jackson, of Lnwrence, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Spinning Jacks.

Edmund Vlunson, of Utica, N. Y., for Improve-
meut iu Kyes for Millstones.

R. C. Pratt, of Canandaiijua, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in .Machines lor Ditching.

John Farrel, of Philadelphia, Pi., for Improve-
ment in Lining for Fire-prool Sates.

Bradford Rowe, of Albany, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Gripes for lloldiiig Le.^ther.

George IJ. Sdraon, oi Eimira, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Grain Winnowers. Auie-dated July (jth,
18j3.

Ephraim Treadwell, of New-York City, for Im-
provement in Uveus.

William II. Thompson, and William H. Plummer,
of BiJdelbrd, Me., for Improvement in Compres
sors lor Flyers.

P. P. Travser, of Baltimore, Md., for Improve-
ment ill Spike Machines.

S. J. Sherman, of New-York City, for Improve-
ment in Mounting Spirit Levels,

T. C. Weiidon, of Hartford, Conn., for Improve-
ment in the Manufacture of Wigs.

Charles Williams, of Ph'ladelpbia, Pa., for Ira
proveraent in Bristles lor Brushes^

Leonard Westbrook, of New-York City, for Im-
provement iu Gutta Percha Stereotype Composi-
tions.

A. 0. Wilcox, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Improve
me.it in Caloric Air Engines.

Fredeiick Hesse, (as-^i^mor to H. J. Oerter,) ot
Bethlehem, Pa., for Improvement in Paper Cut-
ting Machine.

Cyrus C. Bisbee, of Rochester, N. Y., for Im
provement in Shower-batu Tables.

Richard C. Bristol, o' Chicago, III., for Improve
meiit in Rotary Steam Engines.

Wil iam V. Burton, of Orange, O., for Improve-
ment in Ploughs.

F. B. Hunt, of Westfield, I,,d., for Improvement
in Mills lor Grinding Apples and other substances.

David A. James, of Cincinnati, 0., for Improve-
ment iu Processes lor iViaking Glue.

Owen Redmond, of Rochester, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Lamps.

Milton Satterlie, of Louisa, 111., for Improvemenl
in Seed Planters.

Wm. M. Warren, of Watertown, Conn., for Ira
provement in Railroad Car Seats.

Ezra R. Benton, of Cleveland, 0., for Improve-
ment in Bran Dusters.

Jacob H. Carothers, of Davidsburgh, Pa., for Im-
provemenl in Corn Planters.

Sylvester Davis, of Claremont, N. H,, for Im-
provement in Bee-hives.

Ziba Ourkee, of Allien, N. Y., for Improvement
in the Beaters of Smut Machines.

F. O. Deschamps, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Im-
provement iu Oumibus Lanterns.

John A. Elder, of Westbrook, Me., for Improve-
ment In Curving the Backs of Books.

Daniel P. Hinman, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Im-
provement in Dying Yarn Parti-colored.

Levi Pitman, of Tom's Brook, Va , for Im-
proved Plotting Tneodolite.

■'ackson A. Rapp, and Edward S. Wright, of Buf-
falo, N. Y., for Improvement in Straining Saws by
Compressed Air.

Frederick G. Vettercke, of New- York City, for
Improvement in Djing Compounds.

Henry Lee Norris, of New-York City, (assignor
to Samuel T, Armstrong, of same p ace,) for Im-
provement in Pieser>iiig India Rubber in the
Liquid State. Date 1 July 20, 1858 Patented in
England, Feb 2-t, 185.3; do. in r'rance, March 13.

J, A. Bazin, of Canton, Mass., for Improvement
in Reed Musical Instruments.

G.W. Brown, of Tvlerville, II!., for Improvement
in Seed Planters. Ante-dated Feb. 2d, 18-53.

Lebbeus Caswell, of Harrison, Me., for Improve-^
ment m Seed Planters.

S. R. Cline, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Wati-r Regulator lor Steam Boilers.

H. B. Conant, of Geneva, Wis., for Improvement
in Abdominal Snpporteis.

T J. Eddy, of Waterford, N. Y., for Improvement
in Railroad Car Wheels.

C. S. Boyntiin, of New-York City, for Improve-
ment in Paper Ruling .Machines.

J. R. Miller, of Jersey City, N. J., for Improve-
ment in Submarine Tunnels.

J. A. Scholfield, of Westerly, R. I., for Improve-
ment in Temples for Looms.

John M. Reeder, of Memphis, Tenn.,for Improve-
ment in Ste.im Boilers.

J. R. Rich rdson, Jas. Waterman, and Ebenezer
Wilder, of New-Castle, Pa., for luiprovemeut in
.Machines for Making Sp kes.

I S. Richardson, of Boston, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Atmospheric Telegraph and Railway. Pa-
tented in England, Uec. 7,1852.

S. P RuErgles, of Boston, Mass., for Improvement
in Printing Presses. Anle-duttd Feb. 2, 1853.

Nathan Thompson, Jr., of Williamsbnrgh, N. Y. ,
or liuprovenieiit in Indicating the Height of Water
in Steam Boilers.

William Van Anden, of Poughkecpsie, N. Y., for
(mprovemeuts in Machinery for Making Radroad

Chairs.

Stephen Waterman, of Williamsbnrgh, N. Y.,
'or Improvement in ( ibvialing the Danger from
Steam Boiler Explo-ions.

Jesse Young, of Franklin Furnace, 0., for Im-
provement in Arrangement of Pipes tor llut Blast
urnaces.

J. T. Coupler and M. A. C. Mellier, of Paris,
Fmnce, fur Improvement iu the Manufacture of
P.ipcr St'.i£f.

Julios Herriet of New- York City, (assignor to J.
Gavlord Wells, of Hartford, Ct., ti.r loipriueinent
in Elastic Type lor Printing on Irregular Surlaces.

A. 0. Wilt-ox, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Hot Air Engines.

G. T. Parry, of Spring Garden, Pa., (a signor to
John Rtie, of PhiUide'phia, Pa.,) for Improvement
in Anti-Friction Boacs.

Cljf |l0ugl), tl|c f dom, ml i\}t ^ml

Part L— Vol. VT. OCTOBER, 1853. No. 4.

FREE TRADE AS AN EXPEREVIENT.

In our last number we gave some exhibitions of the nature and effect of
British Free Trade, as illustrated in some of the British colonies, and else
where. We propose now to extend this exhibition.

It is true that the English operative, through some cause, buys a loaf of
bread now at almost half the price paid for it a few years ago ; and the ad-
vocates of the British system, in view of this fact, toss up their caps, and
shout at the top of their voices. They do not seem disposed to inquire into
the real causes which induced this state of things, nor at the inevitable and
ruinous consequences that result to other operatives, as needy as he. It mat-
ters not whether the Irishman or the Indian gains or loses by this curious
mixture of prohibitory taxes and " Free Trade ;" taxes which shut out mil-
lions from the power to manufacture, and compel them to depend on agricul-
ture, while the door of " Free Trade," for the introduction of agricultural
products from all countries, is thrown wide open, thereby diminishing their
price in the market, and making the work of farming a pro6tless business at
the best. The result in England is a constant decrease in the number of land-
holders.' The price of crops is not remunerative, and hence the condition of
agriculture is unfavorable ; and the system which produces such results is,
most probably, in the light of this fact alone, unsound in principle. To cheap-
en labor, in any useful branch of industry, below a healthy, paying rate, is not
to the advantage of any community. Could the colonial laborer turn his
hand to any other employment, or find a community at home able to buy, it
would be comparatively well. But where all are producers, in a small way,
and of the same commodity, there can be no purchasers. Hence profitable
labor is actually and inevitably an impossibility. This gain in the price of
bread, in England, is but an apt illustration of the Irishman's blanket, which,
being too short at the top, he cut oft" at the bottom, and sewed the piece
on to the top. This policy may be gain, for the time being, to one class of
British operatives " at home," but it is death to many British subjects else
Avhere.

So it must be under such a system. If the blanket covers the laborer in
England, the Irish laborer is left unwarmed. The only cure that we know of
is to get a larger blanket. Change the policy, and the results will change.
The consequences of this system on the colonies, as shown in the preceding
number, are not accidental, nor temporary. If there is not demand for labor,
so as to give profitable employment to a community, it will not be an indus-
trious community. Where a comfortable support is even doubtful, we shall
VOL, VI. — PART IV. 13

194 FREE TRADE AS AN EXPERIMENT.

only witness disaffection, and anxiety, and despair, where there should be
cheerful hope, courage, and confidence.

Let us now go on with our illustrations; and first we will take a short view
of the state of things in Portugal, as they are related to this policy.

" It is now," says Mr. Carey in his last work, " a century and a half
since England granted her what were desmed highly important advantages
in regard to wine, on condition that she should discard the artisans who had
been brought to the side of her farmers, and permit the people of England
to supply her people with certain descriptions of manufactures. What were
the duties then agreed on are not given in any of the books now at hand,
but by the provisions of a treaty made in 1810, cloths of all descnptions
were to be admitted at a merely revenue duty, varying from 10 to 15 per
cent. A natural consequence of this system has been that the manufactures
which up to the date of the Methuen treaty had risen in that country, per-
ished under foreign competition, and the people found themselves by degrees
limited exclusively to agricultural employments. Mechanics found there no
place for the exercise of their talents, towns could not grow, schools could not
arise, and the result is seen in the following paragraph : —

*■ It is surprising how ignorant, or at least superficially acquainted, the
Portuguese are with every kind of handicraft; a carpenter is awkward and
clumsy, spoiling every work he attempts ; and the way in which the doors
and woodwork even of good houses are finished would have suited the rudest
ages. Their carriages of all kinds, fi'om the fidalgo's family coach to the
peasant's market-cart, their agricultural implements, locks and keys, &c., are
ludicrously bad. They seem to disdain improvement, and are so infinitely
below par, so strikingly inferior to the rest of Europe, as to form a sort of
disgraceful wonder iti the middle of the nineteenth century.' — Batllie.

The population, which, half a century since, was 3,683,000, is now reduced
to little more than 3,000,000 ; and we need no better evidence of the enslav-
ing and exhausting tendency of a policy that limits a whole people, men,
women, and children, to the labors of the field. At the close almost of a
century and a half of this system, the following is given in a work of high
reputation, as a correct picture of the state of the country and the strength
of the Government :

' The finances of Portugal are in the most deplorable condition, the treasury
is dry, and all branches of the public service suffer. A carelessness and a
mutual apathy reign not only throughout the Government, but also through-
out the nation. While improvement is sought every where else throughout
Europe, Portugal remains stationary. The postal service of the country
offers a curious example of this, nineteen to twenty-one days being still
required for a letter to go and come between Lisbon and Braganza, a distance
of 423i kilometres, (or a little over 300 miles.) All the resources of the
state are exhausted and it is pi'obable that the receipts will not give one-
third of the amount, for which they figure in the budget.' — Annuaire de
VEconomie Politique^ 1849, 322.' "

Contrast with this description the flourishing condition of Belgium. Here
is a small country, about one third the size of Ireland, with a population com-
paratively larger, and with a soil naturally inferior to that of the Emerald
Isle. We are informed that all classes of the people there are prosperous.
In the language of Mr. Carey, "the 'Crowbar Brigade' is here unknown, and
it may be doubted whether any term conveying the meaning oi eviction is to

FREE TRADE AS AN EXPERIMENT. 195

be found in their vocabulary." And what is the cause of this great prosper-
ity ? It is emphatically stated by the same eminent writer, that " these peo-
ple have employment for every hour in the 5'ear, and they find a market close
at hanJl for every thing they can raise. They are not forced to confine them-
selves to cotton or sugar, tobacco or wheat; nor are they forced to waste their
labor in carrying their products to a distance so great that no manure can be
returned. From this country there is no export of men, women, and child-
ren , as we see in Ireland."

"With every advantage of soil and chmate, the population of Portugal
declines, and her people become more enslaved from day to day, while her
Government is driven to repudiation of her debts. Belgium, on the contrary,
grows in wealth and population, and her people become more free ; and the
cause of the difference is, that the policy of the former has always looked to
repelling the artisan, and thus preventing the growth of towns, and of the
habit of association : while that of the latter has always looked to bringing
the artisan to the raw material, and thus enabling her people to combine their
efibrts for their improvement in material, moral, and intellectual condition,
without which there can be no increase of freedom."

There is a vast deal of difference between bringing the artisan to the raw ma-
terial and carrying the raw material to the artisan. This difterence is almost, if
not quite, as great as betvveen asking, Who loill buy my (/oods ? and having
our ears greeted with the question, Will you sell me?

The German States furnish another illustration of our doctrine. We again
cite from Mr. Carey.

" In 1825, Germany exported almost thirty miUions of pounds of raw wool
to England, where it was subject to a duty of twelve cents per pound for the
privilf^ge of passing through the machinery there provided for its manufac-
ture into cloth. Since that time, the product has doubled, and yet not only
has the export almost ceased, but much foreign wool is now imported for the
purpose of mixing with that produced at home. The efl'ect of this has, of
course, been to make a large market for both food and wool that would
otherwise ha\e been pi'essed on the market of England, with great reduction in
the price of both ; and woollen cloths are now so cheaply produced in Ger-
many, that they are exported to almost all parts of the world. Wool is
higher and cloth is lower, and, therefore, it is, as we shall see, that the people,
are now so much better clothed.

At the date of the formation of the Union, the total import of raw cotton
and cotton-yarn was about 300,000 cwts., but so rapid was the extension of
the manufacture, that in less than six years it had doubled, and so cheaply
were cotton goods supplied, that a large export trade had already arisen. In
1845, when the Union was but ten years old, the import of cotton and yarn
had reached a million of hundred v.'eights, and since that time there has
been a lai-ge increase. The iron manufacture also grew so rapidly that,
whereas, in 1834, the consumption had been only e/evew pounds per head,
in 1847 it had risen to hventy-five pounds, having thus more than doubled ;
and with each step in this direction, the people were obtaining better jiaachinery
for cultivating the land and for converting its raw products into manufactured
ones.

In no country has there been a more rapid increase in this diversification
of employments, and increase in the demand for labor, than in Germany
since the formation of the Union. Every where throughout the country
men are now becoming enabled to combine the labors of the workshop with

196 FREE TRADE AS AN EXPERIMENT.

those of the field and the garden ; and, says Mr. Kay in his "Social Condi-
tion and Educjition of the People of England and Europe," vol. i., p. 256 :

'The social and economical results of this cannot be rated too'highly.
The interchange of garden labor with manufacturing employments, which is
advantageous to the operative in his own house, is a re;il luxury and necessity
for the factory operative, whose occupations are almost always necessarily
prejudicial to health. After his day's labor in the factories, he experiences a
physical reinvigoration from moderate labor in the open air, and, moreover,
he derives from it some economical advantages. He is enabled by this means
to cultivate at least part of the vegetables which his family require for their
consumption, instead of having to purchase them in the market at a consider-
able outlay. He can sometimes also keep a cow, which supplies liis family
with milk, and provides a healthy occupation for his wife and children when
they leave the factory,' "

Among the results of this policy, agriculture is constantly making pro-
gress, and is carried on with energy and skill. Nearly every man, including
shopkeepers, laborers, &c., has his little garden, and as many as possible, a
small farm. The consumption of iron has increased from 11 lbs. per head
in 1834, to 25 lbs. in 1847.

Where land is valuable, and markets are accessible, there alone can men
be free and independent. Elsewhere they are entirely at the control of the
capitalists and land-owners, who Avill exact from them the utmost farthing.
Proprietorship is of itself an honorable position, and tends to create energy
and excite activity. It is a fountain of light, at which hope is kindled. It
guarantees, under the circumstances described, a good reward for labor. The
owner of the soil has a home, where he is happy, and he has a country which
secures him in the peaceful possession of it. Hence this policy tends -to pro-
duce good morals in individuals, families and neighborhoods ; and this alone
can make contented and patriotic citizens.

And what is the inference from the short sketch of facts and results now
before the reader ? We do not claim that it proves the importance of tariffs,
high or low ; but it does prove this : that the prosperity of English manufac-
tures is the result, in part, at least, of an almost entire monopoly of the right
to manufacture, or a monopoly created by high taxes on machinery, through-
out the British colonies, while breadstuff being almost the only thing left the
poor and oppressed colonist, he, of necessity, cultivates and sells this to the
English merchant at barely living prices, or at higher rates, through agents,
and commission houses, who use up all the profit.

He must of necessity supply the raw material or the food for the English
manufacturer, who grows rich on his penury. The English operative, while
he supports himself and his family on very low wages, adds many fold to the
value of the raw material which the colonist has produced but on which he
is not permitted to expend any labor, and buys for himself and his family
at low prices, the food raised by the same colonist, who is, perhaps, scantily
fed and clad, because British policy forbids his applying his strength and slcill
to those, forms of labor which give to England much of her strength, and
very much of her resources. This is not the kind oi free trade advocated iii
parliaments, nor that contended for in the books.

HISTORY OF THE CATAWBA GRAPE. 197

HISTORY OF THE CATAWBA GRAPE.

As this fruit promises to become one of great importance in the Ohio
Valley, it may not be uninteresting to many of our readers to know some-
thing of its origin and history. We find the following account of it in an
exchange :

My article on the history of the Catawba Grape, published in the first
number of the Western Horticultural Review, has elicited a lengthy com-
munication from Col. William Murray, of Caloosa Springs, Walker county,
Georgia, a brother of the Murray therein alluded to, which fully corroborates
the statements there made by Dr. Beacii, and now fiu ally settles the question
in regard to the origin of this grape. From this communication of Col.
Murray, it appears that his father emigrated from Pennsylvania, and settled
in the woods on old Kentucky and Warm Spi'ing trail as early as 1801. At
that time there were no roads in that country. The farm then settled, and
afterwards called Murrayville, is now about ten miles south-east of Ashville,
in Buncombe county, N. C, and embraces the forks in the roads, correctly
described by Dr. Beach, the locality, as well as the character of the country,
it being nearly on the summit-level of the Black Ridge, in latitude 35° 30'.,
mountainous, thinly timbered, soil poor, with many loose stones and gravel.

At that place, in 1802, Col. Murray says, these grapes were found growing
in great abundance ; also, another variety, with very long bunches, crowded,
aud of a dark purple color, but not so delicious as the first, which grew in more
open clusters, were larger, and of a more reddish color. After the trees were
cut down which shaded them, he says, they were better and grew larger, and
have very much improved by cultivation since, and are at this time considered
the best grapes in the country.

In 1803, commissioners met at Murraysville to settle a question of disputed
boundary between North Carolina and Georgia. On this occasion, these
grapes were tested and pronounced good. In 1805, he states that the Friends,
or Quakers, from Newbury District, N. C, emigrated to Ohio, and as they
passed through this place, took these grapes with them. It would be inter-
esting to learn where they settled in Ohio, and whether they ever succeeded
in propagating them there.

In 1807, Gen. Davy, a Senator in Congress, then living at Eocky Mount,
on the Catawba river, in the bounds of the Catawba nation of Indians,
transplanted some of these grapes to his residence ; and sometime between
the years 180Y and 1816, he took some of them with him to the city of
Washington, gave them the name of the Catawba grape, and disseminated
them among his friends in Maryland. From this source it is probable they
fell into the possession of Mrs. Schell, from whom Major Adlum obtained,
them, and made wine of them in 1822. In 1825, he sent the vines with
some of the wine to Mr. Longworth, of Cincinnati.

To Mr. .John Adlum, then of Georgetown, District of Columbia, are we
indebted for its discovery and early reputation as a wine grape, and to N.
Longworth, Esq., of Cincinnati, for its introduction in the West, and for the
impetus given to its cultivation and the fabrication of wine, which bids fair
soon to become an important staple of our country, and to supplant many
foreign wines in our market.

For pure, dry, and sparkling wines, the Catawba grape is likely to become
to the valley of the Ohio what that celebrated, grape which yields the best

198 INSECTS OF THE SEASON.

Hock wines, those of Johannisberg and Steinberg, are to the Rhine ; which
grape, it is said, was introduced into that country from Orleans, in France, by
Charlemagne.

It may seem to be a matter of minor consideration to be thus particular in
endeavoring to trace the origin of a particular variety of vine. But, as thus
far it stands without a rival in America in yielding a pure, dry wine, it is a
matter of paramount interest and importance to become acquainted with its
nature, locality, ov habits, especially with a view to understand its nature,
habits, and proper cultivation.

From the experience we have had in cultivation, it appears that the soil
and situation best adapted to its productive and healthy growth is that which
approximates most nearly to its native elements.

On the sides and tops of dry, stony hills, where the soil is loose and porous,
it seems perfectly at home, and is little subject to rot or other diseases ; the
greater the departure from these, its native elements, the more uncertain its
culture and perfection of fruit.

In rich alluvial bottoms, the growth is rank and luxuriant, but the fruit is
liable to rot, and the vines, in a few years, to decay and become unproductive;
clayey uplands, retentive of moisture, are equally uncongenial. In choosing
a location for a vineyard, therefore, these points are of much importance, an(J
should be well studied. In the organization and allotment of vegetables, it
is a well-known principle of economy that every species and every individual
variety of plants have been placed and adapted by nature to a particular
soil and atmospheric condition, and very many will not bear a change with
impunity. Scientific cultivators are now so well acquainted with tliese facts,
that in transplanting, their chief endeavors are to reduce the condition of
things as nearly as possible to their primary elements. The vines of Europe,
for instance, will not succeed in the climate of America, when exposed to the
variable changes of our atmosphere ; hence our intelligent horticulturists are
erecting their crystal vineries to shield them from these changes, and to
restore to them artificially a climate more in accordance with that of their
native home. S. Mosher.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND TUE ANVIL.

INSECTS OF THE SEASON.

The season has thus far been noted for the number and variety of insects
preying upon vegetation. First came the cut-worm, devastating corn-fields.
.He acted without partiality, and set at variance the supposed remedy of fall
ploughing to enable the frost more effectually to destroy his eggs. Indeed, the
fields which have suffered most from the vexatious ijjnaivings of this worm
were those ploughed in September previous. One field we have seen, ploughed
at that time, was so injured that it will not produce more than two thirds the
amount it would have done if the corn had stood well. Other fields similarly
managed have suffered essentially; so we take it for granted that fall
ploughing possesses no advantage in this matter. We think it an evil that
will show itself under fiivorable circumstances, let the ploughings take place
when they may ; and an allowance of seed should always be made, so that
the worms may have their portion, and have enough to stock the land.

A careful fjirmer, who ploughed a part of his field last autumn, and a part
of it this spring, who suffered as little from the depredations of this worm as
any one we know of, informs us that he attributes his successful escape to th«

INSECTS OF THE SEASON. 199

fact that he soaked his seed in saltpetre and copperas water, a strong solu-
tion, previous to planting. There can be no doubt but such a remedy might
be successfully employed against insects that prey upon the kernel, and we
don't know but it would impart a loathing quality to the blade in the succu-
lent and tender stage, when the worm feasts upon it. This we know, he has
a beautiful, even field of corn, while his next-door neighbor, who ploughed
all his land in autumn, in consequence of the loss he sustained, will have but
a meagre crop. If the solution is a remedy, it is certainly a simple one, and
can be tested without much loss of time or money.

The borers, apple, quince, and pear, have threatened for a few years past to
destroy as fast as the cultivator could plant. When we first found ourselves
the subject of their visitations, our indignation waxed so hot, that we fell
upon them with a sharp knife, thinking our trees might as well die from our
efibrts to save them, as by the invidious borings of a mischievous worm. Our
struggle was rather a severe one, but we begin to think we have obtained the
mastery ; for, where in previous years we have slain scores, we have this year
found but three or fuur. Cut them out, using all care to mutilate the tree
as little as possible, and cover the wound you make closely and firmly with
grafting-wax. Examine the tree often, and as often as you find evidence of
the existence of a borer, cut it out.

The Caterpillar. — These are mischievous pests on fruit trees ; and they
too once opened upon us a war which threatened extermination. We took
the hint from their persevering industry, and opened a warfare too, by demo-
lishing their nests until they became tired of building them. Although they
have been mischievous as ever to some of our neighbors, even defoliating
their trees, we have seen indications of only two nests on our premises, which
were destroyed in embryo, while .yet the inhabitants were veiy young folks.
Yet they were wise enough not to waste strength in making unnecessary re-
pairs, and had respect enough for the value of our time, not to make en-
croachments upon it for further warfare. It may be that tradition informed
them that our forbearance was not without bounds, and they had better yield
in an unavailing controversy.

Black knots on Plum trees. — Does any one suppose these are not the
work of an insect ? If so, whence originates the little grub now to be found in
all the excrescences of this year's formation ? Our own and nearly all the trees
in this region were entirely free from these destructive pests for many years,
so that we thought w^e had a fine plum-growing region, and choice varieties
were introduced in rich numbers, when, lo ! the summer of 1852 brought
the intruder, and in spite of knife and unfailing panaceas, many of our best
trees were destroyed. Those that survived did so only to lead to blighted
hopes this year, for the plague-spots come out not only on the branches, but
on the trunks also ; and present appearances indicate a total extermination
of all plum trees.

We say we commenced with a hearty good-will a thorough warfare in this
business. But of how little use is battling of one or half a dozen individuals
on an army of insects, when nine tenths of community fold their arms and
say, " It's of no use," and thus give " aid and comfort to the enemy" ? If the
war of extermination would be waged by every one, and daily carried into
the enemy's camp, what hosts of insects would be destroyed, so that the very
name of their tribe would be blotted out. But, with the indifference too
many manifest, they go on until they depriv^e us of comfort, destroy our trees,
and die out because they have no more mischief to do.

Yours truly, W. B.

Richmond^ Ifass., August 15, 1853.

200 SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

SUPERPHOSPHATE OF L I M E .

We are aware of only one opinion in respect to the use of the phosphates
as fertilizers, and the superphosphates are of still greater value. These fer-
tilizers are to be had in the markets, and are no doubt worth buying even
at high prices. But farmers can manufacture them on their own premises
at a much cheaper rate than they can purchase them of regular dealers.
Besides, we believe in the doctrine of INUEPENDE^x'E. We would have all
our citizens as little as possible at the control of others, in all their business
operations. We would have them able to manufacture all the manures, and
carry on their farm operations by their own scientific and physical resources.
It may not be unwise, but highly expedient, in the preparation of some of
these artificial manures, for neighbors to go in company or in shares, espe-
cially where much cost or trouble in the way of preparation for the work is
required. So a partnership, to some extent, in the trying of experiments
may sometimes relieve one party from loss, if unsuccessful, and create an
interest in the subject on the part of his neighbor, who would not otherwise
meddle with such matters.

In the preparation of bones for these uses, the following simple mode will
be found convenient and eftective :

Provide a couple of large tubs, by sawing into two parts a large barrel or
hogshead. These should be placed in a situation where the fumes of the sul-
phuric acid will not be likely to enter the dwelling-house, or incommode any
animals. The fumes should always be avoided, as, if inhaled into the lungs,
they are highly injurious, producing an extensive inflammation of the inner
naembrane of the windpipe and the organs below it.

In the tubs thus provided, the bones, previously broken into small frag-
ments, are to be placed after their weight has been ascertained. They may
be filled within fifteen inches of the top. Then moisten with about one fifth
their weight of hot water, from a watering-pot, stirring them thoroughly.
After a short time, they become uniformly and completely saturated. As
soon as this is done, add the sulphuric acid, in quantity from forty to forty-
five per cent, of the weight of the bones. The acid must be very cautiously
handled, to avoid danger to the person and clothes. Then stir up the bones
with a fork, and in doing this, stand to the windward of the tub, so as to
lessen the danger from the effervescing liquid. After the bones have been
carefully turned over, the tub may be covered with an old cloth to preserve
the heat, and left twenty-four hours, by which time the process will be com-
pleted.

If raw bones are used instead of bones that have been boiled, ten per cent,
less of acid will be sufficient. It is of importance to attend to this, as the
acid is much the greatest ingredient, and when more than enough is used, it
is completely lost — its only use being to render the phosphate soluble. Oil
of vitriol is commonly used, but brown acid is more economical. The
strength of the oil of vitriol and of brown acid, or, in other words, the
amount of pure sulphuric acid which either of them contains, is known by
their specific gravity. In Professor Way's calculations, he reckons their
weight as one seventh compared with one of water. If brown acid be used,
about a fourth more quantity is required than of oil of vitriol.

Any dry absorbent substance which does not contain much carbonate of
lime will do for mixing with the superphosphate after it has been a day in

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF SOILS.

201

the tub. A layer of ashes, or dry saw-dust, may be laid on the floor beside
the tub, six inches deep. Upon this layer place a quantity of dissolved bones
with a spade, then another layer of ashes or saw-dust, alternating with the
bones until the tubs are empty. " The compound heap is now sliced down
with the spade, a little at a time, and thoroughly mixed and made small with
an iron rake. After having gone over it once, the same process should be
repeated immediately, at any convenient time thereafter, adding more ashes
or saw-dust if it is not dry enough, after which it will be in a fit state for
sowing."

In calculating the amount to be applied to the crop, if the compound con-
tain, say a ton of bones, it may be regarded as equal. to twenty-eight cwt. of
Peruvian guano. When the bones are prepared for light land, it is advisable
to use a rather less proportion of acid. The process is thereby cheapened ;
and if small fragments of bones remain undissolved, they are highly useful
in that state for sustaining the autumn growth of the crop.

FOR THK PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND TUB ANVa.

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF SOILS.

MESSTis. Editors : — I have frequently noticed statements in your journal,
as well as in other periodicals, that farmers are not willing to expend a dollar
for the analysis of their soils.

The reason of this is, in many cases, that they do not understand the pro-
per steps to take, to effect this analysis.

There are many fine farms on the Androscoggin river, and farmers here
are beginning to feel the need of practical agricultural knowledge. Perhaps
this may be obtained by frequent experiments with crops, and close_ observa-
tions. But the directions for the proper analysis of our intervale soils would
be thankfully received by A Subscriber.

Oxford Co., Maine.

Remarks. — We had designed to give our views somewhat in detail on
the subject referred to in this note, but have deferred it to the present time.
The above inquiry from our friend may be properly used to give these views
with some particularity.

1. Accurate chemical analyses, in our view, are often of great value to the
farmer. In former numbers we have given illustrations of this, and repeat
one here, by way of sample. A field of an eminent farmer of this State
was carefully cultivated and sown with wheat, but did not produce enough to
replace the seed. A chemical analysis exhibited an entire absence of phos-
phoric acid. This, and this alone, was furnished, and the next crop of wheat
was thirty or forty bushels per acre. Such facts might be multiplied indefi-
nitely.

On the other hand, it is obvious that actual analysis is not the only mode
of ascertaining the capacity of the soil. As in bookkeeping, a trial balance
may be made out, when some of the entries, ordinarily used for this purpose,
are lost, so the farmer is not confined to a single process. For example :—

Suppose you have a field, like one of the sandy soils spoken of on page 103,
August number, containing fifty to eighty per cent, of clay, ten or twenty of
lime, and a mixture of humus ; and suppose the crops that have been raised

202 CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF SOILS.

are well known, with the treatment it has meanwhile received. The intelli-
gent farmer will see at once what elements must have been used up, by those
crops, and of course Avhat manures are required.

"Bat how shall we know that the field in question ever was in the stata
above described f

We answer, each section of our country has its known geological character.
In one wide section, perhaps, the sands are almost entirely silicious ; in oth"
ers well mixed with chxy. If there is a " State Report" on this subject, it
will, no doubt,' contain the information required. And again, by dissolving a
portion of the soil, as described on page 103, just referred to, the result may
be sufficiently exact. So, too, the process there described may detect the
presence of carbonate of lime.

But another test is perfectly obvious. Suppose the soil is chiefly sand, and
has never produced good crops. Recurring to the fact we have heretofore
explained, that certain crops exhaust certain elements (see page 149, Septem-
ber number,) and that all the elements required are few in number (see July,
1852, page 22, and August, page 100,), and that silex, at least, and perhaps
some other elements, obviously remain ;. the missing ones, within certain lim-
its, are a matter of necessary inference.

But another remark is also obvious. The matter, in time, may be practi-
cally tested, and the process referred to may be used after the manner of some
of the problems in bookkeeping. If the soil is of uniform quality, divide it
into narrow sections, and sow seed of opposite characteristics. The compara-
tive growth of clover seed, peas, oats, &c,, being plants which require differ-
ent elements, would test the presence or absence of potash, soda, and lime ;
phosphoric acid, magnesia, &c., and be a guide for future action.

So, too, the character of the spontaneous growth is often indicative of the
character of the soil. This fact was explained on page 23 of our number for
July, 1852, and, within the limits there implied, is one of unquestionable
value.

But why so many suggestions, some of which are so uncertain and indefi-
nite, in their results ? Because we add, as an important suggestion on this
subject, another fact, equally important, in considering how we shall test the
composition of our soils, to wit :

We have very little confidence in the entire accuracy of a large proportion
of the pretended analyses, even when made by professed chemists. One of
our most learned and practiced chemists, who is also an eminent geologist,
once remarked to us that he could not make an analysis of soil, at all relia-
ble, in less time than six weeks. No authority is more frequently appealed
to on kindred subjects than this gentleman. We know the assertion will
be laughed at by scores of chemists, who can tell you all about it in a few
houis ; but we are quite willing to put the laugh side by side with the obser-
vation, and let each go for what it is worth.

We do not mean to condemn as worthless those analyses that are not very
accurate. Those processes which we have pointed out for the farmer himself
lo attempt are of substantial value, and really worthy of frequent experi-
ment, and sometimes as valuable as the report of the professor of chemistry,
while " five dollars" will buy many pounds of guano or of j)Oudrette, or of
the hnin-oved sujierphofijihate.

The result of all our own reflections and observations is, that it is best for
the farmer with limited means to use his money in buying manures, and
making composts, and in improving his lands, under such examinations of his
ioil as we have described, rather than in paying for many analyses of differ-

KENTUCKY FARMS AND FARMING, 203

ent soils of whicli lie may be the owner. If he can do the last, in addition
to the former one?, so much the better. Much good may come of it, but let
him he cautious whom he employs.

For ourEistern friends we are unable to point out any chemist nearer to
them than New- York, who holds himself up to the public as always prepared
for such service, at a very hiw rate ; though we do know that an analysis by
Dr. C. T. Jackson, or by Mr. Teschmacher, of Boston, with wliich they would
themselves be satisfied, v/ould be entirely reliable. In New-York there are
several who devote themselves to such business, and who, for '• five dollars,"
give the analysis. In Albany we have Prof Salsbury. Farther South, we
know of only Dr. R. Stewart, of Baltimore. Others, no doubt, cire equally
competent with these, though unknown to us. Select a fair specimen from
the surface, another six or eight inches below the surface, and also a specimen
of the subsoil ; — a quart or two of each, and forward as you please.

We shall be happy to act as agents for any of our subscribers, in obtain-
ing such analyses, and will select the most reliable chemist in our power. The
cost of freight, and of the work performed, &c., should be sent with the soil.

KENTUCKY FARMS AND FARMING.

The following extracts are from a letter by M. Bateman, editor of the
Ohio Cultivator :

From Louisville we made an excursion to Lexington, which is about the cen-
tre of the best farming district in Kentucky, and we might almost s&,y in the
Union ; for it is difficult to find a more beautiful and fertile region than is in-
cluded in Fayette, Bourbon, and one or two other adjoining counties in this
State ; and as a large portion of the lands in other parts of the State are not of
very good quality, the owners of farms in this favored district are sensible of
their advantages, and are regarded by all as the aristoci'acy of the State.
The farms are generally large, consisting of several hundred acres each, and
are worth from $10 to $100 per acre; then, if we include the value of the
stock usually kept, it is obvious that to be a farmer here requires no small
amount of capital. Whether or not the business aflbrds as much profit for
the capital invested as is usual in Ohio and other Western States, we have
some doubts ; and we found on conversation with several of these Kentucky
farmers, that they were by no means satisfied on this point.

The scenery of this part of Kentucky is quite different from and more
beautiful than the most fertile portions of Ohio. The lands are more undu-
lating, with broad and gentle slopes, interspersed with groves of majestic
trees, beneath which the blue grass forms a rich turf, and the heixls of stately
short-horns luxuriate with even more than Durham thrift and fatness. The
soil is a limestone clayey loam, of a dark brown color, nearly resem'bling in
quality what is called second bottom in Ohio. The greater portion is devoted
to grazing, as stock raising is the favorite pursuit; and here we find in perfec-
tion the blue grass paxtares^ of which so much is said, and which are no where
equalled for productiveness and beauty. So remarkably fine and large is
the growth of this grass here, that many persons have been led to suppose it
is a different variety from that which abounds in Ohio and other States,
(sometimes called June grass,) but the wisest botanists have pronounced it
the same, {Poa pralensis ;) and we have known several Ohio farmers who

204 KENTUCKY FARMS AND FARMING.

have procured seed from Kentucky for sowing their pasture lands, and the
product was not different from the native o;rowth. It is evident, therefore,
that it is the superior adapted ness of the Kentucky soil for this grass which
makes the difference ; and it is only where similar soil can be found in
Ohio that we can expect to make blue grass pastures like those of Ken-
tucky. To sow Kentucky blue grass seed on flat, cold, clay soils, as we have
seen done, almost without any preparation, with the expectation of forming
blue grass pastures like those of Kentucky, is about as reasonable as to expect
to raise a herd of Kentucky Durhams from a lot of native scrub calves.

Fine cattle, as well as fine lands, our readers are aware, have been the
boast of this portion of Kentucky ; and we noticed, in passing, that even the
common race of cattle in these parts partake so largely of Durham blood as
to give them more the appearance of English stock than we have any where
else seen in this country, and quite a number of the herds bore evidence of
having been bred with much care and skill. On the farm of Mr. Istelle (one
of our subscribers,) we found half a dozen fat Durham steers, that for sym-
metry, size, and fatness, were almost equal to any that we saw at the Royal
Show in England. He had" just refused lYOO for the lot, and said he would
not sell them till after the fall exhibition, when they would probably be sent
to x^ew-York for Christmas beef.

On the farm of Mr. Kicnaird, about eight miles from Lexington, we saw
a number of cows and heifers, which have never been excelled at the shows
of that region, and we think would be hard to beat at any others in this
country. If the new importations from England are shown to excel these, it
will be worth a trip from Ohio to see them. Mr. Kinnaird is a young farmer of
much intelligence and enterprise, and has one of the most beautiful farms in
that very beautiful region. Besides fine cattle, he has a lot of South Down
sheep, some of them immediate descendants from the noted Webb Hock of Eng-
land ; also, some good Berkshire and other hogs. In one of his pastures we
noticed an acre or more of the meadow fescue, or, as it has been called, "English
blue grass." It was grown the past year from seed sent to him by a friend in
Virginia, who did not know its true name. This grass has never before been
tried in that region, and we think it may prove highly valuable there, especially
for winter pasture. We shall be pleased if Mr. Kinnaird will inform us
next winter how this variety compares in color and hardiness with the com-
mon blue grass.

Mules are a very popular kind of farm stock at the present time in Ken-
tucky, and large prices are obtained for them in the Southern markets. Some
of these animals that we saw — as on the farm of Mr. Childs — were very large
and sleek, but we confess to no great admiration of them.

Fast horses have in former years received much attention in this region,
but of late only a few gentlemen of the sporting profession are particularly
interested in blooded stock of this class. J. B. Clay, Esq., sou of the late
honored Senator of Ashland, has several very celebrated horses among his
stock, and is well known for his devotion to the sports of the turf. Much
good blood has been infused into the horse stock generally throughout Ken-
tucky by means of the numerous fine horses introduced there years ago.

A new Cattle Imjiortation Company was formed in the vicinity of Lex-
ington the past winter, the agents of which, after spending much time in
making selections in England, have just returned, and report that they have
on the way about forty head of the very finest short-horns, some CotswoW
sheep, and a Cleveland bay stallion. These are to be disposed of by auction
the coming fall, and will no doubt prove highly valuable in sustaining the

ARTIFICIAL GUANO. 205

high reputation of this region for fine stock. We learn, also, that a Mr.
Alexander, of Woodford county, Ky,, has been spending some months in
England, purchasing on his own account some of the finest cattle to be found
there without regard to cost. It is the avowed determination of the wealthy
and enterprising stock farmers to make this portion of Kentucky the greatest
centre of really fine stock in the Union ; our Scioto friends will therefore have
to look sharp to their laurels.

There are two active and spirited Agricultural Societies in this region : the
Bourbon Society having its exhibitions at Paris, and the Kentucky Society at
Lexington. Both, we believe, embrace several counties in their membership,
and allow competition from all parts of the State. The annual fairs of these
Societies are designed for the sale and exchange, as well as the exhibition of
stock ; and when the numerous railroads now in progress at the South and
West are completed, it is anticipated that many persons from other States
will be present at these fairs. There is also a good Society in operation in
Shelby county; and on the day that we were in Louisville, we attended a
meeting of the friends of agriculture, at the court house, for the purpose of
organizing a Society for that region. A constitution was adopted, and from
the degree of interest manifested, there is no doubt but that the Society will
be successful. It is called the Western Kentucky Agricultural Society ; and it
is the design to hold a grand fair at Louisville the coming fall.

ARTIFICIAL GUANO.

The following has proved itself a good substitute for guano :

lbs.
Bones, dissolved in spirits of salt, - - - - 18f

Charcoal powder, - - - - - - - -18f

Sulphate of ammonia, --.--.- 9^

Common salt, 9^

Gypsum, 9^

Wood ashes, 46

Nitrate of soda, - - 28

Sulphate of soda, (Glauber's salts,) - - . - - 10
Sulphate of magnesia, (Epsom salts,) - - - - 10

108

Five hundred pounds to the acre is a proper allowance. The constituents
should be well mixed together, and used as guano is used.

HOW TO SUBDUE A VICIOUS HORSE.

On looking over some old papers the other day, we came across fehe fol-
lowing, which, if true, is worth knowing. It seems that a fruitless etibrt was
being made in a blacksmith shop to shoe a vicious horse, which resisted all
efforts, kicked aside every thing but an anvil, and came near killing himself
against that, when, by mere accident, an officer returned from Mexico was

206 CHEESE MAKING.

passing, and being made acquainted vith the difficulty, applied a complete
remedy by the following simple process:

lie took a coid about the size of a common bed-cord, put it in the mouth
of the liorse like a bit, and tied it tightly on the top of the animal's head,
passing his left ear under the string, not painfully tight, but tight enough to
keep the ear down and the cord in its place. This done, he patted the horse
gently on the side of the head, and commanded him to follow, and instantly
the horse obeyed, perfectly subdued, and as gentle and obedient, as a well-
trained dog; suti'ering his feet to be lifted with entire impunity, and acting
in all respects like an old stager. The simple string, thus tied, had made
him at once as docile and obedient as any one could clesire. The gentleman
who.thus furnished this exceedingly simple means of subduing a very dan-
gerous propensity, intiraaled that it is practised in Mexico and South America
in the management of wild horses. Be this :is it may, he deserves the thanks
of all owners of such horses, and especially the thanks of those whose busi-
ness it may be to shoe or groon:i the animals.

CHEESE MAKING.

This is a subject on which we need the practical experience of all who are
successful in the business. A really good cheese is only obtained, by a due
regard to a great variety of details. How many of these there are, and
what they are, are the great points on which we need light ; and by a know-
ledge of these, to the exclusion of other immaterial matters, we may, by and
by, supply our markets more abundantly with what is really Avorlhy the
name of cheese. We have given the " vSwiss mode of making Cheese," on
page 142 ; we here add, for the purpose of giving a fuller view of the sub-
ject, an article from an Ohio farmer, who seems to have had great experience,
skill, and success in this important branch of operations on the farm :

"A system is essential, and every successful dairyman must have his own,
though never to deviate from certain fixed pi'inciples. Although the quality
of cheese in our section is yearly improving, yet very many of our dairymen
are sadly deficient. The most essential requisite, that pertains to a dairy, is
extreme cleanliness ; and only such vessels should be used as will readily
admit of being thoroughly washed and scalded every time they are used. A
very small quantity of putrescent milk will cause any fresh milk rapidly to
sour when exposed to its influence.

The dairy-room should be dry, cool, and airy, easily ventilated, wholly
above ground, shaded by trees, windows protected by shutters, opened nights
and closed during the day, to prevent dry currents of air, that will cause the
rind of cheese to ciack, also to keep the temperature of the room below 80
deg. Sweet milk holds sugar and casein or cheese in solution with water,
and the butter of the milk floats in it. One great point is to separate the
cheese from the water or whey, and with it as much butter as possible. The
milk, at a high temperature, will soon change its sugar into lactic acid, and
a low one will retard it, thoiigli not prevent it. The evening's milk intended
to stand till morning, should therefore be cooled to near 00 deg. to prevent
souring; also to free it of the animal odor, or pastuie flavor, so oftensive to
many persons. The cream should be taken off in the moining and made
into butter; as it occasions a waste of nearly thirty-three per cent, of the
Gutter in manufacturing, if left with the milk. The vat should be large

CHEESE MAKING. 207

enoiigh to hold tlie milking of one day, and made of tin, inserted in a wooden
one, leaving- a space all around, at top and bottom, for hot or cold water.
After strainino- the morning's milk, the temperature should be raised to about
80 deg. in common summer weather, and to 86 or 90 deg. 'in cold weather,
in May, October, and November. If raised above this, more butter is likely
to be separated from the curd, and if below, a perfect coagulation of the
milk is not as sure ; at least, this seems to be a point requisite for perfect
coao-ulation. The practice of heating a part of the milk in a kettle over a
fire, in order to bring about the right temperature for setting, should be
avoided. Besides the danger of scorching a part of the butter, the richness and
value of the milk is sure to be lost in the whey, as will be seen by the quantity
of cream afterwards rising. Sufficient rennet should now be added to produce
perfect coagulation in thirty minutes ; taking care that the rennet be concen-
trated and active, or the curd will be soft and pulpy, causing much waste.
After adding the rennet and thoroughly mixing it, the milk should be tightly
covered, to prevent the temperature from varying, and be left j^evfectly quiet,
free from sudden jarring. When the milk is perfectly coagulated, it is known
by its parting smooth and clean by passing the finger through it. Cut in in
inch squares with a long knife, that will reach to the bottom of the vat. Let
it stand fifteen minutes, or more, then pass the hands several times through
the curd to the bottom, gently moving it, after which, the whey will rise
more rapidly.

During the warm months, the curd should be rid of whey at the earliest
possible moment, taking exceeding care not to cause any white whey to run.
So long as whey remains in the curd it is sure to impart an acidity, which
tends to a greater waste in manufacturing; though the best quality of cheese
is often made from sour curd. At this stage, let the whey pass ofl:' through
a cullender, at the end of the vat, and commence dipping the curd back with
a sharp tin scoop, that will cut its way free and smooth. It would prove a
saving to press the whey through a fine linen strainer. Avoid breaking or
mashing the curd, and the Avhey will pass off green and pure.

The western practice of driving the. heat, and whirling up the whey and
curd, or what is familiarly known as the "quick way," will make a softer
cheese while green, and will cure earlier, but less firiii, more porous, will
shrink more in w^ght, consequently a lighter yield and not as rich. A
cheese rightly made of eighty or one hundred pounds should shrink, in
curing five months, about seven per cent. ; but made the " quick way," will
commonly shrink from fifteen to twenty per cent. This may be known as
true — the greater the shrinkage, the greater the mould, and the more likely to
adhere to the shelves.

The manner of separating the whey is the most important point, involving
the richness, which in market is every thing, of the cheese. Richness
requires that as much as possible of the butter be chemically incorporated
with it. If it merely adheres to the curd mechanically, it is easily washed
off with the whey, and here you have it in the form of whey butter, whic'
should be scarce where good cheese is made. When thoroughly drained,
cut it in about half-inch squares, taking care that the pieces are uniform in
size; add warm whey, if sweet, at about 116 deg., otherwise use soft water,
taking care that it does not come in contact with much curd while too hot,
till the whole mass be raised to 100 deg. At this point check the scalding
process by adding cold water, taking care not to reduce it below this point.
Then cover and let it remain till every piece be warmed through ; known by
touching the end of the tongue to a broken piece. Draw off the whey as

208 CURE FOR GARGET.

dry as possible ; and, while warm, add one common sized tea-cup full of
finely pulverized salt'to sixteen pounds of cheese, green from the press. Great
care should be taken that the salt be thoroughly incorporated. This will
cause more brine to run ofl', and should be collected to replenish the rennet-
crock daily. The above process cannot be completed successfully very early
in the day. Hurrying cheese into the press will cause it to be dry and
crumbly, or having a pungent smell, giving it a sharp biting acid flavor,
injurious to its sale ; or, wliich is worse, leaky and huffy. Rich cheese
requires time and care in the operation. One writer says, that out of every
100 parts of new milk 3-^ are butter, and 4-^- are cheese. This I think to be
a light yield. Ten pounds of milk should produce one of cheese, firmly
made, and some parts of the year a greater yield should be realized. • After
moderately pressing from six to ten hours, fit a bandage on tightly, which
will extend over the edges about one inch. The edges should be compressed
by gathering the bandage, and tying firmly with strong twine, to give them
a rounding appearance on the shelf. Pressing on the bandage will prevent
it from ruchling up as one cheese cures, leaving a harbor for flies or black
mould. In twenty-four hours remove to the shelves, leaving a heading of
cloth pressed on at top and bottom till quite dry, to prevent cracking.

Apply evenly and thoroughly, hot whey butter, and rub it in. The grease
should be colored, giving the exterior a bright orange color, and may be pre-
pared by dissolving annetto in weak soap-suds, hot, and simmered over a
slow fire. The color will be transmitted to the butter as the water evaporates.
Then, in order that every good dairyman may have his due credit, he should
have some mark imprinted on the bandage before greasing ; for it should be
borne in mind, that in a perishable article like cheese, a preference in sales
at market is of itself a profit, and well worth an effort to command by
superior quality, even though no extra price be obtained.

A thin flat cheese is not commonly fancied ; 6 inches deep, 16 in diameter,
weighing about 42 pounds; 7 inches deep, 18 in diameter, weighing 63
pounds ; 8 inches deep, 20 in diameter, weighing 85 to 100 pounds, are the
most fancied styles for cutting cheese.

CURE FOR CxARGET.

The following case is reported in the Boston Cultivator. It is from the
pen of Dr. Eben Wight, of Dedham; and as we have the pleasure of his
personal acquaintance, we assure our readers that he is as reliable a witness
as any man living; and his opinion — of great value on any subject on which
he will make that opinion known — is worthy of entire respect. Dr. Wight
says:

At the solicitation of a friend, who has saved a valuable cow from the
hands of a butcher, I am induced to make known through your columns a
remedy for the garget. Some years since I met with a fine imported Dur-
ham cow on the way to the butcher, the owner parting with her in conse-
quence of her being afflicted with the garget. The owner had tried all the
usual modes of eradicating the disease, after which he put her under the
charge of a distinguished veterinarian, who, after a six-mouths' attendance,
discharged her as incurable.

Deeming her a good subject for a treatment with iodine, and not knowing
whether it had been used in the case, I purchased her at what she was worth

ON MANURES. 209

for beef. At that time sbe gave but a few drops of milk at a time from one
teat ; the other bad ceased to yield any : the udder and teats were swollen and
bard. I determined to make use of iodine in the form of bydriodate of
potash, being sobent in water, and if it failed to exhibit its effects on the
system, I would resort to an ointment, (20 grs. iodine to 1 oz. hog's lard,)
applied externally to the udder and teats. I commenced by giving 10 gre.
of hyd. potash in a tablespoonful of water, three times a day, mixed in a
mash of shorts and meal ; and though the dose was unusually small for a
cow, still, as it was giving unmistakable signs of effect,* I did not increase
the dose. In seven days sbe gave milk freely from each teat, and in three
weeks she was discharged as cured. The result in the foregoing case was so
favorable, that I advised my neighbors who had cows afflicted with the gar-
get to make a trial of the same remedy. I have known of its trial in at
least forty cases, and in every one the cure has been effected with even the
above-named small dose. A larger quantity could be used with safety.

Any one acquainted with the effect of iodine on the human system, knows
its tendency to produce an absorption of the mamm.-e. Dr. R. Coates, of
Philadelphia, reports a case in the Medical Examiner, of the complete ab-
sorption of the female breast from iodine ; but the mammne recovered their
original development after the lapse of a year. Iodine is principally employed
in diseases of the absorbents and glandular systems. (See U. S. Dispen-
satory^

Hydriodate of potash can be procured of any apothecary, and dissolved
so as to allow 10 grs. to each spoonful of water, increasing the doses till it
gives effect on testing the urine. Eben Wight.

Bedham, June 25, 1853.

ron THE rLotJGH, the loos, asd the akvil.
ON MANURES.— WILLARD'S BROMUS.
To Mr. Alanson Chase and bis Son, (Business Partner,) Clinton, Mass. :

My long-cherished friendship, and interest for the improvement of your
noble homestead, induces me to give you this letter of suggestions, through
the Plough, the Loom^ and the Anvil, and the number containing it, which
I shall order sent to you, hoping you will subscribe for it, show it to your
neighbors, and, as I have done, find unmingled pleasure and profit from its rich
and varied ■contents, as a monthly visitor.

In my last call at your place, among other things, your spacious new barn
and cellar pleased me much. Besides all the solid manure of cattle and
horses, litter, muck, and other carbonaceous matter, composted under it, with
frequent sprinkling of salt and plaster, preventing the escape of gases, you
may save an equally valuable amount of fertilizing liquid by the plan and
process I would recommend. (I know a little outlay would be nothing with
you, by which the bealtb of the family and of all the animals may be pro-
moted ', and besides cleanliness and neatness in the yard, you would obtain
such an amount of fertilizing 'material as to give waving luxuriance and
beauty to surrounding fields.) It is to build a cistern some distance from the
barn, low enough and large enough to receive drainings from the lowest part

* Hydriodate of potash passes quickly into the secretions, especially the urine. It
may be detected in the latter by first adding to the cold secretion a portion of starch,
and then a few drops of nitric acid, when a blue color will be produced.
VOL. VI. — PART IV. 14

210 ON MANURES.

of the yard, all the wash from summer showers, and melting snow in spring ;
covered with a roof, and furnished with a pump high enough to admit a cask
on wheels under its spout, after the manner of a city road-sprinkler. To this
cistern, which may be of plank, or of hard brick, laid in hydraulic lime, carry
all the wash from the house, not excepting the privy ; which, if its contents
are in a tight box, often supplied with water, into which disinfecting materials
are stirred, will go off with the rest without offense or difficulty, in suitable
pipes or troughs. I reckon cast iron troughs the best, made like two strips
of board nailed together, each three inches wide, or more, according to cir-
cumstances, being simple, roomy, and durable. They may be covered with a
board, and cleaned easily. Let such be placed back of all the stables, and
the urine thereby be carried to the cistern. You may ask if the amount
gained by irrigation would equal the extra cost of application, as most of the
urine might be conveyed to the compost.

By the best management in compost, considerable is lost by running away —
by evaporation — by being too strong — by the drying and hardening of lumps
saturated with urine — by the difficulty of complete jmlverization when once
dried — by the want of equal distribution — by not bringing it in contact with
all the roots, it being sometimes too deep and sometimes too near the surface",
and again by drought.

As all plants take their food only when it is in a soluble state, irrigation,
at proper times, and in a proper manner, is highly advantapeous. Its action
upon the foliage enables it to take advantage of atmospheric influences, while
it also secures the whole plant from the effects of general drought. But what
is applied in this manner should be applied equally over the surface, and at
the most favorable times. It can be repeated without disturbing the soil, and
a given amount of nutritive matter can be applied in this superior manner,
and timely, with less labor. The pipes, cistern, and machinery, once prepared,
are durable.

Such being their advantages, I think those who procure and use them soon-
est are the wisest. They get good, and by their example and extended influ-
ence do good.

Permit me to add some information and sentiments obtained from gentle-
men visiting England, and from my own correspondence. Mr. Dickinson
keeps a few cows and many job-horses in London. His stable is a pattern
.of neatness, and bis farm, five miles out of the city, a sample of beauty and
productiveness. He sells all his solid manure to farmers, but conveys all the
urine to a tank some distance from the stable, by underground troughs, for
his own use. He dilutes the urine in the tank variously ; sometimes by-
mixing twice the quantity of water, and even more ; and snys, if it were not
so far to cart, it were better for dry land, or dry seasons, to add eighty per
cent, of water, provided the same amount of urine were applied. He keeps
all his stock on the "improved Italian rye grass," raised on this farm, of
which there are hybrids, at least one hundred varieties. He thinks himself
quite fixvored in the kind he has obtained. I am quite satisfied that it nearly
resembles my Bromus, which I think unsurpassed, if not unequalled, by his,
or any other. He begins early to irrigate h'is lands, and mows three times,
and part four times, applying his liquid after each mowing. JVo other fertil-
izer ! The growth is very uniform, and about three feet each time. He
uses what he wants green, and dries the rest ; speaks of it as the best feed for
horses, and thinks nothing so good for milch cows, or sheep and lambs, green
or dry. Coleman, in his " Reports on European Agriculture," who visited Mr.
Dickinson's farm and stables, fully endorses these views, and highly recom-
mends ^is course to American farmers.

LAYING DOWN TO GRASS. 211

I ihink, Mr. Chase, as you have so much land in proximity to your barn
and the sink is so well adapted to irrigation, and summer soiling, you may
commence with fair prospects at once. Call on me, and I will show yoU the
Willard Bromus growing, covering the ground like a fleece, and hay of
large size, first and second crop. I have had three tons per acre at one cut.
It is often six feet high at maturity. The sooner you turn over one
or two acres of your lightest grass land, and take this seed and sow, the better.
Autumn is Nature's time for seeding. It will do well after corn and potato
harvest. Should you wish any of my views as to fixtures or field-culture,
when able, they are available. This is my first writing since my long and
painful confinement with bilious colic. I was anxious to prepare it in season
for the September number, for your sake and others, and have laid down
many times while doing it. May it be seasonable, acceptable, and useful.
Yours truly, Benjamin Willard.

Lancaster, Sept. 1, 1853.

[The above was not received till our September issue was through the
press. — Ed.]

LAYING DOWN TO GRASS.

Below we give an extract from " The Elements of Agricultural Chem
istry," by Professor Johnston, soon to be published by Mr. Saxton, of this

city.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY LAYING DOWN TO GRASS. FACTS WHICH

HAVE BEEN ASCERTAINED.

On this subject two facts seem to be pretty generally acknowledged :

First, That land laid down to artificial grasses for one, two, three, or more
years, is in some degree rested or recruited, and is fitted for the better produc-
tion of crops of corn. Letting it lie a year or two longer in grass, therefore,
is one of the received modes of bringing back to a sound condition a soi
that has been exhausted by injudicious cropping.

Second, That land thus laid down with artificial gi'asses diminishes in
value again after two, three, or five years — more or less — and only by slow
degrees acquires a thick sward of rich, nourishing, natural herbage. Hence
the opinion that grass land improves in quality the longer it is permitted to
lie, the unwillingness to plough up old pasture, and the comparatively high
rents which, in some parts of the country, old grass land is known to yield.

Granting that grass land does thus generally increase in value, three im-
portant facts nmst be borne in mind before we attempt to assign the cause of
this improvement, or the circumstances under which it is likely to take place,
for the longest time and to the greatest extent.

1. The value of the grass in any given spot may increase for an indefinite
period, but it will never improve beyond a certain extent; it will necessarily
be limited, as all other crops are, by the quality of the land. Hence the
mere laying down to grass will not make all land good, however long it may
lie. The extensive commons, heaths, and wastes, which have been in grass
from the most remote times, are evidence of this. They have, in most cases,
yielded so poor a natural herbage as to have been consid^ed unworthy of
being enclosed as permanent pasture.

212 LAYING DOWN TO GRASS.

2. Some grass lands will retain the good condition they thus slowly acquire
for a very long period, and without manuring, in the same way, and upon
nearly the same principle, that some rich corn lands have yielded successive
crops for one hundred years without manure. The rich grass lands of Eng-
land, and especially of Ireland, many of which have been in pasture from
time immemorial, without receiving any known return for all they have
yielded, are illustrations of this fact.

3. But others, if grazed, cropped with sheep, or cut for hay, will gradually
deteriorate, unless some proper supply of manure be given to them, which
required supply must vary with the nature of the soil, with the kind of
stock fed upon it, and with the kind of treatment to which it has been
subjected.

FORM WHICH THE IMPROVEMENT ASSUMES, AND IIOW IT IS BROUGHT

ABOUT.

In regard to the acknowledged benefit of laying down to grass, then, two
points require consideration :

1, What form does it assume, and how is it effected ?

The improvement takes place by the gradual accumulation of a dark-
brown soil, rich in vegetable matter, which soil thickens or deepens in propor-
tion to the time during which it is allowed to lie in grass. It is a law of
nature, that this accumulation takes place more rapidly in the temperate than
in tropical climates; and it would appear as if the consequent darkening
of the soil were intended, among other purposes, to enable it to absorb more
of the sun's warmth, and thus more speedily to bring forward vegetation
where the average temperature is low and the summers comparatively short.

If the soil be very light and sandy, the thickening of the vegetable matter
is sooner arrested ; if it be moderately heavy land, the improvement continues
for a longer period ; and some of the heaviest clays in England are known to
bear the richest permanent pastures.

, The soils formed on the surface of all our rich old pasture lands thus come
to possess a remarkable degree of uniformity, both in physical character and
in chemical composition. This uniformity they gradually acquire, even upon
the stiff clays of the lias and Oxford clay, which originally, no doubt, have
been left to natural pasture, as many clay lands still are, from the difficulty
and expense of submitting them to arable culture.

2. How do they acquire this new character, and why is it the work of so
much time?

When the young grass throws up its leaves into tlie air, from Avhich it derives
so much of its nourishment, it throws down its roots into the soil in quest
of food of another kind. The leaves may be mown or cropped by animals,
and carried off the field ; but the roots remain in the soil, and as they die,
gradually fill its upper part with vegetable matter. On an average, the
anmial {)roduction of roots on old grass land is equal to one third or one
fourth of the weight of hay carried off,* though no doubt it varies much,
both with the kind of grass and with the kind of soil. When wheat is cut
down, the quantity of straw left in the field, in the form of stubble and roots,
is sometimes greater than the quantity carried off in the sheaf. Upon a
grass field two or three tons of hay may be reaped from an acre, and, there-
fore, from half a ton to a ton of dry roots is annually produced and left in
the soil. If any thing like this weight of roots die every year, in land kept

* See the author's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, Second Edition,

LAYING TOWN TO GRASS. 213

in pasture, we can readily understand how the vegetable matter in the soil
should o^radually accumulate. In arable land this accumulation is prevented
by the constant turning up of the soil, by which the fibrous roots, being
exposed to the free access of air and moisture, are made to undergo a more
rapid decomposition.

But the roots and leaves of the grasses contain earthy and saline matters
also. Dry hay leaves from an eighth to a tenth part of its weight of ash
when burned. Along with the dead vegetable matter of the soil, this inor-
ganic matter also accumulates in the form of an exceedingly fine eaithy pow-
der ; hence one cause of the universal fineness of the surface-mould of old
grass fields. The earthy portion of this inorganic matter consists chiefly of
silica, lime, and magnesia, with scarcely a trace of alumina; so that, even on
the stiffest clays, a surface soil may be ultimately formed, in which the quan-
tity of alumina — the substance of clay — is comparatively small.

There are still other agencies at work by which the surface of stiff" soils
is made to undergo a change. As the roots of the grasses penetrate into the
clay, they more or less open up a way into it for the rains. Now, the lains
in nearly all lands, when they have a ])assage downwards, have a tendency
to carry down the clay with them. They do so, it has been observed, on
sandy and peaty soils, and more quickly when these soils are laid down to
grass. Hence the mechanical action of the rains — slowly in man}' localities,
yet surely — has a tendency to lighten the surface soil, by removing a portion
of its clay. They constitute one of those natuial agencies by which, as else-
where explained, important differences are ultimately established, almost
every where, between the surfoce crop-bearing soil and the subsoil on which
it rests.

But, further, the heats of summer and the frosts of winter aid this slow
alteration. In the extremes of heat and of cold, the soil contracts more than
the roots of the grasses do ; and similar though less visible differences take
place dnring the striking changes of temperature which are experienced in
our climate in the different parts of almost every day. When the rain fiUls
also on the parched field, or when a thaw comes on in winter, the earth
expands, while the roots of the grasses remain nearly fixed ; hence the soil
rises up among the leaves, mixes with the vegetable matter, and thus assists
in the slow accumulation of a rich vegetable mould.

The I'eader may have witnessed in winter how, on a field or by a way-side,
the earth rises above the stones, and appears inclined to cover them ; he may
even have seen, in a deserted and undisturbed highway, the stones gradually
sinking and disappearing altogether, when the repetition of this alternate con-
traction and expansion of the soil for a succession of winters has increased,
in a great degree, the effects which follow from a single accession of frosty
weather.

So it is in the fields. And if a person skilled in the soils of a given dis-
trict can make a guess at the time when a given field was laid down to grass,
by the depth at which the stones are found beneath the surface, it is partly
because this loosening and expansion of the soil, while the stones remain
fixed, tends to throw the latter down by an almost imperceptible quantity
every year that passes.

Such movements as these act in opening up the surface soil, in mixing
it with the decaying vegetable matter, and in allowing the slow action of the
rains gradually to give its earthv portion a lighter character. But with these,
among other causes, conspires also the action of living animals. Few persons
have followed the plough without occasionally observing the vast quantities'

214 ACTION OF DROUGHT ON PLANTS.

of earth-worms with which some fields seem to be filled. On a close-shaven
lawn many have noticed the frequent little heaps of earth which these worms
durino^ the night have thrown out upon the grass. These and other minute
animals are continually at work, especially beneath an undisturbed and grassy
sward ; and they nightly bring up from a considerable depth, and discharge
on the surface, their burden of fine fertilizing loamy earth. Each of these
burdens is an actual gain to the rich surface soil ; and who can doubt that,
in the lapse of years, the unseen and unappreciated labors of these insect
tribes must both materially improve its quality and increase its depth ?*

HINTS AS TO MANURES.

It is a well known fact that hoofs, haii-s, feathers, skins, wool, contain more
than 50 per cent, of carbon, and from 13 to 18 per cent, of nitrogen, besides
sulphur, salts of lime, of soda, and of magnesia. These substances hold,
therefore, the first rank, as it were, amongst manures; and, as a long time is
required for their decomposition, their action may often last for seven or eight
years. They yield excellent results, especially when made into a compost for
potatoes, turnips, hops, hay, and, generally, on meadow-land. Hairs spread
upon meadows are said to augment the crop three-fold ; and the Chinese, we
are told, are so well aware of the very greab value of that manure, that they
carefully collect the hair every time they have their heads shaved — and the
operation is performed every fortnight — and sell it to their farmers. Now,
the crop of hair that every individual leaves at the haircutter's yearly, amounts
to about half a pound; reckoning, therefore, at 13,000,000, the number of
individuals who, in Great Britain and Ireland, are undergoing the process of
shaving and haircutting, we have a production of about 3,000 tons of hair —
that is, of manure of the most valuable kind, since it represents at least
150,000 tons of ordinary farm-yard manure — which might be collected almost
without trouble, but which, on the contrary, such is our carelessness or indo-
lence in these matters, is, I believe, invariably swept away in our streets or
sewers, and utterly wasted. — Farmer's Manual of Agricultural Chemistry.

ACTION OF DROUGHT ON PLANTS.

The article below, from the Mark Lane Express, London, could scarcely
be more applicable to this meridian, if written expressly for it. We com-
mend it to each of our readers as affording a plausible theory why j)la.nts
require so much ivater. It also affords strong arguments in favor of irrigation,
especially in a climate like ours, where the three summer months are usually
very dry and hot.

" The specific action of drought on plants is one of the problems not yet
entirely solved. Whether it is the indirect waste of moisture on the plants
by evaporation, or the want of the due proportion of water necessary to build
up the structure of plants, or whether it is some indirect action on the con-
stituents of the soil, is by no means a settled question.

* In the Prize Essays of the Highland Society, (vol. 1, p 191,) the reader will find
the testimony of a practical man that such was in reality the case, as observed by him-
aelf on part of his own farm in Roxburgshire.

ACTION OF DROUGHT ON PLANTS. 215

The present season has aflforded abundant illustration of the eflFect of want
of moisture on the several plants the farmer has to cultivate ; and what is
more remarkable, the drought, though absolutely less than it was last year,
seems to have had a far greater effect on the plants. The meadows especially
appear to have suffered. In all the northern counties particularly, the grass
crop is peculiarly affected. The fiaer and shorter grasses are absolutely either
wanting, or so thin that they show the meadows to be without bottom grass.
The coarser grasses are tall, but thin, and running to seed, forming no tiller-
ing stalks, and few blades in comparison to those of former years. The corn
is the same — thin, stunted, and spiry in its character. There has been no til-
lering, no thick, matted surface. The drills have been visible up to the pres-
ent period, and the stems are fast running to ear before half the usual height
is attained, being also hard and yellow in color, and as different as possible
from the graceful flopping blade the wheat plant usually exhibits at this
period.

Now, in what specific way has this drought so acted on the plants ? In
ordinary vegetables, 90 per cent, of their whole structure is simply water.
Hence it is easy to conceive how large a quantity of that material is necessary
during their growth and development. But there was no such absolute
deficiency this season. The soil always contained a comparatively large amount
of moisture ; the dews were often plentiful, amounting to fully as much tnore
as any diurnal development of the plant could require ; and all the tables of
rain fallen in the spring of this year, we have seen, showed a larger quan-
tity than in the corresponding months of last year. Hence it seems we must
look to the abstract cause of the injury — to something beyond the mere de-
nuding of the plant of water, as such.

We think the theory of Liebig far better established this season. The
plant, to take up its elements, must have them presented to it in a state of
solution. The action of rain operates to dissolve regularly and gradually the
material required by the plant, both in the soil and in the rocks from whicb
the soil is continually forming, by disintegrating the small particles existing in
the land. These are being supplied to the plant by the rains as it requires
them, but this year they have not been so washed out and made ready for
its use. But why did not the same cause operate equally in the spring of
1852 ? Simply because the incessant rains of the autumn and early winter
had washed out the soluble constituents of the soil, so as to leave less free
material in the laud by far than in the previous spring, and hence the ordi-
nary drought had much greater effect on the plants this year than it had last.
The effect of water on plants, regularly supplied, is most wonderful. Those
who have seen the Clipston water meadows, and the small and clear stream,
which produce from three to five crops of grass per annum, either depastured
or mown, or partly the one and partly the other, must be convinced that it is
almost as much owing to the plentiful supply of water in a dry season, as to
any great amount of manure held by that small river in solution, that the
vast increase of grass is produced. By watering, Mr. Kennedy, of Myremill,
keeps close upon a thousand head of stock on ninety acres of Italian rye-grass.
In ordinary seasons, from five to nine sheep can be kept on one acre of land :
the latter may be done in a dropping season, on clover lays, on well-cultivated
land ; but with the aid of a little artificial food, and by the application of
liquid manure, in the shower form, by steam, Mr. Kennedy can keep fifty- six
sheep per acre! Nor can we believe that this is altogether due to the manure.
To that it is partly owing, doubtless ; but it is by far more owing to its being
watered with that manure in a soluble state, and so fit for the immediate use

216 LIQUID MANURING.

of the plants. Hence he is independent of season. The water drill, to which
we before alluded, is an application of the same principle ; and the wonder-
ful results of the dressing of dissolved bone liquid, in a dry season, by the
Duke of Richmond, is a powerful fact in the same direction.

That it is the want of soluble manure, or, in other words, elements of
plants, which is mainly the cause of the injury, is manifest from the fact that
all the poorest land has suffered by far the most from the drought. The very
highly manured land has sustained the least damage; while on land to which
very highl}" soluble manures — Peruvian guano, for instance — and similar mate-
rials, have been applied, the crops are growing vigorously.

Nor let it be forgotten that the rain brings down the ammonia, which, in
dry states o.f the atniosphere, will float undisturbed ; and this failing, as well
as the soluble supply below, would of course aggravate the cause of injury.

But what can now be done, with the meadows ripe, and not one half or
one third of a crop? We say, free your pastures at once, and put in the
whole of the stock, if rain has come, and eat up the meadows thoroughly
bare. This will amply relieve the pastures, and afford them the chance of an
entire new growth. The meadows, with their small produce, will soon be
eaten up ; and let a dressing of two or three cwt. of the best guano be then
applied to them, and a beautiful new crop, and not very late, will yet be se-
cured ; the mowing machine and haymaker will soon get it, even if it should
clash with the harvest; but we are clear that on all kinds of land more
produce, with the present crop given in, will be obtained by such a course,
and the present crop will be very acceptable of itself. The fog, or aftermath,
has also every pi-os2:)ect of being better after thus supplying the deficiency of
the year."

LIQUID MANURING.

We follow up what we have written on this subject, by the following judi-
cious remarks of the editor of the Albany Cultivator, in his September num-
ber:

'■'■Liquid manuring appears to be more particularly applicable to the neigh-
borhood of towns and cities. Millions of dollars are annually wasted by the
large quantities of enriching substances which are annually carried off and
"wasted in sewers. It has been computed that the city of London afl(>rds
enough in this way to impart the highest degree of fertility to three hundred
thousand acres of land ; and at the same rate of calculation, New-York would
fertilize nearly a hundred thousand acres. The most surprising effects have
lately been obtained from liquid manure in England, far exceeding those from
any other enriching application. The reason is obvious: the manure is not
only reduced to the finest degree of division, but the water which holds it
carries it through all parts of a porous soil, and forms a more perfect inter-
mixture than could be effected by any other means; at the same time that
the water performs another most important office, namely, supplying the
growing plant with the amount of moisture which it so largely needs.

There is no question that a highly diluted mixture of water and manure is
the most perfect state in which to apply it; and in the case of sewage-water,
this mixture being already made, it can be applied in no other way. The
question immediately arises, How is it to be conveyed to the land in the most
economical manner? This is the most difficult part of the process, for it is
far cheaper to cart a ton of solid manure than the same amount of fertilizing

LIQUID MANURING.

217

materials with ten times their weight of water. A very important discussion
lately took place on this subject in a meeting of the Agricultural Society of
England, in which it was declared by those versed in hydraulics, and who
had experience in the conveyance of water in pipes, that so great was the fa-,
cility with which it might be conveyed in pipes by the agency of steam power,
when compared with carting by horse labor, that the former could be effected
at less than one tenth the cost of the latter. One great difficulty, however,
occurred, from the fact that the liquid manure was most wanted on the dryer
hills, which are least accessible, the towns being usually lower than the sur-
rounding country ; but this difficulty had been obviated by pumping up with
a steam engine. Several distinguished and successful farmers bad procured
hydraulic apparatus for this purpose ; one had placed a hydrant for every 40
acres of his land, another for every 11 acres, and another for every 3i- acres;
from these hydrants a hose pipe issued, and was carried round in a circle, wa-
tering the whole surface regularly. Among these farmers was J. J. Meclii,
well known by reputation to the farmers in this country, who, from a large
tank, drove the liquid manure through pipes over his whole farm, employing
for this purpose the farm engine erected for his mill and threshing machine.

The London Times furnishes the following account of the extraordinary
success which has attended an experiment of this kind, and which must un-
doubtedly be attributed largely to this simple supply of loater, as well as to
the fertilizing influence of the manure. The statement of keeping fifty sheep
per acre — almost ten times as many as our farmers think of pasturing — would
draw rather hard on our credulity, were it not otherwise corroborated, and
had we not already some extraordinary facts at hand of the enormous growth
resulting from similar treatment : —

'At Myremill, in Ayrshire, Mr. Kennedy feeds under cover in the summer
months, 220 large oxen, 460 sheep, 20 horses, and 150 store pigs, on 90 acres
of Italian rye grass. Last summer, his house-fed sheep fattened better than
in the field, and were kept on Italian rye grass for four months, at the rate of
56 head per acre I They likewise received a daily supply of steamed food.
But allowing for this, we find that on this farm each acre of grass keeps about
four times as much live stock as the average of the cultivated land of similar
quality in England. Mr. Kennedy has attained his high state of fertility by
the use of liquid manure, distributed over the ftvrm in pipes, and applied to
the surface by the force of steam, in a jet-like shower of rain. To use Mr.
Mechi's graphic words, he can "increase his wet days" as he finds it neces-
sary, and when other people's fields are parched with drought, his are glistening
with perennial verdure. Having an unfailing supply of water, he can either
mix it in his manure tank with a more enriching substance, and so shower it
over the land, or he can sow guano broadcast over the grass, and then wash
it in dissolved ; or if nothing but moisture is needed, he applies that only. No
doubt such an apparatus requires a large stock both of capital and skill — the
one to start it, and the other to conduct it. A most important experiment it
is, however, and likely to lead to great results ere long.'

This subject is yet in the infancy of its successful application, — a stage
which every useful operation must first pass through, before it can reach ma-
turity. To what extent in practice it may yet reach, is hard to predict ; but
it would certainly be well worthy the efforts of enterprising men in and near
cities, to provide tanks for the reception of the immense amount of wasted
wealth in the form of sewage-water, and pipes for its conveyance to the large
plantations occupied as market-gardens, where it is believed all judicious out-

218 MR. chapman's last importation of heifers.

lays would soon repay large dividends in the fine and luxuriant growth they
would soon occasion."

The same writer, in reply to a question proposed by one of his correspond-
ents, says :

" The liquid portions of the manure from cattle are greater in bulk, and
richer in quality, than the same from horses. The real money value of such
manure must of course vary greatly with circumstances, such as the price of
the crop raised, and the manner of applying the manure. For example, a
ton of manure converted into strawberries, selling at four dollars per bushel,
would return more money than a ton converted into corn at fifty cents, or ruta
bagas at ten cents per bushel. Again : manure carelessly applied and badly
mixed with the soil, will not yield one third the return aftbrded from finely pul-
verized and thoroughly intermixed materials. Still further: the quantity and
richness of manure is much controlled by the age, nature, size, condition, treat-
ment and food of the animal which yields it.

In Flanders, where manures are well applied, and animals well fed, the urine
of a single cow is reckoned at an average of $10 per annum — the solid parts
are estimated at one half to three fourths of this sum. Taking the usual
price of guano, $50 per ton, as the standard, the manure from a single cow,
saved in the best manner, would be worth about $20, This is, however, higher
than manure is usually sold, and by the common management more than half
is lost.

No accurate estimate can, however, be made of the loss, when it is thrown
into the barn-yard, and exposed to the weather, without knowing other par-
ticulars. As most farmers manage, by providing straw enough to absorb
about one fourth of the urine, from one half to two thirds are lost ; a larger
quantity of straw, in connection with leaves, peat, and an occasional layer of
turf, the latter being the most valuable of all as an absorbent, would save
nearly the whole, even if exposed to the weather."

FOn THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

MR. CHAPMAN'S LAST IMPORTATION OF HEIFERS.

Messrs. Editors : — By the arrival of the " Mary Carson " at Philadel-
phia, on the 25th of August, I received from Robert Bell, Esq., of Mosbro'
Hall, Rainsford, near Liverpool, Eng., four short-horn heifers. These heifers
were imported for me, by Geo. Vail, Esq., of Troy, N. Y., who, until his great
sale in October last, ranked as one of our best and most enterprising import-
era and breeders of short-horn cattle. His importations were always from
Mr. Bates' herd, or from that of Mr. Bates' tenant, Mr. Bell ; and as these
gentlemen always used the same bulls, their herds were nearly identical. Mr.
Vail always considered the Bates blood the best in his herd; and to its in-
troduction and continued use, in a great measure, is to be attributed his suc-
cess as a breeder of short-horns. These heifers, above alluded to, were se-
lected by Mr. Bell from his own herd, and with particular reference, with one
exception, to their possessing much of the celebrated Duchess blood of Mr.
Bates' herd. This (Duchess) family Mr. Bates considered preferable to any
other family of short-horns ; an<l the high prices which they now command
seem to prove conclusively that Mr. Bates was correct in his opinion. Below
I send you the pedigrees of the four heifers.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 219

Agate — Roan; calved Dec. 6, 1850 : got by Mr. Bates' Duchess bull, 3d
Duke of Yoi-k (10,166) ; dam [Annie] by Mr. Bates' Duchess bull, 2d Cleve-
land Lad (3,408) ; g. d. [Annabella] by Mr. Bates' Duchess bull, Duke of
Cleveland (1,937); gr. g. d. [Acombj by Mr. Bates' Belvidere (1,706).

Frantic — Roan ; calved Sept. 3, 1850: got by Mr. Bates' Duchess bull,
4th Duke of York (10,167) — purchased by Earl Ducie, at the sale of Mr.
Bates' herd in 1850, for £210 ; dam [Faith] by Mr. Bates' Duchess bull, 4th
Duke of Northumberland (3,649) ; g. d. [Fidget] by Mr. Bates' 2d Earl of
Darlington (1,945) ; gr. g. d. [Fletcher] by a son of Young Wynyard (2,859).

BouKiE — Roan; calved April 25, 1849 : got by 4th Duke of York (10,-
167) — as above; dam [Cicely] by Mr. Bates' Duchess bull, Duke of North-
umberland (1,940) ; g.d. [Craggs] by a son of 2d Hubback (2,682) ; gr.g.d.
[Craggs] bought of Mr. Bates, and descended from the stock of the late Mr.
Maynard.

Bright Eyes 3d — Red; calved June 23, 1850: got by Earl Derby (10,-
177) ; dam [Bright Eyes 2d] by Lord George Bentinck (9,317) ; g. d. [Bright
Eyes] by Conqueror (6,885) ; gr. g. d. by a son of Bearl (65) ; gr. g. g. d. by
Mason's Son of Comet (155) ; gr. g. g. g. d. by Wellington (683).

These heifers were all bred to Bates' bulls before being sent out from Eng-
Land. Respectfully yours, S. P. Chapman.

Mt. Pleasant Farm, Clockville, Madison Co., N. Y., Sept. 5, 1853.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

It is one of the self-denying duties which one owes to the public, to con-
tend against that which is good in itself, and which, under certain circum-
stances, would be of very great value, while existing conditions are absolutely
fatal to its present success, and render it absolutely sure that money invested
with the most honest and the most patriotic intentions will be essentially thrown
away.

Such, in our view, are the beautiful designs laid out, as on a map, with
great skill, by some of our contemporaries, in relation to agricultural education.

If designed for the Duke of Sutherland, or him of Orleans, they could not,
perhaps, be improved ; or if reference is had to a community of rich planters,
who enjoy, otium cum dignitate, as the Latins say, a life of quiet and honor-
able leisure, while overseers or superintendents are employed to direct every
hour's labor done through the year — if they at the same time wish to oversee
and direct the superintendent, and actually be, what they often nominally are,
SM/)er- superintendents, these plans are admirably designed. But such, we
apprehend, is not the condition of any of the farming communities through-
out this country. Our Southern planters' sons have no taste, generally, for
those duties, and, therefore, no desire to qualify' themselves for a more judi-
cious and successful management of their affairs ; and comparatively few plant-
ers, perhaps, have the funds wherewith to found such institutions, and also
support their sons for several years in acquiring the knowledge of which they are
conscious they actually have need. Most farmers are in the same category
in this business of education, in which so many of them are in reference to
the cultivation of their farms. They know their deficiencies, but are too poor
to begin with buying manures. Could the improved crops be made available
in advance, they would go into the work of reform with zeal. But Professor

220 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

Mapes holds his 'improved superphosphates' under a lock which nothing
but eagles and guineas can unfasten ; and the poor farmer must remain, for
the present, essentially where he is.

We are far from advocating indolence or indifference in these matters.
Something must be done, and that too without much delay, or many of our
farmers who are now only poor will be actual bankrupts ; and many a farm,
now under mortgage for half its value, will be sold under the hammer, or the
mortgage will be foreclosed, and the occupant be not only stripped of his farm,
but of his house also.

We look, however, for something more practicable, and requiring less out-
lay, than is contemplated by any of these thorough systems. We are anxious
for something to relieve the classes we have just described. Access may now
be had by the sons of the wealthy to the best schools of this country, or of
Europe. They annually expend far more than would be required for this pur-
pose in mere pleasure, and, therefore, the public are not very urgently called
upon to provide for them.

One of the best discussions of this subject we have seen, and one of the
most thorough systems proposed, is by our learned and accomplished friends
of the Poli/technic Journal, in their September issue. But, ifvve do not read
them incorrectly, they also furnish evidence that, for the masses, their splendid
system would be of little practical utility. We refer to what they say of the
honest, but essentially unschooled "Dutchmen" of Pennsylvania. Could our
ffxrining communities throughout the States present the same evidence of thrift
which do these " stereotyped " farmers of the Quaker State, we should be more
prosperous and successful than we shall ever be under all the schools and col-
leges which the most ambitious and most hopeful anticipate. Let us notice
what our friends say : —

"How comes it that the 'Dutchmen' of Pennsylvania, as they are gene-
rally termed, are invariably acknowledged to be good farmers ? Because they
have brought with them from their fatherland a system of farming requiring
them to manure one third or one fourth of the lands under tillage regularly
every year. These men have adhered to the mode of farming practised by
their fathers and ancestors ; .they transplanted that stereotyped system upon
the fertile region of Pennsylvania — the same system which has kept the lands
of their fathers thousands of years in a perfectly productive state, and on the
same soil which was ploughed by the Romans in the time of the Emperor
Augustus.* We do not mean to say that the Germans of Pennsylvania farm
their lands according to proper rules and the principles of agricultural science,
or that their system of fanning is to be imitated ; or that they could not do
better — far from it ; they have yet much to learn ; but they were wise enough
to adhere to an old. well tried sy>tem, and their fields show the result of it.
Every one who visits that portion of Pennsylvania where the Germans reside
will be agreeably surprised with the appearance of the fields, meadows, and
those large barns and manure-heaps, the secret of their success. Every strip
of land is well cultivated and tended with care; every meadow drained or
irrigated. The whole aspect of their estates shows that they love and cherish
the soil. They work themselves ; their daughters and wives work ; all work.
They have little hired labor, and yet, with that small amount of labor, they
produce large crops, and are very prosperous. To these ' Dutchmen ' Penn-
sylvania owes much of her wealth, her prosperity, the high rank which she
holds among her sister States, and the fortitude with which she endured the

* See Fleischmann's Report on Agriculture, in the Report of the U.S. Patent OflEice, 1841.

WHERE THE CORN COMES FROM. 221

meraoi-able financial crisis. The Germans of Pennsylvania seldom emigrate
to the West, to exhaust or ruin another tract of land ; and when they are
obliged to move, in order to make their children also independent tillers of
the soil, they always carry with them their industry ; and their good farming
has become proverbial throughout the Union.

Had the Southern planter gone to work in a similar manner; had he only
now and then endeavored to remunerate his lands for the excessive cropping,
with a few loads of manure ; had he followed a regular rotation of crops ; had
he kept up a system of farming and not of exhausting, the aspect of things
of our neighbors would be a different one. That ruinous system was begun
by the first settlers : all wanted to get rich too fast, without reference to th^ir
successors, and the future prosperity of their adopted country. The deed is
done; but it is not too late to remedy the evil. The remedy cont-ists not in
the analysis of the soil, not in the study of chemistry, not in a patent manure ;
neither is it in the knowledge of the fine points of a horse, cow, or bull, the
production of the tallest corn, largest tobacco leaf, or a great crop of \\^heat,
cotton, or sugar. All such knowledge and all such speculations do not strike
the evil at the root."

This page of quotation contains or implies a vast deal, and, if it shows us
any thing, it shows us that the "land well cultivated and tended with care,"
"every meadow drained," and the "little hired labor," while they adhere to
the systems of tlteir fathers beyond the sea, " requiring them to manure one
third or one fourth of the lands under tillage regularly every year," — " the
same system which has kept the lands of their fathers thousands of years in
a perfectly productive state," — contain the entire solution of the problem
which is set before the agriculturists of this country.

Neither these learned editors nor ourselves have less regard for education
in general, nor for agricultural education, than others have, nor will we con-
sent to be placed on a lower platform on this subject than the writer of the
article from which this extract is taken ; but the difference is this : while lie
proposes a thoroughly furnished college, or university even, at once, we thiijk
we must go step by step, and raise the mass of our farmers into an atmo-
sphere where they can see more clearly what they now refuse even to examitie,
and furnish them also with the means for still greater advance, by their own
acquired resources. In this way, ultimate success is certain. In every other,
as we view the subject, nothing is certain but defeat.

WHERE THE CORN COMES FROM.

An English paper says: — It is proved by the return of the foreign com
trade in the last few years, that a change is taking place in the principal
sources of the supply of food. The United States and the Baltic are no
longer, by any means, our largest producers. Their yearly surplus falls short
of our yearly wants, and it is from the fertile districts and fine rivers of
Eastern Europe that we now dr_aw our greatest and most inexhaustible
supply. In 1841, when the total imports of wheat into this kingdom were
2,400,000 quarters, only 230,000 quarters, or about one tenth, came from
Russia, Turkey, or the Mediterranean. In 1852, the total import of wheat
(exclusive of Hour) was about 3,200,000 quarters, of which 1,700,000 qu;ir-
ters came from the ports of those countries; and taking the whole import of
corn at 0, 750, 000 quarters, that of the East was 3,500,000 quarters.

222 TUNNELS OF THE WORLD.

Of this quantity a large proportion is shipped at Galatz and Ibraila, and
other Turkish ports, which are the natural channels for the abundant produce
of Hungary, and the fertile j)rovinces south of the Danube. Egypt also
sent us in 1852 no less than 279,000 quarters in 143 vessels. M. Mongro-
dien points out that this large and increasing trade is almost exclusively in
the hands of Greek merchants established in England, with branch houses in
the Levant, and that the ingenuity and perseverance of the Greeks are dis-
played to an extraordinary degree by the manner in which they have con-
trived, in about thirty years, to found and retain this extensive commerce.
The Greek firms in England amount to about 200, and the yearly amount of
their transactions in the grain trade alone is computed at no less than four
millions. Their business is conducted with the utmost diligence and exact-
ness, and even in this country the Greeks successfully compete with the
traders in corn from all parts of the Avorld.

TUNNELS OF THE WORLD.

The below article on the tunnels of world was prepared by General Dear-
born for the use of the Maine Legislature. It will be found to contain much
useful and interesting information :

"Although scarcely any two tunnels are exactly alike, as to the strata
through which they pass, the size, length, number, and depth of shafts, the
quantity of water to be extracted, the climate of locality, and the lining — all
of which affect the cost — and time required for the work, still a near and
approximate decision can be arrived at by examining tlie details of those
already finished, and comparing them with a proposed tunnel, if the same
tools and appliances are to be used for working in both cases. If improve-
ments are introduced, such as steam drills, cutting and boring apparatus, &c.,
then the cost and time will be modified in proportion to the rapidity and
expense with which these machines can be made to do their work.

The machines invented for boring Hoosac Mountain, and excavating the
Mount Cenis tunnel, exhibit great ingenuity ; the former has been tried, and
gives good results, bidding fair to answer the ends proposed ; but a longer
trial is required to determine its merits. The latter, it is said, will cut 22
feet in solid rock in twenty-four hours; but it has not, to my knowledge, been
tested- to any great extent as yet, so that we must wait further experiments
before a correct opinion can be formed of its ultimate aid in tunnelling.

The tunnels enumerated have been constructed on the usual method of
carrying on such woiks.

The constructing of tunnels for aqueducts, mining, &c,, dates back to the
earliest period of histoiy. Those mentioned by Strabo, through Mount
Patus, for regulating the height of the water in Copais, in Bceotia, are some
of thirty stadia, equal to 3.447 miles in length, and were works of great
labor. The tunnels of Egypt, and those of the celebrated Roman aqueducts,
and the tunnel at Lake Albano, 6,000 feet long, cut through lava, in 398 b. c,
are monuments worthy of their age.

There is a tunnel reported to have been found under an arm of the sea,
near Marseilles, from Abbey St. Victoria to Fort St. Nicholas, having an arch
of 60 feet span, and being 1,625 feet long, supposed to be of Roman origin.
The first tunnel constructed for canal navigation was on the Languedoc canal,
in 1666, planned by F. Andreossy.

TUNNELS OF THE WORLD. 223

France has fifty-six tunnels on her canals and raih-oads, thirty-six of which
have an aggregate length of 45.44 miles. The longest of small size is 7.45
miles, and that of large dimensions is 3.52 miles long. The Rouen and
Havre Railroad has eight tunnels ; Paris and Lyons eight also.

That truly grand work, the aqueduct from the Durance to Marseilles, has
three tunnels, whose total length is 10.56 miles. That through the Taillades
had 7,320 gallons of water pumped out of it each minute, during a part
of the time it was in progress, to carry it on to completion. There was a
tunnel projected for the Picardy Canal of 8.51 miles in length, but two short
ones were substituted for it.

On the German railroads there are ten tunnels. The George Stalton tun-
nel in the Harz Mountains is 6.48 miles long. It was begun in 1777, and
finished in 1800, and cost £71,172.

Spain has some railroad tunnels. Sardinia States have a number: one at
Mount Giovi, nearly two miles long, on the Genoa and Turin Railroad. There
are on this railroad, in twenty-five miles through the Apennines, nine tun-
nels ; and the road is considered one of the most difficult pieces of railroad
engineering ever undertaken.

The Mont Cenis tunnel, projected for the Lyons and Turin Railroad, is one
of the grandest works of this nature ever contemplated. It is to be 7.63
miles long, and 19 x 25 feet in size. The plans for it, and the machinery to
work it, were designed by the Chevalier Mause, the distinguished engineer
of this railroad. A board of scientific gentlemen, engineers, and geologists,
were appointed to examine those plans, &c., and they decided unanimously
in favor of the project. The estimated cost is $2,615,000, and the time fixed
tor its completion is five years. The summit of the post-road over this
mountain is 2,400 feet above the tunnel ; the mountain is 2,450 feet above
this. No shafts are to be sunk.

In Switzerland, in Val Cristallena, the Alps are to be pierced by a tunnel
for the Italian and German Junction Railroad, 3.5 miles long.

The Sommering tunnel, through a mountain of that name in Austria, is
one mile long.

Hungary has a mineral railroad tunnel, ten miles long, just completed.

England has forty-eight canal tunnels, of an aggregate length of forty miles,
the longest of which is over three miles, on the Huddersfield Canal, if we
except one reported eighteen miles long on the Bridgewater Canal. She
has also seventy-nine railroad tunnels, forty-nine of which amount to 32.53
miles: the longest is 361 miles.

The London and Birmingham Railroad has eight tunnels ; London and
Dover, five ; Newcastle and Carlisle, five.

A canal tunnel of five miles in length was projected for the Manchester
and Bolton Canal, and one 4.5 miles long for the Portsmouth and Corydon
Canal, but were not constructed.

The United States have sixty-seven tunnels on canals and railroads, the
largest of which is about one mile. The details of these are now difficult
to obtain. Many of them are short, however.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad has sixteen tunnels; Parkersburg Railroad,
seventeen ; Hempfield Railroad, seven.

A tunnel of 4.04 miles was projected by the celebrated engineer, General
Bernard, in 1825, for the passage of the Alleghany Mountains, by the
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal.

In the foregoing statement there are no doubt many tunnels omitted, as I

224 AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

have mentioned those only that are contained in works in my own library,
with three or four exceptions.

The art of tunnelling has been so extensively practised, that they are not
now looked upon by engineers and others as such formidable obstacles as
they formerly were."

JTHE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, NEW-YORK, 1853.

Tuts popular Institution has issued the following Programme of their
twenty-sixth Annual Fair:

"October 1st, 3d, 4th, 5th, Castle Garden will be open for the reception of
goods and specimens.

Oct. Ctli, Castle Garden will be open for the admission of visitors, from 9
A.M. until 10 P.M., and continue the s.ime each day (Sundays excepted)
until the close.

Oct. lOtli, Testing of ploughs, near Frye's Hotel, Flatbush, on the plank-
road to Coney Island, at 11 o'clock A. M.

Oct. 11, Ploughing and Spading Matches, same place, 11 o'clock A.M.

Oct. 17, Special exhibition of roses and cut flowers, at 12 o'clock M.

Oct. 19th, 20Lh, and 21st, Cattle show at Hamilton Square.

Oct. 20th, Anniversary Address, at Metropolitan Hall, at 7 P. M. Tickets
may be had at Castle Garden, or of any of the Managers.

At their Fair last year, the Managers awarded 90 gold medals ; 304 silver
medals; silver cups and plate to the value of 81167 25; cash premiums, in
place of cups, medals, <fec., $677 25 ; 174 volumes of books to apprentices,
minors, and othere ; $20, and three bronze medals, the Van Schaick premium ;
and 175 premiums on fire-works.

The list of premiums offered for this year has been materially increased,
particularly those in the Agricultural and Horticultural departments.

The annual exhibition of cattle of all breeds, and all useful farm stock,
will be held at Hamilton Square, on the 19tb, 20th, and 21st days of Octo-
ber. Hamilton Square is situated between the Third and Fourth Avenues,
and Sixty-sixth and Sixty-ninth streets, four miles from the City Hall. The
railroad cars and several lines of omnibuses pass it every hour in the day.
Every arrangement will be made for the accommodation of exhibitors.

The Clerk will be in attendance on the ground, on the l7th and 18th days
of October, for the purpose of receiving entries. Feed of all kinds will be
provided on the ground, at the cheapest rates.

Competition is open for stock from any part of the United States. No
entrance-money will be required.

It is very desirable that a catalogue, for the use of the judges and visitore,
should be ready for delivery at an early period. It will greatly facilitate this
object, if the exhibitors will send their entries, with pedigrees, &c., to A.
Chandler, Corresponding Secretary, No. 351 Broadway, as early as possible.

Copies of the Premium List for the Ao-ricultural Department may be ob-
tained at any time, by applying at the rooms of the Institute, No. 351
Broadway, where all inquiries will be promptly answered."

Let all with one accord lend their aid to the advancement of this useful
institution.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 225

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

The more we examine this immense collection, the more we are gratified
and astonished at its extent and its excellent display. Several times we have
passed through it with friends from abroad, who could devote but a short
time to its examination, and we find that a rapid survey, which allows no
careful observation of any one thing, consumes quite three hours, while, not-
withstanding the numerous visits we have paid to the Crystal Palace,
each consuming from four to seven hours, so far are we from being faniiliar
with all its beauties, that we make new discoveries every hour we spend
there. But some kind of directory is necessary for a satisfactory examination.
We have also met friends there who had been over the building two or three
hours alone, and with nothing to guide them in the selection of objects for
examination, who were about to give up in despair, like a stranger set down in
a large city, without a map to guide his movements, really seeing nothing in a
satisfactory manner, while they were delighted with the few we have pointed
out to them, and considered themselves well paid for the cost and trouble of the
visit; and they left with a resolve to make another journey to the city when-
ever practicable, to complete what was so delightful in its commencement.
You are often within arm's length of an object of great interest, which
something less attractive prevents you from examining, and when you after-
wards read the description of it, you are sorely grieved that it escaped your
notice. A good descriptive catalogue, arranged in the order they occur,
would be of immense advantage. The printed catalogue is systematic, but it
does not answer this design. ,

We purpose, in a humble measure, to supply this deficiency by an enumer-
ation and short description of many of the more interesting articles there to
be seen, and in the order in which they occur in passing through the build-
ing. We made a very short list of this kind in our last number ; but so
many objects of interest have since been added, that we now go over the
same ground again, naming only without describing what were then re-
ferred to.

We start from beneath the dome, and, omitting all the statuary for a
separate chapter, begin with the French department, and in the first section
of it from the dome on the western nave, or that leading to the Sixth Avenue
entrance.

Here is the very splendid show belonging to the Government of France, the

Gobelin Tapestry and ancient Sevres Ware. This kind of ware
we described in our last number, when referring to the collection of M.
Lahoche. The articles we are now going to describe were not then opened :

The first piece of embroidery on your right as you enter the section is
Le Loup et l'Agneau, or the Wolf and the Lamb, after Desportes ; a
most elegant piece of art, which multitudes would mistake for an ancient
painting. Then an Autumn Scene, after Leasoret, the lower portion of which
we think is finer than the upper, though all parts are superb. La Lice et
SA CoMPAGNON is a most perfect representation of three or four dogs.
Next, SujET DE Chasse, or the representation of the chase, with a combi-
nation of moving and of still life. Over the door-way, opposite the entrance,
is a splendid picture of Mountain Scenery, representing two goats contend-
ing for a passage across a narrow bridge, on which they have met, with the

VOL. VI. — PABT IV. 15

226 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

wild scenery of a mountain torrent. Near the top of the heights is a tower.
We can conceive of nothing finer tlian tliis piece of embroidery. A Win-
ter Scene and fine landscapes complete this series. Some of the latter are
of less pretensions than those on the oppo.'^ite side, and will not detain you
so long. These on the left are the Beauvais tapestry.

On a stand, in the centre of the court, is a most imposing vase of the
ancient Sevres ware, which will be more admired the more it is exainined.
The tables are covered with similar ware, plates, tea-sets, bottles, pitchers, &c.
On the left, as you enter, is an elegant tea-set, having the appearance of
open-work; and on the right is another which is actually thus ornamented,
the ware being double. These arc both very superb. Other vases in and
near the corners of the court are worthy of especial notice.

Upon the tables lining the nave is an admirable collection of groups in
terra cotta. Old men and children, mothers and grandmothers, beggars and
the more prosperous, all are represented by the most perfect statuettes. The
expression of the countenances of each is a pleasing study for a long time.
Still, multitudes pass by them with scarcely a glance.

Entering the next court, as numbered in the printed catalogue, or towards
Fortieth street, are specimens of

Belgian Sugar and Candy, very fine. Here is also a Veiled Head,
unlike others found on the Italian side, and not so beautiful ; also a collec-
tion of Glass an-d China, Cloths and Oil Cloths, Chemicals, &c.

Still fcirther on we find various manufactures, including snuff, flax, cloths,
&c., and cotton, woollen and silk goods, some very elegant, with shawls,
gloves, hose, &c. All these are from Belgium.

In the next court we find goods from Saxony, consisting of Musical
Instruments, Toilet Articles, &c. Next, a handsome case of Varieties,
from Nuremburg ; a Machine for drilling the Eyes of Needles, very
ingenious, which drew the prize at the London Exhibition ; elegant scissors,
shears, knives, locks, balances, &c,, from the Geiman States,

Turning to the right, we notice a bas-relief, representing Armin and
Thusi^'elda, marble, very fine ; curtains, furniture, pianos, &c. One of these
is the

Mechanical Piano of Mons. Debain. It is played by machinery,
without the use of the keys, and renders the highest styles of opera music
with admirable effect. It is a very ingenious instrument. A gentleman is
in attendance to play and to exhibit its structure.

Tiie next court, which borders on the west nave, contains the elegant
wares of M. Lahoche, described in our last number. The very courteous
exhibitor and his equally courteous friend who assists him, have spared us
and others the trouble of many inquiries as to the portraits on their wares,
by affixing names to the likenesses on the ancient Sevres ware, of which we
gave the list in our September number. Some very beautiful Cologne
bottles, and bottles for various cosmetics, &c,, were not specially referred to in
our former description, but are worthy of being found and carefully examined.
Another article, not before mentioned, is a very curious Mechanical Turn-
ing Clock, whach is worthy of especial notice.

Raphael's Holy Family, in porcelain, is also exhibited by M. Lahoche,
and is most superb. So also are the small bronzes at the end of his tables.

Opposite this ware are some chandeliers, of beautifully chaste design, by
LeroJle Brothers, from Paris. In one, each pendant bears a lily of pure
white, contrasting with good effect the bronze or gilt of the branches.
Another is ornamented with beautifully-arranged pink-colored flowers.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 227

Near these, in the centre of the court, stands a fine bust of Louis Napoleon,
and another, on the table, of Cerito, a famous dancing-girl of Paris.

The bronzes of Messrs. LeroUe are exquisitely done, and in exceedingly-
good taste, single or in groups.

At the entrance of the next row of courts stands a case of exquisite silk
goods — French, of course — exhibited by A. T. Stewart & Co. Beyond this,
which is surrounded also by silks, velvets, &c., exceedingly rich, are beautiful
articles for the toilet, cushions, &c Preserves, chemicals and pharmaceuticals,
are also in this vicinity. One table, as you enter the next row of courts, is
covered with specimens of bronzes, of zinc, statuettes, &c., of most excellent
style and finish. Here also is a group in bronzed plaster, the Amazon and
Tiger, much reduced in size; mechanical churns, glass filters, &c.

In the next court is a case of exquisitely fine muslin ; a duplicate dress of the
French Empress, containing seventeen yards, and two yards in width, is so'
fine that the whole can be crowded into a common-sized tumbler. Its price
is 1,000 francs. It is exhibited by Gindre & Cie., Lyons. Many other
elegant goods are in the same case, or are arranged near by. Bertrand's
case of plaster casts is a very curious and pleasing collection.

If we now pass round to the south nave, and go through the row of courts
in this same French and German department, but lining the westerly side
of the south nave, we find splendid goods of very various character, including
guns, pistols, swords, &c. ; woollen and silk goods, of various kinds, excellent
and sometimes superb in quality. Among other matters of interest is a
Musical Table. It is of mahogany, covered by a marble slab, beneath
which is arranged a musical box, playing twelve pieces. It is valued at $250
or 1300.

Artists of various kinds would be much interested in hundreds of entries
we have not referred to. But this is all our plan will permit us to describe
in this, one quarter of the lower floor of the main building.
• We next purpose to visit the gallery over the ground already examined.

[7b be Continued.]

UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

We commence, in this number, a report of the Agricultural Department,
of which we intend to publish full descriptions, illustrating those of especial
interest, so far as we can, by engravings, until the readers of our journal
shall be well posted up in every thing relating to this branch of the subject.
We shall endeavor to do the same with the machinery.

That we may know what progress we make, we shall follow the order in
which the several implements are located, beginning in the gallery at the
Washington Monument. This does not belong to us, especially, and we are
glad that it does not. It is very analogous to a new variety of fruit which
some farmer might trt/ to produce, by mixing up potatoes, apples, melons,
peppers, mustard, and pumpkins. Were all these duly mingled in one
growth, perhaps the architects of this monument might insert a block in the
walls which should represent the new monster.

The first implement that presents itself to our notice is a new

Iron Side-Hill Plough. The beam tarns on a pivot, through an entire
semicircle, so that the driver and the team change positions, while the plough-
share retains the same position. The share, cutter, &c., are double ; that is,
it consists of two shares and cutters, placed back to back. The mould-board
is also double, but both parts are on one side of the plough. A few inches

228 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

behind the cutter, it is divided into three pieces, two of which may be called
wings, each turning on a hinge. These wings are attached one behind the
other. The hinder one is covered partially by the foremost ; but when the
beam is swung half round, this hinder wing becomes the foremost ; and each
is so shaped, that when its position is reversed, it is in the proper shape and
position to turn the furrow in a proper manner. It is not necessary to unhitch
the team, but the holder of the plough sets the beam free of its fastening,
and suffers the team to draw it round, as they resume their places in or by
the last furrow. It was patented by Hall & Speir, Pittsburgh, Pa., in Janu-
ary, 18u3.

Two Irox Ploughs, from the same establishment, are also exhibited, less
remarkable than the preceding for any new feature they present, except that
there is no wood-work about them, and that they are very light and manage-
able. The use of iron in place of wood, in very many cases in which the
softer and more perishable material has been employed, seems very much on
the increase.

A small Maize Harvester, or Corn Cutter, exhibited by Jacob H.
Younj^, Mount Pulaski, III. It is claimed for this machine that it will harvest
sixteen or twenty aeres a day, with a man and a boy. It drops the bundle
at the pleasure of the laborers. Its cost is from fifteen to twenty dollars.

From this small model no very good idea can be formed of its actual
capacities, but to us it appears too complicated to work easily and successfully.

Hay Press, without name or description, a small model.

Golden Harvester, a reaping, raking, and bundling machine combined,
A, Elliott. There are some very good points about this machine. The
horse travels behind his work rather than by the side of it ; and this is a
great gain of power. We regard this a very important consideration. The
machine is simple: a single shaft running in the hne of the motion of the
machine produces all its action. It is guided by a lever attached to two
hind wheels, after the fashion of a rudder. Upon the shaft are cranks to
which the knives are attached, and also the drums upon which the bands
revolve.

Model of Trough, &c., for Feeding Pigs. This is a simple but very
good invention, exhibited by Pi. M. Abbies, Thompsonville, Ct. In front of
the pen is a swinging partition, suspended from the top by a hinge, the
natural position of which is in front of the feeding-bowl. By pressure, this
is swung over the feeding-bowls, and the swine are kept away from them
while they are cleaned or filled. When the pressure is removed, they return
to their place. Over each bowl is a sort of concave iron frame which admits
the head of the swine, but not the body. Hence they must stand outside,
and eat like more civilized animals.

A Reaping Machine, model ; nameless ; not in working order.

Forks, Hay-Cutters, and Scythes, by David J. Millard, Clayville, from
Paris Furnace Company, Oneida co., N. Y. These are excellent tools.

Forks, Rakes, and Hoes, by Tuttle Manufacturing Company, Naugatuck,
Ct. These are very handsomely wrought. Agency, 14 Dey street.

Horse Rake, a small model, nameless, but seems well contrived.

Tools, from Old Colony Iron Company, Taunton, Mass.

Shovels and Spades, from E. & J. Bussing <fe Co., very handsome.

Mop Handle, H. & J. Marsh & Co. This is a capital contrivance, but
not new.

Brooms, Moore's Patent. This is designed for keeping the material
of the broom tight and strong, even though some portion of it may have
been used up. It is worthy of attention.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 229

Horse Rake. This handsome model of a rake has spring teeth, and,
frees itself from stones, &c.

Hoes, by the American Hoe Company, Ct. Agents, Boyd & Keen, 11
Gold street. Some of these hoes are very massive, suited for the most tin-
yielding soils, and are finished in the most excellent manner.

Scythes, by Mansfield & Lamb, Smithfield, R. I.

Scythe Snaths, by A. Kimball & Sons, Fitchburg, Mass.

Hand Cultivators, Hand Harrows, Horse Rakes, Cradles, Hoes,
Forks, &c., by Longett & Griffin, N. Y., Agents for Oxford Hoe and Edge-
tool Company,

Laverne's Machines for Raising Packages, a very good contrivance,
which can be made portable or stationary. A modification of this might be
applied to unloading hay. Office, 6*78 Sixth Avenue.

Tools, in variety, by Ralph & Co.

Curiosity. "We notice on this table a Ball of Haik, four inches in
diameter, one of eleven of equal size, taken from the stomach of a cow.
Nothing is stated of their eflfects on the animal.

HoRSE-SHOE Tiles for Draining Lands and for Cellars, an excellent
article, by A. S. Babcock, Albany. Price, $12 to |18 per thousand.

Rifles for Scythes, by Edward Crossman, Canaan Four Corners.

Double Lever Churn, John O'Neill, Xenia, 0.

Corn and Grain Drill. Deering & Dederick, Albany, N. Y. This drill
took the prize at Utica in 1852.

Shovels, Forks, &c., by G. Gay, Pierce & Wood, and by Henry Par-
tridge & Son, Medfield, Mass.

Kimball's Patent Shovel, with malleable iron socket, from Worcester,
Mass.

Fire-escape Ladder, by Mr. Dederick. This is a very good arrangement
for escaping from a house when the lower stones are on fire.

A Two-wheeled Plough. A very heavy implement, but possibly useful
for certain purposes. The wheels are some 12 or 15 inches in diameter,
fixed near the point of draught.

Ploughs, by Minor Horton & Co.

Steel Mould-board Ploughs. Garrett & Cottman, Cincinnati, 0. It is
claimed for these ploughs that they are susceptible of ^ much finer polish
than the cast-iron ploughs ; that they will scour in the most adhesive soil,
and will not rust as soon as the cast iron ploughs; that they run much
lighter to the team. The edges of the shares are laid with steel, and can be
kept sharp. Price, from $8.50 to $15.

Mumma's Patfnt Corn Sheller and Apple-root Grinder.

India-rubber Washing Machine. This machine combines both the

■ pressing and the rubbing process in as simple a form as possible, and appears

to do the work as well as any machine can do it. It is adapted to delicate

goods as well as to coarser fabrics. E. L. Evans is patentee, 341 Broad

street.

Tillingham's Premium Churn.

Improved Bran Duster, by Carr & Hughes, Cincinnati, 0., and Cam-
bridge City, la. It is claimed that this is an improvement on former patents.
We have not the means of testing the justice of the claim.

Rakes, by A. E. Lyman, Williamsburgh, N. Y.

Reading's Corn Sheller and Grain Dryer. These two machines
were described in our number for June last, p. 374. They both are excellent
for the uses for which they are designed, and are of moderate cost. The
ormer will shell corn as fast as a man can shovel it into the hoppers.

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THE GREAT EXHIBITIOX. 231

PALMERS IMPROVED SPIKE THRESHER.

The foregoing is a perspective view of a spike macliine, with improvements
to guard against the accidents which often have happened, from the bursting
of the cyUnder, or from spikes being thrown out by the centrifugal force of
the machine.

These improvements are simple and effective, and consist in a change in the
construction of the feed-board and cylinder, and in the addition of a protective
roller, placed between the operator and the cyHnder.

In the lower part of the feed-board an aperture or opening (C) is left,
through which stones or any similar foreign substances which may chance to
be held in the straw are discharged from, and are prevented from being car-
ried into the machine ; and from which result, in the ordinary spike thresh-
ers, not only injury to the machine, but oftentimes accident to the operator.
This aperture is so contrived that while it allows all such substances freely to
pass out of the machine, the easy and rapid entrance of the grain into the
thresher is not hindered or interfered with.

The cylinder is secured against bursting by means of three strong iron
bands encircling it at either end and in the middle, while the spikes are pre-
vented from being thrown out by the centrifugal force, by being deeply in-
serted in the staves of the cylinder, and with a heavy, deep-cut screw.

Directly in front of the cylinder, and just above the aperture left in the
feed board, is placed a protective roller, (D,) its gudgeons moving on helical
springs, which allow the roller to be elevated so as to accommodate itself to
the quantity of feed given, but not sufficiently stiff and rigid to counterba-
lance the natural weight of the roller. This roller, however, is so contrived
that it can be elevated only to a certain distance, sufficiently to permit the
frae entrance of the grain, but not so far as to allow the hand or limbs of the
operator to oe drawn into the machine. This roller is also of the further use
to intercept any spikes or tecii which may, by any possible accident, become
broken or thrown out, and prevent any accident resulting therefrom.

These improvements may also, at a small expense, be added to the ordinary
spike threshers, and they will be furnished to all those who, holding such
threshers, desire to retain them, and wish to have their use made safe.

By means of these improvements all liability to accident is removed, while
at the same time the machine, from having an increased number of teeth in
the cylinder, will accomplish more work in a given time, and with greater
perfection.

232

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

palmer's improved HORSl: -power.

The annexed illustration gives a perspective view
of Palmer's New and Improved Horse-Power, whicli,
though originally designed by the inventor to ac-
company his threshing machines, (before described,)
is well adapted and fitted to be used whenever power
is needed, and in combination with any kind of ma-
chinery.

It is distinguished from horse-powers ordinarily
in use, by being so constructed that any required
length of leverage — from twelve to twenty -five feet
— may be obtained and rendered available, and
that two, three, or even a greater number of bands,
may be worked at the same time, and thus motion
be applied, at one and the same time, to various
kinds of machinery.' From the increased length of
leverage obtained in this machine over ordinary
horse-powers, the power applied is rendered much
more effective ; while at the same time all liability
of accident to the user is removed by the peculiar
manner in which the power is transferred, and
which is done without the necessity or use of cogs,
cog-wheels, and shafts.

Power or motion is transferred from the horse-
power, by means of bands, or chains, playing in
points of support attached to the ends of the arms
or levers, by which arrangement the power is not
I only used at the best advantage — length of lever-
, age being considered — but it is also made available
I without a necessity for cog-wheels or shafts, and.,
I therefore, with much less loss from friction.
I By means of a series of conical pulleys on the
large wheel attached to the horse-power, and from
which motion is imparted to any required machine-
ry, different velocities may be given, so that the
horse-power may be adapted to different uses,
where different resistances are to be overcome.

This improved horse-power is peculiarly well
adapted to drive an upright or other saw, wherever
their use is desired, as the velocity of the sav/ may
be readily varied according to the character of the
wood or material to be acted on ; and such saws
will be furnished in connection with the horse-
powers, whenever they may be desired.

These powers are also simple in their construc-
tion, not liable to get out of order, and may be made
(excepting the few castings, and the other iron
work) by any intelligent farmer or mechanic ; and
they are also so framed and put together that
they can easily be separated into their several partSj,
and be rendered compact and convenient for transportation or storage.

PALMER S THRESHER.

23i

palmer's AMERICAN ROTARY SEED AND GRAIN THRESHER.

x\ M I D the
crowd of agri-
cultural imple-
ments on ex-
hibition at the
CrjstalPalace,
we find Palm-
er's American
Rotary Seed
and Grain
Thresher, a
representation
of which we
have annexed,
with its straw
separator and
winnower at-
tached. This
machine has
all the advan-
tages of the
common flail
in threshing,
and not as lia-
ble to injure
the grain or
seed as the
common spike
thresher. It is
a labor-saving
machine, sim-
ple in its con-
struction, not
liable to get
out of repair,
and is so made
that none of
its parts can
be dislodged
by the great
speed given to
the rotaries ;
and thus the li-
ability to acci-
dent, which in
other thresh-
ers so often re-
sults in loss of
limb, if not of
life, is avoided
and prevented.

234 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

The great and distinguishing feature uf this thresher, however, is, that it
can be so fixed or adjusted that it will thresh, with equal perfection, all the
different kinds of seed and graiti, as grass, flax, and clover seed, oats, barley,
wheat, rye, peas, and rice — Indian corn alone excepted — and thus enable the
farmer to thresh all his crop of every character, and with the same machine.
This end is attained by means of the castings on the inner side of the trough
or flail-case, called rubbers, which have mill-like furrowed surfaces, and which
are capable of being placed nearer to or farther from the track of the rota-
ries. The machines are manufactured by Messrs. Coggeshall & Co., 643
Water street, of this city, to whom we refer for further particulars.

(To be continued.)
STATUARY.

We purpose now to present a list of all the statuary contained in the
Palace, with an occasional descriptive illustration. We do not, of course,
include all the statuettes, of which there are many hundreds, but insert a few
of even these, where they are in connection with the larger forms of art, so
as to give the series unbroken. We name and describe tbem in the order
in which they stand at the sides or in the centres of the naves, forming con-
tinuous rows all around the several departments.

We commence near the dome, going down the nave leading to the Fifth
Avenue, and on the right hand, as you advance. The first of the series is

Eve after the Fall, by Pietro Pagani, Milan. This is admirable, both
in posture, form, and expression.

Nymph crowning Herself with Flowers, by F. PeUiccia, Carrara.

Ganymede and the Eagle, by Thorwaldsen, Denmark. Ganymede was
attending his father's flocks on Mount Ida, when he was seized by command
of Jupiter, who was enamored with his beautiful form, and he was carried to
heaven on an eagle. He was there made cup-bearer to the gods, in place of
Hebe.

•Shakespere, a bust, by Marchetti, of Carrara.

Iris, a bust, by L. Cartel, Florence.

Cupid and Psyche, by Fabbricotti, Carrara, copy from antique in the
Capitol at Rome. Psyche was a nymph, whom Cupid married. Venus put
her to death for depriving the world of her son, whom she had carried to a
place of bliss, away from the interruptions of others ; but, at the request of
Cupid, Jupiter made her immortal.

V. Monti, a bust, by Abbondio Sangiorgio, Milan.

Atala and Chactas, by J. Fraccaroli, Milan.

Shepherdess with Bird, by Angelo Bienaime, of Rome, resident at
London.

Drunken Bacchus, by Uiysse Cambi, Florence.

Returning, on the opposite side of the nave, we have

Damalis, by Etex, of Paris.

Racine, by R. el. David d'Angers, Paris.

The Wounded Heron, bronze, by Amant Duplan, Paris. A real gem.

A Hunting Gp.oup, beneath a vase, bronze, by LeroUe Brothers, Paris.

Agar and Ishmael, by L. Caselli, Florence.

Ericsson, a bust, by H. Kneeland, Yorkville. *

In the centre of this nave are

Bronze Dog.

A Bronze Stag, reposing.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

1^35

Dkad Mother, Child, and Eagle, by Auguste Lechesne, Pans. The
eagle is seizing the child for its prey. A painfully expressive group.

Adam and Eve after the Fall, by Professor Jerichau, Denmark, resi-
dent at Rome. An excellent group. ' , ., . ,

Eagles over a Dead Chamois. An excellent piece of art, exhibited
by Aubanel, of Paris.

The Amazon and Tiger, in bronzed zinc, reduced, from Kiss.

Two Lovers going to the Fountain, executed by Tommaso Lazzerini,
of Carrara, after the model of Professor Henschel, _

Ganymede and the Eagle, a copy from Thorwaldsen, by Pietro Bien-
aime, of Carrara.

A Fisher Boy, by Luigi Cocchi, Milan. _ _

Herminia writing the Name of her Lover, Tancredi, by F. Pelliccia,
Carrara.

Rebecca, by E. Vasse, Florence.

Guardian Angel and Child, by Luigi Bienaime, Rome. She is defend-
ing him from a serpent which lies iii his path. A very beautiful group.

Mendicant Girl, by G. Strazza, Rome. A perfect gem.

Commencing the series on the margin of the nave, where we just left it
by the stairway, we find first

The Industrious Girl, by Pietro Magni, Milan. This is a gem, and
absolutely perfect.

Flora del Campidoglio, a copy, by Eugenio Baratta, Carrara.

Soldier's Son, by Jorini, Milan. A capital match for the industrious girL
The little fellow has his father's hat on, which pleases him very much.

A Boy Sleeping, by Frail^n.

Recumbent FexMale, by same.

Children in the Woods, by Geefs. Very beautiful.

Victory, a bust.

Venus and Cupid, in plaster, by C. A. Fraiken.

Hebe of Canova, a copy, by Tommaso Lazzerini. Hebo was daughter of
Jupiter and Juno, always in the bloom of youth, and called the goddess of
youth. She was made cup-bearer to the gods, but was dismissed from this
service to make place for Ganymede. She was employed by Juno to pre-
pare her chariot and harness her peacocks.

Girl and Parrot, (in rear,) a bronze statuette, but very good.

Child with Shells, by C. Steinhauser, Rome.

Amazon, a bust,

A Group, in iron, from the Royal Foundry, Berlin.

Ancient Contests, in iron, from the same.

A Danaid, by Carlo Baratta.

Hope, by Thorwaldsen, copy, in bronze, by G. Giess, Berhn.

Eve, by Bailey, copy, in bronze, by G. Giess, Berlin.

Niobide, antique, copy, in bronze, by G. Giess, Berlin.

On the opposite side of the nave are

Three Graces, in plaster, by T. R. Farrell, L-eland.

The Hunter Reposing, by T. R. Farrell, Dublin.

Flora del Campidoglio, copy, by Marchetti, Carrara.

Venus of Coss, by Nannetti.

Dancing Girl in Repose : very good.

The Emigrant, by John Lawler, Loudon.

236 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

The Virgin and Child, by G. Nannetti, Ireland.

Mother and Child.

Monumental Statue, in plaster.

Sabrina, by William Calder Marshall, Loudon. The readers of Milton's
Comus are familiar with the character here represented. This statue is a gem.

Diana Roving, in plaster, by Nannetti, Dublin.

Silent Cupid, a beautiful statuette.

The Sleep of Innocence, by G. Dupre, Florence.

Cupid with the Arms of Mars, by A. Jerichau, Copenhagen, resident
at Rome.

Bronze Dog, Sentinel, by T. F. Hoppin. He has just acquired his
liberty by breaking his chain, but as he hears his master's voice, stops and
listens. It is a fine figure.

Amazon and Tiger, by Kiss; a statue of full size, in bronze, admirable in
its effect and admirable in its details. A good emblem of hberty and tyranny.

Under the base of this large group are two plaster casts, small in size, but
of very great merit. One is the Antediluvian, the other is John the
Baptist beheaded. A sentimental young lady could not bear either of
them ; an artist would make either a study of great interest.

The centre of this nave is occupied by a

Grieving Psyche, by Luigi Bienaime, of Rome.

Harpocrates, by Santarelli, Florence. Harpocrates was one of the gods :
he is represented as holding one of his fingers to his mouth, and hence is
called the god of silence, and is supposed to intimate that the mysteries of
religion are not to be revealed to the people.

Bacchante, by Pelliccia, of Carrara.

The Warwick Vase, copy, by March etti, Carrara. This vase, so cele-
brated, is a magnificent piece of art.

The Minstrel's Curse, by Carl Muller, illustrating a German ballad.

This brings us to the east nave. The series is as follows :

Cupid in a Malicious Mood, by Professor E. Santarelli, Florence.
Human Love, (maternal,) by John Ernstson Bandal.
St. John, by E. Baratta, Carrara.

Daniel O'Connell, (within the court,) a bust, by C, Moore, London.
First Whisper of Love, in plaster, by Marshall, of London. Very
pretty.

Truth, by Ulysse Cambi, Florence. This is a beautiful statue.
Ptolemy Lagus, Fed and Sheltered by a:; ' agle. Irish,
Two Lovers, by Alexander Munro.

On the opposite side of the nave, returning, are

Professor Mutter, a bust, by Peter Reniers.

B. Frank Palmer, a bust, by same.

Wilson McCandless, a bust, by the same.

Love of a Small Bird, by Nicola Marchetti, Carrara.

Mercury of Tiiorwaldsen, a copy, by Tommaso Lazzerini, Carrara.

Virgin and Dead Ciiklst, (Pieta,) by Amadeo Aunger, Turin.

EscuLAPius, copy from antique, by Greek sculptor.

Ceres, same.

The centre of this nave is occupied by the horrible statue of Daniel
Webster, which is utterly unwoithy a place in the exhibition, and the group
of statues by Powers —

THE GREAT EXHIBITION,

237

Proserpine — The Greek Slave — Eve — The Fisher Boy. Proserpine
was the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. Phito seized her as she was wan-
dering about near her residence in Sicily, and carried her to the infernal
regions, where she became his wife and queen :

'• Gathering flowers,
Herself a fairer flower, by gloomy Di3
Was gathered."

She is also supposed to represent the seed corn, which, lies buried in the
earth, and then rises to bless mankind.

North nave :

Indian Hunter, a splendid group, in bronze, by A. Ottin, Paris.
Venus de Medici, copy, by a Greek artist.
Apollo, commonly called The Apollino, same.
Daniel Webster, bust in bronze.
Diana oe the Louvre, copy, by Marchetti, Carrara.
Mrs. Crawford, a bust, by Thomas Crawford, Rome.
Apollo op the Belvidere, a bust, by Marchetti, Carrara.
General Scott, a bust, in plaster, S. D. Jones.
Poetry, by F. Pelliccia, Carrara.

Venus of the Louvre, copy, by G. A. Fabbricotti, Carrara, This statue
is very celebrated for its beauty.

On the opposite side, returning :

Cicero, by P. Fontana, Carrara.

Dante, a bust, by Nicola Marchetti, Carrara.

Faith, copy of Bartolini, by E. Baratta, Carrara.

The Child's First Grief. A beautiful work, representing a child hold-
ing in her hand a dead bird, killed by a serpent which is escaping. The
nest is visible at the root of a tree, with eggs. The child is grieved almost
to tears. The workmanship and design are admirable. By E. Vasse, Florence.

Bronze Female, by H. K. Browne, New-York.

Daniel Webster, a bust, by Anthony Piatti.

Husbandman's Orphan, by Anthony Piatti.

Sleeping Infant, by Piatti.

Jupiter, a bust, copy of antique, by Marchetti, Carrara.

Daniel Webster, a statuette, by Thomas Ball, of Boston. Decidedly
the best representation of this great man that we have ever seen.

The Genii of Spring and Summer, by F. Pelliccia. Beautiful statues.
These two small statues are on the right and left of a figure representing

Columbus explaining the Locality of the New World, copied by
Delmedico Staffetti, of Carrara, from an original executed by Costa, of Flo-
rence. The original was ordered by Abbas Pacha.

In the centre of the nave are

Hon. Charles Allen, of Worcester, Mass., a bust.

Lesbia, by L'Eveque, Paris.

Dr. John Green, a bust.

The Emigrant.

A Bacchante, A. Gait, Norfolk, Va.

Shepherd, a group in bronze, by Giess.

In the Italian and Austrian departments are the following :

238 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

[The reader will observe only four statues, that are by artists from Austria
in the Austrian department. The propriety of this arrangement we do not
understand.]

Court 6 :

Four Bas-reliefs, by Jerichau, Copenhagen, resident at Rome, very
sujjerb pieces.
SAPnio, a bust.

The Saviour, a bust, by C. Baratta, Carrara.
Laura, a bust, by E. Vasse, Florence. ■

Son of William Tell, a statue, excellent, by Pasquale Romanelli, Florence.
Heloise, a bust, very tine, by Enrico Vasse, Florence.
Cleoijatra, a bust, very fine, by same.
Shepherdess, by Orlandi, Carrara, a gem.
Angel of Sacred Music, by V. Consani, Florence.
Young Augustus, a bust.

Death of Francesco Ferruccio, by Giampaoli, of Lucca, very fine.
A Vestal, a bust.
Rousseau, a bust, by E. Barratta.
Gioberti, a bust, by A. Bruneri, of Turin.
Dying Gladiator, by E. Baratta, Carrara.
Bacchante, copy of an antique, by Pietro Bienaime, of Carrara.
Virgin and Child, bas-relief^ by U. Caimbi, Florence.

Court 12 :

Virgin and Child, bas-relief, by Lnhof, Rome.

Paris, a bust, by P. Fontana, Carrara.

Copernicus, a bust, by Marchetti, Carrara.

Gavazzi, a bust, by Guido Butti, Milan, resident in New- York.

Prayer, Antonio Galli, Milan.

Cupid leaning on a Wine Skin, by Achille Stocchi, Rome.

Hen and Chickens, excellent, by C. Buzzi, Milan.

Venus and Cupid, in bronze, (a fountain,) by C. Papi, Florence.

St. John sleepincj, by Luigi Magi, Florence.

Faithful Love, (Cupid cutting his Wing,) a statuette, a gem, by E.
Vasse, Florence.

Boar's Head, in bronze, very fine, a specimen of casting, by C. Papi,
Florence.

The Betrothed, by P. Romanelli, Florence; a superb work.

Pius IX., a bust, copy, by Francesco Tenerani, of Carrara, from original,
by his brother, Pietro Tenerani, of Rome.

Veiled Head, by G. Croflf, Milan,

In the interior court :

The Redeemer, a bust, by Abbondio Sangiorgio, Milan.

Veiled Head, by Gaetano Motelli, Milan,
_ Religious Meditation, a bust, by Alessandro Rossi, Milan,

The Fishing Boys, Gaetano Motelli, Milan,

Flower-Gikl finding, Cupid among the Roses, Gaetano Motelli, Milan,
a perfect gem.

The First Steps, by Pietro Magni, Milan. A mother is guiding the first
efforts of her child in learning to walk. A very beautiful piece of art.

Basket of Flowers, Attilio Galli, of Viggiu.

A Woman of Chiozza, Ignazio Micotti, Milan.

MANURES. 239

Hebe and the Eagle, by Kahszmanu, of Vienna. This is one of the
few pieces of Austrian art among the many sculptures found in the Austrian
department.

Shepherd, by the same.

Flowers, bas-relief, by Attilio Galli, Viggiu.

Cage of Cupids, Gaetano Motelli, Milan. This is one of the most beau-
tiful and the most curious works of art in the Palace. It is cut from a single
block of marble, while every part of the cage is filled with the most finished
representations of little Cupids. Every face is full of expression, and the
expression of each difters, in some respect, from that of others. One of them
peeps out from beneath a curtain on the back side, while another has
climbed upon the top.

The Redeemer, a bust, by lunocenzo Fraccaroli, Milan.

Basket of Cupids, by Gaetano Motelli, Milan.

Venus stepping into the Bath, by Hans Gasser, Vienna.

VIeiled Head, by Giuseppe Rados, Milan.

Girl wreathing Herself with Flowers, by Kiihszmann, Vienna.

Indolence, a bust, by Antonio Tantardini, Milan. This is labelled
" Resignation" by mistake.

Sleeping Venus, statuette, by Giuseppe Rados, Milan.

Boy riding on a Tortoise, and

Boy riding on a Crawfish. Both of these are by Giuseppe Croflf,
Milan.

Leda and the Swan, by same. Leda was daughter of King Thespius
and Eurithemis. Jupiter became enamored of her, and changed himself into
a swan.

Child thrown Ashore by a Wave, by Antonio Galli, Milan.

In the French department are

Emperor Napoleon III., a bust, by Madame Lefevre Deumier, said to be
a most excellent likeness.

Fanny Cerito, bust, a dancing-girl, by P. Gayrard, of Paris.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THK ANVIL.

MANAGEMENT OF MANURES.

Messrs. Editors : — In the September number of your valuable publica-
tion you have an editorial on the " Waste of Manures," which, if it were ge-
nerally read and its precepts followed, would be worth more to every family,
in the year, than twice the subscription price of your paper. In the country,
even among prudent and calculating farmers, vast quantities of the richest
fertilizers are not only lost, so far as those who have the first and lawful right
to them are concerned, but they are lost in a way that makes them actual
nuisances — disturbing the flow of the greatest of all blessings, individual and
public health.

In our villages this waste becomes still more apparent, arising, perhaps,
partly from the fact that a portion of the inhabitants have not lands to be
benefited by it if saved — and it may be in part from the small quantities of
land usually iu occupancy by the greater number of inhabitants. So we see

240 MANURES.

that, in a majority of -cases, the wash of tho kitchen and tlie accumuhttions
of the privy are disposed of in the easiest way possible, to get their contribu-
tions out of the way — not always out of smell or beyond the power of giving
out miasmatic influence, however ; and how often, in our small villages, and
proportionably oftener as the size and population of the place increases, are
our olfactory nerves sadly distmbed in passing the sheds of public houses or
by-places, from the effluvia that arise from the deposit and waste of urine in
these places — necessary, to be sure; for all populous towns must have their
retired places for the benefit of strangers and passers-by. If these were more
frequent, it would be a matter of great accommodation ; and we have no
doubt that, under a proper arrangement, they might be got up in far more
decent style, and with a much better eflect on public taste and morals, by the
authorities of our large towns and cities, or even by individual enterprise,
much to public benefit, and as a sourc3 of pecuniary profit.

As you propose, large tanks may be sunk in our villages and cities for de-
positing urine, and it may be incorporated with other material, so that it may
be removed in carts as convenience requires ; or, with a sufficiency of gypsum
thrown in to retain the ammonia, it might undoubtedly be taken off in water-
carts at a cheaper rate, and applied with equal benefit to the land.

In its liquid state, urine is one of the most valuable fertilizers. Chemistry
says so, and, what is far better, experience tests the fact. Applied to fruit
trees when they are in a dormant state, the effects which follow are of a sur-
prising character. For the peach or plum there can be nothing better, — we
know of nothing half so good. Insects seldom disturb the roots of trees over
which it is applied, and the foliage of such trees presents a deepness and rich-
ness of verdure which other trees cannot exhibit. Of its efl:ect upon the apple,
pear and quince, we cannot speak with so much certainty ; but from the evi-
dence before us, and the nature of things, we cannot doubt but a good effect
would be produced by its application to them. From the fall of the leaf in
autumn to the bursting of the bud in spring, it may safely be applied in a
crude state. The ground should be well forked in spring, that none of the
choice salts deposited upon it may pass into the atmosphere.

If placed in considerable quantities around trees in lat§ spring, or in any
part of the growing season, when the spongioles are in full action, drawing in
supplies for the growth and nourishment of the tree, and, like dainty children,
seeking for the richest food, supposing it to be the best, its effects may be in-
jurious, unless it is diluted by a mixture with other substances. Indeed, we
have heard of gluttony and death resulting when the tree was fed with im-
moderate quantities of it in midsummer.

Such being its effect, let us for a moment contemplate the results which may
arise if a proper and careful appropriation be made of it. In the country,
almost every body owns the house they occupy, and a piece of land attached
to it. In our villages there is scarcely a house but has its little ground-plot.
As y§t, the majority of these houses are unadorned by a single plum or peach
tree, especially the latter — for, north of the Highlands on the Hudson, the
idea is too prevalent that they " will not pay," while south they are raised in
great quantities, but not by all who have a little land. Still, around all domi-
cils there is a niche where the trunk of a peach tree can stand. The top, of
course, will grow in the air, and require no land, and the roots will run some
where. All the occupants of these houses like fruit; and well they may, for
fresh ripe fruit is very palatable and very healthy.

Now we have no doubt but such people may have a plenty of fruit of their
own raising, and fertilize the trees with substances which are now thrown away

COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL CITIES.

241

and lost, to them at least. We bdieve, further, that the urine of one indivi-
dual, carefully saved and applied to a single peach tree, for one half the time
from November to April, will furnish it with all the nutriment it needs beyond
that which it derives from the soil, and keep it in good health and high pro-
ductiveness to a good old age.

If this be so, a family of six can easily raise six good peach or plum trees,
and what an enormous supply these would yield in comparison with that
which most families can now boast of! Let every family try, and see if it is

not so.

We are aware we have digressed from our text— saving manures— and run
into raising fruit; we have done so in application of our subject. In due
time we may give another head, and further application. W. B.

Elmwood, Sept. 7, 1853.

COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL CITIES.

The growth of commercial cities has almost always been rapid, and while
increasing in size and importance, there has usually been a corresponding
increase of splendor and luxury. The maritime cities of old Phenicia, their
extended commerce, and their adventurous fleets, are stories of history.
Alexandria and Carthage are other and not less noticeable examples. Cal-
cutta, London, and New- York, of to-day, and San Francisco of the hour, are
the modern instances of the growth of commercial emporiums. One
hundred years ago, Calcutta was almost unthought of. The waste where it
now stands was broken by a single trading-station of the East India Com-
pany, known as Fort William. To-day a splendid and opulent city of tens
of thousands of inhabitants invites the trader and the traveller to its crowded
and busy streets. London, of ancient foundation, for half a century has
been orowing with an accelerating rapidity, until now a fair-sized city is
annuaUy added to its borders. New- York, half a century ago, was a small
town, confined to the lower part of the island. Now it stretches miles, while
the railroad lines are converting the villages and counties of the surrounding
States into suburbs. New-Brunswick, Paterson, and other places in New-
Jersey; Morrisania, Yonkers, Tarrytown, Sing Sing, Peekskill, and other
places in New-York; Norwalk, &c., in Connecticut; Hempstead, &c., on
Loner-Island, with all the country comprehended in the circle we have de-
scribed, are rapidly filling up with tens of thousands who have their business
in the 'great commercial emporium of the New World. San Francisco has
sprung like the creation of a wand out of barren sand and bleak hill-sides,
into a^city of many thousands, and is doubtless to be the first or certainly
the second commercial city of the American coast on the Pacific.

The growth of these commercial cities is no small item of interest to the
political economist. Tyre, and her sister cities of the Mediterranean, have
all passed away. Excepting Alexandria, scarce a stone remains to tell where
they stood. Is there not something to be learned from their history ? Is
there not something taught by the rapid rise and splendid but short career
of these powerful communities ?

Commerce is a valuable agent in exchanging the industry of nations. _ But
Commerce is not Production. All commerce, with those who carry it on,
the transporter, the shippers, the horses, the railroads, the locomotives, and
the ships, is a direct tax on the industry of those who actually labor. The

VOL. VI. — PART IV. 16

242 COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL CITIES.

first payments made from the sales of produce, no matter in what form it is
sent to market, are those of the agents, consignees, and transporting carriers.
After these are paid, the account of sales is returned to the producer, minus
" charges." The balance thus left is often small, and we have known that
the producer has actually been brought in debt to his fi\ctor on " charges
account." The more rapid and splendid the growth of commercial cities, the
greater is the tax levied on the producers to pay for this splendor ; and while
a million of laborers live in comparative poverty, barely supporting them-
selves, the factors live in magnificence and luxury.

There is a commerce which is legitimate. By this we mean that traffic
which exchanges our own products for that which we cannot produce.
Drugs, dye-stuffs, spices, coffee, tea, ivory, and things which belong to other
climates, are necessary to our refinement, comfort, and economies. But iron,
wool, cloth, calico, linen, sugar, hardware, and thousands of other articles
and products, we can produce or fabricate in our own country, to greater
advantage than to purchase of those laborers who produce or make them
abroad. For several reasons :

1st. The vast resources of national and individual wealth which are pos-
sessed by our people in their industrial power should be developed in the
most diversified forms — thus to promote domestic exchanges, reciprocal
intercourse, the cultivation of the arts, and the elevation of labor in our
midst.

2d. The vast stores of Avealth in the metals, ores, natural mechanical
power, soils, and fuel, are so many elements of riches and prosperity given to
us for our improvement. It is folly for us to buy copper, while we can
almost supply the world. It is no wiser to purchase zinc, while we have
the best deposit now known. It is waste and extravagance to buy iron,
while we possess the best ores and the most magnificent deposits on the
globe. So of all other things which lie at our feet, while we have the labor
to produce all we want, and suffer when that labor is unemployed.

3. It is waste and extravagance to purchase foreign fabrics, on which
charges, profits, and taxes are paid to foreign governments and capitalists,
paying the rents on foreign lands, and increasing the value of foreign mill-
power and steam engines, while we have better facilities and more splendid
water-power at home, which are valueless, because we give a profitable
employment to capital four thousand miles distant, which capital would
otherwise seek investment here, and thus create wealth by imparting market
values to waste lands, unoccupied mill-sites and idle laborers.

4. It is wasteful, extravagant, and pernicious to seek a market four thou-
sand miles distant, and pay the transportation on bulky products, of small
value, with all the charges, taxes, and duties thereon, and then pay the
charges and duties on fabrics whose high values are comprised in small
bulks — thereby paying a large tax on small outgoing, and a large tax on
large incoming values.

5. It is wasteful and impoverishing to the producer to foster large com-
mercial cities, which export and import, at heavy charges, while the building
of inland and neighboring towns and cities will reduce the distance of trans-
portation to market, diminish charges, shorten the time, multiply the
varieties of products to be demanded by a neighboring population, increase
the value of land by the value of a near market, and employ labor not
otherwise marketable.

Cth. It is wasteful and impoverishing to the country at large to centralize
wealth, capital, and population in a few large cities, while, by a true system of

WASH TO PRESERVE APPLE TREES.

243

industrial economy, that wealth and capital could find better and more active
employment in a hundred or a thousand diflferent localities — thus equalizing
wealth, distributing blessings, and conferring prosperity and happiness on
hundreds of thousands who would otherwise be dependent on the caprices,
the avarice, and the hazardous fortunes of vast commercial adventurers, who
may at almost any moment be swallowed up in ruin.

Hence, while we have a sort of national pride at witnessing the growth of
New- York and several of our large commercial cities, we deplore the fact, as
it affords evidence of the luxury, the dissipation, the laxity of morals, and
the uncertainty of so much splendor and show. The wisdom of to-day
should lead men to look at facts as they are.

The tendency of the present policy of " free trade" is to build up com-
mercial cities, throw capital into trade, withdraw it from manufactures,
production, and the legitimate development of our stores of wealth, and, as
in times long past, foster a spirit of restlessness, ambition, and iniquitous
conquests. It tends to build up communities of " merchant princes," cen-
tralize wealth and capital in the hands of a few, " make the rich richer, and
the poor poorer," by affording credit to the rich, and making " a nation of
agriculturists," as the free traders pretend we ought to be, depend on
foreign markets to sell our bread to the unpaid laborers of Europe, ground
down to the earth by the commercial system of England. The free-trade
policy is the deadly enemy of true democracy, and we hope the farmer and
the working-man will not be long in finding it out.

OTIS'S MORTISING, BORING, AND HUB-MORTISING MACHINE.

This seems to be a great improvement upon the mortising machines with
which we are acquainted. It will make 300 graduated strokes per minute,
and will mortise a 4-panel door in four minutes, or two sets of buggy-hubs
per hour. ^

FOR TUE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

WASH TO PRESERVE APPLE TREES : CASTOR-OIL PLA.NTS : CHESS

IN WHEAT.

Messrs. Editors : — Will some of your readers give a recipe of a wash to
preserve young apple trees from being destroyed in winter by rabbits eating
off the bark ? We are greatly subject to this evil in this location, and are
greatly in want of a remedy.

Also the best method to extract the oil from the castor-oil bean ; its quali-
ties, and the best uses for which it is adapted.

Again, can any of your agricultural patrons give us some fight upon the
nature and cause of chess among wheat? Most writers upon vegetable pro-
ductions say nothing about it, and Webster's Dictionary is the only work in
which as yet I can find any mention of it. The question is, is it wheat degene-
rated, or altogether a new production ; or may it be said to be a lusus naiurw.
The above-mentioned lexicographer says, the word, in the Persian language,
means evil, depraved, and a useless weed. The botanical name is Bromus
secalinus, and it abounds most in fields where the wheat has been winter-
killed. It bears some resemblance to oats.

244 HORTICULTURAL.

This fact is mentioned by Pliny. His words are, " Priraum omnium fru-
menti vitium avena est, et hordeum, in earn degenerat." This change of
wheat and barley into oats, he ascribes to a moist soil, wet weather, bad seed,
&c. This opinion coincides with observations made in this country, as wheat
is most likely to perish in moist lands, and instead of it, chess often appears.
But this change of wheat into chess is now generally denied, and this opinion
is affirmed by the ablest of botanists to be erroneous.

Still there is a mystery about this production of nature. Old practical
farmei-s assert that it is wheat degenerated. Will any of your readers who
have paid attention to it give the result of their experience ? The questions
to be answered are : 1st. Is this plant ever found growing naturally where
no wheat has been sown ? 2d. Does it ever appear among wheat where the
sower can warrant it was not in the geed? 3d. If chess is sown, will it
produce chess again, and not alter, and become, if possible, still further
adulterated? A solution of these queries, with any other information from
experience and observation, would be an accession of light upon the subject.

Wisconsi?i, September 12, 1853, ^^ g.

HORTICULTURA.L.

Cultivation of the Calceolaria. — It has often been to me a matter
of great surprise that the large flowering, or, as they are generally called,
herbaceous calceolarias, are not more cultivated. You may visit, in this
neighborhood, a dozen gentlemen's gardens, and not see more than a dozen
plants of this beautiful section of calceolarias, and those h-v^ but miserable,
half-starved, half-choked specimens, which, for the credit of both the gardener
ixnd calceolaria, would be better on the rubbish-heap.

If you inquire the cause why they are not grown, ten out of twelve per-
.sons wijl confess " that they are beautiful things ;" but, says one, they are so
subiect to the green fly ; another says, they are so bad to winter — I invari-
ably lose them at that season ; a third says, that they die as soon as they
have done blooming ; and one good gardener told me the other day, " If a
person gets them to do well once in his lifetime, he has had his share of
o-ood luck." Now, in answer to the first, are not geraniums, cinerarias, and
a host of other plants, which these men "grow respectably," subject to the
o-reen fly ? And will not the smoke of tobacco, with which he kills the fly
attacking his geraniums, kill the fly which is on calceolarias ? As to their being-
hard to winter, it is more fanciful than real. If a person attempt to keep the
•' old plants," it may be true ; but if cuttings are stuck in in August or Sep-
tember, and be pptted in four-inch pots in October, and kept in a cold frame
until Christmas, then placed on a shelf in the green-house " near the source
of ventilation," and not kept too toet, not more than one in a hundred, if even
that, will go oft' in winter.

Propagation. — Select a place shaded from the midday sun, say under a
north wall or hedge, (not under the drip of trees ;) spread six inches of rough
cinders or coal-ashes over the space requisite to hold the number you want,
then put on six inches of the following compost : leaf-mould, loam, and
silver sand, in equal quantities ; the whole passed through a fine sieve. Let the
rouffh be place next to the ashes, and over all this put half an inch of silver
sand ; watei- the whole ; place on the land lights to mark the places. Take

HORTICULTURAL. 245

young shoots, as above mentioned, in the beginning of September, prick them
in the prepared bed, and place over them the glasses ; keep them close, syringe
them frequently, and not many will fail to grow.

Time for Potting. — Pot the cuttings, when rooted, in 4 or 5-inch pots
to winter in. In February give them a shift into 6 or 7-inch pots, and when
the roots reach the outside of this soil, put them into their blooming-pots,
say from 8 to 12-inch pots, according to the probabilities of the plant.

Soil. — For wintering, loam and leaf-mould, one part each, and half a part
of sand ; for February potting, loam and leaf-mould, one part each, sand and
rotten dung, half a part each, and for final potting add more dung. — Flori-
cultural Cabinet.

Cove NT-Garden Bouquets. — All who have visited or are acquainted
with London, must have observed the exceeding beauty and taste with which
the bouquets of Covent Garden are arranged, and the art which must be
employed in forming them ; and it has been an object of curiosity to many
how such an arrangement is obtained. Until we set all our faculties of
observation to work, we were equally as ignorant of the subject as any of our
readers at the Land's End could be, but, after a little perseverance, we at
last arrived at it. The process is as follows :

Procure a quantity of the finest copper wire, such wire as is used in the
artificial flowers which decorate the interior of ladies' bonnets. It is with
this that all the bouquets are tied; there is no string or matting made use
of. Let a portion of this wire be kept in a coil for tying, but let a portion of
it also be cut into lengths of about six inches. Having decided what the
device of the bouquet is to be, and the flowers of which it is to be composed,
let one of these flowers form a centre-piece, or " foundation," as the ladies
say when they begin knitting a purse. This centre-piece forms, as it were,
the centre of the circle, and all the other flowers are to be arranged in con-
centric circles round it. One end of the coil of wire is fixed to the stalk of
the centre flower, and every single flower which is added is secured by a
twist of the wire, much in the way we have seen boys tying a whip on the
end of a stick. These bouquets are not formed of large branches of flowers,
such as a great truss of a scarlet geranium, or a spike of a hyacinth, but
single flowers, or florets, or bells, only are used. To supply th;; want of a
long stalk in such cases, to bind them by, the six-inch lengths of wire are
twisted round the short stalks of the florets or bells, and these serve in place
of stalks. Camellias, also, are furnished with these artificial stalks, when the
natural one is too short; and when the bouquet is completed, the stalks of
the flowers are in fact a bundle of wires. It is thus that so much device is
obtained, which could not be had by using large bunches or trusses of any
particular flowers.

Sowing Seeds. — Fill the seed-pots half way up, at leastj with drainage ;;
then with soil, within half an inch of the rim — the finest next the surface;
press it dawn firmish, not too much ; then thoroughly water them, or soak
them by se ting them in a tub of water. Let them drain thoroughly in an
open place, until the surface begins to get a little dry; then press it level,
gently, with the bottom of a flower pot, or, better still, with a round piece of
wood, say three to five inches in diameter, with a large nail or pin fixed to
its centre to hold by. Spread the seeds evenly on this surface, and then
cover with fine light sandy soil, no deeper than the thickness of the seed ; so
that for small dusty seed the slightest dusting of sand will be necessary, or
nothing but another gentle pressing.

246 THE NATIONAL HORSE SHOW.

The young plants will not want light until they are up; and tte moisture
already in the soil will be sufficient to vegetate all quick-growing ones, if
prevented evaporating. To effect this object there is no simpler or better plan
than covering the mouth of the pot with inverted saucers or flats of a similar or
larger size. Enough of air will thus penetrate to insure germination, but
not enough to dry up the moisture. When, however, the soil does get too
dry, it must be watered or soaked again afresh ; and in delicate cases, it will
be safest to set the pots in water, as high as within an inch of the seeds, and
allow it to remain until all below is thoroughly soaked. In common cases, a
sprinkling on the surface will be sufficient.

Remove the saucer whenever the seeds appear ; but, in small delicate
varieties, it will be advisable to place a square of glass over the mouth of
the pot, and then, by degrees, elevating the glass on one side, before exposing
the tender things to the full draught of air in the green-house. Rest assured
that an ounce of attention to these trifles will be more satisfactory than some
bushels of unavailing regrets. — Cottage Garden.

PEDIGREE OF ARABIAN HORSES.

In our article on the Arabian Horse, given a few weeks since, we omitted
the manner in which their pedigrees are made out; and as it is a matter in
which our readers may feel some curiosity, we take from Mr. Layard's late
work the following :

"Amongst men who attach the highest value to the pure blood of their
horses, and who have no written pedigree — for among the Bedouins docu-
ments of this kind do not exist — sucii customs are necessary. The descent of
a horse is preserved by tradition, and the birth of a foal is an event known
to the whole tribe. If a townsman or stranger buy a horse, and is desirous
of having written evidences of its race, the seller with his friends will come
to the nearest town and testify before a person specially qualified to take
evidence, called ' the cadi of the horses,' who makes out a written pedigree,
accompanied by various prayers and formularies from the Koran, us^d on
such occasions, and then affixes to it his seal. It would be considered dis-
grpcefiil to the character of the true Bedouin to give false testimony on such
an occasion, and his word is usually received with implicit confidence."

THE NATIONAL HORSE-SHOW

Will come off at Springfield, Mass., beginning on Wednesday, October 19,
and continuing four days.

Tlie Committee state that it is designed to be a National Exhibition, and
inducements will be offered which, it is hoped and expected, will bring out
horses from all sections of the Union, and from our Canadian neighbors on the
north. The Committee have assurances already, from various quarters, that
this will be the case.

The Committee have made arrangements with several of the railroads cen-
tring there to bring all horses designed for exhibition /rce of charge ; and it

THE PRODUCT OF TOBACCO. 247

is hoped that a similar arrangement may be made with raih-oads at a dis-
tance.

The exhibition is designed for purposes both of show and sale — considera-
tions which combined must prove immensely attractive. '^"

Premiums are offered for the best horses, ranging from |200 down to $25,
to be awarded to the best stallions, geldings, breeding-mares, matched horses,
fancy horses, colts, farm or draught-horses, ponies, &c. The largest pre-
mium ($200) is offered for the best stallion of seven years old and over.

George D wight is President of the Society. The ground selected for the
exhibition is Armory Square, on the hill ; a place, says the Springfield Farmer^
very well adapted to the purpose. »

THE PRODUCT OF TOBACCO.

In a late number of Blackwood appeared an interesting and instructive
essay upon " Narcotics," from which we extract the following account of the
tobacco plant, and estimate of the usual product throughout the world :

"The tobacco plant is indigenous to tropical America, whence it was intro-
duced into Spain and France in the beginning of the sixteenth century, by
the Spaniards, and into England half a century later, (1586,) by Sir Francis
Drake. Since that time, both the use and the cultivation of the plant have
spread over a large portion of the globe. Besides the different parts of
America, including Canada, New-Brunswick, the United States, Mexico, the
Western Coast, the Spanish Main, Brazil, Cuba, St. Domingo, Trinidad, &c.,
it has spread into the East, into Turkey, Persia, India, China, Australia, the
Philippine Islands, and Japan. It has been raised with success also in
nearly every country in Europe ; while in Africa it is cultivated in Egypt,
Algeria, in the Canaries, on the Western Coast, and at the Cape of Good
Hope. It is, indeed, among narcotics what the potato is among food plants —
the most extensively cultivated, the most hardy, and the most tolerant of
changes in temperature, altitude, and general climate.

We need scarcely remark, that the use of the plant has become not less
universal than its cultivation. In America, it is met with every where, and
its consumption is enormous.'' In Europe, from the plains of sunny Castile to
the frozen Archangel, the pipe and cigar are the common solace among all
ranks and conditions. In vain Pope Urban VIII. thundered out his bull
against it; in vain our own James I. wrote his " Counterblaste to Tobacco."
Opposition only excited more general attention to the plant, awakened curios-
ity regarding it, and promoted its consumption.

So in the East — the priests and Sultans of Turkey and Persia declared
smoking a sin against their holy religion, yet nevertheless the Turks and
Persians became the greatest smokers in the world. In Turkey the i)ipe is
perpetually in the mouth. In India, all classes and both sexes smoke. In
China the practice is so universal, that ' every female, from the age of eight
or nine years, wears as an appendage to her dress a small silken pocket, to hold
tobacco and a pipe.' It is even argued by Pallas, that the extensive preva-
lence of the practice in Asia, and especially in China, proves the use of
tobacco for smoking to be more ancient than the discovery of the New
World. 'Amongst the Chinese,' he says, ' and among the Mongol tribes,
who had the most intercourse with them, the custom of smoking is so
general, so frequent, and has becomeneo indispensable a luxury ; the tobacco

248 RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

purse affixed to their belts so necessary an article of dress ; the form of their
pipe?, from which the Dutch seem to have taken the model of theirs, so
original; and lastly, the preparation of the yellow leaves, which are merely
rubbed to pieces, and then put into the pipe, so peculiar, that they could not
derive all this from America by way of Europe.'

Leaving the question of its origin, the reader will not be surprised, when
he considers how widely the practice of smoking prevails, that the total pro-
duce of the tobacco grown on the face of the globe has been calculated by
Mr. Crawford to amount to the enormous quantity of two millions of tons.
The comparative magnitude of this quantity will strike the reader more
forcibly when we state that the whole of the wheat consumed by the inhabit-
ants of Great Britain — estimating it at a quarter a head, or in round num-
bers at twenty millions of quarters — weighs only four and one third millions
of tons ; so that the tobacco raised for the gratification of this one form of
the narcotic appetite, weighs as much as the wheat consumed by ten millions
of Englishmen, And reckoning it at only double the market value of wheat,
or twopence and a fraction per pound, it is worth in money as much as all
the wheat eaten in Great Britain.

The largest producers, and probably the largest consumers of tobacco, are
the United States of America. The annual production, at the last two de-
cennial periods of their census returns, was estimated at —

1840, 219,163,319 lbs.

1850, 199,752,646 "

being about one twentieth part of the whole supposed produce of the globe.
One of the remarkable circumstances connected with the history of tobacco,
is the rapidity with which its growth and consumption have increased in
almost every country, since the discovery of America. In 1662, the quantity
raised in Virginia — the chief producer of tobacco on the American shores of
the Atlantic — was only 60,000 lbs. ; and the quantity exported from that
colony in 1689, only 120,000 lbs. In two hundred and thirty years, the pro-
duce has risen to nearly twice as many millions. And the extension of its use
in our own country may be inferred from the facts that, in the above year of
1689, the total importation was 120,000 lbs. of Virginian tobacco, part of
which was probably reexported; while, in 1852, the quantity entered for
home consumption amounted to 28, 558, 753 lbs., being something over a
pound per head of the whole population, and to this must be added the
large quantity of contraband tobacco, which the heavy duty of 3s. per lb.
tempts the smuggler to introduce. The whole duty levied on the above
quantity, in 1852, was £4,560,741, which is equal to a poll-tax of 3s. a
head."

RAILROAD OrERATIONS.

The Great Wfstern Eailwat in Canada, leading from Windsor (opposite
Detroit) to Niagara, is now complete about eighteen miles from "Windsor, and
it is intended to finish the whole by the 1st of January next. The whole dis-
tance, 280 miles, (nearly a straight line throughout,) is to be laid with com-
pound rail, anil, it is predicted, will be one of the best railways on the American
continent. The wire bridge over the ^Niagara is in a good state of progress,
and when the whole is completed, the time from Detroit to New-York city will
be made in twenty hours.

RAILROAD OPERATIONS. 249

Tliere are now in course of erection at the depot some very large buildings:
one, intended as a machine-shop and engine-house, is 145 feet by 164, and will
hold twelve locomotives, besides all the machinery necessary for repairing.
Another building will be commenced immediately, which will be 84 by 150 feet,
will contain three divisions, so as to guard against fire, and is intended as a
freight-house. These, with what are already erected, will be all actually required
to open the road, but a number of others will also be erected as soon as me-
chanics can be got to undertake the work.

MiLWAUKiE AND MISSISSIPPI Railroad. — The Argus and Democrat , of Madi-
son, Wisconsin, says : " Mr. A.. L. Cantlin, a man of great wealth and still greater
credit, has entered into satisfactory bonds to complete the road to Madi^m by
the first of January next, and to Prairie da Chien by the first of January follow-
ing thereafter."

This looks like earnest; and if Galena does not look out, she will not have the
first car from the lakes.

Buffalo and Alleghany Valley Railroad. — The interesting ceremony of
breaking ground on the Aurora route took place yesterday afternoon at the
village of Aurora. Several hundred of the citizens of that place, a number of
our citizens, and several railroad men from other places were present.

Alexandria, Loudoun and Hampshire Railway. — The surveys of this im-
portant work are being pushed forward with commendable energy, and thus far
with highly satisfactory results. The Alexandria Gazette states tliat Mr. Bowie,
the engineer in charge of the second surveying-party, has ascertained that the
Blue Ridge can be easily passed at Key's Gap, at a grade of fifty-two feet to the
mile. Having completed his surveys to the Shenandoah river, he is now run-
ning his line eastwardly through Hillsborough. The party hitherto operating
in Fairfax county," having about closed their route as far as Goose Cieek, will
shortly be transferred to the Blue Ridge at Stacker's Gap. Tlie route to Goose
Creek will be almost a perfect air-line, with exceedingly favorable grades. There
are five surveying-parties in the field ; two east and three west of the Blue Ridge.
The Oakland and Ottawa Railroad. — The iron for this road is bought, the
right of way for most of it is secured, and the contract for its construction
entered into. These things make the completion of the road certain. The
necessary stock has been taken, and we are informed that the laborers to build
the road will in a few days be at work at dijferent parts along the line.

Indiana and Illinois Central Railway. — The Board of Directors of this
Company met at Decatur, III, on the 10th of August, and confirmed a contract
for the construction and equipage of the entire line from Indianapolis to Decatur,
with Messrs. M. 0. Story & Co., of New-York. The contractors furnit-h 70 per
cenU of the entire amount necessary to construct and equip the road, only
requiring tlie company to raise 30 per cent. Twenty-two thousand dolhirs per
mile includes every thing, except ballasting, and the work is to be completed by
the first of December, 1855. Before the work can be commenced, however,
about S300,000 of additional stock must be raised at home.

Covington and Lexington Railroad. — This work is making very rapid and
satisfactory progress. The road is now opened about twenty-eight miles from
Covington, and regular freight and passenger trains have been juit on for this
distance. By the first of September the road will be completed some twenty
miles farther, to Falmouth, the shire town of Pendleton county. At this point,
the centre of a large trade will be reached. The grading of the road to this
point is completed, and is nearly so to Cynthiana, sixty- four miles from Coving-
ton. The entire work of grading is so far comi>leted that the whole line will
be in readiness for the rails as fast as they can be laid. This is being dt.ne at
the rate of one half mile per day, and which will be continued, with good wea-
ther, till the road is completed. The cost of the work thus far is within the least
estimates of the company.

Mississippi and Missouri Railroad. — This great work is fairly under way.
Every thing is now in such shape, that the parties, who have built more railroads
within the last two years than any other company of men, can say that it shall
go through immediately. In one year, the iron horse will run to Iowa City.

250 MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC.

The Metropolitan Hotel, "fTEW-YoRK, wn,9 opened to the travelling public
on the Istdiy of September, 1852. It was finished and furnished throughout
with a degree of migniticence wliich, up to that time, had never been attempted
in any city in the world, and has not been surpassed since. The arrivals and
departures have averaged more than one thousand per week, and such has been
the desire to secure even a temporary habitation at the Metropolitan, that fre-
quently more than one hundred cots have been spread for weeks in succession.
The wages of employees range from two shillings to five dollars per day. This
will give a pretty good idea of the expenditures under this head alone. The
laundry of tlie house is, probably, the most extensive of any in the world ; four
thousand pieces are washed daily, and in an emergency, fifteen minutes suffice to
wash, drj', iron, and deliver linen for occupants of the house.

The commissary department of the Metropolitan is a very important one.
Among tlie leading articles of consumption we notice :

Beef, 418,000 lbs.; lamb and mutton, 3,500 head; veal, 150 head; fish and
lobster, 110,000 lbs.; oysters and clams, 626,000.; poultry and game, 171,000
head ; ham and pork, 91,000 lbs. ; butter and cheese, 65,000 lbs. ; eggs, 780,000 ;
milk and cream, 204,000 quarts ; fiour and corn meal, 2,800 bbls. ; fruits and
vegetables, value, $20,000 ; brandy and other liquors, 6,322 gallons ; champagne,
21,160 bottles; sherry, Madeira, &c., 22,912 bottles; claret and white wines,
18,942 bottles. This is independent of malt liquors, cordials, cooking wines,
&;c. The beef consumed last year in this house required a drove of one thou-
sand head to supply. When we consider that this number was required for one
hotel in this city, we can form a pretty good idea of the immense herds it must
require to supply such a population as New-York contains.

The gross cash receipts of the Metropolitan Hotel, for the year ending Sep-
tember 1, 1853, were $500,000. This is independent of wear and tear, which is
by no means a small item, particularly with such splendid and expensive fur-
niture and appointments. The cost of heating the house and the gas consumed,
during tlie year, was $14,600. Croton water rent, $1,000. Six stages and
twenty carriages are constantly employed in transporting passengers to and
from the hotel.

Eelative Purity of Different Desoreptions of Artificial Light. — Pro-
fessor Frankland, of Manchester, has given the following as the comparative
purity of different descriptions of artificial light.

Quantity of carbonic acid and heat generated per hour, by various sources of
light equid to twenty sperm candles : —

Carbonic acid. Heat.

Tallow, Cubic feet 10.1 100

Wax, 8.3 82

Spermaceti, .....--. 8.3. 82

Sperm oil, (Carcel's lamp,) 6.4 63

London ga>e3, (coal,) 5.0 47

Manchester gas, 4.0 33

London gas, (Gannel,) 3.0 33

Boghead hydro-carbon gas, 2.5 19

Lesmahago hydro-carbon gas, 2.5 19

Profe.'^sor Frankland adds: — " The two objections most frequently advanced
against the use of gas in dwelling-houses are the deterioration of the air by the
production of carbonic acid, and the evolution of so much heat as to render the
atmosphere oppressively hot. It will be seen from the comparison exhibited
that in these respects even the worst descriptions of coal gas are, for an equal
amount of liglit, superior to all other illuminating materials; whilst, with the
better descriptions of gas, three or four times the amount of light may be
employed with no greater atmospheric deterioration."

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC.

251

Inventions. — The dates of the following inventions may be of some con-
venience to our readers for reference. They have been taken from The Louiston
Farmer and Mechanic :

Glass windows were first used in 1180

Chimneys in houses, --------- 1236

Lead pipes for conveying water, 1252

Tallow candles for lights, 1290

Spectacles invented by an Italian, 1299

Paper first made from linen, ...---- 1302

Woollen cloth first made in England, - 1331

Art of painting in oil colors, ----- - - 1410

Printing invented, 1440

Watches made in Germany, 14Y7

Variation of compass first noticed, ..-.-- 1540

Pins first used in England, .----:- 1543

Circulation of human blood first discovered by Harvey, - - - 1619
First newspaper published, ....-.-1 630

First steam engine invented, - - - - - - - 1649

First fire engine invented, ------- 1663

First cotton planted in the United States, 1759

Steam engine improved by "Watt, 1766

Steam cotton mill erected, 1782

Stereotyping invented in Scotland, 1785

Aninaal magnetism discovered by Mesmer, ----- 1788

Sabbath-school established in Yorkshire, England, - - - 1789

Electro-magnetic telegraph invented by Morse in - - - - 1832,

Daguerreotype process invented, ..-_-- 1839

New Manufactuking Town. — A letter from Moultonborough to a Boston
paper says :

" There is a fine water-power in this town, which has been recently purchased
by a company from Boston, and a machine-shop and foundrj' are soon to be
built, under the direction of an agent of Seth Ames & Co., the present pro-
prietors of the location. The company was incorporated by the last Legislature
as the Red Hill Manufacturing Company ; and if all the reports are true, the
little village known in this vicinity as ',^Ioultonborougli Falls' is soon destined
to become a second Lawrence. So may it be."

Improvement in Grist Mills. — The Worcester Spy speaks of improvements
in the manner of pecking mill- stones by which their capacity for grinding corn
can be doubled. The editor of the Spy saw it applied to a mill in Worcester,
and the result of its application was, that a bushel of Northern corn was ground
in a minute and a half, and that an old-fashioned mill, with a single run of
stones, with the improvement, will grind forty-six bushels an hour.

Percussion-Caps Superseded. — A new composition has lately been invented
by Messrs. Winiwartier & Gersheim, of Vienna, for the purpose of superseding
the ordinary percussion-caps, and, in many instances, the gunpowder charge also.
The most prominent features of these gun-primers, as the composition is called,
are the absence of a metallic coat or cover, and their uniform explosive power,
the materials being of such a nature that, after a detonation, no residue whatever
is left behind. The materials which form the new composition are fulminating
mercury, chlorate of potash, and sulphide of antimony, the dangerous proper-
ties of which ingredients are diminished by the application of collodion, which
is used as a cement; and it is the ingenious employment of this substance which
constitutes the chief peculiarity of the invention.

Mending Glass. — Melt a little isinglass in spirits of wine, and add a small
quantity of water, "Warm the mixture gently over a fire. When mixed by
thoroughly melting, it will form glue perfectly transparent, and which will
reunite broken glass firmly, neatly and invisibly. Lime, mixed with the white

252

MECHANICAL RECORD, ETC.

of egg, forms a very strong cemeut for glass, porcelain, &c., but it must be done
neatly. — Soientijic American.

Ethrr as a Motive-power. — The results of the experiments with ether as a
motive-power are attracting much attention in France; and if the published
accounts are correct, the application of etherized vapor as a motive-power is a
most important movement. A late number of GalignanVs Messenger gives the
following account of a report of experiments on board the steamer Du Trembley :

" This report, which is from a commission appointed by the authorities, states
that an enormous economy of fuel is obtained by the new system and the ap-
paratus of which ^I. Da Trembley is the inventor. The consumption of coal
on board the Du Trembley is declared to have been only 1 kilogramme 11 dec.
to 1 kik)gramme 16 dec. per horse-power and per hour, whereas the consump-
tion by the best steam engines on the usual principle is 4 kilogrammes. This
great economy is, adds the report, very little affected by the outlay for ether.
The great danger which previously existed in the use of ether by escapes from the
joints, has, it is asserted, been entirely removed. This discovery, which has now
stood the test of several long voyages, will cause a total revolution in steam
navigation, for it will enable vessels to have a very large additional space for
cargo, which is one of the great advantages promised by Oapt. Ericsson's hot
air engines, and the etherized vapor has a great superiority over the latter, as
the rate of speed is the same as with the ordinary mode of steam navigation,
with a much larger consumption of fuel, whereas, as yet, the speed obtained by
the Ericsson engine is very much below that obtained by steam ; consequently,
whatever is gained by economy of fuel as regards hour for hour, is lost by the
additional time required for a voyage, thus increasing at the same time the ad-
ditional expense of the wages of the crew, the increased consumption of pro-
visions, and the increase of wear and tear."

The American Alarm Lock is the latest novelty in the way of invention we
have noticed. It is in the main a combination lock, enclosing a bell, so that any
fingering or picking at the key-hole, even with the proper key, causes the ring-
ing of a sharp, shrill alarm. This bell, if preferred, may be located away from
the lock — in the bed-room of a watchman, cashier or sub-treasurer, if you please,
so as to give him instant notice when any one meddles with the lock.

The "Worth of Trees and Kailroads^— "We learn from the Caledonian that
six pine trees standing on a lot near Island Pond, some hundred and fifty or
more miles from the seaboard, were recently sold for the handsome little sum of
five hundred dollars. Verily the railroads do increase the value of lumber. Ten
years ago, these majestic pines, for masts, would not have sold for ten dollars.

High Price eor Stook. — We have noticed recently the arrival at Few-York
of several herds of pure-blood stock, imported by different Societies in the
Southern and "Western States, for the purpose of improving the breeds of stock
among the farmers in those States. One lot Avas said to have cost in England
over $50,000. A sale of some of this stock, imported by the Northern Kentucky
Importing Association, was had in Bourbon county, Ky., on the 18th inst. Tiie
prices paid were high. The purchasers were put under obligations not to re-
move the stock from the State for one year. The following are some of the
prices paid:

A wiiite bull, calved in May, 1850, cost in England $660, sold for $3,005.
Diamond, roan— calved in June, 1850; cost $630, sold for $6,001. The Count,
roan — cost $525, sold for $2515. Orontos, red and white — calved September,
1851; cost $630, sold for $4,525. Fusileer, roan— cost $875, sold for $4,475.
Challenger, roan — calved January, 1852; cost $450, sold for $4528. Cows and
heifers went in the same proportion. Mazurka, dark roan, calved August, 1851,
cost $600, sold for $3,050. Three South Down bucks sold for $755, $480, $340,
and three ewes for $350, $180, $230, and a Cleveland bay stallion — the only
horse imported — $2,800 ! The profits of the company from the sales amounted
to $32,976.

NEW-YORK AS IT IS FOR STRANGERS. 253

The Biggest Train, — The locomotive Salamander brought iu the largest train
of loaded freight cars yesterday tliat was ever drawn over the Central Koad,
The train numbered over one hundred loaded cars, and was over one third of a
mile in length. It was mostly loaded with wheat, its capacity being 20,000 bush-
els— and was all picked up at Marshall, and this side of there. "Within the last
forty-eight hoars the receipts of wheat at the Central depot have been nearly
40,000 bushels. — Detroit Advertiser, Aug. 11th. ,

A Ceylon Ox-Cart. — A correspondent of the Boston Journal, writing from
Ceylon, thus describes a vehicle which he found on an island whose sixteen-
lettered name we will not stop to write:

"On reaching the shore of Poongkoordetovoo — which jaw-breaking name, by
the way, with its sixteen letters, is spelt in the Tamil language by the use of six
characters only — we found an ox-cart waiting to help ns on to the house of the
catechist, a distance of about four miles. The ox-cart is the only one in the
island, and this too, where the population in 1840, the census says, was S700!
It would be thought by an American farmer a great curiosity, as well as the
exceedingly diminutive oxen which drew it, whose bodies were almost literally
covered with the marks of the branding-iron. These marks are thought by the
people to be very beautiful, and they regard them also as tending much to the
health of the ox. The wheels of the cart are not much more than half as far
apart as is usual with American carts, and the length of it was so contracted
that it was not without inconvenience that even two of us could ride. It was
covered over with an ola mat, and that protected us from the rays of a vertical
sun. This was much better than to be walking with the king of day, in his own
region, pouring down his rays directly above our heads."

Patent Timothy and Clover Sower. — This is a very desirable and ingenious
hand implement for sowing clover and timothy seed. It is a simple hopper
or a long, trough-like-box, of any convenient length, with a zinc bottom perfo-
rated with holes at equal distances. The seed is distributed by a notched rod,
which is vibrated by means of a lever attached to the top of the hopper. It
sows the seed accurately, and is so arranged as to sow any desired quantity
from two to sixteen quarts per acre. It is a very neat and valuable contrivance
for the easy, rapid, and perfect performance of a labor which is otherwise very
difficult.

Curious Calculations. — The ocean, accepting the supposed average depth of it
as one thousand feet, contains 29,000,000 of cubic miles of water; and to fill its
basin would require all the rivers of the earth pouring their waters into it for
forty thousand years. The amount of heat received from the sun every year
would suffice to melt a crust of ice thirty-two feet thick, enveloping the whole'
earth. According to the technical reckoning, the solar heat which annually
raises the sea-water in the form of vapor, corresponds to the enormous sum of
sixteen billions of horse-power.

NEW-YORK AS IT IS— FOR STRANGERS.

JuLLiEN is about dosing a most triumphant series of concerts. New- York has never
before witnessed such perfection of orchestral music.

Max Maretzek is just commencing a series of operas at Niblo's, with the best prom-
ise of success, with Steffanone, Salvi, Marini, Beneventano, <tc., and a powei-ful chorus.

The Ravels are still at Niblo's, as funny as ever.

Two Giraffes are to be seen at Barnum's Museum. These animals are very great
curiosities, elegant in form, graceful in many of their movements, and unlike every
other animal we have ever seen. Go and see them by all means. They are very
seldom to be seen in this country.

254 NEW BOOKS.

Niagara Falls. — K"umerors views of this wonder of the world are to be seen at
Hope Cliapel, and will repay the visitor.

The Baroness De Berg gave her second grand concert a few evenings since, assisted
by the ablest talent in the country, Salvi, Marini and Paul Julien. She is a very ac-
complished pianist. She cannot thunder on the wires like one of our sex, but is
smooth and linished in every respect, and has entire command of the keys. She
abundantly deserves success.

SiGNOR Blitz is here also, with his five hundred learned canaries, doing most wonder-
ful things.

Periiam's Seven Mile Mirror. — This famous panorama is now in New-York. It
gives a better view of the country through which it passes, than any other extended
panorama we have ever seen. Gentlemen well-known through the country give
their public commendation of it. The offer of nearly $90,000 in "gifts" may look
like what is called humbug, but we know Mr. Pcrham so well that we are confident he
will carry out his part of the business precisely as he promises. See his advertisement.

Other exhibitions before mentioned are still open.

NEW BOOKS

Manual of Elemenfarij Oeology ; or. The Ancient Changes of the Earth and its
Inhabitants, as illustrated by Geological Monuments. By Sir Charles Lyell, M.A.,
F. R.S. Reprinted from the fourth and entirely revised edition. Illustrated with 500
woodcuts. New-York: D. Appleton <fe Co., 202 Broadwaj'. 1853. pp. 612. $1.75.

An edition of 2000 copies, printed in January last, having been disposed of, and a
call made for a still further supply of this standard work, the Me?sis. Appletons
have here given us a volume as linished in execution as it is authoritative in matters
of science. It is furnished with a copious index. No work now published on this
subject can claim precedence of this.

Philosophy of Sir William Hamilton, Bart., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in
Edinburgh University. Arranged and edited by D. W. Wriglit, Ti^anshitor of
Cousin's History of Modern Philosophy. For the use of Schools and Colleges.
New-York : D. Appleton <fe Co. 1853.

This handsomely-executed volume contains all that Mr. Hamilton has publislied on
the subject of Metaphysics, except part of an unfinished dissertation. His notes in
his edition of Dr. lleid have been used in making up this work. The notes of the
editor are chiefly confined to pointing out references to other parts of the work,
though some of them are of great value. It is by no means of the less value, that
our able and judicious editor allows his author to explain himself.

Elements of Agricultural Cheynistry and Geology. By James F. W. Johnston, MA., F.R.
S. S.L. and E., <fec., <fec. With a complete Index and American Preface, by Simon
Brown, Editor of the N^ew-England Farmer. New-York: C. M. Saxton. 1853.
Sent by mail to any part of the United States for $1.

Tills book is exactly what it professes to be. It is the work of a thorough scholar,
and this edition is by an able editor, while the publisher has also done his work well,
(though it would have been improved in appearance, had the paper-maker used a
little more chlorine.) We know of nothing superior to this, if it has its equal, in the
same compass. It is perfectly reliable in every department.

The Progressive Farmer : a Scientific Treatise on Agricultural Chemistry, the Geology
of Agriculture ; on Plants, Animal:^, Manures, and Soils, applied to Practical Agri-
culture. By J. A Nash, Principal of Mount Pleasant Institute, Instructor of Agricul-
ture in Amherst College, and Member of the Ma'=sachusetts Board of Agriculture.
New-York: C. M. Saxton. 1853. pp. 254. Sent by mail at 50 cents.

This small manual contains a chapter of 45 pages on Descriptive Chemistry ; 30
pages on the Geology of Agriculture ; 20 pages Vegetable Physiology ; 45 p.nues on
Animals and their Products, Milk, Butter, and Cheese, with Modes of Feeding; the

LTST OF PATENTS.

255

Manures occupy 40 pages, and the closing chapter is on Practical Agriculture. Mr.
Nash thoroughly understands hiraselt, and has made an excellent book, which would
prove itself of great value in the hands of any farmer who would be governed by
its directions.

The Humorous Speaker; being a choice selection of amusing pieces, both in prose and
verse, original and selected ; consisting of Dialogues, Soliloquies, Parodies, &c.
Des gned for the use of schools, families, <fec., &c. By Oliver Oldham. New-York:
Newman <fe Ivison, 178 Fulton street. 1863. pp. 4U8.

This selection contains the compositions of J. G. Saxe, Stevens, Dickens, Hawthorne,
Colraan, Pierpont, Bulwer, Moore, Garrick, Hood, Haliburton, Holmes, and a long
list of other writers, of more or less note. Persons of every taste can find something
here to please them.

The Claremont Tales ; or, Illustrations of the Beatitudes. New- York ; Eobert Carter
& Brothers. 1853. pi>. 363.

This handsome little volume contains eight Stories or Tales, "A humble mite
dropped by a mourner's hand," designed especially to interest the young. It is
eminently worthy the attention of religious parents.

The ABC Primer and the A B C Song Book. These are two little unpretending
volumes, well designed for the instruction of children in the rudiments of music.
The style is perfectly appropriate, the system is good, and in all respects it is just
suited to the wants of teachera of schools and of private classes. It is executed in
capital style and convenient form, (as usual,) by Messrs. Hall & Son, Broadway.

The Illustrated Magazine of Art is also on our table. We read it with great in-"
terest. It fills, and with ability, a place in our periodical literature which would
otherwise be entirely blank.

The Educator is also a very useful magazine, by the same publisher, 17 Spruce
street.

Harper's Magazine continues to maintain its high reputation. It is worthy of all
commendation.

Futnams Magazine makes its issues as regularly as the month comes round. It
has an able corps of writers. The author of the '"'Letters from Newport," <fec., must
be careful, or he will be in danger of large draughts on his strong-box for broken but-
tons and torn buttonholes. He is very 'cute as a comic writer.

Illustrated Record of the Crystal Palace, Nos. 3 and 4, is equal to its predecessors.

The Horticulturist for September was received from the agents, Messrs. Newman &
Ivison.

List of Patents Recently Issued.

FROM AUG. 9 TO SEFT. 7.

G.W. Baynes, Thomas Hintyand Minter Jackson,
of Glenville, Va., for ImpioTement in Bedstead
Fastenings.

William Bench, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Meat Tenderers.

John Binder, of Chelsea, Mass., for Improvement
in Hinges for Folding Bedsteads.

P. F. Charpie, of Mount Vernon, O., for Improve-
ment in Gun Locks.

Thomas Grossley, of Roxbury, Mas9.,for Improve-
ment in Printed Carpets.

B. F. Delano, of Chelsea, Mass., for Improvement
in Rubber Brace.

M. B. Dyott, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Facing Buildings.

A. W. Graheart,of Beallsville, Ohio, for Improve-
ment in Machines for Preparing Spoke Timber.

A. n. McKinley, of Iligginsport, Ohio, for Im-
provement in Socket for Auger Handles and Braces.

Jacob Mumma, of Mount Joy, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Draught Apparatus ol Seed Planters.

E. K. Root, of Hartford, Ct., for Improvement in
Drop Hammers.

Wm.Van Anden, of Poughkeepsie, New-York, for
Improvement in Trip Hammer.

By J. P. SchenkI (assignor to J. P. Schenkl & A.
S. Saroni.) of Boston, Mass., for Improvement in
Breech-Loading !• ire- Arms.

W. H. Babbitt, of Waynesburgh, Pa., for Im-
provement in Hill Side Ploughs.

256

LIST OF PATENTS.

A. G. Goes, of Worcester, Mass., for Improvement
in Screw-Wrench.

W. & S. G. Coleman, of Providence, R. I., for
Improvenieul in Ship Bioclc.

A. C. Gallaliue, of Allegliany City, Pa. Ante-
dated Feb. 18, 1853, for Improvement in Machinery
for Pegging Boots and Shoes.

Gibson North, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Ovefi Dours of Cooking Stoves and Ranges.

A. R. Tewksbury, of Boston, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Boat or Scow.

Henry Stanton, U. S. A., for Improvement in Dis-
charging Breech-Loading Fire- Arms.

Luther Atwood, of Boston, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Processes for Purilying Alcohol.

J. P. Moinier and P. H. Boutigny, of Paris,
France, for Improvement in Generating Steam;
patented in France, January 18, 1853.

J. B. Duff, of New- York, N. Y., for Improvement
in Soap-Cutting Machines.

M. J. Gardner, of York, Pa., for Improvement in
Oscillating Steam Engines.

Peter Iloni, of Hagerstown, Md., for Improve-
ment ill Seed Planters.

F. B. Parker, of Queensville, Ind., for Improve-
ment in Hay Rakes.

Milton Roberts, of South Levant, Me., for Im-
provement in Arrangement of Cutters for Turning.

Samuel Vansyckle, of Little York, N. J., for
Improvement in Grate Bars.

Lettie A. Smith, of Pineville, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Butter Workers.

W. M. Warren, of Watertown, Ct., for Improve-
ment in Railroad Car Seats.

L. A. B. Walbach, deceased, late of the U. S. A.,
for Improvement in Boring Cannon.

Zachariah Allen, of Providence, R. I., for Im-
provement in Counterpanes.

Henry Ritchie, (assisnor to S. C. Thompson, G.
W. WesterfleUI, and Henry Ritchie,) of Newark,
N. J., for Improvement in Padlocks.

Snow Magoun, of Newton, Mass., (assignor to
E. N. Moore and C. H. Crosby, of Boston. Mass.,
for'Improvemeiit in Cutting and Bevelling Printers'
Rules.)

Jonathan Foreman, of Boston, Mass., (adminis-
trator to E. W. Foreman, deceased, late of New-
Rochelle, N. Y., and assignor to Henry W. Sears,
of New-York, N. Y., for Improvement in Diving
Bells.

E. S. Snyder, of Charlestown, Va., for additional
Improvement in Machines for separating straw
from grain. Original patent dated June 13, 1848.

R. R. Finch, Jr., of New-York, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Stove Pipe Collar.

Thomas S. Gore, of Jersey City, N. J., for Im-
provement in Stoves.

Benjamin Irving, of Green Point, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Steam Boilers. Patented in France,
May 12, 1853.

John Krauser, of Reading, Pa., for Improvement
in Cider Mills.

O. 8. Leavitt, of Maysville, Ky., for Improvement
in Hemp and Flax-Breaking Machines.

William H. Mitcbel, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Machines for Distributing and Com-
posing Type.

Frederick Nishwitz, of Williamsburgh, N. Y.,
for Improvement in Grain Harvesters.

Samuel Darling, of Bangor, Me., for Improve-
ment in Grinding and Shaping Metals.

Andrew Ralston, of West Middletown, Pa., for
Improvement in Saw Mills.

Stephen B. Ruggles, of Boston, Mass., for Im-
provement in Machines for cutting Sheet Metal.

Daniel Winslow, of Westbrook, and Perley D.
Cummings, of Portland, Me., for Improvement in
Paper Files.

Charles Weston, of Salem, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Machines for Splitting Leather.

William Wigston, of New- York, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Apparatus for Purifying Gas.

Elliot Savage, (assignor to Franklin Roys and
Edward Wilcox,) of Berlin, Conn., for Improve-
ment in Machinery for Cutting and. Bending Me-
tallic Discs.

Elijah Valentine, of Palmer, (assignor to Abel
Bradway, of Monson, Mass.,) for Improvement in
Shingle Machines.

James T. Asbury, of Taylorsville, N. C, for
Improvement in Straw Cutters.

Philos Blake, Eli W. Blake, and John A. Blake,
of New-Haven, Conn., for Improvement in Nut
Crackers. Ante-dated March (5, 1853.

James Barnes, of Franklin, N. Y., for Machine
for Edging Leather Straps.

Victor Beaumont, of New-York, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Printing Presses.

Wra. Compton, of New-York, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Piano-Fortes.

Henry Hunt, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Sealing Preserve Canisters.

Jos. Linder, of New-York, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Horse Collars.

John Moyle, of Marlinsburg, Va., for Improve-
ment in Saw Cutters.

Charles Montague, of Pittsfleld, Mass., for Im-
provement in Printing Presses.

Stephen Meredith, of Erie, Pa., for Improvement
in Feed Apparatus to Gas Generators.

James Sjiralt, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for Improve-
ment in Bottle Fastenings.

W^. AV. Spafford, of Boston, Mass., for Improve-
ment in Machinery for Planing Metals.

Gideon B. Smith, of Baltimore, Md-, for Improve-
ment in Counterfeit Coin Detector.

Henry L. Weeds, of Haunahatchie, Geo., for
Improvement in Cotton Gins.

Thomas Warner, of Chicopee, Mass , for Im-
provement in making Twisted Gun Barrels.

Benjamin Irving, of Green Point, N. Y., for
Improvement in Paddle Wheel.

Thomas Allison, of Milton, N. Y., for Improve-
ment in Straw Cutters.

L. II. Davis, of Kennet-Square, Pa., for Improve-
ment in Corn Shellers.

Porter Dickinson, of Amherst, Mass., for Im-
provement in Corn Shellers.

Stephen Morse, of Springfield, Mass., for Im-
provement in Iron Car Brakes.

Hiram Sands, of Cambridge, Mass., and Gary
Cummings, of West Derby, Vt., for Improvement
in Brick Machines.

Samuel II. Turner, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for Im-
provement in Printers' Ink.

f Ije |l0tt8l), tl)e f 0(Jttt, aiilJ tl)e Jlnuil

Part L— Vol. VT. NOVEMBER, 1853. No. 5.

RUSSIAN INDUSTRY.

Russia at tlie present day is " the observed of all observers." Her posi-
tion among the monarcliies of tbe old world gives to her an importance which
attaches to no other sovereignty on that continent. What she is to be and
to do, is quite as important an inquiry, to say the least, as what may be the
condition and policy of England. At the same time, we know less of Rus-
sia than of almost any other country. Few travellers, comparatively, have
qualified themselves for extensive details, and in several departments of
interesting inquiry, our information is very limited. Still, we have in late
years quite important and reliable statements of the manners, customs,
and institutions of that people, and we may serve a double purpose by pre-
senting some of these to our readers. We may show the connection between
variety of pursuit and general progress, as we have so often done with the
statistics of other countries, while we also furnish a sketch of no little
interest, which shall familiarize our readers with that to which they have not,
in general, convenient access. We rely, to a great extent, upon extracts from
authors cited by Mr. Carey, in his new work on the Slave Trade, and his
remarks in the same connection, while we add information from other sources
as we may be able.

" ' The industry of Russia,' says a recent American journal, ' has been
built up, as alone the industry of a nation can be, under a system of
protection, from time to time modified as experience has dictated; but
never destroyed by specious abstractions or the dogmas of mere doc-
trinaires. Fifty years ago, manufactures were unknown there, and the
caravans trading to the interior, and supplying the wants of distant
tribes in Asia, went laden with the products of British and other for-
eign workshops. When the present Emperor mounted the throne, in 1825,
the country could not produce the cloth required to uniform its own soldiers ;
farther back, in 1800, the exportation of colored cloth was prohibited under
severe penalties ; but through the influence of adequate protection, as early
as 1834, Russian cloth was taken by the caravans to Kiachta ; and at this
day the markets of all Central Asia are supplied by the fabrics of Russian
looms, which in Afighanistan and China are crowding British cloths entirely
out of sale— notwithstanding the latter have the advantage in transportation —
while in Tartary and Russia itself British woollens are now scarcely heard of.
In 1812 there were in Russia, 136 cloth factories; in 1824, 324; in 1812
there were 129 cotton factories; in 1824,484. From 1812 to 1839 the
whole number of manufacturing establishments in the empire more than
trebled, and since then they have increased in a much greater ratio, though
from the absence of oflBcial statistics we are not able to give the figures. Of
VOL. VI. — PART V. 17

258 RUSSIAN INDUSTRY.

the total amount of manufactured articles consumed in 1843, but one sixth
were imported. And along with this vast aggrandizement of manufacturing
industry and commerce, there has been a steady increase in both imports
and exports, as well as of revenue from customs. The increase of imports
has consisted of articles of luxury and raw materials for manufacture. And,
as if to leave nothing wanting in the demonstration, the increase of exports
has constantly included more and more of the products of agriculture. Thus
in this empire we see what we must always see under an adequate and judi-
cious system of })rotection, that a proper tariflf not only improves, refines,
and diversifies the labor of the country, but enlarges its commerce, increases
the prosperity of its agricultural population, renders the people better and
better able to contribute to the support of the Government, and raises the
nation to a position of independence and real equality among the powers of
the globe. All this is indubitably proved by the example of Kussia, for
there protection has been steady and adequate, and the consequences are
what we have described.' — New- York Tribune.

The reader, says Mr. Carey, may advantageously compare the following
sketch, from the same source, of the present position of Russia, so recently
a scene of barbarism, with that already laid before him, of, her neighbor,
Turkey, whose policy commands to so great an extent the admiration of
those economists who advocate the system which looks to converting the
whole world outside of England intoone vast farm, and all its people, men,
women, and children, into field laborers, dependent on one great workshop,
in which to make all their exchanges :

' Russia, we are told, is triumphant in the Great (London) Exhibition.
Her natural products excite interest and admiration for their variety and ex-
cellence ; her works of art provoke astonishment for their richness and
beauty. Her jewellers and gold-workers carry oflf the palm from even those
of Paris. Her satins and brocades compete with the richest contributions
of Lyons. She exhibits tables of malachite and caskets of ebony, whose
curious richness indicates at once the lavish expenditure of a barbaric court,
and the refinement and taste of civilization. Nor do we deem it of much
account that her part of the exhibition is not exclusively the work of native
artisans. Her satins are none the less genuine product of the country be-
cause the loveliest were woven by emigrants from the Croix Rousse or the
Guillotiere, seduced by high wages from their sunnier home in order to
build up the industry of the Great Empire, and train the grandsons of Mongol
savages in the exquisite mysteries of French taste and dexterity. It matters not
that the Exhibition oflfers infinitely more than a fair illustration of the average
capacity of Russian labor. It is none the less true that a people who,
half a century ago, were without manufactures of any but the rudest kind,
are now able by some means to furnish forth an unsurpassed display, though
all the world is there to compete with them.

We are no lover of Russian power, and we have no wish to exaggerate
the degree of perfection to which Russian industry has attained. We do not
doubt that any cotton factory in the environs of Moscow might be found im-
perfect when contrasted with one of Manchester or Lowell. We are confi-
dent that the artisans of a New-England village very far surpass those of a
Russian one in most qualities of intelligence and manhood. Indeed, it is
abburd to make the comparison ; it is absurd to do what travellers insist on
doing — that is, to judge every nation by the highest standard, and pronounce
each a ftxilure which does not exhibit the intellect of France, the solidity and
power of England, or the enterprise, liberty, and order of the United States.

RUSSIAN INDUSTRY. 259

All that should be asked is, whether a people has surpassed its own previou
condition, and is in the way of improvement and progress. And that, in re-
spect of industry at least, Russia is in that way, her show at the Exhibition
may safely be taken as a brilliant and conclusive proof.

Russia is powerful, and is becoming more so daily. Why is it so ? It is
because her people are daily more and more learning the advantages of
diversification of labor and combination of exertion, and more and more im-
proving in their physical and intellectual condition — the necessary prelimina-
ries to an improvement of their political condition. Turkey is weak ; and
wliy is it so ? Because among her people the habit of association is daily
pa>sinf away as the few remaining manufactures disappear, and as the tra-
velling pedler supersedes the resident shopkeeper.

It is said, however, that Russian policy is unfavorable to commerce ; but is
not its real tendency that of producing a great internal commerce, upon which
alone a great foreign one can be built ? That it does produce the effect of
enabling her people to combine their exertions for their common benefit is
most certain ; and equally so that it tends to give her that direct intercourse
with the world which is essential to the existence of freedom. The slave
trades with the world through his master, who fixes the price of the labor he
has to sell and the food and clothing he has to buy, and this is exactly the
system that Great Britain desires to establish for the farmers of the world —
she being the only buyer of raw products, and the only seller of manufac-
tured ones.

So long as Russia exports only food and hemp, sbe can trade with Brazil
for sugar, and with Carolina for cotton, only through the medium of British
ships, British ports, Britisb merchants, and British looms, for she can need
no raw cotton ; but with the extension of manufactures she needs cotton,
which she can draw directly from the planter, paying him in iron, by aid of
which he may have machinery. In illustration of this, we have the fact that
so recently as in 1846, out of a total consumption of cotton amounting to
310,656 cwts,, no less than 122,082 cwts. had passed through British epin-
dlts ; whereas in 1850, out of a total consumption of more than one half
greater, amounting to 487,612 cwts., only 64,505 cwts. had passed through
the hands of the spinners of Manchester.

The export of raw cotton to Russia has since largely increased, but the
precise extent of increase cannot be ascertained, although some estimate may
be formed from the growth of the consumption of one of the principal dye-
ing materials, indigo ; the export of which from England to Russia is thus
given in the London Economist : m

1849. 1850. , 1851. 1852. ^

Chests, 3225 4105 4953 5175

"We have here an increase in three years of almost sixty per cent., proving
a steady increase in the power to obtain clothing and to maintain commerce
internal and external ; directly the reverse of what has been observed in Tur-
key, Ireland, India, and other countries in which the British system prevails ;
and the reason of this is, that that system looks to destroying the power of
association. It would have all the people of India engage themselves in
raising cotton, and all those of Brazil and Cuba in raising sugar, while those
of Germany and Russia should raise food and wool ; and we know well that
when all are farmers, or all planters, the power of association scarcely exists;
the consequence of which is seen in the exceeding weakness of all the com-
munities of the world in which the plough and the loom, the hammer and

260 RUSSIAN INDUSTRY.

the harrow, are prevented from coming together. It is an unnatural one.
Men every where seek to combine their exertions with those of their fellow-
men ; an object sought to be attained by the introduction of that diversifica-
tion of employment advocated throughout his work by the author of The
Wealth of Nations. How naturally the habit of association arises, and how
beneficial are its eflects, may be seen from a few extracts now offered to the
reader, from an interesting article in a recent English journal. In Russia,
says its author,

' There does not prevail that marked distinction between the modes of life
of the dwellers in town and country which is found in other countries ; and
the general freedom of trade, which in other nations is still an object of exer-
tion, has existed in Russia since a long by-gone period. A strong manufactur-
ing and industrial tendency prevails in a large portion of Russia, which,
based upon the communal system, has led to the formation of what we may
term " national association factories." '

In corroboration of this view of the general freedom of internal trade, we
are told that, widely different from the system of western Europe,

' There exists no such thing as a trade guild, or company, nor any restraint
of a similar nature. Any member of a commune can at pleasure abandon
the occupation he may be engaged in, and take up another; all that he
has to do in effecting the change is to quit the commune in which his old
trade is carried on, and repair to another, where his new one is followed.'

The tendency of manufacturing industry is

' For the most part entirely communal ; the inhabitants of one village, for
example, are all shoemakers, in another smiths, in a third tanners only, and
so on. A natural division of labor thus prevails, exactly as in a factory. The
members of the commune mutually assist one another with capital or labor ;
purchases are usually made in common, and sales also invariably, but
they always send their manufactures in a general mass to the towns and
market-places, where they have a common warehouse for their disposal.'

In common with all countries that are as yet unable fully to carry out the
idea of Adam Smith, of compressing a large quantity of food and wool into
a piece of cloth, and thus fitting it for cheap transportation to distant mar-
kets, and which are, therefore, largely dependent on those distant markets
for the sale of raw produce, the cultivation of the soil in Russia is not,

' In general, very remunerative, and also can only be engaged in for a few
months in the year, which is, perhaps, the reason why the peasant in Russia
evinces so great an inclination for manufactures and other branches of indus-
try, the character of which generally depends on the nature of raw products
found in the districts where they are followed.'

Without diversification of employment, much labor would be wasted, and
the peoyile would find themselves unable to purchase clothing or machinery
of cultivation. Throughout the empire, the laborer appears to follow in the
direction indicated by nature, working up the materials on the land on which
they are produced, and thus economizing transportation. Thus,

' In the government of Yaroslaf the whole inhabitants of one place are
potters. Upwards of two thousand inhabitants of another place are rope-
makers and harness-makers. The population of the district of Uglitich, in
1835, sent three millions of yards of linen cloth to the markets of Rybeeck
and Moscow. The peasants on one estate are all candle-makers, on a second
they are all manufacturers of felt hats, and on a third they are solely occu-
pied in smiths' work, chiefly the making of axes. In the district of Pa-
•hectoe there are about seventy tanneries, which give occupation, to, a lajge

RUSSIAN INDUSTRY. 261

number of families ; they have no paid workmen, but perform all the opera-
tions among themselves, preparing leather to the value of about twenty-
five thousand roubles a year, and which is disposed of on their account in
Rybeeck. In the districts where the forest trees mostly consist of lindens,
the inhabitants are principally engaged in the manufacture of matting, which,
according to its greater or less degree of fineness, is employed either for
sacking or sail-cloth, or merely as packing-mats. The linden tree grows only
on moist soils, rich in black humus^ or vegetable mould ; but will not grow
at all in sandy soils, which renders it comparatively scarce in some parts of
Russia, while in others it grows abundantly. The mats are prepared from
the inner bark, and as the linden is ready for stripping at only fifteen years
of age, and indeed is best at that age, these trees form a rich source of pro-
fit for those who dwell in the districts where they grow.'

We have here a system of combined exertion that tends greatly to account
for the rapid progress of Russia in population, wealth, and power.

The men who thus associate for local purposes acquire information, and
with it the desire for more ; and thus we find them passing freely, as interest
may direct them, from one part of the empire to another: a state of things
very difierent from that produced in England by the law of settlement, under
which men have every where been forbidden to change their locality, and
every where been liable to be seized and sent back to their original. pawshes,
lest they might at some time or other become chargeable upon the new
one in which they had desired to find employment, for which they had
sought in vain at home. " The Russian," says our author,

' Has a great disposition for wandering about beyond his native place, but
not for travelling abroad. The love of home seems to be merged, to a great
extent, in love of country. A Russian feels himself at home every where
within Russia ; and, in a political sense, this rambling disposition of the peo-
ple, and the close intercourse between the inhabitants of the various provinces
to which it leads, contributes to knit a closer bond of union between the
people, and to arouse and maintain a national policy and a patriotic love of
country. Although he may quit his native place, the Russian never wholly
severs the connection with it ; and, as we have before mentioned, being fitted
by natural talent to turn his hand to any species of work, he in general never
limits himself in his wanderings to any particular occupation, but tries at
several ; but chooses whatever may seem to him the most advantageous.
When they pursue any definite extensive trade, such as that of a carpenter,
mason, or the like, in large towns, they associate together, and form a sort of
trades' association, and the cleverest assume the position of a sort of con-
tractor for the labor required. Thus, if a nobleman should want to build a
house, or even a palace, in St. Petersburgh, he applies to such a contractor,
[prodratshnik,) lays before him the elevation and plans, and makes a contract
with him to do the work required for a specified sum. The contractor then
makes an agreement with his comrades respecting the assistance they are to
give, and the share they are to receive of the profit ; after which he usually
sets oft' to his native place, either alone or with some of his comrades, to ob-
tain the requisite capital to carry on the work with. The inhabitants, who
also have their share of the gains, readily make up the necessary sum, and
every thing is done in trust and confidence ; it is, indeed, very rare to hear
of frauds in these matters. The carpenters {plotniki) form a peculiar class
of the workmen we have described. As most of the houses in Russia, and
especially in the country parts, are built of wood, the number and importance
of the carpenters, as a class, are very great in comparison with other coun- ••

262 RUSSIAN INDUSTRY.

tries. Almost every peasant, whatever other trade he may follow, is also
something of a carpenter, and knows ho.w to shape and put together the
timbers for a dwelling. The plotniki in the villages are never any thing
more than these general carpenters, and never acquire any regular knowledge
of tlieir business. The real Russian plotniki seldom carries any other tools
with him than an axe and a chisel, and with these he wanders through all
parts of the empire, seeking, and every where finding, work.'

The picture here presented is certainly widely diifarent from that presented
by Great Biilain and Ireland. A Russian appears to be at home every where
in Russia. He wanders where he will, every where seeking and finding wot k;
whereas an Irishman appears hardly to be at home any where within the
limits of the United Kingdom. In England, and still more in Scotland, he
is not acknowledged as a fellow-citizen. He is only an Irishman— owq of
those half savage Celts intended by nature to supply the demand of England
for cheap labor; that is, for that labor which is to be rewarded by the scant-
iest supplies of food and clothing. The difference in the moral effect of the
two systems is thus very great. "The one tends to bring about that combina-
tion of exertion which every where produces a kindly habit of feeling, whereas
the other tends every where to the production of dissatisfaction and gloom ;
and it is so because that under it there is necessarily a constant increase of
the feoling that every man is to live by the taxation of his neighbor, buying
cheaply vvhat that neighbor has to sell, and selling dearly what that neighbor
has to buy. The existence of this state of things is obvious to all faimhar
with the current literature of England, which abounds in exhibitions of the
tendency of the system to render man a tyrant to his wife, his daughter, his
horse, and even his dog. A recent English traveller in Russia presents a dif-
ferent state of feeling as there existing. ' The Russian coachman,' he says—
' Spldom uses his whip, and generally only knocks with it upon the foot-
board of the sledge, by way of a gentle admonition to his steed, with whom,
meanwhile, he keeps up a running colloquy, seldom giving him harder words
than ''My brother— my friend— my little jyigeon—my stveetheartr " Come,
my pretty pigeon, make use of your legs," he will say. " What, now ! art
blind A Come, be brisk ? Take care of that stone, there. Don't see it ?—
There, that's right ! Bravo ! hop, hop, hop 1 Steady boy, steady 1 , What
art turning thy head for ? Look out boldly before thee I— Hurra ! \ ukh !
Yukhl" ., , ^, . ,

' I could not,' he continues, ' help contrasting tins with the offensive an-
guage we constantly hear in England from carters and boys eni ployed in
driving horses. You are continually shocked by the oaths used. They seem,
to think the horses will not go unless they swear at them ; and boys consider
it manly to imitate this example, and learn to swear too, and break Gods
commandments by taking his holy name in vain. And this, whde making
use of a tine, noble animal he has given for our service and not for abuse.
There is much unnecessary cruelty in the treatment of these dumb creatures,
fur they are often beaten when doing their best, or from not understanding
what tlieir masters want them to do.'

The manner in which the system of diversified labor is gradually extend-
ing personal freedom among the people of Russia, and preparmg them
eventually for the enjoyment of tho highest degree of political freedoni, is
shown in the following passage. ' The landholders,' says the author before
rGiGrrBcl to

'Having serfs, give them permission to engage in manufactures, and to
seek for work for themselves where they like, on the mere condition of pay-

RUSSIAN INDUSTRY. 263

ing their lord a personal tax, (obrok.) Each person is rated, according to his
personal capabilities, tnlents, and capacities, at a certain capital ; and accoid-
ing to what he estimates himself capable of gaining, he is taxed at a fixed
sum as interest of that capital. Actors and singers are generally serfs, and
they are obliged to pay obrok for the exercise of their art, as much as the
lowest handicraftsman. In recent times the manufacturing system of Western
Europe has been introduced into Russia, and the natives have been encouraged
to establish all sorts of manufactures on these models ; and it remains to be
seen whet^her the new system will have the anticipated effect of contributing
to the formation of a middle class, which hitherto has been the chief want
in Russia as a political state.'

That such must be the effect cannot be doubted. The middle class has
every where grown with the growth of towns and other places of local ex
change, and men have become free precisely as they have been able to unite
together for the increase of the productiveness of their labor. In every part
of the movement which thus tends to the emancipation of the serf, the go-
vernment is seen to be actively cooperating, and it is scarcely possible to read
an account of what is there being done without a feeling of great respect for
the Emperor, * so often,' says a recent writer, ' denounced as a deadly foe to
freedom — the true father of his country, earnestly striving to develop and
mature the rights of his subjects.' "*

In 1827, an imperial ukase put an end to the unlimited sale of the serf as
a mere chattel, and declared him an integral and inseparable part of the soil.
Another and subsequent ukase permitted him to enter into contracts, with
power to hold property.

" The free peasants as yet constitute a small class, but they live
'As free and happy men, upon their own land ; are active, frugal, and
without exception, well off". This they must be, for considerable means are
necessary for the purchase of their freedom ; and, once free, and in possession
of a farm of their own, their energy and industry, manifested even in a state
of slavery, are redoubled by the enjoyment of personal liberty, and their
earnings naturally increase in a like measure.

' The second class, the crown peasants, are far better off (setting aside, of
course, the consciousness of freedom) than the peasants of Germany. They
must furnish their quota of recruits, but that is their only material burden.
Besides that, they annually pay to the Crown a sum of five roubles (about
four shillings) for each male person of the household. Supposing the family
to include eight working men, which is no small number for a farm, the
yearly tribute paid amounts to thirty-two shillings. And what a farm that
must be which employs eight men all the year round ! In what country cf
civilized Europe has the peasant so light a burden to bear ? How much
heavier those which press upon the English farmer, the French, the German,
and above all the Austrian, who often gives up three fourths of his harvest
in taxes. If the Crown peasant be so fortunate as to be settled in the neigh-
borhood of a large town, his prosperity soon exceeds that even of the Alten-
burg husbandmen, said to be the richest in all Germany, On the other
hand, he can never purchase his freedom ; hitherto, at least, no law of the
Grown has granted him this privilege.' — Jerrmann, p. 156.

We are told that the policy of Russia is adverse to the progress of civili-
zation, while that of England is favorable to it, and that we should aid the
latter in ojiposing the former. How is this to be proved ? Shall we look to

* Pictures from St Petersburg, by E. Jerrmann, p. 22.

264 CROPS AT THE SOUTH.

Ireland for the proof? If we do, we shall meet there nothing but famine,
pestilence, and depopulation. Or to Scotland, where men, whose ancestors
had occupied the same spot for centuries, are being hunted down that they
may be transported to the shores of the St. Lawrence, there to perish, as they
so recently have done, of cold and of hunger ? Or to India, whose whole
class of small proprietoi-s and manufacturers has disappeared under' the
blighting influence of her system, and whose commerce diminishes now from
year to year? Or to Portugal, the weakest and most wretched of the com-
munities of Europe ? Or to China, poisoned with smvggled opium, that costs
the nation annually little less than forty millions of dollars, without which
the Indian government could not be maintained ? Look where we may, we
see a growing tendency towards slavery wherever the British system is per-
mitted to obtain ; whereas freedom grows in the ratio in which that system
is repudiated.

That such must necessarily be the case will be seen by every reader who
will for a moment reflect on the diflerence between the eflect of the Russian
system on the condition of Russian women, and that of the British
system on the condition of those of India. In the former there is every
where arising a demand for women to be employed in the lighter labor of
conversion, and thus do they tend from day to day to become more self sup-
porting, and less dependent on the will of husbands, brothers, or sons. In
the other the demand for their labor has passed away, and their condition
declines ; and so it must continue to do while Manchester shall be determined
upon closing the domestic demand for cotton, and driving the whole popula-
tion to the production of sugar, rice, and cotton, for export to England.

The system of Russia is attractive of population, and French, German, and
American mechanics of every description find demand for their services.
That of England is repulsive, as is seen by the forced export of men from
England, Scotland, Ireland, and India, now followed by whole cargoes of
women* sent out by aid of public contributions, presenting a spectacle al-
most as humiliating to the pride of the sex as can be found in the slave
bazaar of Constantinople."

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL,

CROPS AT THE SOUTH.

Messrs. Editors: — In compliance with your request, I now seat me,
whilst in at noon, to give you an article for your paper, which, as the spirit
moves, will be followed by an occasional article. I now give you some data
and inferences as to the present year's crops. The data are sure and reliable.
The inferences are my own, given for what they are worth. I have made on
this place twenty-three crops, settling on this spot in January, 1831. I-
began the agriculturist's life by keeping notes of my daily business, and do
so now. I began to read agricultural works when I settled here, and so
continue. My first article for the press was written 8th of November, 1832,
my last is now in hand.

Thus much for myself, that your readers may have some sort of hint who

* The cargo of a ship that has recently sailed is stated to have consisted of more
than a thousand females.

CROPS AT THE SOUTH, 265

the writer is. I am indebted for all I know to agricultural works, and close
attention in the plantation ; and just here, I beg to say I superintend,
usually, all the work on the plantation, not giving orders to my foreman, and
sitting in the shade whilst those orders are being executed. I am out with
my hands, rain or shine, hot or cold.

There is prevalent an opinion that this crop will be full, or perhaps even
over that of the last. That persons interested in the purchase of cotton and
of cotton goods may have data, I offer the following as facts which cannot
be denied :

The season from 1st March to date, has been a succession of droughts and
deluges of rain. By the time the plant would fully recover from too much
rain, there would be another wet spelL

All persons conversant with a cotton crop know that extremes do more to
destroy a planter's hopes than aught else.

I had more cotton planted in 1852 on 1st of April than I had this year
on the 10th. The season had been so wet up to the 10th, that I had to plant
old ground too early, and then, when I could plant ray new ground, it was too
late for a fall crop. The rot began rather earlier than usual last year, but to
date, not as bad as when at its worst ; say ten days later. To date last year,
I had gathered and ginned two bales of cotton per hand, whilst now I have
not one bale picked, barely three-fourths, per hand, and none ginned. Last
year at this date I was picking full weights. For four days past I have been
doing so, but this evening I have not done half work, and the prospect is so
for many days. Six of my best hands gathered yesterday — a dry day, and
' the first this week — 1982 lbs., which they could have done at least in half the
time last year. For a week at least, I have no idea I can average, with same
hands, 2000 lbs. each. The crop on good land is at least two weeks later, on
upland rather earlier, yet the bolls are exceeding small on all land. I have
heard two others remark that the bolls are smaller and more difficult to pick
than they ever knew of before.

Again, our season last year was remarkably fine for ripening and for
picking. Many of us were disappointed in our crops, owing to cotton
maturing later than usual. Our first nipping ' frost was 8th of November;
the first ice, on the 15th. I have known ice here on 5th and 6th October.

We have already had more rain and more rainy days than we had last
fall altogether. This season is more like 1843 than any year I remember.
We have had very many heavy, washing rains.

These are facts which I think no one will deny. And to close up this
statement in regard to this place, I had in cotton last year 9|- acres per hand,
and a fraction over ; this year, a fraction under 8 acres.

I now give my inferences, and let them go for what they are worth. If
this place is a criterion, it would be very difiicult, with present prospects and
ordinary seasons, to gather the crop made last year. My crop was 9 bales
per hand. I would like to know who could gather 8 bales, after this, in
ordinary years.

I have not seen much of the growing crop ; have heard something ; and
judging from the light before me, I know of no neighborhood making a crop
equal to last year. The rot seems to be more extended, and the boll-worm
to be as bad as usual.

My own crop was fine, until the wet weather in July, and yet it was
almost as good in August, after the dry weather set in. But the drought,
following so much rain, caused a cast of much of the young fruit. The rot,
as I said, is not as bad as last year, but we have ten days yet for it to run

266 A FEW DAYS IN CANADA WEST.

its course. The boll-worm is not as bad here as usual. Yet, with a good
season, aud as late as last year, I cannot make the crop of last year, nor can
it grade as high. We should now be gathering our fine cotton, whereas it is
any thing else. I will readily pay $1 per bale to any insurance office that
will insure me 8 bales per hand, and I will double it for 9 bales. I believe
now I would make money by paying $2 per bale for 8. Then apply my
case to the entire crop, and there will be a decrease of one ninth certain :
9-^3,200,010=355,555 less, and the crop would be 2,850,000 bales. I
conclude that the crop will not exceed 2,800,000 bales. If my facts are
right, and this place a fair criterion, I think I will be borne out in my infer-
ences. Many think the supposed deficit of 700,000 bales much too large.
I would be willing to meet half way.

Yours, with respect, M. W. Philips.

Edwards, Miss., Sept. 16, 1852.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

A FEW DAYS IN CANADA WEST.

The traveller, on arriving in Hamilton, Canada, will readily notice the
great difference between the cities of Canada and of the United States. The
buildings in Hamilton are quite scattering, not having the neatness and
splendor of those in the cities of the United States, although the city con-
tains a number of large and firm buildings. The city stands one and a half
miles from the bay, the ground descending gradually from the city to the
lake. The city is built on a diluvial formation, which between the city and
the water is of great thickness. The excavation near the city for the Great
Western Railroad is one hundred feet deep. The skeleton of a mammoth
has been found near Hamilton, seventy feet from the surface.

The price of produce on the 5th of August was, wheat, 1 1,00 ; corn, 50c. ;
oats, 62^c. ; butter, 16c.; cheese, 9c.; horses, from $20 to $150; oxen,
from $85 to $100 per yoke; cows, $25. It is singular to notice the great
difference in prices in Canada of produce within a few miles, often 15 or 20
cents in a bushel of grain. The price of grain and cattle in Canada for the
last year or two is nearly as high as in the State of New- York. Formerly the
price of wheat was from five to six shillings, and other produce in proportion.
The inhabitants of Wentworth, Halton, and Brant counties make much
reckoning on the Northern Railroad, running from Lake Huron and inter-
secting our road near the Falls, and the Western Railroad, beginning oppo-
site Detroit, in Michigan, and terminating in the same region as the Northern
Road does. One of these roads — I am not certain which — crosses the Niagara
at the upper suspension bridge. The Canadians are calculating that these
roads will transport the larger part of the produce of the West, These it is
thought will be finished in the early part of next summer. A large number
of droves of cattle from the West are driven through Canada annually,
making the route to the East much nearer.

The only hill that I noticed in Canada was back of the city of Hamilton.
This hill is noticed from the stage-road from Brantford, five or six miles.
The Medina sandstone is seen cropping out of the side of the hill b;\ck of the
city ; and the limestone of the Clinton group is seen cropping out about half
way between Hamilton and Bi'antford. I understand that gypsum, or plas-

THE FAKM-HOUSE, 267

ter, is found in two places along the Grand River, between Brantford and
Paris, and also a short distance above Paris, Almost the whole country
appears one great diluvial formation of vast thickness, with scarcely any
stone or gravel, with the exception of a few boulders of granite and some of
the northern limestone. These boulders are drilled and blasted for underpin-
ning for buildings. The soil, in the parts I visited, is clayey, very deep, and
well adapted to wheat. Often 40 bushels per acre are raised. Although
Scobie in his Almanac and Register puts the wheat crop of the Province at
only 20 bushels per acre, I was informed by my uncle that he li-id often
raised over 40 bushels per acre. His wheat, and that of his neighbor, Mr.
D. Christie, yielded over 30 bushels per acre. Mr. Christie, the present
member of Parliament for Wentworth District, took the premium at the
World's Fair, in London, on blue-stem wheat, and the year after at the
Provincial Fair at Toronto. Mr. Christie had the kindness to show me his
medals and certificates for prizes on wheat. The varieties of wheat raised,
as fiir as I could learn, were blue-stem and Sol and, and a beautiful variety' of
spring wheat lately from Scotland. The oat crop, in many parts that I
visited, was quite short, in consequence of a drought, the most severe they
ever have experienced. The oat crop, notwithstanding the drought, was
large with many farmers. The variety raised is the Black Maine. A
large amount of barley is raised in Canada, which yields largely, and is
generally worth from 45e. to 50c. a bushel. There is not much corn raised
in Canada; it is a large farmer that raises 10 acres of corn. The grass crop
was very large in Canada, yielding generally two tons per acre. The crops
are generally half clover and half timothy. Buckwheat is not much raised,
but what I noticed was very fine. In general, the barns in Canada were
better filled than any barns that I have seen in a number of years.

Robert Howell.

rOR THE PLOUOn, THE LOOM, AND TUE ANVIL.

THE FARM-HOUSE.

Much has been written, of late, on the style "of architecture best adapted
to the wants of the farmer and mechanic. A great change has been eft'ected
in the aspect of the farming districts. Neatly-painted cottages are taking
the place of weather-beaten, barn-like rookeries. Painted paling fences
enclose house-plats and gardens where, before, there v/as no fence, or but a
rude one.

Yet what has been done is but a beginning of what might and ought to
be done. Why should not every farm-house be characterized by neatness
and good taste ? It is not for want of means, certainly. The farmers of our
country are as well able to occupy, not only good and commodious houses,
but expensive houses, as any other class in community. The cottages of the
English peasants are remarkable for their neatness and display of correct
taste. Cannot the yeomanry of America, tilling their own soil and sleeping
beneath their own roofs, do as much and far more ?

But I have entered upon a broad field, and shall not attempt to roam over
the wh(.le of it. I will take, as a starting-point,

Fniit and ornamental trees and shruhhe)y for the farm, not pledging my-
self, however, to be confip.-d to this topic, for I shall be likely to ro\e wher-
ever fancy leads mo.

268 THE FARM-HOUSE.

Where <lo we more naturally look for fruit and ornamental trees than
about the farm-house ? Who can better afford them than the tiller of the
soil!

Is it not a notorious fact, that professional men and mechanies do far more
in this line than farmers ? Those whose business it is to cultivate the soil
and mature its products, should, of all men, be most practically conversant
with its productions, and their grounds should exhibit a liberal display of
their own handiworks.

Go into the shop of an artisan, and you will find specimens of his artistic
skill. The studio of the artist is lined and decorated with the productions
of his genius. Why then should not the tiller of the earth, who possesses
advantages greater than they all, having the Great A.rchitect to second his
plans and crown his labors — why should not he surround his dwelling with
specimens of his taste ? Why not environ his home, and the home of his
•offspring, with that which will ever associate, in their memories, the word
Home with all that is agreeable to the eye, the ear, and the palate ?

Now this is practicable with every man who possesses a freehold even of
but one acre.

I will explain, first negatively, then affirmatively.

Home was never made " sweet home " by allowing the pigs to be tenants at
will on the whole plantation. A more unsightly, unseemly and unsavory,
and, withal, thriftless practice, was never indulged in, than that of allowing
swine to run lawless over one's premises. It is death to every thing verdant
and comely, and life to nothing but cockroaches and fleas, and other tenants
of filth.

"A place for every thing, and every thing in its place," should bo every
body's jnotto. The place for pigs is in their " quarters," which is, either the
pigsty, orj at certain seasons, in a field to which they should be confined.

The pig belongs to the working class ; and, if properly cared for, will do
enough to pay his way. Let him have earth, peat, or muck, a fresh supply
once a week, and he will make manure enough to pay his keep, and, at
the same time, Jceep out of harm's way.

Not by making the grounds about the house the repository of wagons, old
and new ; carts, wheelbarrows, sleds, sleighs, and sledges ; ploughs, harrows,
and drags ; wood, rails, posts and boards, and every conceivable article of
husbandry or agricultural mechanism, all pitched and tumbled in every
which way, so as to exemplify the idea of " confusion worse confounded."

The human mind naturally loves order. When, in the mind of a child, the
idea of home is indissolubly connected with that of disorder, the remem-
brance is never cherished with fondness.

Not by suffering buildings to go to decay, roofs to remain in a leaky con-
dition, windows to be in such a state as to require drafts upon the wardrobe,
or permit the foxes to look out at them ; fences reeling and staggering
like drunken men; fruit trees dying, and falling without being replaced
by young ones, and every thing indicating the sere and fallen leaf of neglect f
and decay. Such things chilTthe youthful blood and alienate the affections '
from home.

But home is rendered dear by making it agreeable to the eye. Let the
highway, or the path leading to the house, be lined with shade trees. The
cost is but the labor of setting and a little attention afterwards. What farmer
could not line the roadside, an eighth of a mile each way from his house,
with forest trees, and be not one cent the poorer for it ? What an air of
comfort it would give to the establishment ! How grateful the shade to the

THE FARM-HOUSE. 269

weary traveller in a sultry day ! How oft will a blessing be invoked upon the
head of the proprietor by the passing stranger ! Then, viewed in the light
of economy, who that might wish to purchase, would not gladly pay ten-
fold the cost of such trees ?

I have a buttonwood standing a few yards from my house. The body of
it measures twenty-five feet in circumference, and it rises full one hundred feet in
height, spreading its Briarean arms over an area of as many feet in diameter.
Tradition says that it was originally a stake to which horses were tied.
Every farmer may have many such on or near his premises, by simply driv-
ing the stakes.

In no way, perhaps, can this object be attained more directly than by
planting fruit trees.

Professional men, retired tradesmen, and gardeners plant fruit trees and
raise fruit in variety and abundance. But how is it with the great mass of
farmers ? To such I would address myself more particularly. Have you
an abundance of fruit, and a good variety ? One cherry tree, one pear tree,
and a few apple trees, don't constitute a variety, nor will they yield an
abundance. Yet multitudes of farmers, " well to do in the world," can't
boast even that much.

Now, my idea for a proper supply of fruit for an ordinary family, and
what I know to be within the compass of every farmer, is something like the
following :

1st. A good supply of currant and gooseberry bushes, different varieties,
enough to furnish the family both green and ripe, give to the poor of the
neighborhood, and let the birds have a plenty, to make sauce for all the
worms they have eaten.

These bushes should be kept clean from grass, and be thoroughly pruned
every spring. They do best when confined to one stem, tree-like.

2d. A liberal strawberry bed, covering at least from six to ten square
rods. If the dwellers in cities and towns can afford to pay the gardener
for growing, picking, and marketing his berries, surely the farmer can well
afford to pick and eat his own. "What family would be rendered less amiable
or less happy by having a quart of fine ripe strawberries upon the table
every day for six weeks ? They are as easily raised as potatoes.

Not less than ten cherry trees, with as many varieties, will suffice. Vari-
eties should be selected which ripen at different times, that there may be a
supply during the whole season of cherries. If cherries are palatable and
wholesome one week, why not have them eight? What more pitiably lu-
dicrous, than to see a family in possession of two hundred acres of land,
struggling to protect their only cherry tree from the birds, who innocently
claim a moiety of the fruit ! To one limb is attached a cow-bell ; to an-
other, a wind-mill ; to another, a looking-glass ; to another, a red flannel skirt ;
^tp another, a kettle of burning brimstone; while the whole tree is enveloped
iii an old fishing-seine, and the family are marshalled around, one with an
old fowling-piece, another with a bow and arrow, another with a tin horn,
and the mother with a broom, to drive away the " pesky" birds ! Better
far to raise enough for both men and birds. For " the birds of heaven shall
vindicate their grain" and cherries too.

'■' So of plums. Provide liberally. Don't be disheartened at the sight of
the blotch, or the curculio, or both. Apply the pruning-knife, and burn the
parts diseased. Shake off the warments, and labor to exterminate. Apply
salt freely, and let the old hen, with her chicks, have free access to the

270 VEEMONT AGRICULTURAL FAIR.

Of peaches, stop not short of twenty or thirty, with varieties tbat will
be ripening from the time of the early rareripes to that of the latest fall
peach.

I am still more convinced of the correctness of the views I advanced
through the Plour/h, Loom.and Anvil, some months since — that, to obtain a
hardy and long-lived peach tree, we must raise it from the seed ; and that
the stone of a peach from a seedling is Httle, if any, less certain to produce
Its like, than is Indian corn.

When the yellow leaf appears in midsummer, and the fruit matures prema-
turely, grub up the tree, and commit it, with its branches and fruit, to the
flames. On this subject more anon. R. B. H,

•i

VERMONT AGRICULTURAL FAIR.

The account of this Fair is tbus given by the editor of the Boston Culti-
vator :

"The horse department was, of course, the most attractive. This was not
equal to that of last year at Rutland, but still comprised many excellent
horses. By the regulations of the Society, they were divided into five differ-
ent classes, each of which had a separate list of premiums, viz. : the descend-
ants of the Sherman, Woodbury, and Bullock Morgans, crosses of these
families, and all horses of "other blood." All entered in these different
classes were driven around a half mile circle in separate pjirties, the judges
in each class being seated for observation on an elevated stand prepared for
the purpose, and the animals were afterwards minutely inspected indi-
vidually.

Some of the most popular horses in the State were not exhibited, owiuo-
to the indisposition of their owners ; but there were good ones in each of the
classes, and the public were gratified with the sight of some noted patriarchs
in the Morgan family, who, according to the nature of horses, must soon pass
that bourne from which even the best travellers cannot return. Among
these was the " Steele Morgan," for many years owned by Solomon Steele,
Esq., of Stanstead, Canada East. This animal, as we were infotmed by Mr.
Steele, was thirty years old on the twelfth of May last, and on that day trot-
ted a measured half mile, in the presence of six witnesses, in a fraction less
than two minutes. He must have been a horse of uncommon constitution ;
and I am told that his progeny are held in high estimation along the line in
the vicinity of Derby, Stanstead, etc. Another famous old horse was the
" Putnam Morgan," got by the " Woodbury Morgan." He is twenty -six years
old ; is owned by D. W. Cowdery and others, of Tunbridge, Vt. He has
been a horse of remarkable compactness and muscular development, and the
sire of valuable stock.

In the Sherman class of Morgans were some fine horses of various ages,
got by Black Hawk, Comet, and others; but my engagements on a com-
mittee prevented me from such particular examinations as would otherwise
have been made. !My attention was specially called to a horse owned by L,
North, of Champlain, N. Y. He is eight years old ; was formerly known as
the "Myrick Colt;" got by Black Hawk. Another horse in the same class,
owned by S. C. Hall & Co., of Manchester, N. H., deserves mention in this
connection. He is ten years old ; stated to have been by Black Hawk, from .

VERMONT AGRICULTURAL FAIR. 271

a mare partaking of Morgan and Messenger blood. Both these are powerful
horses, and drew many encomiums from those who witnessed their action.

Among the "Woodburys," the chestnut horse of J. & R. C. Johnson, Brad-
ford ; the bay of E. Pike, of Cornish, N. H., and others whose owners' names
I had no means of ascertaining, were deserving of notice.

Of the " Bulrushes," the bay horse, five years old, owned by E. Pike, of
Cornish, N. II., was a very good specimen. He inherits the blood on both
sides, with many of the points which denote the serviceable qualities for
"which that family is distinguished.

A bay horse, seven years old, owned by John Chapin, of Greenfield, Mass. —
said to have been got by " Green Mountain Morgan," dam of the Sherman
branch in the second generation — ^'was a fine figure, and evidently a valuable
animal.

I had not the opportunity of ascertaining the names of the owners of
several fine mares.

Cattle were not largely exhibited, and of those I saw, the standard of
merit could not be said to be very high. The farmers of Vermont do not
seem to have studied this class of animals very much. As the rearing of
cattle constitutes an important branch of husbandry with them, it is singular
that it should not receive more attention. There were several bulls on the
field which appeared to belong to the Short-horned breed, but in general they
were coarse, hard-fleshed animals. There were a few good Herefords, among
which was a bull owned by D. N. Briggs, of Richmond, and the cow
"Fanny," and a yearling bull from her, owned by A. L Bingham, of Corn-
wall. Of Devons, William R. Sanford, of Orwell, exhibited several fine
animals, some of which were imported. Several bulls in this class were
worthy of notice, but their owners are unknown to me.

In sheep, of the Merino class, the show was very good. Of the Spanish,
there was a large delegation from the celebrated flocks of E. Hammond,
Middlebury, which did him great credit. Good specimens were also shown
by Messrs. Sanford, of Orwell ; Campbell, of West Westminster, and others.
Mr. Eastman, of Rupert, showed several sheep under the name of "Mon-
tarcos," which appeared to possess considerable uniformity of fleece ; the
staple being tolerably fine, soft, and much crimped. Of the French, the
leading exhibitors were Jewett, Morse <fe Co., of Middlebur}'-, and A. L. Bing-
ham, of Cornwall. Each of these lots comprised one hundred or over. Both
were in good condition, and most of them were superior specimens of this
popular kind of sheep. Of the Silesian, William R. Sanford, of Orwell,
and George Campbell, of West Westminster, showed beautiful specimens.
Messrs. S. & C. state that every year's experience with these sheep increases
the estimate of their value. A few lots of English sheep were exhibited,
but those I saw were not well bred.

The show of swine did not amount to much, either as to numbers or
quality, taken as a whole. I noticed a lot of very handsome Sufiblks, bred
and owned by Mr. Whiting, of Woodstock.

The display of fruits was much smaller than at Rutland last year, but com-
prised a few good specimens of apples, pears, etc.

The display of implements was smaller than that of last year ; and, so far
as I noticed, comprised nothing particularly novel.

There was a respectable display of manufactured and fancy articles, and
some very nice things were shown in this department."

272 THE APPLICATION OF PERUVIAN GUANO TO COTTON.

AGRICULTURE OF MONROE COUNTY, N. Y.

This county is said to produce more wheat than any other county in the
United States. The following has been stated to be an accurate account of
its production:

In 1845 it was 1,338,585 bushels; in 1850, 1,441,653. To produce the
wheat crop of this county in 1845, 68,383 acres were harvested; showing
an average yield of a fraction less than twenty bushels per acre. Most farm-
ers believe that this average has been considerably increased since, and the
opinion appears to be well founded.

The corn crop of 1845 was 453,463 bushels; that of 1850 was 767,021.
Increase in five years, 313,558. The oat crop of 1845 was 538,063; that
of 1850, 449,150. Decrease, 88,913 bushels. Potatoes, in 1845, 667,491 ;
in 1850, 561,425. Decrease, 106,066 bushels. Barley, in 1845, 57,102 ;
in 1850, 106,049. Increase, 48,947 bushels. These facts show that the
cultivation of barley had advanced nearly 100 per cent.

Rye, in 1845, 3,198; in 1850, 8,148. Increase, 4,950 bushels.

Beans, in 1845, 4,271 ; in 1850, 8,215. Increase, 3,944 bushels.

Peas, in 1845, 66,341 bushels. [Number not given in the census of
1850.]

Buckwheat, in 1845, 31,149 ; in 1850, 26,306. Decrease, 4,843 bushels.

Hay, in 1850, 62,602 tons. [Crop of 1845 not given.]

Milch cows, in 1845, 19,590; in 1850, 14,201. Decrease, 5,381. In
1845, the butter returned was 1,504,337 pounds; of cheese, 366,782. In
1850, butter, 1,258,735 ; cheese, 286,653.

Sheep, in 1845, 173,952; in 1850, 112,297. Decrease, 61,655.

Horses, in 1845, 16,811 ; in 1850, 13,576. Decrease, 3,235.

Number of swine, in 1845, 48,493 ; in 1850 it was 31,201. Decrease,
17,292. Taken in connection with the fact that the corn crop had
increased more than three hundred thousand bushels, this falling off of over
seven thousand hogs in the county is unaccountable.

Number of neat cattle, not cows, in 1845, 19,715; in 1850, the number
was 18,168. Decrease, 1,547.

Value of farm implements and agricultural machinery, in 1850, $782,833.
This is a larger sum than any other county in the State returned at the last
census.

Pounds of wool, in 1845, 402,926 ; in 1850, 365,084. Decrease, 37,842.
It is worthy of notice, that while the number of sheep has decreased 61,655,
the decrease in wool bears no comparison to that in sheep.

THE APPLICATION OF PERUVIAN GUANO TO COTTON.

The following article was contributed by Mr. J. M. Dantzler, of St. Mat-
thew's Parish, to the Southern Agriculturist. It is upon a subject of great
interest to Southern planters, who have generally supposed that guano was
not adapted to the condition of their soils. This statement throws light on
that point. The experience of others ought also to be published. We invite
our numerous Southern readers to give us more information upon it.

Messrs. Editors : For the benefit of my brother planters, you will allow
me a short space in your valuable journal, to give the result of my experiment

THE APPLICATION OF PERUVIAN GUANO TO COTTON. 273

with Peruvian guano as applicable to cotton. I will confine myself simplj
to a statement of facts.

In the spring of '52, I procured a little over a ton of guano, and applied
two hundred and fifteen pounds to the acre. Not unfrequently plaster of
Paris is mixed with it in the proportion of one eighth or one fourth ; but in
order to test accurately the additional product of the land, unaided by any
thing else, I mixed only with sand. This was done also to render its applica-
tion more uniform.

The land upon which this experiment was made, was originally what might
be termed lively, sandy, long-leaf pine land — the clay about eighteen inches
from the surface — adjoining rich, rolling oak and hickory land. The field
was cleared thirty -five years ago, and was completely exhausted by continued
cultivation. It, however, had four years' rest previous to the experiment, and
had produced a scanty crop of poor grass. This was burnt off in January,
and the land broken up with a shovel-plough immediately afterwards.

Late in April, the rows were drawn off with a shovel-plough, pretty deep,
and in these furrows the mixture of sand and guano was strewn, leaving out
an acre about the centre to be planted without guano, which I and my ma-
nager, who is a man of excellent judgment, thought to be of the same
quality as the rest. Beds were thrown up by passing on either side with
the same plough, and the cotton was planted in chops about twelve inches
apart.

The effect of the guano was manifest by the time the cotton was a week
old, and was most marked during the whole season ; and the yield was as-
tonishing. The acre without guano, and an average acre of the guanoed,
were gathered carefully in good weather, and weighed when picked out, and
the former produced 135 pounds of seed-cotton, whilst the latter produced 581
pounds. All will admit that the land was poor enough for an experiment of
this sort. It will be ascertained that the guanoed acre produced 446 pounds
more than the unguanoed acre ; and if three pounds of seed will make one
of clear cotton, you will have 148 pounds of clear cotton, which, if valued
at 8 cents per pound, is worth $11 84. The additional cotton seed I value
at |1 as manure, making the total product of the guano $12 84. I>educt
from this the cost of the guano applied to the acre, which was $6, and it will
give $G 84 as the net gain. This is over a hundred per cent, on the amount
expended in guano.

Nor is this all : It has certainly left the land in an improved condition,
if present appearances are not deceptive. It is now at rest, and the growth
of vegetation on it, up to this time, is as marked this year as that of the
cotton was last. This is no small item in estimating its value; and I go so
far as to affirm that it would be economy to use it, if the overplus of cotton
only remunerated you for the cost of the guano. The improvement to the
land, and the labor saved in the cultivation of less land to the hand, in order
to produce a given crop of cotton — added to the advantages derived from
resting the land, which would otherwise be planted — will far more than repay
for the trouble of putting down the guano.

I have five tons this year, which I will apply in the same manner, and
hope to be enabled to give you as favorable an account of it,

I have been thus particular, Messrs. Editors, in order to give sufficient data
to all to draw their own conclusions.

J. M. Dantzler.

St. Matthews Parish, La.

VOL. VI. — PART Y. 18

274 cotton-growing: an experiment.

COTTON-GROWING: AN EXPERIMENT.

The fullowing experiment is published, first, for its own worth, and, secondly,
for the sake of the example. We invite, and not only invite, but would urge
our friends at the South to multiply statements of tliis sort. This is found
in the Southern Cultivator.

"Some time during the month of February, in the spring of 1848, 1 had a
small piece of ground (4 acres) broken up with a turning-plough in the ordi-
nary way, covering up corn-stalks, pea-vines, and other litter pretty effectually.
The quality of the land was tolerably good, capable of producing from 800 to
1,000 pounds of cotton per acre, of a seasonable year. On the first of April,
I had it bedded up thoroughly, rows 5 feet apart, and planted on the 5th,
having previously rolled the seed in ashes. As soon as the third and fourth
leaves made their appearance generally through the field, I had it ' barred
off' with the same turning-plough, running the bar next to the cotton, two of
my best and most experienced hoe-hands following and chopping it in
bunches, as near the distance of 18 inches as they could conveniently. It
remained in this situation for eight or ten days, when I aoain had it "sided"
with sweeps, running pretty close to the cotton and throwing a little dirt
among it. The sweeps were followed by the hoes, this time chopping out
every other hunch, making it three feet in the drill, and thinning out the re-
maining bunches to two or three stalks. I then had the middles deeply and
well broken out with shovel-ploughs, running from six to seven furrows in a
row. In a few days after, it was put to a stand — one stalk in a place. The
after cultivation was with sweeps, hoes generally following to cut any stray
weeds or grass that had sprung up among the cotton. The only difference
in the management of this cotton from that usually pursued by planters, was
the distance it stood apart in row and drill. Taking into consideration the
quality of the land, it looked like I would hardly be able to make more than
half a crop ; and I assure you I felt somewhat crest-fallen in looking over my
' patch ' after it had been put to a stand — it looked so ' few and between.'
The season turned out to be a very favorable one for the crops generally in
our immediate section of country, and fine cotton crops were made.

Now for result of this, my first experiment. The first picking, I gathered
1,348 lbs.; second picking, 2,236 lbs.; third and last picking, 2,044 lbs.;
making in all 5,628 lbs., or 1,407 lbs. per acre. In the growth of this cotton
I noticed one or two things worthy of note ; the first was, it branched much
nearer the ground, and tlie limbs were much larger than on cotton planted
in the usual way ; some of them being as large as the parent stem, and
when straightened up were equally as tall. The next thing that attracted
my attention was the increased size of the boll. It was fully a third larger
than on my other cotton planted in an adjoining field ; and lastly, though
not of minor importance, it all opened and was gathered by the lOth of
December. I attributed its early maturity to the free access of the sun and
the free circulation of air, as the limbs barely interlocked between the rows.
The yield of my other cotton — planted 4 feet by 15 to 20 inches in drill — was
1,038 lbs per acre.

I have another 'patch' of eight acres the present season, planted in the
same way as the other, that is, 5 feet rows, and 3 feet in drill ; and if it will
be of any interest to the readers of the Cultivator to know how it turns out,
I will give it to them this winter or early in the spring, provided you will
give me access to a small corner of the Cultivator.

Youra, respectfully, A Small Planter."

SAVING OF MANURES. 275

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

SAVING OF MANURES.

Messrs. Editors : — We have alluded, in a former number, to the waste of
manure in cities. In that article, our remarks were principally confined to a
single item. There are many other sources of this waste, more than we can
well particularize, which the health of the population and the fertility of the
country require should be remedied. We say, the health of the people. The
denizen of the city, who scarcely ever enjoys one of the greatest blessings, the
pure, fresh air of the country, is little aware of the nuisance he inhales into
his stomach and lungs at every breath, especially in the warm season, when
decomposition and evaporation are in vigorous action on a thousand subjects.
But let one unaccustomed to the pent-up air and decaying nuisances of the
town, be transferred from the pure breezes of the country to such an atmo-
sphere, and the effect upon the system soon manifests itself, and too often
results in disease. In view of these facts, he ceases to wonder at the excessive
mortality of the city, especially among infants and children. The air is un-
natural and unhealthy ; and instead of wondering that so many die, he may
well wonder that any live.

Now, the miasmatic influence of this atmosphere may in a great measure
be remedied, and the cause of it turned to valuable account, inasmuch as it
arises from the putridity of matter passing off by decay, which, if it were
carefully removed to the country, before this decay commenced, would become
valuable, by giving fertility to the earth and plenty to its inhabitants.

What immense amounts of manures are constantly poisoning the air by the
putridity that arises from privies, drains, where every thing is thrown in con-
fused masses, sewers, the grand receptacles of drains, perishable substances
thrown into the streets, including the waste and refuse of places of business !
All this, if carried into the country, would not only lose its miasmatic in-
fluence, by being mixed with the soil, but would increase its products in a
wonderful ratio, which would go back to the city in the shape of healthful
and comfortable commodities, and furnished at a cheaper rate, for plenty
always produces a reduction of prices. So, two great benefits would result to
the city from the operation. First, the atmosphere would be improved by the
removal, and this purifying would give an increase of health, and the produc-
tions it would increase would be afforded at a cheaper rate, which would
throw them more plenteously within the reach of all classes. This, too,
would promote the general health.

It has often been a matter of surprise to us, that boats fitted for the
purpose have not been provided to remove these annoying substances from
all cities and towns located on navigable waters. If this were done, an im-
mense saving to the country as well as health to the city would be the
result ; for the boat-load, when once freighted, mi^ht without difficulty be
transported any distance, at least as far as farmeni eager for manures would
permit them to pass, and bring remunerative prices. And the corporations
might, when their carts were loaded, as easily deposit them on board of a
boat as into a slip, where they would be for ever lost to all useful purposes.
What would be better, a competition wovld be created in the business, so
that eventually such cities and towns, instead of being taxed as they now are
for the removal of these nuisances, might derive an income from this very

276 FALL PLOUGHING — WHY BENEFICIAL.

source. This would create new inducements to thoroughness in the work,
and every thing which could be applied to benefit the land would be saved,
carefully saved, to be applied to that purpose.

If such a state of things should be introduced — and it eventually must be,
in the very nature of progress — what an incalculable benefit would result to
the country from the operation ! Broad fields, now barren through want of
strength to sustain a crop, would smile in all the beauty and wealth of
abundant harvests. The city would be purified and the country beautified,
and both enriched by the operation. Is not the object one worthy of the
united efforts of city and country to effect ?

Yours truly, W. B.

Richmond, Mass., Oct. 11, 1853.

FALL PLOUGHING— WHY BENEFICIAL.

We have repeatedly referred to this subject, and have shown how this
practice operates beneficially upon the soil. There is still another view to be
taken of it, worthy oi practical consideration. It is perhaps true, in general,
that when fields are ploughed in the fall, a larger amount of vegetable mat-
ter is buried in the soil, than when the operation is deferred to the spring.
The browsing of cattle, and perhaps a more thorough consumption by swine,
roaming freely over its surface, added to the effect of wind and storms, and the
natural changes which take place, when left on the surface, essentially dimi-
nish the quantity and quality of the stalk and stubble, left originally by the
reaper. This difference, in particular cases, may be of no little practical
importance.

But there is another and more important difference. Green crops decay
much more rapidly than dry stubble. If therefore green vegetable matter
be ploughed in in the fall, the early spring growth receives a far greater
benefit from it than if the same matter had been left upon the surface, there to
become dry and more capable of resisting the appliances which should hasten
its decomposition. Every farmer's boy knows the comparative readiness
with which green bay, when in a confined state, takes on fermentation, while
that which is well cured endures almost any treatment and still remains im-
changed. Were the object only to restore the elements of fertility to the
soil, without reference to the speed of its action, as already suggested, the
argument would still be in favor of ploughing it in when green. But when
its fertilizing properties are needed by the young shoots of the early spring,
the importance of this point must be readily appreciated. For it should be ever
kept in mind that health and vigor is of the utmost importance in the
earliest stages of vegetable growth. Without a vigorous root and stem, there
never can be a vigorous plant ; and though the case is not utterly hopeless,
when, in its first efforts, the young shoot is obliged to encounter even a severe
struggle, it is far better to aVoid this danger of its destruction. In general,
the character of its early growth determines the character of its entire
growth.

Probably every farmer knows that if, for a portion of the year, a sheep be
but half fed, the growth of his wool for that period will be materially affected.
The fibre will be more slim and weaker ; and, as in the case of a rope, no
greater strain can be put upon it than its weakest part can endure, so it will
be as to the power of this fibre of wool. The vigor of any vegetable tissue

COLLECT THE LEAVES. 277

is aflfected in a similar manner, not always, perhaps, beyond partial redress,
but always to the injury of the plant.

Whatever then tends to a healthy and vigorous growth, when the seed first
puts forth, performs a most important service. Green crops, when ploughed
under, do perform this service in a much more speedy manner than dry
stubble, and hence, the careful farmer will endeavor to avail himself of all the
benefits he can thus secure to his land.

It is in accordance with this ftict that in those districts where the art of
agriculture is carried on in the most thorough manner, green crops are often
raised for the very purpose of being ploughed under. Clover, buck-wheat,
turnips, and various other crops are sown with this single design. Sometimes,
two or three such crops are thus buried in the soil in a single season. It is on
this principle, in connection with another which regards exact similarity in
the character of the elements furnished and those demanded by the younor
plant, that a manure of the prunings of the grape vine is more efficient
for grapes than almost any other application. In dry, loose, sandy soils,
we doubt whether fall ploughing, of itself, is to be commended : all our phi-
losophy is against it, and in practice we know of nothing which teaches a
different lesson. But even on such soils, if the farmer will turn up the sub-
soil, which is often clay, and mingle that with the lighter sand upon the
surface, fall ploughing will prove to be of great value. The frosts and storms
of winter will promote a more thorough mingling of the elements now
brought into contact, and the labor necessary in the spring to prepare it for
seed will be comparatively light.

Our experienced and judicious neighbor, Mr. A. B. Allen, recommends that
guano be spread broadcast in the fall of the year, at the rate of 100 to 300
lbs. per acre, and ploughed in from three to twelve inches deep, and then
to replough in the spring. By this process, the guano effects a double pur-
pose : it becomes well mingled with the soil, ere the seed requires nutri-
ment, and without the danger of causticity, &c. ; it also tends to promote the
decomposition of the sod and other vegetable matter in the soil.

COLLECT THE LEAVES.

We have advised our readers on ihe subject of gathering leaves, and
would now repeat the same counsel. One who lives in the neighborhood of
a deciduous forest, that is, one which sheds its leaves annually, can secure a
rich treasure, with very little pains. Those who have only a small garden to
take care of, may supply a sufficient quantity of good manure from this one
source. If annually collected, their beneficial eft'ects will be felt every year.
We have elsewhere spoken of the profit of ploughing in green vegetables ;
and though the action of dry leaves is much more slow, it is not the less
sure. The whole benefit of the application will not be secured in the first
year of their application, but by an annual supply a constant eflfect will be
produced. If they can be collected and made into a compost, so much the
better. But if not, if ploughed in during the fall, or covered by the spade
annually, they will prove quite effective. Leaves are also useful in improving
the physical condition of either hard or wet soils. They cause the earth to
lie more loosely, and promote thorough evaporation.

278 NATURAL VEGETATION AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE,

NATURAL VEGETATION AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

A GUIDE TO THE QUALITY OF THE SOIL, AND THE AGRICULTURAL CAPABILITIES

OF LAND.

We are glad to follow up our own remarks on this subject by a matured
and carefully considered essay wbicli has appeared in the Farmer's Maga-
zine, (England,) and which has just now fallen under our notice.

"We are confident that these scientijic methods of discovering the qualities
of soil are not only too much neglected, but their actual value is much under-
rated. We commend this subject to general attention, and shall follow up
the discussion as opportunity and convenience may permit.

" Enough is known respecting the relations subsisting between the natural
vegetation and the composition of the soil, to render it certain that it may be
made a useful auxiliary in judging of the quality of land. In order, how-
ever, to secure the full value derivable from this source, more accurate and
extended observations are required than those which we possess at present ;
and to confer general benefit, it is necessary that those who describe plants
as characteristic of certain soils, should all speak the same language.

The necessity for some general botanic nomenclature among agriculturists
is strikingly exemplified by one of the papers on the characteristics of fertility
and barrenness, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society — that by
Mr. Askell — in which some really good observations are deprived of their
value, by being rendered unintelligible to those readers who are ignorant of
the plants which are described under their local names of woodwax, moons,
five-leaves, hard-heads, and carnation-grass. Mr. Bravender in his prize
essay gives the botanical, as well as the local, names of the plants to which
he refers. He says, that after he had resolved to follow out a series of
observations on the quality of the vegetation on all the lands which he
should have occasion to visit, he found that he could make no progress till
he had applied himself to the study of geology and botany. He admits that
time and labor are necessary to acquire a sufficient knowledge of these
sciences — a difficulty which we think he rather overrates — to be used as tests
of the quality of land ; but he observes that this only shows the absurdity of
calling in the assistance of persons who liave never spent five minutes of their
lives in the practical study of either.

We agree with him that the natural vegetation is more to be relied on, as
a guide to the quality of the soil, upon pasture than upon arable land. Upon
the former, he considers it the most certain guide of all ; and he proposes to
render it more definite by adding a description of the prevalent grasses and
other plants of which the herbage is composed to such notes as the following,
which are usually made by valuers: 'Herbage of bad quality;' 'Herbage
short, but thick at the bottom ;' ' Herbage coarse, sour, and peaty.' There
are some species which occupy the ground, to the ahnost total exclusion of
others, upon barren soils, and which disappear before manuring, draining,
and other improvements, giving place to those which are the prevailing
plants in pastures of great natural fertility. There is another test, however,
which he proposes to apply, besides that of the species of which the sward is
composed, and that is the number of ])Iants growing ui)on a square foot. Of
the species of grasses indigenous to l^>ritnin, about 150 in number, there are
about twenty which appear to be the best, and which are nearly all present

A GUIDE TO THE CHARACTER OF THE SOIL. 279

in fertile meadows, in greater or less proportion. None of these are so pro-
ductive, when cultivated alone, as when associated with others. There are
other inferior grasses, the presence of which in small proportions is by no
means disadvantageous, as they fill up vacancies between the stems of the
better sorts, or come to perfection at a different season. With regard to the
number of plants present in a given area of sward, it has been observed that
on the best natural meadows it amounts to 1100 on a square foot, which in
water meadows is increased to 1800 ; while a square foot of arable land laid
down with seeds contains no more than 80. An old pasture may be con-
sidered poor, says Mr. Bravender, which does not produce as much fudder as
a piece of seeds of the second year. On arable land the natural vegetation
is of less value as a criterion of the quality of the soil, because such land pro-
duces, or ought to produce, nothing but wbat the farmer has placed there.
Recourse must therefore be had to the natural vegetation of the bordei-s of
the fields, or of adjoining uncultivated land — to the free or stunted growth
of the white-thorn and other fence plants, and of the hedge-row timber.
Timber trees, however, indicate, in our opinion, rather the nature of the sub-
soil and sub-strata, than of the soil, and are only useful guides, so far a*
these influence the quality of the land. But though the natural vegetation
is taken for a guide with less confidence on arable than on pasture land, the
stunted or luxuriant growth of many of the common weeds of the farm,
which grow indifferently on good and bad soils, furnish reliable indications
of the condition of the land dependent on cultivation, as also of its intrinsic
quality. There are a few with which, when they appear in vast quantities, the
cultivated crops struggle with difficulty on even well-managed land. Such
plants are signs of the deficiency or excess in the soil of certain constituents,
as sure as can be derived from chemical analysis, and perhaps more so, in
consequence of the difficulty of selecting a sample of soil for analysis which
shall represent the average of an entire field.

When land, for instance, on the sands and sandy loams of Norfolk, is
much given to Chrysanthemum segetum, or corn marigold, it is held to be
an infallible sign that it requires chalking, called there claying and marling;
wliile an abundance of red poppy, Pa^mver rhceas, is an indication equally
certain that it has been over-chalked. There are others again, as PoUntilla
anserina and Leopard's Bane, [Doi-onicum pardialianihes,) which indicate an
excess of deleterious salts of iron in poor wet clays. The family of rushes,
(juncus,) with colt"s-foot {Tussilago farfara) and marestails and horsetails,
[Hippuiis vulgaris and Equisetum arvense,) are universally held to indi-
cate an excess of moisture and the presence of springs. There are many
other plants, from the presence, or rather prevalence of which, obst^rvation,
aided by analysis of their ashes, might draw much valuable information
respecting the defects of the soil, and the substances required to correct
them.

In judging of the agricultural capabilities of land in an old country, the
indications attbrded by the natural vegetation and geological structure ought
to go hand in hand. In a new country they are companions which cannot
be divided. If either is to be adopted alone, it should be geological struc-
ture ; because its indications are the same in all parts of the world, whereas
the character of the vegetation varies with the climate, and till the settler has
acquired experience of the sort of land indicated by the presence of tlfe dif-
ferent members of the new flora, he is cften extremely puzzled as to the soils
of which the strange plants are characteristic, which meet him at every turn.
Some interesting facts, bearing on the relations between the natural vegeta-

280 NATURAL VEGETATION AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE,

tion and the quality of the soil, are scattered through Professor Johnston's
Notes on North America. The undulating upper portion of the valley of
the Hudson contains much strong yellow clay, part of a wide-spread, erratic,
tertiary deposit, which borders Lake Champlain, where it is 100 feet thick,
•and extends thence north and east, along the banks of the St. Lawrence. It
consists, in the under pait, of a stiff clay, resting upon rocks with polished
and grooved surfaces, which geologists now very generally refer to the former
action of ice, in part terrestrial, in part marine. Above this is a light-colored
clay, containing shells of existing species, and over all a bed of yellow sand,
sometimes loamy and fertile, but often barren and covered with stunted pines.
The soils vary, as this upper sand remains at the surface, or has been removed
by natural causes. The stiif clay produces in its unreclaimed state a native
growth of hard-wood trees ; but when cleared and under crop, it is apt to
crack and harden in dry weather. The sandy loams which rest on the clays
form broad pine barrens, in which the white pine prevails ; while the sands
and more sandy loams are covered with the yellow pine. Contrary to what
might have been anticipated, it is found that when brought into cultivation,
the loamy sands suffer less from the effects of heat tban the stiff clays ; but
that the apparently purer sands bear the drought better than either. This
is attributed by Professor Johnston to their greater porosity, and consequent
superior capability of absorbing moisture from the air. To this absorption
from the air he also ascribes the known fact that stiff clays which have been
drained are really moister in summer than the same description of land un-
drained. This is one, but not the only reason. Undrained clays are like a
turnpike-road, mud on the surface in wet weather, but at a certain depth
impervious to rain, which runs off them, carrying the manure away with it
into the ditches and brooks. Into drained clays, on the contrary, rendered
porous by the process, the rain penetrates, with all its fertilizing accompani-
ments, to the depth of three or four feet. When saturated with moisture, it
discharges the superfluity into the drains, as from a dripping sponge; and in
summer it becomes, as it were, a damp sponge, retaining moisture by capil-
lary attraction.

The butternut, Juglans cinerea, so valuable for its oily nut, delights in a
calcareous soil, and is held to be indicative of a good wheat soil, wherever it
occurs in abundance and luxuriant growth. It is not known in the woods of
Nova-Scotia, and is only found in New-Brunswick in particular places. It
has there given the name of Butternut Ridge to a thriving settlement on a
ridge sloping gently to the west, and composed of thick-bedded hard blue
limestone, which in many spots comes to the surface, and over a large extent
of the slope is covered only by a thin soil. Here in its state of wilderness
the butternut flourished, and attracted the early settlers as a sign of fertility.

The-^e may be considered rules : let us now look at the exceptions. The
presence of hard wood, as the broad-leaved timber trees are called, is deemed
in North America a sign that the soil is sufficiently argillaceous to constitute
good wheat land. This test, however, fails in the case of a second growth,
which sprii^gs up after one of those fires which devastate extensive tracts
of the forest. Under such circumstances, an interchange of vegetation
takes place between the soils. Hard wood, consisting chiefly of jjoplar
and birch, with a sprinkling of maple, takes the place of the pines, which
then grow almost alone on the ridges formerly occupied by hard wood. This
rotation in nature's cropping is always attended to by those who explore the
woods for the purpose of ascertaining the agricultural capabilities of different
portions of them ; and they are able easily to discover the difference between

A GUIDE TO THE CHAEACTER OF THE SOIL. 281

a first and second growth by means of a few large trees, which show that
some considerable time must have elapsed since a general destruction of the
forest. Changes in the vegetation on the same soil are not confined to the
timber trees. Epilobium coloratum and Enchitites hieraci folium have ac-
quired the names of fire-weeds, fro)n their rising abundantly upon cleared
land, which has been neglected in the spring, after the timber tree has been
burned. When the land, however, is ploughed, they disappear, and are re-
placed by the Canada thistle and hemp nettle, which become troublesome
weeds. The Canada thistle is not indigenous, but is the Enicus arvensis, or
thistle with a creeping root, which is the pest of the slovenly farmers of the
Old World — a pest which they do not believe to be propagated by seeds, but
bred by their land in common with many other weeds. To the same class
of farmers, it forms an equally troublesome pest in the New World, where it
has found a congenial home and' a congenial state of husbandry, spreading
with such rapidity, and taking such tenacious hold of the soil, wherever it
establishes itself, as to have acquired the name of the ' accursed thistle.'
The artillery of legislation has been brought to bear on it, in the form of an
'Act to prevent the growth of thistle,' which was passed by the Legislature
of New-Brunswick with no better success than usually attends interference
with such mattei-s by Acts of Parliament. The thistle has spread, a]>parently
in defiance of the Act, and has given increased annoyance evenin the county
of Gloucester, for whose special benefit the enactment was designed. Nothing,
in fact, can arrest its growth, but the general spread of clean farming. Indi-
vidual exertions can do but little. Of what avail is it that one man extirpates
his own thistles, if liable to the invasion of a host of winged immigrants from
his neighbors ? It is a curious fact that in North America the European
weeds are generally superseding those which are indigenous to the soil, par-
ticularly along the Atlantic coasts and the river borders. The common
plantain [Plantago mnjor) is called by the natives the white man's foot,
whose steps it follows ; and even the plants growing by the road-side are,
according to Agassiz, all exotics ; every where on the track of the white man,
the native weeds disappearing before him like the Indian.

The Lithospcrmum arvense, corn-gromwell or stone-weed, is a European
importation, brought in probably with some foul seed- wheat, from France,
Germany, or England, which has spread with a rapidity equal to that of the
' accursed thistle.' In districts where it was unknown 30 years ago, it has now
become nearly lord of the soil. Its seeds are purchased at the oil-mills of
Yates county at the rate of hundreds of bushels, and would be bought at the
rate of thousands, if the price were 85. a bushel instead of Is. Qd. The pur-
pose to which it is applied is the adulteration of oil-cake for the benefit of
unwary purchasers in England. The rapidity with which this weed spreads,
arises out of several causes — the hardness of the seed, enabling it to pass un-
injured through the stomach of an ox and even the gizzard of a bird; and
the fact of its growing but slowly in the spring and pushing up rapidly in
the autumn, so as to receive little check from spring ploughing, while its roots,
which spread only on its surface, exhaust the nourishment which should be
supplied to the wheat : these natural qualifications for rapid colonization are
aided by the prevalent rude system of farming, which, raising wheat year
after year on the same land without attempting to clean it, allows the pigeon-
weed, as it is called in America, to grow and ripen with the wheat, and to
seed the ground more thickly with every crop."

282 INTRODUCTION OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

INTRODUCTION OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS INTO AMERICA.

The following account of the introduction of domestic animals into this
country has been condensed from the late Census Report, and will be found
to possess much interest :

"The first animals brought to America from Europe, were imported by
Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. He left Spain as admiral of
seventeen ships, bringing a collection of European trees, plants, and seeds of
various kinds, a number of horses, a bull, and several cows.

The first horses brought into any part of the territory at present embraced
in the United States were landed in Florida by Cabeca de Vaca, in 1527,
forty-two in number, all of which perished or were otherwise killed. The
next importation was also brought to Florida by De Soto, in 1539, which
consisted of a large number of horses and swine, among which were thirteen
sows, the progeny of the latter soon increasing to several hundred.

The Portuguese took cattle and swine to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia,
in the year 1553. Thirty years after, they had multiplied so abundantly
that Sir Richard Gilbert attempted to land there to obtain supplies of cattle
and hogs for his crew, but was wrecked.

Swine and other domestic animals were brought over to Arcadia by M.
L'Escarbot, a French lawyer, in 1604, the year that country was settled. In
1608, the French extended their settlement into Canada, and soon afier
introduced various animals.

In 1609, three ships from England landed at Jamestown, in Virginia, with
many immigrants, and the following domestic animals, namely : six mares,
one horse, six hundred swine, five hundred domestic fowls, with a few sheep
and goats. Other animals had been previously introduced there. In 1611,
Sir Thomas Gates brought over to the same settlement one hundred cows,
besides other cattle. In 1610, an edict was issued in Virginia, prohibiting
the killing of domestic animals of any kind, on penalty of death to the
accessary, and twenty-four hours' whipping to the concealer. As early as the
year 1617, the swine had multiplied so rapidly in the colony that people
were obliged to palisade Jamestown to prevent being overrun with them.
In 1627, the Indians near the settlement fed upon hogs, which had become
wild, instead of game. Every family in Virginia at that time which had not
an abundance of tame hogs and poultry, was considered very poor. In 1648,
some of the settlers had a good stock of bees. In 1667, sheep and mares
were forbidden to be exported from the province. By the year 1722, or
before, sheep had somewhat multiplied, and yielded good lleeces.

The first animals introduced into Massachusetts were by Edwiud Winslow,
in 1624, consisting of three heifers aaid a bull. In 1629, twelve cows were
sent to Cape Ann. In 1629, one hundred and fifteen cattle were imported
into the plantations on Massachusetts Bay, besides some horses and mares,
several conies, and forty-one goats. They were mostly ordered by Francis
Higginson, formerly of Leicestershire, whence several of the animals were
brought.

The first importation into New-York was made from Holland, by the
West India Company, in 1625, consisting of horses and cattle for breeding,
besides as many sheep and hogs as was thought expedient."

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 283

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

Our readers will remember our remarks on this subject in the October
number. We have since met with the following in the Baltimore Sun, and
as it speaks understandivgly, we give it place here. The difficulty of getting
a true sample of the soil may be partially avoided by the course there re-
commended, that is, by selecting considerable quantities, " a quart or two,"
and from different, localities. The chemist can then mingle thoroughly and
use what he pleases.

We would not write too strongly against the importance of this application
of science to agriculture under certain circumstances. The results have been
of very great importance, and yet, as a general thing, we would rather with-
hold the chemiist's fee and apply it on the manure-heap. If both were in
our power, we would have recourse both to the chemist and to the making or
purchase of manure. A writer in the Siin says :

" Within a few years, an expectation has prevailed that, by means of
chemical analysis, the exact composition of soils could be ascertained, and.
thence we should learn what special application each soil might need to make
it fertile. It is obvious that if this result were attainable, agriculture would
become of the nature of an exact science ; and, as might be expected, the
general interest and great importance of these researches have attracted the
public attention to them. The agricultural journals give notices of chemists
who analyze soils for farmers, and give advice, founded on the analysis, for
the application of manures. On the other hand, we have seen publi:?lied the
opinions of men of science, to the effect that such analysis, in the present
state of chemistry, does not lead to useful results. In the address of Professor
Halloweli, of Alexandria, to the Agricultural Society of Loudoun, Virginia,
recently published, he expresses the opinion that the analysis of the soil is
' wholly useless for practical purposes.' His remarks on the subject are as
follows :

* r have been requested to state my opinion of the advantage of analyzing
soils, with the view of determining what manures to apply for their improve-
ment, and I do so with pleasure, having had some experience in the practical
part of the subject. The present state of chemical science is sucii as to
enable the chemist to determine, with the iitmost precision, the constituents
of a body subjected to his examination ; but a difliculty lies in getting a fair
specimen of the soil to operate upon. The Quantity usually taken to analyze
is fiom fifty to one hundred grains, say half a teaspoonful ; and how is so
small a quantity to be obtained that shall be an exact sample of the field?
If it should not be an exact sample — and it apjiears almost impossible it ever
should be — then the result will necessarily mislead, and is wholly useless for
practical purposes. On this account I place comparatively little reliance upon
any benefits likely to arise from a general analysis of soils, though such an
analysis may sometimes be very benefifial in determining the presence of
some hurtful ingredient that may be diffused through the soil, and which
may be neutralized by some substance readily determined and applied. I
would rely much more on a knowledge of the covstituents of the associated
rocks from which the soil has resulted, and the mcde of cropping and culture
to which the lands have been subjected ; and thus knowing what they origin-
ally contained, and what has been removed from them, we can readily infer
what is left. If the money paid for analyzing a soil, as a general thing, were

284 DEMAND FOR SEEDS.

spent in the purchase of some guano, crushed bones, ashes, or lime, with
which to experiment on difterent crops, on a small scale, it would be likely to
lead to much more satisfactory and proOtable results.'

To the same eflfect, as to the practical value of such analysis of soils, is
the opinion of Boussingault in his Rural Economy :

' The quahties which we esteem in a workable soil depend almost exclu-
sively on the mechanical mixture of its elements. We are much less inter-
ested in its chemical composition than in this ; so that simple washing, which
shows the relations between the sand and the clay, tells, of itself, much more
that is important to us than an elaborate chemical analysis.'

But the most elaborate examination of this important question which we
have seen is by an eminent chemist of our own country. Professor Booth, of
Philadelphia. The distinguished reputation of this gentleman for learning
and skill in every department of scientific and practical chemistry, gives great
weight to his opinion. In a paper read before the Philadelphia Society for
the promotion of Agriculture, he says :

'Having followed the path pursued by many chemists in Europe and Ame-
rica in analyzing soils, with a view to their bearing on the improvement of
agriculture, I have become more and more convinced that chemistry has not
yet advanced to such perfection that those analyses can have any immediate
practical value.'

After giving his reasons at length for this opinion, the Professor says :

' But although soil analyses may not be useful at present to the operative
farmer, they may be made available for the advance of scientific agriculture ;
and for this purpose the enlightened agriculturist should lend his aid by
having analyses of soils most accurately performed ; not one or two, but
numerous analyses of the same soil under varying conditions. Such investi-
gations, keeping pace with the advance of vegetable physiology, will the
sooner tend to deliver husbandry from the thraldom of empiricism, and place
it under the dominion of a rational system. Besides the analyses of soils
thus performed, the analyses of ashes of plants and of manures, by throwing
light on vegetable physiology, will contribute to the progress of rai,ional
agriculture. Above all other things, frequent and carefully-conducted exper-
iments on manures of known composition, and close and continued observa-
tion of their effects on various crops, will accumulate a treasure of experience
from which sound theory will draw her data, and which will then react most
beneficially upon the culture of plants. Then may we look for a literal ful-
filment of the expression that ' the desert shall blossom as the rose.' "

DEMAND FOR SEEDS.

At a meeting of the Farmers' Club at Bloomsdale, recently held, state-
ments were made in reference to the immense demand for seeds. The meeting
was at the house of David Laudreth, Esq.; and the progress of this trade
is vividly illustrated by the history of this gentleman and his establishment.

The father of the present Mr. L., who was the first in this country to
systematically cultivate seeds for sale, commenced his operations shoitly after
the Revolution, on a very limited scale, but at that day sufficiently large to
meet the demand, with the aid of occasional importations from Europe; and
within the last quarter of a century, the grounds cultivated by this concern
(then, as now, the largest in the Union) did not exceed 30 acres. Now the
shipment of seeds is to far-distant points. California calls for supplies by

DEMAND FOR SEEDS. 285

almost every ship ; Oregon and New-Mexico make occasional demands ;
South America and the West Indies are regular customers ; and the British
possessions in Asia obtain annual supplies. Within a short period prior to
our late visit, Mr. L. had completed a shipment of four tons, ordered for
distribution in British India ! Thus has increased the commercial demand for
one of our country's many products, and thus is answered a question which
is very naturally asked on viewing the crops at Bloomsdale, — Where is
market found for all these seeds ? The amount of labor expended on the
culture is evidently great ; and though nearly all the crops are in drills, thus
admitting of mechanical aid, still many hands are requisite to subdue the
weeds, harvest and thresh the crops, and perform other operations incident to
the business.

Eleven families now reside on the estate, (the single men boarding with the
married,) each provided with a neat cottage and garden — keep their own pigs
and cultivate their own vegetables and flowers. They are encouraged to keep
all neat and trim ; the inconvenience and temptations of remote residence
are avoided, and as Mr. L. never changes his hands but on compulsion, they
feel assured good conduct will insure permanent homes.

Since our last visit, a tank for collecting liquid manure flowing from the
barn-yard has been erected ; it is capable of holding about 50 hogsheads,
durably built of stone, coated with hydraulic cement, and is emptied by an
ordinary chain-pump, which discharges into a cask on wheels. This, though
an economy almost universal among English farmers, is seldom resorted to in
this country, though it could be with decided advantage by every tiller of
the soil.

Among the additions to the live stock, we noticed a pair of Norman ponies,
which are made to serve a double purpose — amuse the youngsters and
cultivate drilled crops; they work within 16 inches, and possess sufiicient
power for the harrow. These, with mules for similar labor, and oxen and
heavy horses for ploughing and cartage of manure, are the force employed.

The lawn at Bloomsdale embraces eight to ten acres, and though formed
but five years, promises to be highly attractive, it being laid out with unusual
care and judgment. It is planted with a carefully selected variety of indige-
nous trees, also many rare specimens imported from abroad for the position
they now occupy.

We might express regret, that many among us who have expended largely
in the erection of their mansions, have not decorated their grounds to accord
therewith. True taste consists in an harmonious whole ; the grounds and
buildings, to be pleasing and efi'ective, must be " in keeping." Even the habit
of trees should be studied : certain trees suit certain styles of architecture.
Flat-headed ones do not accord with pointed buildings, nor do spiral trees
harmonize with Italian structures, the lines of which are mainly horizontal.
On those subjects w^e have much to learn ; let us meanwhile practise what
we already know, and thus impart the information to others. This report
farther says :

" The multifarious character of the crops under cultivation renders it imprac-
ticable to particularize, and keep our re))ort within suitable bounds. Among
the more prominent ones we noticed yt/Zy acres in peas^ which, at the time of
our visit, were assuming the hue of approaching maturity. The harvest of
this crop is made with dispatch, and the same land immediately laid down
in beans, which in turn are harvested in October. The process of culture at
Bloomsdale may thus be seen ; and though the land appropriated to garden
seeds is nominally two hundred acres, yet the practical effect is to plough
within the year at least three hundred!"

286 RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

CmcAGO, St. Charles, and Mississippi Air Line Railway. — This road is all
under contract, and twenty miles of it west of Chicago it is expected will be
completed and ready for running on the 1st of Januar^^, 1854. The location of
this line preserves nearly the forty- second parallel through Illinois to Savannah
on the Mississippi river, where it connects with the Iowa Central Air Line to the
Missouri river. These companies are pointing to the South Pass, hoping and
expecting to become the trunk line to the Pacific. The latter company is fully
organized, and under good headway.

The Wisconsin North-western Railroad Company is preparing for the early
construction of a road from Madison to the Minnesota line.

The Madison and La Crosse road bears the stamp of progress. This road
will reach the Minnesota line near the south-eastern boundary.

The Milwaukie and Prairie du Chien Railroad is progressing rapidly, and
will reach the Mississippi but a short distance below the Territorial line.

Indiana Central Railway. — The cars upon this road, as we learn from the
Richmond, Ind., Palladium, are now making their regular trips from Dayton to
Indianapolis. The amount of travel upon it, so far, has exceeded the expecta-
tions of its most sanguine friends. The cars have been crowded every day. It
is the most direct route from Indianapolis to Cincinnati, and passengers are avail-
ing themselves of its facilities.

Rock Island Railroad Bridge. — The contract for the stone work of the bridge
across the Mississippi river at Rock Island was taken by Messrs. John Warner
& Co. contractors on the Rock Island Railroad, and for the superstructure by
Messrs. Stone & Boomer, of Chicago. The bridge is to be finished by December
1st 1854. The bridge is to have a draw for the passage of vessels, and will be
1,.5'80 feet in length.

Springfield, Mt. Vernon, and Pittsburgh Railroad. — The Delaware Gazette
says tlie track-layers are about commencing operations west of that place, to
meet the party from that place to Marysville. Hopes are expressed that trains
will run to the latter place by October, and to Delaware by November, but the
state of the work, as represented to us, hardly authorizes it.

Panama Railroad. — From a correspondent of the New-York Courier and
Enquirer, we gather the following particulars relative to this road : Five miles
more of the track are nearly ready for the cars, and would have been in use ere
this, but for the bridge over Chagres river having been swept away. The bridge ^
is nearly rebuilt, and ere the close of the year, it is expected that the road will
be completed to Cruces: thence a good road to Panama will make the crossing of
the Isthmus tolerable, inasmuch as the boating upon the Chagres river will be
dispensed with. From Cruces to Panama, but little has been done towards grad-
ing the road : the contractors have thrown up their contracts, and the Company
have been compelled to resume the work. Plans are in operation for procuring
men, and Colonel Totten hopes to have the work completed within the ensuing
year.

The La Ckosse and Milwaukie road is going ahead rapidly. A competent
corps of engineers is busily engaged in prosecuting the surveys and locating the
route beyond Rock river. The whole of the line from Milwaukie to Portage
City, (about 100 miles) is under contract, and the contractors certify that thus far,
for all work done, the estimates liave been fully and promptly made. All the
sections east of Rock river, a distance of 52 miles, have been sub-let, and be-
tween twelve and thirteen hundred men are at work upon them.

RAILROAD OPERATION'S. 287

Pacific Railroad. — The Houston (Texas) Telegraph asserts that from recent
surveys the fact has been revealed that a belt of country, varying from 10 to 100
miles broad, extends quite across the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
which is so level that a railroad can be extended the vv'hole distance without
traversing a mountain range. The Pacific Railroad may be extended in an air
line from Sacramento to San Diego, on this route, with as little difficulty as on an
open plain.

Indianapolis and Shelbyville Railroad. — The railroad from Indianapolis to
Shelbyville is finished. The Jeffersonville Company will run their trains all the
way through from Jeffersonville to Indianapolis, for the present, via Shelbyville.
This v.dll make the route somewhat longer ; but this will be compensated for by
there being no change of cars as heretofore at Edinburgh.

New-York and Erie Railroad. — The Company have nearly completed the
broad track to Jersey City, which will supersede the necessity of changing cars
at Paterson. The Erie road is the greatest work of the kind in the world, and
no one can pass over it without being deeply impressed with the vastness of the
undertaking, and the perseverance necessary to secure its completion. It has
brought Buffalo, Niagara Falls, and cities still farther west, within an incredibly
short distance of New-York ; and in point of speed and safety is not surpassed
by any road in the Union. A telegraph extending the whole length of the road,
and supplied with skilful operators at various stations, serves an excellent purpose
in notifying of accidents or delays. We had a practical illustration of its benefits
lately, in company with several passengers who had just arrived at Binghamton
from a southern point, some going east, and some west. 'Which way are you
going?' said the gentlemanly agent, as we entered the office. 'East,' was the
reply. ' Then you will not be delayed,' said he ; 'but the passengers going west
will be detained one hour and forty-two minutes, on account of an accident to the
road east of here, notice of which has just been communicated by our telegraph.'
(The accident was occasioned by a drenching rain that had been falling in tor-
rents since an early hour in the morning.) Notice of this accident was commu-
nicated to all points west, and thus the cause of the delay of the train was easily
explained.

The business of the Erie Railroad is not half what it will be, as the resources
of the region through which it passes are more thoroughly developed ; and yet
its receipts already amount to nearly Jialf a million of dollars j^cr month!
The President, Homer Ramsdell, Esq., and the Secretary, Nathaniel Marsh,
Esq., are gentlemen in whom the community have the utmost confidence ; and
all connected with the road, whether in an official or subordinate capacity, seek
the comfort and safety of the thousands of passengers whom it daily transmits
with almost lightning speed over its entire length, a distance of 48-4 miles !

Camden and Amboy Railroad. — We never pass over this excellent road with-
out being impressed with the beauty of the scenery which surrounds it, and the
excellency of its management ; for the latter of which it is mainly indebted to
Wm. H. Gatzmer, Esq., of Philadelphia, and Captain Ira Bliss, of New-York, its
indefatigable and gentlemanly agents. The Company are running a train that
leaves Philadelphia and New-York at 10 o'clock A. M., in which passengers have
an opportunity of beholding the beautiful scenery on the Delaware river, the land
carriage by this train being only between Amboy and Bordentown. The express
train has always passed between New- York and Amboy through the New-York
bay, running sometimes outside and sometimes inside of Staten Island, but in
either case furnishing the passenger with a view the most beautiful ever •wit-
nessed, perhaps not excepting the fiar-famed Bay of Naples. There is a difference
of one dollar in the fare between the express and the accommodation trains, the
latter taking about one hour longer by passing between Bordentown and Philadel-
phia by water, but imparting additional interest to the traveller by giving him a
view of the splendid scenery along the banks of the Delaware. The f;ires are
$3 on the express train, which makes the time between the two cities inside of
four and a half hours, and $2 on the accommodation train, which requires nearly

288 RAILROAD OPERATIONS.

six hours. But to those who are in no special haste, the additional time required
is fully compensated for by the beautiful objects which constantly arrest the at-
tention as you glide noiselessly over the Delaware on the ' Richard Stockton,'
as beautiful a boat as ever floated since the invention of steam. On both trains,
the comfort, safety, and speedy transit of passengers arc provided for in matters
of the smallest minutia) ; and we do not wonder that the Camden and Amboy
Railroad ranks high in whatever promotes the happiness of the travelling com-
munity.

Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad. — We apprehend that
the office of the President of the United States was not quite so annoying from
hordes of office-seekers several years since, when a journey to AVashington from
New- York and Philadelphia was a work of days, and several of them at that, as
it now is. Whatever of benefit railroads may have been to the community at
large, they have not contributed to the quiet of the office of President, if we may
believe the stories we hear about the annoyance he meets with from those who
are besieging him for an appointment. The cheap and easy transit to Washing-
ton from the North, by way of the above railroad, has doubtless contributed very
greatly to swell the numbers of those who have made, and who will yet make, a
" pilgrimage" to the city of "magnificent distances." And this brings us to the
subject-matter of our present article. The Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Balti-
more Railroad has afforded the means for thousands to visit the capilal of the
nation, who, but for it, would not have enjoyed that pleasure ; and it must be
some relief to the feelings of a disappointed office-seeker to return to his home
on an easy cushioned seat, in a handsome railroad-car, rather than to be jolted
in a stage-coach for several days over a rough turnpike-road, as was formerly the
case.

We have passed over the above road several times the present season, (albeit
WE are not office-seekers,) and have noted the improvements M-hich have been
And which are constantly making to render the means of transit quick and plea-
sant between Philadelphia and Baltimore. The Susquehanna river has long been
the great and only obstacle in the way of accomplishing these desirable results.
But thanks to the President of the road, Saml. M. Felton, Esq., this obstacle is
soon to be removed. Mr. Felton has long sought the passage of an act by the
Maryland Legislature granting the Company the right to construct a bridge across
the Susquehanna, but until recently his most persevering efforts have been un-
successful. The Company are now making the survc}', and at no distant period,
a substantial stone bridge across the Susquehanna will attest what can be accom-
plished by enterprise and perseverance. The road opens a direct route to the
West and South-west, by means of its connection with the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad to Wheeling ; and during our late visit to Baltimore, we conversed with
several passengers who give this the preference over more northern routes.

The Company has the largest and finest depot at Philadelphia of any in the
country, and during the year past, several powerful locomotives and a number of
new and beautiful cars have been placed upon the road, for wliich, as well as the
contemplated bridge across the Susquehanna, the travelling public are indebted
to the ' administration ' of President Felton. During the ensuing session of Con-
gress, as well as during the entire term of President Pierce's administration,
multitudes M'ill visit the nation's capital. Many of these will be warm admirers
of President Pierce; but of the thousands who will visit Washington over the
Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad for the next four years, we
opine that President Felton will have by far the largest number of friends !

THE GREAT EXHIBITION". ' 289

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

Does any body call it a failure? Perhaps it is; but if so, we would like to
know what success would be In what respect can it be called a failure? It
may not be thronged as many anticipated that it would be. There is no crowd
there; and one reason why it is not thronged more, is because the people
believe the jealous, envious, and false representations that some foolish pedant
uttered, or printed, or heard and reported, in its early history. But the merit
of the Exhibition is not to be measured by the number of its visitors. And
yet it need not be ashamed of the result when judgment is pronounced on
that basis, no other exhibition in America having ever been visited by the
numbers that have been drawn to the Crystal Palace. It has not the neigh-
borhood of its predecessor in Hyde Park, and the numbers there are no measure
for what could be expected here. Besides, that in London was the first of
the kind ever known. But of all the thousands of visitors here, we have not
heard of one who carefully viewed tliis collection, who went away dis-
satisfied. The grurnblers are exclusively those that have not seen it at all, or
who have occupied only two or three hours in going over the entire building.

In what does it fail ? In the useful or in the ornamental ? In the foreign
or in the domestic ? In silk, woollen, linen, or cotton goods ? In Plaster or
marble, Japan ware or mosaics ? In statuary we have all of the renowned
works of Hiram Powers, and a score of others equally as good as those. In
mosaics, we have the most perfect the world can furnish, one piece of which,
by Guercino, is valued at $50,000, and which multitudes mistake for a paint-
ing of one of the old masters. In silver and gold ware, we have works so superb,
that none but millionaires can dream of purchasing them, and from this
downward to those at only a few hundred dollars the set. In porcelain
we have the ancient Sevres of M. Lahoche, his own fine manufactures,
and many other qualities down to common ware. In needlework, we have
the Gobelin tapestry, and the Beauvais, as well as the handiwork of the wives
and daughters of our own yeomanry. In glass, Bohemia sends a few of her
choicest specimens. In jewelry, we can suit all tastes, from a necklace
worth $15,000, to common painted glass. In mirrors, furniture, pianos, car-
riages, and such like, we should be glad, but surprised, if better could be found.
Watches and clocks surely are well represented, both from Geneva and from
London. The agricultural department is very full and complete, from the
fancy garden hoe for the young lady, to the huge reaper and raker, drawn by
three or four horses. So also in broadcloths and other manufactured goods;
the " Bay State" Mills, the manufacturers of Rhode Island, that hive of industry,
and of Connecticut, not inferior, and on to Canada and across the ocean, the
specimens of excellent products multiply till you are lost in the immense variety,
as well as astounded at the excellence of the product. Ladies' apparel and the
materials for making it, in all their variety, are fully represented. In floiu*,
sugars, salts, and other eatables, the show is good, though not large. But
there are neither cabbages, nor turnips, nor white blackberries. What a pity !
In machines, the show is not as large as it ought to be, there being only about
400 ; but it is large enough for the visitor, and for the building. Patentees
and proprietors, we think, in not sending more, have made a great mistake.

The quantity is less than was collected at Hyde Park, but one who carefully
examines all these, will not complain that it is so. There is enough to excite

VOL. VI. — PART V. 19

290 * THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

the ambition of the aspiring artist, to enlighten the uninformed, and to gratify
the curious ; and, for ourself, Ave rejoice that there is so little mere lumber,
whose entire othce it is to occupy space and make a great show. The picture
gallery is more open to criticism than any other department, but even there
is enough of real merit to pay the price of a ticket to the whole exhibition.

But we must proceed with our description of the various departments, as
already proposed and commenced ; and we resume our work on the lower floor,
in the Italian and Austrian courts, opposite the French, already examined.

Italian Department, (Court 6.) As you enter this splendid court, you
observe on the right hand, near the entrance, a rural table, suitable for a sum-
mer-house or shaded lawn. Next, a series of superb mosaics, chiefly of wrought
flowers, and other handsome patterns. On the left, among the beautiful
statuettes described in our last number, is a splendid antique cabinet of
mosaic on black ebony, representing the palace of the Medici at Florence.
Each panel is ornamented in the centre with elegant mosaics, and the arms
of the family of the Medici are wrought into the fagade. This is from
the manufactory of M. Enri Bosi, artist in mosaic and precious stones, Florence.

Beautiful silks and velvets hang from the sides of the court.

Opposite the entrance is a small figure, in silver gauze, representing Colum-
bus; a beautiful work. Behind this, a carved, modern mirror-frame, resting
on a table of similar workmanship. These pieces are in very florid style, and
exceedingly rich.

Entering the next court (12) on the west nave, are rich mosaics for tables,
one of which, of rectangular shape, and with a black ground, is worth $2650
in Paris. Specimens of marbles used in this department of art are also to be
noticed.

In the centre are mosaics of wood, very rich. The manufacture of one of
these occupied the artist six years, and is valued at $6000. It contains
several historical pictures, views of public buildings, &c.

On the left are elegant silks and velvets ; mosaic breast-pins, of great
beauty, from the manufacture of M. Enri Bosi, Florence ; elegantly wrought
handkerchiefs, and paper-weights of rich mosaic, coral bracelets and pins, and
ornaments of pearl and diamond, very rich.

Against the division between these courts, stands a mosaic picture of John
THE Baptist, sent over by Pope Pius, which is perhaps the most wonderful
work of art in the Crystal Palace, if not in the world. It is entirely of mosaic
of marble, and though not for sale, is valued at $50,000. The little j^ieces
of which it is composed are, perhaps, an eighth of an inch square, or about
64 to the square inch, and the eft'ect is admirable. The features of the face
are most expressive. The lifted eye is intensely eloquent. We can conceive
of nothing more perfect. Such work is done now only at the manufactory
of the Vatican.

Austrian Department. — The court adjoining that just described, num-
ber 18, is furnished with very rich goods. As you enter, on the right are
very elegant glass and porcelain wares, transparent, white, red, blue, green,
&c., exhibited by A. Patzebt, Turneau, Bohemia. Close by these is a tall
centrepiece for dry preserves, the price of which is $6000. It is formed, not,
as one might suppose, of glass, but of rock crystal, while its ornaments are
gold. This would not generally be distinguished from other glass wares
near, it. A superb prismatic drop for a massive chandelier is close by. Bot-
tles of various colors, representing pineapples, and of other fanciful forms,
are in perfect taste. Artificial stones, of all colors and shapes, are exhibited
by A. Patzebt. Samples of beads, buttons, (fee, of cut glass, by Blaschka

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 291

& Sons, Liebenau, Bohemia. This court is lined with an assortment of
Broche shawls, exhibited by L. Burger & Co. Elegant shawls are also ex-
hibited by Charles Kanitz.

A variety of " Bohemian Produce," of a character similar to those we have
described, completes the list found in this court.

In the interior court, numbered 19, we notice a great variety of scythes,
sickles, and various cutlery, to which we shall refer again hereafter, also
from Austria ; maps, some of very large dimensions, and inscribed with
various languages, from Turin ; geometrical models in glass ; a map in plas-
ter, showing the surface, &c., of Switzerland ; a geological section of the salt
mines of that country ; fossils, chiefly the ammonite, some very large, more
than a foot in diameter, and all very fine ; accordeons and other musical
instruments, among which are a pellitone, a bombardon, a trumpet in G,
with a mechanism for transposition into all keys, and a guitar with twelve
strings, of new invention.

The outer court but one on this west nave, numbered 23, contains Japan
and Holland goods. As you enter, are found handsome bronze tables, ex-
hibited by L. Shutz, Zeyst, Holland. A handsome silver pitcher of rich
design, wrought by the hammer from a single block of silver, an art of the
seventeenth century. It is large enough to contain a quart or more of water,
and is made by T. G. Grebe, Rotterdam. Elegant marble vases ; carvings
in ivory, very handsome, by Zeyst, Holland; delicate balances; plated
silver, by Gilles Grevink, Amsterdam ; elegant swan, goose, and grebe-skin
furs, Dutch-dressed, by P. S. Catz & Co., Amsterdam ; chamois gloves ; tall
shades, of glass of elegant quality, from the Netherlandt Company, at Dor-
drecht; books from Holland.

Japan goods, salvers, boxes, brushes, sandals, as curious as those of the
Chinese. Some of these consist of a sort of framework, raising the foot four
or five inches above the floor, the whole being fastened to the foot by straps
or bands.

On the other side are large retorts of glass, the bowls of which are over-
laid with thick copper, by means of electro-magnetism. These are from the
metallurgical manufactory in the Netherlands, and are exhibited by J. R. F.
Nevergekl, of Hague.

Next are elegant bows and arrows, for shooting-galleries, of most excellent
workmanship, by Bressers Brothers, Tilburg. Several handsome models of
winding stair-cases, from Holland, are worthy of special notice, exhibited by
Gerret Becksez. Epaulettes and tassels, with braids, very handsome, exhibited
by W. J. Van Heynsbergen, Hague. Elegant tables, aad a superb screen,
of Japan painting ; a small wheel for spinning linen, of black ebony, orna-
mented with ivory, very elegant ; a large bronze vase, very fine, by L.
Sc'hutz, Zeyst. Paper hangings, of various patterns, but exceedingly rich,
are suspended from the sides of the court. Those on the right hand are
imitations of silks and brocades, and those on the left hand are imitations of
woollen velvets. These are exhibited by the heirs of Warnars Willink,
Amsterdam. Rich furniture, carved and japanned, occupies the centre of
this court.

The contents of the outer court (2*7) are ch/efly from

Holland, and consist of church and ship bells ; clocks and scales ; a car-
riage, by Zehmen, of Rotterdam ; earth-bo-'er, by J. R. Sandermeyer, Rotter-
dam ; plough and seed-sower, by Jenken, Utrecht ; a pheasant's house of
East India bamboo, by G. A Barker, Rotterdam. Morse's telegraph is located
in this court.

292 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

Continuing on into the next court, we find other contributions from Hol-
land, consisting of spermaceti, white lead, and litliarge of gold ; borax, mad-
der, and other dye-stufts ; starch, glue, oils, prepared provisions, succory,
sugars, arrow-root, &c., &:c. One side of this court contains the contribu-
tion of

Hayti, sent by his Majesty Faustin L, Emperor of Ilayti, through his
Consular Agent, Henry Delafield, Esq. It consists of various productions of
Hayti, among which are soaps, paper, castor oil, coffee, honey, starch, wax,
castor-beans, chocolate-nuts, cloth from the bark of lace-Avood and of pepper-
wood, water- pots of stone-ware, log-wood, lignum vitge, fustic, Brazil-wood,
D'Haiti liemp and mineral coal. In the same court are contributions from

Liberia, of cocoa, cofl'ee and sugar, and grain.

Havana, of segars.

This leads us into the court occupied by the products of
• British Guiana. This court, though quite uninviting at first appearance,
abounds with objects of interest. Specimens of maize, rice, coffee, sugar,
vanilla, arrow-root, &c. ; the fibre of the plantain, ochre, silk-grass, and
palm ; sections of wood,. very handsome, from the Demarara river; a table-
top containing 133 pieces of different woods, the growth of the colony;
picture-frames of native woods ; Indian manufactures, such as baskets, fans,
mats, necklaces, beads, bows and arrows, war-clubs, &c. Besides these are
preserved fruits, balsams, oils, essences, and chemicals.

From Guiana, we advance into Court 26, and observe hundreds of da-
guerreotypes, which are sent from nearly all our larger cities, many of which
are very fine. But we do not hesitate to adjudge the palm of super-emi-
nence to Masury & SiLSBEE, of BosTON, This brings us also to a planetarium,
very finely contrived for illustrating the movements of the planets, and
various astronomical phenomena.

Penmanship. Several specimens of penmanship are exhibited by different
teachers of the art. Some of these are very elegant, others only very
curious. One card, of drawing-paper size, executed by A. H. Wheeler, of
Broadway, is perfectly beautiful. It is very elegant in design, and seems
faultless in execution. Another, by Mr. Bristow, is very handsome. A third,
by Mr. Davison, is a representation of the Crystal Palace, in which all the
lines and shades are formed by microscopic writing. Almost the entire Book
of Psalms \z exhausted for material. A fourth, called " The House of God,"
is similarly coiiiposed of the Proverbs of Solomon. Probably not one in
five hundred wouiJ distinguish between these and ordinary drawings in out-
line. But here we sland by the contribution from

Newfoundland, wh^ch consists of a representation of a ship in the midst
of ice and icebergs, and surrounded by their various animals, seals, hippo-
potami, and other sea animals ; above these, in the second story, are the lanA
animals and birds of the province. This show is well conceived and well
executed, and is of great interest.

This court is lined with several pictures; but what and whence they are,
we have not been so particularly interested as to inquire.

If we turn to the left, and enter Court 10, we find numerous specimens of
Bookbinding, which, thougV very good, and making great professions,
do not appear to us particularly c-legant. The same wares are exhibited in
Court IV, in which are also a portion of the show of daguerreotypes.

Philosophical Apparatus. — In r)ourt 17 are several ]»ieces of apparatus,
illustrative of geography and natural philosophy, including astronomy. An
electro-magnetic battery is in constant operation, and furnishes amusement

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 293

for multitudes who try the capacity of their muscles in enduring the con-
tractile power of this wonderful fluid. Here, too, is the Storm Indicator,
which consists of the electric bells seen in all our chemical cabinets, and
which are connected with the lightning-rod outside of the building. The
exhibitor says they will foretell a storm from four to seven hours before it is
experienced. A gasometer; also, a very large piece of apparatus in appear-
ance, a cylindrical spar for a vessel's use, used by our scientific engineers in the
United States Coast Survey, for determining base lines. This brings us to
the east nave. In following along the courts on the north side of the nave,
we find in the first we shall naturally enter, (4,) goods from the

Hamilfon Woollen Co., Southbridge, Mass.,

Bunnell & Co., calico printers,

Rochdale Mills, Rochester, N. H., elegant blankets.

In the next court, (3,) goods from

Lawrence, Stone & Co., Boston, their splendid Bay State shawls, and
other goods ;

E. Derby & Co.,

E. Slater & Sons, Webster, Mass.,

Edward S. Hall, Millville, Mass.,

John Slade & Co.

In Court 2, we find contributions from

Manchester, N. H., Print Works,

James Roy & Co., Watervliet Mills,

Dorastus Kellogg, Skaneateles,

L. Pomroy & Sons.

One side of this court is allotted to

Canada, and contains a carpet wrought entirely by hand, as if it were
only a lamp-mat ; chair-coverings and tidies in variety ; and in the next court.
No. 1, straw hats, shawls, snow-shoes, blankets of remarkable weight, and
which would seem to defy even polar frosts ; drugs are also exhibited, and
flour from various kinds of grain. We have only had opportunity to ex-
amine that from buck-wheat, and must pronounce this equal to any we have
ever seen. Furs of excellent quality are also exhibited from this province.
A double phaeton, nameless, but of which the maker has no cause to be
ashamed. There is also, near by, a new Ventilating Stove, which we
purpose to describe in detail elsewhere, if possible. It is a very excellent
design, and is invented by Mr. Ruttan.

Passing into the centre of this division, (D,) the only part not already
described, we find the very valuable contrilmtion from

Denmark. — The one contribution from this country consists of the group,

Christ and the Apostles, by Thorwaldsen.

This most interesting group of statues is the original of this great sculptor,
which was placed in one of the churches of Italy, but which has recently
been removed, and replaced by copies in marble. This collection is in phster.
The grouping of the apostles, in the Crystal Palace, is in bad taste, and for
want of room, the figure of the Saviour is too near for eff'ect. It is larger
than life, being intended for a position thirty feet from the rest of the group.
St. Paul is "one of the twelve," by what authority we have not learned.
This, however, is an exhibition sufficient of itself to attract crowds.

This completes our rapid sketch of the lower floor of division D. We
will now ascend the central flight of stairs into the gallery above, and begin-
ning at the eastern end of the row of cases of silver ware, will point out the
more interesting objects.

294 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

Gold and Silver Ware from the United States, (Gallery, Division D.)

The products of our own country overrun the quarter of the Palace desig-
nated tor them, and occupy space on this division on both floors. The first
case of silver ware is from Bailey & Co., Philadelphia, a very beautiful
centre-piece, an elegant castor, salts, &c., in elegant patterns, are worthy of
especial notice.

Jones, Ball & Poor, Boston, furnish the next cases, with some of the richest
goods in the Palace. The famous Webster Vase is among them. Next
come Hallersly & Dickinson, Adams & Kidney, Albert, Coles & Co., Joseph
Chamberlain, G. F. Atwood, J. & C. Berrian ; Rogers & Brothers, Hartford,
Ct., plated ware ; J. T. Ames, Chickopee, Mass., very handsome ; Ames Manu-
facturing Co., do., very handsome ; John Foley, gold pens ; G. Zenhore & Co.,
very elegant bog-wood jewelry ; Ball, Black & Co., Broadway, exhibit very
elegant silver ware, and also a superb set of California gold, exceedingly rich.
They occupy two large cases.

On the left hand is a case furnished with a handsome set of chessmen, the
white being solid silver, and their antagonists of gold. On the right, Whil-
lock, of Troy, furnishes a case of Britannia ware.

Here is a point of very great interest. On your left hand is a small case,
scarcely eighteen inches square, and three feet high, of very great value. It
is from the Studio Curioso, and is exhibited by IMr. Moon.

The most prominent object in this case, is the marble statuette of a

Sleeping Cupid, carved from one piece of marble, with a veil of the same,
partially covering the head and the shoulders. It is diflicult to persuade one
that this veil is not of ordinary lace. As a piece of art, this is very exquisite,
seldom if ever surpassed. We understand the proprietor has refused $10,000
for it.

In front of the case, on the bottom, is a figure of

Promethelts chained to the rock. The figure and rock are one solid
piece of gold, very finely carved. The body is one large pearl, and round
the rock are carbuncles.

Four real ruby perfume-bottles, once the property of Ferdinand of
Spain, and late the property of General Radsminski, are in the corners of
the case.

Antique snuff-box, inlaid with gold, silver, and pearls of all colors, is on
the right hand, in the rear. The top represents a farm-yard, birds, finely
executed, a church, &c. On one side is a fox, wrought in gold, and a rabbit
in silver. On another is Tower Hill, London ; on a third, Shakspeare's
house ; and on the fourth, a peacock feeding. This too has been owned by
some very distinguished personages.

Coral carvings are seen on each side of the case, on the top of inverted
vases. That on the left represents Minerva, with her helmet and shield, and
that on the right is the figure of Mercury. Each of these is about four
inches long. Mercury stands upon a pedestal of lapis lazuli.

A watch, in the shape of a basket, inlaid with rubies and emeralds, hangs
on a pyramid. Upon the face are small figures, playing on dift'erent instru-
ments. It plays several distinct airs, and was worn by the present Queen of
Spain.

An Opal, in the shape of a heart, " the largest and most beautiful ever
seen in this country," lies in front of the Cupid, near the centre of the case.

An antique saucer, of red cornelian, very finely cut, from Russia, is near
the centre.

A GOLD spoon, with a red cornelian bowl, from the Duke of Buckingham,
is seen on the right.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION". 295

A WHITE MOUSE, in a morocco case, with key and brush, is seen at the left
This mouse was the pet of Dolza Donez, a Spanish lady, who was so fond of
it, that when it died, she had it preserved so that she could play with it, and
by dock-work make it move round the room.

Brahmese Carving in Ivory, representing a plough, a ploughboy, and
Brahmese oxen,

Florentine mosaics of birds and flowers, very fine, are in front of the
perfume bottles.

Napoleon, in a ring, taken at Fontainbleau, and presented by Louis Na-
poleon to Lady Blessington, is near the centre.

Enamel ring of Napoleon — the face being shaded by figures represent-
ing living beings, the epaulette in the form of a hand, and on his breast, a map
of the countries which he conquered. This is a little to the right of the
saucer, in the lower row of rings. It requires a magnify ing-gl ass to see these
peculiarities.

A CURIOUS WATCH in a ring, worn by Napoleon. The watch is set in a
stone of an oblong form. It is in the saucer to the left of the ring before
referred to. It was sold from the collection of Louis Philippe, at Claremont.

Other rings contain the heads of notable persons, and have been owned
and worn by those as celebrated. But we have not room for more particulars
of this sort.

The front Portico of the Cathedral of Rheims, with its clock and
spires, in miniature form, in gilt, stands upon the top of this case.

Leaving this attractive case, we next find on our right the silver and gold
ware of Tittany & Co,, Broadway. A splendid centre-piece, of elegant de-
sign, weighs 1000 ounces. Porcelain cups with gold ornaments surrounding
them are very superb. But the greatest attraction is a necklace, of a single
row of pearls, with one splendid diamond, which is worth $15,000.

Marcband Aine, Gaime, Guillemot & Co., furnish the next case, with
very rich jewelry, diamonds, pearls, (fee.

A case of far less pretension stands next in order, furnished with silks and
velvets, which obtained the prize in the exhibition in Hyde Park. It is ex-
hibited by Giacomo Chichiza & Co., of Turin.

We then come to a table furnished with marble mosaics, busts, statuettes,
and paintings, from Florence, some of which are very handsome. Then
" wood tresses'' or braids, as we generally call them, sieves of horse-hair, (fee,
by A. Loker, Krainsburg, lUyricum. Patent leathers, elegant straw braids,
watches and bracelets, and other jewelry from Switzerland.

Tliis display of watches is very superb and also very extensive. Some are
plain, many are enamelled and are jewelled, not only within but without.
The jewels are both pearls and diamonds, the latter in the form of flowers.
Some are painted, representing Cupids, (fee. One of them, " the Lilliputian
watch," is about the size of a three-cent piece, and is perfect. Some are
" chronometers." The exhibitors are Messrs. Monlandon Freres, H. A.
Farre, D. Bachelard k Son, Patek Philippe k Co., E. k A. Paillard (fe Freres,
H. L. Matile, Jr., Gustave Dubois, C. Henri Groselande, Reigel (fe Petit-
pierre, Lequin (fe Yersen.

Passing down the other side of the same tables, we find

Austrian goods in variety, canvas, straw braids, muslins, shawls, table-
cloths, (fee.

Italy supplies the next table with elegant brushes, mosaics, paintings, and
statuettes.

Entering the next narrow passage parallel to this,

296 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

Austria exhibits bead-work, over-coats of very substantial material and
superbly made, dress-coats of superb workmanship, musical instruments,
wrought pipes and cane-heads, and straw-work.

Switzerland covers the tables beyond with rich muslins, most beautiful
cuttings and carvings in wood, which are among the most attractive exhibi-
tions in the Palace ; prints, pianofortes, a fine map of the several cantons of
Switzerland, various paintings of Alpine scenery, engravings (colored and un-
colored) of Geneva, figures in terra cotta, wood models, a wooden leg, "made
on scientific principles," muff, tippet, and cuffs of Grebe's fur, muslins, silks,
white lead, artificial pumice-stone, geometrical models, colors, models in
crystal, artificial flowers, chemical apparatus, (glass,) wool, tobacco, oil in
capsules, and most superb leghorns.

This leads into a court partially occupied by goods from

China, These consist of ladies' work-boxes, tea-sets in variety, and many
specimens of muslin, manufactured from the bark of the pine-apple. It is as
fine as a e many samples of " India muslin."

Near by stands a case of " Paris mantillas," exhibited (and manufactured ?)
by a Broadway house ; also sundry quilts of common patch-work, unworthy
a place in such an exhibition ; pictures in worsted, ditto; a Brussels carpet, of
fair quality, made by Higgins & Co., New- York. Some superb riding-saddles
and military saddles cannot fail to attract notice. Specimens of the skill of
the dentist are found here. Still farther on are very beautiful harnesses, the
ornaments of which are wrought with turkey quills, which exceed any thing
of the kind we have seen elsewhere, and which are valued at $500 a pair.
The mounting is of silver. Most of these are from Newark, N. J. Many
articles of like kind and of home productions occupy this part of this
gallery. Turning to the right about, into the next passage-way, we meet
with trusses and other surgical appliances, gold leaf, &c., coach laces and
tassels.

This brings us to the head of the stairs where we were directed to enter
this gallery ; and though our account of its contents is but a sample rather
than a description, we will follow on by the silver wares already described,
and by the elegant Swiss watches, to the

GALLERY OVER THE NORTHERN NAVE,

The first case is furnished with very rich gold and silver ware, from M.
Odiot, of Paris, consisting of several superb sets of silver, two or three of
gold, a splendid centre-piece of silver of elegant design ; fruit and cake-
baskets, in taste and finish unequalled in the Crystal Palace.

On the next table is very splendid silver-plated ware. Some of it is gor-
geous. This covering is laid on by electro-magnetism. The silver is in
solution, the vessel to be plated is immersed in it and is then connected with
the two poles of the battery, and thus the silver is slowly deposited upon the
surface, and becomes thicker the longer the process is continued. A pair of
tall vases, jierhaps three feet in height, of very florid workmanship, stand, one
at each end of the table.

An immense vase of silver, of very florid style, is without a label or other
token by which its origin can be traced.

Next is the Cnjstallerie de Clichy, from Paris, of course, and very beauti-
ful. We have here the most elegant collection of paper-weights we have ever
seen. Some represent flowers, others portraits, and some groups of persons;
a few contain dials and indices for the month, the day, &c., and aj'e very con-

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 297

venient as well as ornamental. We have here also many superb specimens
of the richest glass-ware and porcelain, elegant in form and in color. This
is one of the most beautiful tables in the Palace.

Passing along, we find a display of Britannia ware, dentistry, microscopes,
very fine jewelry, artificial flowers, and bronzes, very handsome. Returning
on the opposite sides of these tables, are timepieces, candelabras, &c., and on
your left hand are richly wrought veils, tassels, passementeries, metallic and
silk, from Paris. You are almost deceived by noticing what seems to be a
living and beautiful dog, and in a very pretty house just suited to him.

Porcelain ware, very handsome, is exhibited on the tables beyond, by
Havcland & Cie., who have an agency at 47 John street. Wares of this
description cover several tables, and are exhibited by different contributors.

Patent tanned leather, of excellent quality, boots and shoes of various
materiel, bonneterie de laine, by .Jaques Amos, bas rhin, wrought veils, muslins,
&c., are also on these tables.

Carpets of various kinds are suspended from convenient points in this
gallery.

Upon the tables, as you approach the western side of the south gallery,
are varieties from the German States; gloves, perfumery, wrought shirts,
etc., etc.

Gulliver among the Lilliputians, described in a previous number, excites
much attention.

Near the end of this gallery, among a multitude of German toys, are some
cuttings in ivory, very beautiful, chessmen, and handsome trans|)arencies.

Tuining into the next aisle, we find paintings from Holland in great variety,
some of which are very fine; ivory cuttings and cuttings in wood are well
worthy of notice ; portemonnaies, bonnets and vestings ; and as you advance,
on the left hand, are woollen hose, caps and jackets, and on the right hand,
combs, hair-work, fringes, woollen goods, a superbly-wrought lady's cloak,
wrought shoes, &c., <fec.

Beyond these are gold leaf, bronze powder, metallic leaf of various kinds,
philosophical and chemical apparatus. Straw-work in variety is on the table at
the end.

In the next aisle are surgeons' instruments, porcelain wares, worsteds,
beads, shell-work, bronzes, some very excellent; gilt, silvered, and copper wire,
pencils, toys, &c., &c., from Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and from Mentz.

(to be continued.)

STATUARY.

Since our catalogue of this department was prepared, we have noticed that
two or three of these works of art have been removed to other places, and
one group in the southern nave has entirely disappeared. We also omitted
the huge statue of Washington under the dome.

Washington, sent by the State of Virginia, has recently been placed in
the western nave. Also, a bust of Washington.

A half dozen have also been added, which are arranged about the base of
the bronze "Amazon and Tiger," by Kiss.

On the right extreme of the row is

Prayer, or Samuel, a most beautiful work, full of expression, by Guacce-
rini. Then,

A Bacchante, a bust, by Ives. •

298 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

Maternal Solicitude, by Benzoni. This is a perfect gem. A beautiful
boy is holding a little pet puppy in his liand, while its motlier, on the other
side of the boy, is anxiously looking up to see if all is safe. The posture
and all the details in this group are faultless, and quite bewitching.

Ruth, by Ives, a bust, with a very beautiful prodle, but not so perfect in
its front view.

Bacco, a statuette, by Guaccerini.

Bacchante, a statuette, by Lucendi.

We had intended to add a few more explanations or illustrations of these
statues in our October number, but our space was preoccupied. We give
below a few additions of this sort.

Diana was the goddess of light, and represented the moon, as Apollo, her
twin brother, did the sun.

Psyche is represented in the Pahace by several statues. She was the
youngest of three daughters of a king, and by her beauty excited the jealousy
of Venus. She, to avenge herself, ordered Cupid to inspire Psyche with love
for the most contemptible of men. But he himself fell in love with her.
His visits being only in the night, she knew not what he was, and her jealous
sisters attempted to persuade her that he was an ugly monster. To satisfy
herself on this point, she obtained a lamp, and found that he was the most
beautiful of the gods. But in her excitement, she let a drop of oil fall on his
shoulder, which awoke him. Cupid censured her for her mistrust, and es-
caped. She wandered long in search of him, (and hence the idea of the
' Grieving Psyche,' under the dome,) and attempted to drown herself. At last
she came to the palace of Venus, who detained her, and treated her as a
slave, imposing upon her the hardest and most humiliating labors. But
Cupid still loved her in secret, and invisibly comforted and assisted her, and
by his help she overcame the hatred of Venus, was made immortal, and was
united to him for ever. (This part of the myth is the foundation for the
group, ' Cupid and Psyche,' in the nave leading from the Sixth Avenue.)

Mercury was the son of Jupiter and Maia, the daughter of Alias. He is
represented as a cunning thief, having, a day after his birth, stolen several of
the oxen of Apollo. He also invented the lyre, forming it from the shell of
a tortoise, and drawing strings across it. He was employed as the herald of
the gods, and performed many important services.

Ceres was the daughter of Saturn and Pthea, and sister of Jupiter, by
whom she became the mother of Proserpine.

Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and twin brother of Diana,
and was represented in diverse characters; 1, as the god who punished; 2,
as the god who afforded help and warded off evil ; 3, the god of proj)hecy ;
4, the god of song and music ; 5, the protector of flocks and herds ; 6, the
god who fostered towns and civil institutions ; 7, the god of the day, or the
sun. The Apollo Belvidere, at Ptome, is one of the most beautiful repre-
sentations of him. (See bust in east nave.)

Pakis was the son of Priam and Hecuba, and at his birth was exposed on
Mount Ida. But he was nourished by a she bear. The shepherd who ex-
posed him, afterwards found him and took him to his own home. The most
celebrated act of his life was his abduction of IL-len, wife of Menelaus,
which led to the famous Trojan war. Bust in Italian court.

The names of the foregoing divinities, &c., were given in their proper
place in our October number, but chiefly without explanation.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 299

THE PICTURE GALLERY.

We have already suggested that this part of the Exhibition is most open
to criticism, but it is true, nevertheless, that there are many very excellent
pictures. Those we have mentioned in a short article on painting and paint-
ers, on another page, (310,) are enough to pay for visiting this department, were
the rest only plain canvas. We have not occupied so much time as we
could wish, perhaps some six or eight hours only, on this attractive section,
but we believe we are right in commending the following paintings to the
careful notice of the visitor. We follow in the order of the numbers of the
"official catalogue." Some that are very excellent, but very simple,_requiring
but little comparative skill, are not mentioned in our list. A few pictures we
have merely described as worthy to be classed in list No. 1, No. 2, or No. 3.
No. 1 is of the highest merit, which, of course, includes but very few. ^ TKe
other two lists are inferior, but those of No. 3 are very decidedly superior to
he average merit of the whole collection.
No. 5. Oil portrait of Shakspeare, artist unknown, England.
This is a splendid head, and is supposed to be ' an early copy from the
« Chandos." '

8. The Royal Family of England, by H. Winterhalter, London.
As a piece of art, this is not remarkable, perhaps, though it is very credit-
able to the artist. As the contribution of one of the best and worthiest of
the sovereigns of Europe, it demands most especial notice. It being sent
by Queen Victoria herself, it may be relied upon as a faithful portrait of the
personages whom it represents.

12. The Angel of Death bearing off a young girl.

This is by the great painter, Horace Vernet. It is quite original in its
IbJgn. The angel is veiled, and in dark shadow. But his wings are in a
brighter light, and are most exquisitely painted. The fath-r is leaning upon
the bed, with his face buried in its drapery. This picture belongs in the first
;lass.

16. Deputation of Workmen before the City Council, by J. P. Hasen-
•lever, Dusseldorf.

This is an admirable picture, and enough to place the artist in the first
rank among modern painters.

27. leronimus Jobs, a night-watchman, by the same.
This belongs to list No. 2.

32. Scene in a school-room of the " Jobsiade," (a comic heroic song of
1800,) by the same.

This is less finished than No. 16, and is somewhat caricatured, but it is
capitally done.

38. The Rising Thunderstorm, by Augustus Weber, Dusseldorf.
A beautiful picture. List No. 2,

42. Hasenclever, the artist of 16, 27, and 32, representing himself as
" The wine taster." A very life-like picture.

87. Columbus, receiving a letter of recommendation to Queen Isabella, by
A. Puccinelli, Florence.

This deserves a place among the best in the Palace.
98. St. Martin de Cluse, in the Dauphinfee, by A. Dubuisson, France.
This we rank in list No. 2. It is a very fine view of mountain scenery,
with its huts, cattle, shepherds, &c.

110. Revolution in the Studio, by John Wilms, Dusseldorf.

The whole design and execution of this is admirable. Here are the paint-

300

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

er's easel, sword, gun, bullet-mould, cap, &c., &c., all laid up carefully in a
pile, by the thorough chambermaid, preparatory to removal.

111. Neapolitan Gleaner, by Fiorazzi, Florence.

This little picture is at least in list No. 3.

115. The last moments of Tasso, by Theodore V. Oer, Dresden.

This ranks, in our judgment, with the Gleaner.

120. Sunset view, near Naples, by Louis Gurlitt, Vienna.

This landscape is exceedingly beautiful, and may be studied a long time.

12G. Galileo before the Council of Urban VIII., by A. F. Ewald, Berlin.

The figure and countenance of the aged astronomer are very fine, while thi
members of the Council are very well represented.

128. Ruins of an ancient Temple, by M. Schmit, Germany.

In general merit this is like that of No. 120.

131. Bacchus presented to Silenus, by Giacomo Conti, Florence.

A well-grouped company of Bacchanalians, skilfully painted.

143. Execution of Marino Faliero, by F. Schneider, Munich.
This is excellent, and belongs on list No. 2.

144. St. Cecelia, by Guido Reni, Italy.

This painting is certified as a genuine original of the great master. It is
certainly a capital picture, whether an original or copy.

161. The Mendicant, by Kassel, Breslau.

This picture is horridly and loathsomely perfect.

167. The Calculating Cook, by Moritz, Germany.

A very sage conception of a very important personage. She is making
calculations for the day. It is painted by a good artist.

175. Judith with the head of Holofernes, by Conrad Hitz, Munich.

This is in a style unlike any other in the gallery, and is exceedingly weU
done. It should be ranked in list No. 2.

184, The Arch of Janus, in Rome, during an overflow of the Tiber, b}
F. W. Baker, England.

A good work of art, list No. 2, representing a very remarkable pile. Tht-
arch is double ; that is, there are arches on all sides the square pile.

190. The return of Regulus to Carthage, by Camrauccini, Italy.

This is a superb picture, and ought to stand among the first in list No. 1.
It represents Regulus, surrounded by his wife and friends and soldiers, at the
moment when he is bidding them fsirewell.

212. Tower of Music, by W. S. Mount, New- York.

This painting has been engraved. The musicians are in a stable, while
the modest negro listens on the outside. It is a fine picture.

240. Greeks at Missolonghi, by Perignon, France.

A spirited battle-scene, illustrating one of the most terrible and important
events in modern history.

255. Death of an Italian Volunteer, by Emilie Tapi, Florence.

This little painting deserves a location where its excellences can be better
seen. It ranks in list No. 2.

257. Landscape, by G. Camino, Turin.

This is a fine picture of mountain scenery, with its deep chasms. List
No. 2.

203. David calming Saul with the sound of his harp, by G. Maccio, Italy.

The figure and countenance of Saul are admirably represented, but the
figure of David is indifferent. He never looked like the youth here painted.

266. French Squadron, marine view, by Morel, France.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 801

This is one of the best pictures of the kind we have ever seen.

268. Portrait of " Father Gavazzi," by Fagnani, New-York.

This is clearly the most perfect likeness that we ever have seen on canvas.
As such, it is without fault or defect. It is also good painting.

280. The Pilgrim, by Professor C. N. Carta, Rome.

As a work of art, list No. 2. But no honest pilgrim ever had so carnal a
face.

296. Landscape, Swiss scenery, by Bernhard Fries, Heidelberg.

List No. 2.

301. Wreckers, by Ed. Luminals, France.

This is painfully expressive, and is unquestionably the work of a true artist.
Were the touch a little more delicate, it would belong to list No. 1.

309. Landing of Columbus at Santa Cruz, by A. Colin, France.

A conception of doubtful propriety, as an historical fact, but exceedingly
well done. Some very obvious anachronisms will appear to a careful observer.

314. Madonna and Child, by Carlo Dolci, Italy.

This is the property of Mr. White, of New-York. It is certainly an ad-
lirable work of art, and may be the original of this master.

325. Corpse of a female driven ashore, defended against tbe attacks of
an eagle by two fisherman's dogs, by John Hilverdine, Holland.

This ])icture is sadly attractive, and shows great skill in the artist.

329. Landscape ; view of a lake and Alps, by Tepping, Switzerland.

A fine view of lofty mountain scenery, and its quiet lakes.

334. Two. ladies reading by lamplight, by P. Kiers, Holland.

List No. 2.

343. A steamer near the coast, by C. C. Kennemann, Holland.

List No. 2.

340. Landscape, by Tepping.

Very similar in merit to 329, by the same artist.

349. The Assumption of the Virgin, on parchment, by Correggio.

This is a design worthy of this great master ; and the many figures repre-
sented within a very small compass, are exceedingly well done. It may be
an " original."

365. "The Temptation of St. Anthony, by " David Teniers."

This small picture is unique in its conception, and is perhaps an original.
It stands in bad light.

370. Adoration of the Magi, by Carlo Maratti.

This may be an original : its merits are obvious.

3*72. Magdalen with Vase, by Francesco Barbieri, called also Guercino.

Perhaps more critical eyes would decide this to be an original.

373. Marine piece, by Jos. Vernet. i
List No. 2.

374. Interior of a house, by Adrian Van Ostade.

This " original " of the great Flemish painter is not destitute of great
merit.

401. Landscape in water colors, by Eugene Douler, France.

This is exceedingly pretty, and is the work of a good artist.

406. Mountainous landscape, by Michel Banquet, France.

List No. 2.

415. Mouth of a river in Holland, by A. Waldorp, Holland.

List No. 2.

419. The four ages of man's life, by Caesar Paganini, Florence.

A fine design, capitally executed.

302 THE GREAT EXHIBITION".

441. Town in Belgium, by Van Moer, Belgium.

List No. 3.

461. Landscape, bv Geo. D. Brewerton, "United States."

List No. 2.

474. An inundation on the borders of the Loire, by A. Antigua, France.

List No. 2.

489. Seizure of Charlotte Corday, after she had killed Marat, by Madam
F. O'Conneil, France,

This is a verv superior work, well designed, and in good keeping through-
out. It belongs in list No. 1.

500. Cattle in a stable, by Auguste Knip, Holland.

This is manifestly by a practical man. It contains all the apparatus of old
jugs, boots, lanterns, et id orane genus, which accumulate in the coui-se of
years in such a building.

510. Diogenes successful, by F. Anelli, New- York.

Somewhat marvellous in conception, but well painted. The head of Dio-
genes is very fine. List No. 2.

524. Midnight reflections on a skull, by P. Van Schendel, Belgium.

This young lady certainly had a very singular taste, but the artist has
painted her with excellent skill. We are not sure, however, of the correct-
ness of the portrait. Such a face would never reflect over a skull by lamp-
light.

533. The Flemish lawyer, by J. Getoni, Belgium.
Capital. List No. 2.

534. Portrait of Chief Justice Marshall, by J. B. Martin, "United States."
This is an excellent likeness, we are assured ; and we are quite sure it is the

likeness of one of the best and greatest of jurists, and is executed with great
ability by the artist.

538. Cattle, by D. V. S. Backhuysen, Holland.

It was singular that he should* detect that cow in the peculiar position here
represented, to wit, between lying down and standing up. It is rather diffi-
cult to prove it faulty, but quere.

652. View on the Maas, Belgium, by Pierre T. Van Elvers, Holland.

List No. 2.

554. Rustic landscape, by Bodeman, Holland.

Very fair. List No. 2.

558. Fisherman's hut on fire, by Ch. Hubner, France.

This picture is full of expression, all true to the life. It ranks with the
best works of living painters to be found in the gallery.

559. Setter and duck, by Leon Viardot, France.

This is a bealitiful picture, among the best of the kind we have ever seen.

567. Family devotions, by Charles Hubner, Germany.

This exquisitely fine picture represents a family group, in a peasant's cot-
tage, listening to the youngest child, a fine boy, as he roads aloud. The ex-
pression which the skilful artist has given to the different members of the
family, various and yet all devout, is in admirable keeping, and the whole is
unalloyed by a single defect. This painting must rank with 16, 110, 190,
and the few of class No. 1 in this gallery.

579. Music, mathematical instruments, books, &c,, on a table, by Dama-
resq, France.

This painting is not one that would excite the attention of the crowd, but a
practised eye detects at once, in its grouping, so finely pictured, the skill of
an artist. Nothing is distorted, and all the parts are harmonious. List No. 2.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 803

585 and 596. The Adulteress at the feet of Christ, by Em. Siguol, France.

These two represent the same scene at different moments of time. In the
first, the face of the sinner is buried in the folds of her undress, as if utterly-
subdued with grief. In the other, the Saviour holds her arm by his hand,
and she looks up to his face, her eyes full of tears, and her countenance ex-
pressing the hope she scarcely dares to entertain, of unexpected deliverance.
List No. 1. The countenance of the Saviour is much better in 596 than
in 585, in which the forehead is quite too low.

590. Woodland and brook, by Vanden Saude, Holland.
List No. 2.

591. Shipwrecked persons attacked by a shark, by Biard, France.

A small company are saved from drowning upon a raft. One man lies
lifeless. A female has fainted in the arms of a friend, while another is striv-
ing to drive away a shark, whose jaws are extended to seize the limbs of the
fainting woman. His hat is seen in the water. The grou2:)ing and the color-
ing are most excellent.

600. Landscape view in Norway, by C. Grolig, France.

List No. 2,

610. The bookworm, by Spitzwig, Munich.

This little picture, overlooked probably by the crowd, is a perfect gem.
The countenance of the bookworm, his position on the steps, by the side of
the lamp, reading metaphysics from a book in his left hand, while his right
hand holds another, also open, and his legs hold a third — all are capital. It
could not easily be improved. List No. 1.

611. Landscape, by Koekoek, Holland.
List No. 2.

616. Washington crossing the Delaware, by E. Leutze, United States.

This is a magnificent painting, particularly the figure of Washington.
There is more presence in it, perhaps, than the truth would warrant, regard-
ing it as a portrait, but the whole picture is very fine. It is just engraved in
excellent style by Williams, Stevens & Williams, of Broadway.

626. Outside of a farm-house, by H. Huggens, Holland.

List No. 2.

629. Christopher Columbus at Salamanca, by A. Colin, France.

The hero of the picture is attempting to convince his royal and noble audi-
tors of the existence of the unknown continent.

649. Madonna and child, by Murillo, Spain.

Very much defaced, and unfortunately not " restored" in keeping with the
original.

651. Battle of Culm, by Professor Recklin, Berlin.

This huge picture is a capital representation of Marshal Vandam, surren-
dering himself as prisoner to Alexander of Russia and the King of Prussia,
who were then in retreat before the army of Napoleon. The figure of the
wounded marshal is admirable. This hangs over one of the stairways, of
course out of the gallery.

652. Mary Magdalen, by Guido Reni, Italy.

This "original" was contributed by the British consul at Baltimore, Md.
It is placed too high to be critically examined. It may bo the work of this
great painter.

St. Peter, by Carlo Dolce.

We have little doubt that this is an original of this great master. It
hangs nearly opposite No. 1, quite low, and in bad light. It is a superb pic-
ture. It is not numbered.

304

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

There are other good pictures, but perhaps none of them exliibit so much
skill in the artist as those here selected. Many others exliibit very excellent
points, but have also striking defects, and hence the general effect is spoiled.
Such is No. 435 of the official catalogue, and also 518, by the great artist,
Rembrandt Peale. The body of the horse is out of proportion, and the
curve of his neck unnatural. 606 is another instance of tliis kind. It is a
farm-yard scene, in most respects very well done. But the legs of some of
the horses are monstrous, even for draught-hoises, as these are; and the pro-
portion of some other animals do not speak well for the judgment of their
purchaser.

These defects, though sliglit, are sometimes fatal. They remind us of a
similar blunder, or something worse, in the architecture of a tine church in the
Fifth Avenue, in which the entire frame-work which supports the upper roof
rests on the tops of human heads !

UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

We resume our description of the agricultural implements on exhibition in
the South-East Gallery, commencing nearly where we concluded in the pre-
ceding number.

IMPROVED STAVE-CUTTER AND JOINTING MACHINE.

Fig. 1.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

305

Fig. 2.

The annexed engravings are perspective views (figure 1 a view in front of
tlie knives, and figure 2 a view behind the knives) of an improved machine
for cutting and jointing staves, &c., invented by Charles Mowry. The as-
signees of the patent, with the exception of New- York State, are Messrs.
Gwynes & Shefield, of Urbana, Ohio.

For this machine the logs are first sawn into a plank about four and a half
inches thick, and then cut into bolts the desired length of the stave. The
bolt is softentd by steam or warm water, then placed on the machine, and
cut and jointed while warm.

AA are the standards of the frame of the machine, and B represents a
fast and loose pulley on the main shaft, for driving the machine by a belt, and
for setting it free when required ; C is a connecting-rod attached to the crank-
pin, a, and to the wrist, b, of the knife-stock, D ; E is the cleaving-knife.
(There is a fly-wheel, connecting-rod, &c., on each side — the one a duplicate
of the other.) The knife, E, receives a vibratory motion, and describes a ver-
tical curve; d is the journal on which the arm, I, vibrates; e is a pin pass-
ing through a slot in the back of shoulders, H H, of the knife-stock, D. The
said shoulders are fixed on journals to allow the knife-stock to vibrate, when
the rod, C, moves up and down to raise the knife, E, and bring it down again
upon the bolt of wood to be cut into a stave, &c. ; F and G are the two stocks

VOL. VI. — PART V. 20

306 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

of the jointing- knives, the separate operations of cleaving the stave and joint-
ing it being performed through the agency of the same connecting-rods.
The jointing-knives have a liorizontal motion, and are placed one above the
other; the arms that move them receive a vibratory motion, as follows : /,
figure 1, is the pivot-joint of the rod, J, belonging to the upper jointing-knife,
F. As the arm, I, is moved through the agency of the pin, c, working in
the slot of shoulder, H, as said arm vibrates, the rods, J J, are moved in
towards and from the bolt to joint the stave. The lower jointing-knife, G, has
the inner end of its rod, N, hung on pivot-joints in the sides of the*frame, and
the pin, 0, (one on each side,) projects through the slot in the lower part of
the arm, I. When the said arm is vibrated, the lower jointing-knife will
therefore receive the same motion as the upper one. These knives are made
to cut the proper taper ; g g are rails on which the guides of knife, F, slide.
We have thus described the motions of the cleaving and the jointing-knives.
We will now explain the feeding operations. Reference is especially made to
figure 2. T is the bolt of wood to be cut into staves. It is placed on four
iron bars, running lengthwise of the machine. The feed-carriage comes up
behind the bolt and pushes it forward to the knives ; T T are toothed clamps
which have teeth that take into the ends of the bolt to hold it firm ; U U
are the levers that work these clamps. They are operated by the lever, W,
which works the circle plate, to which the inner ends of levers, U U, are at-
tached. The lever, X, is merely a wrench to screw the circle plate fast when
the bolt is clamped ; S S are the two racks of the feed-carriage, and arms,
V V, and pall, P, is the feeder. The arms, V V, are secured on vibrating
heads, R R, (one on each side,) secured on pivots in the sides of the frame,
and they have pins projecting through curved slots in the shoulders, H H.
When the shoulders, H H, vibrate, the pins at R, in the slots, are so acted
upon as to move the arms, V V, back and forth, and thus make the broad
pall, P, take into the racks, S S, notch after notch, and push them forward
one notch for every stave to be cut. The bolt to be cut into staves passes
under a guide-plate or swinging-bridge behind knife, E, in figure 2. When
the bolt of wood is all cut up, by bearing down on lever Z, (letter turned,) it
throws up the pall, P, and allows the feed-carriage to be moved back for a
new bolt. The lever Z, therefore, regulates the feed motion.

The upper jointing-knife can be raised so as to regulate its position for
staves of difi'erent sizes. In figure 1, L is a bar in front which vibrates in
bearings in the frame, and is attached to suspended arms, M M, which are
jointed to the swinging frame in which the knife-stock, F, is placed, and also
the guide-bridge behind the knives. The lever, K, figure 2, is attached at
one side to the bar, L, figure 1, and works it, therefore, by moving the lever
to any desired point, up or down ; the upper jointing-knife is placed so as to
set the knives for operation, for staves of difi'erent widths ; e e are simply
screws working in bars, and are employed to make the pall, P, bite in the
rack. The jointing-knives act before the descending knife, E, and when they
recede, the said knife descends, cleaves out the stave, and it is then finished.
The machine, although it may appear complicated, is really not so ; a close
attention to the figures and description will render its operation plain. It
cuts and joints one hundred staves in a minute. We have seen a number
of staves which were finished in one of these machines, and we can speak in
the highest terms of the finish. — Scientific American^ April 9.

This machine is made entirely of iron and steel, is about five feet in height,
and some five feet square, simple in construction, strong and durable, and not
liable to get out of order. It is driven by a belt from a pulley on a shaft,

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 307

extending across the lower part of the machine, projecting some six inches on
either side. On the shaft, at both ends, is a balance-wheel. The shaft
crosses the machine underneath the feeding-carriage and cutting and jointing-
knives. From a wrist or crank on the outside of each balance-wheel, a pit-
man of about three feet connects with a journal on the end of a cross-head,
or knife-frame, to which is attached the main cutting-knife, and these connec-
tions give motion to all parts of the machine, the feed-carriage, jointing-
knives, &c.

The bolt of wood, of proper length for the desired stave, is placed upon the
feeding-carriage, firmly secured by merely moving a lever. The machine is
not stopped to receive the bolt of wood, but being in motion, the carriage
feeds forward the thickness of one stave at each revolution. Two jointing-
knives, working forward and back, with great precision, and at nearly right
angles with the main cutting-knife, work into the face of the bolt the thickness
of one stave only at a time, as the bolt is fed forward, and while the main
cutting-knife is rising upon the radius of a circle. The weight of the machine
is about 3000 pounds.

As the pitmen pass their centres, and the main cutting-knife commences
its downward movement, the jointing-knives are retiring out of the way ; the
revolution of the machine being completed, a perfectly dressed and jointed
stave comes off, of the desired bevel and bilge, of uniform width, according
to the thickness of the bolt, at the rate of 80 to 100 per minute, without a
hand being touched to it, except to place and secure the bolt of wood upon
the feeding-carriage of the machine. The bilge and bevel are easily altered,
and the machine accommodates itself to the thickness of the bolt — say from
2^ to 5 inches in width, which are the extremes for a good stave, and cuts
both convex and concave surfaces.

The manufacturers have run these machines as fast as 120 revolutions a
minute, but we think 80 to 90 revolutions full fast enough, as it accumulates
them with sufficient rapidity; and for uniformity and smoothness, they are
unsurpassed. No other machine in use for cutting staves feeds itself from a
bolt of wood ; and it is the only machine that joints the stave at the same
time that it is cut and dressed, and without any handling ; consequently, only
about one third as much room is required as is necessary for other machines
to perform the same work. The services of three men, at least, are saved,
which services are indispensable where the jointing is a separate operation,
thus not only reducing the amount of labor materially, and the space requi-
site for its performance, but excelling in rapidity, in the economy of timber,
and economy of expense in running the machine.

The services of only one man are necessary to place the bolt and attend to
the running of the machine. Five horse-power, either water or steam, is suf-
ficient to drive the machine.

This machine can, with ease, cut, dress, and joint as many staves in one
day, as one hundred men can set up into barrels in the same time. Any
kind of timber that is fit for a stave ir.ay be used, even such as could not be
rived into staves and worked by hand, such as Maple, Hickory, Hackberry,
Elm, Beech, &c., &c. The cost of running the machine, carrying out and
piling up staves, need not. exceed, if it equals, fifty cents per thousand. One
thousand fest of plank, board measure, will turn out three thousand staves.
One cord of bolts (128 solid feet) will turn out two thousand staves. It has
received the highest awards of the State Agricultural Societies of Ohio,
Michigan, and Wisconsin, in the shape of medals, silver cup, premiums, and
diploma.

.808 - THE GREAT EXHIBITION".

Farmer's Labor-saving Machine. — ^This is a very simple machine,
which is designed to thresh, clean, and bag the various kinds of grain. There
are various sizes. That before us is designed for two horses, and it is said
will thresh, clean, and bag a hundred bushels of wheat per day.

A Screw Cheese-Press, manufactured at Belleville, N. Y., by Williams
& Uackey, stands near that just described, in which the arrangement, in
our opinion, is very judicious. A crank, on the axis of which is a small cog-
wheel, turns a larger cog-wheel fixed upon the screw, by which the weight
is raised or lowered. This must be a very efficient press, and one that will
require but little repairs.

McCormick's Reaper. — This machine, which made so much noise at the
Exhibition in London, and which has been so extensively advertised, needs no
description from us. But we are by no means certain that it is the best in
our Crystal Palace.

Atkins' Automaton Self- raking and Reaping Machine. — This is so
arranged as to be in working order, and as it extends its huge wooden arm,
with a rake attached, reminds us very much of the movement in Maelzel's
Chess-player. It must require considerable power ; too much, probably, for
our common Northern farmers. Where horse-power is abundant, however,
this is of little importance. The action of the machine seems satisfactory.

Denten's Reaper and Self-raker. — The proprietor claims that this
cuts a wide swath, and that it can be easily adjusted to any desired height,
requiring the attendance of only one person. It is drawn and guided by the
tongue. Four horses operate it with ease. The grain, as it is cut, is thrown
back on the endless conveyor by the reel, and is carried by the conveyor over
the driving-wheel, and thrown into the hopper, which turns at appropriate
intervals, and throws the grain in suitable bundles on the ground.

Wagener's Clover and Timothy Seed Harvester. — This machine consists
of a .'■imple frame and box mounted on wheels, in front of which is a cylinder,
set with spiral knives, acting in concert with curved spring teeth, in combina-
tion with a straight knife, which forms a perfect shear, and severs the head
from the stalks, which are, at the same time, discharged into the box. The
teeth being made to spring and vibrate, it is claimed that not a particle of
clover, however stalky or thick, can possibly escape being cut, or allow the
teeth to become clogged. This machine is so constructed that it can be made
adjustable to the height of the clover and timothy. This is accomplished by a
simple lever at the side. This machine is evidently moved by less power
than either of those before described. The price, too, is more moderate,
being from $"7 5 to $100. A cut of it is here given.

Hathaway's Combined Machine, for threshing, separating, and cleaning
grain, clover, and grass seed. It is claimed by the proprietor, that this ma-

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. .

309

chine will thresh and clean from 600 to 800 bushels of wheat per clay, and
that by changing the position of the concave, it will thresh and clean from
500 to 700 bushels of clover-seed per hour. The machine is not in action.

Gilbert's Thresher and Cleaner, it is said, " will operate as fast as a
man can properly feed ;" but what rate this is, does not appear ; and as it is
immovable, (in this exhibition,) we have no means for forming an opinion.

Ketchum's Patent Mowing Machine appears as well as any of its rivals,
the general arrangement being more efficient, in our view, than that of some
of the foregoing. " Still life," however, furnishes very imperfect means of
determining the power of the bird in flight.

Man ay's Mower and Reaper, — This, too, looks very well, and we should
be glad to see it in action.

Phelps' Patent Bee Hive, described and illustrated in a late number, in
ivhich the bees are at work, is upon exhibition on an elevated stage in tbis gal-
lery, and attracts much attention.

india-rubber washing machine.

This is a very good good machine, though very doubtfully named. It can
be worked by a man or boy as well as by a woman. The benefit of all
machines being to transfer, rather than to create power, this meets the
demand better than most others which present themselves for the kind regard
of housekeepers. The peculiar merit of this patent is, that it both pounds

310 PAINTING AND PAINTERS.

and rubs, and performs either service ypon any particular portion of its con-
tents, as the operator may desire. Its cost is from $12, upwards. A repre-
sentation of the machine is on the preceding page.

We give more space to this than to ahnost any machine of moderate pre-
tensions— moderate we mean in the scale of complex mechanisms — because it
goes to promote the convenience and comfort of households, to aid the house-
wife in her numerous and often perplexing arrangements. We have in our
minds the little ballad so familiar to all, entitled 'Washing Day.' Who ever
makes sunshine then, is a public benefactor.

T. gilbert's ^OLIAN riANOFORTES.

These instruments, manufactured by the celebrated makers, T. Gilbert &
Co., of Boston, are at this time too well known to require particular de-
scription.

The experience of eight or nine years has led to several important improve-
ments, and they have now brought the ^olian to a degree of perfection not
befo'-3 attained. Its tones are unlike the seraphine, having all the softness and
richness of the flute.

The fact alone of their having applied the j^olian attachment to some
2,000 of their pianos within the last eight years, is a sufficient proof of pub-
lic appreciation.

The manufacturers use only the metallic frame in their pianos, and from
the great care used to obtain only the best of material, confidently warrant
them to stand any climate.

Messrs. Gilbert & Co. own the patent, and no other ])ersoiT has the right
to manufacture them in the United States.

For particulars, apply to Horace Waters, sole agent, 333 Broadway, New-
York.

PAINTING AND PAINTERS.

Painting and Poetry are twin sisters, and from " the beginning," the
successful votaries of each have been ranked among the greatest and highest.
From statesmen, orators, and even warriors, from the wise and learned, they
have received their full share of honor, as well as of popular applause.

As in poetry, so in painting, there is the epic and the pastoral, the sublime
and the beautiful, and each of these and of the other descriptions of painting,
has its various styles or forms, in which it has expressed its ideas. Without
attempting a critical essay on the subject, we have thought it well, especially
in connection with The Great Exhit>ition, to give a short account of the dif-
ferent schools, with the names of a few who have been regarded as the
founders and the ornaments of the ch^ss.

The Venetian School, in the sixteenth century, dazzled the world by the
brilliancy of its coloring. In this branch of the art, the Venetian School sur-
passed all others. Titian, born 14*77 ; Georgioni, born 1478 ; Giacomo Robus-
ti, otherwise called Tintoretti, born 1512 ; and Paul Veronese, born 1530, were
leaders among its great names. Georgioni made most important discoveries
in the science of rich and natural C(;lors, while Titian, the founder of this
school, with his matchless skill, availed himself of those discoveries, to give
still greater eflfect to his own wonderful conceptions and his finished execution.
One jjicture in the Crystal Palace is said to be by Tintoretti.

PAINTING AND PAINTERS. 311

The Roman School sprung up with Raphael. He was born 1483. He
acquired a sublimity of manner that has never been equalled. This school was
distinguished for the display of science and skill in its compositions, correct-
ness in drawing, elegance of proportion, and for general beauty and refine-
ment. Julio Romano, Sebastian del Piarabo, Polidore de Caravaggio, Carlo
Maratti, &c., were of this school, which disappeared with Raphael and his
immediate scholars.

The Crystal Palace contains one picture, said to be by Carlo Maratti. It
is called Adoration of the Magi, and is here numbered 370. He was born
1625.

The Florentine School is remarkable for its boldness and grandeur,
and originated with Michael Angelo Buonarotti, of Tuscany, born 1474. He
is the Homer of epic painting. Some of his productions are unrivalled in
grandeur and sublimity. Among the eminent painters of this school were
Leonardo da Vinci, Georgio Vasari, and Daniel Riccierelli, called also Daniel
da Volterra, who was one of the greatest of them all. His " Taking down
from the Cross" is ranked with the Transfiguration of Raphael.

The Lombard School, at about the same period, was very distinguished.
Antonio de Allegri, called also Correggio, and Francisco Mazzueli, call<'d also
Parmegiano, were among the eminent painters of this school. Correggio
stands first on the annals of chiaroscuro, "those magic illusions of light and
shade," and in all that is elegant and graceful. His Magdalen, 20 inches by
15, was purchased a few years since by the King of Poland, for 27,000 florins,
or about |32,500. Of the latter of these it was said, " the soul of Raphael
has passed into the person of Parmegiano."

In the Crystal Palace is a small "painting on parchment," numbered 349,
said to be by Correggio. It represents the assumption of the Virgin into
heaven. The design is admirable, and this at least, if not the painting, is
doubtless that*of Correggio.

The School of Bologna was a union of different styles, beino- remark-
able for the fine design and drawing of the Roman, the grace of the Li)mbard,
and the coloring of the Venetian. The Caracci, born near the middle of the
sixteenth century, Guido Reni, and Domenichino, born 1581, are among its
eminent painters. The last named, in color, design, and expression, has been
ranked with Raphael. Of the Caracci, Annibal is the most brilliant.

In the Crystal Palace are two pictures which profess to be the work of
GuiDO Reni, one numbered 144, St. Cecilia, and the other, Mary Magdalen,
numbered 652. In the choice of his subjects, the purity of his coloring, in
sentiment, and an elegance of expression which he has given the female char-
acter, and in all the higher excellence of the art, he stand* among the highest.
Francesco Barbieri was of this school. He was born 1590. One of his pic-
tures is in the Crystal Palace. It is No. 372, and is called Magdalen with
Vase.

The Flemish School, like that of Venice, is chiefly eminent for its color-
ing. Rubens, Vandyk, and David Teniers, are among the greatest of this
or any other school. Peter Paul Rubens was born in 1577, at Cologne.
No painter ever surpassed him in richness of inventive powers, while in the
versatility of his genius, facility of combination and beautiful blending of
colors, he rivals the great Venetian masters. Vandyk has been called the
Raphael of the Flemish school. He was born in 1599. Teniers, born 1610.,
was eminent for his facility of execution and pureness of coloring. His skies
possess that clear and silvery hue, his figures that tntnsparent and spiritual
touch, which constitute a great part of the beauty of this master's art

312

THE LATTING OBSERVATORY.

The Crystal Palace contains one picture " by Teniers," the Temptation of
St Anthony, numbered 365.

Adrian Van Ostade belonged to this school. He was born 1610. The
painting numbered 374 in the Crystal Palace, was by this artist. It is called
in the catalogue, "Interior." It is a view of an apartment in some cottage.

We shall take another opportunity to refer to the schools of Naples, Spain
Franco, &c. Among these is the painter Velasquez, of great reputation, one
of whose paintings, as it is said, is on exhibition in Broadway. We have
neither seen the painting, nor the evidence of its authenticity.

THE LATTING OBSERVATORY.

ilSlMftPi

This structure deserves careful consideration in various respects. It is a
capital exhibition of architectural skill, and as such commends itself to the
study of all practical 'artisans in that department. Again, it is worthy of
attention as the highest structure, we believe, on the continent ; and thirdly,

THE LATTING- OBSERVATORY. 313

as an observatory which commands an entire view of New-York and its en-
virons.

The original plan was to construct it 350 feet high to the top of the flag-
staff; but it was finally decided to erect it 300 feet to the iron bed on which
is being placed the apparatus for the "calcium light," consisting of a lantern
of iron, with neat iron palisades around, 10 feet in diameter, the lantern itself
being 6 feet in diameter, leaving a twofeet walk at the height of 300 feet
from the ground. The lantern reaches 15 feet above the bed-plate on which
it rests, and is covered by a well-formed octagonal roof, or cap, diverging
from a point at the centre, the entire height of which is 315 feet. Tnis
height is within twelve feet of that of St. Paul's Cathedral, measuring to the
top of the cross. The height of St. Paul's Cathedral is 306 feet, so that the
Laltino- Observatory is nine feet higher than the loftiest cathedral in Great Bri-
tain. It is of an octagonal form, with a base 75 feet in diameter, and it will
be capable of accommodating 2,000 persons at one time on its various land-
ings. The frame is composed of eight spars, each made of two posts, an
inside and an outside post, the distance from the inside of the former to the
outside of the latter being 6 feet. Each outside post is formed of 3 timbers,
or ])lanl<s, 3 inches by 12. These are so bolted together as to hold fast the
ends of the short braces which, together with the inside post, form the spar.
To see one of these spars separate from the building, would present the
appearance of a gigantic ladder, 300 feet high, 6 feet wide, but with the
steps placed across, so as to form diamond spaces between each, instead of
squares. These spars are made sirong by every joint in the timber being
covered or lashed over by a strong portion of the neighboring timber — what,
in technical language, is called " breaking the joint." Eight of these spars
are placed leaning towards each other, forming a base of 75 feet diameter,
and a curb at top of 6 feet diameter. These rest on a foundation of solid
stone, overlaying the rock 7 feet below the surface. The spars are bolted to
the foundatioij by means of iron strapping, 2 inches by f inch, made of the
best Ulster iron. This strapping runs from the bottom of the foundation to
14 feet above, where it is firmly boiled to the outside timbers.

These eight spars are supported inside by eight others of similar construc-
tion, running perpendicularly to the height of 200 feet, forming a well 15
feet diameter and 200 feet deep, in the centre of the tower. The inside spars
are braced and bolted to the outside ones at every stage or landing, (of which
there are three above the six floors from the basement,) and also at interme-
diate stations. In addition to all this, there are braces crossing each other on
the outside, with ties, so as to keep the posts from buckling between the land-
ings ; and the bolts and ties are so arranged, on the principle of a tube or
barrel, that as soon as any variation of climate causes the timber to shrink
or to expand, two men can tighten or release the whole more easily than
they could the hoops of a large barrel. Tiiis is an ingenious contrivance to
avoid the danger which a timber building of this character would otherwise
be liable to.

Mr. Nangle was the designer of this admirable plan, while Mr. Waring
Latting, whose name it bears, originally suggested the idea, and employed
Mr. N. to construct the plan. The other gentlemen engaged in it are Messrs.
D. D. Deming, Daniel Sickles, and George and Charles P. Grosvenor. The
stock of the Association is $150,000. It pays a good dividend.

The ascent is by a winding staircase, but so constructed as to tire, by the
ascent, much less than one would anticipate. Tlie frequent landings furnish
convenient opportunities for rest, and present sufficient inducements to detain
the visitor, even though he may not need the rest.

314 ANALYSIS OF THE VEGETABLE OYSTER.

The entrance to the buildiiig is in Forty-second street, and opposite the
Crystal Palace.

Among the various objects of interest within the range of vision from this
tower, on the south, are New-York city, with its public buildings, spires, and
streets. The Sixth Avenue stretches out like a libbon from beneath you.
Brooklyn is also in view, with a small portion of Greenwood Cemetery and
Fort Hamilton. East of Brooklyn are VVillianisburgh, Greenpoint, Ravens-
wood, Astoria, Newtown, the spires of Flushing, the tower upon Cypress
Hills, (fee. The East river is also visible for nearly the whole extent, with
Randall's Island, Blackwell's Island, and its Asylum, Alms House, and City
Pj'ison.

Turning to the north-east and north, are a continuation of the city, with
the Orphan Asylum for colored children, and the Arsenal, a stone building on
the Fifth Avenue ; the great Croton reservoir, much larger than the receiving
basin by the side of the Crystal Palace, and almost under your feet; while
still farther in the distance, when clear, you see Harlem village and the High
Bridge, on which the Croton pipes cross the Harlem river. This bridge rests
on eight arches, each of 80 feet span, and seven others, each being of 50 feet
span, and is 114 feet above tide-water. The Palisades on the North river,
with the silver surface of this beautiful stream, are also a view.

Ao-ain, towards the west, are the Hudson, the beautiful scenery of Hobo-
ken and its "Elysian Fields," Jersey City, (fee.

No stranger should visit New-York, and not ascend to the top of the Lat-
ting Observatory.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

ANALYSIS OF THE VEGETABLE OYSTER.
(tragopogon porrifolius.)

BY J. H. SALSBURT, M. D.

Tins plant does not belong to the list of those used as food for stock ; yet
it is a plant of some interest in the way of the table, on account of its richness
and peculiar flavor, which somewhat resembles, when cooked, that of the
oyster.

The specimens examined were very large and tender. They were furnished
by Mr. Douw, of Greonbush. The average widest diameter at the roots of
six specimens was 1^- inch ; their average length, 11 inches ; average length
of tops, 26 inches; average weight of each root, 4^ ounces; average weight
of the tops of each plant, l^ ounce.

Fresh Hoots. Fresh Tops.

Per centage of water, . . 81.220 84.460

" " dry matter, . 18.780 15.540

" " ash, . . 1.465 2.170

" » ash in dry matter, 8.333 13.964

6826 lbs. of fresh roots contain 100 lbs. of inorganic matter; 4608 lbs. of
the fresh tops contain 100 lbs. of inorganic matter.

100 lbs. of the inorganic matter of the roots and tops contain, respectively :

Hoots. Tops.

Carbonic acid, . . . 24.60 21.90
Silicic acid, . . . 0.60 8.65

Phosphoric acid, . . 15.60 5.06

ANALYSIS OF THE VEGETABLE OYSTEE.

315

Phosphate of iron,

1.85

3.85

Lime,

. 4.95

7.05

Magnesia,

0.V5

1.20

Potash, .

. 5.80

6.30

Soda, .

39.20

40.05

Chlorine,

. 2.45

0.55

Sulphuric acid.

3.90

5.16

Organic matter,

trace

none

99.70

99.75

25 ounces.

35 ounces.

. 6.15

7.30

0.15

2.88

. 3.90

1.68

0.46

1.28

. 1.24

2.35

0.19

0.40

. 1.45

2.10

9.80

13.35

0.61

0.18

0.98

1.72

100 lbs. of fresh roots remove from the soil a little less than 25 ounces of
inorganic matter ; 100 lbs. of fresh tops remove about 35 ounces of inorganic
matter. These amounts contain, in round numbers, as follows :

Carbonic acid,

Silicic acid.

Phosphoric acid, .

Phosphate of iron, .

Lime,

Magnesia,

Potassa,

Soda,

Chlorine, .

Sulphuric acid,

It may be regarded by some as quite unnecessary to enter into a series of
calculations which show the amount and kind of each ingredient removed
from the soil by a given weight of the fresh roots and tops, separately, of the
vegetable oyster. Those, however, who live in the vicinity of large towns,
and who raise this plant in quantities for market, we think, will find them
valuable in the way of pointing out the kind and quantity of each ingredient
removed by a crop, and hence, the kind and quantity of each necessary to add.
The aggregate quantity raised is, to be sure, but small ; nevertheless, it is highly
desirable, and equally important, to have what are grown of the best quality.
This is only to be effected, to any degree of certainty, by knowing what kind
of a soil is best adapted to them. This is established by determining accu-
rately the composition of the plant. Hence the practical value of these cal-
culations.

One ton of fresh roots contains of inorganic matter, 31.16 lbs., which is
made up of the following bodies, in the proportions given below :

Carbonic acid, . . 7.69 lbs.

Silicic " . . 0.19 "

Phosphoric acid, . . 4.88 "

Phosphate of iron, . 0.57 "'

Lime, .... 1.55 "

Magnesia, , . . 0.24 "

Potassa, . . . 1.81 "

Soda, . . . 12.25 "

Chlorine, . . . 0.76 "

Sulphuric acid, . . 1.22 "

These bodies are more than furnished to the soil by the following compost :

316 ATMOSPHERIC GAS-LIGHT.

Ashes,

. 33 lbs.

Common salt,

10 "

Plaster, .

. 5 '*

Barn-yard manure.

1 ton

The ashes furnish all the inorganic matter removed, in sufficient quantity,
except the soda, chlorine, and sulphuric acid. The salt and plaster furnish
these. The ton of barn-yard manure is added to furnish organic matter to
the plant, to increase the absorbing power of the soil, to elevate its tempera-
ture, and to render more soluble the inorganic matter added.

We now come to see the proximate organic composition of the roots, which
points out to us their nutritive qualities.

100 parts of

100 parts of

fresh roots.

dry roots.

Water,

. 80.G10

Fibre,

2.7C4

29.618

Sugar and Extract,

. 3.665

39,279

Dextrine,

1.435

15.378

Casein,

. 0.172

1.849

Albumen,

1.066

11.426

Starch,

0.035

0.375

Resin,

0.180

1.929

Gluten,

, 0.014

0.147

99.941

100.

The roots contain a large per centage of sugar, dextrine, and albumen,
which accounts for their rich flavor. They contain about 5 per cent, of water
more than the potato. Besides the above-mentioned bodi-s, they have a
small quantity of a principle which gives them that peculiar flavor and odor
when cooked.

Ultimate organic analysis of roots. — 100 parts of dry roots gave of

Nitrogen, . . 1.980

Carbon, . . 42.809

Oxygen, . . 41.014

Hydrogen, . . 5.644

ATMOSPHERIC GAS-LIGHT,

Some months ago, a patent was secured for a new gas-light, the basis of
which is humid atmospheric air, and a company is now organized for bring-
ing it before the public. Henceforth, there is no necessity for huge retorts,
stills, furnaces, &c., covering with a sooty cloud entire sections of the city ;
for each family and each individual even, is independent of any such assist-
ance in illuminating his mansion, church, store, or counting-room. The point,
which has so long been contested, is settled beyond controversy.

We have been personally conversant with this discovery from its earliest
history, and we have long been certain, from the evidence of our own senses,
of the truth of its pretensions. For many months we have had a two-ounce
phial, containing the mysterious liquid, so arranged as to allow a passage of
air into and out of it, and using our own lungs as the only machinery in
connection with it, have exhibited, from time to time, to scores of our friends,

ATMOSPHERIC GAS-LIGHT. 317

its product, in tlie form of a clear, white, pure flarae, free from smoke and
other offensive or unhealthy quality, and which threw into shade all other
lights with which it could be conveniently compared. We have used this
same phial, its contents being unchanged, for more than a year, and are ready
to show it to still other friends.

But what is it ? How does it differ from other gas-lights, already in use ?

It is produced by a current of " humid air," ])assing through a mixture, the
principal ingredient of which is benzole, a highly carbonized fluid. Instead
of using "carburetted hydrogen," prepared by expensive chemical processes,
(which, being always impure, and abounding in sulphuretted hydrogen, has a
most offensive smell, as every one knows who has been near a leaky gas-pipe,
and is very unhealthy withal,) this patent employs atmospheric air, which, by
a mere passage through the liquid, at ordinary temperatures, appropriates to
itself, from the benzole mixture, all that is requisite to impart to its flame
peculiar brilliancy.

But what is benzole, and how and at what cost can it be obtained ?

Benzole is a "hydrocarbon" spirit, of liquid form, obtained by distillation
from bituminous coal and other analogous substances, which are found or are
easily obtained in every part of the world. The company to which we shall
presently refer, propose to supply it, at present, in any quantities, by importa-
tion, at one dollar a gallon. But they purpose, hereafter, to manufacture it
for themselves, and can then, no doubt, afford to sell it at a much lower rate.

This benzole is mixed with one or two other cheap ingredients, and a gal-
lon of the hydrocarbon is fully equal to the production of 1,000 cubic feet of
gas.

Hence, the gas cannot cost the consumer more than $1.25 per 1,000 feet,
and probably it will be much less. But even at this rate, this gas is essen-
tially cheaper than that sold by any company, in any city in the world.

In the use of this gas, there need be no middleman or company between
the raw material and the consumer. No chemical apparatus nor chemical
process is necessary to prepare the benzole for immediate use.

Every building, whether factory, store, dwelling-house, church, or other
structure, and even a single room in a bofirding-house, whether in city or
country, may have its own fixtures for using this light. To provide an entire
dwelling-house of ordinary size and requirements, would need but a compa-
ratively cheap apparatus. The Company now organized propose to furnish
every thing that is necessary, not occupying more space than two feet square
and three feet high, at a co^t not exceeding $70. This apparatus will require
less than two minutes' attention, daily, to keep it in constant working order
for an entire household. The pipes conveying the gas to the different parts
of the house, as at present, would be arranged, of course, at more or less cost,
according to the pleasure of each consumei-. It will not be long, in our opi-
nion, before ingenious mechanics will devise models for ladies' work-tables,
or other household furniture, which will contain all that is necessary to fur-
nish light to as many as can be accommodated around it.

The proprietors of this patent have already organized a company, under
the name of The American Gas Company, the stock of which includes the
two great States of New- York and Pennsylvania, and a good portion of
which, as we are informed, is already sold. Their office is at No. 3 Broad-
way, where the proprietors of most of the other States may also be found.
The shares are held at a low price, so as to bring them within the reach of
those of moderate means.

We shall be happy to give any further information in our power to any of

318 KUITORS' JOTTINGS, ETC.

our readers who may send us letters of inquiry. For, though not interested
in this patent to the amount of a single mill, we have felt a deep interest in
the subject, and we believe this discovery will revolutionize, ere long, our
Avhole system of lumination, and we are disposed to give it all the aid in our
power.

Such is the obvious value of this discovery, that more than one who have
been to some extent made acquainted with it, either by fair means or foiri,
have undertaken to avail themselves of the opportunity to secure a fortune,
by adopting modified forms of the great principles involved in it, and already
secured to the gentlemen who have organized this Company, by patent.

We purpose to illucidate this subject more particularly in our next number.

EDITORS' JOTTINGS AND MECHANICAL RECORD

ISFew-Haven Railroad. — We take pleasure in recurring to 'liis excellent in-
land route for eastern travel, as affording superior facilities and advantages to
any who may h ive occasion t > avail themselves of good accommodations, gen-
tlemanly conductors, and careful engineers and attendants. Every attention is
paid to th? comfort and safety of passengers, and we are pleased to know t'lat
this is a favorite line of travel with the public generally. Uuder the present
able iiianagemeat ol this Oiimpany, we have no doubt of its continued s.iccess
and prosperity.

Otis & Cottle's Boking and Mortising Machine. — We are gratified at the
success of the Bo ing and Mortising Machine manufactured by Messrs. Otis &
Cottle, and on exh bition at die late Fair of the American Institute, and also at
the Crystal Palace. Besides the above mortising and boring machine, Messrs.
Otis & Cottle sell every variety of machinery for carpenters, joiners, and builder?.
Office, Syracuse, F. Y.

Boston Museum. — Being in the "city of notions" a few days since, we
" dropped i - " to the Museum, a d were so muc!; interested that we staid until
after the performance in the evening. The collection of natural and artificial
curiosities is very large, and the performances very respectable.

Safes. — We have seen McFarland's Fire and Burglar-proof Safe that delivered
up its contents sound and uninjured from the great fire in Pearl street, Augu t
23, and do not hesitate to say to our patrons, that whatever will stand a fire
like that, may be trusted aiy where. The manufacturers are confident of its
snperiority over all others, and modestly wait for time and fires to bring out the
proofs. T ey are i ressed with order^. from all quarters.

Chilson's Patent Air-warming and Ventilating Furnaces. — The import-
ance of pure air for respiration cannot be overrated. Every individual is inter-
ested to a greater or less extent in the successful accomplishm^nt of this object.
But to iinp'-irt a general and agreeable w irmih to the atmosphere in dwelling-
houses, our sc'iool-houses, churches, &c., during the severe cold of our Northern
winters, a i i > et to retain it in a pure state, is a problem requ'ring mechanical in-
genuity ;;nd cliemical science. Notwithstanding such difficulties, presenting objec-
tions to so many of the various kinds of warming apparatus now in use, Mr. Gard-
ner Chilson, of Boston, after many years' close observation and strict prcatical ex-
perience, has iiroduccd, as the re- ult of his study and experimen s, a coml)ina!ion
hot-air a;id ventilatiiig furnace, that we think is unsurpassed eitlier in the sim-
pHcity oTits constructioii, the excellenc ■ of its arrangement, or the pleasantnes-
and healthiness uf the warmth produced by it. This arrangement not only
answers the i)urpo es above described, but promotes economy in !he quantity of
fuel consumed, and is free from danger by fire.

NEW BOOKS. 319

Baltimore and Ohio Eaileoad.— This road was opened to through travel on
the 1st of January, 1853, and is now become thoroughly settled and complete in
all its appointments. It is 380 miles in length, and passes through a highly inter-
esting and attractive country. Among the Alleghanies, the scenery is remarkably
sublime. There are no drau'-br.dges upon the line, and the safety and comfort
of the passengers are carefully provided for by competent and attentive ofHcers.

Stone Tree. — There is a tree in Mexico called the cMjol, a very fine wood,
which, according to a writer in the National Intelligencer, (W. D. Porter,)
becomes petrified after being cut, in a very few years, whether left in the open
air or buried. From this timber, houses could be built, that would in a few
years become fire-proof, and last as long as those built of stone. The wood, in
its green state, is easily worked: it is used in building wharves, forts, &c., and
would be very good as railway sleepers, or for plank-road stringers. — I'lie Pacific^
(San Francisco Paper.)

NEW BOOKS.

The Missionary of Kilmany ; being a memoir of Alexander Paterson, with notices of
Robt. Edie. By Rev. John Baillie. pp. 253. New-York: Robert Carter & Bros,

This little work was undertaken at the instance of Rev. Dr. Hanna and other
prominent persons, who were anxious that the life of so useful a man should not pass
imreeorded. It will be read with interest and profit. It is very handsomely printed,
and in handsome covers.

CuEisTiAN Progress; a sequel to The Anxious Inquirer after Salvation directed and
encouraged. By John Angell James, pp. 180. New-York: Robert Carter &
Brothers.
Tlie works of John Angell James need no endorser. This small volume should be

a companion to the other writings of the most excellent and able author.

The Law and the Testimony. By the Author of the " Wide, Wide World." New-
York : Robert Carter & Brothers, 285 Broadway.

Our readers will not be able to appreciate this work but by reading it. It is a
collection or classification of the mass of Scripture testimony, on each of the grand
points of Scripture doctrines. The second article, upon the Divinity of the Saviour,
is written with the tact and power of a theologian, clear and cogent.

Principles of Geology ; or, the Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants,
considered as illustrative of Geology. By Charles Lyell, M.A., F.R.S., Vice-Pre-
sident of the Geological Society of^London ; Author of "A Manual of Elementary
Geology," "Travels in North America," "A Second Visit to the United States,"
&c., <fec.' New and entirely revised edition, illustrated with maps, plates, and
wood-cuts. New-York : D. Appleton & Company, 200 Broadway. 1853.
This work of more than 800 pages is now offered, after being revised and enlarged
by nearly one third of the whole, for the price of $2.25 per volume. It comprises a
• historical sketch of geology, defining its relation to other sciences ; treats of observed
chansjes in the inorganic world now in progi-ess; of igneous causes or subterranean
heat;" of the geographical distribution of spe'cies, and theoriesrespecting their creation
and extinction, and the laws by or according to which we find tliem imbedded in vol-
canic, fresh water, and marine deposits.

It is indeed just the book that we are glad to meet Avitl), coming down to our own
time, full of instruclion to the student, and matter for contemplation for the most
profound. A book for all, and its price within their means.

320

LIST OF PATENTS.

List of Patents Recently Issued,

FROM SEPT. *? TO OCT. 1.

M. W. Baldwin, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in gear of variable cul-off valves for
steam-engine*!.

John Chilcott & Robert Snell, of Brooklyn, N. Y.,
for improvement in India-rubber soles lor boots
and shoes.

John Chilcott & Robert Snell, of Brooklyn, N.
Y., for iniprovemeiit in cullins l)oots and shoes.
Patented in Belyintn, Sept. 16,1852; in France,
Sept. 17, 1S52; in England, Sept. 30, 1S52.

Pien'e Demeure & Anguste Mauritz, of New-
York city, N. Y., for improvement in bed bottoms.

Wm. P. Greenleaf, of Washington, N. II., for
improvement in shape of scythes.

r,' Z. H. Mann, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for improve-
ment in satety-valves for steam-boilers.

George Potts, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for improve-
ment in revolving mandrel for lining cylinders
with metal.

Andrew Robeson, Jr., of Newport, R. I., for im-
provement in bucking cloth. Patented in England,
Nov. 8, 1833.

Hervey S. Ross, of Cleveland, Ohio, for im-
provement in lences.

Samuel B. Sumner, of Grantville, Mass., for
improvement in boot-jacks.

Frederick W. Norton, of Lasswade, Great Bri-
tain, for improvement in the manufacture of plain
and figured fabrics.

James Rakin, of Detroit, Mich., for improve-
ment in hanging mill saws.

John Chilcott & Robert Snell, of Brooklyn, N.
Y., for improvement in screw fastenings lor boots
and shoes.

L. A. Stockwell, of Batavia, N. Y., for improve-
ment in lard lamps.

T. J. Alexander, of Wcsterville, Ohio, for im-
provement in sawing sticks for broom-handles.

Jas. Black, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
meut in planetary hydraulic steam engine.

Uriah A. Boyden, of Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in turbines.

Uriah A. Boyden, of Boston, Mass., fur improve-
ment in hydraulic motors.

Alfred F. Chatman, New- York city, N. Y., for
improvement in razor strops.

Isaac Fay, of Cambridge, Mass., for iraprove-
meul in railroad car-seats.

David Freed, of Huntingdon, Pa., for improve-
ment in toilet furniture.

Samuel Hulbert, of Ogdensburgh, N. Y., for
improvement in ploughs. Patented in Canada,
Sept. 20, If^oiJ.

Samuel Jenkins, of Portsmouth, Pa., frr im-
provement in seed-planters.

Oliver S. Leavitt, of Marcellu?, N. Y., for im-
provement ill hemp breakers.

Oliver S. Leavitt, rf Marcelhis, N. Y., for im-
provement in drawirig-.'rames for hemp and flax.

Warren Lyon, of New-York city, N. Y., for im-
provement in metal drills.

James R. Nichols, of Haverhill, Mass., for im-
provement in lluid cans.

Henry Perrin and Wm. Rudduck, of Wilming-
ton, Ohio, lor improvLment in seed planters.

Philo Sylla and Augustus Adams, of EJgin, 111.,
for improvement in gruin and grass harveaters.

Ancil St ckney, of Norwich, Vt., for improve-
ment in blow-pipes for enlarging blasting cavities.
Anle-dated Muy 10, 185:1.

Ancil Si ickney , of Norwich, Vt., for improvement
in compound bluw-pipe for enlarging blasting ca-
vities. Ante-dated J une 11, 1S53.

Abel Shawk, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for improve-
ment in steam generators.

0. Willis, of McDowell Co., N. C, for improve-
ment in saw for water wheels.

George Gorman, of Lamar, Mass., for improve-
ment in cotton stalk-cutters, or pulverizers.

Halvor Halvorson, of Hartford, Conn , for im-
provement in looms lor weaving hair cloth.

Henry Ilochstras-er, of Philadelphia, Pa., for
improved sash-lastener.

Nicholas Mason, of Roxbury, Mass., for im-
provement in cooking ranges.

Henry McCarty, of Pittsburgh, Pa., for improve-
ment in the manufacture of sheet-iron.

Jordon L. Mott, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in cookl. g-sloves.

Jordon L. Mott, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in bathing-tubs.

Christian Sleppy, of Newport, Pa., for improve-
ment in making chains.

David Stuart, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
ment in annealing hollow iron ware.

Robert Waskey, of Mill Creek, Va., for improve-
ment in smut machines.

Wm. Zimmerman, of Quincy, 111., for improve-
ment in smut machines.

Chas. E. John and Samuel Wethered, of Balti-
more, Md., for improverat'iits in the use of steam
for actuating engines. Patented in England, May
•25, 1S53.

Wm. Brown, of Glasgow, Scotland, for improve-
ment in preparing paraffine oil.

Cahb B. Burnap, of Hartford, Conn., assignor
to Lucius F. Robui-.oii, ot same jdace, for improved
method of veneering.

Daniel P. Fales, of West PouUney, Vt., for im-
provement in car wheels.

James M. Dick, of Buffalo, N. Y., for improve-
ment in railroad switches.

Chas. H. Piatt, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in ships' blocks.

Wm. Richardson, of New-Orleans, La., for im-
proved centrifugal draining machine.

Stephen E. Parrish, of New-York, N. Y., for
improved clamp lor laying floors.

Pakt L— Vol. VT. DECEMBER, 1853. No. 6.

LABOIl IN OBTAINlNa RAW MATERIALS, AND LABOR IN THE ARTS.

We have often referred to tbe fact, that countries confined to the produc-
tion of the raw material have never flourished like those where the arts and
manufactures have been fostered. This diversity is not accidental nor tem-
porary. It is founded on the nature of things.

The net profit of agricultural labor and of other labor in obtaining the raw
material is far less than in the mechanic arts. The price for a good workman
on a farm will not average over $100 a year besides his board, and that board,
on an average, costs less than |75 a year. This makes the annual price of
a form laborer |175.

The net profit of the proprietor who hires his labor at this low rate, seldom
exceeds and often fells short of ten per cent. Learned discussions on this
subject in agricultural meetings fully sustain the liberality, even, of this esti-
mate.

The price of job-work in such departments, as a matter of course, must
bear an almost exact ratio with the same labor employed on time.

On the other hand, the net profit of mechanical and manufacturing labor
is comparatively high. A machinist values his time at $2 to |3, and even
$10 per day. No one of this class, of ordinary capacity in his calling, can
be hired for a price essentially less than we have named. The reasons why
it is so are obvious. They are numerous too, but with these we have now
nothing to do. Facts are what we would examine, and not philosophy.

Ancf which of these two classes will form the most profitable customers for
those who live on exchanges — those described in our October number as
being supported by 'the producers? Who can buy of our town and city
merchants their flour, sugar, cottons, woollens, spices, sweetmeats, &c.?
There can be but one answer.

Who fnrnishes the best custom to him who increases the value of the
material he works upon, as the shoemaker, tailor, blacksmith, &c. ? Evi-
dently, the same class as before. Who are not hmited in their numbers and
success by the necessity of preserving to themselves the exclusive use of
large tracts of land? Who can be collected into villages, towns, and
cities, and thus furnish vastly increased facilities of trade ? Whose liberal
income enables them best to support themselves and their families from the
surplus crops of the husbandman ? Not the laborer who raises those crops,
as we have just seen, nor the fellow-laborer who digs up the raw material.

The price of job-work, readily obtained in these trades and occupations, as
in the class already mentioned, is conclusive on these points. And what does
the artisan charge you for an hour's work on your watch ? Seventy-five cents
or a dollar, and often much more than that.
VOL. VI. — PART V. 21

322 LABOR IX OBTAINING RAW MATERIALS, ETC.

But look at the material on which he works. That piece of rude iron,
which you carried in your hand from the foundry, might have cost you
twenty-five cents. Let Messrs. Jessup and Co., or some brother artisan, car-
bonize that piece of iron, and its worth increases to four times its former
value. Another artist converts it into main-springs and hair-springs, and its
value is raised to hundreds of dollars.

You find a piece of bra.<s on the highway, and sell it to the first man
whom you meet, who will give you a shilling. An ai tisan uses it for making
the brass-work of a dozen watches, and with the little bits of that piece of
steel which were not used in the main-springs, &c., he com])letes the move-
ments of several watches, each worth more than §100.

A few ounces of this iron might have been converted into needles ; and at
sixpence a paper, what would be the value of those ounces, thus finished ?

Do you reject these illustrations because we have valued them at retail
prices ? There we have you again. This same iron was bought at retail,
though the purchase was of several pounds. Now it is retail, because it is
sold in parcels weighing the fraction of an ounce. A purchase of a pound
or two, or a few "gross," would become a "wholesale" trade.

Poor peasants, and entire classes of laborei-s whose pecuniary position is
kindred to theirs, dig out and break up the white quartz, or collect the white
sand, or collect the vegetable material from which potash is manufactured,
at the lowest rate. The ultimate products of these labors are sold to the
Bohemian glass-maker, and he reproduces them in the most elegant forms
and colors seen in the Crystal Palace, either in New- York or in Hyde Park.
He deuiands a price, too, corresponding with the changes made in their ap-
pearance.

A wool-grower sells his entire fleece at forty cents a pound, and " does
better" in that trade than with his corn or potatoes. The manufeeturer de-
votes less than an hour's work to a few pounds of it, and you buy back fine
broadcloth at the rate of $20 or 830 per pound.

What form of labor in obtaining the raw material can be named, which
pays in a ratio that compares with these ?

It is not enough to say, in reply to all this, that such conversions of raw
material into valuable goods require large " capital," and that without it,
capital, these values could not be attained. We reverse the position, and say
that not only does the labor of the artisan do what we have described, but it

BRINGS INTO BEING EVERY DOLLAR OF THE CAPITAL WHICH IT EMPLOYS.

You hold in your hand a Leyden jar ; touch the* knob, and it does not
afi"ect a muscle. There is no activity in it. Turn that glass cylinder, yonder.
" Well, I have done so ; but see ! nothing comes from it." Nothing did come
from it. But apply the knob of the jar to that of the conductor of the
cylinder, and bear upon that cushion while you turn, and the sparks are
thick and bright. They are brought into being by these operations. So it
was with this capital you talk about. The gold was in the mountain, and so
was the lead, and the copper, and the tin, and the sulphur bubbled up from
the spring. And there each might have lain or bubbled till the day of doom.
What would have brought them forth ? There might have been a few roughly-
built ships to have carried corn and wheat and rice, and a very few other
things, to some neighboring climate, a"nd brought back fruits or roots that we
were willing to pay for at such immense expense, (that is, if the ships could
be found made to hand,) but there could be no other commerce. There are
no silks, nor woollens, nor cottons, nor linens, nor other manufactures, of
course, for if we had the material ofieiing iiself to our service, we have no

LABOR IN" OBTAINI]S"G- RAW MATERIALS, ETC. 323

machinery. Without any of these arts, we have not even the stone axe of
the Indian. Now, where's your "immense capital," your hundreds of mil-
lions employed as a basis for the industry of the civilized world ?

We might go farther, and say that without " the arts" there could not be
even civilization. But we nov/ have to do only with the economical part of
this subject.

But again, a very large proportion of all capital depends exclusively on
the arts for its very existence. John Jacob Astor owned some scores of
houses in New- York city. Annihilate the knowledge of the arts and the
values they have produced, and what would those houses now be worth, even
were the population to remain for the time being just what it now is ? Just
what houses accommodating an equal number of people in the remotest
farming district would be worth, and no more.

But the people must be driven away from these crowded streets, and seek
' the unoccupied fields and forests, where there is some hope of appeasing their
hunger ; for in crowded cities they all must starve. There is not land
enough in New- York city proper, without the aid of the arts, to support one
family ! Now, compute the value of all this real estate. It is lkss than
that of a single house in the country, which has not a neighbor within
twenty railes !

But suppose (an impossibilty) that capital does exist, eagles and sovereigns
and doubloons are piled and counted by hundreds of millions. What are
they good for? Merely to pass as representatives of the value of sundry
vegetable products. Tkey cannot produce the arts. If they could, even with
the aid of existing science and arts, there is many an ignorant man rolling in
wealth, who would apply even all that he has, to acquire the knowledge of
them. Our own ears have repeatedly heard from gouty occupants of stutfed
chairs the emphatic utterance, " I would give all I am worth for your active
muscles." Equally impracticable would it be for capital to create the arts.

Ou the other hand, it is the office of the arts to produce capital. It is their
legitimate and necessary work. They have created that now in existence ; not
all, exclusively, but not a dollar has been created without their indirect aid.

There is a sense in which there is "capital" among the most degraded
tribes. The land supports all animal life, and might support a few, without
any knowledge of the arts, technically so called. The bow and arrow, the
stone hatchet, the dressed skin, <fec., with the spontaneous growths of tree
and shrub and plant, might feed and clothe several of the millions scattered
over the world's broad surface. But for how much could you then buy a
hundred iniles square of this goodly earth ? The past proves that a few
trinkets, no matter whether gold or pewter — for the value of each is the
same — and a few baskets of shells and the like, would be quite ample.

There is, then, no mystery in the statement, and no doubt can be entertained
of its correctness, that society progresses only where the arts are fostered ; that
the laborer on the farm is the best husband of his own estate who, increases
his present possessions by multiplying the number and variety of laborers in
other pursuits, in his own neighborhood. If artisans are driven to foreign
lands, there to pursue their trades, while their places remain vacant at home,
the farmer loses, with each emigrant, a portion of his capital. With each
such departure, value disappears from his own title-deeds.

But there are much more influential considerations connected with this
subject.

Suppose an ingenious mechanic should contrive a machine which could
be placed close by the field of the agriculturist, which would take his corn

824 EUSSIAN INDUSTRY.

and grass and roots, and convert them by some speedy and sure process into
almost any form or substance which the farmer should desire. He utters
some " magic incantation," and jn'csto, the wheat becomes broadcloth, the
cabbage and the potato become linen and cotton goods, while the refuse is
in exactly the right condition to fertilize the land and qualify it for new crops.
"Who would not pay an annual rent for such a marvel ? But this is not all.
Let this same machine, by changing one of the wheels, be competent to turn
out the rye, oats, corn, fruits, &c., &c., in the form of quarter eagles or gold
dollars, with now and then a small pile of genuine Washingtons. What
an excitement would be raised ! What wonderful results would be " sure to
follow" such a discovery ! But stop, reader; the whole array of artisans and
manufacturers do this identical thing. And they do more: they pay a good
share of your taxes, and of all the expenses of schools and of religious insti-
tutions. Without enlarging this list, the reader may now extend it, as he
may judge the facts will wairaut.

IIUSSIAN' INDUSTEY.

We purposed to extend the leading article in our November number, Avith
the inf)rmaiion contained in the following paragraphs, but were accidentally
prevented from so doing. Hence, we invite a second time the attention of the
reader to this important subject. We are indebted for them to Bayard Taylor.

The Bourgeome forms the middle class in Russia, as in other civilized coun-
tries of Europe ; that is, it stands between the nobility and the pea>antry.
Individually, they are styled citizen burghers, {hurg-ers.)

Some of the requisitions here set forth seem arbitrary, and a few of them
are so, but most of them conduce materially to the good order of the
community. In fact, something like them exists in some of the New-
England States. We have personally known an applicant, in Vermont,
refused the " citizen's oath," which gives the right to vote, on the ground of
immoral character. There is such a thing as being too lax as well as too
strict ; and we believe all our States deny the right of citizenship to con-
victed felons. We know not why many an unconvicted felon is not as unde-
servinsT as many declared felons, and we are sure that he is more dangerous
to the community. So candidates for "naturalization" must be proved to
be of good moral character.

The burghers of a city, town, or borough consist of —

1. Those born in it, or those who have settled there, established in any
business, as tradesmen, artisans, &c. 2. Persons possessing houses, lots, or
any description of real estate in the locality. 3. Those legistered in one of
the three guilds, or any other local corporation. 4. All those who, in the
city where they live, have fulfilled duties of personal service, who are re-
corded in the general register, and have accordingly paid the communal taxes.

This body of citizen burghers is divided into —

1. The class of the corporation legally called merchants. All of them
must be inscribed in one of the three guilds. 2. Respectable citizens. 3.
Citizen burghers not inscribed in any of the guilds ; artisans, mechanics, be-
longing to special handicraft corporations. 4. Freemen, such as discharged
soldiers, emancipated serfs, and all others of free condition not belonging to
any special corporation, but registered in the general one of the city inhabited
by them. 5. Workmen, and all other inhabitants owning houses in cities,
but not registered in the general or in any of the special corporations, can, if

RUSSIAN INDUSTRY. 825

tbey choose, be called citizen burghers, without, however, losing their privi-
leges, if from the order of the nobility, or acquiring those of burghers, if still
belonging to rural communes.

The three guilds or companies into which the merchant class is divided,
are formed according to the amount of capital employed and declared by
those wishing to get an inscription, on which an interest of about six per
cent, is to be paid yearly into the treasury. The sum necessary for an inscrip-
tion in the first guild is about $20,000; for the third or lowest, about §6,000.
Aside from this order of merchants, all other burghers form a general
body, whatever their trade or occupation. A handicraft corporation is formed
of masters, foremen, and apprentices. The members of such a corporation
are either for life or temporary. To the first belong those boi-n as citizen,
burghers ; to the second, foreign artisans, free peasants, and serfs who have
learned the special handicraft, or are received among the masters in the cor-
poration, being thus inscribed for a certain time, without belonging to the
general class of citizen burghers. The body of workmen is composed of all
registered in the records of the town, and not belonging to any of the above-
mentioned classes ; of men unfit for the military service, or those having
finit^hed it; of foreign immigrants, artisans, or apprentices, but excluding those
of bad character, and all those expelled for bad behavior, or for the non-pay-
ment of communal taxes, or the evading to fulfil personal duties.

Any one enjoying the right to make a selection of a corporation, trade, or
occupation for life, can enter the class of citizen burghers, abandoning thus
his inferior position, and passing over to this superior one. For this he must
be legally and officially accepted by the community which he wishes to join.
Exceptions exist for some artisans, where the legal assent of the community
to the act of admission is not necessary. Thus, cloth-weavers, dyei's and
dressers, and machinists, can join a general city corporation or community,
without obtaining the formality of its assent.

Free or crown peasants can join the corporation of burghers individually
or with their families, and so can rural communes, if they are traders, me-
chanics, artisans, or manufacturers, but not as agriculturists. Individuals
passing thus from one state to another, must obtain the assent of the com-
mune which they abandon, as well as the acceptance of that which they
enter. When this is to be done by a whole rural community, the permission
of the Government is necessary. Widows and daughters of fiee peasants
can, under certain conditions, become incorporated among the citizen
burghers.

Independent agriculturists, (a kind of free yeomen,) as well as emancipated
serfs, can join a city corporation with its assent,

Jews, and seceders from the State, or orthodox Greco-Russian Church, can
only join cor|)orations in transcaucasian cities. Asiatic nomads, of all races
and kinds, Kirgases, <fec., can, at their choice, enter any city corporation
whatever, and no objection can be raised to this by the commune.

The members of a municipal commune can hold legal meetings for the
debating and settling of objects of general interest, necessity, and utility.
These meetings are either genei'al, formed collectively by all the various
members of the general city corporation, or special, for each special corpora-
tion ; as, for example, for merchants, burghers, or workmen, a general meet-
ing is held every three years, being called together by the Governor of the
county, and presided ftver by the Mayor, who is called gotowa or head. The
legal age for the exercise of the right of voting is 25 years. At such trien-
nial meetings, the community elects members for its internal administration,

o26 RUSSIAN INDUSTRY.

as the Mayor, the Common Council, called Duma, the magistracy or Board
of Aldermen, a special Board for affairs relating to artisans, a Board to su-
perintend the recruiling of soldiers, and a Board of Deputies to look over the
administrative accounts. The community of any city can also erect a com-
munal bank according to the prescriptions of special laws.

No citizen burgher can be deprived of his standing or special privileges
otherwise than by the verdict of a criminal tribunal. In all civil as well as
criminal matters, if both the parties are of the same class, the case comes
first before the Board of Magistrates.

Merchants of the first guild, or their children, when the parents have be-
longed for 25 years uninterruptedly to the guild, have the right to enter the
civil or military service under the same conditions as the children of personal
nobles. Merchants of the second guild, or their children, cannot enter the
civil service at all, and the military only as volunteers, that is, with the right
to leave it again at any time. All other merchants, citizen bui'ghers, or their
children, are not admitted into the civil service on any condition whatever,
and when they enter the military, do not enjoy any privilege whatever, but
are treated like all the common recruits. A citizen burgher registered in one
of the three guilds is free from the general recruiting to which all other
burghers are subject. He also does not ])ay to the State the capitation tax,
called 2^oduschnoe, (from the soul,) as he already pays an interest on the capi-
tal for which he is inscribed in the guild. All other commercial taxes are
paid by the burghers in common with the rest of the inhabitants. Any citi-
zen burgher can own houses or other real estate situated in cities or villages,
or lots of naked land, that is, land without serfs. Citizen burghers not in-
scribed in any guild, but owning houses in cities valued above 85,000, are
obliged to register their names at least in the third guild, and pay the intei'cst
on their capital. Such houses can be owned by widows or unmarried
daughters of the class of merchants, but on condition of registration in a
guild. Merchants can belong to and be registered in rural communities ac-
cording to certain prescriptions of the law.

If a merchant, or in general any citizen burgher, inherits landed estates
■with serfs on them, the serfs are to be sold immediately to the crown do-
mains at the average price of from $150 to $200 the soul — the right of
owning serfs being reserved exclusively to the nobility. The citizen burghers
can be deprived of their property only by tlie judgment of a civil tribunal.

No citizen burgher registered in the general, or in any of the special cor-
porations, can step out of it, and abandon the city where he is incorporated,
by settling in another, without the assent of the community or the permis-
sion of the Government. Any citizen burgher can pass into the close cor-
poration of the merchants, on declaring the amount of capital required to be
inscribed in one of the three guilds, and paying to the treasury the interest
thereon.

Each community can exclude any member under criminal condemnation,
or of notorious bad character. The city of Moscow has alone the privilege
of giving up such individuals to the Government, either as recruits, to be
reckoned as furnished in any future levy, or for the colonization of Siberia.
Children of such convicts, above fourteen years of age, have the option
either to follow the father or to remain in the community. Minors not
having a mother, never follow the parent when sent to Siberia.

Above all the subdivisions of the bourgeoisie, and thus above the close
corporation of the merchants, even those of the first guild, rises the legal
privilege of the respectable citizen, j^ostchotnoi grazdan'm. This is a privilege

COTTON TEEE.

327

eithe • enjoyed for life or hereditary. Children of personal nobles become
hereditary respectable citizens.

One who, in virtue of the social position of his father as a merchant of the
first guild, or as a savant, a physician, (fee, has acquired the right to complete
a course of studies in one of the universities of the Empire, can petition the
Government to be included in the class of respectable citizens, on producing
testimonials of having finished the higher studies, and of good conduct dur-
ing his stay at the university. The same is conceded to artists when they
produce testimonials from the National Academies of Art; to children of
merchants of the first and second guilds, who have passed with special dis-
tinction through the studies of the universities ; to pupils of special commer-'
cial schools ; to artists who are foreigners by birth, cfec.

COTTON TREE.

A -WRITER in the Flag of our Union, Jackson, Miss., gives the following
account of the cotton tree growing in Navigator's Island, and of the island
in general :

"The tree was about 30 feet high, its body about a foot in diameter, and
the breadth of spreading of the limbs making a very bushy top of perhaps
30 feet in diameter : the bolls before bursting are very much the shape of the
cotton bolls raised in the United States, but probably near the size of a goose
egg. In each boll there are three of the pieces I here enclose. When the
cotton is in bloom, my friend informs me it presents a most magnificent ap-
pearance, and seems as if it was a mammoth snoiv-hall tree, seen in the gar-
dens in the United States. The staple of fibre of the cotton seems to me to
be of good length ; whether it is of that silky fineness desirable in such an
article, I cannot pretend to judge, my residence having for more than a
quarter of a century been in the State of Missouri, and yet I have spent
many winters down South ; and it occurs to me that it might by possibility
be of some use to the people of the South to have some of the seed with
the cotton attached. The tree on the island grows wild and luxuriantly ; per-
haps the seed might produce a shiub in Mississippi of some value, and if so,
I shall be pleased to have been the medium of introducing it. If it should
be thought, on inspection of the samples sent, that it was desirable to be bet-
ter informed concerning it, or if more seed is desired, my being resident here
will enable me to gratify any wish of that kind, as there is likely to be not
only a constant but increasing trade between this port and Australia, and the
Navigator's Island is almost on the direct route, and if not already, will soon
be made a general calling-place between the two places. From here to the
Sand wich Islands — nearly a direct calling-place — is one third, and the Navigator
is another third of the distance between here and Australia. These islands,
nine or ten in number, of pretty good size, and many smaller, are exceedingly
valuable, and lie in about 14 deg. south latitude, and longitude about 171°
west of Greenwich, and belong to no nation — have a sort of patriarchal
government by chiefs of different grades, mostly maintaining separate organi-
zations, and are often at war. They are not cannibals.

These i>lands are going to be of great importance, as they he on the route
between the two great gold continents, and it does seem to me (although a
stubborn Whig, dyed in the wool) that they ought not to fall into the handa

828 NOTES FROM THE FAR WEST.

of any Em-opean nation. They probably contain 100,000 inhabitants; and
yet if one or two hundred discreet, just men were there, and join in, in some
of their wars, with the better sort or class, a government might easily be es-
tablislied there, after the fashion of the Sandwich Islands. These islands
have some good harbors, and at jiresent furnish a pecuniary prospect for a
few energetic capitalists, that would pay enormously. The inhabitants live
almost entirely on the fruits and vegetables that grow wild and spontaneously.
The climate is not colder than 75 degrees, nor hotter than 81 or 82 degrees ;
and as to health, no country on earth more so."

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOSt, AND THE ANVIL.

NOTES FROM THE FAR WEST.

The Western farmer may truly be said to be a go-ahead man. Notliing
daunted by the want of those accommodations which the Eastern States ofter,
his ingenuity and tact are never at a loss to supply these deficiencies. If his
harness breaks, he has the tools at hand for the necessary repairs. A set of
carpenter's implements is almost essential to the agriculturist in those parts of
the fai- West.

The great scarcity of hands, and the demand for the use of mechanics and
other handicrafts, makes it very desirable that a new settler should be -AJack-
of-all-trades. And really, no one is aware how soon new duties and employ-
ments become not only practicable but easy when necessity calls for their ac-
complishment.

We are now having most delightful weather, although the mornings and
evenings are cold and frosty. The first frost this fall Avas rather earlier than
usual, namely, on the 10th of September. It stopped the further growth of
much of the late-sown corn, but most of that planted early was too far ad-
vanced to be much injured. I see here the great importance of putting the
seed into the ground as early as possible in the spring, that it may escape
these early frosts. Buckwheat especially needs early attention.

Every kind of harvest has been saved here, corn excepted ; and as around
us there are but few barns, you see the crop put up in round stacks, or what
are often called Irish mows ; and the country around, being dotted with these
signals of })lenty, affords a picturesque and pleasing sight. But they remain
for a short time only, as all the threshing is done by machinery, generally
driven by eight horses, and thus it makes short work of a farmer's crop. The
wheat produce is heavy and good just around me, most of it being summer
wheat. Winter grain does not succeed well.

We have two railroads progressing on each side of us, which will be
greatly prized by the agriculturist.

Horses and all other live stock are dear, particularly sheep, which, if at all
good, bring two dollars per head ; but this evil will eventually correct itself,
as every farmer is raising and increasing his cattle as fast as possi'ule. Pro-
vender being so plentiful here, it is not difficult to winter almost any quantity
of cattle; and as hands are difficult to obtain, this branch of farming is more
easily attended to, and, in the end, is the most profitable.

To an Eastern man, the method of farming hei'e appears very careless and
wasteful. Corn is husked from the stalk as it stands, and the cattle are
turned into the whole piece to eat what they choose, and tread down the rest,

FAKMERS m PUBLIC PLACES. 329

which is burned or ploughed under in the following spring. Most of the
grain is threshed out in the open fields, and the greater part of the straw is
left to rot, or sometimes it is set fire to, to get rid of it.

Cattle are apt to commit depredations, as but few farms are well fenced,
particularly swine, which never ought to run loose, as fencing against them
is impossible. Nor is there any thing gained by it, as a hog kept up eats
less than when at large, and gains more flesh.

The Indian summer, which I have witnessed in Canada, is here xmknown,
although the weather in this month and in a part of the next is often calm
and lovely ; and if the winter commences somewhat early, the quickness of
vegetation in spring makes up for it. Potatoes which I planted in June, I
dug for the table just two months after. An early sort, brought from Jersey,
thrive'well, as also some corn ; but the latter, I think, is rather too tender for
this climate. Pumpkins here attain an immense size. One that I measured
reached 51 inches in circumference; ruta bagas, 26 ; and carrots nearly one
foot.

The seeds of the catalpa, the alanthus, and the locust trees, which I planted
in the middle of June, vegetated luxuriantly. Some of the plants have
reached upwards of three feet in height. These ornamental trees are a great
desideratum, as we have none of these kinds in our woods ; nor do I observe
any evergreens in my neighborhood, although I hope to obtain some next
spring, and set an example to my fellow-agriculturists to ornament their
dwellings.

The locust tree has been planted here to form a hedge, as a fence. I hope
to try some next s]:>ri«g, as also the Osage orange ; for, as we have no chestnut
timber, and wood is not always j^lentiful on our prairies, the sooner some
substitute for fencing is provided, the better.

The opinion here is that peach trees will not succeed, but I think it is a
wrong impression. I have a few in my garden, six or seven years old, and
these are luxuriant and healthy, and bear fruit. Several young trees which
I set out thrive well. I think, with a little protection in winter, with straw
over their roots, they would not be injured. The fact is, these trees shoot too
luxuriantly in summer, and have a great quantity of young and tender wood,
which is not proof against the severity of the winter, and thus they need a
closer pruning here than in the more Eastern States,

Our county fair, which was recently held at Janesville, did us credit. The
ploughing-matches were entered into with spirit, and the show of cattle, fruit,
farming implements, &c., etc., was by no means behind that of other Western
States. These exhibitions are of great use, and stimulate the community in
laudable elforts to improve their agricultural skill. AoiacoLA.

October.

FARMERS IN PUBLIC PLACES.

The press has been burdened of late years with lectures and ser)nons and
satires, addressed to agriculturists, reprobating the fact that, on ])u'>lic occa-
sions, as cattle-^hows, &c., when speeches are to be made, they fall into the
rear, and speak only by proxy. Facts are as stated. We ha\ e a word to
say as to their propriety.

We remember that Lord Mansfield is reported to have said that he
should be as much ashamed to know statute law as not to know con)mon
law. Tiie reason is obvious. Statutes are constantly changing, and not oue
in a hundred is ever called to the notice of a lawyer. Hence, to study them

330 EED CLOVER AT THE SOUTH.

SO as thoroughly to understand them in all their relations, would be time
thrown away, and labor without profit.

It is so, in our opinion, witli the entire catalogue of working-men. If any
one has the "gift" of public speaking without studj', or experience, or science,
we know not why he may not show it vp. For the sake of the bar and the
pulpit, and for their clients' and hearers' sake, we wish this faculty did "come
by nature." But we are persuaded that it is not thus that men are eloquent,
or persuasive, or instructive. Such qualities are only the result of much
reading, of careful and close study, and no little experience. Hence, if farm-
ers do make speeches, the presumption is, that the result will be about as
happy as if a lawyer were to undertake some of the most difficult and intri-
cate of farmer's work, or a clergyman were to undertake to play mechanic.

True, we have some lawyers and some doctors, and some men of leisure,
who enrol themselves on the list of farmers. Some are educated at college,
or other equally useful institutions, so as to make them conversant with lan-
guage and with science ; and thus, and thus onhj, are competent to acquit
themselves handsomely in public speaking.

Bat not one half the lawyers, nor one half the ministers, nor one half the
doctors, can make a good speech at a dinner-table, or at a public anniversary.
Our Benevolent Societies, annually meeting in New- York and Boston, are
obliged to use over their old stock, and that, too, several times within our own
recollection, and even then fail to sustain the interest with which they first
began. This is a matter of notoriety. Under such circumstances, to laugh,
at formers for not exposing themselves as volunteer bores, is far from being
judicious or in good taste.

The farmer who toils all day, and at night makes plans for to-morrow, how
can he be expected to become a good and acceptable speaker ? If he has
acquired the art before he becomes a farmer, or the mechanic before he be-
comes a working mechanic, it is all well. We wish many, a inultitiide^
might thus qualify themselves before they commence these arduous pursuits.

Besides, our ftirmers are proverbially modest men. Different causes con-
spire to make them so. We should regret a change, and nothing would so
thoroughly effect this change as frequent public debate. We have known a
few absohitely ruined by this very process. They " outgrew their shoes."
They substantially outgrew their dresses and their entire habits, and, like some
of old, did nothing but hear or tell some new, and yet thrice told story.
. We commend these considerations to our agricultural friends, and to the
press. It is not necessary to be a good public speaker in order to be a mak.
At the same time, some of our most fluent "orators" are, and are regarded
as, very small men, while those who are always speaking in public are always
laughed at. Of this, the last, we never knew an exception.

RED CLOVER AT THE SOUTH.

It is a mooted question whether the crop of red clover is suited for the
South. The following is a very satisfactory statement on the subject, by Mr.
Groom, of Greensboro, Ala., in the Soil of the South:

Messrs. Editors : — I very cheerfully comply with the request communicated
in your polite letter of the 27th ult., in sending you some of the results of
my experiments with red clover, animated with the hope which has been
awakened by your suggestion, that it will subserve a very large public interest.

EED CLOVEK AT THE SOUTH. 331

I came to Alabama in the spring of 1837, well indoctrinated in the cal-
careous theories and experiments of Edmund Ruffin, Esq., the great Nestor
of an improved Southern agriculture. With such information it was not to
be wondered at that, so soon as I became acquainted with the lime lands of
Green and Marengo counties, the conviction should be forced upon me, that
they were well adapted to the growth of I'ed clover. It was not long before
I made some experiments which removed every possible doubt. As, how-
ever, my cleared land was all fresh and highly fertile, and the woodland was
covered with a luxuriant growth of cane, covering even the summits level
between the water-courses, there was no demand for clover either for pastur-
age or improvement. This state of things continued for some seven years,
when the disappearance of the cane created a necessity foi- looking out for
some substitute for feeding stock. In clover I have found that substitute.

I have used this grass for grazing, more or less, for the last eight or ten
years, gradually increasing its cultivation as there was a demand for it. And
I may add, that I have become more and more pleased, I might more pro-
perly have said, enthused its advantages every hour. I esteem it far more
valuable here than in a Northern climate, for two reasons : one is, that it does
not require as frequent resowing ; the other, that it furnishes good grazing
during the winter and early spring months. These are important advantages.

My clover lots are as luxuriant the eighth and ninth years, as during the
second and third. They are a little scant too when the lirst growth dies out
in June, and during some short spells of very rigorous weather in mid-winter;
at other times they furnish a liberal supply for continued grazing of the
richest kind. My engagements on the plantation do not permit me to mow
any for hay, which I might however do, if there was a necessity for it. There
is no difficulty in saving seed by pulling off the heads from a few acres, and
putting them away in that form for future use ; about three bushels of these
heads, well rubbed between the hands and sowed like oats, will secure a good
stand on an acre of land. As clover is a biennial plant, it is necessary to
have the seed renewed in the standing lots every second year. This is done
by the seeds which annually and semi-annually drop — the matured heads
which escape the cattle and hogs.

In the article communicated last January to the Southern Cultivator, I
mentioned the amount of grazing derived from a five-acre lot of red clover ;
I will now detail to you as nearly as I can what has been done by a twenty-
five-acre lot of seven or eight years in clover :

Eaily last spring, my overseer put on it about one hundred and fifty fatten-
ing hogs, some beef cattle, and niy brood mares and colts, and some old
horses, &c. Now, I believe he will attest, that during all that time to the
present moment, they have all kept fat without any other food but corn
enough to the hogs to keep them gentle and obedient to the call. I believe
he will further say, that in June, when the clover matured, half of it or more
dried upon the ground, enough for a good dry carpet. I have sometimes
believed that it would not be extravagant to say, that an acre of my clover
furnished more stock food than would be supplied by 100 bushels of corn ;
there can be no hazard in saying, half that quantity.

I have not yet satisfactorily tested its benefit to the soil, which, however,
can scarcely be called a matter of experiment. I sowed, last fall, a lot which
had been in clover some eight years, in wheat, and many pronounced it while
growing the finest wheat in the country ; but from thick seeding, very wet
weather, or some other cause, the yield was an ordinary one.

In speaking of the grazing of the twenty-five acre lot, I forgot to say there

832 RED CLOVER AT THE SOUTH.

was no rain on it from the 20th of March to the 1st of July. It should be also
stated that it has aiforded abundant grazing to the present time. It sprung
up again very soon after maturing, and owing to the irregularity of its ma-
turity and renovation, there is moderate grazing even during June. I a-^ked
ray mauMger a few weeks ago, about the middle of August, whether his fat-
tening hogs required much corn ; he told me he only had a little given to keep
them gentle, and they often refused to eat it, they were so full.

I have had some hfty or more head of horses and mules on other clover
lots, since my crop was finished, which lots were sown last February.

I will next say a few words as to the mode and time of sowing, the quan-
tity per acre, and the lands adapted to its growth.

The land should be deeply ploughed, well pulverized, and then six quarts
of clean seed or three bushels of the rubbed heads sown to the acre, then
covered with a harrow or brush, and well rolled.

I |)refer February to any other time for sowing, so soon as the danger of
hard fi'eezes is past. The air and ground are then warm and moist, and it
readily comes up and grows oft rapidly.

It should be sown on open land, and alone, if in the spring. It may
do to sow it with wheat in the f;dl, but if sown with oats, it is kept back
until oats are removed, when its sudden exposure to the hot sun is apt to de-
stroy it. Clover delights in sunshine when it has taken root, and when it has
•with the sun sufficient moisture. Its deep tap-root — and especially is it so in
lime land — enables it to bear drought far better than most other grasses.

The chief elements of this plant being lime and sulphur, the soil for its
successful growth must also contain a pi'oper quantity of these minerals, fur-
nished by nature or by art. As I have no experience in an artificial prepara-
tion of land for clover, I will not speak on this subject ; but the experience
of others authorizes me to say, that any one who has a good clay or loam
soil can, by the proper use of lime, gypsum, and guano, succeed with clover.

Thus, my dear Sir, have I, currtnte calaino, imperfectly complied with your
request, by giving you an inkling of my experience and views regarding red
clover. If there be any omission or defect which I can supply, most cheer-
fully will I do it upon your suggestion. If it shall aid you or the great
cause you are so commendably engaged in advancing, it will be to me a
source, of heartfelt pleasure, and a rich compensation for the small trouble it
has cost me. Yours very truly, II. Cuoom.

Greensboro, Ala., Se])t. Gth, 1853.

CARE OF SHEEP.

Mr. S. a. Jewitt, who has great experience in every thing connected with
animals, writes as follows :

Docking Animals. — In cutting the tail of a sheep, you will find three
arteries, two upon the upper side, close to the bone of the tail, and one near
the centre of the tail, on the under side ; this one is much the largest, and
the one out of which most of the blood flows when cut asunder.

It is perfectly safe, as to loss of blood, if you tie up the large artery before
cutting the tail. First slit down the skin lengthwise, about an inch. The
artery, if in a lamb, will be seen about the size of a common knitting-needle.
Draw a thread of waxed linen or silk under the artery, with the common
straight needle, or one a little crooked at the point is better. Tie up tight
before vou cut off the tail, which you will sever just below the knot. This
is all done very easily, and with but very little loss of blood. You may
sprinkle a little dust or pulverized alum on the wound to advantage.

PASS OF THE GREEN MOUNTAINS. 338

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE AN^IL,

NATIONAL HORSE EXHIBITION,

WITH A DESCRIPTIOX OF THE PASS OF THE GREEN MOUNTAINS,

From Pittsfield, the Western Railroad runs easterly about three miles
across the beautiful valley of the upper Housatonic. Now, the 19th of
October, the meadows of this valley are exuberant in all the verdure of sum-
mer, and as beautiful herds are o-razino- upon them as ever graced an agri-
cultural fair. From the eastern limit of this valley commences the heaviest
grade betv/een Albany and the Summit, and two miles brings us to Dalton,
renowned for its paper-mills, its beautiful meadows, and on the north, its lofty
and heavily-timbered mountains. From this station to Hinsdale, three miles,
the ascent 'is more gradual, though the traveller still finds himself " rising in
the world" at an unusual rate. This town, once considered a mountain town,
has of late participated much in the enterpiise and prosperity of the age, and
may well ooast of its fertile meadows, watered by the young Housatonic, as
well as for its manufacturing establishments and its flourishing academy.
The rock here is gneiss ; the soil on the surface is apparently composed of
drift, or a sand formed by a detrition of the rocks, and in some places brought
together into hillocks, as though the suiface had been subject to the action
of floods. Five miles further brought us to Washington, famous for the
deep cut in the solid rock, which attracts the attention of every traveller, and
where the grade descends easterly and follows the waters of the Westfield
river, crossing them at frequent intervals, until some twenty or more bridges
are passed, a"n(,l all the way through a narrow defile, frequently through walls
of rock which nature erected, but through which man in his ambition forced
a passage for the iron horse and the stately chariots he propels ; then by high
mountains, deep chasms, with occasionally an outlet to some unseen region,
formed by a tributary of the noisy, beautiful stream, which is your almost con-
stant companion, until it fairly introduces you to the world-renowned valley
of sweet waters, and for ever bids adieu to its mountain-home and myriads
of cascades it had beautified, and grottoes to which it had given its cool re-
freshing influence as its waters lay in quiet slumber. The features of the
country east of the mountain, until you reach Westfield, are not such as to
warrant any high expectations of agricultural monopoly in those parts ; yet,
through all this defile, there is much to invite enterprise to bestow her ener-
gies, and will probably one day woo her to these mountain fastnesses, and
reward her labors with wealth and prosperity. Already the manufacturer has
drowned the music of the water-fall with the ominous music of spindle and
the loom ; and there are yet untold sites, where the waters may easily be
induced to turn aside to give motion to machinery in varied forms and for
many purposes.

The rocks that wall in our way, and frown with such indignity at the as-
sault that man has made upon them, will one day yield their places, and be
removed far hence to be wrought into the stalely mansions of the rich ; and
so it will he seen that there are no by-places in all nature's realms, and no
object of her creation, which cannot be adapted to the purposes of refined
social life.

Springfield, our place of destination, the beautiful city of rural homes, the
residence of wealth, talent, and enterprise, is very pleasantly situated on the

334 N-ATIONAL HORSE EXHIBITION.

east bank of the Connecticut. Here the Western and Connecticut Rivor rail-
roads intersect each other, and thus make it a favorite centre of travel from
all directions ; and so g-reat an amount of business is done on these roads,
that there is scarci'ly an hour, by day or night, when the shrill voice of the
whistle or the [)uffing of engines does not announce the arrival and departure
of the cars. Immediately in front of the station-house, is the " Massasoit
IIousc,''^ which, for its ek'gant accotnmodatium and gentlemanly ho>t, need
not fear comparison with any hotel in New-England. Main, the principal
business strtet, extends easterly from the depot of the several railroads, and
is bounded by many buildings that would ornament an older city, or one of
more aristocratic pretentions. About half a mile from the Massasoit, this
street is intersected by State street crossing it at right angles, and by turning
into State street on the left, you are soon brought up the hill to the beauti-
ful well-kept grounds of the United States and the arsenal buildings, from
the principal of which arises a high observatory, from which a view of the
city and the Connecticut valley is obtained of a most charming find pic-
turesque character. Beneath you is the city, nestled in quiet shades ; on the
south, the vision extends far into Connecticut; west, the Green Mountains,
growing dwarfish as they extend southward, bound the horizon. Away in
the north, are seen the highlands of Vermont and New-IIampshire; and east,
the hill-country of Worcester. Directly contiguous to the grounds is Go-
vernment Square, an area of about twenty acres, where was held the '■'■First
National Exhibition of Horses " that ever found a place in our history. The
arrangement, as also the general features of the ground, were admirably
adapted to the occasion to v/hich they were devoted. Within the enclosure,
and connected with the fence, were several hundred stalls fitted up for the
safety and comfort of the animals exhibited. On the south, and in close
proximity to the course-ground, were elevated seats, sufficiejit to accommo-
date four thousand spectators — an arrangement adapted to promote the com-
fort, and at the same time insure the comparative safety of all who were
disposed to avail themselves of a sight in them, at the extremely low piice of
a shilling. This arrangement was a happy one, and we hope it will be
adopted more generally at all our gi-eat gatherings. In front of these seats,
and within the course-ground, a large platform was raised for the accommo-
dation of committees, guests, &c., and in the centre of the ground was the
large tent of John Wright, the well-known and highly acceptable caterer,
whose provisions for the inner man, whether in kind or quality, are always
ample ; while, at a little distance, Tremont House hung out its broad banner
and spread its sum])tuous board to invite and regale the weary and hungry.

Circumstances did not permit us to reach Spiingtield until the evening of
the 19th. Of course, we could not enjoy the luxury which the exhibition
offered until tlie morning of the 20th. As related to us by a friend, the
opening scene was of a brilliant and memorable character. A full descrip-
tion of it has gone before the world, and it will live in the minds of the many
who witnessed it.

We were early on the grounds on Thursday morning, and the opening of
the second day's exercises was announced by the ringing of a large bell, ar-
ranged for that purpose near the Committee's platform, followed by music of
the Springfield brass band, stationed on the platform near by, and Avho were
in constant attendance, frequently discoursing sweet music. The ground was
early occupied by horses and horsemen prancing to and fro in every direction,
some in pairs, some single, in buggies, gigs, or under the spur and lash of the
rider. The first exercise in the programme was the exhibition of matched

NATIOJilAL HOESE EXHIBITION. 885

horses, of whicli there were thirty-three entries. As they passed before the
judges' stand, the numbers were announced by Colonel G-eorge D wight, Pre-
sident of the Board of Managers, and the indefatigable Marshal of the ex-
hibition. After passing in review, they were ordered to }»ass four times
around the track, making a distance of two miles, that tlieir travelling quali-
ties might be developed, after which they were ordered to another locality,
for further examination of the Committee.

At eleven o'clock A.M., the bell was rung to announce the hour for tlie
exhibition of colts, which were divided into the following classes : First, stal-
lions of three years, of which there were 17 entries ; fillies of three years, 2
entries ; stallions of two years, 8 entries ; fillies of two years, 1 entry ; stal-
lions of one year, Y entries. They were a fine lot .of colts, and if we could
believe that they were a fair specimen of colt-dom, we should suppose that
none but first-rate horses would be seen after a few years. At twelve o'clock
the bell announced the exhibition oi fancy matched horses, and here was a
feast for the eye to dwell upon. There were 17 entries in this class, and after
the usual performance of passing in review, circling around the track, etc.,
they were drawn off to make room for the great display of the day — the
exhibition of stallions, of four to seven years old, of which there were 33
entries fronn five States, and 3 from Canada. After passing iu review before
the Committee, they trotted twice around the course, presenting an agreeable
and formidable display.

At three o'clock, came off the exhibition of geldings, of which there were
109 entries, and of course, many fine, very supeiior animals.

In the evening, a brilliant levee was given by George M. Atwater, Esq ,
who, as we are informed, was the originator of the exhibition, at his pleasant
and tasteful residence, in Chestnut street, at which many distinguished
strangers and citizens were in attendance. It was a highly interesting scene,
for many of the statesmen and civilians of the land weie there ; it was inter-
esting, because happiness and calm enjoyment wore there, and manifested
their presence in the many cheerful countenances speaking out the feelings of
the soul within. Mr. Atwater has a soul as large as the universe, and if we
may judge of the variety of viands on his table, he must have scoured the
universe to secure materials for so diversified an entertainment. The brass
band were in attendance to drive off" dull care if he threatened intrusion.
But no fear of that. The haggard monarch understood too well the enchant-
ments of the scene to turn his footsteps that way. After relieving Mr. At-
water's table of its luxurious fruits and dainty bits, and themselves of many
a timely joke, the company dispersed, each, no doubt, happier for the social
pastime.

Frid;iy morning, bright and beautiful weather. The hour of eight or time
of opening the exhibition was announced by a salute of thirty-one guns, given
by a detachment from the armory, by four brass pieces brought upon the
ground for that purpose. Then came the ringing of the belj, followed by
music from the band. The seats were early filled to their utmost capacity,
a great proportion of their occupants being ladies. They now formed an in-
teresting feature of the exhibition, and a subject of universal admiration.
From the variety of colors, they resembled at a distance an immense boquet
of beautiful flowers. j^To doubt, the thousands of husbands, lovers, &c., in
attendance, will say our similitude is quite correct. Then came on a grand
parade of all the horse-family on exhibition. They formed a complete circle
on the course-ground, moving slowly at first, then more rapidly, until they
exhibited the violence of commotion. During their march the band played,

836 NATIOIS^'AL HORSE EXHIBITION,

which the horses seemed to understand as expressly for them, and it was dif-
ficult to decide which exhibited the most pride and self-complacency, the
h(.tr.>es or their owners.

Next crane off the exliibiiion of ponies, of which there were 21 entries;
then of thorough-bred hoi-ses, of which there were seven entries, and among
which was Lady Digby, owned by James Turner, of Boston, sired by imported
horse Trustee. She went twice around the course, a mile, in two minutes and
two seconds. Jenny Lind was in this class, but not to exhibit her vocal
powers. Then, as a finale, came the exhibition of stallions, of seven years
old and upward, numbering 50. It was a grand and formidable display,
and as it passed away, we passed off too, for tbe clouds w^cre portentous of
a coming storm.

The entries, as we were informed, were as follows :

1. Draught horses in spans, 4 entries; 3 from Massachusetts and 1 from
New- York. Single team, 1 from Connecticut.

2. Breeding mares, 48 entries; of which 2G were from Massachusetts, 5
frum Connecticut, 11 from Vermont, 3 from New-Hampshire, 2 from New-
York, 1 fiom Rhode Island.

3. Mares with foals by their sides, 9 entries ; of Massachusetts 4, from
Vermont 1, Connecticut 2, New-Hampsliire 1, New- York 1.

4. Matched horses, 33 entries; owned in Massachusetts 14, in Vermont 3,
in New-Hampshire 2, in Connecticut 4, in Rhode-Island 1, in New-York 5,
in New-Jersey 2, in Pennsylvania 1, withdrawn 1. Total, 33.

5. Colts, stallions, of 3 years old, entries, 17 ; from Massachusetts 5, from
Vermont 5, from Connecticut 4, from New-Hampshire 1, from New-York

2. Total, 17. Fillies of 3 years old, 2 entries; of Massachusetts 1, of Ver-
mont 1. Total, 2. Stallions of 2 years old, 8 entries; of Massachusetts 3,
of Vermont 2, of New- York 2, of Louisiana 1. Total, 8. Fillies of 2
years old, of ]\Iassachusetts 1. Stallions of 1 year old, 7 entries; of Massa-
chusetts 2, of Vermont 3, of New- York 2. Total, 7.

6. Fancy matched horses, 16 entries; owned in Massachusetts 7, in Ver-
mont 3, in Connecticut 4, in New- York 1, in New-Jersey 1. Total, 17.

7. Stallions from 4 to 7 years old, 33 entries; owned in Massachusetts 9,
in Connecticut 4, in Vermont 8, in New- York 6, in Canada 3, withdrawn

3. Total, 33.

8. Geldings, 109 entries; of Massachusetts 68, Vermont 8, New-Hamp-
shire 1, Maine 2, Rhode-Island 2, Connecticut 13, New-York 9, Pennsyl-
vania 1, Canada 1, withdrawn 3. Total, 109.

9. Ponies, 21 entries; of Massachusetts 7, from Vermont 2, from New-
York 2, from Connecticut 4, from Canada 1, from New-Hampshire 1,
withdrawn 4. Total, 21.

10. Thorough-breds, 7 entries; of which of Massachusetts 3, from Ver-
mont 1, from New-York 1, from Canada 2. Total, 7.

11. Stallions of 7 years old and upwards, 5G entries; of which were of
Massachusetts 19, of Maine 6, of Vermont 5, of New-Hampshire 7, of
Connecticut G, of New-York 6, of New-Jersey 1, of Michigan 1, of Canada,
I, withdrawn 4. Total, 56.

The whole number of entries w^as407, and were from the following States:
Massachusetts, Vermont, New-Hampshire, Maine, Rhode-Island, Connecticut,
New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Louisiana, ISfichigan, and the Pro-
vince of Canada East. So it will be seen, that if every State was not repre-
sented, the extremes of North and South were, and probably neaily every
State was represented in men, the noblest growth of this realm.

FAIR OF THE MARYLAND INSTITUTE. 337

Of horses, the Morgan family was most numerously represented, it being
stated that there were 103 members of it present for a certainty, and we
should not wonder if many more had claim to relationship. We are not
quite certain, but this exhibition wa^ got up by the family in accordance with
modern usage to call all its members to the " old homestead," to repeat their
histories and prove consanguinity.* Be that as it may, they are a noble race
of animals, and worthy to inherit more of the land than they now possess.
The Blackhawks stood next on the list of numbers. May the race of each be
multiplied.

The people of Springfield are certainly entitled to much credit for their
perseverance in getting up this exhibition. Discouragements met them in
the outset, sufficient to discourage ordinary minds. But the matter was in
right hands, resting with those who having once taken hold of the plough in
a good cause, do not look back. They have opened a deep furrow on the
public mind, and sown goodly seed thereon, which will assuredly produce an
abundant harvest, to the advantage and honor of the nation.

It is to be regretted that our nation, in its love of progress, has paid so
little attention to the improvement of horses. But the day of delay in this
matter is gone by.

And those noble-minded men, who originated and carried out the grand
project, whose result has been so triumphant, what triumphant satisfaction,
what honor is theirs ! In this first conquest they have achieved a nobler vic-
tory than Alexander or Napoleon could ever boast. They have done their
country a nobler service than a legion of ranting politicians can perform.

Yours truly, W. Bacon.

Richmond, October 27, 1853.

FOR THE PLOUGH, LOOM, AND JINVIL.

FAIR OF THE MARYLAND INSTITUTE.

Messrs. Editors : — The annual fair of the Maryland Institute closed its
session, of three weeks, on the evening of the 31st ultimo.

I doubt not you will deem the doings of this Society of sufficient import-
ance to claim a small space in the columns of your valuable journal. I shall
attempt to notice but few of the many objects of interest which I saw.

ThQ first Maryland Institute was formed in 1825, and incorporated, by the
Legislature, in 1826. It continued in successful operation, diffusing valuable
information through the whole community, and, more particularly, among
the mechanics and laborers, for whose special benefit it was instituted, till
1835, when, in the burning of the Athenaeum building, the library, apparatus,
and other valuables of the Institute, were destroyed, and the Society dis-
banded.

The former Institute, no less than the latter, owed much of its efficiency
and usefulness, if not its existence even, to the intelligence, zeal, and untiring
industry of Jno. H. B. Latrobe, Esq., a name, which will be fondly cherished
so long and so far as the influence of these literary associations shall be felt.

After the lapse of twelve years, in 1847, the first movement was made for

* It is stated in the Springfield Republican, that in 1798, Mr. Justice Morgan, of that town, took a
three years' old colt to Randolph, in Vermont, and it is supposed that from this colt the valuable race
of Morgan horses originated, a fact which ought to be chronicled for the benefit of all admirers of the
horse.

VOL. VI. — PART V. 22

838 FAIR OF THE MARYLAND INSTITUTE.

the formation of a new society, or the resuscitation of the old one. On the
22d of December, a Committee previously aj^pointed, submitted a report,
embracing the form of a constitution, which was adopted ; and the Institute
was duly oroanized, by the choice of ofticers on the 12th of January follow-
ing. The first exhibition, or fair, was held in October, 1848. The gross
receipts for admission to the fair amounted to $3,1 C3. The receipts, from
the fair of 1650, were l5>5,004. The number of members was then 610, and
the number of depositors 951. These numbers have been gradually increasing
at each successive fair.

In 1850, the Institute was incorporated, under the title of "Maryland
Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts." Its sixth fair has just
closed, its success thus fcir, and its prospects of influence and usefulness, for
the future, must meet the expectations of its most sanguine friends.

The hall of the Institute is worthy of notice. As a specimen of architec-
ture, it ranks among the first in our country, which certainly has not much to
boast of in that line. The ground occupied is 60 feet front, and 355 feet
deep. Underneath the hall, is an arcade, having 70 pilasters, with archways,
leading to the market-stalls, by which it is occuj^ied. This basement has a
20 feet ceiling, supported by 100 cast-iron columns. A more beautiful, spa-
cious, and commodious market-house probably cannot be found in the United
States.

The hall of the Institute is entered by a broad stairway, from Baltimore
street. The hall has a 32-feet ceiling, and is 250 feet by 55. It has 20
windows, each 17-|- feet by 7; a gallery extending quite around, 7 feet wide
on the sides, and 10 at each end, elevated 14 feet above the floor, and sup-
ported by brackets attached to the walls. The fresco painting upon the ceil-
ing and walls is much admired. It is said that two thousand persons may
stand upon the floor of the promenade galleries, and six thousand more upoa
the main floor of the hall, and that four thousand may be seated.

These estimates evidently contemplate a jam. The capacity of the hall is
very great. Its form, however, is such as to make it more suitable for balls
and institute fairs, than for public lectures or deliberative assemblies. When
lighted up, as it was each evening of the fair, by 132 gas burners, and viewed
from either extremity of the gallery, it was "a sight to behold." The whole
area, above and below, was filled with happy faces, which seemed to be illumined
by the brilliancy of the occasion and move in time to the band, which was
discoursing sweet music; and, at the same time, inspecting the works of art,
with which the rest of the hall is filled. It was a practical and material illus-
tration of the remark, "Distance lends enchantment to the view." It came
well-nigh a realization of my childhood's vision of the palace of Aladdin.

The members of the Institute are divided into four classes.

1. Members over 21 years of age, who pay an initiation fee of $2, and an
annual assessment of $3.

2. Junior members, minors over 14, who pay one half of the above.

3. Life-members, who become such by paying $25.

4. Honorary members.

Connected with the Institute is a "school of design," in which, for four
months in each year, instruction is given by a professor of the art, to such
members as choose to be taught.

Also, a library and reading-room, which is accessible to all the members.

Also, a mineralogical cabinet and laboratory of philosophical and chemical
apparatus.

Also, a chemical department, which is not yet in operation; and once

FAIR OF THE MARYLAND INSTITUTE. 339

each year a fair is held, the design of which is to foster genius, develop
artistic skill, and promote the cause of popular education. The fair is also
depended upon, mainly, to defray the current expenses of the Institute.

I have left but little space for the recent fair, about which I might " write
a book." But as this is an age of fairs and palaces, and most persons, espe-
cially those so intelligent as the readers of the '■'■Plough,^'' have visited these
shows, and know what is usually exhibited there, I shall not particularize.
Suffice to say, the exhibition was worthy of the Society and the great city of
Baltimore.

I noticed this difference between the fair of the Institute and the fairs
which I have visited in New-York and New-England. In the latter, the use-
ful greatly predominates ; iu the former, the ornamental.

A steam-engine, manufactured by Messrs. Poole & Hunt, of this city, a
perfect model of its kind, was in operation in the hall every evening during
the fair. To this, were attached various machines, some of Maryland, and
others of northern origin. Of flou ring-mi lis, I noticed several models. la
one of Major Downing's letters, it is said of General Jackson, that he designed
so to simplify the Government, that he could take it into a one-horse wagon
and carry it all over the United States. Experimenters in flouring-mills seem
to have a similar object in view. Many of these models are portable, requir-
ing from two to four horse-power, and occupying no more room than an old-
fashioned clock-case.

I noticed an improvement upon Page's saw-mill. The name of the patentees,
I did not obtain. The improvement consists in placing the log underneath
the saw. By this arrangement, the saw cuts with the grain, and not against
it, consequently, requiring much less power, leaving the board comparatively
smooth, needing but one turn of the log before completion, whereas Page's
requires three.

There was a Yankee notion, in the form of a wooden-bowl machine. It
turned out its ware so rapidly that, if supplied with timber, the whole nation
might soon be able to take a hasty howl of soup.

There Avas also a machine for making plug tobacco. Were I to try my
hand at invention in that department, I should wish to incorporate the prin-
ciple of annihilation.

But I have not time to enumerate. In the agricultural department, there
were some good specimens, but they were few in number.

In wearing-apparel, both for men and women, there was a fine display.

Most kinds of furnishing-goods, cabinet-ware, surgical and dental imple-
ments, perfumery, pickles, preserves, and hams were in great abundance, and
of superior quality.

In needlework, plain and ornamental, the display was truly imposing.
There were also good specimens of daguerreotypes, crayon drawings, and oil
paintings. Pianos also, and stoves and furnaces, of excellent finish. Cedar
ware also, made by Horace Magne, of this city, which cannot be surpassed in
the United States. There were also stoves and other useful articles, made of
soap-stone, by the Maryland Soap-stone Company, whose factory is in this
city. This Company furnish more stone, and for most purposes of better
quality, than is obtained from any other quarry in the States.

Among the curiosities was a live Yankee, who styled himself the " New-
England Card- Writer," and wrote Baltimore thus : Otimore. Also a curious
clock. Besides keeping time, it runs eight days, strikes the quarters, on four
bells, of different tone, gives an alarm to waken the master, lights his lamp,
iights a fire in the stove, rings the servant's bell, until she rises, and closes

840 FRANKLIN COUNTY (O.) AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY FAIR.

her curtains to dress. J. C. Morrill, of this city, is the inventor and manu-
facturer.

During the progress of the fair, an address was delivered before the Insti-
tute, by Judge Gushing, which was very well received. His subject was the
Progress of the Mechanic Arts. An allusion to the labors of tlie Jesuits, in
Christianizing the natives of this country, reminded the audience that the
speaker, in becoming attorney, had not sunk the politician.

The closing address, by the President, Mr. Vassant, recentiv elected to
Congress, from this city, was chaste and appropriate.

For most of the facts I have been able to communicate, I am indebted to
the politeness of Mr. Sel!)v, the actuary of the Institute.

Yours, &c., R. 13. H.

Baltimore, November 4th, 1853.

FRANKLIN COUNTY (0.) AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY FAIR. ,

This enterprising Society had a very gratifying exhibition. This is not
surprising, when we notice that the officers are full of zeal and of enterpri.-e,
and that their list of premiums is large and liberal. It is through the influ-
ence of some of these gentlemen that the State Society have increased the
number of their premiums in the farm department. The Franklin County
Society awarded more than two hundred premiums. The President writes
us a very gratifying statement of the influence of the Society. He says :

*' Our people have learned that good stock pays best. They have yet to
learn that it will pay to cultivate their lands in the best manner. When this
is accomplished, the Agricultural Society will have fulfilled their destiny."

In one respect besides, they have, in our judgment, set a good example to
their sister Societies, to wit, in awarding nearly forty volumes of our journal as
premiums to the successful competitors. We commend the habit as a good
one. This, indeed, is not the only instance of the kind, nor this the only
season, in which similar awards haVfe been made, but, so far as we recollect,
this is the most numerous of our lists of this description.

We give a full account of the farm of Mr. Samuel Brush, who received
the first premium on farms, and say to all his fellows, "go and do likewise."

"Farm No. 2. — Samuel Brush. This farm is bounded on the north by the
Ohio Central Railroad ; east, by Big Walnut Creek ; south, by the Columbus
and Granville Plank-road ; and west, by a county-road. The farm contains
60 acres of improved land, about 60 acres in wood, all enclosed. The im-
provement consists of 30 acres of bottom land, divided into two fields of
about 15 acres each, one in corn and the other in pasture ; about 25 acres of
upland divided into two fields, 10 acres of meadow and 15 acres lately in
oab;, potatoes, orcharding, avenues, &c. The unimproved is nearly all uu-
derbrushed, and the down timber cleared up, and is intended to be sown in
blue grass for pasture ; the residue, about 5 acres of side-hill, is used as a
stock-yard. We find no waste land on the farm, as the side-hill is used for
a stock-yard in lieu of the level land that can be cultivated. This farm was
purchased four years since, and at that time had 12 acres of cleared land, 7
of which was on the bottom, and 5 on the upland. The residue, 48 acres,
has been cleared since. When purchased by the present owner, it was co-
vered with ponds of standing water, which presented an unwelcome appear-
ance, and prevented the raising of crops remunerative to the tiller. By a

FRANKLIN COUNTY (O.) AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY FAIR. 841

judicious system of drainage, ditching, and subsoiling, the 'quantity of crops
has not only been nearly doubled, but the farm presented an attractive and
beautiful appearance.

We examined the corn field, and suppose it would average from 70 to 15
bushels per acre, and if the stumps on the part newly cleared were removed,
would make 100 bushels. The pasture land, being newly cleared, could not
be profitably cultivated, and upon inquiry, we ascertain that it is as profitable
as the cultivated land. There are 125 young apple trees of the best variety, in
a thrifty, healthy condition ; about 25 cherry trees, and from 50 to 100
ornamental trees, including three kinds of evergreens, which will soon add
much to the value and beauty of the farm. On the east side, next to the
creek, which in periods of great floods, occurring once in about 15 years,
overflows the bottom land, Mr. Brush has constructed a levee or bank from 16
to 20 feet wide at the bottom, 2 feet wide at the top, and 5|- feet high. On
the top of this is a board fence, about 3 feet high. On each side of the
fence is planted the Osage orange for a hedge, to enclose, and become a sub-
stitute for the board fence. Half way down the bank on each side is planted
another row of the orange ; the outer row next to the creek is intended tc
grow up as trees, to protect the bank against drift-wood, &c. The levee is
sown in blue grass. This levee is three quarters of a mile in length, extend-
ing from the bank of the plank-road to the bank at the railroad. We under-
stand this embankment cost at the rate of $2.'70 per rod of 16|- feet. At
first, this levee and fence seemed to us an expensive concern ; but when we
inquired and found, first, that there was a ditch inside, caused by excavation,
to make the levee worth at a low estimate GOc. a rod ; 2d, the permanency
of the levee and hedge, making an everlasting fence ; and 3d, the necessity to
ke?p out the creek, and the saving of labor and timber in fences that would
be liable to be carried away by high water, we came to the conclusion that
in a permanent view this levee and fence was the most economical and pro-
fitable expenditure on,, the farm. The buildings are log, consisting of a dwell-
ing, stable, &c. ; also a very superior stone milk-house, which we pronounce
perfect. It is built below a spring, with a projecting roof to cover the spring
on the hill-side. The water is raised in the spring by a stone wall, laid in
water-lime, and carried through an iron grate into a stone trough into the
building, and out through another grate. We understand that Mr. Brush
intends carrying the water to the foot of the hill for the use of stock. We
find the farm remarkably clear and clean of weeds, and in good order and
condition for so new a farm. The arrangement of the fields is admirable,
dividing the different qualities of land, and an abundant quantity of spring
water can be had in each. Mr. Brush's stock is thrifty, and we find that he
adopts the plan of a judicious change of pasturage, so much neglected by
farmers generally in this part of the country : by this system his pastures are
always fresh, and yield an abundance of feed. Being fully aware that mis-
management or a want of knowledge has always been the cause of our farm-
ers not reaping that rich reward which their labor and industry so well merit,
we have thus gone into a more detailed account of the system of drainage,
&c., adopted on this farm, well satisfied that a reasonable outlay judiciously
applied in drainage, will make our low lands the most valuable and produc-
tive in the country.

We cannot refrain from giving it as our opinion that Mr. Brush is a scien-
tific farmer; and we are satisfied that his farm is well cultivated and well
managed, and as- profitable as it could possibly be made, for the short time
he has owned it."

342 MARYLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

/

FOR TUB PLOnCn, LOOM, ASD ASTIL.

FAIR OF THE MARYLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The annual cattle-show and fair of the Maryland Agricultural Society was
held, durino- the last week, near this city. Having spent a part of one day
in the enclosure, I will give you the result of iny observations.

The ground occupied by the Society is a plat containing, I should judge,
about twi-nty-five acres, situated one raile from the Washington Monument.

This field is enclosed on three sides by sheds, or stalls, substantially con-
structed and neatly whitewashed. These stalls are numbered, and so varied
in form as to be adapted to the different kinds of stock. On the remaining
side is a high, tight fence, which entirely excludes outsiders from a view of
the wonders within.

Near the centre of the lot are a number of buildings, occupied by offices,
and the exhibitors of agricultural and mechanical implements.

An admit^sion fee of twenty-tive cents was exacted of all non-contributors.
The amount thus received is reported to be four thousand dollars.

This is to me a novel feature in the management of cattle-shows. In the
New-Eiigland States, this farmer's festival is as free as the light of the sun
and the dews of heaven. Reasons, however, exist for adopting a different
course here. The Society receives no aid from the State. Her resources are
•wholly inadequate to defray the expenses of the annual fair. Then, the
expenses incurred are much greater. The fixtures are more permanent and
costly. The ground, being near the city, and being entirely devoted to the
interests of the Society, is subject to ground-rent. The amount paid in
premiums is much greater than by the County Societies of New-England.
Thirty-five hundred dollars was distributed by this Society last week.

Furthermore, there are multitudts in a great city like this, who know no-
thing about agriculture, and care as little. These persons will attend the
cattle-.-how to gratify an idle curiosity or have a row. It seems proper that
they should be made to pay for their entertninment.

Near the centre of the enclosure is a stadium or hipj)odToine, where the
horses are shown up. It is about an eighth of a mile in circumference. The
track is covered with tan-bark, and the whole is surrounded with a railing, to
keep back spectators.

Near by is the plat devoted to ploughing-matches. The ploughing I did not
witness, but the land gave no evidence of having been well j>loughed. To
the ploughing was added a harrowing-raaicli. This is a good idea. There
needs good ploughing and good harrowing to secure a good croj).

But I must to the show. First, of horses. The number exhibited was not
large, but there were some very fine specimens. Farmers in this State, es-
pecially in the eastern porti<in, have heretofore paid but very little attention
to the raiding of horses. Better horses, either for draught or for the road, I
have never seen, than may be found in Baltimore. But most of them were
raised in Virginia or Ohio.

JSi^eat Stock. — Of this there was a large collection^ though not a great
variety. Of working oxen, or steers, I did not see a single pair, though I
•was told that some had been exhibited. Of bulls, milch cows, and heifers,
there was a large number, and some droice specimens.

Of varieties, I noticed the Durham, the Devonshire, the Ayrshire, the
Alderney, and the native. Of each there were fine specimens. For the
stall, the Durhams, I opine, deservedly rank highest; for the dairy, the

FAIR OF THE MARYLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 343

Ayrshires; for beauty and hardihood, theDevons; and for all three combined,
the natives, as we Marylanders say, "can't be beat."

A better show of sheep, I have never witnessed. Bakewells, Southdowns,
and Merinoes were among the best. Why may not Maryland compete suc-
cessfnlly Avith Vermont iu wool-growing ?

In this climate, the sheep need never to be housed. The expense of keep-
ing cannot be more than one half as much as in New-England. The wool
may not be quite as good, but the mutton must be better.

I was happily disappointed in the appearance of the swine. There were
the Beikshire, the Suffolk, the Chester county, and the native breeds. The
Berkshires are preferred by many, on account of their hams. With a Mary-
lander, the ham is by far the most important part of the hog. Let that be
right, neither too fat nor too lean, and they care little about tlie "middlings."
The Suffolk breed has been but recently introduced. They were much ad-
mired by the farmers, and sold at a very high price. The Chester stock is
from Chester county, Pa. They grow very large, are coarse and ill-shapen,
the body being disproportionately long ; and the flesh must, I think, be coarse.
Of the native breeds, there were some good specimens, and many, that had
better been permitted to grub on at home. But what interested nie most in
this department, was a pen of fifty-one hogs, belonging to a gentleman by
the name of Nelson, of Virginia. These grunters were all of nearly the
same size, weighing, it was estimated, when dressed, little if any less than
four hundred pounds each. They were but sixteen months old. In the eye
of a farmer, it was a rare spectacle. I was told by the tender, they had
never had any meal ; their food being unbroken corn and water.

The show of poultry was tall. I had supposed that the great " hen con-
vention," held in Boston, some two years since, could not be beaten. But
this exhibition was certainly not inferior to that, either in number and variety
or quality.

The Celestial Empire was fully represented by " Imperials," " Chittagongs,"
and " Shanghais." Egypt, Italy, and Spain were also there. Poland too,
though long since dismembered, and known only as among the things that
were, was represented. The stately " Dorking," the pert little "Bantam,"
exhibiting more of the suaviter in inodo than of the fortiter in re, the
sombre-looking "Jersey Blues" and the modest, but no less useful natives,
were all there. Also geese, ducks, turkeys, peacocks, Guinea-hens, doves,
and lop-eared rabbits were permitted to speak for themselves. " Tom Hyer,"
too, was among the crowd. Not the New- York pugilist, of unenvial>le no-
toriety, but a feathered biped of good reputation, which, in consequence of
his contempt of the higher law of love to all, has been dubbed " Tom
Higher." How infinitely more excusable and more worthy of respect is a
game-cock — a fighting chicken — than an animal having the form and linea-
ments of a man, who takes delight in that which demons would blush to
own themselves guilty of! How humiliating the reflection that man, created
in the image of his Maker, should become so degraded as to contend with
game-cocks and bull-dogs !

Of agricultural implements there was a great display. There was a large
collection of ploughs of every conceivable variety. A favorite plough with
Pennsylvania farmers, made entirely of wrought iron, and turning the furrow
to the left, was there. There were deep-tillers, side-hill ploughs, and shovel-
ploughs. The latter are in general use in this State. In the cultivation of
corn, also in covering seed, they are very serviceable.

I did not notice the Michigan plough, and think it has not been introduced.

844 TOPPING CORN.

There were many good specimens, but upon tlie whole, I think the ploughs
much inferior to those manufactured and used farther north. Good ploughs,
however, are being introduced, and the more intelligent farmers are learning
to appreciate them.

Of machines for mowing, reaping, threshing, cleaning, grinding, making
brick, pressing hay, sowing wheat, planting corn and other seeds, sawing
wood, cutting hay and vegetables, and shelling corn, there was a great va-
riety. Most of tlie articles in this department were manufactured in this
city, and are as perfect in their kind as can be obtained.

Among the many things and animals which I saw to admire, was one
which I was sorry to find there. At a cattle-show we look for brute ani-
mals, and are glad to see them ; but, I deem it not a fit place for that which
makes brutes of men.

The address, by Mr. Holcomb, of Delaware, was highly laudatory of the
agriculture of the States, and especially of the Middle States. The speaker
gave a very interesting and graphic description of the agriculture of Western
Europe, which he had recently visited, and drew therefrom many valuable
reflections for the instruction and encouragement of American farmers.

Suffice to say, this exhibition was highly creditable to the Society by which
it was gotten up, and the State of Maryland ; and proves most conclusively
that agriculture is progressive here.

Yours, &c., R. B. H.

TOPPING CORN

Habit, with most people, is law. Educate one to pursue a particular
mode, aud especially if all his neighbors do the same, through all the years
of his boyhood and youth, and you have thereby placed him under bonds
stronger than those of judicial tribunals, never to prefer any other mode to
this.

This well-known fact has an important and perhaps controlling influence
with many people in the treatment of their crops ; and a large fraction of
exceptional cases are of that other class, that would deserve to be called
fanatically scientific, did not their fanaticism far outstrip their science. Every
thing in tlie books, however absurd and contradictory, is honored as unim-
peacliable and unquestionable authority.

The proper treatment of ripening corn has received, and deserves to re-
ceive, iiiubt careful attention, and has called forth many zealous writers, some
of them very able, in defence of their favorite theory. We do not add our
own name to this list, with the expectation of discoveiing or of receiving any
more consideration than many others. But there are a few unquestionable
facts related to this subject, which Tnust be allowed to deserve some attention
in coming to a just conclusion upon it.

It is safe to say, in all csises, in the growth of plants, that nature never
blunders. Not only each plant, in its natural condition, retains its own pe-
culiar properties, but it has its own way of doing it, and that way is, for that
plant, the best way, and the only safe way.

For example, we do not think it would be an improvement of the pine,
and spruce, and hemlock, &c., to provide them with leaves like those of the
oak or the grape. We might make a " better tree," but not a more jjerfect

TOPPING COEN. 345

pine-tree, by such a process. Such a change might introduce quahties which
•would adapt the pine to other uses than those to which it is now suited, and
that is aU. It might also destroy the tree.

Trace for a moment the physiological changes which such a change of
leaves might produce. All perfect plants have an exact adaptation among
their several parts. The root, the trunk, the leaves, &c., sustain very im-
portant relations to each other. Should the leaves perspire too freely, the
sap, too concentrated and condensed, might be unable to circulate further.
Of course, the tree would die. If too much water was absorbed, the sap
would be too dilute, and the new wood might become soft and spongy.
Thus, many trees, when deprived of their leaves, will die. They cannot re-
cover themselves. Most plants can be killed with excessive watering, quite
as effectually as by the severest drought. These illustrations are sufficient for
our present purpose.

What point does Nature seek to accomplish in her operations, as the ulti-
mate good ? We do not hesitate to say, the perfection of seed and fruit.
Flowers are oft^n beautiful, though growicg in a desert, and the odors of
some surpass any power of art, though it have at command all the elements
known to the chemist. But these and other points, we cannot doubt, are all
incidental, the perpetuity of the species being the end in view.

Now, if nature does not act blindly in these matters, she knows when to
order that leaves shall be deciduous, and when persistent, that is, when they
shall shed themselves, and when remain perpetually green. Hence, to cor-
rect or improve nature in these matters, would seem a hazardous attempt.

But we nowhere have seen, in any species of plants, a habit of shedding
entire branches, as a preparatiou for perfecting her fruit. That is a form of
deciduousness, not yet discovered under nature's operations. Hence, for men
to practice it, would not seem, a priori, to promise very happy results.

There is another class of operations, which seem kindred to these, but
which are essentially diverse from them. These are instances in which we
would secure an unnatural, or in some sense artificial, product. The culture
of celery, for the table, is of this sort. We wish here to secure an unnatural
tenderness of stalk, and hence we adopt artificial means. So with some of
the edible roots ; we cultivate, not for the fruit, but for the root, and may
sometimes succeed at the cost of the most perfect fruit. Or again, we may
prefer extraordinary size to other qualities, and then we nip off a portion of
the young fruit. Fancies of various sorts lead us to adopt other artificial
modes for securing our special object, in the cultivation of flowers.

In the cereals, however, the fruit is the object of the fsirmer's plans and
labors, or in other words, the perfection of the seed. Here then he has the
same end in view that nature has, and if he resorts to unnatural processes,
he will ultimately discover his mistake.

But in raising corn, the farmer sometimes has a double purpose. He uses
not only the fruit, but the leaf and the stalk. Hence, he has regard to both
in his style of culture. To secure his stalks in their best condition, he must
cut them before they begin to decay. But unless nature habituallv blunders,
this will be at the expense of tha fruit. If cnt at the moment when their
vegetative functions cease, perhaps no loss is sustained.

"All this is very well," says one, " but facts are against you. The corn is, in
fact, improved by cutting the stalks." Very well, only be sure of this, and
we will admit that nature always errs in this particular. Is any other infer-
ence possible'?

If we and nature, both, are wrong on this point, we wonder why it was

346 COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FIRE-WOOD.

not 60 ordered by a merciful Providence, that stalks of wheat, rye, &c., could
be cut too, and thus these strains be improved ? What splendid loaves would
such improved wheat furnish ! We cannot see why the cases are not ana-
logous.

Unnatural tillage sometimes produces " monstrous" growths of stem, herb,
or fruit, which require something equally unnatural to counteract it. This
is not unfrequentjy seen in rich gardens, but we see no analogy between these
phenomena and the case before us.

The corn may swell more or It-ss, in a given case, the accidental result of
circumstances, such as atmospheric moisture, condition of the stalks when
cut, (kc, but these, in our view, are only incidental, and do not materially
aflfect the substance of the grain. Vegetation is at an end already.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FIRE-WOOD.

To those who are in the habit of using wood as a principal article of fuel,
a knowledge of the relative comparative value of the various kinds in market
cannot be unimportant, particularly as the consumer is thus enabled to judge
of the comparative difference in each, and consequently to select the cheapest,
or that which is offered in market at the lowest price in proportion to its
relative value. For this purpose we have compiled the following table,
originally prepared from careful experiments, conducted on the most correct
and strictly philosophical principles. It shows the weight of a cord of differ-
ent kinds of wood, when dry, or seasoned, and the comparative value of the
same, assuming as a standard the shell-back or white-heart hickory :

1. Shell-back Hickory,

2. Common Walnut,

3. White Oak, - -

4. White Ash, - -

5. Swamp Whortleberry, 3361

6. Shrub Oak, -

7. Apple Tree, - -

8. Red Oak, - -

9. Black Oak, - -

10. White Beech, -

11. Black Birch, - -

12. Yellow Oak, -

13. White Elm, - -

14. Maple, - - -

15. Button wood, - -

16. Spanish Oak, -
n. White Birch, - -

18. Pitch Pine, - -

19. White Pine, - -

20. Lorn bardy Poplar,

Each cord of wood, when green, is estimated to contain 1443 lbs. of water.
The farmer, then, who takes a cord of green wood to market has a load not
much less for his team than his neighbor who should put on with his cord

lbs. in a

Prop.

Comp.

cord.

value.

value.

4469 11 00

$7 40

4221

95

7 03

3821

81

6 09

3420

77

5 70

3361

75

5 55

3337

74

5 47

3115

70

5 18

3083

69

5 11

3102

66

4 89

2936

65

4 81

2815

63

4 67

2818

60

4 44

2692

58

4 29

2668

54

4 00

2449

52

3 85

2391

51

3 77

2369

48

3 56

1904

43

3 18

1868

42

3 11

1774

40

2 96

WHAT HUMAN LABOR CAN DO. 347

of dry white oak, three quarters of a cord of seasoned pine, or make up his
load of more than two cords of dry white birch. We have always considered
the carting of water to market, especially over rough and heavy roads, an
unwise and unprofitable business.

SETTING FRUIT TREES.

In regard to the time of setting fruit-trees, there is a difference of opinion.
Some prefer the spring for this purpose, others the fall season. For those who
neglected setting their trees last spring, the proper season to do it is anytime
from the falling of the leaves until the earth begins to be frozen. Dig the
holes for the roots sufficiently large and deep, and put in a layer six inches
deep of rich soil. Place the tree with its roots as nearly in its natural posi-
tion as possible, the same depth as it originally stood upon this layer of soil,
and keeping the trunk in an upright position, fill the hole with rich, well-
pulverized earth, taking care that every root and fibre shall be firmly im-
bedded therein. After this earth has been firmly pressed or trodden in its
place, throw up a small mound of gravel (to be removed in the spiing)
around the trunk, and place a few stones upon this, which will steady the
tree, and prevent the too frequent freezing and thawing of the roots while the
earth is loose. Instead of this, each tree may be kept steady by staking with
two stakes, each being driven into the earth about two feet from the tree,
sloping in opposite directions, crossing near the top on each side of the trunk,
which should be surrounded by a bandage or cushion of moss, coarse wool
or cloth, (fee, and firmly bound between the stakes to its place. This will
support a young tree better than any other method which we have seen tried

WHAT HUMAN LABOR CAN DO.)

Mr. Stephenson, the Engineer who designed and executed the fiimous
Tubular Bridge over the Straits of Menai, said in a speech at Toronto :

" We ought not to forget that we have called to our aid that ckiss of men
called contractors, a number of scientific and mechanical men, many of them
positively engineers. These contractors now come to the aid of the engineer
in all difficulties ; so that the engineer has little more to do than to conceive,
and they realize. One circumstance connected with this fact might be men-
tioned. In connection with the Tubular Bridge, there were nearly two mil-
lions of cubic feet of masonry required, yet without his concerning himself at
all with the masonry, it was turned over to a thoroughly practical man, well
acquainted with all the appliances which science had placed at his disposal,
and so well were these appliances used, that in three years the two millions
of cubic feet of masonry were brought from the quariy and put together, and
raised into a magnificent edifice. The work amounted to this, that three
cubic feet of masonry were set every minute for twelve hours in each day, for
three hundred days in a year, and for a continuous period of three years.
(Applause.) Nothing that I ever heard or read of equalled that ; yet I will
almost pledge myself that more than that will be done at Montreal. (Tre-
mendous applause.) He mentioned this circumstance in regard to the time
in which so much work was performed by ingenuity in tlie application and
use of tackle ; but they must not overlook the fact that other things are

348 MANURES, PEAT, AND MUCK.

brought to bear in other countries which nearly rival any thing that we can
do as regards the amount of work done. A case of the kind came under our
notice in Egypt : an embankment was to be constructed over the Delta of
the Nile, extending over one hundred and forty miles, and in eighteen
months the embankment, eight feet high, and twenty-five feet wide, was con-
structed, an operation which struck him as remarkable for the systematic
application of human labor properly divided. There was one road from
Cairo to Benau, thirty miles long, forty feet wide, and eight feet high, fitted
for carriages, accomplished on this occasion. (Applause.) This was done,
too, in what was called a barbarous country ; but he has never seen it excelled
in any country, however civilized ! Therefore, it was well not to laud them-
selves too much in regard to their success in science ; for there are parties,
who, although not so far advanced in civilization as we are, have the means
of promoting works speedily, as any to which we have attained."

MANURES, PEAT, AND MUCK.

DuNDONALD, in a work upon agriculture, puWished in 1795, says, " The
most efficacious method of applying peat to poor, barren soils, is to mix it
■with the urine and dung of cattle ; on failure of these articles, with alkaline
and other salts, and lastly with limey

In making a compost of peat with lime, Dundonald says, " This object is
best attained by mixing newly-made and completely slacked lime, with about
five or six times its weight of peat, which should be moderately humid, and
not in too dry a state. * * * This preparation of lime and peat is in a
peculiar manner conducive to the growth of clover, and of the short, and as
they are called, sweet kind of pasture grasses. The soil, also, by the applica-
tion of it, acquires such a predisposition or tendency to promote tlie growth
of such grasses, as to prevent its growing afterward rank, coarse, or sour
herbage." "Notwithstanding," he says, "that this preparation of lime and
peat is certainly, when properly made, a valuable manure, yet the advan-
tages that may be derived from alkaline salts, instead of lime, are of much
greater importance and general utility."

PROF. MAPES' MODE.]

Professor Mapes practices another method of composting muck or peat.
He says : " The chloride of lime and carbonate of soda is made by slacking
three bushels of shell-lime, hot from the kihi, with one bushel of common salt
dissolved in water. Common salt being composed of chlorine and soda, the
lime combines with the chlorine, forming chloride of lime, which in turn
receives carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and becomes carbonate of soda.
The mass should be turned over every day for ten days, at the end of which
time, it is ready for use. Four bushels of this mixture, thoroughly divided
through one cord of muck, will decompose perfectly in ninety days in winter,
and in a proportionately less time in summer. When this muck cannot
readily be procured, any other organic matter will answer the same purpose ;
pond-scrapings, river-mud, decayed leaves, or even head-lands, with one
twentieth its bulk of stable-manure, or weeds will answer well."

PROF. Dana's method.

Of a compost of peat with salt and lime. Prof. Dana thus speaks : " Take
one bushel of salt, one cask of lime ; slack the lime with the brine, made by

THE POTATO ROT. ' 349

dissolving the salt in water, sufficient to make a stiff paste -with the lime,
which will be not quite sufficient to dissolve all the salt. Mix all the mate-
rials then well together, and let them remain together in a heaji for ten days,
and then be well mixed with three cords of peat ; shovel well over for about
six weeks, and it will be fit for use. Here then are produced three cords of
manure for about the cost of $2.10 per cord.

Salt, ... $0 60

Lime, - - 1 20

Peat, - - - 4 50

3)$6 30($2 10."

LORD MEADOWBANk's METHOD.

This process has been the basis of most of the experiments in the use of
peat or muck as a manure in this country, for the last twenty years. "Lay
the cart-loads of it (peat or muck) in two rows, and of the dung in a row
between them, the dung thus lies on the area of the compost dung-hill, and
the rows of peat should be near enough each other, that workmen in making
up the compost-heap be able to throw them together with the spade. In
making up let the workmen begin at one end, and at the extremity of the
row of dung, (which should not extend quite so far at that end as the rows
of peat on each side of it do,) let them lay a bottom of peat, six inches deep,
and fifteen feet wide, if the ground admits of it. Then throw forward, and
lay about ten inches of dung above the bottom of the peat ; then add from
the side rows,' about six inches of peat ; then four or five of dung, and then
six more of peat; then another thin layer of dung; and then cover it over
with peat at the end where it was begun, — at the two sides and above. The
compost should not be raised above four feet and four feet and a half high ;
otherwise it is apt to piess too heavily on the under part, and check the fer-
mentation ; unless the peat, when dry, be very puffy and light ; and then a
much greater height is desirable.

THE POTATO ROT.

The potato rot has for a number of years past been a scourge to the crops
of New-England farmers, and many inquiries have been made as to its
remedy, in all the agricultural papers; but as yet I have never seen any
thing which appears to answer the purpose of saving the crop. Now I pro-
pose to send you the results of three or four years' experience, in which I_
have been eminently successful. While my neighbors have lost many, if not
all of their potatoes, mine have remained sound, and kept Avell. The rule
that I enjoin is : plant your pgtatoes just as early as the ground will admit,
and put nothing but a spoonful of plaster in the hole with the seed. After
the ground is once well clear of frost, there is not much danger of its being
frozen deep enough to spoil the seed ; and if the crop is grown so early in the
season, it will lie in the ground in the fall, and be sound, while later grown
and manured ones will rot. In this way of planting, I have this year taken
my seed from the same bin as my neighbor, and from twelve busUels of seed
shall have at least one hundred and fifty bushels of sound potatoes; while
his, with only a fence between us, are scarcely worth the digging. Last year
I carried a lot of fine ones to market, and was asked, " Why, how in the

350 NECESSITIES OF KAILWAYS.

world do you have such potatoes as these, while I have scarcely any ?" I
gave my way of raising them, and told my friend that I had lost none to
speak of, but had a large yield, and had sold them for seventy-five to eighty
cents per bushel. If you would ask to know more, you have my address.—
Boston Cultivator.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

NECESSITIES OF RAILWAYS.

Wanted, Ten thousand able-bodied men to be employed in the different
railway stations, in pitching, hauling and capsizing baggage. Persons of
suitable qualifications will be liberally rewarded ; others need not apply.

They should be gigantic in stature, muscular and athletic in form, and
possess sufficient physical energy to seize a well-filled trunk of the largest
size by one handle, and hurl it, pell-mell, from the car to the platform, or
from one side of the station-house to another.

Preference will be given to those who have some practical knowledge of
grand and lofty tumbling, as that is the department in which they will be
mostly employed.

Persons who are not proof against those antiquated frailties of human
nature, called civility and politeness, are not wanted. They must be made
of sterner stufi:" than to yield to such weaknesses, or take notice of trifles.

When a gentleman or lady points out a trunk, valise, or box, and politely
asks for it, they must show their independence by minding their own busi-
ness, and leave the inquirer to learn a lesson in meekness.

The lessons to be learned are few and simple. They may be concisely
expressed as follows :

1. Railway proprietors do not guarantee the safe delivery of baggage. No
such thing. Passengers should be thankful if they get through with the
trunks of^their own bodies safe, even if divested of their fair proportions by
the loss of a limb or two. As for baggage, 'tis enough it they get the
handles, the lock, and the label. That will sufiice for identification.

2. The railway station is a kind of pubhc bowling-saloon, where the com-
pany's agents exhibit their dexterity, and test the strength of trunks and
boxes by pitching, kicking, rolling, and tumbling, for the edification of hack-
men and loafers, and the special gratification of the owners thereof.

3. Public carriers should practise no favoritism. Trunk and valise-makers
are a worthy class of men, and deserve patronage. Ergo, here goes the old
trunk.

The followiug simple rules should be committed to memory :

1. Always set down a trunk with emphasis. It will establish your
authority over it, and your undisputed right to thump it. Further, if it
contains a torpedo, or any other infernal macMine, it will cause it to explode,
and give you the benefit of the discovery.

2. Never let a trunk rest upon its bottom. Turn it bottom up, if possible ;
at least on its side. Always to rest upon the same foundation is decidedly
hunkeiish. The old saw, "Let every tub stand upon its own bottom," don't
apply to trunks.

3. When you have occasion to move a trunk, either roll it or pitch it, or,
seizing it by one handle, drag it forcibly across the floor or over the pave-
ment.° It serves to remove asperities both from the floor and the trunk. As
certain physicians say, " it equalizes the circulation."

A BAD PRACTICE. 851

4. In stowino- away ba<];gage, always place tlie smallest and frailest articles
at the bottom.^ If the contents are volatile, it will prevent their escape.

5. In tlie distribution of baggage, speak up as though you were on the
tented field, at the windward side of a whole brigade, and wished the whole
world to know that you are an assistant baggage-master.

Many other useful hints will be given when initiated.
Application may be made to anv railroad station or on board any steam-
boat. " Viator.

PEARS AT BOSTON.

According to the last number of Hoveifs Magazine, the show of pears at
the late exhibition of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society far exceeded
that of any former year. In common with many other parts of the country,
the season at Boston seems to have been unusually favorable to this, fine fruit,
specimens of Diel and Flemish Beauty measuring eleven to twelve inches in
circumference, and of the White Doyenne and Beurre d'Anjou, ten inches in
circumference.

The extent of the collections may be inferred from the fact that Hovey <fc
Co. presented specimens of 300 varieties; M. P. Wilder, 310; J. S. Cabot,
120 ; Samuel Walker, 100, (fee. Many of these would be, of course, of little
value ; the Society accordingly oflfered large prizes for the twelve best selected
varieties and bestgrown : the names of these we give below, and they show
what the general favorites are in that place :

From W. R. Austin : Le Cure, Easter Beurre, Duchess Angouleme, Beurre
d'Anjou, B. d'Aremberg, White Doyenne, Bezi de la Motte, Vans Mons Leon
le Clerc, Passe Clmar, Louise Bonne of Jersey, Bartlett, and Urbaniste.

From Jos. Richardson : Beurre d'Anjou, B. Easter, B. Diel, Louise Bonne
of Jersey, Urbaniste, Bartlett, Belle Lucrative, White Doyenne, Flemish
Beauty, Le Cure, Duchess of Angouleme, and Dix.

From Jos. Stickney : Louise Bonne of Jersey, Winter Nelis, Bartlett,
Easter Beurre, Marie Louise, Le Cure, Beurre Diel, Urbaniste, Glout Mor-
ceau, Belle Lucrative, Thompson, and Flemish Beauty.

From Hovey & Co. : Gray Doyenne, White Doyenne, Swan's Orange,
Beurre Bosc, B. Diel, B. d'Anjou, Glout Morceau, Flemish Beauty, Doyenne
Boussock, Bartlett, Duchess of Angouleme, and Louise Bonne of Jersey.

FOB THB PLODGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIl..

A BAD PRACTICE.

Manure. — Drawing out manure, and allowing it to remain in your fields,
under the rays of a hot sun, to be evaporated, is a bad practice, to say the
least of it. It is quite too common a practice, with many farmers, to draw
out their manure on pastures, spreading it, of course, and it remains exposed
to the sun until there is not substance enough in it to revive a pig-weed.
Though it is preached up as a fact, by many scientific farmers and agricultural
journalists, that a great amount of the strength of manure goes down into
the ground, yet I am persuaded that much more of its nourishing qualities
goes up than down, particularly where it is allowed to lie on the surface of
the ground, exposed to the intense heat of the sun.

It is a very good practice, if you are abundantly supplied with fine manure^

352 RULES AND FORMULA?..

to draw it out upon your wheat fields just before sowing your wheat, or before
you prepare your ground for the drill. By this practice, you intermix the
manure with the soil, and thus your wheat at once receives the advantage of
the apphcation. I am confident that this is the best way to apply fine manure,
as you get some good from it; whereas, if you draw it out upon your meadow
lands in a coarse state, many times in large lumps, you lose mucli of its
intrinsic worth, \\hich otherwise might be saved by judicious application. I
have known lands to be covered with manure in the fore part of the summer,
and I have known it to remain in this waste-like condition until winter, upon
pasture lands. 1 should like to know what real benefit can be derived from
thus applying fertilizing matter? Certainly no great; for, forsooth, most of
it is lost by way of evaporation, and by'the washing rains. Cattle do not
like to eat grass growing out of manure-heaps, though they frequently eat it
in the form of hay, in the winter season.

The best way, on the whole, in my estimation, to apply coarse manure, in-
termixed with straw, &c., is to draw it out upon your plough-fields, and ploiigh
it in as fast as you draw it. If it is very coarse, and you are bound to have
it ploughed in, let a boy follow after the plough, and haul it into the furrow ; but
don't let it remain in the field until its main substance is gone to the four
winds, to fall some where, you know not where. W. Tappan.

RULESAND FORMULA

FOR CONSTRUCTING MACHINES AND PARTS OF MACHINES.

We have p-iven. in previous numbers, several " rules and formulse," taken
from the Polytechnic Journal^ which were originally prepared for the readers
of that learned work, by Messrs. Gritzner & Fleischmann, editors. We select
a few more from the September number.

[The symbols are used as in the April and June numbers; d for diameter ;
N the eft'ect which the axis transmits, expressed in horse-power ; w, the num-
ber of revolutions of the axis per minute]

Long Transmission Axes, and especially those used in spinning and
weavino- factories, ought to be so constructed that the angle of torsion will
be the same for axes of large as well as of small diameters, and in proportion
to the length of the axes.

For such axes we have —

4 ^

d = 6.299 V -
n

The angle of torsion will be = -^^-^ for cast iron, and -^^^ for wrought
iron.

For the construction of an axis of a walking-beam, which is supported on
both ends, and the weight applied in the middle of it, let P be the pressure
of the walking-beam upon the middle of the axis ; d, the diameter of a
journal ; I, its length ; D, the diameter of the axis next the walking-beam ;
L, the distance of the walking-beam from the middle of the journal.

Then we have —

d = 0.077 V P,

I — 0.3428 + 1.21 d

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 353

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

This immense show magnifies its apparent dimensions, as one undertakes
^to give even its general outlines. But frequent visits and repeated observa-
tions on this subject sati4y us that the public taste is less educated than the
intellectual faculties. Crowds pass by the Gobelins and the Sevres ware, and
the scarcely less attractive goods now manufactured by M. Lahoche, and the
^beautiful Florentine mosaics, without any apparent •consciousness that these
are any thing more than they see every day. The Pope's St. John actually
seems less attractive to the masses than the colored engravings of a shop-
window. We say this not by way of complaint, of course, but of regret,
and as we have watched the movements of the crowd, we have wished that
some "public demonstrator" or skillful lecturer might take each little party
of visitors, and, by explanation and comparison, illustrate the peculiar points
of those objects chiefly worthy of note. If some superintendent of public
instruction would employ a few scores of teachers competent to this ta^k, we
are sure he would do the State much service. We only add in this connec-
'tion, that we discover very little difference in these matters, between the resi-
dents of city and country.

But we must proceed with our descriptions, commencing where we were
obliged to stop in our November number, viz., at the entrance of the gallery
over the south nave, from the tables occupied by the German States.

Our readers will remember an account of the statuettes of Charles T.
€oPELAND, in our September number, p. 174. We have surveyed that table
many times since then, and have not changed our opinion of the peculiar
•merits of those works of art. They have been rearranged, and may now be
seen upon a single table.

China ware and porcelain, by Charles C. Leigh, Agent of John Rose <fe
•Co., of London, These are of superior quality. The show includes vases,
pitchers, ewers, tea and dinner sets, &c., in various styles, and of different
■materials. Some of them are of great value. On the tirst table, at the end
of it, is "the Queen's pattern vase," being a copy of one in her Majesty's pos-
session, of blue and gold.

Sundry statuettes in groups are among these wares, which possess great
•merit. Valor protecting Irmocence, Sir Calapin rescuing Serena, " the Fairie
Queen," Tam O'Shanter and Soutter Johnny, Brito Martis releasing Amoret,
the fairie queen, &c., are among the most attractive.

Passing by the miniature steam-engine, standing upon an English sixpence,
in the same case with the elegant watches of B. J. Warner, London, (Piatt
& Bros., Maiden lane, agents,") we reach the show of English silver and gold
wares.

The first case contains magnifiicent workmanship and designs, by Hunt &
RosKELL. An immense candelabrum is most prominent among these. On
each corner of the base is a representation of living groups, and the standard
consists of or is surrounded by other groups, (four stories of them in all,)
with a vase for flowers on the top. The same manufacturers fill other cases
near by, with salvers, cups, tea-sets, water-bottles, a mirror, &c., with two
beautiful monumental designs of silver ; there is also jewelry, exceedingly
rich, with diamonds, opals, emeralds, &c., of most superb styles, and dressing-
cases, furnished with articles for the toilet, with gold handles, and another,
VOL. VI. — PART V. 23

S54 fflfi GREAT EXHlfilWO^r.

silver-mounted, liberally furnished with perfumery bottles, &c. An elegant
•watch in a square frame is in each.

Elkington, Mason & Co., Birmingham and London, fill the next cases^
with gold and silver electro-plated wares, of very rare workmanship, of
Egyptian and other antique styles.

The large glass case contains electro-plated wares, among which are a large
centre-table ornament, designed expressly for the Bew-York Exhibition. Rock
base, with oak branches sapportiiig lights, aind silver shells for fruit ; the
whole supporting glass bowl for flowers. Sea tigers on the triangular base^
Flower stand, sea horses and glass shell. Set of three eentre-iyieces, Louis
Quatorze. Flower-stand, shelly supported by coral and sea-weed. Kich
dinner service, consisting of dish-covers, entree dishes, soup tureens, wine
coolers, <fec., in the Arabesque style. S*'t of three cent/e pieces, modelled
from the Egyptian Lily* Tea-trays or salvers. Large centrc-pTeee, for eight
lights, in the style of 6fteenth century, with figures supporting baskets for
fruit. Centre-piece for dessert service, with figures of Winter and Summer^
A centre-table ornament, the national games of England. Jukstand, Re-
becca at the Well. Inkstand, "Please remember the Grotto." Flower-stands^
salt-cellars, spoons, forks, &c.

The next, a square glass case, containing works in silver oxide, silver, and
gold, by tlie same manufacturers* Among these, are a sideboard dish, in
silver relief, gilt, the sabject of which is from the "Iliad." Set of three can-
delabra, after the antique. Race plate, designed by Gunkel, modelled by
Rossi, at Rome. The bas reliefs, on the frieze, represent the three character-
istic virtues of practical life, "Strength, Swiftness, and Prudence." In the
centre appears a mask of the fair Goddess of Love, who looks out from ai
rich arabesque flower, as the incentive to exery noble strife, and the promoter
of all prize competitorship. Sideboard plate, representing the parable of the
"Prodigal Son," a reproduction by eUctro-deposition. Fruit plate,, in the
Alhambra style. Celebrated cup, an electrotype copy in pnre silver, from
the original one of the Benvenuto Cellini, now in the British Museum. A
dish, of fine workmanship, obtained and copied for Me»srs. Elkington, under
the direction of the Chevalier de Schlick. The eight subjects in bas relief,-
represent Minerva, Astrologia, Geometrica, Arithmetica, Musics, and Rheto-
rica. The centre figure represents Temi)eranee, surrounded by the four ele-
ments ; as made, mounted as a table, for her Majesty, Queen Victoria..
Mirror, in oxide silver, electro- gilt; sii7iilar to one purchased by Her Ma-
jesty, Queen Victoria, at the Dublin Exhibition. Cups and vases, beautifully
embossed with figures of centaurs, ivy, and vine wreaths, &c.; electrotype
copies of originals discovered at Pompeii and Ilerculaneum, and now in the
Museum at Naples. Plate, representing seven days of the week, modelled
by Due du Luynes. Inkstand, slaughter of the " Wiobe." Inkstand,, designed
to commemorate the London Exhibition of 18.5L

Bronzed wares, also electrotyped, fill the next stand. Among the more
attractive articles are : Cu|)id, with the Lyre, from original, by ThorwiJdsen.,
Dish, representing Trojan Dorse entering Troy ^ copy of a fine old silvei*
chasing. Vase, from original in British Museum ; Co|)y of celebrated War-
wick vase. Sideboard dish, subject from the " Iliad." Basts, of Homer,
Sophocles, Aristotle, Demosthenes, &c., from antique sculpture. Cup, the
Apotheosis of Homer, from Pompeii.

These gentlemen are the patentees of the process of gilding and plating:
metals, by the agency of electricity, commonly called electro-gilding and
plating.

THE GKEAT EXHIBITION. 355

This patent was granted in March, 1840, and since that time the manu-
facture of articles by this process lias become an important branch of indus-
try, and is rapidly increasing. The patentees employ about five hundred
work-people, and, necessarily, some of the first designers of the day. " To
show the industrial importance of the manufacture, it may be stated, that in
addition to the immense productions of the patentees, the process is exten-
sively adopted in France, and other foieign countries ; and there are also
about thirty other manufacturers in England, licensed to use the process, the
patentees, of course, having no control over the quality of the articles pro-
duced by those so licensed.

The advantages which plating by this process possesses, are :

1st. The application of a white metal, approximating silver, in hardness
and color, as a ba-se instead of copper, and upon which the pure silver is de-
posited.

2d. The removal of all restraint as to form. The most elaborate ornaments,
and the most complicated designs which can be produced in silver, are
equally obtainable by this process,

3d. Permanency of plating, the coating of silver becoming, by the agency
of electricity, one body with the metal on which it is deposited, rather than
a mere covering.

4th. Economy in first cost and durabihty ; in the multiplication of works
of art of the highest character, this invention is now taking an important
position; and the patentees have established a branch manufactory for such
objects, and are now producing, with equal precision and perfection, copies
from the smallest gem to the colossal statue, possessing all the accuracy and
beauty of the original design."

Angell, 10 Strand, London, displays rich silver and gold wares in the
next case. Among these is ihe group Sir Roger de Coverly and the Gypsies,
the "JSsop Service," ornamented with illustrations of JE^op's fables, the
ornaments of which are separate from the service, and may be retnoved from
it, and the service used perfectly plain. Other ornamental pieces represent-
ing, The Halt in the Desert, The Cellini Vase, Etruscan claret jug. Vintage
<lo., an antique tea caddy, Shakspearian ink&tand, antique ale-tankard, &c.,
all of superb workmanship.

Garrard furnishes the next case. Among these works of art are a huge
candelabrum, vases, pitchers, salvers, ewers, &c. The group, " Don Quixotte,*
in which the hero himself, Sancho, and the Don's Dulcinea, with Rusiuante
and Sancho's horse, are excellently well grou]>ed and executed.

The Landing of the Pilgrims, in massive silver, belonging to Mr.
Thayer, of Boston, and manufactured in London, is seen still farther on.

Passing by the prize-cup otiered for the best article on Jurisprudence, we
come to the last of this show, the case from

Smith, Nichols, & Co. These are rich wares, but inferior to some of
those we have mentioned.

This series of cases contains more massive wares, and wares more floridly
ornamented than those of the American manufacturers described in our last.
A few of them are probably superior as exquisite works of art. But for
chaste designs, elegance of pattern, and quality of material, we think the
American compares very well with the English ware. We say this not to
disparage the English, but as a fact, which may be fairly stated to the honor
of our own manufacturers. Still we ought not to pretend to compete exten-
sively in this department with the English, for our manufacturers must have
produced the richest of these samples at a great risk of loss, since we have

856 THE GREAT EXHIBITION".

not — or should not have — one purchaser for there, where the English have
many. There are many Englishmen, each of whom could " buy out" a score
of our wealthiest men.

Passing to the opposite side of the stair-way, by the large and very sub-
stantial Axminster Carpet, suspended there, let us commence a return
along the row of tables }»arallel to the route just passed. The show of Hayes'
Royal Irish linen thread need not detain you. The cases beyond are more
attractive. The first is filled with wares manufectured by Chas. II. Farquhar
& Son, Edinburgh, consisting of goods for the use of hunters, <fcc., of excellent
workmanship. In the next is Malachite and Pebble jewelry, by Aaron,
Brothers, England. Next we see hair and bog-oak ornaments of superb
workmanship, by John Fletcher, Sligo, Ireland.

Skidmore (ic Son, Coventry, exhibit church metal-work; chalices, patens,
&c.

Wm. Wyon, R. a., chief engraver to the royal mint, exhibits, in the next
case, some very handsome medallions, coins, &c., from the royal mint.

Waterhouse & Co., the Queen's jewellers, Dublin, exhibit a great variety
of emblematic jewelry, among which are, The Harp, the Oghuin brooch,
royal Tara brooch, Conynghame brooch, silver Templar's and Knight Tem-
plar's brooch, &c.

Cornelius Coggin, Dublin, exhibits a case of bracelets of bog-oak, and
emblematic brooches of the same, such as the wreath-shamrock, the sprig-
shamrock, Irish ]jearls ; also horse-hair ornaments of perfect workmanship,
and brooches of Connemara marble.

J. & C. Berrian, Sheliield and Birmingham, exhibit silver plated Avares.

Opposite these tables are shawls in variety, by A. Orr Ewing & Co., Glas-
gow. Silks in variety, by Wilson & Clark, Manchester.

Passing on, we come to several tables covered with various china and por-
celain wares, by T. & J. Mayer, Longport, Staffordshire. On the floor stand
several logs of tvood, as any one would presume, but examination proves
them to be of porcelain. Sundry urns, statuettes, vases, bowls. &c., occupy
tables. One of those bowls is very superb, the painting being of the highest
style of art. It is of large size, holding several gallons.

We are now by the side of a small church organ, by F. Hechenger,
from the German States, apparently inclined to harmonize with its English
neighbors. The key-board is upon the back-side of the organ, and is elevated
several feet above its base. The bellows are entirely outside the organ, and
connected with it only by a wind-tube.

Further on, we find the beautiful show of Minton, from Stoke, upon Trent.
His statuettes are very beautiful, equalled, in the Crystal Palace only, by
those of CopeLand. The selection of subjects represented is also very tine.
Among these are Prometheus, Shakspeare, Christ blessing little children,
the three Marys, Naomi and her daughters-in-law, Venus and Cupid, Child
playing with her mother, the wounded Indian, Flight into Egypt; Cellini
ewer and plateau, by Guinot ; the Verulam jug, Parian, red and gold ; Nel-
son, Wellington, Temperance ; Parnassus vases, royal purple with wreaths of
roses; Harewood bottles, vase with the bronzes of Cyrus, &c., <fec. He has
two superb flower-pots, very large, and other rural designs.

Encaustic tiles for floors are suspended from the eastern side of the nave,
by the same exhibitor. 'i

Following the course thus designated, we reach the case of T. & R. Boote,
which contains some exquisite specimens of Waterloo pottery, worthy of very
especial notice. Also, some beautiful statuettes.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION". 357

Sampson, Brigwood & Co., and Thomas Dimmock, Jr., & Co., both from
Staffordshire, exhibit various china wares.

SwAiNE & Adeney, Picadilly, London, have a splendid show of whips.

AiNGE & Aldred, London, a beautiful assortment of bows and arrows,
fishing-tackle, &c.

Turning the corner into the eastern nave, towards the picture gallery,

James Paul, of Glasgow, exhibits the prize Plush of the London Exhibi-
tion. It is very beautiful.

Passing rapidly thence along the tables, we notice mathematical instru-
ments, o-lobes, maps, a fine barometer, optical instruments, clocks and watches,
very superior, by E. D Johnson, London, with a marine chronometer. Superb
watches also from R. F. Cowdekry, London, oiitical instruments again, a
beautifid show of " ornamental water-marks," or paper transparencies, by T.
H. Saundeks, and maps of physical geography, by Wm. S. Orr, London ; da-
guerrian views of the Crystal Palace in London, Hydrometers, and other
objects in variety, too numerous and unimportant to mention in detail.

On one of these tables, is a fine assortment of Tuubridge ware, Shep-
herd's safety lamp, sundry soaps of D. & W. Gibbs, London, in great quan-
tities, glass transparencies, &e.

Turning away from the picture-gallery, we find fringes, tassels, (fcc, of silk,
gold, and worsted, by Hamilton Hyde & Co., London. Still further on are
ruo-s in great variety, immerous enough to furnish a large store, and at the
end of the table is a fine display of articles for the toilet, by Taylor & Son,
perfume distillers, &c.. King's Road, Chelsea, London.

On the opposite side of the court are knit woollen goods, by Johnson,
Brothers & Townsend.

The remaining courts of this section are occupied by numerous contributors,
who exhibit a great variety of female wearing-apparel, such as robes, (infant's,)
stays, hose, gloves, handkerchiefs, under-clo'hing, boots and shoes, fancy cloth
and gingham dresses, also shiits, fronts, gloves, &c., &c., for gentlemen.

Among these is an elegant wrought handkerchief, a present for the wife of
Presid^-nt Pierce. There are also some very rich lace dresses from Dublin,
the handsomest of the kind in the palace, various elegantly-wrought goods,
"richly embroidered by poor girls," from Belfast, L-eland, and other matters
which we lack ^kill to describe.

This brings us to the picture-gallery, which we have already described.
We therefore pass on to the other side of the nave, and leaving the agricul-
tural wares for their own appropriate chapter, we specify a few interesting
objects that belong to the

miscellaneous department — united states.

In the north-east galler}-, as our readers already understand, a large space
is occupied by the comparatively cumbrous tools of the farmer, forming the
Unit<-d States agricultural department. But extensive territory is also occu-
pied by goods of every different description. We specify a iew, all that our
limits will, at present, permit.

Bonnets. — Broadway, Division street, Chatham street, and some other
streets, are here repr(-scmted by all sorts and conditions of goods of this
description. The plain Quaker drab at one extreme, and at the other, all sorts
and kinds and qualities, whether gaudy and tawdry, or brilliant, or elegant,
or rich, dashing crimson, the joyous pink, the beautiful blue and green, the
chaste white, and all other shades .and varieties of hue, are here side by side.
We will not force ourselves into the seat of a judge, on these goods, lest we

358 THE GREAT EXHIBITION".

be charged with interfering with woman's rights. We only remark, that fit
representatives are found in this assortment for "all sorts and conditions" of
people, from the top of the Fifth avenuu to the humblest dweller in Cross or
Mulberry streets.

Boots and Shoes, Gloves and TIose, in large quantities, and in great
variety, are displayed here, and on the whole the show of these manufactures
is very fine.

But these are met with in all places of merchandise, and we will not stop
here to describe or to criticise them. We may do so by and by.

AsHARD, Brothers, manufacturers of the perfumed oriental crystal, 28
Abingtim place, N. Y., have in this gallery a very tasteful display of a very
attractive article. In a glass miniature Crystal-Palace, Mr. Ring, the agent,
exhibits a great variety of perfumery, confined in Liliputian glass. A few drops
of the liquid perfume are enclosed in very small, thin tubes, hermetically
sealed. One of these is grasped in the folds of a handkerchief, the glass is
shivered, and the fragments shaken out, while the otlor manifests itself very
distinctly. By this process, there is no danger of loss by evaporation, the
necessary consequence of a frequent opening of larger bottles. These " crys-
tals" are neatly arranged in paper boxes, and may be purchased in various
quantities.

Prof. Widdows, Thompson street, N. Y., exhibits, in small vials, a liquid
cement, styed Metropolitan Crystal Cement^ very highly commended for
mending broken glass. If a tumbler, lamp, or other glass vessel is broken,
the edges that were separated are to be moistened with this cement, rendered
more tluid by immersing the bottle in hot water. The parts are then held
together awhile, after which the vessel must be left a few hours for the
cement to harden, when the excess of cement may be rubbed off. The joint,
of course, is visible, but the vessel is not discolored, and it will bear, afterwards,
even hot water with impunity.

Bennington Wares. — In the same section with these last two articles
is the fine show of recent wares manufactured at Bennington, Vermont,
These are various not only in their forms and colors, but also in their material,
the result of a different proportion of the clays of which they consist. This
material is a variety of kaolin or porcelain clay, which is found only at Ben-
nington, although, of other varieties of porcelain clay, there are numerous
deposits in this section of the country. It is a peculiar mixture of flint, quartz,
and feldspar. The manufacturers have a patent fur their enamel, or the burn-
ing in of their colors, which produces a brilliant glossy surface, which resists
the action of all acids.

The New-England Glass Company. — These wares are also on exhibition
by the side of those just described. The excellence and beauty of these
manufactures demand a more particular notice than we now can find room
for, and we therefore leave them for the present. We allude to them because
they are too important to be passed by in silence, among the other manu-
factures in the same section.

UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

Steam Gauge Telegraph for the Prevention of Boiler !v\ plosions.
Dunn's Patent. — This electric telegraph is intended to give alarm, Ix-'fore the
water gets so low in the boiler as to be dangerous, to the operating engineer.
On steamships, another instrument is placed in the slate-room of the chief engi-
neer, and both are notified at the asme time. It also supplies a telegraphic key

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

859

for communication from the operatins^ to the chief engineer, should anything
require his presence at tlie engine, without the operating engineer leaving his
post, or detaching a messenger from his duty, or causing alarm to otliers. It
can also be used for steambi^ats, land engines, &c., with a communication to
the chief in his office, or to any other point, at any distance — the conKectiou
beincr made by any iron or copper wire.

This apparatus is conaected with the steam-boiler. A, by an upright iron,
tube, B, (bent at right angles in close contact with the flue surfece) closed at
the lower end, and tilled with mercury up to the glass tube, C, with which it
■connects — the mercury as high in the glass tube, C, as the mark D. The
glass tube, C, supports a ferule, E, with an adjusting screw, F, through its
centre, for the purpose of regulating the space between the surface of the
mercury and the lower end of the screw. G is the case to protect the end
of the tube from injury, and may be kept closed and locked, as it need never
be opened except when the engineer chooses to adjust it ; a wire, H, connects
the screw, F, with the bell instru meat, I, also with the battery, K, in connec-
tion with the telegraph key, L, and finally, with the boiler. A, to complete the
circuit of the electric current

OPERATION.

When the water commences to fall below a definite point in the boiler,
established by the engineer-in-chief, an increase of temperature takes place
which expands the mercury in the tube, B, and raises its surface into contact
with the point of the screw, F, thereby closing the circuit of the electric cur-
rent. At that instant the bell commences ringing to give an alarm that the
water is getting too low, in time to prevent an accident.

For further particulars, application maybe made by letter, or otherwise, to
Pease k Murphy, Fulton Iron Works, foot of Cherry street ; to Mr. Quintard,
at Morgan's Iron Works, foot of Ninth street; or at the Company's office,
No. 20 Nassau street.

The prices for ditierent applications of these gauge telegraphs, including
the instrument and full directions for its use, complete and set up in working
order, vary from one hundred to three hundred dollars, according to the
number of boilers ia use, &c.

860

THE GREAT EXHIBITION,

Parker's patent tobacco plug-pressing machine.

The annexed engraving is a perspective view of the machine for press'ng
plug tobacco, for which a patent was granted to A. A. Parker, of St. Louis,
in 1852. This machine is on exhibition at the Crystal Palace, and as the
tobacco trade of our country is very extensive, it attracts the attention of all
engaged in the tobacco business.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE, AND ITS MODE OF OPERATION.

A A is a frame of tlie machine, and B is the driving handle of the main
shaft; on the opposite end is a fly-wheel for the purpose of keejiing up a
regular motion of the machine. This shaft can be driven by belt and pulley,
as iu the Crystal l'ahu;<i ; C is a pinion-wheel gearing into and driving the
cog-wheel, 1>, on the sh.tft, E, of which it may be said all the peculiar mo-
tions are transmitted ; F is a sector cam on this shaft ; it has two pins on its
inner face, and as it revolves, these pins take into the arras of the star-wheel,
H, which moves said wheel two arms for every revolution of cam F ; G is a
■wheel on the stud of II, it gears into a wheel coupled with the one J, which
gears into the pinion, K, and revolves its shaft, L. On the other extremity

THE GREAT EXHIBITIOK. 381

of this shaft is secured the mould or cell disc, M, in the_ conipartments of
which the tobacco is pressed. By the motions described, it will be observed
that the mould disc, M, has an intermittent rotary motion, and that one
quarter of it (one cell) is moved every revolution of the shaft, E ; N N are
pilinans secured on the shaft, E, and attached to the toggle-jointed levers,
0 O. These levers ])ress the tobacco in the moulds, for as the shaft, E, re-
volves, the pitman, N, being placed eccentrically on it, as they draw down,
they make the levers, O 0, force a pressing-head into the cell or mould of M,
and press the tobacco firmly in the same; thetoggl^r-jointed levers will recede
when the pitman, N, changes their position in rotation. There are four
pressing sinkers as heads, P, they are secured to the ends of the levers, O,
and rotate with an intermittent motion on a small slide shaft. The reason
for this arrangement is, that after a presser-head or sinker has pressed about
twelve plugs, its face gets gummed up, and will not press well. To obviate
this ditlicuky, a clean presser-head is presented after twelve plugs are oressed,
by the diity one being turned down by a rod operated by a small pinion ;
the unclean sinker dips into a trough of water below, and is scrubbed with a
^small brush, and so on, the presser-heads rotate, press, get dirty, and are
cleaned. At the back of the cell or mould disc, M, is the revolving pLate
wheel, W, the bottom o( which forms the solid back of the mould or cell, in
which the plugs of tobacco are pressed. When a plug is pressed, the levers
O 0, recede, and that cell or mould rotates, until it comes opposite to the
receiving compressing box, Z, behind, into which the pressed plug is dis-
charged or forced by a plunger attfiched to the thrusting rod, Y, which is
secured to the wheel, X, eccentrically, which gives it a reciprocating motion.
The mould-boxes are filled or fed from hopper, V, into which the loose roll
of tobacco is placed by two feeders, S and T, the one, S, receives it from the
hopper, and carries forward as much as will be a plug, to the one T, which
then takes it forward and forces it into the back-side of the lower cell or
mould of M. The feeding motions of T and S, are by levers, R and T : the
one, E, is operated by a cam, Q, on shaft E, which forces it forward, and then
it springs back to feed forward another plug. Thus there is one cell or mould
of M, filling, one in which the tobacco is "being compressed, one being-^ dis-
charged, and one passing empty to get filled, all the time. The back of the
pressing cell— the plate-wheel, *W, is kept clean and free from gum, because
it geai's into teeth on the back of M, and revolves. As this wheel revolves
it is met with a sponge at one side, and above that it is oiled with a roller
rubber. This softens the tenacious gum of the tobacco, which is then easily
scraped off by the broad scraper seen at the left hand side. This enables the
moulds or cells of M always to have a clean back. This is essential to the
successful working of the tobacco-pressing machine. The common presses
for pressing tobacco are very defective ; this one is entirely new in principle,
construction, and all its operations.

The I'eceiving compressing box, Z, into which the plugs are discharged from
the moulds or cells, embraces a princi|ile essential to the success of a tobacco-
pressing machine. If the tobacco was freely discharged when quickly pressed
into l)lugs, it would soon lose its form and compactness. This receiving corn-
pressing box or contractor, has its bottom, top, and sides composed of endless
belts, and it is of such a size as to hold the plugs under pressure while con-
fined for about half an hour, during which time the plugs lose their elasticity,
and always retain their form after they are discharged. This machine presses
abotit twenty plugs per minute, and the receiving compressing box contains
a great many plugs, as it is somewhat long. When full, as one pressed

362

THE GREAT EXITIBITION".

plug is tliiiist ill by the lever, Y, one is discharged at the upper end, ready
to be packed up, and so on, continually.

The pressing power of the press can be increased by extending or dimin-
ishing the di-^tance between the back and front ends of the levers, they l)eing
attached to the cross-l)ar at the back of the machine, which can be shifted
forward or back by the large screw rods, one of which is seen passing through
them. This is a good arrangement for graduating the pressing power.

PLOUGHS, (fee, BV RUGGLES, NOUKSE & MASON.

WQ*\.kU^ •

Tins enterprising house displays a greater variety of implements of their
own manufacture, and of most excellent quality, than any other exhibitor of
agricultural implements in the Palace. We specify a few of these :

Ploughs, in series. — These are of all sizes from the deep-tillers, " No. 77,"
with a capacity to carry a furrow from 9 to 13 inches deep, by 15 to 17 inches
wide, to those 5 to 8 inches deep, by 9 to 13 inches wide. Then we have
their sod plough ; plough for stiff soils, turning furrow^ 6 inches deep by
9 inches wide ; the swivel or side-hill plough; plough for stubble land ; the
double plough, or soil and sub-soil in one, &c., <fec.

Tile list, if complete, would be too much extended. The forms of their
mould- boards are peculiar, being determined by mathematical calculation and
by actual experiments, with reference not only to the power of draught, but
also the condition in which they leave the furrow.

The engraving represents the Eagle Plough, No. 71-^. Its mould-board is
of a long, gentle curvature, specially designed and finely adapted f )r ])lough-
ing the loose, ])orous, dry, sandy, and gravelly loams. It turns sod-furrows
from 5 to 8 inches deep, by 11 to 13 inches wide, on so long and easy a twist
as to avoid unduly opening and disuniting their constituent parts. The de-
fect of such soils is, that they are already too open and porous, and therefore
too readily give up their moisture and fertility by evaporation. They greatly
want more condensation and compactness of parts ; and hence the powerfully
pulverizing plough is not the best plough for working them. They are best
ploughed in perfectly flat furrows, the edges of which are closely matched in,
and the cohesion of the i)arts of which is so preserved, that the ploughed
land lays even, smooth, and firm, and not too loose, open, cracked, and un-
even. The best and most experienced cultivators of light dry lands have
found that thus ploughing them, and then compressing the furrows closely
with a heavy roller, insures the best germination of seeds, the best stand of
crops, the best protection of the growing plants from the parching and wither-
ing infiuences of drouirht, and the excessive heat of American summer seasons.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

363

It is confidently recommended for the working of loose, dry, sandy, and
gravelly soils.

Harrows. — The same firm exhibits a variety of these : the improved
hinged harrow, the Geddes harrow, the expanding and reversible ijarrow, the
Scotch harrow, and the triangular, folding, or chandler's harrow.

Cultivators are also exhibited by them in variety.

Cotton sweep, cotton scraper, horse-powers, rollers, seed-sowers, cradles,
garden engines, tan mills, hay, straw, and corn-stalk cutters, corn ^hellers,
corn and cob-crushers, cotton gins, improved patent grist-mill, sugar mill, and
almost every vaiiety of tool or machine in use upon a farm, is in the cata-
logue exhibited by these gentlemen.

Hitchcock's Combination Iron Pumi> is one of the newer forms that have
fallen under our notice. This consists of a movable India-rubber "valve" in
the top of the pump, connected with the lever, and which therefore rises and
falls with it, produces the vacuum or tlie pressure ; for it may be made a
lifting or forcing pump, at pleasure, and avoids much if not all the friction
which is commonly attendant upon pistons and valves.

tremper's patent pneumatic governor, and regulating valves, for
steam-engines, water-wheels, propellers, (fec.

This reculator and steam-econo-
mizer is on an entirely new pnnciple,
simple, cheap, and not liable to get
out of order. The action of the
governor is so quick, that the steam
is applied precisely as the work is
put on the engine, and cut otf at
the instant the work is taken off,
keeping the power and work equal,
a point in regulating no other regu-
lator can do. In simplicity, regu-
larity of its work, and saving of
fuel, it is claimed to be superior to
any other regulatoi'.

Explanation. — A A is an iron
frame for supporting the spindle,
C, which is kept in motion by a
belt running on the driving pulley,
B. D D D D are four heavy me-
tallic discs, presenting considerable
surface to the air ; these are fixed
to the ends of flexible bars which
radiate from the bush or socket, G,
this latter turns loosely upon the
spindle, and can also slide up and
down it. Affixed to G is the curved
or spiral rod, E, whose action is
simple and efficient. For when the
governor is put in motion the spin-
dle will impel the roller, F, attached
er the spiral, which is consequently forced up, drawing with it the
and its appendages; but when the discs have acquired a velocity
that of the spindte, the further ascent of the spiral will cease. Should

to it und
bush, G,
equal to

^^■1 THE RAILWAYS OF RUSSIA.

the speed of the spindle diminish, the velocity of the discs will not slacken,
on account of their ac(juired momentum, and in consequence their weight
will induce the spiral to descend. The valve in>ide the valve-lxjx, M, is
oj^erated by means of a rod, J, which, by the intervention of I, (constructed
in the usual manner,) partakes of the traverse of tlie bush, but not of lis
rotary motion. II is a stop to limit the descent of the discs, &c , this stop is
secured to the spindle by the pin, L. The mode of attaching the rod, J, to
the valve stalk, is shown at K. The valve is not shown here, but it will
doubtless suffice to observe that it is perfectly balanced, so that it works as
easily under any pressure of steam as when not in use, needs no packing,
cannot get out of centre, and is free from every objection that the most criti-
cal might allege against its efficiency. A governor of this description for a
100 horse-power engine weighs only 15 pounds.

THE RAILWAYS OF RUSSIA.

A French journal publishes from the Augsburg Gazette, an interesting
account of the progress which has been made within the la-^t few years in the
prosecution of railways in Russia. From this article we gather the following
facts :

The first railway in Russia was that leading from St. Petersburg to Tsars-
kozela and Paulowski, two imperial residences, a distance of 17 miles. This
|-oad was opened in 183G, by a company consisting in part of British capital-
ists; and the shares, which cost |40 to $50, are now worth $60 to ^70. This
was soon followed by the great enterprise undertaken by the Emperor, in
which he took a deep interest, of a first-class railway from St. Petersburg to
Moscow, 607 versts in length, or just about 400 Engli>h miles. In the pro-
secution of the woik, it is well known by the friends of the late Major
Whistler, who was one of the efficient engineers in the Western Railroad, in
Massachusetts, that he was invited thither through the agency of M. Bodisco,
the Russian Minister, and was employed in a very responsible situation in the
conduct of the work, until his death, which took place a short time before it
was finished. Under the agency of Mr. Whistler, a large number of Ame-
rican mechanics were invited to Russia, and employed in the construction of
locomotives and machinery.

This work was constructed under the direction of the Minister of Public
Works, Count Kleir Michel, aided by Majtjr Whistler, and was opened on the
1st of November, 1851. It is found to be of immense benefit to the com-
merce of the country, and the business upon it is daily increasing. The pas-
sage is made from the one capital to the other in 22 hours, which previously
occupied four days in diligent travelling day and night.

The Auf.'sburg paper goes on to relate that this line had been hardly finished,
when the Emperor ordered the construction of another gigantic ri;atl between
St. Petersburg and Warsaw. The track has been laid out, and thousands of
laborers are now engaged in grading it.

This road will be 1,010 versts, or 668 miles, long. It will pass by the
cities of Louga, P.-koflf", Dunabourg, Wilna, Grodno, Vileka, Duna, Viala,
Niemen, and Narev. General Gertsfelt, of the corps of engineers, directs the
woiks of this road.

While this great railway is in prosecution, a company has been formed at
Riga for building a branch, which is to unite the seaport with the city of

MONUMENT TO MR. SKINNER. 865

Dunabourar, ami thus connect Riga with the two capitals of Russia and
PolanJ. This branch, the track of which was laid out by the engineer Gon-
zenback, will be about 138 miles in length. It will keep along the right
bank of the Diina, and will pass near the cities of Johobstadt and Frederic-
stadt. The capital is fixed at nine millions of rubles, and it is hoped that the
Government will grant a guaranty of interest at 4 per cent.

Another line, which is not yet begun, is to unite Dunabourg by Smolenski,
with Moscow, and establi:>h a direct communicaaon between this ancient
Russian capital and Warsaw, by the route which was pursued by the advance
and retreat of the French army in 1812.

In the south of the empire, the Government is about, it is siiid, to autho-
rise a company, by granting a guaranty of 4 per cent., to undertake the con-
struction of a railroad between Kharoft' and Odessa. This road will cross the
Dnieper at Kreineetchong, above the rapid*, which obstructed the navigation
of the liver. This road will benefit the commerce in grain in the same man-
ner as the line from Dunabourg to Riga is destined to help forward that of
timber.

Finally, in the king.lom of Poland, where, for some years, the line from
Warsaw to Mysolvitz, in Prussian Silesia, has been in full activity, two other
lines are thoui^ht of: one from Warsaw to Bromberg, the other from the
same capital to Posen ; but the arrangements necessary to be made with the
Prussian Government for this purpose have not reached a satisfactory result.
The liiie from Warsaw to Mysolvitz, a little more than 200 miles in length,
puts the capital of Poland in communication by railway with Vienna and
Berlin, and consequently with Paris. When the line which is to join War-
saw to St. Petersburg is open for travel, which it is expected will be in about
three years, the immense distance which separates France and Russia may be
travelled over in four or five days.

MONUMENT TO MR. SKINNER.

Mr. Editor: — Yours of August 29th was received on the 13th, for which
I thank yon very kindly. I certainly have nothing but the kindliest regards
for The Plough, the Loom., and the Anvil : permit me only to except its
articles which bear so strongly on the Tariff". I could not do otherwise. It
has John S. Skinner for a father. "And why should I like it on that account ?"
will you or any other one ask. I moved to Mississippi in 1830. In January,
1831, I moved to a spot within ten feet of that where I now write, and
during the year I began my agricultural reading under J. S. Skinner. Soon —
proliably in 1832 — I bought the old series, then published, of the American
Farmer, and continued taking every paper he put his hands to, until our
Master took him hence. I hrive ever felt that I was more indebted to Mr.
John S. Skinner than to any man alive. Feeling thus, I have, on one or two
different occasions, proposed to honor his name by aiding in erecting a monu-
ment to his memory.

I will again propose it. Will the agriculturists who were subscribers to
Mr. Skinner's works consent to honor his name by some memorial? Could
we as his friends be permitted to provide a stone for the Washington Monu-
ment, with an inscription somewhat of this character ; viz. : "• The admirers of
the persevering efforts of John S. Skinner to build up the agricultural inter-
ests of America, as shown by the American Farmer, (fee, <fee., and his untirng
labors in the cause of agriculture until his death, provide this slab to honor

866 A NEW METHOD Of MODELLING IN PLASTER.

alike the beloved Father of our country and the Father of American acrricul-
ture." Suppose a marble stone costs even i^oOO, ci-rtaiiil}' there are 500 who
will pay §! each, or 100 who will pav 85, or 50 who will pay §10. Send
up your names to the editoi-s of The Plonffh, the Loom, and the Anvil.

Will the Trustees of the Washington Monument permit this? Will this
measure suit the friends of Mr. Skinner ? Let us do somethinsf.

Yours very respectfully, M. W, Philips.

Edwardsy Miss.^ Sept 15, 1863.

REMARKS BY Tl!K EDITORS.

We have received several letters similar to the foregoing since the decease
of Colonel Skinner. Since the above came to hand, we have mentioned the
subject to many prominent friends of agriculture, and a plan is about ma-
tured by which we think the proposed object will be attained. Meanwhile,
we shall be very glad to hear further from any of the friends of Colonel
Skinner, or any of our readers, in relation lo the subject.

A NEW METHOD OF MODELLING IN PLASTER.

Hiram Powers lias written an interesting letter to the editors of PutnanCs
Magazine^ descriptive of his new mode of plaster modelling for sculpture.
As it is a subj<^ct in which every artist will take deep interest, we lay a brief
description of his plan before our readers. The principal tools used in the
work consist of chisels, scrapers, and trowels, the blades of which are of gutta
percha, set in metallic backs, and elastic, so that the plaster can be put on
with them somewhat as with a brush ; and perforated or open files — every
tooth having an opening in front of it, through the body of the instrument,
so as to allow the dust and filings to pass through and escape, leaving the
teeth undogged and free to act. The files are of various forms and sizes,
being curved, round, flat, Ac. The material used is common plaster of Paris.

In projecting a human figure, a pair of irons, reaching nearly as high as
the hips, and corresponding in general direction to the bones of the legs,
must be set up on a platform, and around these a base must be formed, to
hold them firmly, by pouring a sufficient quantity of mixed plaster to produce
it. With these for a nucleus, the statue is then commenced, to be built up
with bricks and mortar. The bricks are made by pouring a quantity of
plaster on a piece of oil-cloth, and as it begins to harden, scoring it deeply
with a knife or chisel, so that when quite hard it may be easily broken into
fragments of a desirable siee. Courses of these bricks are built up around
the irons, and above them, until finally the entire body is finished in this
rough manner, the layers being cemented together by plaster-mortar. The
chisels are then brought into play for the purpose of roughing the figure
(consisting of legs, body, and head) into the general human shape. A long
brick is then dipped in fluid plaster, and the end applied to the shoulder. It
soon adhf-res, and forms the nucleus of the upper arm. To it another brick
is attached to form the fore-arm. When these are filled out with plaster, the
whole body is covered with a coating of the same, and the files brought into
use, which soon produce an even surface, taking off all irregularities.

The advantages of these models over the oidinary clay models which are
generally constructed, are, first: A clay model cannot be changed materially
after it has once been commenced, for the iron skeleton which sustains every

IMPROVEMENTS m Tlifi MANUPACfUKE OF GAS. S67

part of it is a fixture ; but in the plaster-work the iron frame is only in the
leg.i, and all the rest can at any time be cut ai)art and varied from the ori-»
ginal design in accordance with any afterthought of the artist. The plaster'^
ing neither shrinks nor swells from exposure, and does not require wetting or
covering it with cloths to keep it in order. The process is less tedious than
clay modelling, for by means of the open flee, more can be accomplished in
a day than with clay in several days. And again, no moulding is necessary
to transform the form from clay to plaster ; the plaster tignre, as it came from
the artistes bands, is itself the raodeh Mr. Povters says, modelling in plaster
is not new ; he only claims his way of doing it as new. He considers the
chief merit of his contrivance to consist of the open file, which is an instru-
ment of his own invention, and by aid of which, a high perfection of finish
can be easily attained.

IMPROVEMENTS m THE MANl/FACTl/HE 0? GAS,

Messrs, Barlow <fe Gokb, in England, have secured a patent for certain
improvements, which they have made in the manufacture of gas, which are
highly spoken of in the London Mining Journal. " The processes are basedy
fiist, upon an improved method of rendering luminous the gases, resulting
from the perfect decomposition of water or steam ; and second, upon the
conservative influence which hydrogen exercises in protecting the matterupon
which the illuminating power of gas depends, from decomposition by heat."

We are not informed of the ]>rocesses which are employed in securing
these results, although we are told that the first point is gained by condense
ing the water gases, and then passing them througli a heated retort contain-'
ing carbonaceous matter, and afterwards, we are told, these gases are •' admitted
in regulated quantities into retorts, where carbonaceous matter is undergoing
distillation or decomposition, and by which they are rendered highly lu-
minous."

These patentees suppose that upwards of fify per cent, may be added to
the volume of gas yielded by all descriptions of materials ordinarily used for
that purpose without any diminution of the illuminating power, so that 15,000
cubic feet will be the probable future product from one ton of Newcastle coal,
and 75,000 cubic feet of London gas, from the same quantity of Boghead
Cannel.

The discoveries here set forth may be of great importance, in view of the
ordinary modes of manufacturing gas^ and in this f ict we have very satisfac-
tory evidence of the value of any discovery like that which we described in
our last number. Several letters and personal applications on the subject
show that the public understand its importance, and are disposed to avail
themselves of any real improvement in the mode ol' lighting their houses.

Taking this subject in connection with that of heating buildings, f»ublic
and private, we have a very wide scope, and if successful, we do the public
great good. We have lately seen some allegeil discoveries in reference to this
latter process, that seem quite promising, but we are not sufficiently familiar
with the claim to make any statement on the subject. It will be published
as soon as it is properly prepared, without doubt. Bleanwhile, we advise all
to take heed of all pretenders, and thoroughly investigate the subject, to see
tvhether the alleged improvement is really such, and also whether it is the
property of the claimant. We are inclined to think that large amounts have
recently been thrown away upon claims that are utterly worthless.

368 .BREEDING CATTLE.

BREEDING CATTLE.

The following judicious remarks in relation to the brepcling and manage-
ment of cuttle, are takt-n from the American- Herd- Book^ an able work, by
Lewis F. Allen, Esq. :

" To such as intend to breed cattle of decided excellence — and they, we
hope, constitute all — we recommend them to select bulls o^ m\\y mode > ate
size, coupled with all \\\ii fineness of bone and limb, consistent wiili a proper
masculine vigor and energy, coupled \^\i\\ fullness of carcass, anil rip^ni ss of
point*, so as to embody great substance within small coirpa^^s. In addition
to this, let him be as deeply bred, that is, of as pure blood, and of as long
ancestry, (not depending on the herd-book altogether for tliat, as many of
the very best class of animals have comparatively »\\oy\, herd book pedigrees,)
as possible; and above all, let him be descended of good milking stock,
when milkers are to be bred in his progeny. Your cows, we will pre>ume,
are such as your opportunities enable you to procure, bnt of approved blood.
If the bull selected breed well to your cows, have no fears to continue his
services to a second, or even a third generation of his own get. ?iich prac-
tice will produce unifortnity, and uniformity is one great excellence. No
matter for the color, so it be within the short-horn colors. Above all thino-s
avoid coarseness, looseness, nabbniess, and a general tendency in the animals
to run their valuable jioints into ofFal. Such cattle, of whatever breed, are
great consumers, bad handlers, light provers, tender of constitution, ;ind un-
satisfactory altogether. If you have an occasional production of this sort,
transjir it to the shambles or elsewhere, with all dispatch On the jirineiple
that "like begets like," which is an unerring law of nature in the long run,
with the presence of such in your herd, you will be j)erj)etually afflicted with
the production of animals, which, by hereditary descent, synipath}', and the
thousand accidents springing from association, will be neither creditable to
your good breeding, nor satisfactory to yourself.

Feed well, not lavishly. Your cows should be in good breeding and milk-
ing condition, nothing more, and your bulls in fair working ordi-r. Sueh is
the condition most consonant to nature, and jiroductive of the highest animal
health. The scale of points laid down in our introduction, with the occasional
remarks on the practice of good breeders, as we have jiassed in our history,
detail what a good animal should be. These, together with a clo^e examina-
tion of the general figure of good cattle, as illustrated in our plates, will aid
the judgment of the breeder. AVitli a well-balanced judgment of his own,
and a sound experience, they will be a safe guide, and he may go on his way
rejoicing.

A single woi'd to such, if any there be, into whose liands these pages may
fall, as deride the value placed on superior cattle by their breeders, and such
as know their real worth. Breeding ^oorf animals is a subject of great labor
and incessant care. Such labor cannot be bestowed for nothing. To breed
successfully, requires skill, talent, research, observation, and all of these of a
high order. Let the breeding of our fine stock fall into unworthy hands, and
hardly a single generation of man will pass before the real lover and ])ro-
moter of the matchless herds which now so proudly embellish many of our
rural estates — a source of pleasure, of pride, and of comfort to their [)osses-
8ors — will mourn their degeneracy, and which the time of another generation
with great labor and constant solicitude would scarce suffice to reinstate in
their former splendor and excellence. Talent and labor of this kind cannot
be had for nothing, and without remunerating prices be maintaiui'd, the
downfall of the ehort-horns, in America, will sooner or later be at baud.

USEFUL PROBLEMS. 369

CHINESE MAGIC MIRROR.

The description of the metallic mirrors manufactured in China, given in
the Cosmos, will be read with interest. A deal of attention, says the writer, has
been given in Europe to certain metallic mirrors fabricated in China, in which,
forms of letters, flowers, and animals are embossed on the back, which is not
polished. On looking directly and as closely as possible on the polished face,
no trace of these figures is seen; but if the mirror is made to reflect the rays
of the sun upon a wall or screen, the ornaments on the back are plainly seen
in the reflected light. Many attempts have been made to explain this phenome-
non, but hitherto unsuccessfully. On the 1st of April, however, M. Biot ex-
hibited to the Academy of Sciences, in Paris, one of these mirrors made by
M. Lerebours. It appears that in 184Y, MM. Arago and Biot suggested an
explanation, founded on the fact that, as the embossing of the back surfaces
gave difterent thicknesses, and therefore different resistances to the metal,
when the face came to be polished, the surface opposite the raised portions
would be more resistant, and would be raised in a convex fonn, wliile that
opposite the hollow would, under the same pressure, be slighUy concave —
these effticts being so slight as to be invisible to an ocular examination of the
surface, but becoming manifest by the deviations impressed on the reflected
rays. To test this theory, M. Lerebours took an ordinary daguerreotype plate
of copper plated with silver, and on the copper back he engraved a crescent,
and then polished the plate. Looking directly on it, and as carefully as pos-
sible, nothing is seen ; but when the sun's rays were received on the plate
and thrown on a screen, the form of the crescent was clearly defined on the
reflected image, darker or lighter than the rest, according to the distance of
the mirror from the screen.

rOR THE PLOnOH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANTIL.

USEFUL PROBLEMS.

TO FIND THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH TUBES.

What quantity of water will be discharged in twenty-four hours by a tun-
nel 5 feet clear in diameter, twenty-eight miles long, descending 18 inches in
each mile, starting with a head of 12 inches above the top of the inside of
the culvert ?

Also, what quantity of water will be discharged in twenty-four hours by an
iron pipe 30 inches clear in diameter, of the same length, and the same head
and fall ?

The first, I find, will discharge 20,649,600 gallons, and the second will
discharge 3,650,400 gallons in twenty-four hours.

The calculations are made on the supposition that the tubes are perfectly
straight and cylindrical, so as to cause no eddies, and permit no air to lodge
in the upper parts of bends, which, if permitted, would materially diminish
the discharge.

The formula used in the calculation is derived from experiments detailed
in the Edinburgh Encyclopcedia, art. '• Hydrodynamics," and may be ex-
pyessed thus :

Let d be the diameter of the culvert or tube; h the total head and fall ot

VOL. VI. — PART V. 24

370 PROFITS OF WOOL-GROWING.

water, or the height of the water in the reservoir above the middle of the
lower end of the pipe ; I the length of the pipe, all in inches ; then the velo-
city in inches per second, with which the water will flow in the pipe, will be

v=2Z^— — -, which, in the first case, by calculating, I find to be 23 + per

second ; and in the second case, 16.9 inches per second.

Now, 23+ inches per second will give 57,360 yards per day ; and as it is
known that a cylinder of water 1 inch in diameter and 10 yards long, is
one gallon, it follows that each yard of the culvert, GO inches diameter, con-
tains" 360 gallons ; but 360 x 57,360 = 20,649,600, as before. In like man-
ner, one yard of the 30-inch tube contains 90 gallons, and the velocity
through this pipe of 16.9 inches per second, gives 40,560 yards per day, and
this multiplied by 90, gives 3.650,400 gallons per day.

By a similar calculation, I find if a 60-inch tube, with a similar slope, is
only thirteen miles long, the velocity of discharge will be 24.78 inches per
second, and will therefure discharge in twenty-four hours 21,330,000 gallons.
In like manner, it will be found that a tube of 20 inches diameter, and 4
miles long, with a head and fall of 100 feet, will discharge about one sixth
more water than three tubes of 12 inches in diameter of the same length,
■with a similar head and fall.

TO FIND THE LENGTH OF AN ARC OF A CIRCLE CONTAINING ANT NUMBER

OF DEGREES.

Ride. — Multiply the number of degrees in the given arc by 0.0087266'
and that product by the diameter of the circle.

Tlie decimal above is found by dividing the circumference of a circle whose
diameter is 1, by 360 degrees ; the quotient will be the length of the arc

of one degree: that is, ' ■- =0.0087266 =arc of one degree of a circle,
o 360 °

whose diameter is 1.

Exami^le. — What is the length of an arc of 10 degrees 15 minutes in a

circle whose diameter is 68 ?

10° 15'= 1 0.25 X .0087266 x 68 = 6.082396 = Arts.

ESTABAN.

PROFITS OF WOOL-GROWING.

Mr. McCormic, a wool-grower of Pennsylvania, communicates to the
Western Plough-Boy \i\?, expeiience as to the profit of wool-growing. lie
says:

"I shall confine myself more particularly to my experience with a small
flock of extra Saxon Marinoes, of 15 head, which I purchased of Mr. Mc-
Ceaver, of Washington county, Pa., for wbich I paid him 8125, in April,
1851. The 15 head sheared in June, 1851, 58 pounds of well-washed wool,
for which I received 75c. per pound. That season I raised but 8 lambs, 10
of said ewes only were with lamb, the other 5 being but two years old.

In 1852, I had with the old stock and the 8 lambs, 23 head to shear;
they sheared 86 pounds, for which I received but 60c. per pound — wool
being lower than in 1851. I raised 12 lambs, and sold them in July for $3
per head, thinking they could not stand the drive to this State. I sheared

STOCK AND FAEM PRODUCE OF THE CANADAS. 871

said sheep about two weeks since ; they sheared nearly four pounds average?

some of them shearing as high as five pounds, and I have 14 lambs, worth

$3 per head.

I have not sold my wool, but I shall ship it to Licking county, 0., where

I expect to get 80c. per pound, wool being higher this year than for some

years past, and no doubt will remain so for some years to come. Now, Sir,

I will figure a little, and see if I have made any thing, after paying |8 33^

cents per head for my ^heep.

Cost of sheep April, 1851, . . . . -

Expense of pasturing from April till June, 1851,

Received for 58 lbs. of wool, June, 1853, -

Raised 8 lambs in the year 1851,

June, 1852, the 23 sheep sheared 86 lbs., at 6(5c. per lb.,

July, 1852, sold 12 lambs for

Cost of keeping from June 1851 to 1852, - - -
June, 1853, sheep sheared 88 lbs. at 75c. per lb.,
This year have 14 lambs, at $3 per head, - - -
Cost of keeping from June 1852 to 1853, - - -
The old stock still worth, ------

Deduct cost and keeping, ------

Net profit from April, 1851, to June, 1853, on $125, - - $211 00
Tbe expense of washing and shearing I have not calculated, it would not
exceed, for the three shearings, $10."

$125

00

1

50

43

50

40

00

51

60

36

00

32

00

66

00

42

00

34

00

125

00

403

00

192

60

STOCK AND FARM PRODUCE OF THE CANADAS.

In a letter from W. L. Mackenzie, published in the Denville Independeni
we find the following in relation to the production of the two Cauadas :

In all Upper Canada, there are 99,860 occupiers of laud, of whom only
3,080 occupy above 200 acres ; nearly 10,000,000 acres are then occupied, of
which over two thirds are cultivated.

The crops of 1851 were, wheat, 12,692,862 bushels ; cats, 11,193,844
"bushi.'ls ; Indian corn, 1,696,613 bushels; potatoes, 4,987,475 bushels; tur-
nips, 3,644,942 bushels; hay, 681,782 tons; wool, 2,699,764 pounds;
maple sugar, 3,581,505 pounds, &c.

Oth<^r products, (fee, were butter, nearly 16,000,000 pounds ; cheese,
2,226,746 pounds; beef, 817,646 barrels; pork, 528,129 barrels; fulled
cloth, 527,466 yards.

There are in Upper Canada, 193,982 bulls, oxen, and steers; 296,024
milch cows; 254,988 calves and heifers; 203,300 horses ; 068,822 sheep;
569,257 pigs.

Lower Canada has 94,449 occupiers of 8,113,915 acres of land, of which
3,605,517 are cultivated. The crop of wheat last year was only 3,075,868
bushels; of oats, 8,967,504 bushels; of potatoes, 4,456,111 bushels; of
hay, nearly a million tuns ; nearly a million and a half ponnds of wool ; six
million pounds of maple sugar; nearly ten million pounds butter; 223,870
bairels of pork, &c.

Lower Canada also manufactured 780,860,950 yards fulled cloth; 889,523
yards linen ; 860,650 yards flannel.

372 GERMAN- AGRICtTLTURE-

GERMAN AGRICULTURE.

Each German has his houso, his orchard, his road-sitle trees, so laden witli
fruit, tliat if lie did not carefully prop up and tie togeth<'r with wooden
clamps, tliey would be torn nsunder by their own weight. lie has his corn-
plot, his ])lot of mangold-wurt/.el, or hay, or potatoes, or }iem|>, &c. lie is
his own master, and he. therefore, and every branch of his family, have the
strongest motive for constant exertion. You see the effect of this in his in-
dustry and his economy.

In Germany, nothing ia lost. The produce of the trees and the cows is
carried to market; much fruit is <]ried for winter use. You see it lying in
the sun to dry. You see strings of them hanging from their chamber win-
dows in the sun. The cows are ti'pt up for the greater part of the year, and
every green thing is collected for them. Every little nook, where the grass
grows by the roadside and brook, is carefully cut with the siekln, and carried
home on the heads of women and eliilcbvn, in ba-kets, or t'ed in larg^- cloths.
Nothing of any kind that can possibly be made of any use, is lost; weeds,
nettles, nay, the very goose gms-; which covers waste places is cut and taken
to the cows. You see tb.e little children standing in thu streets of the vilhgea,
in the streams which generally run down them, busy washing these weeds,
before tbey are given to th<' cattle.

They carefully collect the leaves of the ma'sh-grass, carefully cut tlieir
potato-tops for them, and even if other things fail, gather green leaves f-ora
the woodlands. One cannot help thinking continually of llie enormous waste
of such things in England, (;f the vast quantity of grass on banks, liy road-
sides, in the openings of plantations, in lanes, in church-yards, where grass
from year to year sj^ings and dies, but which, if carefully cut, would maintain
many thousand cows for the poor.

To pursue still further this subject of German economy ; the very cuttings
of the vines are dried and pn'served for winter fodder. Tlie tojts and refuse
of hemp serve as bedding for the cows; nay even the rough stalks of the
poppies, after the heads have been gathered for oil, are saved, and all these
are converted into m.'inure f )r the land. When these are not sufficient, the
children are sent to the woods to gather moss ; and all onr readers, fnmiliar
with Germany, will remember to have seen them coining homeward with
large bundles of this on their heads. In autumn, the falling leaves are ga-
thered and stacked for tlie same purpose. The fir-cones, vehich with us lie
and rot in the woods, are carefull} collected, and sold for lighting tires.

In short, the economy and care of the Gerinan peastnts aie an example to
all Euro|>e. They have for years, uny, ages, be« u doing that, as it regards
agricultural management, to vvhicli the lii'itish jtublic is just now beginning
to open its eyes. Time, also, is as carefully (conomized as every thing else.
They are early risers, as may well be conceived, wIk n the children, many of
whom come frotn a considejable distance, are at school at six in the in<Tning.
As they tend their cittle or their swine, the knitting never cease^, and hence
the quantities of stockings and other household things which they accumu-
late, are astonishing.

editors' jottings, etc. 373

EDITORS' JOTTINGS AND MECHANICAL RECORD.

PniLADELPHiA, WiLMiNGTOx, AND BALTIMORE Railroad. — Since the i'sne o
our November number, in which we noticed the increased travelling facilities
furnished on the above road, we have received anthentic information that ar-
rangements are making by which the speed will be greatly increased, and the
fare reduced, so as to place a trip to Washington from New-York, within every
body's time and means. Indeed, at this time, the necessary arrangements are
made with the Camden and Araboy Company, and are only awaiting the action
of the Baltimore and Ohio Company, to be at once perfected, and announced to
the public.

The Company propose to sell a through ticket from New-York to Baltimore,
at^/ive doUars^and a round trip ticket, giving the passenger about three days, for
eight dollars and fifty cents. They also propose to sell a through ticket, from
New- York to Washington, for six dollars, and a round trip ticket, giving the
passenger from three to f)ur days, for ten dollars! Arrangements are also
making to have a line or train run from New- York to Washington, and vice
versa, inside of ten hours! If these arrangements will not be combining eco-
nomy with speed, we know not what will do it.

The Company have completed a track through the south part of Philadelphia
to the Delaware river, by which the ferry-boats of the New- York line will run
directly to the Avharf with all through passengers, where cars will be in readi-
ness to take them and their baggage to the Baltimore depot, corner Broad and
Pritne streets. This is a decided improvement upon the old plan of omnibus
transit, which has so long been prevalent.

Tlie Company are adding lar :ely to their stock of cars and engines, and have
fitted up a couple of cars expressly for night-travel. The seats are very easy,
and inclined at such an angle as to support the head and feet of the passenger,
and allow him to sleep almost as comfortably as he can in his own bed! These
seats require more room in the cars than the old ones, as only about forty can
be made in a space which usually holds sixty. We doubt not but that the
traveling public will testify their appreciation of these facilities for their com-
fort, by an increase of patronage.

The new bridge across the Susquehanna, at Havre de Grace, will be com-
menced as soon as the surveys are completed. The Company propose to lay
about twenty miles of double track in the course of the ensuing year, and to
continue additions to it until the whole length of the road from Philadelphia to
Baltimore, is furnished witli as good facilities for safe and speedy traveling as
any road in the Union.

The "administration" of President Felton has marked a new era in the his-
tory of this road. His efforts have been untiring for the promotion of the wel-
fare of the passengers, and the Company have been peculiarly fortunate in the
selection of a gentleman to preside over its affairs, whose ability and experience
enable him to contribute so largely to the comfort and speedy transit of the
passengers, and at the same time, increase the revenue of the road.

Fall-River Line to Boston. — The travel over this line is immense, and
the Company are obliged to build an additional boat to meet the increasing de-
mands of the traveling public. A boat of huge dimensions is now on the stocks,
and will be put ujion the route during the coming season. Her length of deck
is 345 feet; breadth of beam, 45 feet; beam over all, 82 feet; depth of hold,
15 feet; tonnage, 2,300 ; with 116 state-rooms, and sleeping accommodations,
including state-rooms and berths, for one thou'^and passengers! The engine,
which is in process of building at the Novelty Works, is 105-inch cylinder, with
12-feet stroke.

To one unacquainted with the amount of travel over this route, a boat of
snch dimensions and accommodations might seem superfluous; but we can assure
the reader that it is none too large. "We have seen over six hundred passengers

S74 KDITORS' JOTTINGS, ETC.

on the Bay State and Empire State, and that too when the Company was run-
ning the State of Maine between New-York and Newjiort, as a day-boat, to re-
lieve the otiier two boats from the press of passengers at niglit. The Fall-River
route is the most i)opular, Iiaving by far the finest boats, under the command of
able and experieuceil captains, and must continue to be the route between New-
Y(n'k and Bostt)n. Tlie ajjproach of cold weather does not alTect, materially,
the amount of travel, if we may judge from the numbers that were crowded on
board the Bay State during a late trip, Tlie route is preferable at all seasons of
the year, the boats having been built expressly for ruuuing on the Sound. With
such a gentlemanly agent as William Borden, Esq., of New-York, the excel-
IcTit accommodations which always characterize this route will be continued, to
the gratification of the thousands and tens of thousands who testify to its pre-
ference over all others.

Fine Apple-Jelly. — Take half a bushel of good pippin, bell-flower, or other
fair sub-acid fruit, carefully cut out all blemishes, and without peeling or coring,
quarter them, and throw them as they are cut into a pan of cold water, to pre-
serve the color. When all the ap[)les are thus prepared, take them out of the
water, and without wiping or drying them, add to every pound of the fruit one
pound of best loaf or cruslied sugar. Put all together into a large preserving-
kettle, with water barely sufficient to keep tiiem from burning, and mix
among them the rind of half a dozen lemons, cut into very small pieces, to-
gether with the juice of the same. Boil the mass as rapidly as possilde, without
burning, until tlie apples become perfectly soft or boiled to a mash ; then put the
whole into a jelly-bag, and if wanted for immediate use, run the liquid into
n)oulds; but if intended for keeping, run it into jars in the usual manner.
Jelly made by the above method, will be beautifully transparent and delicious
to the taste, and presents to the connoisseur one of the richest delicacies of the
season.

Guano. — Tt is stated that there were at the Chincha Islands, on the 1st of
August, loading with guauo for the United States, 44 vessels, wiih an aggregate
of 31,328 tons. There had sailed from the islands prior to August 1, and not
yet arrived, 26 vessels, with 15,415 tons of guano on board. These vessels are
all destined for the United States.

Horticultural Exhibition. — The annual exhibition of the Horticultural So-
ciety of Maryland commenced in Carroll Hall this morning, and will be con-
tinued on Thursday and Friday. The display is of the most extensive and
attractive character, embracing many of the rarest and most choice specimens
of Flora's favors, whilst the display of fruits is large, and the Floral designs
unsurpassed. The efforts made by the members of the Society to present a
collection, surpassing all similar exliibitions in the northern cities, should secure
to them a liberal encouragement on the part of our citizens. — Baltimore paper.

Wheat-Drill with a Guano Attachment. — We have seen a certificate of
several gentlemen of the county of Clarke, Va., to the effect that Thomas F.
Nelson, Esq., of said county, has invented a machine for sowing guano which
can be easily attached to an ordinary drill, and that 42 lbs. per acre applied by
this machine have produced as much efiect as two hundred pounds would have
produced if sown broadcast. This is a very important statement, especially if
made after a fair comparison of tlie two modes side hy side. No doubt the gen-
tlemen who made it believed it fidly, as they are ])ersons of the highest respect-
ability, and we do not gainsay it, but only call their attention to the necessity
of a more precise statement than their certificate now gives. Mr. Nelson has
applied for a patent.

Fertility of Nile Mud. — The celebrated microscopic philosopher, Ehrenberg,
has examined this mud, and finds its great fertility to be owing, not so much to
any peculiar mineral contribution, or to the presence of vegetable matter, as it
is to the vast accumulation of extremely minute forms of microscopic animals,
which, by their decomposition, enrich the soil.

editors' jottings, etc. 375

Something for Farmers.— We saw, yesterday, the model of a machine for
cutting corn in the stalk. It is partially on the plan of Mr. McCormick's reap-
ing-macliine, and is designed to cut two rows of corn at a time. Between two
wheels there is an axle, to each end of which is attached a knife for cutting
each row of corn. To the axle are also attached sliafts for the lioise wliich pulls
the machine. The horse walks between the rows of corn, and the knife just
on the inside of each wheel cuts the corn, which falls on a bed or plate to catch
it, in a manner resembling the operations of a wheat-reaper. The bed which
catches the corn, opens in the centre, at the pleasure of the operator, to dis-
charge the corn in bundles. We are informed that with one man and a, horse,
the machine will cut twenty acres of corn per day. It is the invention of a
citizen of Illinois. — Richmond Enquirer.

The Best Time-Kkepers.— Under the caption of ''Greater Security," the
editor of Swan's Elerator states that Win. H. Clement, Esq., Superintendent of
Little Miami and Columbus and Xenia, Railroad, has contracted with Messrs.
Blyan & Baldwin, jewelers, of Columbus, to furnish twenty-four watches^ tor
the use of the conductors on those roads at the cost of the Company." This,
we regard as a first-rate movement, and if Mr. Clement will just order twenty-
four tee-total temperance men to carry the watches, the arrangement will be
complete. There is little use in a watch keeping time if the watcher sees it
through a whisky fog.

Camphor vs. P fa-Bugs.— Having observed, in the Jlorficulkirist, an inquiry
relative to seed-peas damaged by bugs, I will offer a remedj^, perhaps not new,^
but new to me. Four years ago last spring, my seed-peas were more than halt
destroyed by bugs, the largest and best varieties being most injured. The sum-
mer following I had boxes^nade, one for each variety, with a cover ; and when
the peas were gathered, I put into each box, with two quarts of peas, from sis
to eight bits of gum cam[)hor, the size of a large jiea, and mixed them togetlier,
and closed the box. The next spring tliere was not a pea injured. I have pur-
sued the same course every year since, and have not had one pea affected by

The Richest Mine.— The manure applied to the soil of England amounts to
three hundred millions of dollars, being more tlian the value of its whole loreign
commerce, and yet the grateful soil yields back with interest all that is tlius
lavished upon it. And so" it would be here, if we would only trust the soil with
any portion of our capital. But this we rarely do. A farmer who has made
any money spends it not in his business, but in some other occu[)atio_n. He buys
more land when he ought to buy more manure, or he puts out his money ni
some joint-stock companj', to convert sunshine into moonshine. Rely upon it,
our richest mine is the barn-yard, and whatever temptation stock or shaies may
offer, the best investment for the farmer is live stock and ploughshares.

Declivity of Rivers. — A very slight declivity sufhces to give the running
motion to water. Three inches per mile, in a smooth, straight channel, gives a
velocity of about three miles an hour. ■ The Ganges, which gathers tlie waters
of tlie "Himalaya mountains, the loftiest in the world, is. at eight hundred miles
from the mouth, only about eight hundred feet above the level of the sea, that
is, about twice the height of St. PauFs Church, in London, or the height of
Arthur's Seat, near Edinburgh, and to tall these eight hundred feet in its long
course, the water requires more than a month. The great river Masdalena, in
South America, running for a thousand miles between two ridges of the Andes,
falls oidy five hundred feet in all that distance. Above the commencement of
a thousand miles, it is seen descending in rapids and catan.cts from the moun-
tains. The gigantic Rio de la Plata has so gentle a descent to the ocean, that
in Paraguay, fifteen hundred miles from its mouth, large sliips lire seen, which
have saded'against the current all the way, by the force of the wind alone ; that
is to say which, on the beautifully inclined i)lane of the stream, have been gra-
dually lifted by the soft wind, and even against the current, to an glevation
greater than that of our loftiest spires.

376 editors' jottings, etc.

Engineeu's Railway Clock. — John N. Robertson, of Coltimbii?, S. C, pro-
poses a time table-clock fur engineers on locomotives, wliich is wortiiy of atten-
tion as a most, useful improvement. He has f-eiit us a (Haj^ram of this " time-
piece," with a folding dial, on the outside circle of whicli, on one side is llie
time table of the Charlotte and iSoutli Carolina Railroad, for the U(>, and on the
other side a like time table for down trains. Tlie distances betweeii the stations
are laid out on the outer circles, and the hands of the clock ])oiiit to the hours
and minutes which are laid out on an inner circle. The clock is to be made
perfectly tight, and secured to the locomotive in front of the engineer. It may
be regulated and locked by the local superintendents, which will prevent disas-
ters arising from a ditference of time in the ditlV-i-ent watches of the conductors
or engineers. By such a clock, the engineer will know at a glance the rate at
which he should run his engine to arrive at the e.\act time at every station. —
Scientific American.

Effects of Internal Improvements. — The town of Fayetteville, N. C, situ-
ate in a great agricultural region, has for years had to depend for its supply of
hay on the New-York and other northern markets. Recently the "Western
plank-road, connecting with that city, has been finished, and a few dnys.igo they
received over 10,000 lbs. of hay, (of the North.) brought in from Forsyth co.,
N. C, at $1 25 per 100 lbs. The Fayetteville Observer says :

"We learn that such hay has been abundant in that county at 30 cents, per
100 lbs., but that since that article has been brought liere at a profit, it has ri^en
to 50 cents. The meadow from which this hay came, has yielded at the tirst
cutting this year about 2,500 lbs. per acre — of herds-grass, clover, &c. At the
second cutting it will yield fully as much more of blue grass. Five thousand
pounds, worth formerly, at 30 cents, $15 per acre, worth now at 60 cents, $J5
per acre. Tills shows a clear gain to the farmer of ^10,000 per annum i)er acre,
or interest equal to an increase in the value of his land of $1G0.GG per acre."

KiLLi.KG Insects. — At a recent discussion by the members of the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society, the value of sulphur and quicksilver in destroying insects
was thus estimated. ^Ve know these gentlemen well, and their opinions are
reliable.

Dr. Wight stated that he had satisfactorily tested the value of quicksilver and
sulphur in destroying insects. Three years ago, he bored a hole in an apple tree,
pouring in quicksilver, and plugged up the hole tight. One year after, he
opened the hole, and found the quicksilver in the same state and the same quan-
tity as when put in ; it had not undergone the least change whatever. In another
tree he bored a similar hole, and inserted roll brimstone. A year afterwards, it
was opened with the same result as the other experiment; not the least change
had taken place; the sulphur remained as when put in.

Mr. C. M. IIovEY thought this a perfectly convincing proof of the utter falsity
of such experiments. Dr. Wight was a careful observer, and accurate in all his
experiments; and he trusted he would forever set at rest, at least with all reason-
able men, the nonsensical idea that the quicksilver or sulphur would be decom-
posed and absorbed by the sap, and carried throughout the tree, poisoning the
insects which fed upon the leaves. It was an cinhual ])aragraph for the news-
papers, and underwent annital trials by persons who believed all they read in
them, especially upon agricultural or horticultural topic;, and who ah\ ays reported
successful results. If these discussions elicited such facts as these, their impor-
tance could not be questioned.

Massachusetts Coal-Fiklds. — President Hitchcock's report to the MasPachusetta Le-
gislature, in relaiion to the coal-fields of this State, has been publi>hed. The coal-field
covers an area of ponie five hundred equare miles, and baa been wrought in fifteen or
twenty different localities.

Gold Brick. — We arc informed by the El Dorado Nana that the clay which
a Mr. Herwick is using for the manufacture of brick contains considerable gold.
One day a miner took a wheeUiarrow, and conveyed the dirt some distance,
and made three dollars in half a day out of this clay.

editors' jottings, ETO. 877

Trains out of Boston. — ^One hundred and forty-two railroad trains leave
Boston, daily, viz: by Old Colony. 17; Providence, 18; Worcester, 25; Fitch-
burg, 26 ; Lowell, 15; Boston and Maine, 30; and Eastern 11, This of course,
includes all the branches. The same number return daily, likewise.

The New Tunnel Borer built at Hartford, works M-ell. Instead of leaving a
core to be removed by blasting, as tlie Iloosac Machine does, it cuts an entire
circle, and is so constructed that the chips of the rock can all be removed while
It is in motion. The cost of the machine is about |25,000. — Exchange.

We are not quite sure that not " leaving a core" is a gain over the action of
the Hoosac Machine. If the time of the Machine and the wear of tools is to be
used up in doing what a blast of powder will do in less time than the machine
requires, the gain will prove a minus quantit}'. In such machines it is emphati-
cally true, that actual experiment is worth much more than the finest theory.—
Ed. p. L. & A.

Discoveries in Iron Worktno.— The National Intelligencer says that an im-
portant announcement in England, and which is exciting great attention, is a
development of new principles in iron metallurgy. The general opinion of those
who are competent to judge, says the Mining Journal, is that the inventions and
discoveries referred to will open an entirely new era in the manufacture of iron,
not only with regard to its various multiplications, but to the construction and
arrangement of apparatus also. Immense quantities of very valuable ore have
lately been discovered in Northamptonshire, also in Yorkshire and in the west of
England, within easy reach of the iron masters of Monmouthshire and South
Wales. If half these rumors be correct, the iron trade will be revolutionized-

To Prevent the Putrid Ferjiextation op Urine. — A small quantity of
tnufiatic acid should be poured into or upon it. It unites with the ammonia,
and forms the muriate of ammonia.

Fruit Trees and Gas. — The leakage of gas-pipes is found to be destructive
to trees growing near them.

Thunder tN Limbo. — ^An exchange says, a gentleman in Towa proposes to
keep cities free from thunder-storms " for so much per jrcar." To most people,
this ofter would be looked upon as preposterous, and yet it is not. Wo have no
doubt whatever that an outlay of $10,000 would keep New-Yoik as isolated as a
glass table with sealing-wax legs. What a gentleman in Iowa proposes to
do for us, has already been done for the vine-growers in the south of France. By
means of a v,-ell arranged system of lightning rods, a whole district has been
rendered inaccessible to those destructive hail storms which so frequently follow
in the train of thunder showers. What has been done in Fiance, can be done
elsewhere. If we can teach lightning to write, we can teach it to behave itself.

Economy in Feed. — To feed an ox to one thousand two hundred pounds
weights, usually takes five years ; while the same weiglit of poultry can be made
ready for the table in about three months, and at less than half the cost in food<
So says an English poulterer.

Gum Arabic. — In Morocco, about the middle of November, that is, after the
rainy season, which begiis in July, a gummy juice exudes spontaneously from
the trunk and principal branches of the acacia tree. In about fifteen days it
thickens in the funou', down which it runs either in a vermicular or worm shape,
or more commonly assuming the form of oval and round tears, a'lout the size of
a pigeon's e,i?g, of different colors, as tliey belong to the white or red gum tree.
About the middle of December, the Moors encamp on the borders of the forest,
and the harvest lasts six weeks.

Thii gum is packed in very large sacks of leather, and brought on the backs of
bullocks and camels to certain ports, where it is sold to the French and English
merchants. Gum is highly nutritious. During the whole time of the harvest,
of the journey, and of the fair, the Moors of the desert live almost entirely upon
it; and experience has proved that six ounces of gum are sufficient for the sup-
port of a man during twenty-four hours.

378

LIST OP PATENTS.

Portrait-Paixtixg. — ■Nfi:?. Spexceh. — Aniul the numerous collections o*
paiiitiiii^s tliftt We have visited, wc have seldom been so much attracted I'V exhi
bitious in tliis department uf art, as by tliose of Mrs. Spencer. They are quite
superior and life-like. Tiie elegant st\le of her work has led us repeatedly to
inipiire the name of the artist. Specimens of her painting may bo seen at the
rooms of the Art-Uuiou, and at her studio, 193 Bleeckcr street.

NEW BOOKS.

Golden Link, or, Poems and Tales for the Young. By "W". Olavd Bocrne, A. M.
New York: Charles Scribner. 1854. 256 pages.

The songs of a nation, according to imiversal belief, materially control the cliarac-
ter and action of a nation. How much more do the book^, in poetry and prose,
placed in tlie hands of children, and wliich they read and devour as thny do their din-
ners. If tiie food [itomotes the growth of the body, so does siicli mental food modify
and control the mind and lioart.

Mr. Btiirne not only uuderstands this, but knows how to profit by his knowledge.
He loves children, and lie admii-es goodness, and lie uses his talent in an efficient
manner. This book is evidence of all this. His tales are very interesting, and each
involves important truth. Tiius, "The Broken Mast" illustrates from liistory, the
iTact that the break'ng of a mast, tliough a tiivial event in itself, may overthrow a
State. " Bill Smith's Fourtli of Jul}' " shows that Liberty does not involve the riglit to
do wrong. "The Scotch C^uarry Boy, or, The Boy who wrote his name on the Sand-
stone," illustrates the inijiortance of writing one's name so that it will tell something,
and lie uses the life of Hugh Miller, the great geologist, as an example. The book,
as a whole, deserves a conspicuous place iu every child's library, and iu every Sab-
batiischcol library in the world.

List of Patents Issued,

FROxM OCT. 7 TO NOV. 1.

Joel B.irker, of Boston, Mass., for improvement
in car-wbeels.

Eliliu R. rtenson, of Warsaw, New^Vorlc, for
Smprovemeiu ia slut macliiiies for window bliuJs.

Oardiier A. Bruce, of Meoliauicsbiirg, 111, for
improvement in corn-planters.

A. A. DiClcFon, of OvifTin, Ha , for improvement
in in:icliiiK's fur lofppinf; cotton in tlie fields.

Mark Fislitv and Jidiii II. Norri") of Trenton,
N. I., tor iinprovemenl in apparatus for poliahiiig
anvils.

Jo-eph F. Flnndi-rs, of Newbiiryport, Mass., for
tmpfovt'tnenl ici machines for rubbing and polish-
ing leiiilier.

Josliua Oibhs, of Canton, Oliio, for improvement
in machines for grindiiii? plougli-castings.

Robert A. Graham, of Now-Paris, Oliio, fi.r im-
provemeut in ploiiglis

Thomas C. niit-prcavcs, of .Sc-hpii.'ctady, N. V.,
for im|irovement in corn-liiiskinR nincliines.

William Ilor^fiill, of New-Vork, N. Y., for im-
provement in annUiicialors for hotels.

lUchard Krtchhm, of Peneca Castle, N. Y., for
ImproTement in straw-cutters.

Z idok II. Mann, of Newport, Ky., for improve-
ment in car-wheels.

Denj. Rutter and Ilenvy Rowzcr, of Pique, Ohio,
for improvement in smiil-maciiiiicri.

John C. f r ) Salomon, of Wasliinglon, D. C,
for improvement in rotary steain-eiigines.

Genrge S. G Speiicc, of Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in cooking-ranges.

Edward Brown, of King'?. N. II., assignor to
Jo.>-iah Noicro**, M. l> , of Simth Beading, iMass.,
for improvement in burglar al irms.

Ephraim L. Pratt, of Woroi-stcr, Mass., assignor
to Jami-s Sargeaot and Hani. 1 i'. I'\n er of Shel-
bury, Ma.'-fl., for improvemi'Ut iu machine lor par-
ing apples.

Joseph C. .Strode, of Kast Bradford, Peiin., for
improved hydraulic ram.

. Ilc'iiry Vandewider, of A'bniiy, N. Y., for im»
provement ni turbine water-wheel.

James A. Wrxulbury, of Wincliestrr, Mass, and
.Toshua Merrill and (;e()rgH Pa' ion, of Boston,
Mass., for impriivenient in :'ir engines. Patented
iu England, 5tli January, 1S.j3.

Elizur Wright, of Boslon, Mass., for improve-
ment in stopcock.

LIST OF PATENTS.

879

John E. Anderson, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in throltlo valve urrangement.

Edmund H. Graham, of Biddeford, Me., for
improvement in magazine guns.

Levi B. Griffith, of Iloneybrook, Penn., for im-
provement in plough-beams.

Archibald S. Littlefield, of Portland, Me., for
improvement in self-acting switches.

Leonard S. Maning, of West port, Mass., for
improvement in cutter for boring wheel-hubs.

Hiram Powers, now residing in Florence, Italy,
for improvement in files and rasps.

Philip P. Kuger, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
provement ia maciiiue for turning spiral mould-
ings.

John Headdiri^ton Ward, of Sonora, Cal., for
improvement in guld washers.

Charles Treat Paine Ware, of New-York, N. Y.,
for improvement in propellers.

William C Dean, of Jacksonville, N. Y., for im-
provement in guioe for doweling felloes for wheels.

Marshall Finley, of Canand:iigua, N. Y., for im-
provement in daguerreotype plate holder.

Charles B. Hutchinson, of Syracuse, N. Y., for
improvement in machines fur juining slaves.

J. Augustus Roth, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in process for dechloriaaling bleached
fabrics.

James H. MurriU, of Richmond, Va., for im-
provement in looms for weaving coach lace

John P. Hiiyes, of Boston, Jiass., for improve-
ment in cooking ranges.

Ozias J. Davie and Thomas W. Stephens, of
Krie, Pa., for improvement in machines for punch-
ing metal.

John Newel, of Boston, Mass., for improvement
in camphene lamps.

Uichard H. Fr-indell, of Fayette county, Ky., as-
signor to William J. ThuruKin, of Washington,
Ivy., for improvement in plauing-machines.

C. R. Brincjjerhoir, of Batavia, N. Y., for im-
provement in ploughs.

H. P. Bryam, of Louisville, Ky., for improve-
ment iji hullers of grass teed.

John B. Cullan, of Re.iding, Pa., for improve-
ment in detachable lining lor the fire boxes of
st«am-boiler3.

Gilman Davis, of Roxbnry, Mass., for improve-
ment in ash pans for locomotive engines.

S. G. Dugdiile, of Richmond, Ind., for improve-
ment in opening and closing gates.

Chas. Goodyear, of New-Haven, Conn., for im-
provement in co\ering iron with gutta-percha.

N. Harrison and J. W. H. Metcalf, of Bridge-
ville, Va., for improvement in hill-t^ide ploughs.

Joseph Harri.*, Jr., of Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in driving circular saws.

Daniel Hill, of Bart 'iiia, Ind., for improvement
in attachment of a h;irrow to a land roller.

T. B. Jones, of Carloville, Ala., for improvement
in cob and stalk cultvrs.

H. M. Ki'lier,of Newark, Ohio, for improvement
in winnowers of grain.

J. J. Parker, of Marietta, Ohio., for improve-
ment in straw cutters.

Samuel Miow, of Fayetteville, N. Y., and Alex-

ander nine, of Lafayette, N. Y., for improvemen'
in rotary root-digging cultivator.

Jacob L. Van Valkeiiburg, of Ogdensburgb, N.
Y., for improvement in shaking shoes for win-
nowers.

Horace W. Woodruff, of Walertown. N. Y., for
improvement in treating metals while in the
molten state.

D. U. Whittemore, of Chicopee Palls, Mass., for
improvement in vegetable cutters.

H, G. Robertson, of Greenville, Tenn., for im-
provement in washing machines.

Bnnford Gilbert, of Pittsburgh, Pa., for improve-
ment in griddles.

A. B. L-.itta, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for improve-
ment in osfilUating engines.

Leiland Foreman, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in life-bo:its.

Wm. Stephens, of Pittst(m,Pa , for improvement
in valve motion of oscillating engines.

Jolm A. F.lder, of Westbrook, Me., assignor to
John E. Coffin, of Portland, Me., for improvement
in cutting bindirs' boards.

L. M. Whitman, assignor to ?. G. AVise, of
Weedsport, N. Y., for improvement in cultivating
ploughs.

George S. G. Ppence, of Boston, Mas?., for im-
provement in cooking ranges.

Ebenezer Beard, of New-Sharon, Me., for im-
provement in propelleis.

Edwin B. Bowditch, of New-Haven, Conn., for
improvement in sofa-beds.

Wm. Crighton, of Fall Kiver, Mass., for Improve-
ment in shuttle motions for power-looms.

Henry S. Crider and David Williams, of Lan-
caster, Ohio, for improvfment in attaching artifi-
cial teeth to the metallic plate.

James J. Clark, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
ment i.i self-winding telegraph-registers.

Chas. Flanders, of Boston, Mass., for improve-
ment in steering apparatus.

Benj. Frazee, of Durhamville, N. Y'., for im-
proved mode of operating mill-saws.

Robert Griffiihs, of Newport, Ky , and Georga
Shield, of Cincitinati, Ohio, for improvement in

machines for making railroad chairs.

Geo. W. Griswold, of Carbondale. Pa., for im-
provement in implements for cutting cloth.

Thos. Hinkley, of HalloWell, Me., for improve-
ment in instruments of plotting.

Duniel Lyiiahon, of Buffalo, N. Y., for improve-
ment in cutting boots.

Wm. Mason, of Tatinton, Mass., for improve-
ment in power-looms.

Norman Millington and Dennis J. Gxirge, of
Shaltsbury, Vt., for improvement in machines for
figuring carpenters' squares.

John Pender, of Worcester, Mass., for improve-
ment in power-looms.

Benj. F. Rice, of Clinton, Mass., for improve-
ment in looms for weaving fancy-goods.

John Scott, of Philadelphia, Pa, for improve-
ment in air beds.

Nathan Thompson, Jr., of Williamsburgh, N. Y.,
for imiirovi'd life-preserving bucket.

Nathan Thompsrn, Jr , of Williamsburgh, N. Y.,
for improved life-preserving seat.

880

LIST OF PATENTS.

Thomas E. Warren, of Troy, N. Y., for improve-
menlin irou car-bidies.

J. W. ■\VeallicTby, of Kingsville, Ohio, for im-
provement in carpel-slri Ichers.

Linus YiiU", of Newport, N. V., for improvement
in door-locks.

Harry Whitliiker, of nuffilo, N. Y., for improve-
ment in the 8|iplicaliotiol liigli-pre^sure engines to
scruw-proiiellcrs.

Cilvin Adftins, of Pitlshurgh. Pa , for improved
■window-shutter, fastener and holder.

G. T. Oeanre^r.-ird, of New Orlean?, La., for im-
provement ill folf-atting bar-excuvalors.

Ezra n. Jones, of l.itchfieUl, Me., for improve-
ment in devices of a convertible dung-fork.

Frederic P. Dimpfd, of Philadelphia, Pa., for
Improvemenls in propelling vessels.

Asustus EllHerj', of Boston, Mass., for improve-
ment in lounges,

Agn?lus Kllaer?, of Boston, Mass., for improve-
meiit in library step-chairs.

Woo'ter A. Flanders, of Sharon, Vt , for im-
pruVbintnl in bee-hive.-.

John D. Filkins and VVm. H. De Puy, of Lima,
Ind , for iuipiuveinent in attaching horses to
ploughs.

Samuel Ilutchinso", of Unckport, fnd., for im-
provement i.i cutlnig and planting potatoes.

David S. Mackey and Jarvis R Smith, of Ba-
lavia, N. Y., for improvement in w.ui'owera.

E. G. Matthew-i, of Troy, N. Y., for improvement
in machines for dressing stone.

Clias. Pi'rley, of New- York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in .■•hips' side-lighia.

Alphonso Quaiilin, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
proved valve-^aiige for bottles.

Ifi'nry fy. Russel, of Hudson. Mich., for improve-
ments in metallic piston packing.

Wm. W. Richards, of Piiiladelphia, Pa., for im-
provemen. in niakiJ g shuvel>.i, spades, &c.

Benj. P. Snrg'nt, of i^utton, N. EL, for improve-
ment in expanding hurs. -jhoes.

Jacob T. .Sargent, ''f Sutton, N. II , for improve-
ment in garden and oth. r hoes.

David M. Smith, of r^pringfleld, Vt., foriinprove-
m<nt in spring-damps lor clothes-lines.

Janies Trees, of Salem, Pa., for improvement in
pro|)ellers.

Albert Vose, of Pitisfiidd, Vt., for improvement
In ox-yokes. Ante-dated Aug. 10, 1853.

Wm. Wheeler, of West Poullnev, Vt., F.osignor
to Chas. II. KellogS", of Tro) , N. Y., for improve-
ments in cutting the bars 'and teeth of curry-
combs.

VVm. Conglilin, of Baltimore, Md., for improve-
ment iu guda fountaiiH.

N'dsfin f'rocker, of S^.ndwich, Mai's., for im-
priivenicnl in uilacliing the head-cringle to the
jurds 01 vcsseli.

J Niittmn C. Davl^ of West Jefferson, Ohio, for
improvement iu isued-planters.

Daniel Noyes. of Abington, Mass., for improve-
ment in machine-haminers,

Samuel Pratt, of Boston, Mass., for improve-
mctii In screw-nails.

Samuel Sweet, of New-York, N. Y., for improved
spurk-arresier.

Kasimer Vogel, of Chcl-va, Mass., for improve-
ment in looms for making weavers' harness.

Wm. Ballard, of New- York, N. Y., for improved
protecting bulwarks for war vessels.

Calvin Carpenter. Jr., of Pawlucket, Mass , for
improvement in magneto-electric machines. Pa-
tented iti France, April IS, 1853.

A. P. Chatham, of Oanoga, N. Y., for improve-
ment in car-coupling.

Gilbert S. Clark, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
proved pen and pencil case.

Jno. W. Cormick, of Q'lincy, 111., for improve-
ment in cane and maize cultt-rs.

Pcnj. Crawford, of Pittsburgh, Pa., for improve-
raenl in condensers for steam-engines.

ChaUncey O. Crosby, of New-IIaven, Conn., for
improvements in machines for sticking pins,

David Dtmarcst, of New-York, N. Y., for hose
protector.

Joseph Farnsworth, Jr., of Madison, Ind., for
improvement in car-wli*els.

I,iither R. Faugbt, of Macon, Ga., for improve-
ments in regulating tlie speed of ste:.m-engines.

Cliristopb'T P. Kelsey, of Livingstonville, N. Y.,
for improvement in grain-cradles.

E<lmiind Morcwood and Geo. Rogers, of London,
Fnglaiid, for improvement in coating sheets of
metal.

Russel S. Morse, of Dixflald, Me., for improve-
ment iu adjustable spri: gs for carriages.

Howard PerUin", of N'^rth Bridgewater, Mass.,
for carpenters' brace and bit fastener.

Henry M. Rittcrband, of New-York, N. Y., for
improved gold-washer.

Jiihn A. Taplin, of F'slikill, N. Y., for improve-
ment in straw and grain separators.

Wm. II. Towers, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in metallic pens.

Ini>rpase S. VVaiti>, of Ilnbbardston, Mass., for
improved machine for turning cylinders of wood.

Peter II. Wat.son, of Washington, D. C, for im-
provements in gem r;i'ing and condensing steam.
Ante-dated May 2, 1853.

Jacob V. A. Wemple, of Chicago, 111., for im-
provement in grain separators.

George Ca'vert, of Upiierville, Va., for improve-
ment in bee-hives.

Si^neoa Lapman, of Snlem, Obio, for improve-
ment in devices for steering cultivators.

Wm. R. Leonard, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in fluid metres.

Wm. T. Merritt, of Hart's Villiice. N. Y., for im-
proved mode of openiig aud closing g.ttca.

Geo Wil'is'on, of Urnnswii-k, Me., for improve-
ni' nt in machines for straightening aud curving
rails.

PART II.-VOL. VI. V.

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DBTOTK) TO Bormrnno aito pbaotioal AomccLTTTaa— iiuauPAOTURnu— m»jha«ic8—

SKW INVENTIONS— A BOirKD PBOTKOTXTB POLIOT — PAUK BUILD' ■06 — OOT-
tA08 DBSIOHa — FKUIT TW1B9 — rLOITBliS — GA1lD«JII»0— BIBli,

(uma, H0«aB8, H008. shbbp, poultry. &1.

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IV K W X O R ML I

PUBLISHED BY MYRON FINCH, No. 9 SPRUCE STREET.

FOR THE PROPRIETOK.
1854.

JOHN A. GRAY,

PRINTER,

95 A 07 Cliff, cor. Frankfort St.

INDEX TO PART II., VOL. YI.

From January to June, 1854, inchcsive.

[See also Index to Editors' Jottings and Mechanical Record, at the end of this table.]

Aericnlture in Minmesota, 519.

«' in Virginia, 390, 482, 544.

" of the Saudwicli Islands, 714.
Agricultural Fair in Massachusetts, 596.

" Implements, 676.

" prosperity, 381.

" Society, U. S., 658, 602, 665, 722.

" truths forcibly expressed, SS5.

Algeria, Corn culture in, 488.
Alsyke Clover, 053.
American Camel Compaay, 733.
Ammonia, Will dry gypsum absorb, 463.

" and Uypsuni, 553.

Analysis, Inferential, 469. '

" Proximate organic, 514.
Animals, Breeding domestic, 668.

" Cure of, 480.
Apple, Time for grafting, 582.
Austrian Salt-mines, 554.
Axes, Manufacture of, 395.

Bftby-Show in Georgia, 689.

Barn, A Splendid, 12'j.

Benzola Gas, 621.

Birds, Song, 647.

Bloomsdale, the residence of D. Landreth, Esq.,

593.
Book-Farming, 592.
Brakes, New mode of applying the, 624.
Bread-sluffa, Production, exports, and pricM of,

522.
Breeding of Domestic Animals, 461, 668.

'• " Fish, 647.

" " Sheep, 899, 530.
Bi-idge for the Ohio, Suspention, 619.
Butter and Cheese, 689.

Camel, American Company, 783.
Oamelia Japonica, Culture of, 600.
Carriages and Steam, 557.
Oaat-iron rails for railroads, 492, 622.
Cattle, Discussion about, 667.

" Hints on breeding, gracing, 461.
" Show, Great National, 42£>.
Centre of population, commerce, and locoaetia*,

T05.
Chair, Inyalid's locomotiTe, 556.
Charleston, LouisTille, and Cincinnati, 709.
Cincinnati, Ohio and, 712.

" Horticultural Society, 673.

Circling land, 585.
Clover, Alsyke, 653.
Coal-ashes, 460.
" fields, 459, 637.
" formation, 509, 573, 701.
" mine. New, 459.
" trade, 642.
Comparatiye productive economy of the U. States,

540.
Consumption of foreign goods, 6S1.

Corn crop, mode of cultivating, 5fJ8, 730.
" '• Proximate organic analysis of, 514,
" History and growth of Indian, 580.
Corrugated iron-plates, 686.
CottoH crop, 394.

" experiments on, 588.
" mode of cultivation, 465.
" seed, Feedisg hogs on, 598.
Cows, Good milch, 397.
Cranberry, The, 652.
Crops, Composition and value of, for food, etc.,

659.
Cultivating strawberries, 742.
Culture of Camelia Japouica, 600.
" Corn in Algeria, 488.
" the Cranl^erry, 652.
" Flax, 88S, 516.
" Fruit, 449, 648.
" the Hop, 650.
'■ Melons, 672.
" the Peach, .398.
Curiosities of the Patent-Office, 676.
Currants, Varieties of, 742.

Decomposition, Importance of, 406.
Discussion about Cattle, 667.
Domestic Animals, Breeding, 668.
Drill, Gardner's Rock, 616,
Duties on Li«en, 573.

East-Tennessee, 405.

Editors' Jottings, 435, 495, 565, 626, 690, 753.

Eleclrio-Gas, 453.

" Time-ball, 468.
Exhibition, The Great, 415, 471.
Exports of Bread-stulfs, etc., 522.

Fair, Massachusetts Agricultural, 596,
Fallowing, get rid of Summer, 328.
Family-marketing, 625.
Farm-house, The, 526.
Farming, ImproTencentg in, 418.
" More profitable, 597.
" In Virginia, 644.
Feeding hogs on cotton-seed, 598.
Female accomplishmetits, 457.
Fertilizers, Patent, 732.
Fish, Breeding of, 647.
Flax Culture, 388, 516.
Food for milch-cows, 659,
Foreign goods, Consumption of, 681.
Fruit Culture, 449, 648.

" Glover's models of, 584.

" Southern, 655.
Fruits, Approved list, 746.
Furs and Skins, 468.

Garden, The Vegetable, 601,
Gardner's Rock-drill, 616.

IV

Index.

Gas Company, American, 662.

" Benzole, 621.

" Lights. 432, 453, 462.
Geology and coal formationi, 509, 578, 701.
Glidden's Shepp management, .129.
Glorer's models of fruits, etc., 554.
Government patronage, 717.
Grafting apples, The time for, 6S?.

" stone fruit, 450.
Grain-drills, 744.

GraTel-wall, Mode of buildinp, 434
Great E.xhibition, The, 415, 471.
Grubs on peach-trees, 525.
Guano, How to procure, 509.

" Proper use of, 725.
Guttapercha, 6SG.

" " Substitute for, 456.
Gfpaum absorb ammonia, Will dry, 463.

Hints on breeding crazing-cattle, 461.
History, etc., of Indian-corn, 580.
Hogs on cotton-seed, Feecjiiig, 598.
Hop-raising, 596, 65f).
Horn, Softening, 626.
Horses, Liniment for, 565.
Important Railway Enterprise, 711.
Improved Agricultural Forks, 743.
Improvements in the South, 404.
" " farming, 413.

" " communication by highways, 553.

Indian-corn, History, growth, etc., 580.
Industrial Resources of Ohio, 713.

" " " Virginia, 534

Inferential Analysis, 469.
Inquiries for Farmers, 60S.

'• " " answered, 744.
Invalid's Locomotive-chair, 556.
Iowa Coal-fields, 459.

Iron, Manufacture of, 331, 558, 618, 682, 751.
" Plates, Corrugated, 685.

Japan manufactures, 618.

Lands, Wood and timber, 40T.
Leaves, Gather the, 406.
Linon, Duties on, 573.

'' ii olden time, 40fl.
Liniment for horses, 565.
Locust-tree, Management of, 645.
Lumbering in Minnesota, 467.

Manufacture of Axes, 895.

" Iron, 381,538, 612, 682.
" " Starch, 452.

.Manufactures of Japan, 618.
Manure for roses, 740.
Manures, Experiments in Scetland, 401.

" furnish food for plants, 451.
Marketing, Family, 625.
.Maesa'-liusntlR Auricultural Fair, 596.
Marn.^MCAL Rkcord. (See Tditors' Jottings.)
Mechanics, Progress and position of, 445, 536, 608,

T49.
Melodeons, Goodman's, 434
Men, Self-made, 6S8.
Meteorology, etc., of Virgi»ia, 648.
Mi'ch-cowH, fJood, 397.
Minnesota, its agriculture, soil, etc., 519.
Mineral Resources of IJollvia, 369.
Minerals in New-Mexico, 409.
Mining in Kew-England, 410.
Mines in Pennsylvania, 537.

" Austrian Salt, 354.
Mowiog-Iand, Experiments on, 891.

Xational Cattle-Shovr, Great, 429.
Nkw Dooks, 441, 504, 568, 634, 697.
New centre-table and desk, 751.
New Telegraph Machine, 521.
New-York State Agricultural Society, S47.

" The Beaton, 677.
Night-Soil, 663.

Observations, Bcientiflc, 408.
Ohio and Cincinnati, 713.
Oil-cups, 515.
Orange Family, 673.
Orchards, How to renovate, 565.

Patkkts. Lists of, 443, 507, 571, 635, 698, 757.
Patent- Office, Curiosities of, 676.

" Fertilizers, 7.32.
Peach-trees, Grubs in, 525.
Pennsylvania Mines, 637.
Pigs and Turnips, 431.
Pig-pens, Construction of, 531.
Plank-roads, Improvement in, 486.
Planting in Missis.«ippi, 729.
Pomological Society, American, 666.
Potatoes, Sweet. 662.
Poultry-Show, National, 546.

" for market, Preparing. 414.
Printing-press, A wonderful, 412.
Progress of Mechanics, 445, 535, 608, 749.
Prosperity, Agricultural, 381.
Pumpkins and Squashes, 670.
Pure Water, 643.

Quicksand, Digging \yeU3 in, 430.

Railroad to the Pacific, 707, 756.
Railroads, Cast-iron rails for, 492, 622.

" Suburban, 408.

Reapers, Trial of, 549.
Remedy for the bite of a mad-dog, T47.

" ••' curculio, 741.

Roses, Manure for, 740.
Rotation of crops, 745.

Salt-mines, Austrian, 554.

Schools, German Agricultural, 389.

Scientific Observations, 405.

Sculptors and Soilpture, 078,719.

Sheep breeding. 399, 630.

Shoe business, 626.

Skins, Furs and, 458.

Song-birds. 647.

Soil, Depth of, 406.

South, Improvements in the, 404.

Special Manures, Experiments with, 401.

Squashes and Pumpkins, 670.

Starch-manufacture, 452.

Statistics, American Coal, 615.

Steam-boats on the Amazon Rlrer, 620.

Steam -carriages, 557.

Strawberries, 67.3, 742.

Summer Fallowing, 528.

Suspension Rridge for the Ohio, 610.

Sweet-Potatoes, 662.

Tennessee, East, 405.
Thomson, Richard C, 692.
Tobacco-crop of Cuba. 393.
Treatment of Corn, 528,
Trial of Reapers, 649.
Turnips for Pigs, 431.

U. S. Agricultural Society, 602, 666, 722.

Valve-motion, 551.
Varieties of currants, 742.
Vegetable-garden, 6ul.
Virginia, Agriculturo in, 390, 544.

" Corn-eulturo in, 487.

" Industrial Resources of, 534.

" Meteorology, etc., of 648.

Wash and Stucco Whitewash, Incombustible, 781.

Water, Pure, 643.

Wieeonsin, 694.

Wood and timber-lands, 407.

Wool, American, 582.

" growing in Licking County, Ohio, 730.
Work, work right, work, ever, 724.

Index.

INDEX TO EDITORS' JOTTINGS AND MECHANICAL RECORD.

Almond, The California, 888.

American Journal of Science and the Arts, 501.

" Ga« Company, 695.

" madder, 603.
Ammonia in rain-water, 49S.
A New and Important Invention, 756.
Apple-man, The, 499.
Aromatic Burning-fluid, Newell's, 440.
Arthur's Home Magazine, 629.
Atlantic and St. Lawrence Railroad, 440.

Balloons, New nse for, 501.
Baltimore aud Ohio Railroad Works, 495.
Barnes' Patent Extension-bits, 755.
Bells, Meneely's, 630.
Belridere and Trenton Railroad, 489.
Bending timber, 631.
Blitz, Signor, 436.

Boots and Shoes when burned, How to tnaat, (596.
Brakes, Improyed car, 499.
Bread, New process of making, 753.
Broken china and glass, How to mend, 628.
Building material. New, 56S.
" Improvement in, 502.

California almond. The, 568.

Camden and Amboy Railroad, 496.

Cast-iron interior walls, 438.

Central Military Tract Railroad of Illinois, 754.

Chinese Museum, 436.

Chocolate, 441.

Clement's Live-Stock Agency, 502.

Clothing Store in Philadelphia, one-priced, 697.

Coal for burning brick, 627.

" fields, New, 633.

" in California, 754.
Counlv Societies in Ohio, 499.
Crysta'l Palace, 633, 693, 694, 756.'

Dauphin and Susquehanna Coal and R^road C».,

499.
De Soto, Powell's picture of, 436.
Doubtful Improvement, 683.
Dress-maker's and Milliner's Guide, 629.
Durability of "Wood, 623.

Bffect of Industry, 501.
Engine, The largest, 632.
Ether, as a locomotive, 497.
Eitension-Bit, Patent, 630.

Faraer's Wife In olden time, 440.

Flying, Almost, 633.

Francis' New Printing-press, 43T.

Gate, A fancifUl, 499.

Glass and China-ware, How to mend, 628.

Gloves, Manufacture of. 439.

Godey's Lady's Book, 629.

Grain-Harvesters, 438.

Guano Deposits, 754.

Harper k Brothers, 498.
Hats, 630.

Hindoo Mechanics, 755.
Hotjtrade. The, 696.
Hollow Axles, 568.
Horses, Sales of, G96.

Imported Stock, More, 696.
Important to Milk-dealerg, 500.

Improved Harrow, 629.

" means of lubrication, 631.
Improvement ia building, 502.
Industry, Effect of, 501.
Invention, New and important, 756.
Iron, Properties ofi 753.

JuUien's Concerts, 435.

Lava Ware, 440.

Lime, 568.

Lime-stone, Artificial sillflcation of, 500.

LitUe Miami Railroad, 696.

Locomotive, Ether as a, 497.

" Novel, 438.

" Powerful, 697.

Long-Island Railroad, 566.
Lubrication, Improved means of, 681.

Madder, American, 503.
Magnets, Permanent, 501.
Manufacture of Sugar, 627.
Manure for autumn roses, 439.
Max Maretzek, 436.
Meneely's bells, 630.
Metallic cask-making, 567.
Milk for manufacturers, 502.
Minerals in New-Mexico, 439.

National Magazine, Ladies', 629.
New-England wine, 695.
New-Jersey Central Railroad, 497.
New motive- power, 756.
New patent for making nails, 754.
Now and Then, 501.

Oculist, Dr. Roehrig, 627, 695.
Ohio and Mississippi Railroad, 696.
Ottoman, The, 566.
Oysters, 503.

Panama Railroad, 832,
Patent Extension-bits, Barnes', 755.
Permanent magnets, 501.

Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Rail-
road, 565.
Piano-fortes, 6S3.
Plumbic Zinc, 437.

Powell's great picture of De Soto, 430.
Porte-monnaies, etc., Manufacture of, 632.
Potato-planter, 631.
Poultry Society, The New- York, 633.
Printing-press, Francis' new, 437.

Railroad, Atlantic and St. Lawrence, 440.

" Baltimore and Ohio, 495.

" Belvidere and Trenton, 499.

" Camden and Amboy, 496.

" Little Miami, 696,

" Long-Island, 666.

" New-Jersey Central, 497.

" Ohio and Mississippi, 696.

" to the Pacific, 756.3

" Panama, 632.

" Philadelphia, Wilmiagton, and Bait,, 56S.

" Springfield, Mount Vernon, and Pitts-
burgh, 632.
Rain, Ammonia in, 498,

" Statistics, 439.
Rock-borer, Talbot's, 627.

Safes, 503.

Safety-guard for railroads, A new, 756.

Sal Ammoniac, Manufacture at gas-works, 501.

VI

Index.

Shower-bath, 696.

Side-walks, Obstructing the, 638.

Signor Blitz, 436.

Silificalion of Lime-stone, Arilflcial, 500.

Silvering metals and glass, 436.

Skeletons of small animals, How to obtain, 507.

Skisneh, J.,S., Monument for, and Donation to his
Tfidow, 690.

Soapsuds for watering plants, 440.

Springfield, Rlount Vernon, and Pittsburgh Rail-
road, 6.32.

Spider-archiU'cture, 632.

State ARricullural School Farm, 631.

Stereotyping, Substitute for, 567.

Stock, United States live, 629.

Stock, more imported, 696.
Switch, Self-adjusting, 502.

Talbot's Rock-borer, 627.
Travelling Hotel, 437.

Umbrella-trade, The, 629.

Vitrification of phonographic plclorea, 500.

Water-works at Watertown, 754.
Weavitifr-machine, Electric, 630.
Wheelbarrow, New, 630.
Wine, New-England, 696.
Wool-clip of Ohio, 440.

€l)e fim^\i, i\)t f 00111, m'b \\}t

Part II.— Vol. VI. JANUARY, 1854. No. 1.

fi'i
AGRICULTURAL PROSPERITY.— THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.ff,

Were all the people farmers, society could not long exist but in the ihpst
degraded condition. Our own Indians or the wandering Arabs are the 1)est
illustrations of the rant which, after the lapse of years, they must inevitably
octjupy. Why ? Because they would be reduced to the necessity of usingonly
the rudest tools, and would be confined to the most simple kinds of clothing,
as skins and vegetable products, essentially unchanged in form or texture.^,

The first step in the elevation of a nation thus reduced would be the'ac-
quisition of the convenient tools wrought by the educated artisan, an4 a
knowledge of their uses. In other words, skill in the manufacture and uses
of iron is the first and essential step towards improvement. No other rpad
has ever been opened by any nation that has emerged from barbarism to
civilization. Not having the ability at first to manufacture for themselves, it
would be for the interests of such a nation to cross the ocean, or to pay
others for crossing it, who would bi-ing to them these magic implement^, and
instruct them in their uses, though it should be at the cost of a large part of
their scanty harvests. ''*

But it does not follow that it would be wise for them to pay more than
was absolutely necessary, in obtaining these supplies, nor to continue si^qIi' an
arrangement an indefinite period. This is very obvious. ',

Hence, we infer the truth of the fundamental article of our creed, th^Hhe
artisan should have a place by the side of the planter and farmer, and receive
his food from the granary, with the least possible cost of transportation or
inconvenience of any kind.

We ask the attention of the reader for a moment, while we look at the
changes which are necessarily involved in carrying out the doctrine, so zeal-
ously advocated even in our own day and our own country, that it is for our
interest to become dependent upon foreign nations for various products uf the
arts and manufactures.

The decree is made, we will suppose, that Whereas labor is so much
cheaper in Great Britain than in this country, and whereas, the entii-e cost
of this metal is the cost of labor only, the rough material being dug out of
the earth, therefore^ iron shall no longer be manufactured in any Of the
States of this Union. Every furnace and forge must be closed forth wi'tii and
fur ever. (We will see presently whether this is merely a fictitious case.)
The most obvious results of such a movement are —

1. A large body of men are thrown out of employment. They are left
without any means of support.

2. Their families are deprived of all their present resources. The ^land-
lord-, under whose roofs they have slept, and at whose tables they have been

VOL. VII. — PAET I. 1 '■' ■'"'

882 AGRICULTURAL PROSPERITY.

fed, and who have thereby secured their own daily bread, are equally help-
less. So, too, are the butchers and bakers, who have furnished them meat and
bread ; the tailors, who have clothed them ; their shoemakers, hatters, merchants,
&c. ; all who have dealt with them ; the doctors who have tended them in
their sickness, and who have healed theui when wounded ; the instructors who
have taught their children, and all the various classes of people who have
been employed in their domestic and other family affairs.

Again, all these bone-and-sinew men paid taxes of various kinds, in com-
pany with others, who are now left to bear them alone. The number of
schools must be diminished, and those who continue to attend them must
travel greater distances. The Sabbath congregation is too much reduced in
numbers and strength to sustain its usual services, and its minister must be
dismissed. Many such cases not only must necessarily occur, with the change
proposed, but have already occurred in many communities. How many such
incidents do you suppose we should witness, on the occurrence of the event
supposed, in old and staid Massachusetts ? Our own personal knowledge of
this section enables us to count up nearly thirty villages, towns, and cities,
that have sprung into being in that State, and collected a population of more
than 80,000 souls, with all the array of churches, schools, and other import-
ant institutions, which, but for the arts and manufactures there located, would
never have bad a being, and the destruction of which is inevitable, the mo-
ment that the beat and hum of the loom and spindle shall cease to be heard.
In New-Hampshire, we can count such a population to the amount of some
30,000 more. But we purpose now to confine ourselves chiefly to a single
branch of industry, in its connection with agriculture, the

MANUFACTURE OF IRON.

This branch of industry, as all our readei-s know, is carried on in the State
of Pennsylvania far more extensively than in any other section of our coun-
try. Still, this interest is by no means unworthy of notice in many other
States.

Thus, by the census of 1850, the capital invested in this manufacture is as
follows :

Pig-iron. Wrought -iron,

New-York, - - - $605,000 61,131,300

New-Jersev, - - - 967,000 1,016,843

Pennsylvania, - - - 8,570,425 7,620,066

Maryland, - - - - 780,650 1,420,000

Tennessee, - - - 755,050 1,021,400

Ohio, 620,800 1,503,000

Total of six States, - $12,298,925 $13,712,609

The sum total of the capital invested in the manufacture of pig and
wrought-iron, in all the States, is $31,841,645, while the value of the entire
annual products is $29,495,851.

The amount invested in iron castings in several of the States, is as follows :

Massachusetts, . . . . . $1,499,050

New-York, 4,622,482

Pennsylvania, 3,422,924

Ohio, 2,063,650

In all the States, it amounts to $17,416,361, while the annual products
are estimated to be $25,108,155.

AGRICULTURAL PROSPERITY. 383

Destroy the value of this kind of labor by some system of legislation com-
petent to effect such a result, and this capital would not be merely diverted
into other business, but a great share of it would be entirely destroyed.

But again, the number of hands employed in this labor is not inconsider-
able. From the same source, the census of 1850, we find that the number
of persons employed in the manufiicture of

Pig-iron, is 20,448

Wrought-iron, . - - . - 13,257
Iron-castings, 23,589

Total number of hands employed, - - 6*7,294

The entire average value of monthly wages is set down at 11,412,597,76
or the enormous amount of $16,951,173,12 per year.

Then take another view, and see the "harmony of interests" in the va-
rious industrial pursuits. Besides its intimate connection with various em-
ployments, as already suggested, the manufacture of iron requires an immense
amount of coal, both hard and soft. The sura total of these articles annually
consumed in this manufacture, is 1,274,196 tons of mineral coal, and
71,089,814 bushels of coke and charcoal. What an army of men, with
their families, are supported by the labor of providing these iron-makers with
tbeir fuel !

Run over these long rows of figures once more, and try to form an esti-
mate of their true value. Look through some optic glass till you can see
the villages peopled by these workmen, scattered over all the land, now oc-
cupied by moral, industrious, and contented men, well provided with food
and clothing and home, rearing and educating their families to become re-
spectable and perhaps influential citizens. Blot these villages out of existence,
and quench these fires, and they become wanderers, struggling for a precari-
ous support, and their families and themselves even tempted to habits of
vice, and to become dangerous members of society. They cannot, in such
event, be consumers of your produce, for lack of means. They have been
deprived of their livelihood, (no imaginary scene,) and are left helpless, and
often in a " strange land."

And are the agriculturists of our country not afliected by these revolutions
of our national industry ? Their burdens are increased, and they lose the
means of sustaining them in the same day. They must deliver their " tale
of bricks," though they are cut off from the necessary supply of straw.

But this view would by no means do justice to the importance of this form
of industry. We should look, not only to its actual, but to its possible ex-
tent. For example : with all the increase which has happened to it, (and it
has increased materially even since the census of 1850 was prepared,) we
imported into the United States, in the year 1852, foreign iron to the amount
of $21,626,993. With the large increase in our domestic manufacture, an
increased amount has been imported over the amount imported in previous
years. The wants of the country are increasing in a still greater ratio. The
demand for iron rails, required by the railroads now in process of construction
in this country, is greater than the possible supply of all the furnaces in the
world, allowing five years for their couipletion. Who ought to reap the
benefit of these immense contracts — ourselves or foreigners ?

We have confined this view to a single branch of labor, and are unable to
illustrate the numberless connections which this one sustains to other forms
of industry. We must leave this for the reader to do as he may. It is ob-

884 AGRICULTURAL PROSPERITY.

vious, however, that all the arts are dependent on this one. The whitesmith
and the blacksmith furnish nearly all the tools in all departments of mechani-
cal industry. So intimate is the connection of this one metal with the well-
being of society, that were we materialists, believing the soul and the intellect
to consist of any substantial essence, we should be inclined to regard iron as
its chief element.

He who ponders continuously over any of the evils wliich prevail in com-
munities, begins to measure their length and breadth and depth in a manner
that approximates towards a correct appreciation of their importance, while
all other evils retain their original pigmy dimensions. This gives rise to most
of the isms of the day. So it is with the subject we are considering. We
have looked at the value of one form of labor, and it increases in its propor-
tions till they are gigantic. A similar result would follow, should we pursue
a similar course with other departments of industry.

He who does this, probably holds in higher estimation many things which
others regard with entire indifference. But we shall be the better pre})ared
by such process to decide whether it is for the interest of the agricultural
laborer to destroy our own industry, and depend on "the great workshop"
across the ocean for those articles which we can supply for ourselves, if we
will.

We say again, as we have in a recent number, that we do not pretend to
establish, by such views, the necessity of high or low tariffs, but only the
duty o? essential protection. Whatever this actually demands, is abundantly
urged by such views as we have here taken. What amount of tariff is actually
required by different trades, belongs to another part of the subject. We are
satisfied if we have deepened the conviction in the mind of the reader that
these branches of industry are by far too valuable to be thrown away, and
that the one determination of every true American should be Protect Ame-
rican Industry. The conti-ary doctrine can only be described as practical
insanity and wholesale suicide.

Nor is it a man of straw that we have been constructing for the mere pur-
pose of destroying it. The value of these interests to our country is not
perhaps denied ; but we are told that we tax other interests for the benefit of
one, and that this is unfair and unjust; that all should buy as cheap as he
can, &c. This assessment of others for the benefit of tbe manufacturer is
denied, and appeal is taken to the " prices current" under the various policies
of different times. But suppose it to be true. We ask again, were a sub-
scrij)lion paper circulated among the farmers within ten miles of Lowell,
Manchester, Lawrence, &c., or around Pittsburgh and other places in which
the iron manufacture has ticquired a prominent position, how much ])<'r cent-
age on their present taxes would each one pay, before he would suffer those
places to be depopulated? Scarcely one that would not pay double and
threefold his State and county taxes, while many would pay ten times, and
even fifty times that amount. And the propriety of this action would be
fully justified by a regard to the pecuniary interest of each. It is to much
more than this amount for tlieir present pi-ofit to retain such a maiket as
these centres of trade open to them. Indirectly, and to some extent, all enjoy
this benefit, if they have any thing to sell. Like the circling ripples in the
brook, which are scarcely lost but with tlio sands which confine them within
given limits, so the influence of these gatherings of the people in compact
masses, all or most of them being consumers and not producers of agricul-
tural products, give an increased value to them even at points quite distant.
This distance will in time be substantially annihilated. Communications will

AGRICULTURAL TRUTHS FORCIBLY EXPRESSED. 885

be opened, and the tide both of population and of food to sustain them, will
alike flow in with increasing rapidity. Can you dam up the waters of the
Mississippi or the Hudson, so as to cut them off from the ocean ? You may
compel them to force their way through new channels, wrought out by their
own forces, and this is all you can do. So it is with human enterprise.
Whatever pursuit our citizens may elect, they have long ago resolved to be-
long to society, to the State, to the nation. And they act accordingly. They
take an interest in the great questions that have a special interest only in
distant sections of the country, But it is thoir country, and the measure is
to be conducted by the rulers in whose election they were active, and it is
for the benefit of fellow-citizens that they urge on the project. Such men
will make a way for the transportation of their merchandise any where, if
there is a market at its termination, at anv thing less than ruinous prices.
Probabilities in their favor are all they demand ere they assume the most
gigantic projects.

It is, then, one of the great duties of the friends of American industry, or
in other words, of Americans, to establish markets, centres of trade, where the
producer can meet the consumer at the least cost, and, without paying com-
mission agents or factors, receive into their own hands the full value of that
they have to sell.

Farmers and all classes are "taxing" themselves continually, and often at
no small rates, for the sake of being, practically, neighbors to the manufac-
turer and other consumers of their produce.*

Establish such centres of trade all along our streams, and even " elsewhere,"
wherever the steam-engine can be made to act its part, and then these
"favored men," the manufacturers, will build their own railroads, while the
farmer finds a market at his own door, not only for his own crops, but for the
purchase of what he wishes to buy.

AGRICULTURAL TRUTHS FORCIBLY EXPRESSED.

At the recent cattle show, in Dayton, Ohio, Governor Wright, of Indiana,
made some very excellent remarks, from the report of which we select the
following :

He began by saying that he had just returned from Yankee-land, which
he had visited for the first time in his life. He had attended several New-
England cattle shows and fairs, especially in Vermont. He was struck every
where with the appearance of comfort and independence that on all sides
met his eye. The hum of business was heard in all directions. He never
saw so industrious a people. Every body seemed to have something to do,
and to be at work. This would make a poor land rich. The farms were not
so good, but the farmers were better than in the West. Owing to their

* "^r^?^ ^^? assessed, in some form, on every thing. Tlie housekeeper, whatever other |iur.-uit he
may follow, buys com of the agriculturist, and pays him for raising it. He then pays anotlier ■' tax "
to tlie miUer for grinding it, and a third to the baker, &c., and would pay at higher rales ti.sn lie i,
now charged, rather than dispense with these services. Ue pays another tax to the wood-cutter, and
another to the charcoal-dealer, and so on, through au endless round; and each receives taxes from
others m his turn. The partner of a mercantile house insures not only the honesty and efficiencv, but
the health of the other members of the firm. The sickness of either of them is substantially a tax on the
house. It IS the peculiar glory of democratic institutions, social, political, Ac, that all g 'od of what-
ever kind receives from the many some consideration in return, while we all pay somethii.g, in some
shaps, for value received, though often far less than the good it brings us, the chief cost being paid by
those most especially and directly benefited. If our neighbors improve Uieir houses, it makes th*
neighborhood more desirable, and the value of our own is increased, but our taxes also are increased.

886 AGRICULTURAL TRUTHS FORCIBLY EXPRESSED.

economj' and industrious habits, he verily believed the farmers of New-England
lived better, enjoying more of the comforts and luxuries of life, than the same
class of people in any other part of the Union. ITo had searched for the secret
of this prosperity, and had found it, as he believed, in the order and system of
the people. There is more of this in the East than in the West. The hap-
hazard, helter-skelter policy is not prevalent. The labors of individuals and
of bodies of workmen and of whole communities are systematized and di-
vided oft', and this system is carefully carried out. This insures success. In
the West, every man fights on his own hook, and he lives more by fighting
and brandishing his arms, than by steady working. Idleness and want of
system on the richest soils are sure to breed poverty and vice ; whereas in-
dustrious and frugal habits are the sure road to competency and Avealth.

There was, too, a pride of home in the North — a desire to make that
beautiful and happy — which lay at the foundation of all social excellence
and all public good. From a love of home, all true patriotism proceeds till
it reaches the State and National governments. It was not so in the West.
Governor Wright declared that one of the greatest evils of the West, one
which he would labor to correct above most others, was to think first of the
national capital, at Washington, and then the patriotism of the politician
descended till it reached himself as an aspirant for public office. Every man
in the West has the whole national government on his shoulders. He wished
they would first take care of their homes, and then the government at Wash-
ington would be best taken care of. He mentioned an anecdote that took
place in Vermont whilst he was in that State. The State elections had just
come off, and the Whigs, though naturally in the majority, had for the first
time for many years been beaten. A good old Whig farmer came home
with a sad heart, and related the dreadful news to his patriotic wife. What,
exclaimed she, has our dear old Vermont fallen into the hands of the enemy?
It is, alas ! even so. Well, then, ejaculated she with an emphatic sign, if
Vermont is gone, the Union is lost! That is the principle, said Governor W.
He wanted every man to feel as if every thing centered in his own home, his
own town, county, and State, and that if that suffered, the nation was in
danger. He verily believed that the town system of New-England was the
seed-bed of true democracy. People legislated at home. They met in their
school districts, to see about educating their children together; they all un-
derstood one another and their families ; then, if a road between neighbors
was to be made or repaired, or a bridge was to be built, the people all got
together and legislated upon the subject. This was a popular democracy, and
it was here our free institutions were born. The school-houses of New-Eng-
land were our republican line of fortifications. From these school districts
and town-meetings, emigrants have gone forth all over the Union, that have
spread free principles every where. Cold and sterile as New-England was,
she was rich in good principles, and rich in her enterprising and intelligent
men. Said Governor Wright, "//' what is now this nation, had been settled
two hundred years ago in the valley of the Mississippi, we should hawe had
no New-England ; and if we had not had a Nevj-England , we should never
to this day have been a free Republic.'''' It was one of the most beneficent
ordinations of Providence, that this country should have been originally set-
tled on the rock of Plymouth. The coldness of the climate and the sterility
of the soil created that very necessity which is the mother of invention and
the stimulus of effort ; and these have filled the land with hardy, enterpris-
ins:, well-educated men.

SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE. 38"

[The effect of the system of town corporations is not overrated by Gov.
Wright The town meeting, and the score of little circles which so often
collect around a New-England town-house, in which all discuss with zeal and
earnestness, untrammelled by parliamentary rules, are the primary schools of
democracy. They teach men to appreciate the true meaning of liberty, and
to examine for themselves tlie soundness of any policy which is commended
to their attention. Having acquired thus the habit of investigating questions
affecting school districts and townships, they insist upon the privilege of in-
vestigating and of approving or condemning all the political doctrines and
systems of doctrines that are promulgated, whether by senators or by presi-
dents ; whether urged by candidates for office in their own district, or by
members of Congress in the capitol of the nation. It is in these schools, too,
that the leaders of great political parties on the high places of our nation
first acquired or so successfully cultivated the ability to use the gift of speech
so fluently and efficiently.

We have long thought of penning a chapter on this subject, and may very
possibly be " moved " to do so at an early day, by the suggestions so happily
made in the foregoing extract. — Eds.]

FOR IHE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVTL.

SOUTHERN AGRICULTURE.

Mr. Editor, — Dear Sir, — My friend, Colonel R , has paid me an un-
deserved compliment, and could himself have much better discharged the
duties requested than I can. I will, however, to the best of my limited abili-
ties, drop you an occasional letter on Southern Agriculture. My time, by
the way, is much taken up with the labors of the farm, and when the day
closes, I am generally too much fatigued to be a profitable correspondent, my
reading and writing being generally done by candle-light. I do not keep
a manager, but superintend my farm, &c., personally, and have done so for
the last twenty years.

I am what may be termed a book fiirmer. From 1820 to 1845 I was
engaged in the mercantile business, but read much on the subject of farming.
In 1834, I withdrew from the active duties of the counting-house, and shortly
after purchased a poor farm, of some 250 acres, which had starved out the
original proprietors. I here laid out some |5,000 in necessary buildings,
stocking the farm, &c., and for the first five or six years barely made a sup-
port, and was often ridiculed for my book notions, as some of my good neigh-
bors were pleased to term them. I, however, continued to read Ruffin's in-
valuable Register, the Cultivator, by Judge Buel, and other journals. By
deep ploughing, close attention to business, and proper system, with regular
rotation of crops, my farm began to pay in 1840.

The farmers, as a mass, in Viiginia farm badly. Our farms are too large,
and I hesitate not to say, that every acre of farm land \^ /ur State could be
made to produce double as much as it now does, unc.er proper cultivation.
Too little attention is paid to making manures, and properly applying thtm.
We plough too much land, we plant too much, we sow too much. Ten acres
well ploughed and manured are worth twenty or even thirty poorly tilled, and
yet it requires as much labor, nay, more, to plough ten acres of poor, as ten
of rich land, the latter always being more friable and more easily tilled.

388 FLAX CULTURE.

Our staple grain crops are wheat, corn, rye, and oats. We cultivate po-
tatoes, turnips, mangol-wurtzels, carrots, parsnii)s, and other root crop?, but
tliey are minor articles. Cattle, horses, sheep, and swine are raised in con-
siderable numbers. The county of Rockbridge, near the centre of the State,
in the Valley of Virginia, will compare favorably with any county in the
State, in point of intelligence or agriculture. There is, indeed, much broken
and thin land, but the county is finely watered, and I might say, with almost
unlimited water-power. On all the streams there are fine bottom-lands, the
best of which are worth $100 per acre. The best up-lands, with bottom,
average $50 prime up-lands, limestone, $30 ; thin lands range from $5 to
$20 per acre. Fine, or rather good flouiing-mills are numerous. Furnaces,
forges, and foundries are convenient. The central railroad passes through one
end of the county, a plank-road- and mud pike-road pass through near the
centre, and soon the North river will be canalied to Lexington, one of the
prettiest small inland towns in Virginia. Here is situated Wtishington Col-
lege, richly endowed, (the Father of his country having in his day donated to
it $10,000,) with able professors, at the head of whom is Dr. G. Junkin.
The Military Institute is also located here, with some 150 cadets. Colonel
F. H. Smith is at the head of this Institution, supported by a staff of accom-
plished officers. There are also classical and mathematical schools, of the
first order, in other parts of the county, Brownsburg boasting of a very good
one.

Broionsburg, Va., November 2^d, 1853.

FLAX CULTURE.

Prof. Wilson, in his late lecture delivered before the New- York State
Agricultural Society, adopted the following conclusions in relation to flax-
culture :

1st. That flax is not an exhausting crop ; that its peculiar suitability to
different soils and climates, the short period it occupies the soil, and the
market returns of an average crop, render it a valuable addition to the ordi-
nary rotation.

2d. That the recent improvements in the process of treating flax, whereby
the fibre is prepared at an immense saving, both in time and labor, all nui-
sance avoided, and the waste j^roducfs beneficially/ titilized, offer grefit induce-
ments for the establishment of snaall f;ictories in suitable districts ; thus
directly encouraging an increased cultivation hy insuring to the grower a
ready and constant market for the produce.

3d. That a large breadth of flax is annually sown in the United States, of
which the seed only is rendered available as a market produce, the straw
being only used to a very limited extent for the preparation of fibre, the rest
remaining on the field or being carted home for rough litter.

4th. that a very large sum, about $14,000,000 to $15,000,000, is annu-
ally expended by the United States in the purchase of linen goods from Great
Britain, which country is obliged to procure tlie raw material for their manu-
facture from other countries with which the United States has no commercial
relations.

5th. That it would appear expedient that the United States should utilize
the large quantity of flax straw already grown, and increase her production
sufficiently, at all events, to supply the quantity in a manufactured state which
she requires for the consumption of her own population.

MINERAL RESOURCES OF BOLIVIA.

389

GERMAN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS.

Mr, C. L. Fleischman, who was educated in one of the German agricul-
tural schools, and is one of the editors of the Polytechnic Journal, says :

Who is not acquainted with the history of the wars which enervated Ger-
many, which exhausted all her pecuniary means, and brought her to the verge
of utter ruin ? Germany was after the close of the French war in a pitiable
condition ; and had it not been for her kind soils, which for thousands of
yeais enabled her to stand the severe calamities which befell her during that
long period, Germany would now be a second Greece. She adopted, at an
early period, various means to improve her agriculture. Professorships of
agriculture were instituted at the universities, periodicals and journals were
published to disseminate modern improvements, fairs and meetings were re-
gularly held to encourage the farmer ; but all that gave not the desired re-
sults. A thorough education was found necessary, practical _ and scientific
education, which enables the farmer to enhance the value of his landed pro-
perty, as circumstances and condition allow it, to give them the knowledge
to improve and change the various modes of culture, and to he more than a
mere imitator. Proper agricultural schools were wanted, and the monarchs
of Germany spared no means to accomplish this important object. The
ablest men were selected for the institutions, and nothing was spared to in-
duce them to take charge of them. The late King of Prussia, who, like his
ancestors, paid great attention to all improvements in husbandry, was the first
to establish such an institution. He invited Threr, the celebrated German
agriculturist, to settle within his kingdom, and introduce agricultural schools.
Thffir accepted his offer, and left Cella for Berlin. The other monarchs ot
Germany followed the example of the King of Prussia, and Germanyhad,
in 1847, 62 large institutions. With some of them Forests and Veterinary
schools are connected. Austria then had 9 ; Prussia, 12 ; Saxony, 5 ; Ba-
varia, 16 ; Hanover, 2 ; Wurtemburg, 8 ; and other States, 14 ; in all, 62.

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF BOLIVIA.

From an article in the New- York Courier and Enquirer, we gather the
following facts in relation to the mineral ])roductions of this State :

Gold abounds in various portions of Bolivia, and is worked with profit;
but it cannot be reckoned among its most prominent sources of wealth. Tin
raining, although comparatively a new business, is now among the most pro-
fitable of pursuits. The richest and most numerous veins of tin are found in
the region of the Onero river, in the central portion of the high table-land.
The ore is an oxide of the crystallization, and in most cases may be wrought
with ease. The Indians are the principal laborers. They sell the products
of their toil to the foreign merchants, who carry on a lucrative trade in the
article.

Copper occurs in various parts of the country, both in the metallic state
and as an ore. In the province of Lipes, particularly, the ores are very rich,
and the metal is easily extracted. At Coracora, in the northern part of
Bolivia, the metal occurs in small metallic particles, diflused through a fna-
able gray rock. This rock is ground, the eartby portion washed out, and the
remainder, which is sold as barilla, yields 90 per cent, of bar copper. The

390 AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA.

owners of several of the copper mines are said to accximulate fortunes more
rapidly tliau any other men in the country. The Indians, however, are tlie
chief workei-s of the mines, selling the ore, or barilla, which they procure,
to the merchants.

But the silver mines should perhaps be regarded as constituting the essen-
tial wealth of Upper Bolivia. The extraction of this metal requires more
capital and more skill than that of tin or copper, and is therefore never en-
tirely in the hands of Indians. Previous to the long distraction of the
country during its contest with Spain, there were probably worked ten thou-
sand valuable silver mines ; but as the Spanish difficulties turned the public
attention in another direction, made labor more difficult to obtain, and drove
'a large amount of capital from the country, the mines were gradually de-
serted, and at the present time it is estimated that but one hundred and fifty
are wrought. At least two-thirds of the abandoned mines have not become
exhausted or diminished in richness. The inducements for the reopening of
these mines by enterprising capitalists are manifest. They contain ores of
silver of good quality, which can be procured at a moderate cost. In some
of the mines, steam-pumps must be used to keep them free from water ; in
others, tunnels are to be cut ; but this outlay is not in the way of experiment ;
for the kind of ore, the breadth of the vein, and the depth to be reached, are
all known before-hand. The titles to the mines, too, are perfectly safe. If
a mine is neglected more than a year by its owner, it reverts to the govern-
ment, and the government will re-convey it to any one who will carry on the
work. This is for the purpose of encouraging foreigners, with skill and capi-
tal, to reopen the works.

AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA.

A State Agricultural Fair was recently held in Virginia, which appears
by the published reports to have been the largest, most enthusiastic, and most
interesting gathering of the kind ever held in this country, and one which
promises to be of immense importance in advancing the interests of agricul-
turists in that State. We have had some brief accounts of this fair. It
commenced on the 1st of November, when, however, only the officers and
members of the Society were admitted within the enclosure. On the 2d, the
gates were thrown open, and not less than twenty thousand of the best popu-
lation of the State were admitted. Every body was not merely gratified, but
astonished, as well at the immense concourse as at the extraordinary display
of the agricultural and mechanical resources of the State. The annual ad-
dress was delivered by John R. Edmunds. On the 3d, there was a plough-
ing-match, at which INIadame Sontag, the vocalist, gave $100 as a premium
to the successful plough. Half the premium was given to the colored plough-
man, (a slave,) and half to the owner of the plough and team. On the 4th,
the exhiI)ition was brought to a close by the award of premiums, and these
were by no means few nor small, and the valedictory address was pronounced
by Ex-President Tyler.

But the most enthusiastic portion of the performances was exhibited in the
niglitly meetings of the Agricultural Society during the week, at Metropolitan
Hall. Of this, the National Intciligencer says:

" On the second night, a proposition was introduced by Lewis E. Harvie,
Esq., of Amelia, to raise $20,000, to be invested in State stocks, as a perma-

EXPERIMENTS ON MOWING-LANDS. 391

nent endowment of the Society. This was responded to m the most enthu-
siastic terms, v;^rious gentlemen putting down themselves and their whole
families, to the third generation, as life-members of the Society, and others
pledging their respective counties for from loOO to $1,000. The meeting
was protracted to the hour of twelve, and before adjourmng, the sum ot

139,000 had been raised! , ^ . , • i . i ,i,„

The same scenes were enacted on Thursday and' Friday nights, and the
enthusiasm was kept up in a practical manner, until upwards ot $60,000 were
subscribed ! A suggestion that the Legislature should be called upon tor a
subscription Avas promptly put down, several members declaring that the
farmers of Virginia, now that their spirit was aroused, needed no help ot tiiai
kind, but would rely upon themselves; yet, during the proceedings, it was
found that professional men, mechanics, and merchants, all claimed the rignt
to aid in putting Virginia agriculture upon a firm and enduring basis. A
wag declared that, so far from asking Legislative help, the Society was now
ready to shave the State debt T

EXPERIMENTS ON MOWING-LANDS.

Rev. Mr. Clift, of Stonington, is an intelligent and educated farmer. He
recently published the result of sundry experiments, in the Af/ricultor, wh^h
we lay before our readers, with his remarks in connection with them. H«
writes as follows : i *•

I have just concluded an experiment, designed to test the comparative
value of coarse and concentrated manures, as top-dressings for mowing-lands.
Two acres were selected that had been laid down to grass about five years,
cutting in ordinary seasons from one and a half to two tons per acre.^ I re-
cently^'came into possession of this plot of ground, and know little of its past
treatment. The underlying rock is granite, the surface-soil black loam, the
sub-soil a deep yellow loam, with gravel below this, and the whole soil well
strewn with boulders. The lot was in the form of a long parallelogram, and
was divided crosswise into parcels of a quarter acre each, and numbered from
one to eight. The lot extended across a gentle slope, so that no manure
would wash from one plot upon another. No. 1 was left without dressing,
to show the natural yield of grass, and to give a standard of comparison.
No. 2 was dressed with five one-horse cart-loads of coarse, unfermented ma-
nure from the cow-stable, worth about $3, including expense of carting and
spreading, or at the rate of $\2 per acre. It was put on early in March.
No. 3 was dressed while the snow was on, with twenty pounds prepared su-
perphosphate of lime, costing 50c. or $2 per acre. No. 4 was treated in
April with ashes, sown at the rate of thirty-two bushels to the acre, worth
about 14. No. 5 had twenty pounds of guano mixed with three bushels of
charcoal cinders. These were thrown out from furnaces of locomotives, and
in this case were made from Virginia pine wood, and were probably of little
value, except to absorb and retain the escaping ammonia. They were mixed
several weeks before use. Value, $2 per acre. No. 6 had twenty-five pounds
of guano mixed in the same way, worth -$2.50 per acre. No. 1 had a super-
phosphate of lime of home manufacture. Bones were digested in sulphuric
acid put in whale oil-casks, after Professor Way's recipe. The bones had been
dissolving four or five months. About four quarts of the liquid wei-e added
to twenty pounds of guano and one peck of salt, and the whole intimately

392

EXPERIMENTS ON MOWING-LANDS.

mixed with three bushels of the cliarcoal cinders. As the bones cost us
nothinc:, the value of the whole was estimated at Si, or $4 per acre. No. 8
was dressed with two barrels of droppinjcs from the hen-house. As charcoal
cinders and plaster of Paris are constat)tly kept under the fowls, no accurate
estimate can be made of the quantity of pure manure. But it was estimated
at two bushels, which, at 50o. per bushel, would make the cost for an acre
$4. These last four dressings were ap])lied April 4tli, during a rain.

Now for the results. Early in July, the grass from two square rods in each
of the plots of ground was carefully weighed in the green state, and one of
these parcels cured and then weighed again, and thcdry weight of the re-
maining parcels calculated from this one.

[For the convenience of a reference, we here arrange the expenment ia a
tabular form. — Ed. Agk.]

A'o. of plot. Application to each
quai'ier of an acre.

Cost
per

1. — Nothing. 3,920

—5 one-horse cart-loads of green,

unfermented manure, applied in

March $12 00 4,880

3. — 20 lbs. prepared superphosphate

of lime, applied iipon snow, in

Marcli 2 00 4,960

4. — 8 bushels ashes, applied in April 4 00 3,920
5. — 20 lbs. guano, mixed with three

bu.«hels of charcoal cinder.s, from

R. R. engine, sown April 4th, dur-
ing rain T 2 00 4,000

6. — 25 lbs. guano, mixed and sown

same as No. 5 2 50 4,720

7.-20 lbs. guano, 1 peck of salt, 3

bushels of cinders, and 4 quarts of

dissolved bone liquid, applied April

6th, during rain 4 00 5,280

— About two bushels hen manure,

contained in 2 barrels of plaster,

&c., applied April 4th, during raini 4 00 5,440

lbs.
Gain
per
per appll-
acre. cation.

lbs.
Ilav

960
1,040

80

800

1,360
1,520

Gain
per

$5 20

1 50

2 80

3 60

Loss
per

$7 20

1 60

These experiments perhaps do not determine any thing with perfect accu-
racy, and yet enough of them bringing out similar results, would demon-
strate—

1st. That concentrated manures are far preferable to stable manure for
dressing mowing-lands. Eiglity pounds of prepared superphosphate of lime
in No. 3, or one hundred pounds of guano in No. 6, produce larger results
than r$r2 worth of stable manure. The estimate given of the comparative
value of these manures in the Country Gentleman, that one hundred pounds
of guano is about equal to a load of manure, does not do justice to guano as a
dressing for mowing-lands. It sustains the opinion advanced by Colonel M.
P. Wilder and others, that it is cheaper to buy guano at the market price,
than to have stable manure given to you, if you have to pay for carting and
handling.

2d. It is shown that there is good economy in using larger quantities of
guano than eighty pounds to the acre. While tliis quantity in No. 5 did not
pay expenses, one hundred pounds in No. 6 gave a very handsome profit. It

TOBACCO CROP OF CUBA. 393

is believed that there would be increasing economy in its application up to
two or three hundred pounds per acre.

3d. It is shown that farmers have a cheap method of doubling their crops
of hay on all lands that do not now produce over one and a lialf tons an
acre. Five dollars worth of guano suitably composted, and applied early in
March, or what is better, in November, could hardly fail to add one ton and
a half of hay to the yield of each acre.

4th. That the prepared superphosphate of lime in No. 3 and No. 7, is
among the cheapest and best of manures. The return is larger for the capi-
tal invested than from any other manure.

5th. It is shown that bones dissolved in sulphuric acid, is not only a very
powerful manure, but that where ftirmers can get bones for carting, or at a
small cost, it is good economy to manufiicture superphosphate of lime
themselves.

6th. It is shown that hen-manure is an article of very great value as a
fertilizer. Farmers are perfectly safe in having large flocks of poukiy, a place
to keep them, and abundance of loam, charcoal dust, and plaster of Paris, as
absorbents.

7th. The experiment suggests to farmers that more capital invested in
manures would make their farming far more profitable. If any one doubts
it, let him invest a few dollars in guano, or in some good prepared super-
phosphate of lime, and apply it to any of his exhausted mowing fields this
fall. I believe the returns will rarely fail to be more satisfactory than that of
bank stock.

Similar experiments to the above will be continued hereafter.

TOBACCO CROP OF CUBA.

A CORRESPONDENT of Huut^s Merchants' Magazine describes this as fol-
lows :

The tobacco plants are generally upon the margin of rivers, yet there is a
large quantity of good tobacco raised upon high-lands distant from rivers, but
the former situation is preferable.

The quantity of land cultivated depends altogether upon the means of cul-
tivation, and the product of the crop differs in value according to quantity
and quality ; as high as $30,000 has been realized by some of the heaviest
planters from a single crop of tobacco, whilst the expenses attending its cul-
tivation are considerably less than those incident to the raising of sugar-cane.

When the tobacco is gathered, it is hung upon poles about fifteen feet in
length to dry; the leaf is allowed to remain a short time in the air after it is
ripe, to dry a little, but not so much as to cause it to break during the opera-
tion of hanging.

As soon as the tobacco is dry it is jiiled, selecting a day for that purpose a
little damp, that the leaf may not be liable to be broken in the handling ;
the pile, when made, is carefully closed from the air ; the floor of the piling-
house is made of wood, and elevated from the ground, that the moisture may
not rot the tobacco ; the pile is formed with symmetry, and in such a manner
that the leaf may not be broken. This operation of piling is made that the
tobacco may acquire a good color, and it is never allowed to remain more than
two months in this way, when, by this time, and often much before, the selec-
tion and preparation for market is made.

394 THE COTTON CROP.

The preparation of the tobacco for market is as follows, viz. : The larjjest,
most perfect, and best quality leaves are first selected, and are called Libra,
and are superior to all the others ; the next is called Primera, and is nearlj'
equal to the former ; and then comes the Sepnida, a little inferior to the
Primera^ and so down to the Sesta, or sixtli, which i3 the last section of the
tobacco called Princi2ml. From this there is likewise taken the Qncbrado,
or damaged, to which class belongs all the largo leaf which is broken, or
worm-eaten in the iield.

The P/ incipal is composed of all the tobacco taken from the plants for the
fii-st time, as the leaves of the second gathering produce another class of
tobacco, which is called Caimdura, and is inferior to all the furmer-mentioned
kinds.

There is likewise a kind called Libra de Pie, which is made up from the
first leaves, or those which come in contact with the ground, and is the poor-
est quality of the tobacco.

After the selection, as above expressed, the tobacco is packed by forming
the leaves into bunches, as follows, viz. : The Libra and Primera is composed
of 25 leaves, the Secjunda of 30, the Tercera of 3o, and the Cuarla of 40,
which are the classes used for wrappers ; and the remainder are composed of
45 leaves, and are used for fillings ; these bunches are then packed into bales
of about one hundred pounds weight.

The most destructive worms feed upon Tobacco at night, hiding during the
day ; they are pursued at night by the planters with torches made from pitch-
pine slivers. Your obedient servant, A Subscriber.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THB LOOM, AKD T£nC ANVII,.

THE COTTON CROP.

Messrs. Editors, — Since mine of the 16th of September was published
in 264-260 pp. of your magazine, there have been important changes, greatly
reducing the crop of cotton ; and having your general invitation, I make bold
to intrude.

The thermometer in my piazza, with a southern exposure, stood, at 6 A. M.,
on the 23d September at 52° ; on 24th, at 42° ; 25th, at 34° ; 26th, at 52° :
29th, 38° ; 31st, 38°. Ice was seen on 24th, and cotton was killed ; small
bolls were so frosted that they have not opened. Last year, the freeze was
16th November, three weeks later. This, with at least ten days' loss in the
spring, makes one month's difference. All persons conversant witli the cotton
crop, can appreciate wliat I may calculate as a loss.

Last year, with 22 effective hands, I gathered and sent off 105 bales.
This year, with 28 to 30 hands, I have no idea I can make 100 bales, being
35 bales less, with an increase of one-quarter eO'ective force, or a difference
of one-third loss. Should this be general, the crop cainu-t reach 2,200,000
or 2,300,000 bales.

I have just returned from Columbus, where I saw friends from various por-
tions of tiie State, attending the Baptist State Convention, as well as an old
planter, who travelled across the country from Jackson, Miss., to Marion, Ala.,
thence to Columbus. And to-day I saw my brother, A. K, Montgomery,
from his plantation in the Louisiana swamp. From all I saw and heard
above, and from what T can learn east and west, 1 believe my crop to be over

MANUFACTURE OF AXES IN COLLINSVILLE, CT, 395

the average. I can buy 100 acres of cotton with 10 bales; 300 acres with
40 or 50 bales, and not at all unusual. In the swamp, where they made 15
to 17 bales per hand last year, they are now nearly done, and make only 10
bales.

I was nearer done picking on 1st of November, than last year on 1st of
December. Have now only children picking; my able hands are in the M'oods.

I now reduce my figures to a loss of one-sixth, allowing for increased
culture, and put the crop at two and a half millions, and do not think it will
reach two millions and three quarters. M. W. Phillips.

Edwards, Miss., November 21, 1853.

FOB THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AKD THE A»VH,.

MANUFACTURE OF AXES IN COLLINSVILLE, Ct.

The importance of this branch of dome^^tic industry will, in some measure
be realized, when we learn the extent to wliich the business is carried by a
single establishment, which has been in operation about twenty years, under
the supervision of Messrs. Collins & Co., in Hartford, Ct. The works of the
Company are located at Collinsville, on the Farraington river, to which place
a branch of the New- York and New-Haven Railroad extends, connecting
with the main road at New-Haven.

This Company is incorporated by an act of the Legislature, and has a
capital of $300,000 invested in the business. The machinery employed is of
the most powerful description, ingeniously constructed, and skilfully adapted
to the various purposes for which it is intended.

The entire works of the Company are kept in operation, and all the ma-
chinery driven by thirteen large water-wheels. Twelve hundred tons of iron,
200 tons of cast-steel, and 2,000 tons coal are annually consumed at this
establishment. The Company employs about 350 men, and manufacture
from 1,500 to 2,000 edge-tools daily, and the leputation of all articles bear-
ing the mark of "Collins & Co." is of the highest order. Their trade is
rapidly extending, and their sales are very extensive not only throughout the
United States, but also in Canada, Mexico, Cuba, South America, and other
foreign countries.

To those who have never seen the axe manufacture in all its various de-
partments, a brief description of the modus operandi, by which the rouo-h
materials are transformed into the beautifully-finished and hio-hly-polished
axe, ready for the workman's use, will not be unprofitable or uninteresting.

More fully to illustrate this, the reader will imagine himself quietly seated
in the accommodation train, from New-Haven to Collinsville. After a plea-
sant ride over an easy track, surrounded by picturesque scenery, he suddenly
finds himself in the immediate vicinity of this thriving little village, snugly
and beautifully situated amid the surrounding mountains. Here is a thrifty
population of nearly 1,500 inhabitants, depending mainly upon the edire-tool
business for their maintenance. Two churches, and a neat and convenient
school-house, where 200 to 250 children regularly receive the benefits of an
excellent education, add essentially to the attractions ®f the village, while the
pleasant dwellings and beautiful shade-trees which adorn the streets, give an
air of comfort and contentment to its general appearance.

Entering the extensive and admirably arranged work-shops of the Com-
pany, the visitor is struck with the perfect system and regularity which are

396 MANUFACTURE OF AXES IN COLLINSVILLE, CT.

exhibited in all the various departments. Much of the labor-saving ma-
chinery in use at the works of the Collins Company was invented, patented,
and constructed here, and is unlike any otlier in use. The iron, aftcM' being
properly heated, is carried to a machine which cuts it to its proper shape,
forms it, and punches the eye to receive the helve. The steel ([)reviou.sly cut
into the necessary size and shape) is welded to the iron under trip-hammers,
and drawn down to a more perfect form. After this, another workman ex-
amines each axe, and regulates the eye, and also takes out all the crooks and
irregularities of the edge. It is then taken to another shop, and by a ])ower-
ful machine, (invented at the works,) shaved down by a cutting operation to
a nearly perfect edge, and is now ready for hardening.

The process of properly tempering edge-tools is one of extreme practical
difficulty. Indeed, by the old method, it is nearly impossible to arrive at the
precise point of temperature, and give the requisite hardness without leaving
the axe too brittle for general use. This difficulty, liowever, has been ob-
viated by the invention of a new plan, based upon a principle by which the
most unerring results are obtained. Every tool is subjected to a uniform
heat, produced by means of ovens peculiarly arranged, and is regulated by
thermometers in the most perfect manner, by which the temper is most ac-
curately and uniformly drawn, and a fine and permanent cutting-edge pro-
duced.

After the axe is sufficiently temioered, it is taken to the polishing shop,
when the surface of the cutten portion below the eye is finely polished on
emery wheels. By this means an even surface is obtained, the axe receives
a fine polish, and any defects or flaws in the steel are rendered visible, and
may be readily detected. The axes are now carefully examined by inspectors,
whose sole duty it is to attend to this branch of the business, and every tool
having the least flaw or imperfection that w^ould injure it, is rejected; and
only those which are perfect are allowed to receive the mark or stamp of the
Company upon them. By this means, the axes of Messrs. Collins & Co.
have attained a reputation at home that is well founded, and their superior
qualities are known and appreciated abroad. After stamping, the head of
the axe is dipped in asi)haltum to prevent its rusting, and a label with the
signature of Samuel W. Collins is put on every tool, the more effectually to
guard against counterfeiting. After being weighed, the axes are enveloped
in paper, and packed, a dozen in a box, ready for market.

Although we have more particularly described the manufacture of axes^
Messrs. C. & Co. do not confine themselves to making these alone. Edge-
tools of various descrij^tions, such as adzes, coopers' tools, hatchets, &c., &c.,
also picks, sledgi^s, and mining tools generally. These are all of the most
perfect finish and superior quality, as hundreds of those who have used them,
can attest from their own experience.

Such establishments as this are an honor to the country, and creditable
alike to the proprietors and to the skilful mechanics in their employ ; and we
trust the time is not far distant when similar manufactories of articles of
general utility will be seen springing up in all parts of our country, and prove
a source of wealth and prosperity to allwbo embark in the enterprise. Some
of the best cutlery in the country is now manufactured by our own artisans,
from the [>roduct of our native mines ; and with our mountains teeming with
coal, and the richest ores in the world, there is no good reason why we should
be dependent on the importation of a single article of cutlery or liaidware
from foreign countries.

GOOD MILCH COWS. 897

GOOD MILCH COWS.

There is no field that promises a richer harvest than that which secures a
supply of good milch cows. The present condition of the milkers, in this
country, is very far below what it should be, and pays a very small profit to
the farmer, compared to that which he might and ought to have.

A writer, in the Albany Cultivator^ says that a good cow worthy of the
name should yield, on the average, for the first 100 days after calving, 7-|
quarts at a mess, or 15 quarts per day, amounting to - - 1,500

For the next 100 days, she should average 5 quarts at a mess, - 1,000
For the succeeding 100 days, do. 4 quarts do., - - - . 800

Total number of quarts, 3,300

— giving her a respite of 65 days before calving. 3,300 quarts of milk, at
3 cts. per quart, is very near $100. The cost of keeping may be reckoned
as follows :

For pasturage, the season, $12

Two tons hay, -.--... 26

This or a proximate condition may be reached not, only by the purchase of
valuable cows, at the outset, bat by the improvement of the breed by the
best of those already purchased. The selection of a good bull is quite as
important as the choice of a good cow.

Still, there is a great difference in the different breeds, and sundry experi-
ments have been made to test their comparative value. We present one or
two of these below :

AYRSHIRES AS MILKKRS.

Mr. Edward M. Shepard, of Norfolk, in this, St. Lawrence county, is a
breeder of Ayrshires, says the Cultivator, and while he has made no experi-
ments with particular or individual cows, like your correspondent '' P., of
Sennett, N. Y.," which, by the way, is not a proper method of testing the
value of breeds, unless the whole herd be taken, has yet permitted to be
published in the papers of this county, at the solicitation of myself and other
friends, trials of his lohole herd, the substance of which is here submitted.

Mr. Shepard had 14 cows, Ayrshires and their crosses on natives, half-
bloods, six heifers, milking for the first time — time, the third week in June —
feed, grass only.

Allowing one cow for faraily«iuse, and deducting 40 per cent, from heifers,
and his trial stood thus :

Cows, ----.... 8
Heifers 6, reduced to cows, is, - - - - 3-c
»

11-6

Deduct one cow for family, is cows, - - - 10-6

The product for the week was 12 lbs. 12 oz. per cow. The first week in
July, feed gi>Hss only, and much affected by drouth, he milked twenty, eight
of which were heifers, milking the first season, and this trial stood thus :
12 cows, less one for family, is, - - - - 11-
8 heifers, 40 per cent, off, is - - - . 4-8

Full cows, _ . 15-8

VOL. VI. — PART II. 2

398 CULTURE AND GROWTH OP THE PEACH-TREE.

The product for the week, per cow, was 14 lbs. 13 oz., and a fraction over'

But, lest your correspondent might think my allowance for heifers too
much, which, however, is considered a just allowance by the dairymen of th
county, the result of the last trial, withoiU any deduction for their being hei-
fers, and four of them only two years old at that, was 12 lb. 5 oz. and a
fraction per head, for the week.

I am advised by Mr. Sbepard, that for the purpose of testing the merits
of these breeds for the dairy, he will select some tive or ten cows from this
Ayi-shire herd, and place them for some one week next autumn, or next June,
against an eijual number of any other pure breed of the same respective ages,
owned by any one breeder or dairyman of the State. The cattle to feed upon
grass only during the week, and for two weeks prior to the trial. The time
to be notified through the Country Gentleman. The time to consist of seven
days, fourteen morning and evening milkings, each milking to be weighed,
and each day's product churned and weighed by itself, and the final test re-
sult to be in the aggregate, containing not over one ounce of salt per pound
of butter.

Another writer, in the same journal, gives the following account of his
experiments :

SHORT-IIORNS AS MILKERS.

I never owned an Ayrshire ; but for the last fourteen years, having milked
short-horn grades, I send you the results of several trials made with them,
previously remarking, that as we intend to make only just sufficient butter
for family use, we have been at no trouble to prepare a suitable " milk-house."

Cow No. 1, fourteen years old, made in one week, in the month of June,
9-|- lbs. butter — again in October, made 9 lbs. 2 oz. same time ; this cow was
always fat.

No. 2, three years old, made at the rate of 12;|: lbs. per week.

Nos. 1, 2, and 3, made 33 lbs. in one week of the month of June.

No. 4, three years old, with her first calf, made 11 lbs. 2 oz. in six days —
the feed of these cows was grass pasture, and nothing else.

Gipsey 2d, thorough-bred, in the month of January, on hay feed, no roots
or grain, gave 24 quarts of milk per day. The only trial ever made of the
quality of this cow's milk was during the season of 1850, when her calf was
allowed to take one half of her milk, no more; he weighed at seven months
old, 700 lbs.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THB LOOM, AND THE ANVIL,

CULTURE AND GROWTH OF THE PEACH-TREE.

Messrs. Editors :— Your correspondent, " R. B. 11.," on p. 270, says, in
closing the penult paragraph, "The stone of a peach from a seedling is little,
if any, less certain to produce its like, than is Indian corn." I dissent. I
have been planting seed of corn and peaches these many years, and have seen
very many-fold more varieties of the latter than of the former. I put out some
fourteen or fifteen years ago a young orchard of over 500 trees, and tliouglit
I had saved the stones of the choicest varieties I could find. They were put
out by rule, cultivated well, staked, &c., &c. In 1843 to 1845, I cut them
all down, and began to bud, because not over fifty or sixty trees were of any
account, and only three or four varieties at that; the most of the good ones

SHEEP-BREEDING. 399

ripened at the same time. I had a very superior yellow free-stone, i-}|>ening
1st of August, of which I planted some twenty-five seed, and have fruited
them. They are all yellow, ripening within ten days of each other, some
with globose glands, uniform and serrate, giving me some half dozen varie-
ties, and not one fit for the orchard. From some fifty trees of that variety, I
have had but one to equal the parent.

Where did the countless varieties of peaches spring from, Mr. R. B. H.,
if the peach is as certain as corn ? I have been engaged in growing corn
these twenty-five years ; housed this year 5,000 bushels ; and I dare you or
any man to find over six distinct varieties of that, though I planted a mixed
variety. Such sweeping remarks injure a good cause. They deter young
men from progress. Some varieties of the peach will grow the same fruit,
yet not always so good. The Heath, Columbia, &c., illustrate. By planting
100 pits of the Heath, you will get perhaps a dozen equal, and of a million,
perhaps not one superior. Of the Columbia, you will get color, time of
fruiting, the peculiar mark on the stone, the color of limbs, and shape of tree,
but no better fi'uit, and ten to one if it is as good. I have in my orchard
some 150 varieties, and though in possession of the choicest of earth, Icon-
tinue to grow seedlings, hoping to aid the cause. I have given forth two of
our best varieties, as a small return for the dozens I have been blessed with
from others. I have peaches usually as late as November, and as early as
the middle of June. I hope I may be excusable for defending my favorite
pursuit. Melacatune.

, Miss., November 21, 1853.

[Note. — We do not wish to take this interesting question out of the hands
of our able contributors, but hope to hear from R. B. H. and others also. Yet
we beg leave to suggest the possibility of a mistaken construction of the lan-
guage of R. B. H., whose position was that native peaches ^yould generally
produce their own kind, and that the natives were or might be equal to any
foreign. Possibly, the opposite results of the experiments of wise men may
be the effect of a difference in reference to this fact. But we hope the sub-
ject will be thoroughly treated by these, and also bv others equally able. —
Eds.]

SHEEP-BREEDING.

We commend the attention of sheep-breeders to the subject discussed in
the following paragraphs, which were published in the Ohio Cultivator :

" Now is the time for flock-masters to look well to their ewes, selecting such
as possess those characteristics which they desire to perpetuate^ and rejecting
those that are fit for nothing but the butcher. Sufficient attention is seldom
given to this point, for though it is perfectly true that the male, in all ani-
mals, is of more importance than the female, yet for the production of per-
fect animals, it is absolutely necessary that both male and female be well
bred, and, if not individually perfect in every point, the conformation of the
two should be such as, when combined, form the animal desired. Good
breeders understand this matter well, and assort their flock into several lots,
procuring a buck for each lot with those points strongly developed in which
the'*ewes are most deficient. But a vast lo'oportion of farmers who keep
more or less sheep, neglect this matter aliogether. They often procure a
buck, which, however useful he might be fo: other flocks, is totally unfit for

400 SHEEP-BREEDING.

that vsliich he is intended to serve. Again, in a large flock of onlinary sheep
there are often two or more kinds of ewes with characteristics entirely differ-
ent from each other ; hence, a buck that might be beneficial to the one would
be altogether unsuited to the other, and more likely to propagate imperfec-
tions than to neutralize them ; yet how common is it to let the whole flock
run together, and have the indiscriminate use of the same bucks. With
judicious selection any of our ordinary heterogeneous flocks might, in a few
years, be vastly improved without any more expense than is incurred by the
present heedless, careless, and unprofitable system of breeding.

The present high price of mutton has led many, in this vicinity at least,
to cross their common merino sheep with a Leicester or Southdown buck, for
the purpose of obtaining good-sized lambs for the butcher. We believe good
mutton will always command a good price, higher than at present, and that
this system of crossing fiae-wooled with mutton sheep, will be the most pro-
fitable species of sheep husbandry. We do not like to recommend any one
to breed from such a cross, yet v/e are not sure but a little Southdown blood
would improve the size, constitution, and fattening qualities of our common
sheep, without materially injuring the quality of wool.

The time to place the bucks with the ewes depends upon the locatio, then
breed, and the object of the breeder. As a general thing, it is not desirable
to have lambs before there is some grass for the mother, and as ewes go from
22 to 23 weeks, it is easy to calculate in any individual case. In Western
New-York, the first of November is considered best. At this season-grass is
scarce and innutritions, and as it is particularly desirable that ewes be well
kept while the buck is with them, it will be advantageous to give them a lit-
tle clover, hay, oats, peas, or oil-cake, and to keep them at night in dry,
warm sheds. It is well to give the buck a little extra grain or oil-cake sepa-
rate from the ewes. Care and attention to the flock at this season, and
during the winter, will be amply rewarded by an increased number of large
and healthy lambs, and by more wool of a superior quahty. Remember that
warmth is equivalent to food, and that salt and water are essential to health,
while regularity in feeding is very desirable."

Another writer, in the same paper, has well expressed an opinion we have
long entertained, in reference to horns on sheep. We would extend the in-
quiry to all animals. Horns on the living are good for nothing but to wound
and destroy. We, hence, go for short-horns, and eventually, for an improved
breed with no horns at all. For wild animals, they are useful for defense ;
on domesticated, they are good fur nothing. The writer referred to, says :

" There are two reasons which induce me to oflferafew remarks to the
farmer on the subject of polled sheep. One is, I believe, a decided advan-
tage may result to the wool-growing community from a consideration of the
subject. The other is, I am now compelled to buy horned rams for a cross
of blood, because I cannot get such polled ones as I desire, that are not nearly
allied to my own stock.

I believe that nearly all middle and long-woolled sheep are polled, while
the males of the finer woolled varieties are usually horned.

I have for many years regarded horns on sheep in a domesticated state, as
not only a useless, but a troublesome and expensive appondnge ; and in 1845,
fortunately getting hold of a very superior polled ram, I commenced to try
to breed a flock which should be hornless, I proceeded by not only select-
ing polled rams, but so far as practicable, perfect polled ewes also ; and here
let me remark, a ewe that appears to the casual observer to be without horns,
is not always a perfect poll. There must be a cavity, instead of a fullness,

EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIAL MANURES IN SCOTLAND. 401

where the horn usually attaches, or she cannot be depended upon to produce
polled lambs with certainty, although the sire be polled.

The result of ray eight years' labor is, I do not now have but one horned
ram lamb in about ten or twelve ; and I do not believe that I have sacrificed
one iota in form or constitution, or in quality or quantity of wool.

Some of my objections to horns are briefly as follows :

1. The substance that goes to make horns is the same that enters into the
composition of wool.

2. If rams are polled, you may let all the pure-blooded ones run entire to
the age of one or two years, and then, any that are rejected as rams, will
make as good wethers as if gelded while lambs.

3. Where horned rams run in a flock in summer, they are sure to fight,
and if they do not kiil each other outright, loose the skin about the horns,
become fly-blown, and without constant care, more or less of them die.

A gentleman, who has been engaged in wool-growing over twenty years,
and who keeps near one thousand sheep, told me he annually lost enough
rams from these causes to pay all his taxes.

4. Horned rams frequently strike ewes in the side, bruising them, loosen-
ing their wool, and occasionally causing them to cast their lambs.

5. You can shelter and feed about double as many polled as horned rams
in a given space.

In conclusion, I would say I am always open to conviction. Has any one
a reason why sheep in a domesticated state should have horns ?"

EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIAL MANURES IN SCOTLAND.

The account of these experiments is given in one of the agricultural jour-
nals, "The Quarterly Journal of the Transactions of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland." They appear to have been very skillfully
planned, and carefully carried out.

The experiments, fifty in number, w^ere made upon clover and rye-grass,
barley and wheat, and three varieties of turnips. The fertilizers experimented
with w^re yard-manure, dissolved bones, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammo-
nia, muriate of ammonia, refuse saltpetre, Peruvian guano, sulphate of potash,
sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, Richardson & Currie's manures, and
disinfected dry manure. These various substances were used separately, and
in various combinations. By the side of each application, a plot of the same
kind of soil was left unmanured, with which the products of the manured por-
tions were compared. Great care appears to have been taken in securing
uniformity of soil and treatment, and in making an accurate estimate of the
products, both of grain and. straw, and of roots and tops. These special
manures were only used in top-dressing, and were in all cases sown broadcast.
In some cases, the whole dressing was applied at one time, and in others it
was divided into two and three portions, and applied at successive periods.

Experiments on Grass. — The soil selected for these experiments was of
moderately tenacious clay, thoroughly drained three years previously, and
manured the preceding year with sixty loads per acre of " lime compost," the
seed being sown with barley. The profit and loss per acre is calculated by
estimating the value of the excess products gathered from a manured impe-
rial acre, over those gathered from the ground similarly treated, only not
manured, the cost of cultivation being deducted. The following table is the

402 EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIAL MANURES IN SCOTLAND.

result of the experiments most noticeable, the poimd-sterling being reckoned
rtt $5 :

Net Profit per Acre over
Applied per Acre. Unmanured Laud.

115 lbs. Sulphate of ammonia, - - »

115 " Nitrate of soda, - - - -

100 " Dissolved bones,

130 " Nitrate of soda, . - - -

115 " Muriate of ammonia, -

115 " Nitrate of soda, - . . -

40 " Nitrate of soda,

60 " Sulphate of ammonia, - - .

70 " Sulphate of potash, -

» 40 " Sulphate of magnesia, -

^ 20 " Sulphate of soda,

115 " Refuse saltpetre, - - . .

115 " Sulphate of ammonia,

115 " Dissolved bones, - . . .

115 " Nitrate of soda,

230 " Sulphate of potash,

100 " Dissolved bones, . . . . -j

40 " Sulphate of magnesia, - - - I i qo

70 " Sulphate of potash, . - - - [

20 " Sulphate of soda, - - - - J

Experiments on Barley. — The soil, like the preceding, clay, with an im-
pervious sub-soil, and thoroughly drained. Among the results reported,
were the following :

-$14 25

.

9 15

-

8 45

y

7 42

^

\

6 14

\

5 95

Loss per Acre.

3 48

Net Profit p

er Acre

of M

anurec

over

Applied per Aero.

Unmanured Land.

88 lbs

Muriate of ammonia, -

^
/

142 "

Nitrate of soda,

(

-$14

09.

38 "

Saltpetre refuse.

\

142 "

Muriate of ammonia,

-

88 "

Nitrate of soda.

i

y 10

42

38 "

Saltpetre refuse.

- - \

38 "

Muriate of ammonia, -

-

88 "

Nitrate of soda.

1
1

- 6

85

142 "

Saltpetre refuse,

- - J

142 "

Sulphate of ammonia, -

]

88 "

Sulphate of potash, -

.

" 1

87

38 "

Sulphate of magnesia.

,

100 "

Dissolved bones.

- - )

134 "

Nitrate of soda.

(

- 1

86

34 "

Sulphate of magnesia,

- - !

112 "

Dissolved bones,

- - ^

40 "

Sulphate of magnesia,

50 "

Sulphate of potash,

_

- 1

27

34 "

Sulphate of ammonia,

-

52 "

Nitrate of soda,

- ~ ^

EXPERIMENTS WITH SPECIAL MANURES IN SCOTLAND. 403

32

a

116

((

75

a

25

u

100 lbs.

134

li

34

u

Dissolved bones,
Sulphate of amnaonia.
Sulphate of potash, -
Sulphate of magnesia,

1

J- 1 00

J

Loss per Acre.

94

Sulphate of potash, ...

Sulphate of magnesia, ...

In the experiment last cited, the loss arose from the high cost of the ma-
nure used, which exceeded the value of the increase of the vegetable product.

Experiments on Wheat. — The following are some of the results I'eported,
the soil being the same as in the experiments with barley. The precedino-
ci'op was potatoes, manured with 30 to 35 tons of home dung, 60 cart-loads
per acre of lime-compost being applied before the wheat was sown.

I. DIVISION.

Sulphate of Ammonia
per Acre.

74 lbs. May 18th,
74 " May 30tb,
76 " June 9th, -

-

224 " May 18th,
112 " May 18th,
112 " May 30th,

■

II. DIVISION.

Nitrate of Soda

per Acre.

74 lbs. May 18th,

_

74 " May 30th,
76 " June 9th,

- - -

224 " May 18th,
112 » May 18th,

-

112 " May 30th,

-

III. DIVISION,

Sulphate of Ammonia

and Nitrate of Soda

in equal parts.

224 lbs. of mixture. May 18th,

74

74

76

112

112

May 18 th,
May 30th,
June 9th,
May 18th,
May 30 th,

Net Profit
per Acre.

►|30 02

27 27
4 00

Net Profit
per Acre.

$38 70

32 76
24 09

Net Profit
per Acre.

$8 25
4 45

3 25

404 IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SOUTH.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SOUTH.

In many parts of the Southern States, an increasing energy, in connection
with the various industrial pursuits, is conspicuously manifest. This is well ;
it is more, it is glorious. But lessons of warning may be learned from the
North, as well as examples of enterprise. The North has thrown away mil-
lions in useless projects. One such case has just now reached " the begin-
ning of the end." One of the principal railroads in Vermont is surrendered
into the hands of its mortgagees, whilst the other scarcely survives. Perhaps
the advice we are about to give may partake, to some extent, of the charac-
ter of certain discussions of " fundamental" doctrines in theology, as to the
necessary priority of certain acts and emotions; but still we are quite sure
that by far the easiest way, if not the safest, is to show the actual necessity
of the improvement proposed. If success is only prophesied, there may be
found many unbelievers. But show the public the business which is to sup-
port the road, and all will subscribe to its stock. Destroy the factories on
the Merrimack, and what would those three railroads, now so valuable, be
worth ? Not forty cents on the dollar. They are now worth a large ad-
vance.

With extensive business on the line of a road, this mode of conveyance
can compete even with a direct water communication. Thus the Eastern
railroad, and the Boston & Portland railroad, though scarcely shorter than
the route by sea, sustain themselves quite successfully. But it is by rapid
traveling and cheap freights. It is also with the help of numerous manu-
facturing villages scattered along and near its track. The " lower" road passes
through Salem, Ipswich, Newburyport, near Amesbury, through Portsmouth,
N. H., and Berwick, all engaged extensively in manufactures, and some of
them of extensive trade; while the "upper" road runs through or near Med-
ford, Andover, Bradford, Haverhill, Lawrence, Exeter, N. II., New-Market,
Great Falls, Salmon Falls, and Dover, to Berwick, all manufacturing towns,
where the two roads intersect and are continued into Maine, receiving the
freight of the extensive mills at Saco and Blddeford, and so on. No road
will pay large dividends, without some such means of support.

At the same time, it is true that such facilities of transportation often create
business. Factories will be built at suitable points, \vhen they are brought
into tolerable proximity to the great markets. But the location of these con
tres of industry is not a thing of mere accident. A large trade cannot be
created merely by a railroad, but the iron track must coimect something to
be sold with a market equal to its necessities.

Uence, while we rejoice at all these indications of progress, as illustrating
a spirit of enterprise, we also shall rejoice if no project sliall be undertaken
without reasonable evidence that the stock will find a market, after the ardor
inspired by a new and hopeful zeal for improvement shall have passed away ;
and that the stockholders will get reasonable dividends. We rejoice, indeed,
in somejnstances, where the public are gainers at the cost of stockholders.
We know of many enterprises that sunk almost the entire amount of their
first cost, which passed into other hands at a fraction of that cost, and paid
good dividends on the second valuation, and now greatly accommodate the
public. But when funds are scarce, such a course is ruinous to all partief.

Among the projects now exciting attention at the South, are the following :
To connect Savannah, Mobile, and New-Orleans by a railroad, and another
to connect Charleston and Savannah. A convention has also been recently

EAST TENNESSEE. 405

held at Elyton, Ala., having in view internal improvements in that State. In
Texas, the same subject is exciting general attention. In Virginia, rapid pro
gress has recently been made. At the late State Agricultural Fair, a very
large fund vpas subscribed for promoting this branch of industry. The Co-
vington and Ohio railroad has been commenced ; the Norfolk and Petersburg
Railroad Company ask for proposals, and indeed, there is a general and active
interest awakened on these subjects. There is a continuous raih'oad now built
or in progress from the extremes of New-England to New-Orleans ! Begin-
ning at Augusta, Me., the lines are now built to Portland, 90 miles; thence
to Boston, 100 miles; from Boston to New- York, 236 miles ; thence to Phila-
delphia, 90 miles; to Baltimore, 98 miles; thence, on the Baltimore and
Washington railroad, now in operation ; the Alexandria and Lynchburg road,
160 miles long, half of which is provided for ; the Lynchburg and Tennessee
road, 209 miles long, of which 70 are in operation, and the rest under con-
tract; the East Tennessee and Virginia railroad, 110 miles in length, now
under construction; the Georgia and Tennessee railroad, 120 miles long,
nearly or quite completed ; the Charleston and Memphis railroad, under con-
struction; the Selma and Tennessee River railroad, 250 miles long, under
construction ; and thence onward by several roads, now under construction,
to New-Orleans, making an aggregate distance from Augusta, Me., to Balti-
more, of about 611 miles, and from Baltimore to New-Orleans, about 1,250,
or less than five days' ride from Augusta to New-Orleans.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND TUE ANVIL.

EAST TENNESSEE.

Messrs. Editors : — It may be that many of your readers have never visited
this delightful country, East Tennessee. In the recollection of many of our sur-
viving inhabitants, it was a wilderness waste, trodden only by the savage
Indian and by the deer, wolf, panther, bear, wild-cat, &c.

East Tennessee lies in lateral valleys, and on gently-rising summits, ranging
from north-east to south-west, with here and there a looming mountain-cap,
which seems to kiss the clouds, and along whose base there sweeps the most
transparent rippling stream of pure water.

See, too, the neat, white-dressed farm-house, with its tasteful yard. Seethe
broad-brim, quaker-Iike barn, covering nearly forty square rods. Look at
the acres covered with clover, timothy, corn, wheat, and oats. See her forests, the
earth literally clad with building-timber, and other timber for useful purposes ;
the pojilar or tulip- tree, mounting one hundred feet in the air, without
a knot oi- branch ; the oak, with his sturdy boughs waving in the broeze, over
one bundled feet from the ground, the trunk as straight as a gun-barrel,
which will cleave into boards, shingles, lath, rails, &c., like a Louisiana cypress.
Our forests abound in many other valuable timbers. Our hills and mountains
yield largely of that very valuable root, ginseng, which is so much in demand
in foreign markets. Imbedded in her hills and mountains, are inexhaustible
quantities of .coal, iron-ore, and last, though not least, the finest and purest
marble in the known world, quantities of which are now quarried for ship-
ment to your northern cities. Her march is still onward. Already are many
of her hills razed, her mountains tunnelled, her rivers bridged, and over these,
with accustomed speed, the famed iron-horse brings in the necessaries and
luxuries of other lands, and carries out the rich products of her fertile soil.

406 GATHER THE LEAVES.

Not many years will elapse ere the Old Dominion and our own Tennessee will
join hands, by connecting railroads at King's Meadows, near Abingdon;
and then, nearly a bee line will take us to you, the acknowledged emporium of
commerce for the Union.

But what of the crops of the year 1853 ? The wheat crop in Eastern Ten-
nessee is rather better and more abundant than usual. Consequently, prices
are drooping. The same might be said of the hog crop ; last year's prices
cannot be obtained. The corn crop, in some localities, is light, but aljundant
in the aggregate ; prices may be steady. The root crop, generally, is abun-
dant, as are the hay. and fodder crops. Oats may be said not to average so
well, having suffered for want of rain in ripening. But ere long. East Ten-
nessee must be a Germany for wheat. When our farmers learn, as they should,
to sub-soil, plough, and bed their wheat-land.s, then East Tennessee will
yield her forty or fifty bushels to the acre. A word worthy of note to your
thinking readers: "-Bed your wheat ^ant/s;" drain them by the centres of
their beds. Try it, brother former, and test its advantages.

With respect, A. L. B.

Mill Bend, Tenn., Nov., 1853.

DEPTH OF SOIL.— ITS IMPORTANCE.

If .50 be assumed as the value of a given soil, when it is six inches deep,
its value when of different depths is estimated by Thaer as follows:
If 3 inches deep, it is worth 38

4 « " 42

5 " " 46

6 " " 50
Y " " 54

8 " " 58

9 " " 62

10 " " C6

11 " " 70

12 " " 74

Hence, each man may make an estimate for himself, with regard to every
variety of his soil, whether the cost of increasing its depth will equal or ex-
ceed its value, after the task is completed. It is certain that all soils, in all
situation.><, will not return the amount required to render them fertile to a
considerable depth.

GATHER THE LEAVES.— IMPORTANCE OF DECOMPOSITION.

We have often urged this service, and do not hesitate to repeat it again
It might be well were it written in large letters over the stable-door.

There is, however, a difference in the qualities of the leaves of different
trees, which is worthy of con.si deration. Some dec<~>mpose much more readily
than others, and some contain ingredients when the leaves are green that
are injurious to young plants. Oak leaves are of this description. They
decompose slowly, and contain an astringent quality before decomposition,
which is injurious to vegetation. So also the beech, ivalnut, and chestnut
leaves should alw;iys be mixed with dung, and decom])osition be secured before
they are allowed to come in contact witli vegetation. The leaves of the
alder, willow, and pojylar possess but little value ns manure, but they serve a
very good purpose as litter. Reeds, moss, <fec., if mixed with dung when
green, decompose rapidly. But if they are first dried, the process is very
slow.

WOOD AND TIMBER LANDS. 407

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

WOOD AND TIMBER LANDS.

In many sections of the country, the scarcity of timber for the practical
and economic purposes is presenting an ahxrraing feature. In many portions
of the country, too, the use of fuel is so fast increasing, that the inquiry, How
are coming generations to be provided? is much more than an idle question.
Yettbe axe is still swift in its work of destruction, and, what is more lament-
able, the useless manner in which wooddands are allowed to remain, in too
many instances, furnishes but poor reason to anticipate their renewal.

With many it is a practice, in getting their annual supply of fuel, to get
one tree in this place and another in that, thus running over the territory of
trees, and, of course, marking the whole with paths, which, if multipHed,
become waste land, and occupy an alarming portion of the wood-lot. Then,
again, where the solitary tree is taken, a quantity of smaller timber is broken
down, so that, in fact, the getting of a single tree amounts to a clearing; and
a clearing it is apt to remain ; the grass comes in, and in due time, the pre-
mises exhibit the appearance of a pasture.

We are pleased to see, that with more observing and careful owners of
wood-lands, a better system of things is introducing itself. Instead of prac-
tising this Avasteful, ill-looking system, they commence clearing, or cutting
every thing clean in a remote part of the lot, and thus, each year, working
nearer home, until the whole is cut over. A new crop springs up on land thus
cleared, which, if protected from animals, will, in from fifteen to thirty years,
according to soil and locality, yield a heavy burthen, and again invite the
axe-man to its shade. The advantages of this system are obvious. The new
growth is an even one, and there is no loss of timber from high winds, as is
always the case in these forests, as the new growth protects itself from their
influence.

There is a great saving of lands in the matter of paths ; for one path
through the lot is sufficient, and, as the operation advances homeward, that
becomes useless, and itself grows up to trees. The new growth shades itself,
and thus retains sufiicient moisture in times of drought, and also protects it-
self from grass and weeds. As the timber increases in size, the feebler shoots
die out, and themselves become, by decay, food for those that remain.

Nature dictates the time when forest-trees should be cut off, in order, either
to kill the germinating principle, or to renew themselves. We have long
noticed that when trees are cut while the sap is in a half active, half dormant
state, as through the freezing and thawing season of spring, or for a few weeks
after the fall of the leaf in autumn, reproduction is hardly to be expected.
The vital energy of the roots all runs out in the flow of the sap, or bleeding
from the pores. But any time in winter, chopping may be safely performed
with a view to reproduction ; so too from the time of the development of the
leaf to its fall. Timber cut in June, if divested of its bark, acquires, by season-
ing, great firmness and durability. Wood cut in August and September, if
seasoned in the open air, is more valuable fuel than that cut in March ; for
it has ample time for seasoning, and retains all its goodness. In addition,
the growth of a season is saved by allowing it to stand over summer.

Yours truly,

December 14, 1853. W. Bacon..

408 " SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATIONS.

SUBURBAN RAILROADS.

Among the many projects for making money, there are very few that are
more successful than suburban railroads. In all large and enterprising cities,
rents are high, house-lots are held at enormous prices, and the streets are
crowded. All the land is used for building purposes, and the inhabitants
scarcely have a yard large enough to accommodate the operations of the
laundry.

In the neighborhood perhaps there are beautiful tracts of land, far more
eligible as building spots, at a much lower cost, and with ample room to ac-
commodate a large population. But there is no regular or frequent commu-
nication between this neighborhood and the city, «ind hence these advantages
are lost, and the entire mass of people, whose business is in the city, must
reside within its limits.

But connect these by half-hourly coaches, or thenar more convenient rail-
road car, and what is the consequence? The value of the land rises, while
at these increased rates, multitudes are glad to purchase and build tenements,
reserving a liberal quantity of land for purposes of convenience and of health,
and tliough the city scarcely seems conscious of any loss, a large and pros-
perous village has grown up in an hour.

Who has " made any thing " by this process ? Every body who has any
concern in it. The original owners of the land have received double the former
value of all their land for only a portion of it ; the owners of the railroad
now receive liberal dividends on the cost of the road ; thousands are accom-
modated with comfortable and convenient tenements, and breathe a pure air,
who were before sliut up in close and inconvenient rooms, and were sur-
rounded by an impure atmosphere. Children would celebrate the day which
brought such a boon to their bodies and their minds. Taxes are probably
diminished ; and ere long, there is not only a village, but a township, where
lately it was si lest as the grave.

Look at the villages around New-York, all of which had an origin like
this. Long Island is dotted all over with them for twenty and thirty miles.
Where cars cannot run, the steam-bout supplies their place. So, too, on the
territory between the North and East rivers. Within twelve miles of the
City Hall are some six or eight villages, where, within two or three years,
neighbors' houses could scarcely be seen from any body's windows, and the
aggregate population must be 12,000 to 20,000. We say to all in like situa-
tion. Go and do likewise.

SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATIONS.

Mr. Joel W. Andrews, of Albany, during the past month, has made a
series of barometric observations from the tide-water to some of the principal
mountain-summits in Rutland county, Vt. As soon as the observations are
reduced to measurement, they are intended for the Rutland county map. By
an observation of the sun's meridian latitude, with a sextant and quicksilver
horizon, the latitude of Killington Peak is 43 degrees, 46 minutes, and 14
seconds North.

The distribution of vegetation in a perpendicular direction from tide-water
to the summit of some of these mountains is also noticed.

At an elevation of about two thousand feet above the level of the sea, the

MINERALS IN NEW-MEXICO. 409

chestnut and walnut disappear. Five hundred feet farther upward, oaks and
elms become scarce. Thorn-bearing plants cease to grow at an elevation of
about two thousand feet ; although some of the same kinds are here found
that grow at lower latitudes, yet they become smoother, and do not produce
their thorny stalks.

The liat-bladed wild grasses grow at this elevation, but lose their sharp,
wiry edges, which are produced on the low grounds.

At this elevation, the large forest trees grow to perfection, of which the
beech, birch, and rock-maple are the most abundant of the leaf-bearing trees.

A standing rock-maple was measured with a sextant, one hundred feet
high, and nine feet in circumference at its base. At an elevation of about
three thousand feet, evergreen trees, or those yielding gums, are found in the
greatest proportion, and continuing their upward course, diminishing in size
until they find their upper limit at an elevation of about four thousand feet
above the level of the sea, as indicated by the barometer.

Among the leaf-bearing trees, or those that shed their leaves in autumn,
the white birch is here found to have the most extensive range, in a ])ei'pen-
dicular direction. It is traced in this latitude 43 dog., 46 min. North, from
the level of the sea to an elevation of about four thousand feet, where it finds
its upper limit. Here commences the region of mosses and w^ild grasses,
which struggle their way upward about one thousand feet further, as observed
on the White Mountains, in New-Hampshire, by Mr. Andrews, in 1850.
From thence upward, all vegetation ceases to grow, and the bare granite rock,
in broken masses, piled in confusion six thousand five hundred feet above the
level of the sea, to the line of occasional snow throughout the year.

MINERALS IN NEW-MEXICO.

We have in our possession, says the St. Louis Intelligencer, two specimens
of ore from the silver mine, near Dona Ana, wliich is now being worked very
successfully by Mr. Stephenson, though without that outlay of capital, which
is necessary for the large product tliat is yielded by many of the mines of
Mexico. We understand that, by different channels, a large number of simi-
lar specimens have been sent into the States, with a view to analysis by com-
petent persons. Of the results of this analysis, those interested in the mines
have no doubt, for the reason that they have a practical knowledge of silver
mining, and are actually, by the rudest process, extracting considei'able
quantities of the metal from these ores. The chief object had in view bv
them and others in New-Mexico, who have sent in these specimens, is, that
capitalists in the States, being satisfied that there are rich silver mines in the
country, may have their attention turned to it. The range of mountains where
this ore is found, is quite extensive ; and no doubt exists among persons well
qualified, from their knowledge of the silver mines of Mexico, to judge in
this matter, that those mountains are stored in great abundance with this
precious metal. . *

Besides these specimens of silver, we had shown to us, by Major Greiner,
a quantity of quicksilver, weighing nearly a pound, which had been scooped
up at Los Truches, near the Del Norte, about forty miles north of Santa Fe.
This metal is found in globules, and sometimes in little pools near the surface,
at the roots of shrubs, or on the earth, in damp spots underneath the rocks
and stones of the neighborhood. i

410 MINING IN NEW-ENGLAND.

The ruineral wealth of New-Mexico, as we have again and again contended,
is greatly undervalued. The e«.tiui.itc put upon that territory by our coun-
trymen does no sort of justice to its resourciis. A railroad through it would
develop those resources to an extent, which, if predicted now, would be be-
lieved I'y nobody, save those who have been in the country and impartially
examined it.

MINING IN NEW-ENGLAND.

The present age is marked with many revolutions. The civil governments
in the old world have not experienced a more thorough overturning than have
the arts, and trades, and other industrial pursuits, in our own country. Every
thing is ch.mged. Not only are new manufacturer introduced, but the old
ones are so differently managed that they are not really the same thing,
except in their products. For example : a worker in tin and sheet-iron of
twenty years ago, performed all his labor with the hand, and a hammer, or
wooden mallet. This was literally true, not only with the simple joint of
stove-funnel, but from this, to the most highly-ornamented household utensil.
Now, a good workman in tin or iron is uciually unable even to make a joint
of funnel merely with the mallet. He must have his improved machinery, or
he cannot work.

An almost equally thorough change has taken place in the kinds of work
performed.

The first discovery of coal in this country was hailed as important ; and
well it might, for the mining of coal will add more to the essential wealth of
the country, than all the gold that will be dug for ages. But who, then,
dreamed of finding coal in New-England ? Our readers may remember a
description of the Rhode Island coal-mines, in one of our numbers of last
year. These beds extend into Bristol county, Mass., and have been worked
there even longer than in the Island Slate. Prof, (now President) Hitchcock
says, in a recent report, " that the Avhole of this tract, embracing not less
than five hundred square miles, is a genuine coal-field, that has experienced
more than usual metamorphic action." Whether this metamo^yhosis, whicli
is described as both mechanical and chemical, is so extensive as to materially
injure the coal for mining purposes, is not yet fully proved. Indications of
coal have been met with in the town of Mansfield, Foxboro', Wrentham,
Raynham, Briflgewater, Taunton, and Seekonk, in Massachusetts; and in
Cumberland, Valley Falls, Providence, Cranston, Bristol, Portsmouth, and
Newport, in Rhode-Island. In some of these localities there are several veins,
and they vary in thickness from four inches to 0, 9, 10, 13, 21, and 23 feet.

More recently, other mines, of considerable promise, have been discovered.
The County of Hampshire, Mass., contains a mine, supposed to be valuable,
and embracing an area of about 10,000 acres. It lies between tho branches
of a small liver, emptying into the Connecticut, and is within the townships
of Northampton, East Hampton, Soutliam]>ton, and West Hampton.
Lead, copper, and silver have been found, and in considerable quantities, but
which is most abundant, and the value of the mine for working, have not yet
been ascertained. These mines are said, by practical and scientific gentle-
men, to give good promise.

Charles T. Jackson, M. D., geologist and chemist, says of this mine:

" Enough has already been disclosed by mining operations to encourage

MINING IN NEW-ENGLAND. 411

the construction of a regular working mine with its proper shafts and levels.
The certainty of a valuable metalliferous lode is now proved, but we cannot
yet say whether lead or copper ore will ultimately j^redomiuate in the vein ;
for, although at present the lead ore is the principal mineral raised, we per-
ceive that the proportion of copper ore increases as the vein descends into
the rocks. The copper ore will probably form so important a part of the lode
as to warrant its being collected separately from the lead."

The President and Directors of the Company, in their report, say :

"The engine shaft is now sunk to the depth of fifty feet, going down in a
vein which has yielded thus far a quantity of ore, considerably exceeding in
value the entire amount expended on the mine, and the vein is increasing in
richness as it goes down. This, the directors regard as sufficiently encourag-
ing to warrant the erection of an engine of sufficient power to drain the mine
and crush the ore, with a view to extensive mining oi)erations, when the mine
shall have been fully opened, and a mining-ground obtained for a lai-ge force.
The engineer is now driving a level to cut the vein at the depth of ninety
feet, which opens near the stream at the base of the hill, and through this
level the ore may be brought out for a long time on the tram-road ; he is
also building a stone dam on the stream, for the purpose of providing a head
of water for washing the ore. The whole work is prosecuted with great vigor."

We learn that a scientific corps is making very extensive and careful
examination of that entire section of country, exploring further North, through
the valley of Lake Champlain, and also at the White Mountains. It is sup-
posed that tin mines exist in the latter district.
• It has long been the popular belief that in the mountainous regions on the
New- York side of Lake Champlain, both silver and tin are to be found.
Some six or eight years ago, we were shown some specimens that were thought
to resemble the latter metal. We were not at all impressed by the specimens
shown us, and still, from the descriptions given us of other rocks dug from
the mountains, we were almost inclined to think the mineralogists of that
region had ridiculed the notion rather too hastily. On the Vermont side of
the lake, in the county of Windsor, at Bethel we beheve, we have seen
indication? of tin, though no attempt has been made to open a mine. In
several sections of the State, copperas is abundant. The suphuret of copper
and of iron are among the most abundant minerals, leaving out their slates
and marbles. The cost of transportation prevented the successful working of
several mines, some years ago, on both sides the Green Mountains.

The most profitable mines in New-England, thus far operated, are the marble
quarries of Vermont and Western Massachusetts. The entire range of
mountains — the Green Mountains in Vermont, and the Housatonic in Mas-
sachusetts— abound with marble. Most of it is white ; some of it is fawn-
colored ; while in other localities it is mixed with serpentine, which is also
abundant, and thus receives a green hue, and in a vai'iety of shades and
mixtures.

At Plymouth there is a very elegant variegated marble, favorably to be
compared with that from any foreign mine ; but it is very hard, and, therefore,
is difficult to work.' In Middlebury, the white marble is of remarkable fine-
ness. A specimen, now lying before us, will compare favorably with any
statuary marble in the Crystal Palace. At Rutland, the grain is coarser, but
the marble is very superior. Thousands of tons are sent to market, every
year, from that one town. At Darby, further south, there is a variety of
white marble, which is elastic when first separated from the quany. If a
large slab is sustained near its extremities, it bends very perceptibly. By

412 A WONDERFUL PRINTING PRESS.

exposure to the air, it soon loses this property. In Brandon, Rutland
County, Vermont, in addition to the white and "blue" marble, they dig
immense quanties of iron ore, and the " tall chimneys" are quite numerous.
They also find large quantities of a yellow ochre, which possesses considerable
value. In one locality, on the banks of Otter Creek, which are there quite
precipitous, this ochre gives its own yellow hue to the entire mass of earth,
for a long distance. '»

Further north, in Orleans County, at Troy, and its neighborhood, is a
furnace, where large quantities of pig-iron are manufactured. This ore is,
also, in connection with huge masses of serpentine, of which much of the
mass of the mountain consists. In this serpentine we have found very
splendid specimens of asbestos and amaranthus, the fibres of which were to
be measured by feet. Probably no locality in the world contains more real
value in its rocks than the State of Vermont. Though much has been done
in the work of mining them, the beginning is scarcely made.

Our readers are aware, to some extent, of the importance we have attached
to this subject. In previous volumes, we have given it a share of attention ;
but the interest of this department is wonderfully increased, and we purpose
to devote n ore time and space to its consideration. In subsequent numbers
we shall attempt to describe its condition in different sections of the country,
and invite those, more immediately interested, to send us papers on this subject,
and, if possible, to forward to us illustrations, diagrams, &c. ; and last, but
not least, samples of the various ores or metals, from the mines, or from sections
not yet even examined. We have many specimens from Vermont, chielly
collected by ourself, but we should be glad of many more. We would like
to exhibit, in our office, a cabinet of these American ores and American
minerals.

A WONDERFUL PRINTING PRESS.

The New- York Tribune describes a printing press of wonderful capacities,
just perfected by Victor Beaumont, a citizen of New-York. It says :

"The press, at a moderate rateof speed, will deliver thirty thousand sheets
printed on both sides in a single hour ! Its movement combines the original
principles of Na[;ier, which are applied by Koe in his great pross, with some
new and beautifully simple arrangements and devices of the inventor. It
has a large central cylinder like the Iloe press, on which are fastened the
forms for both sides of the sheet to be printed. The type are held fast by
lloe's patent column-rules. The paper used is a continuous strip or band,
dispensing with men to feed the separate sheets as in other power-presses.
This strip or band, Mr. Beaumont arranges very ingeniously ; he avoids the
inconveniences inseparable from having it in the form of a roll, by laying it
in a pile, folded backward and forward like a piece of broadcloth ; one end
of this pile is put into the press, which then draws its own supply without
tearing or straining the paper till the whole sheet has passed through. As
there are no feeders, room is obtained for additional printing cylinders; a
moderate sized press will have twelve of these, and will require three hands
to run it, two of them being employed in carrying and looking after the paper.
Each twelve-cylinder press will work four of these continuous sheets at a time,
or one to each three of its cylinders. Each sheet will pass twice through ;
at its first passage, one of its sides will be entirely printed, the forms of the

IMPROVEMENTS IN FARMINa. 413

newspaper being impressed on it alternately. As it comes out, the machine
lays it back again in the same sort of a pile, so that M'hen it is done, the
attendant supplies its place with a fresh pile, and then carries it to the proper
spot for it to be taken up and passed through the second time, which prints
the side left blank before. Then the mechanism passes it along to the knives
vvbich cut the sheets apart, while another contrivance puts them in neat piles
ready for the carriers. These knives are very ingenious, A serious difficulty
has been experienced in other machines designed to print a continuous sheet,
from the fact that an ordinary knife cannot be relied on to cut paper which
is wet enough for printing. This inconvenience Mr. Beaumont obviates by
making his serrated, or saw-shaped knives with long and acute teeth. The
points of the teeth easily pierce the paper, and once having obtained an en-
trance, the cutting is completed in an instant."

IMPROVEMENTS IN FARMING.

Farmers are an "injured race" in more than one respect. They are
sometimes called the mum profession, or those that have to get lawyers to
make all their speeches, and sometimes the stand-still profession, or those
who make little or no progress in their art. These both are calumnies. We
have elsewhere defended them against the first, and now have a word to say
in reference to the second.

We deny that they are of that dull and stupid class, which have eyes but
see not, and ears but hear not. They see and hear too much to believe all
that is addressed to them by their volunteer overseers and self-created super-
visors, and are very unwilling to risk what they have earned by hard labor,
on the mere recommendation of those who claim a per centage for their
instructions. And this is right. We love the staid character of many of our
rural districts, who knov? of many of the modern isjns only by report. They
guard safely what they get, and they get what they can by those means
which they consider reliable.

But have they not made great progress in their art ? Unquestionably
they have. And for our first witness on this point, we will call that old
plough that we all remember in our grandfather's out-house, if not in our
father's, and which is, to-day, on exhibition in the north-east galleiy of the
Crystal Palace. Yet it stands " mum" by the side of the modern plough,
as it does in that gallery, and though it wa;; the property of no less a man
than Roger Sherman, of Connecticut, the defendant stands acquitted of the
charge of " no progress." Then call up the cultivators, and hoes, and forks,
the carts and wagons, the shellers and reapers, the threshers and cleaners, of
recent times ; those of times gone by are among the things, most of them,
not only that are not, but never were. It cannot be said of them even as was
saidof Troy, Troja fuit, — and again the defendant stands acquitted.

iM or is this all. In the saving of and in the preparation of barn-yard ma-
nure, there is a great improvement, enough to afl:ect materially the value of
the crops. New manures, before unused, are often and generally turned to
account. Composts are prepared. Mineral manures are purchased ; the
phosphates, the super-phosphates, and the improved super-phosphates ; the
guanos of Peru and other countries, all are modern and even recent. It
is not long since our farmers first heaj'd the name of gypsum as a manure.

VOL, YI. — PAST II. 8

414 PREPARING POULTRY FOR MARKET.

Eighty 3'ears ago bones ivere not used as manure, and ihe super-phosphates
were unkno>rn till 1*790.

"We are inclined to believe that more progress has been made in these
matters than we find in almost any other trade. For we have just begun to
emiraerale the improvements of the greatest value. Improved implements,
as means, are important. But improved crops and improved stock are of still
greater importance. And look at the varieties of pears and apples, and
other fruits, on the tables at the shows of every county in the States. Berk-
shire rivals even Norfolk, and Western New-York stands up unabashed be-
fore either, while Iowa, and other States far west, are already gaining ground
upon the older sections of country. In a southern tour, within a few weeks,
we were shown some apples that were raised in and brought from Iowa, as
specimens, that could not be beaten by those on the tables of the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society.

The sales of imported animals for the last few years in every section of
country, are ample testimony as to the improvement of hogs, sheep, and
cattle.

Notwithstanding all this, one of our excessively scientific journals declares
that no trade or calling has made so little progress.

But still further improvements are made in the construction of their build-
ings, and in the increased comfort thereby secured. All such improvements,
however, are but incidental. They grow out of a deep conviction that a
farmer is some body, and can afford to have domestic enjoyment as well as
others.

PREPARING POULTRY FOR MARKET.

" How shall I dress and pack my turkeys, geese, ducks, and chickens, to
send to market ?"

That question is thus answered by the Tribune :

Hang your turkeys up by the heads, and cut the jugular vein. Pick them
dry. Keraove the intestines, and wipe inside dry. If you use water at all,
do it by holding the bird by the legs, and letting an assistant pour the water
through them. Wipe, and hang them up in a cool place twelve hours, or till
thoroughly dry. Serve geese, ducks, and chickens the same way. Do not
scald tbem, unless you would like to have them spoiled. Take a box that
will hold 250 chickens, close packed. Put only 200 in it. The remainder
of the space fill with rye straw — clean rye straw — no chaff. Do not use
wheat straw, or oat straw, if you can avoid it. You may use coarse, clean,
marsh hay. A wisp of straw in each bird will be advantageous. Nail up
your box tight, and hoop strong, and mark plainly what is in it, and to whom
it is sent. Send only in cold weather.

"To whom can I send my poultry for sale ?"

We cannot tell you. Look to the advertisement!?, and make your own
selection of a commission merchant. You had better send by express, and
take a receipt of the agent, guaranteeing the delivery of the box in three
days in this city ; and thus any body and every body, who raises or buys
chickens, along any of the great western railroads, may send them to this
high-priced market during all the cool months of the year.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION". 415

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

Since our last issue, some changes have been made in reference to the
management of this vast collection of mechanical and artistic products. The
exhibition, as we now understand it, will remain open so long as its proceeds
are remunerative. The various articles that may be purchased will be de-
livered at once, and the Crystal Palace, for the month of December, and there-
after, has been, and is, a huge and splendid bazar. We are not certain that
this arrangement will materially affect the extent of the show, as new goods
will replace those removed, while a change will, to some extent, heighten the
interest of repeated visits. But we exceedingly regret that so little has been
done by all the journals of the city and country, to show up the inventions
of the machine arcade. Though less extensive than it should be, it is a very
good collection of mechanical ingenuity and skill. Many of the machines
exhibited have been published elsewhere, but there should be a good "picture
of the machines of the Crystal Palace."

But we must proceed with our account of this rich show, and we com-
mence by a short description of

THE GOBELIN TAPESTRY.

We have often been asked what there is in this which is so peculiar, and
which renders it so very expensive. We are now able to give a more par-
ticular account than we have heretofore, by the perusal of a long and instructive
paper, on this subject, in the last number of Putnatn's Illustrated Record.
This number, by the way, is very rich in its illustrations, and contains much
valuable matter in its text. Limited as the largest journals are, compared
with what is required to describe so large a collection, Mr. Putnam's Record
will be very serviceable, when completed, as furnishing individual samples of
large and various classes of goods. It deserves a far more liberal patronage.

The Gobelins, two brothers, Jean and Gilles, were eminent dyers. They
were natives of Rheims, and in the time of Francis I. they took a small house
in the Faubourg St. Marcel, and, by persevering industry and a careful applica-
tion of their knowledge of chemistry, then so little understood, thev surmounted
all obstacles, and, by the beauty and firmness of their colors, at length secured
a very extensive and profitable trade. The wealth thus acquired was invested
in lands and houses, and they erected "one of those quaint, unsightly
edifices," occasionally seen in the neighborhood north of Notre Dame, which
was nick-named " Gobelin's Folly." This title was changed, by a royal edict,
to that of the " Royal Manufectory of the Gobelins."

Their successors, the brothers Cannaye, added the manufactory of tapestries
to their trade of dyers. These were succeeded by a Dutchman, named Gluck,
and Jean Liansen, who first used the high-loom in the manufacture of
tapestry.

The weavers of tapestry had been divided into two classes, one using the
high-loom and known under the title of the weavers of the high-loom, or fine
drawers ; the other, under that of weavers of counterpanes. By a parliamentary
decree of Nov. 11, 1621, the union of these two was efifected, and their letters-
patent were granted by Louis XIIL, in July, 1636.

The earliest mention of tapestry occurs in an edict of the Chatelet in Paris,
in 1295, which authorizes the establishment of a manufactory of the tapestry
of the high-loom, &c., &c.

416 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

Having repaired and embellished the palaces of the Louvre and the Tuilleries?
and other royal residences, Colbert " next bethought himself how he could fur-
nish and decorate them in a style corresponding with tlie magnificence of their
architecture. "With this view, he called together all the eminent artists and
workmen who were scattered throughout the kingdom, and, by splendid offers
of pensions and privileges, induced most of them to enter into his plans. lie
contemplated uniting these different branches of industry into one vast
establishment, and placing it under the direction of some capable officer, to
be named by the king." To secure the permanent success of the enterprise,
he induced Louis XIV. to purchase the old hotel of the Gobelins, in which a
manufacture of tapestry was still continued. In November, 1667, by the
king's edict, v/as created The Manufacture Royalc des Meuhles de la
Couronne. Le Brun, his first painter, was made director ; and, by means of
immunities, privileges, ttc, he secured the services of men of great and lasting
reputation. One of them was Sebastian le Clerc, the author of the well-
known engraving, 3fai des Gobelms, designed for a permanent May-pole in
the court-yard of the establishment. The base of the pillar forms a pedestal,
21 feet in height; above it is placed an oval medallion, surmounted with palms,
on which Virtue is seen trampling on Ignorance and Envy. Beneath is a
figure of History inditing its records on the back of Time.

Artists from the manufactory at Brussels, who had become famous for
their copies of the cartoons of Raphael and Jules Romain, were induced, by
liberal offers, to engage with Colbert. The best painters were employed to
compose pictures, to serve as models for tapestry.

It is not strange, therefore, that, in those days so notable for the love of
ornament, these products of art were sought after throughout Europe.

In 1694, however, the establishment began to decline. Through the want
of funds, the king's orders were suspended, and the number of employees
was greatly reduced. In the reign of Louis XV., the establishment was tem-
porarily closed, but was again opened for the execution of some orders from
the king, for decorations for the royal residences.

In 1791, the establishment was placed on a different footing, the workmen
being paid by the year. This change has improved the quality of the tapestry.
Now, the artist makes the warp himself and forms his own designs, and selects
his own colors, though the whole is under a single superintendent, and the
artistic details are confided to an experienced painter.

The high-looms now are exclusively employed. " Two instruments suffice
to work this loom, the comb and the needle. The artist places himself before
the loom, separates with his finger the threads of the warp, in order to see
the design, and taking the needle, charged with the color he requires, passes
it between the threads, after raising or lowering them by means of the treadle,
upon which his feet rest. He then presses down the silk, or wool, he has
placed, by striking it with his comb. The needle is generally made of ash
and is from 18 to 20 centimetres (inches) long. Its head is round,
and it terminates in a blunt point. The body is hollowed out, in order to
contain the worsted or silk. The comb is made of ivory, somewhat like an
iron wedge for splitting wood; is 15 or 16 centimetres in length ; its width at
the top, 5 or 6, and at the bottom 4 or 5. The bevelled end is composed of
17 or 18 teeth, separated by narrow intervals, through which the threads of
the warp pass."

The time required for the execution of a piece of tapestry varies, of course,
according to the size and the difficulties of the picture ; but it is estimated, on
an average, at about a square centimetre in a year. The value set upon a

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 417

metre of this tapestry is about 3000 francs. The number of workmen employed
is about 120, and the annual expenditure, which is charged in the civil list,
is near 300,000 francs.

The dyes of the Gobelins are as renowned as its tapestry. This superiority
is owing, principally, to the skill and experience of those employed in this
department.

The productions of the manufactory of the Gobelitis, as those of Beauvais
and Sevres, are exhibited once in two years, at the Louvre.

The following is a list of these tapestries, exhibited in the Crystal Palace,
with the prices (in fi-ancs) at which they are valued. •

GOBELINS.

" Autumn," after Lancret, executed in 1 849, by M. Maloisel - 14,000
" The Wolf and the Lamb," after Desportes, byM. Thiers, in 1 842, and

"The Hound and her Companion," after Desportes, by M.

Prevotet, in 1842, ..-.--- 8,500

" Subject from the Chase and Still Life," after Desportes, by M.

Hypolite Lucas, - - - - - - - 20,000

Two seats and backs for chairs, from designs by M. Godefroy, executed

by Messieurs Renard and Gouthier, _ . . - 2,500

BEAUVAIS.

" Combat of the two Goats," after Audrey, by Chevalier, - - 4,000

"The Skaters," after Lancret, by same, 6,000

Landscape, after DesgofFes, by Auguste Melisse, _ - _ 8,000

Three leaves for a screen, after Audrey, by Chevalier, - - - 20,000

" The Reading Lesson," after Bouchet, by Chevalier. - - 2,500

SEVRES PORCELAIN.

We have repeatedly referred to the elegant show of M. Laiioche. We
have done so because his is, at least, one of the most elegant courts in the
Crystal Palace. But we refer to it again for the purpose of giving some
information in respect to these wares, which we could not find space for,
conveniently, at an earlier issue.

Like the tapestry, above spoken of, it is manufactured under royal patronage.
The first establishment of such a manufactory was in 1738, at the Chateau
de Vincennes, but afterwards, l7o5, it was removed to Sevres. It comprises
a museum, an experimental school, and a model school. It is, in fact, a royal
establishment, the inspection of which is open to all, in which are to be seen
the best models, the best artists, the entire list of materiel, of ail kinds, used
in the manufacture of such wares, with the modes and contrivances by which
the labor is performed.

Like the tapestry of the Gobelins, the manufacture of this ware at once
reached the highest state of perfection. This was the golden age of painting,
and the best artists were employed. The materials used were of the finest
quality. The ornaments, which were very abundant, were brilliant and im-
posing, of course ; partaking, in these respects, as in others, of the styles then
prevalent at the French court. But no one, accustomed to exhibitions of this
kind of art, can fail to see that the extraordinary elegance of the designs, and
of the painting of the ancient Sevres, is unequalled in all the rich and abundant
show of wares, of this description, in the Crystal Palace, and, as we suppose,
in the "wide, wide world." The Dresden wares are its most successful
imitators.

The modern Sevres wares are rather more substantial, or, perhaps, we

418

THE GREAT EXHIBITION".

should say are less frail, and less highly ornamented. It is only in the ancient,
that we see imitations of pearl, turquoise, (fee, in the bottom of a plate,
increasing its cost two, three, and four-fold. But we know not why ornaments
are out of place, or excessive, there, any more than when displayed in a table,
or bedstead, or wash-stand, or in a carpet. We love beauty any where, and
wish all the world could look at it, when they work and when they rest, at
home and abroad. Beauty is beautiful every where. We like to see a hand-
some shoe. Still, costly as these are, they afford no profit in the manufacture.
The modern Sevres is very beautiful. Some of those for sale by ^I. La-
hoche, which are his own manufacture, are of the highest order, and they
are of much less cost than the ancient ware.

The ornaments of the modern ware, as of the ancient, consist of an indefinite
variety of landscapes, flowers, living figures, (kc. The painting is done by
artists of the greatest skill.

We must defer our continuation of the goods displayed in the U. S. Mis-
cellaneous Department till our next issue.

MACHINE ARCADE.

We here present engravings of Gwtnne's Patent Centrifugal Pump,
as seen on exhibition at the Crystal Palace.

^m

111

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. is a large pump, exhibiting as the central fountain. Its capacity,
with an economical application of power, is 6,000 gallons per minute.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

419

-'m!i!a!jj(i_

,flSl'iitii

Pig. 2.

ll'nVtrTnn^T-—

Fig. 2 represents a, pump, located in the Machine Arcade, of much smaller
size than the last, and of a different pattern, though upon the sameptineiple;
the discharge being much smaller in proportion to the diameter of the disc.
and is calculated for forcing water to great heights. It is used at the Palace
for forcing water into the tanks upon the towers, 63 feet high, which it does
at the rate of over 300 gallons per minute. When workisig without dis-
charge, the gauge has shown a pressure equal to a height of 180 feet. The
ordinary discharge, at a few feet elevation, is over 500 gallons per minute.

Fig. 3 is a small pump, of the same pattern as the last. Capacity, 25 gal-
lons per minute. It is used for supplying the fountain in Mr. Phalon's bower.

The principle upon v.'hich these pumps operate is centrifugal force. We have
witnessed its operation upon a small scale, in the force with which water is thrown
from the surface of a grind-stone when rapidly turned: If we suppose the grind-
stone hollow, with orifices at the centre, into which water constantly flows,
passing to the circumference from which it may as constantly escape, we shah
have an approximate idea of the structure of the centrifugal pump. The
revolution of the grindstone, under those circumstances, would eject with a
force proportioned to its rapidity, the water nearest the issues, whose place
would in turn be supplied with water from the iniiow at the center, which, in

420

THE GREAT EXHIBITION".

.f

^

w.

'''liiiillliillilil.iilr

m

fl!!iii:^^"i:^i,.,i|il!i;f|r

,,,,m«mr*^';^^''«'

C"!

?3g. 3.

its ium, is ejected, and so on continually. In order to give to the water withiis
tlie grindstone tbe full force of its motion, it %70-ald be necessary to have
arms or reins ivithin it, extending like radical lines from the centre to the
circiinoference. If bow, in place of a grindstone, we substitiite a cast-iron
disc, suspended upon a shaft 'with central openings, cireuraferential issues, and
internal arms, as before supposed, ive shall Iiare the essential features of the
pump. But thus far, we hare only supposed the water thrown off the sur-
face, and left to >)e scattered in wide profusion over the gi'ound. To apply this
profuse oat-pouring of water to practical use. the disc or piston, which otir
hollow grindstone was made to represent, is encased in another of larger di-
mensions, eaclosing it like a shell, and hence so termed ; into this, of course,
all the water is poured OBt, and as but one issue or discharge is provided for
it here, it must, per force, seek that outlet. To this discharge a pipe is at-
tached, and ihe water conveyed in any, or in as many directions as required.
If the query should arise, how is the water forced into the disc at the central
openings? the reply is, if the pump is placed below the head of the water,
it will, of course, be kept full by the piessure of that head ; if it be placed
above the head, then it is iirst charged, that is, filled with water, which expels
tie air from the pump and pipe below ; when set in motion, the water in the
disc being thrown off, a vacuum is formed, into whicli the pressure of the
external atmosphere forces the water from below.

The features of this pump, which entitle it to especial favor, are its sim-
plicity, cheapness, portability, durability, and economy of power.

Destitute of valves, it is iiea from the liability to derangement, so objec-
tionable in all other pumps ; working with but slight contact-surface, a great
amount of the friction, which, in other pumps, consumes so much of the ap-

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 421

plied power, is liere avoided ; the parts being all firm and compact, mud,
gravel, and other matter passes through without injury to the pump.

Manufactured by the Union Power Company of the United States, 24
Broadway, New- York.

king's oscillating railway washing-machine.

This was invented and patented by Mr. Thomas King, West Farms, West-
chester county, N. Y., and is exhibited by Mr. M. P. Coons, agent, Brooklyn.
In its construction, it is both simple and substantial. It consists of a box, 24
inches square inside, and 10 inches deep, which rests upon a pair of cast-iron
rockers, which also oscillate upon a cast-iron stand. The internal arrange-
ment consists of a movable dash, perforated Avith holes, which, by its gra-
vity, is made to slide back and forth, as one or the other side of the machine
is elevated or depressed. The clothes are placed on both sides the dasher,
the covers are closed, and the entire operation is performed simply by rocking
the machine, by means of a lever attached to one side. A perforated board
is attached near the ends of the machine, against which the clothes are
thrown by its oscillating motion, and the weight of the slide, through which
the water finds a ready discharge.

Hence, the process is twofold, consisting, first, of a repeated flow of water
through the material to be washed ; and second, of a sudden pressure from
the weight of the slide, and of the clothes on its opposite side. Hence, the
finest fabrics will not be in danger of being injured ; and buttons, whalebones,
(fee, neither interfere with the proper action of the machine, nor are them-
selves liable to be broken. All sorts and kinds of fabrics may be devoted to
this process at the same time, from the Marseilles-quilt to the muslin night-
cap or lace- collar, and the machine "is warranted'' to clean them all. It
may also serve a good purpose in cleansing wool. The size above-described
is competent to cleanse an amount equal to 25 yards of cotton sheeting.
Twelve gentlemen's shirts, it is said, can be washed in the space of, five or
ten minutes. A mere child is competent to give it the motion required.

These machines have been in limited use for about two years, and those
who have had experience of them highly commend them.

The proprietors claim for this patent a superiority over any other machine.

1. In cheapness and durability.

2. In the limited space it occupies.

3. In facility of working it.

4. In its facility of washing all kinds of fabrics, and without injury to their
material.

5. In the space it occupies.

6. In the quality of its work, and the time required for performing it.
The machines are sold, at retail, for $12. State and county rights are to

be had on application to the agent, M. P. Coons, Brooklyn. Orders may
also be addressed to Thomas King, West Farms.

422

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

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The machine consists of a cast-iron basin, 7 feet in diameter, and 24 inches
deep, the periphery turning up in a circle of 34 inches. This basin is se-
cured to a wrought-iron shaft, which stands on an angle of 30 degrees from
a perpendicular line, compelling the basin to revolve in a tilted or inclined
position. The basin surmounts a conical or funnel-shaped cast-iron furnace.

BALKY HORSES. 423

Id the lower side of the basin is placed a cast-iron ball, 34 inches in diameter,
and weighing 5,000 pounds. When the basin commences to rotate, the ball
revolves by its own gravity, and remains at the lowest point in the basin, and
has a grinding motion as well as the rolling or crushing movement. The
ball fits the basin one quarter of the circumference of the ball. The small
balls weigh 2,000 pounds. The frame is made of oak timber, 12 inches
square, double tenoned, and bolted and braced in the best possible manner.
The quicksilver is placed in the basin, and the incline of the basin compels
the mercury to keep at the crushing-point of the ball. A small fire is kept
in the furnace, while the machine is in operation, which keeps the bottom of
the pan warm. The mercury being a conductor of heat, takes up the heat
from the bottom of the pan, and is kept at a temperature of about 100 de-
grees. This greatly augments its affinity for the gold, and is produced at a
trifling expense, and fully obviates the necessity of heating all the water, in-
dispensably used in amalgamating and washing ofif the refuse matter. The
balls pulverize the ore to an impalpable powder at the bottom of the mercury,
thus bringing every particle of gold in contact with pure and warm mercury,
and is amalgamated as soon as freed from the quartz; while the earthy mat-
ter, when sufficiently pulverized, rises in the water, by the agitation of the
ball, and passes ofl" as a sediment through screens which are placed over the
openings in the side of the basin, near the top. The basin revolves in an
opposite direction to the ball, so that all the ore in the basin is compelled to
pass under the ball, while the water in the machine is sufficient to prevent
the mercury from being bi'oken up. The incline to the basin gives the ball
its motion by its own gravity, which requires comparatively little power, and
compels the mercury to keep at the crushing-point of the ball.

BALKY HORSES

The following mode of conquering a contrary horse is so simple, it is well
worth the trial :

An East-India gentleman one day took his seat in one of the omnibuses,
in London, but at the time of starting, all the efforts of the driver proved
unavailing, owing to a balking horse attached to the vehicle. The poor ani-
mal became more and more restive in proportion to the tortures inflicted upon
him by the driver, and several other whipmen who assisted on the occasion.
The street became blocked up with spectators and the interception of other
carriages. Great danger was to be apprehended. The East-India gentleman
above referred to, suggested to the driver and his assistants, that if they would
try the East-India method of fastening a cord to the horse's fore-foot, and
cause a person to pull forward, the animal would start right away. The sug-
gestion was received with contempt. However, after allother efforts failed, a
long cord was attached to the animal's fore-foot, and the moment the man
gave a strong pull, the horse started off" as if nothing had been the matter.
The philosophy of this case seems to be that the animal, thrown off" the cen-
tre of gravity by the propulsion forward, is taken by surprise, and obliged to
start.

424

OCTAGON MODE OF BUILDING.

THE GRAVEL WALL, AND OCTAGON MODE OF BUILDING.

* ■'^y) '%^-;

i!ji;!l!:i,:iiii!ii''

Fowlers & Wells have recer.tly issued a work entitled, "A Home for All,
or the Gravel Wall, and Octagon Mode of Building."

Its two leading features are the gravel wall, or, concrete mode, and the
octagon form of building, applied to domestic architecture. It gives specific
directions for selecting, proportioning, mixing, and depositing the materials,

OCTAGON MODE OF BUILDING. 425

erecting the requisite boxes or moulds, and putting on tlie outside fiuisli ; so
that, by following them, ingenious persons can erect their own houses, and
fit 'them for occupancy almost without aid from mechanics — doors, windows,
roofing, and plastering excepted. Especially, it tells the poor man, the very
poorest, how to proceed to make a comfortable cottage at a trifling cost, ex-
cept his own labor, of from $30 to $50, iucluding a plan for adding to it
afterwards, as time and means may allow, without losing the part first built,
besides applying these modes to barns and out-houses. It also throws out
numerous observations and suggestions, applicable to all forms and kinds of
buildings ; shows how to make fixtures, greenhouses, flower-pits, chimneys,
&c. ; makes some judicious observations respecting fruit-culture, and describes
the board-wall and plank-wall plans, besides introducing the hexagonal form,
and other miscellaneous matters of great practical value. Progress in build-
ing is just as possible as in other departments of human industry and com-
fort ; and our author has taken several steps in the right direction — that of
cheapening, bettering, and midtiphjing human homes in genei-al, and the
laboring man's cottage in particular. All who intend to build, should give
this little work a careful examination before commencing.

In building on this principle, the first object is to select the right material.
And, fortunately, this abounds in some form on nearly every squai'C mile of
the earth's surface.

All that is wanted is stone and lime. The stone requires to be of various
sizes, from tolerably fine sand, all the way along up to stones as large as you
can well deposit in your wall. There must, however, be enough of the fine
to connect the coarser stones together.

All that is required, is something solid for the lime to adhere to. The
more fine sand you have, the more lime will be required ; the more coarse
stones, the less ; and the more solidly the materials are compactetl together,
the thinner will that wall need to be. Probably the very best material will
be found in those gravel knolls which abound throughout our country, which
are composed of all sizes, from middling fine gravel, all the way along up to
stones the size of the fist or head ; and wherever such a bank can be had, all
required is to mix the lime with it, and throw it right into the wall.

The excellent engraving, at the head of this article, gives the elevation of
the author's residence, and needs no explanation. The description of the ac-
companying ground-plan cannot be given better than in the author's own
language :

" My house is located on an oval knoll, digging ofl^ the top of which, fur-
nished me with nearly all the stones, large and small, used in putting up its
Avails. All my cellar, therefore, is above ground, except two lioles, 0 L ;ind
M, alongside of my ice-house.

My ice-house consists of two stories — the upper one for ice ; the lov.'ei', a
room, kept cool by the ice and its drip[)ings, a {)reservatory for keeping fruit,
butter, eggs, fresli meat, fish, bacon, pies, &c. Its structure is simple, and as
follows :

Erect studs as for a wall. Lath and plaster both sides, and finish the out-
side as you do your house. This furnishes a place for dead air — the best
non-conductor in the world — superior, says Professor Sillimarj, to tan-bark,
or even charcoal. In the plastering, use a little cement. Then erect another
set of studs, first having nailed on your lath before they are raised ; then
raise and fasten them, and plaster from the inside, or between the ^tuds ; this
gives two confined air-chambers. Then lath on the inside of these studs, and
plaster, and you have three air-chambers all around your ice-house and preserva-

426 OCTAGON MODE OF BUILDING.

tory for botli stories. Next, lay your floor to the bottom of your ice- house
and top of preservatory, and make it water-tiglit, by caulking, or plastering
with cement, or in some other way ; and having this floor descend a few
inclies from the middle ench way, so as to carry otf the water, and resting
this floor on rows of studs below, which serve both to support the ice and
fasten shelves to, add to the outside row of studs, lath and plaster with ce-
ment, so that the ice-drippings rnay run off behind this inner wall of the
preservatory, or between it and the two rows of studs above described. Your
preservatory is now perfectly dry, and of one temperature the year round.
Its bottoiu should also be double, so as to be dry, yet let water pass under it.
In mine, the ice is gathered at the door, under which it runs through a lead
pipe, bent upward like a new moon, which allows water to pass out, but pre-
vents air from passing in. It passes into this cellar, C L, and my milk-closet,
M, which also has two stories, the lower for preserves and what else we want
to keep, yet do not think worth the trouble of going into the preservatory,
and the top for milk, having two floors, which admits the cold air up into
the milk-room, yet prevents the dirt from descending by the lower one
catching it.

All required to make this floor is, having laid your floor-timbers, nail a
floor to their under side, leaving a space an inch or two wide at one side, and
a shelf over this crack will prevent much dirt from getting down ; and then
nailing another floor to the top of these timbers, having another opening on
the other side of the floor.

M, for milk ; the cold air passing up from the bottom story, into Avhich
the water runs from under the preservatory, both having shelves. A like
arrangement at C L gives two large cellars, one above the other, on a like
j)rinciple.

The entrance to my preservatory is with two stairways leading to it, one
from the side toward the kitchen, for the cook ; and the other larger, for the
gardener to take down barrels of beef, fruits, and the larger articles. Thus,
all the cold of my ice is saved, and cools five rooms, the preservatory and
the other two double-storied rooms contiguous. Even the cold which escapes
in opening the preservatory door, passes into these rooms, besides cooling the
room marked A P, for apples, potatoes, &c ; and that marked K S, for
kitchen-stores, both of which are fitted up with shelves.

In the closet, C, one angle, S, carries up a stove-pipe hole, made out of
that very material described for making the wall, and drawing up, as you
filled up, a round stick, the size of the flue desired — a cheap way of making
chimneys, and as good as the very best. A wash-boiler is stationed in the
adjoining room, W R, having a cistern, C T, 10 by 10 — it can easily be made
larger or smaller — Avhich receives the surplus water from the cisterns above ;
and the roof having at one corner throe straight walls, one of which extends
from bottom to top of the cistern, made oT this same wall-material, or of
brick, and cemented both sides, having holes at the bottom. The other two
are a foot or eighteen inches high, and say a foot on each side of the other,
also cemented ; and the spaces between them and the high wall filled in with
charcoal and coarse gravel, so that the water, rising to this low wall, runs down
through this filtering charcoal, through those holes at the bottom of the high
wall, then up through charcoal and coarse gravel on the other side, and thus
doubly filtered, makes the very best drinking-water in the world.

At the left of this cistern is a dark cellar, C, for sauce, or whatever you
•wish to keep from freezing ; cool in summer, because excluded on all sides
from the sun, and on the side joining the two-story cellar, C L, and the cis-

OCTOGON MODE OF BUILDING. 427

tern on another; and free from frost in winter, besides being easily aired by
its two doors. And this airing of cellars is all-important, for, otherwise, de-
caying vegetables infect and poison the rooms above, by finding their way up
through the floor. Still, the main body of the farmer's vegetables should be
stored under his barn floor, so that he can drive his cart to the hatchway, and
dump riglit into his potato, cabbage, carrot, ruta-baga, beet, parsnip, and other
cellars or bins.

By the side of this is another room, L, which may be used for storing-
bedsteads, lumber, barrels, and such rubbish as garrets usually contain, tools
included, with this advantage, that it is handy, and just where you want it,
whereas the garret is very bad to get to and from. Or any other use can be
made of it the proprietor chooses.

Between it and the wash-room, and at the end of the cistern, is a store-
room, S T, some 1 by 10, just the place to put family stores, sugar, molasses,
flour, pork, &c., also furnished with shelves and some drawers. A small
closet off the apple-room, from which also starts another stack of chimneys,
completes this, the north half of my house. How it would suit the reader,
I care little, since it suits its planner and owner to a charm.

Next comes the entry. It consists of two parts. That line running nearly
through it, and terminating in two octagonal pillars, is the central wall of the
house, running from bottom to top ; while the two walls on each side of it
are for this story only, and are eight inches thick, while the middle one is a
foot, and built like the outside walls. Tremendous pressure comes on parts of
it, yet it stands. F E is the front entrance, where strangers will naturally
apply for ingress to the house ; and the room, R R, is for a common receiv-
ing-room, hat-stand, reading-room, &c. ; and that pillar in the entry has an
elk'^ head and horns, and some deer-horns masoned into it, on which to hang-
hats and cloaks.

The other side of the centre-wall is a through-entry ; serves every purpose
of one, and is just where you want it.

Passing through this entry, we enter the kitchen, K, the great stomach of
the house. Two pantries, C L and P, connect with this kitchen and one an-
ther, and one with the adjoining room, W D. At the back end of the closet,
C L, is a dumb-waiter, which goes from the bottom to the top of the house,
Those angular stairways, erected on the angles of the ice and green-houses.
and an oif-set both for receiving in — there being an outside entrance to the
ice-house here — and for landing from and entering the carriage, complete
the main features of this story, which is submitted not to builders and men
merely, but especially to women and practical housekeepers, for such approval
or criticism as they may award it. That it cannot be bettered is not asserted,
but that it is far superior to any basement arrangement before invented is
maintained. And mark to what extent the octagon form contributes to this
end. Building-reader, is not this plan worthy general adoption ?"

GROUND PLAN OF 0. S. FOWLER's OCTAGON UOCSE.

GREAT NATIONAL CATTLE-SHOW. 429

GREAT NATIONAL C A TTLE-SIIO W.

To say that the State of Ohio is one of the most enterprising and efficient
of all the States of the Union, is but to repeat what every body, who reads
the papers, has long known. This efficiency is now actively employed, among
its various onward movements, in improving its system of agriculture. AYe
find, that the project of a national show has been strongly urged in some of
their meetings. It would do good, unquestionably ; but that it is the most
efficient means of securing the end in view, we are not yet prepared to say.
We are very glad, however, to extend greater publicity to the following,
which we find in the Cincinnati Commercial :

STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Eds. Commeucial: The Convention of Delegates from County Societie-
assembled at 10 A. M., Wednesday, at Columbus. This is a meeting pros
vided by law, and its special object is to fill the vacancies occurring by hraita,
tion, in the State Board of Agriculture. The assembly consists of the noble-
sturdy sons of Ohio, tillers of her glorious soil, who have come together to
consider and discuss the important interests of this great productive art, upon
which so much of the wealth and prosperity of the State depends — a body
of very highly intelligent men.

The call of counties was responded to by more than sixty. The first busi-
ness was the appointment of a committee for nomination of persons for
election to the Board. The Convention took a recess for dinner, after inviting
Dr. Warder to address the meeting in the evening, upon some agricultural
topic. It was anticipated that he would speak upon the culture of flax, or
tlie use of plaster of Paris as a manure.

A warm time is anticipated, as the Board will have their acts severely
scrutinized

Thursday Morning, Dec, 8. — After Dr. Warder's paper on the use of
plaster, which was listened to with attention last evening, the Convention dis-
cussed some resolutions and reports of interest, until the final adjournment.

The report upon the memorial of the originators of the Great National
Cattle Show, to be held at Springfield, 0., was not met in the most friendly
spirit imaginable, by a few of the members of the Board ; by others, it was
warmly sustained. The latter argued, that so far from interfering in any way
with the State fair of next year, it would probably contribute largely to the
success of that exhibition. After a free discussion, the memorial was, by
leave, withdrawn, and the enterprising citizens of Clark county determined to
claim the higher prestige of the great national body of agriculturists, known
as the United States Agricultural Society, to whom a paper was immediately
directed, signed by most of the members of the Board of Agriculture, and
members of the Convention, highly lauding this great enterprise, and asking
the support of the national body.

The Agricultural Convention, on Thursday morning, elected the following
named gentlemen members of the Board for the ensuing two years :

R. W. Musgrave, of Crawford, President.

James L. Cox, of Muskingum, Secretary.

Jos. Sullivant, of Franklin.

Buckley Steedman, of Cuyahoga.

J. K. Greene, of Hamilton.

VOL. VI. — PART II. 4

430 CURE FOR ANIMALS.

Some very interesting discussions then ensued among them. That upon
the important subject of hedges excited a very spirited talk, and elicited much
valuable information. The practical knowledge and experience of those who
knew the subject under discussion through actual acquaintance, was beauti-
fully contrasted with the empty denunciation and cries of humbug, from those
who were forced to admit the want of experience and practical knowledge.

The Convention will probably adjourn to-day, perhaps this evening, after
hearincr a paper w\)on flax and flax- fibre, wliicb, it is understood, will be read
by Dr. Warder, who has been investigating this subject.

It is generally supposed that the next State fair will be held in Zanesville,
despite the limited accommodation for such a crowd as should attend such a
meeting, and notwithstanding Cincinnati stands ready to make up a grand
show, is accessible, and can accommodate all who may come.

DIGGING WELLS IN QUICKSAND.

A CORRESPOXDENT, in the Genesee Farmer, communicates the following
valuable information in reference to the best mode of digging wells ia quick-
sand. He says :

" Thinking that it may be of importance to some of your readers, I will
give some of my experience in digging weHs in quicksand. My father was
digo-inw a well where the quicksand ran in so bad, that he was led to contrive
some way to remedy the evil resulting from it. His plan is, (when you get
down where the sand runs in so as to prevent working at advantage,) to
make a platform to lay the wall on, out of plank, by pinning them together;
place this on the bottom, and then lay a wall of good hard brick and water-
lime. When you get above where there will be any danger of the sand
caving in, you can go on and dig the well as deep as you please, and the
wall will settle down as fast as you take out the sand under it. We have
settled a wall two feet, after it had stood for years. I was led to send this
from hearing of the difficulty they had in digging wells at Geneva."

FOB THE PLOUQH, THE LOOM, AMD TnU ANVIL.

CURE OF ANIMALS.

Messrs. Editors : — T give you a recipe for the diseases of horses and cat-
tle. It is used by our farriers for bruises, sprain, ringbone, spavin, and
wounds, particularly on horses, and they use it on the human species. They
design to keep it private.

IJ, . One pint strong alcohol, 50 per cent, or over.
One half ounce blue vitriol, pulverized fine.
One ounce camphor, pulverized.
One ounce sal-nitre, pulverized.
Two ounces tincture myrrh.
Two ounces aqua ammonia;.
Add these to the alcohol : mix well : stand twelve hours, shaking frequently :
keep the bottle well corked. Then add half-pint spiri Is turpentine. Must be
shaken when used, or turned from the bottle, for the turpentine will not unite
with the alcohol. Ariel Hunton.

Hyde Park, Vt., October 22, 1853.

PIGS AND TURNIPS. 481

PIGS AND TURNIPS.

A VERY judicious paper, with the title given above, written by Mr, H. F,
French, of Exeter, N. H., appeared in the New-England Farmer, for Decem-
ber. We commend it to all our readers. The culture of roots was often
dwelt upon by the late " Farmer of Marshfield," and a large quantity was
annually gathered for the use of his elegant herd of cattle. Mr. F. says :

If we could only discover some mode of keeping a large stock of swine on
our farms, near good markets, so that we could make plenty of manure, and
yet sell our hay, the question of how we can live by farming, in this part of
New-Hampshire, would be answered. When hay is worth but ten dollars a
ton, steers and heifers will consume more of it than the worth of their bodies,
at three years old ; but our farmei's are too far-sighted, and have too much
honesty to take from the soil without returning an equivalent ; and, so many
of them work all summer to collect food for their cattle in winter, and in the
spring, have only their cattle left, increased in value not one-half the value of
their winter's food.

Most of us have seen this to be folly, and tried keeping swine, and when
potatoes could be raised for ten or twelve cents a bushel, we could raise pork
to some profit, at prices lower than the present.

But potatoes are not to be named, in these days, for such base uses; and
the question whether corn can be used with advantage for feeding swine baa
been very nicely tested. Perhaps with corn, at a dollar a bushel, and pork,
at six cents a pound, the farmer may get the labor of the swine for his trou-
ble, and perhaps not.

One thing, every farmer knows, who has tried it — that a dozen half-grown,
porkers will demolish his handsome cribful of a hundred bushels of corn,
which it cost him so much hard work last summer to raise, in a painfully
short time, and the golden ears are so beautiful, that one can hardly have
the heart thus to " cast pearls before swine." I think a farmer feels rich so
long as he can show his neighbor his corn-barn filled up above his head all
round with this substantial treasure.

Are turnips good for pigs ? Are pigs any the better for turnips ? One
man said turnips were good far nothing for any critter; for one of his neigh-
bors, last winter, fed out a cart-load to a yoke of oxen, without doing them
the least good in the world. Another said, turnips were first-rate for fatting
cattle, because he tried it last winter, on a yoke of oxen and a cow, and he
never saw animals gain faster. A third had tried it on pigs ; and they ate
the turnips well enough, and in great quantities; but he was convinced that
they ate just as much meal with the turnips, as when kept on meal alone,
and that the turnips were a total loss.

I had three shoats in September, one a full-blood Suffolk, one a half-blood,
and one a native American, from a drove. I had also a crop of white flat
turnips, sowed with my grass-seed in July, which cost me nothing but the
trouble of picking up. For the past six weeks, I have fed these pigs with
the turnips principally. We boil in a portable boiler, out of doors, two
bushels of turnips at once, until they are soft, then take them out and put
them into a barrel, and add a pailful, about ten quarts, of coarse shorts, and
mash them together hot, adding a handful of salt. We have slops from the
house, not quite enough to keep one of them ; and these, with two kettlefuls
of the boiled dish, last them one week. I never saw pigs thrive better. They

432 GAS-LIGHTS.

Are getliiiiT too fat to be kept over the winter, and two of them are in danger
of an early death. From this single experiment, it would seem, as if a bushel
of turnips is worth as much for swine, as the same quantity of potatoes;- but
it is not time to draw that conclu>ion. Many farmers have turnips on hand,
and I hope the experiment will be thoroughly tried, so that if results be
favorable, we may all lay down our land in July and August, with grass-seed
and turnips, sell part of our hay, and keep the homestead in good heart, by
raising swine at a profit. My ruta-bagas, which will keep good till spring,
will many of them be turned to the same account. I have another old
porker, which fed on tuinijjs until within a month, but as he was expected to
aid the festivities of Thanksgiving in the house, it was thought best to put
him on a corn-meal diet.

It is said in the " Complete Body of Husbandry," published in England a
hundred years ago, that sheep fattened upon turnips, should be fed on other
food two weeks before they are killed, or the mutton will taste of the turnips.
It probably would be pnident, for those who prefer their pork and turnips on
separate dishes, to attend to this hint.

The Genesee Farmer has a notice of an article from the Irish Farmers
Gazette, in which an experiment was tried of feeding swine upon turnips,
both coi 'ked and raw, by which it was found that the pigs all gained remark-
ably well, but that they ate hvice as much of the cooked as of the raw food,
and gained most on the raw. The raw turnips were " pulped " or grated, and
allowed to ferment.

Let us have the experiment tried, and reported in the Nevf-England
Farmer, I think the value of turnips is by no means appreciated in this
country. It has been said that " the national power of Great Britain has its
root in the turnip." It is there, the great crop, for fattening cattle and sheep,
and 80 maintaining the fertility of the soil.

Exeter, N. R, Nmember 17, 1853.

GAS-LIGHTS ; RECENT ENGLISH PATENT.

Ai*iONG the recent patents secured in England for the manufacture of illu-
minating gas, one of peculiar merit, in some respects, was by Mansfield. This
was somewhat comprehensive in its claims, and was, no doubt, a very valuable
discovery when viewed in connection with the prevailing modes of manufa(i-
turing gas.

We have been not a little surprised to find how extensively men have been
engaged in experiments on this subject. In a visit to Baltimore, we found a
very ingenious friend, who had been making experiments, though unhappily
in a wrong direction. A letter of inquiry from a gentleman in Maine states
that he has been experimenting in connection with benzole, while a third
states substantially the same thing. Many others have made similar experi-
ments. We have also been apprised of the fact that a Mr. A., for some
months in Boston, and afterwards in this city, had induced some capitalists to
invest considerable amounts in perfecting his " discovery," which terminated,
like the rest, not in flame, but in smoke ; and even now, perhaps, there is
yet another who is, or at least, has been engaged in trying to work out the
same great problem; while both these last were led on by having obtained
some imperfect knowledge of what is and was already secured by patent.
These both use benzole, we understand, though not in a pure form.

GAS-LIGHTS. 433

It is a very easy thing to make even a bright flame by the use of different
hydro-carbons, but the flame is, unfortunately, too often accompanied with
smoke. The common caraphene-lamp consumes a liquid very Hke to beazole,
to wit, rectified spirits of turpentine. But, arranged in the best possible man-
ner, the soot which these lamps scatter over every foot of the apartment in
which they are used, is a serious offset to their brilliant flame. The explosive
nature of these fluids is also too often confirmed by actual experiment, to allow
them a quiet and uninterrupted popularity.

But we propose now to give some information of a more particular charac-
ter, though connected with all these modes of illumination.

In the distillation of coal-tar, products are obtained of various character,
namely, ammoniacal water, heavy oils, and light oils. Among the first products
are the light oils. Naphthaline is also obtained, which is an oil at ordinary
temperatures. Some of these crude oils are acid in their character, and
others are alkaline. Among the former are carbonic, rosalic, &c. ; and. among
the latter, aniline, picoline, &c.

The neutral oils are hydro-carbons. Among these last is benzole. This
substance boils at 80*^ temperature, and becomes solid at or near 0. It forms
nearly or quite one-eighth of the light oil obtained from tar. In volatility,
it is nearly equal to alcohol, but it is more allied to ether. At ordinary tem-
peratures it yields so much of its vapor to a stream of air passed through it,
as to cause it to burn with a white flame, till the vapor is entirely volatilized.

In the patent secured by Mansfield, the first claim set up, and allowed, was
the manufacture, from " bituminous matter, of spirituous'substances, so volatile,
that a current of air, passed through them, may continue to burn, after once
ignited, with a luminous flame, till these substances are consumed.^'

So ftir, this patent covers the same ground with the American patent, de-
scribed in our November number.

The second claim related to substances of value, but not for the purpose of
illumination.

The thiiid claim secured by the English patent under consideration, had re-
ference to the manner of avoiding the presence of smoke. On this, the Eng-
lish and American patents essentially differ. Mansfield says : " It is neces-
sary for my purpose that the spirits should be as free from water as they can
be obtained, consistently with cheapness, because the less water the spirits
contain, the more of the hydro-carbons they will dissolve."

In the American patent, this entire absence of water is not essential, nor even
desirable. If water is present in too considerable quantities, the brilliancy of
the flame is diminished ; and, on the other hand, if too great a proportion of
benzole is used, there will be more or less smoke. But we have diluted this
benzole-mixture with water, more than once, and without witnessing any un-
favorable results.

There is another point of difference in the two patents. The mixture used
by Mansfield was not competent to the use for which is was designed, unless
it was kept at a tolerably high temperature.

It is true of all gases obtained from these substances, that their illuminating
power is essentially diminished by cold. Who has not seen and marked the
dimness of street-lamps in all our cities, on a severe vv-inter night ? An emi-
nent chemist has found, by the most carefullv-conducted experiments, that
the illuminating power of coal-gas is decreased three-fourths, when reduced
to the temperature of 20^ Fahrenheit.

The gas of which we speak is similarly affected by reduction of tempera-
ture. But the minimum temperature at which its light is quite satisfactory,

434

MELODEONS.

is much lower than that manufoctured by Mansfield's patent. It has been
burned side by side with that gas ; and when the latter was actually extin-
guished, that of the American patent continued to burn well, though with a
brilliancy somewhat diminished. This gas, indeed, requires a moderate tem-
perature, but the degree of heat most desirable may be very conveniently se-
cured in every dwelling-house.

In burning benzole, as above implied, there are two extremes that are to be
avoided ; namely, on one side, so diluting the benzole that the humid air
will be too slightly impregnated with illuminating power ; and on the other,
too concentrated a form, by which the atmospheric air will be so fully charged
with carbon, as to evolve it, unconsumed, in the form of smoke. A third
point also must not be overlooked. Benzole diluted with water alone, for ex-
ample, mingles with it, but is not so thoroughly dissolved in it as to secure a
satisfactory result. The light may be dim, and at the same time it will be
accompanied with smoke. Hence, vi'hile exact proportions among the several
fluids here combined are not required, it is necessary that such should be
used as will thoroughly dissolve the benzole, and at the same time, dilute it
to a condition in which all the carbon absorbed by the current of air, shall
be completely consumed in its own flame.

MELODEONS

GOODMAN S PATENT,

Our readers may not all be aware of the perfection to which the melodeon,
by means of various improvements, has been brought.

It has been a great point with builders of these and other reed instruments,
so to combine two sets or hanks of keys with two or jnore stops or sets of reeds,
that the effect of more than one bank of keys, so prominent in organs, may
be produced in these smaller instruments.

Mr. Goodman, of New-IIaven, has accomplished this. He connects two
banks of keys with two sets of reeds by direct application or connection, so
that both sets of reeds may be played by the lower bank of keys.

The two banks of keys are arranged, as seen in the cut, one above the other,
in the usual way. The improvement consists in using two sets of reeds and

EDITOES' JOTTINGS, ETC. 485

two sets of valves in such a manner that each set of reeds may be played
by its own bank of keys, independently of the other set, or both sets of valves
may be played by the lower bank of keys. Thus, as on an organ, both hands
may be applied to the lower bank of keys, playing either one or both sets of
reeds, or one hand to each bank of keys, each playing one set, or the lower
bank playing two sets at pleasure, by which means greater force and variety
are secured tlian this instrument has before possessed. From the simplicity
of this connection of the parts by the use of the coupler, the price is com-
paratively but little increased.

For small churches or the parlor, the improved melodeon may well supply
the place of the organ and other instruments.

EDITORS' JOTTINGS, AND MECHANICAL RECORD.

«

-Jttllien's Concerts. — The people of New- York have had as great a treat of
instrumental and orchestral music the past season, as tliey had in the last season,
of operatic, from Madame Sontag and her troupe. Jullien's music is unrivaled
in his department, as Sontag's, in hers. But JMadame Sontag is entirely unlike
Madame Alboni, and in some respects, the latter has no equal. So JuUien is unlike
every body but himself, and, in some respects, is without a rival. But what is
that which constitutes the wonderful charm of these concerts ? "We answer as
follows :

Mons. Jullien has collected, from different parts of Europe, several of the
most eminent solo-performers. They are not merely " good," or " excellent," or
" very fine," but they are really superb, wonderful. On the cornet-a-piston,
perhaps on the whole family of horns, Herr Koenig seems perfectly at home.
He is, in this departtnent, what Strakosch and Jaell are on the pianoforte. He
does just what he chooses to do, and withont apparent effort. Signor Bottesini,
on the contra-basso, or double bass — who in this country ever heard the like ?
Very few v/ill believe us, or give sufficient meaning to our words, when we say
that he performs the different airs of the operas on that huge, awkward instru-
ment, with all tlie exuberance of florid ornament that we have elsewhere heard
upon the violin or the flute. His execution is in all respects absolutely wouder-
ful. Herr Lutgen is equally at home on the violoncello, or bass-viol. His few
appearances as a solo player have excited the highest enthusiasm.

Again, the flute of M. Reichert is inimitable. AYe have heard fine playing
before, but we have heard nothing that compared with this. Indeed, M. Keich-
ert is probably the second, if not the first flute-player in the world. The Brothers
Mollenbauer are equally eminent on the violin ; while Messrs. Lavigne, on the
oboe, "Wuille, on the clarionet and corna-musa, Hughes, on the ophicleide (a
monster instrument) and CoUinet, on the flageolet, are all superb. Here we
have sufficient to explain the attractions of these concerts. But this is not all.

The presence of such performers inspires those of far inferior merit, in the
same orchestra, and thus the seventy or eighty performers, most of whom we
have perhaps often heard before, seldom or never played so well, in the chorus.
But there is still anotlier agency.

No conductor we have seen seems to inspire enthusiasm as Jullien. Others
may know as much, and may be as good critics; but he has, and imparts to his
choruses, an excess of animal electricity. He is but a bundle, a ganglion of
musical nerve — nerves, not of sensation, but of the sensation of sotmd. So long
as such a man has the confidence of those associated with him, he has immense
power over them.

Again, Jullien's music is peculiar. We never had such styles brought out.
We have had as good, and in our opinion, much higher styles ; but this is novel
and " striking," and has proved a decided hit. If we were to hear instrumental

486 editors' jottings, etc.

concerts for ninety successive evenings, we sliould prefer the beautifully rich
Btrains of the Boston Germanian Musical Society. Mons. Bergman, and his
little corps of twenty or tliirty iastruments, are unrivalled on this continent, not
only for their chi.^sical elegance, but also (considering their numbers) for their
efficiency. But tliey get up no tornadoes, no earthquakes, nor even the dialogue
of the Katydids, nor target-shooting. But these are Jullien's every-day per-
fortnances. True, he can, do an*- thing well. He has sometimes given us true
artistic musical treats, but he does not thereby secure the bursts of applause that
he requires. "The public" iu New- York are not sufficiently cultivated to be
excited to enthusiasm by such entertainments.

The vocal performances at tliese concerts are and deserve to be very well re-
ceived. Anna Zerr often sings very sweetly. She has Avonderful compass of
voice, and her lowest notes are peculiarly smooth and strong, f

We do not say that these concerts deserve the attention of the public, but
they have that jjower, that uncontrollable influence over the popular mind, that
compels attention to such various and wonderful harmonies.

De Soto, Powell's great picture, now on exhibition in Broadway, receives the
unqualified approbation of amateurs and of true artists.

The Chinese Museum is very highly spoken of, but we have not had the
pleasure of seeing" it.

SiGXOR Blitz is still here, astonishing crowded auditories with his magical
skill, and amusing them by his wonderful spirit-rappings. The stranger who
visits New-York, is quite unprepared to take leave of the city and its lions, unless
he has seen Signor Blitz. There is but one Blitz, as there has been but one
Napoleon.

Max Maretzek has just closed a series of operas, in very superior style. The
Prophet and Massaniello have been brought out for the first time, we believe, in
this country, and were very successful. Moos. M. has and deserves the reputa-
tation of a very efficient manager and conductor.

Silvering all sorts of Metals and Glass. — A patent has been recently
issued in Paris for the process above-described, of which the process is described
as follows :

He takes 1 oz. of crystallized nitrate of silver, dissolves it in twice its weight
of distilled water, and adds 9^ per cent, by weight of nitrate and liquid ammonia.
He then adds six times the weight of the nitrate of silver, of spirits of wine,
agitates the liquid, and adds 15 percent, on the whole volume of resinous spirit
(composed of one part of resinous matter by preference, gum galbanuni. to five
parts of sjiirits of wine.) The liquid is then left to settle, and filtered, after which
it has added to it nine times its quantity of spirits of wine, with the further intro-
duction of 8 per cent, of liquid ammonia, and a quantity of spirits of wine equal
to its whole volume. The solution will then contain about five parts of nitrate
of silver to 1000 parts of liquid. The liquid thus prepared and filtered may be
nsed immediately in connection with a galvanic battery, in the manner usually
practised by platers, but it is better to let it remain quiescent for some time.
The anode or thin slieet of silver in connection with the positive pole, acts per-
fectly in this liquid, and gradually dissolves in the bath ; the deposition com-
mences immediately on tli^e objects to be jtlalcd being introduced into the bath,
in a white and_ brilliant form, and the thickness of coating can be regulated at
plearure. To insure its more perfect adhesion, in certain cases the metal may
be first passed through a sohition of nitrate of mercury. When glass is the
material to be coated, a thin film of silver is previously formed on it, by adding
to the liquid a few drops of spirits of cloves in a separate balli, and the quantity
of ammonia used in preparing the bath is only from 2 to 8 per cent. By pre-
cipitating copper on the silvered glass, and then detaching the two metals, i)lates
may be produced suitable for daguerreotypic or photographic purposes.

EDITOES' JOTTIISrGS, ETC. 437

Plumbio Zixc — A 'Sew CoMBiNATiojf of Metals. — We learn from the London
Mining Journal that Messrs. Morewood & Rogers, of Upper Thames street,
have recently patented a combiaation of lead and zinc, xmder the name of
" plumbic zinc." It consists of distinct layers of each metal, perfectly united in
a peculiar process of manufacture — one side thus presenting a surface of pure
lead, the other pure zinc, combining the stillness of the latter vrith the durability
of the former. A sheet of metal is thus produced which proves as hard and
durable as one of lead several times its thickness and vv^eiglit; while in peculiar
situations the zinc is laid undermost, and is thus protected from atmospheric
actions, or the effect of acid vapors or liquors, by the preservative power of the
lead. For every description of roofing, hips, and ridges, gutters, pil)es, cisterns,
sinks, &c., this metal will most probably be found hig-hly advantageous. For
covering terraces, balconies, stairs, and passages, it will be found similar to lead
under the feet; while the stiif lining of zinc will prevent it from treading out
of shape. For chimney-tops, cowls, &c., the lead is placed inside, which is
indestructible from the sulphurous acids and vapors usually contained in smoke.
For coal-boxes, baths, pails, and many other domestic utensils, it will also be
found highly useful, Japan will adiiere to it as well as to iron plate. It will
solder as effectually as tin plate, and works softer and with greater fiicility than
sheet zinc alone. It is also recommended for lining tunnels, sheathing ships,
&c. ; and no doubt numerous other uses will yet be found for it. The govern-
ment authorities at iVIelbourne have contracted for a given period to secure the
entire quantity which may be exported to Victoria, for flooring and roofing
many of the public and private buildings erected in that city.

Teavelltxg Hotel. — A Paris correspondent of the Cincinnati Gazette, in a
letter, dated August 11, gives the following account of a novel mode of travel-
ing in France. He writes :

" If we are in advance of all the world in sea yachts, the French have beaten
us in the article of railroad yachts. A rich capitalist. Monsieur the Count of

L , has invented and superintended the construction of a railroad hotel, for

his own private use, with which he intends to travel with his family over all
the railroads of France. It is a complete house, with all its dependencies, prin-
cipal and accessory. There is a parlor, bed-rooms, with beds, billiard-room,
kitchen, office, a cellar which will hold a good store of wine, ice-house, &c. ; in
one word, all the elegance and the comfort, the useful and the agreeable, of a
dwelling, the most complete and the most rich. It is very long, and like all
French cars, very wide. It is made so that it can be transferred from one set
of wheels to another, though that seems of no importance, since the roads of
France are all, I believe, of the same wide gauge. T is travelling-hotel has cost
its proprietor about 50,000 francs, and is at this moment attracting great atten-
tion at the depot of the Orleans railway.

Feanois' New Peinting-Press. — While in Springfield, attending the State
Fair, we saw^ in operation the new power-press invented by Allen Francis, Esq.,
of the Springfield Journal. It is certainly a very ingenious machine, and yet in
its construction it is very simple. The rollers are fastened on ian endless chain,
which is made to revolve to ink the forms perfectly. The impression is taken
nearly in the same manner as with the Adams Press, though the bed is raised
by a cam instead of a lever. There were several members of the Pres^ present,
all of whom seemed highly pleased with its performance. Though propelled only
by ma?i-power, it printed at the rate of two thousand an hour,"and did its work
well indeed. Mr. Francis told us it cost him only about six hundred dollars.
This is a most important lessening of the price of a power-press, as one made in
the usual manner would cost twice that amount at least. We wish Mr. Francis
abundant success in his efforts to cheapen knowledge for the people. The facili-
ties for carrying out his invention were not very good in Springfield, but in the
hands of a first-rate machinist, we see not why the press may not be made a very
beautiful machine, and its simplicity and cheapness certainly recommend it very
strongly for general adoption. — Chicago Lem. Press.

4r38 editors' jottings, etc.

Cast-Ikon Intekior Walls. — L. A, Goucli, architect, ITarlem, N. Y., has
plans for cast-iron partition walls, which ho thinks far superior in every respect,
and can be ])Ut up for less than tlio.^o of brick. They are formed of perforated
plates bolted together, each of about one sixth of an inch in thickness, and
secured so as to make a partition of four inches in thickness, having an air space
between, which will answer for ventilation, gas-i)ipes, water-pipes, and hot-air
pipes. Tliese plates can be covered with plaster, and made to resemble a iiard-
tinish wall. These partitions will be fire-proof, and flanges are cast upon them
for joists and beams of llooring and stairs. Sucli a partition can bo taken down
at any time, by merely unscrewin,'^ the bolts, and not like brick, mortar, and
lath w.-'lls. it will be as good as ever, and can answer the same purpose a thou-
sand times over, aiul last for a thousand years. The application of iron to archi-
tecture is an invention which should attract universal attention.

Novel Locomotive. — There has been just completed at South Boston, a loco-
motive c lied tho " Texas," constructed on a most novel design, and intended,
it is thought, to work an entire change in the manner of making locomotive
engines. It weighs about thirteen tons witli the tender which is connected with
it, tho boiler and tank being placed on the same frame. It has but four wheels,
and those are hollow drivers, and are placed one pair in front of the boiler, and
one pair under the tank. The cylinders are twelve and a half inches in diameter,
and are outside connections. The power, instead of being applied directly to the
drivers by connecting-rods, as is usual, is applied to the top of an upright beam
placed just in front of the tire-box on either side of the boiler. From the top of
this beam, which moves about 15 deg. on a heavy pivot, runs a rod to the back
driver, and from the bottom runs a rod to the front driver. The boiler sets
quite low, while the tank hangs below the wheels. The link is also of most novel
construction, and is said to be a most important improvement, the link working
within the block, instead of the block within the link. As no patent has been
taken, or is intended to be taken, leave has already been given to other manu-
facturers to adopt this link, and it will probably come into general use.

The advantages derived by this novel construction of the locomotive, are the
ease with which great power can be applied, and tho great gain made in bring-
ing the whole weight of the engi. e and tender to aid in drawing a heavy load.
It is said that a thirteen-ton engine built on the new model, can do the same
work as a twenty-ton engine built so that the power is applied to the drivers at
the iire-box. The result will, of course, be a great diminution in the expense of
procuring motive power for our railroads. The design, as we have before
remarked, is wholly original, nothing of the kind ever having been attempted
before.

The locomotive just completed is for a road in Texas. There are also in pro-
cess of construction four others after the same model, intended for a road in
Pennsylvania.

Witli a view of testing the capabilities of the engine, "Texa^" was attached
to a heavy freight-train consisting of ourteen long cars. It drew them with
the greatest ease from South Braintrce to Boston, making the time allotted to the
train to a second. This train, which is one of tlie heaviest on the road, is usu-
ally drawn by a twenty-live ton locomotive. The result of the experiment is
deemed coneliisivc tliat the locomotive will prove in every respect successful, and
that a twelve-ton engine can, when built after the new plan, do the work of a
twenty-ton engine of the old model.

Gkain Harvesters. — J. Fabcr, of Farmer's Hill, N. Y., has contrived an im-
provement in the mode of hanging tho cutter-bar to a swing or balance frame
hung loosely upon the axles of the two wheels, whereby the cutters may be
elevated above the ground sufficiently to pass any obstruction which may inter-
fei-c, or to pass inequalities of surface ; two sets or series of cutters are employed
upon two cutter-bars, and the teeth being triangular or saw-shaped operate like
shears upon each other. The cutter-bars arc thrown in and out of gear with the
driving-wheel by a very simple arrangement placed upon the top of the balance-
frame, which is under the control of the driver.

editors' jottings, etc. 439

Minerals in Kew-Mexico. — We have in our possession two specimens of ore
from the silver mine near Dona Ana, which is now heing worked very success-
fully by Mr, Stephenson, though without that outlay of capital wliich is neces-
sary for the large product that is yielded by many of the mines of Mexico. We
understand that, by different channels, a large number of similar specimens have
been sent into the States, with a view to analysis by competent persons. Of the
results of this analysis, those interested in the mines have no doubt, for the
reason that they have a praciical knowledge of silver-mining, and are actually by
the rudest process extracting considerable quantities of the metal from these
ores. The chief object had in view by them and others in New-Mexico, who
have sent in these specimens is, that capitalists in the States, being satisfied that
there are rich silver mines in the country, may have their attention turned to it.
The range of mountains where this ore is found, is quite extensive, and no_ doubt
exists among persons well qualified from their knowledge of the silver mines of
Mexico to judge in this matter, that these mountains are stored in great abund-
ance with this precious metal.

Besides these specimens of silver, we had shown us by Maj. Greiner, a quantity
of quick-silver, weighing nearly a pound, which had been scooped U2y at Los
Truches, near the Del Norte, about forty miles north of Santa Fe. This metal
is found in globules and sometimes in little pools near the surface, at the roots
of shrubs, or on the earth in damp spots, underneath the rocks and stones of the
neighborhood.

The mineral wealth of New-Mexico, as we have again and again contended, is
greatly undervalued. The estimate i)ut upon that territory by our countrymen
does no sort of justice to its resources. A railroad through it would develop
those resources to an extent which, if predicted now, would be believed by
nobody, save those who have been in the country and impartially examined it. —
St. Louis Intelligencer,

Rain Statistics. — The following statements are derived from the tables of a
careful and accurate observer, in this city: — The quantity of rain which fell in
August was greater than that of any other month for the past twelve years.
Since 18-41, the average quantity of August has been 4 inches 54 hundredths.
The least quantity was^in August, 1848, being then 2 inches 50 hundredths; the
greatest quantity, in August, 1853, being lOi inches; and the next greatest
quantity was in November, 1845, being then 10 inches. The whole quantity of
rain this year, thus far, is 33f inches. The greatest quantity for any one of the
past twelve years was in 1850, when it was 55 inches 3 hundredths. The
smallest quantity, 1844 and 1846, when it was about 34 inches, 56 hundredths.
— Salem Guzette.

Manitre for Autumn Roses. — Mr. Rivers, a famous Rose Culturist, applies a
mixture of wood-ashes and guano, in the proportion of half a peck of guano to
a bushel of ashes, to his late roses, witli most excellent effect. About two
quarts of the mixture is applied to each shrub or tree, in a circle eighteen inches
in diameter around the stem, where it is suffered to remain undij^turbed until
autumn. It should be applied early in June, and covered witli a thin grass
mulch, and the effect will be that it will retain the dew and showers, and keep
the tree in constant and vigorous growth, which is very necessary to the pro-
duction of a good crop of flowers in the fall.

Manufacturing Gloves. — Two inhabitants ol Grenoble, in France, about
the same time invented a machine for sewing gloves, but instead of competing
with each other, they agreed to unite the advantages of eacli invention. One
found means to sew mechanically th« fingers of gloves, while the other, after
sewing the remainder of the gloves, was compelled to employ operatives to sew
the fingers. The inventors by combining the two macliines, have produced
one which sews the gloves perfectly. This discovery has produced a great sen-
sation at Grenoble, where the manufacturers were notable to supply the demand
for want of a sufficient number of operatives.

440 editors' jottings, etc.

^ The Zanesville Times states that the wool clip of Licking county, Ohio, thi«
year will reach 500,000 pounds, the average price of which will not be Ics-
than GO cents a pounrl, making an aggi-egate of about a quarter of a million c
dollars for the wool clip of a single county.

Newell's Aromatic Burnixg Flttid. — " It was the remark of Baron Liebeg,
that the greatest discovery which chemists could mnke, would be the solidifica-
tion of coal gas, so that it could be formed into candles, and burned from stands.
With all due respect to this illustrious chemist, we think that the American
public would hardly retrace their steps, and adopt the dips, even if they were
told that they were from pure gas. It is significant of the directness in the
application of knowledge in this country, that leaving the notion of the solid-
ification of gas to its suggester, Mr. Jolm Newell, of this city, has been able,
after a year of careful experimenting, to combine the elements of illuminating
gas, so as to produce a fluid, adapted to tlie safety lamps, or spirit lamps,
generally used. In this he has accomplished what has been the aim of every
inventor, namely, the diminishing of 'the imflammability of the compound.
Consequently, the danger in the use of burning fluids is thus generally diminish-
ed, and taken in connection Avith his admirable device of a safety lamp, we
cannot but regard Mr. Newell as a public benefiictor. "We have good authority
for the statement that the new fluid contains one-sixth of its volume of water,
and that_ instead of highly rectified and volatile alcoliol, the illuminating
material is burned in a column of watery vapor. Referring to the advertise-
ment in our columns, it will be seen that more light and greater security may
be obtained at less than the usual cost.'"

The foregoing paragraph is from one of the Boston papers. "We have paid
some attention to that matter, and we are satisfied that Mr. ISTewell has here a
very useful article. We are also furnished with an illustration of the fact that
one discovery leads to another, and brings to light that which is useful in other
connections, Tims, the manufacture of this fluid produces, from the residuum,
oil, naphtha, creosotes, and varnish, and asi)haltam, all of which are articles of
commercial value. Its light is about equal to that of gas, its combustion is
less rapid than that of camphene, and it is furnished at 48 cents per gallon, at
retail,

AtlajiTic and St. Lawrexce Railroad. — The annual meeting of the Atlantic
and St. Lawrence Railroad Company was lately held at Portland. From
the report of the directors, wo learn tliat the total cost of the road up to the
present time, is $5,] 50.277.73. The receipts of tlie road for the year have been
$354,743.05, and the expenses, $141,223.GG ; net receipts, $113,530.39. The net
income of the road to July 1st, 1853, is $407,218.06.

A NEW article of manufacture, made from the waste of smelting furnaces, and
called "lava-ware," is exhibited at the Crystal Palace. After the iron is drawn
ofi^, the melted sand and clay, mixed with iron, which remains as waste, greatly
in the workmen's way, can be cast into tiles, urns, bowls, table-tops, and various
useful things, at a very small cost.

A Farmer's Wii-e i-a the Olde^j Time.— Sir Anthony Fitcherbert, Chancellor
to Henry VIII., thus describes a model farmer's wife:

" It is a wyve's occupation to winnow all manner of cornes, to make malte,
to wash and ironying, to make hay, shere corn, and in time of nede to help her
husband fill the muckwayne or dung-cart, drive the plow, load hay, corne, and
such other. — And go or ride to the market to sell butter, cheese, egges, cheykns,
capons, hens, pigs, geese, and all manner of cornes."

Soap Sdds for "WATERixa plants. — Nothing can be better for summer
watering of plants and vines, than the Suds of the weekly wash, and no one
who desires a good garden will suffer it to be wasted. For cabbages, cucumbers,
beets, and the like, it seems especially adapted, and one of the most thrifty
grape vines we ever saw, was watered with soap suds almost daily in dry
weather. A large supply is not needed at once, but frequent waterings' promote
rapid and vigorous vegetation.

NEW BOOKS. 441

— _ ^ ^ —

CnocoLATK is an elementary preparation of very ancient use in Mexico, from
which country it was introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in 152U. Jtwas
by tlieni long ke[it a secret from the rest of the work!. LinnoBus was so fond of
it that he gave the specitic name theobro7na, foods of the gods, to the cacao tree
which produced it.

The cacao beans lie in a fruit somewhat like a cucumber, about five inches
long and three and a half thick, which contains from 20 to 30 beans arranged
in live regular rows with partitions between, and which are surrounded with
rose-colored spongy substance like that of watermelons. There are fruits large
enough to contain from 40 to 50 beans. After the maturation of the fruit,
when their green color has changed to a dark yellow they are plucked, opened,
the beans cleaned from the pulp and spread out to dry in the open air.

They are in some places packed immediately for market when they are dry.
But in others they are sweated or cured by being packed in a box or a hole in
the ground.

The beans being freed from all spoiled or mouldy portions, ate to be gently
roasted over a fire, in an iron cylinder with holes through which the vapor may
escape. After the roasting, which is known to be finished if a strong aroma is
sent oiF, the grains are agaui freed from all husks. They are then ground in a
heated mortar and formed into a paste. This paste, flavored with whatever the
manufacturer desires, constitutes the chocolate of commerce.

The cacao bean contains, in 100 parts, besides water: —

Oil, 63.1

Albuminous matter, 16.7

Starch, 10.91

Gum, 7.75

Lignin, 0.9

Red dye stuff, 2.01

NEW BOOKS.

Golden Dream and Leaden Realities. By Ralph Raven. With an Introductory
Chapter by Francis Fogie, Sen., Esq. New-York : G. P. Putnam & Co., 10 Park
Place. 1853. 344 pages.

This amusing book announces that its introduction is the work of Mr. Fogie, Sen.,
hence, he would have us infer, that he, tlie said Fogie, is an old man, and indeed, he
says so, in almost plain English. But if so, he is in grievous error, a most inconceiv-
able delusion, when he writes and even prints, on page 8, of all old men, that "they
are a clog on its (the world's) machinery, dirt on its wheels, rust in its joints, a peb-
ble in its shoe," and boldly adds, "it's never been a merry world since old men came
in fashion." He says again, " I have always enjoyed the reputation of being as sober
and as prudent as my neighbors." We don't know about the prudence, but if he is
half as sober as his neighbors, there must be some terra mcoguita about here, or at
least, within our friend Putnam's ken, that is a little merrier than any we have been
accustomed to. The fact is, the whole book is incontestable evidence of the writer's
mistake on these points, unless he misrepresents his own age ; for he informs us that he,
being an old man, is also a companion of like age with Mr. Raven, the author of the
Dream. We are inclined to think that they are of very nearly the same age and
temperament. But, however this may be, and whether old or not, they have put forth
one of the most amusing of books, but by no means destitute of good sense and use-
ful lessons. It is a pleasant story of a California gold-digger, that may very agree-
ably, and not unprofitably, occupy a few leisure hours of those of all ages and of
either sex.

Illustkated Magazine of Akt. — The December number of this journal is before us.
We have highly commended former numbers, and as highly commend this, its latest
issue. It contains a great amount of matter, both useful and entertaining. Tiie illus-
trations are numerous. If the pressman could give better impressions of the well-

442 NEW MUSIC.

1

engraved plates, he would much improve the appearance of the work. Still, many
of these are given us in excellent stjlo. A. Montgomery, Publisher, 17 Spruce street.

Putnam's Ii.lt-stkated Record, <ke. — The last number of this beautiful illustration
of the exhibition in the Crjstal Palace is bi-double, and its literary and artistic merits
are increased in a similar ratio. None of its previous numbers are so attractive, nor
has any illustrated journal in this country approached, in its artistic skill, and in the
elegance of its printing, the excellence of this scries. It is, in this respect, entirely
without a rival or a competitor in this country. Double numbera, 25 cents.

Putnam's Magazine is also as rich and racy as ever.

The Lectures Complcti!, of Father Gavazzi; as delivered in New-York, revised and
corrected by himself; with translations of his Italian Addresses, <fec. By G. R
NicoLiNi. New-York : M. W. Dodd. 1854. 12mo, pp. 393.

This volume has been laid by the publisher on our table. The author is a friend
and fellow-exile of the lecturer, and a gentleman of educat'on. Being prepared by
an eminent stenogra])hcr, and revised by Father Gavazzi himself, their authenticity
is unquestionable. This volume, therefore, may be appealed to b}^ the advocates of
either side of the questions here discussed, as containing the real views of the lecturer,
his statements, plans, desires, and aims. It is well executed by the publisher.

Meyer's Umversum, which we have failed to see for some time, has again made its
appearance on our table, save a few missing numbers, wliich we should like to receive.
Eight numbers of the second volume are published. Together, they form an elegant
volume, worthy of any library. Each number contains four handsome engravings,
of public buildings, views, &c., of historic fame, and of remarkable beauty, each well
and fully described by Mr. Dann, of The Tribune. It is published semi-monthly.
Hermann J. Meyer, Publisher, 164 William street.

NEW MUSIC.

Wm. Hali. & Son, Broadway, have published some very fine music recently, among
which are —
Strauella, by W. V. Wallace, Souvenir de I'Opera. 50 cents, net.

This is number two of a series, by this eminent composer, the first of which was
Zauberflote, a souvenir of Mozart ; and this (second) of Flotow. Twelve pieces com-
plete the series.

La Belle Marian, Valses brillautes eeossaiees, for the pianoforte. By John PRiDnAU.

38 cents, net.

Five waltzes are comprised in this, with an introduction and finale. The waltzes
are, "Comin'thro' the llye," " Boatie Rows," "Kinloch of Kinloch," and "Auld Lang
Syne."

Tub Et.va Galop. By Ciias. D' Albert. And of course very good.
Tde Hazel Dell, song and chorus. By Wurzel. 25 cents, net.

This is one of the sweetest airs we have heard for a long time ; but has a melancholy
sweetness, just suited to the words,

" In the hazel dnll my Nelly's sleeping,
Nelly loved bo long.
And my lonely watch I'm keeping," <tc.

This must have, as it deserves to have, a very extensive sale.

LIST OF PATENTS.

443

List of Patents Issued,

FROM OCT. V TO NOT. 6.

Samuel S. Allen, of Salem, N. J., for improve-
ment in the cutting gear of grain and grass-har-
vesters.

John Blue, of Covert, N. Y., for improvement in
carriers to grain-separators.

Cornelius S. Cooper, of New-York, N. Y., for
improvement in violins, &c.

Nathaniel Gear, of Zanesville, 0., for machine
for turning or cutting irregular forms.

James Greenhalgh, jr., of Waterford, Mass., for
improvement in power-looms.

Jerome B. Greene, of Worcester, Mass., for im-
provement in temples for looms.

John Jones and Alexander Lyle, of Rochester,
N.Y., for improvement in he cutting-gear of straw-
cutters.

Samuel Karns, of Bloody Run, Pa., for improve-
ment in fasteuiug the teeth lo clover-hulling cy-
linders.

Jonathan Knowles, of Cohoes, N. Y,, for im-
provement in looms.

Abraham Lash and Miles Moore, of Belleville,
0., for improvement in screens of winnowers.

Wm. H. Meriwether, of the county of Comal,
Texas, for improved wire fence.

Abram B. Peterson, of Dexter, Mich., for im-
provement in grain-threshers and separators.

Williiim Robertson, of New-York, N. Y., for
keyed finger-board for violins.

Safford E. Slurtevaut, of Hartford. Vt., for im-
provement in attaching the shafis of vehicles to
the axles.

Thomas Spiller and Anthony Crowhurst, of Mid-
dlesex county, England, for improvements in
operating vibrating propellers.

George Spencer, of Utica, N. Y., for improve-
ment in railroad car-ventilator.

Saml. D. Tillman, of Seneca Falls, N. Y., for
revolving musical scale.

W. V). ■Williams, of Raleigh, N. C, for improve-
ment in wagon-brakes.

Joel AVisner, of Aurora, N. Y., for improvement
in washing-machines.

Samuel Green, of Lambertville, N. J., assignor
to Samuel Green & Covnelus Arnett, of same place,
for improvement in window-shutter bolts.

Alexander C. Twining, of Hudson, O., for im-
provement in manufacturing ices.

Erastus B. Bigelow, of Boston, Mass., for im-
provemeat in looms for weaving pile fabrics.

John Gledhill, of New-York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in power-looms.

Henry P. M. Birkinbine, of Philadelphia, Pa.,
for supplemental valve to the equilibrium-pipe of
the Cornish engine.

James Brown, of New- York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in daguerreotype apparatus.

Chas. S. Bulkley, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
provement in electro-magneiic annunciators.

Joseph D. Elliot, of Leicester, Mas?., for ma-
chine for dressing staves.

Franklin Fruit, of Jefferson city. Mo., for im-
proved chuck for cutting barrel heads.

Banford Gilbert, of Pittsburgh, Pa., for improve-

meut in propellers.

Leonard Gilson, of Brighton, Mass., for machine
for dressing circular sash, &c.

Daniel H. Hovey, of Kilborn, Ohio, for improve-
ment in machines for creasing straps of leather.

J. Leeds, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improvement
in venlilators.

Wm. and Wm. H. Lewis, of New- York, N. Y., for
improved coating-box for daguerreotype plates.

SergiusP. Lyon, of Farmington, Mass, for im-
provement in self-acting dampers for air-tight
stoves.

Wm. Henry Muntz, of Norton, Mass., for im-
proved paddle-wheel.

George Phillips, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in seed-planting cultivators.

Timothy Randlett, of Enfleld, N. H., for improve-
ment iu mop-heads.

Robert Sinclair, jr., and Richard P. Maynard, of
Baltimore, Md., for improvement iu feed-rollers of
straw-cutters.

John H., James M., and Hosea Q. Thompson, of
Ilolderness, N. H., for improved machine for trim-
ming soles of bools and shoes.

Wm. H. Towers, of Philadelphia., Pa., for hot-
air registers.

Wm. Townshend, of Hinsdale, Mass., for im-
provement in looms.

Jon. E. Warner, of Boston, Mass., for machine
for finishing the ends of staves.

Henry Waterman, of Hud-^on, N. Y., for improve-
ment in safety-valves for locomotive engines.

Jon. White, of Antrim, N. H., for improvement
iu unitiug-shovel-blades to handle-straps.

Hosea H. Grover, of North Cohocton, N. Y., for
improvement in rotary churns.

Evan H. Brandon, of Fredericksburg, Va., as-
signor lo Franklin Slaughter, of stime place, for
machine for dressing crooked timber.

Wm. Be.schke, of Alexandria, Ya., for improve-
ment in joining and riveting metallic plates.

Gardner S Brown, M.D., of Hartford, Conn., for
improvement in body-braces.

Henry Carter & James Rees, of Pittsburgh, Pa.
for imi.rovement in Qut-machines.

Thomas and Samuel Champion, of Washington,
D. C, for improvement iu transporting bridges.

Stillman A. Clemens, of Springfield, Mass., for
improvement in ventilating railioad cars.

Oliver A. Kelly, of Woonsocket, R. I., for im-
provement in looms.

Frederick Smith, of Pontiac, N. Y., for improved

water-wheel.

444

LIST OF PATENTS.

James R. Kaiii, of Tiffin, Ohio, for apparatus for i
cuttiijg screws on bedstead mils. i

Wm. andWm. 11. I.twis, of New-Vork,N. Y.,for i
improvement in boxes for auppljing business I
cards. '

Samnel T. McDougall, of New-York, N. T., for
improvement in plnll'onn scales.

.1. Parsons Owen, of Norwalk. O., for machine I
for cutting screws on bedstead rails, &c.

Wm. rierpnnt. of S:ilem, N. J., for improvement
in the cutters of grain and grass-harvesters.

Morgan L. T?ood, of Marshall, Mich., for Im-
provement in revolving fire-arms.

Wm Silver, jr., of Pittslon, Pa., for improvement
in blasilug-powder.

Iliram Smith, of Norwalk, 0., for apparatus for
cutting screws on bedstead rails, &c.

Dr. J«?. Coldraaric, of New-York, N. Y., for im.-
proveraeut in facing ends of percussion-cups.

Enoch U. Morrison, of Troy, Pa., for improved
Bhiugle-machioe.

Elnathan S' mpson, of Cornish, N. H., for im-
provemL'iit in pUaform scales.

James H. Crygier, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in bank-locks.

Lawrence T. Frnzee, of New-Brunswick, N. J.,
for improved lile-boats.

Wm. K. Hall, of Philippi, Ya., for improvement
in grass-harvesters.

S. R. Hnlt^ of Worthington, 0., for improvement
in 8e!f-acting presses.

Willard B. Cummings, of Tyngsborough, Mas."!.,
and Nathan P. Dudnian, of Chelmsford, Mass.,
assignors to Willard B. Cummings, of TyneKbo-
rough. Mass.. N.P. Dudman, of Chelmsford, Mass.,
and Chas. H. Blood, of North Chelm:=ford, Ma=s.,
for improvement in machines for dressing mill-
Btones.

Samuel F. Allen, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
provement in fluid-lamps.

J. Bloom, of East Wobu'n, Mass., for improve-
ment in condensing smoke and gases.

M. C. Gritzner, of Washington, D. C, for im-
proved gold separator.

Benj. P. Miller, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
proved iron fence.

John W. Peer, of Schenectady, N. Y., for im-
proved Irip-hammcr.

David N. Ropes, of Meriden, Conn., for improve-
ment in attaching handles to the blades of table
knives.

Robert R. Taylor, of Reading, Pa., for improved
arrangement of vilves, ports, and passages, for
operating steam-hammers.

Silas R. Terry, of Terryville, Plymouth, Conn.,
for mode of ajiplying the vibratory spring of ba-
lance clocks.

R. C. Wrcnn, of Mt. Gilead, O., for improvement
in seed planters.

Ephraim B. Benedict, of Clinton, N. Y., for im-
provement in couplina shaft.i to axles.

Erastua T. Russell, of Ehelbjvillo, Ind., for im-

provement in combined India-rubber and steel
»prings.

Samuel Chapman, jr., of New-York, N. Y., for
improvement in stoue eaws.

Richard Kdwards, of Engle River, Mich., for
improvement in machines for wathing ores.

Jno. Crabtree and Jos. Hopkinson, of Philadel-
phia, I'a., for improvement in tightening packing
of engine ai;d pump-pistons.

Israel Graves ;:nd Charles A. Bogart, of West
Dresden, N. Y., for shingle-machine.

Chas. Phelps, of Salem, Mass., for improvement
iu supporting falling table-leaves.

J. R. & W. F. Poapue, of Fancy Hill, Va., for
improvement in forming hydraulic cement pipes.

Frederick Peibert, of Williamsbiirgh, N. Y., for
improvement in machines for polishing leather.

Samuel J. and Charles 11. Trofatter, of Salem,
Mass., for improvement in machines for skiving
boot counters.

J. Ileilman, administrator of Joshua Ilcilman,
deceased, of France, for improvement in combing
fibrous materials.

Wm. Baird, of Philadelphia, Pa., assignor to
John J. IIepwortb,.of same place, for improvement
in power-looms.

Frederick Nicholson, of Warsaw, N. Y., assignor
to NeUon A. Hume, of Rushford, N. Y., for im-
l)rovement in screw-jacks for raising buildings.

Simon F. Moore, of Batavia, N. Y., for design

for cooking-stoves.

Jno. Davis, of New-Bedford, Mass., for improve
ment in indicating electro-magnetic telegraphs.

Simeon Goodfellow, of New-Orleans, La., for
improved arrangement of screw-cutting dies ^in
the die stock.

Ebenczer W. Hanson, of Spring Garden, Fa.,
for improvement in pen-holders.

David Matthew, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
proved spark-burner and water-heater for loco-
motives.

Ira F. Payson, of New- York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in soap ingredients.

James Watt, of South Boston, Mass., for im-
proved valve arrangement for steam-hammers.

George Wellman, of Lowell, Mass., for improve-
ment iu cleaning machine-cards.

Jno. E. Whitraore, of Joliet, III., for improve
ment in overshot water-wheels.

Alfred Carson, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
proved mode of ringing-fixed bolls.

Lucian B. Flanders, of Dunkirk, N. Y., for im-
provement in rej)lacing cars upon railroad tracks.

James Glenn, of New-York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in illuminated clocks.

Ira Warren, of Boston, Mass., for improvement
in shower-syringes.

R. M. Evans, of Gilford, N. IL, assignor to him-
self and Asa Weeks, of South iioslon, Ma^s., for
improvement in cutters for planing mouldings.

Carl E. Werner, of New-Castle, HI., for im-
provement in condensers for stills.

€l)e flflujjlj, tl)e f00m, flttti tl)e Jlnml.

Part II.— Vol. VT. FEBRUARY, 1854. No. 2.

PROGRESS AND POSITION OF MECHANICS.

In the early agps of the world the mechanic arts were almost unknown.
Those that existed were not, however, all of that rude form which some
imagine them to have been, but exhibited proofs of wonderful skill. When-
ever dress and shelter are necessary, then it is indispensable that some of the
arts should be understood; and if we trace back the history of those products,
we find that progress has been made, not in the degree of perfection to which
such workmanship has* arrived, but in the material used, and in the conveni-
ences for performing the work. For example : before civilization had ever
begim to dawn, in a given country, if it was a latitude of frost and snow, its
inhabitants were clothed in skins. Those skins were dressed and ornamented
with a degree of skill that can not even now be surpassed. Besides, this
skill in workmanship was achieved ahiiost in the entire absence of mechanical
tools. The most elegant of Indian quill-work is an illustration of this. So
is the incomparable work of a similar kind wrought by the Chinese and some
other Eastern nations. Several of the nations that inhabit the interior of
Africa are said by travellers to excel wonderfully in ornamental work in
ivory, and the softer metals, as well as in those kinds so often seen among the
natives of our own country.

In civilized society, these arts are indispensable. They are not merely
important, but without them civilization could not exist.

To live in such an era, we must have not only a shelter from the cold,
which a hovel would furnish, but we must have a comparatively handsome
and convenient dwelling, into which the beams of the sun have free admit-
tance, at our pleasure. A rude skin would protect us from the cold, but civ-
ilization requires the taste and skill of an artist to give form and beauty to
our clothing. The material must also be unlike that which nature and bar-
barism allow to the wandering savage. It is too degrading to a progressive
race to be furnished with nothing higher in any and every department than
the rude savage enjoys. This necessity extends to all the conveniences, and
even the essentials of life. Hence it is that the word itself, " necessaries,"
has its thousands of shades of meaning, according to the condition of the indi-
vidual to whom it is applied. What is "a necessary" to one class of people,
Avould be a luxury to others in a less favored 'condition.

Taking the view thus far presented, we might perhaps infer, that the social
position of the mechanic would be higher or lower, precisely in proportion to
the condition of the mechanic arts. Where the many are dependent on the
few for those higher forms of art which the few alone know how to create,'
it is natural thnt they should be looked wp to, as dispensers of esjiecial favors.
They might be regarded with the same admiring gaze with which children
sometimes stare at a fancy glass-blower, or some of even higher pretensions

VOL. IV.. — PART II. 5

446 rnoGRESs and position op mechanics.

•

look upon one who performs some striking experiment in chemistry, or in
some other of the physical sciences.

Accordingly, in ancient times, we find Vulcan was one of the gods, and
Vaulundr, the smith, in the Scandinavian mythology, was the son of a giant
and of a mermaid, and held an assigned position about the person of the
king. Next to the military hero, perhaps, was the smith who provided him
with armor and weapons.

Properly speaking, nature has not furnished us with any tools or imple-
ments. The knife, the axe, the plane, the plough, the harrow, the loom, the
brush, nor even the card ; none of these, nor any tolerable substitute for them,
nor any other implement, is found as a natural production. What though
we find the teazle growing in countries where the arts are unknown ? — no use
can be made of it. To apply it, conveniently, to any useful purpose, requires
mechanical invention.

But if we look at society again, after time for progress has elapsed, we find a
state of things in which the position of the elements which make it up is re-
versed. This is in consequence of another change in the mind of the commun-
ity. These marvellous creations of art are no longer objects of curiosity, but the
eye has been satisfied with admiring them as novelties, and men have begun
to love and long for the comfort and conveniences which* these inventions can
procure. For, with inventions there is created the power of accumulation,
and of enjoying the benefits which the ownership of property is capable of
securing. True, men might be " rich" in the times of the patriarchs. But
they could be rich only in flocks and herds, and their owner could not appro-
priate to his personal use more of the products of this property, though
counted by thousands, than could he who owned only his tens, or even his
units. It is only after the introduction of mechanical arts that one man
could make his position essentially more comfortable, more luxurious, or more
elegant than that of his neighbor ; and when, by these means, the power of
accumulation Avas so immensely multiplied, and scope was given for the
exercise of talent in manufacturing, and its necessary consequence, in profit-
able trade, then came the diversities of condition, since extended more and
more, and the luxury is the object of ambition, while the handicraft which
was con petent to produce it is regarded like any other manual labor.

There is, however, this distinction among the various kinds of labor, that
is inherent in the very nature of things. Each kind of labor or manufacture
will be held as honorable according as it requires the exercise of talent, of
education^ and of especial §kill.

Why is not the profession of the boot-black considered an honorable call-
ing? Simply because any fool can do such work. W^hy does any other
trade stand higher, in its rank, than that? Because it requires more talent
and skill. Why is the "boss" allowed, always, a higher place than his
employees ? Because the idea is innate, (if there are innate ideas,) that to
obtain and maintain such a position, demands of a man a more than average
amount of those qualifications. We do not say that other matters do not
sometimes enter into these views, to modify, or in some way affect the degree
of regard entertained for those in such positions, but we do say that this feel-
ing can not easily be separated from them. Apparent exceptions actually
confirm the correctness of this position. Have we not repeatedly heard some
ambitious apprentice or disappointed "jour" speak contemptuously of those
stationed over him, in such language as this: "Smith needn't feel so grand
to think he is so and so ; he doesn't know any'more than I do," or, " it was
hift father's money that secured the place for him ?" &c., (fee.

PROGRESS AND POSITION OF MECH.42TICS. 44T

We are very much inclined to believe that the " worship " which is so uni-
versally paid to wealth is, iu part, to be attributed to this principle. It is not
the abstract idea of large possessions, nor even the luxury they place within
one's reach ; but it is this conviction, that the possessor, he who amassed the
wealth, had more efficient talent, more available power and influence ; and
this influence covers the less fortunate in its shadow, and shows them to be
inferior. Accordingly, when some fool, some vain fop, or indolent dreamec-
inherits large property, he fails to receive the personal consideration free?}-
granted to others in like condition.

There is another phase to this progressive period. Not only did new-
inventions and their products become articles of common trade, but nothing
uncommon is now required in their manufacture. Though Vulcan was a
god, when he forged nothing but thunderbolts, when he or his siiceessors con-
descended to make horse-shoes, and nails, and hammers, &c., it was found that,
with the invention of proper tools, a common mortal was quite competent to
multiply these productions. Hence later Vulcans are mere blacksmiths. It
was, perhaps, n mighty task for him of old to forge out the artillery of the
gods ; it might have been equally difficult, perhaps a much more difficult
work, to forge a common hammer ; but when hammers and anvils and well-
arranged forges are to be had for a few paltry shillings, it ceases to become
the gods to be Vulcans, and henceforth mere men, and common and ordinary
men any where, may become blacksmiths.

But a machinist is something higher. The blacksmith can't make the
tools and mechanical combinations required for this work; and if he could, it
would require another and an advanced stage of apprenticeship to use them.
Hence, socially viewed, the machinist, in the very necessity of the case,
stands on higher ground than the blacksmith. The latter looks up to him.
No successful machinist ever thought of becoming a blacksmith, while every
day, blacksmiths aspire to become machinists. This is quite enough to show
that our position is substantially correct.

Go through all the arts, and the test will apply and bring out the same
result.

Nor is this all. The ratio of compensation demanded and freely given,
apart from the expense of the work, material, (fee, will also be found to be in
the same ratio. The whitesmith demands more foi- a job of an hour than
does the blacksmith ; the machinist more than either ; the maker of chro-
nometers, &c., still more.

The mechanic arts and mechanics sustain very different positions, in differ-
ent communities, whether of larger or smaller extent, as at the north and at
the south, in city and in country, &c.

In different communities, too, while the ratios above described are perhaps
never grossly violated, except in individual cases, the sums paid for the same
service are very unequal.

It is curious and instructive to inquire into the relative social position of
mechanics in various parts of the world. We can now only present a hint
or two on this subject.

In England, the humbler and poorer sort, however skillful, are miserably
rewarded for the exercise of that skill. Perhaps there is no country where
the wages of such will procure so httle comfort in return. That which pays
dollars here, pays but shillings, or even pence, there.

The analysis of this state of things would require us to look at the organi-
zation of society in general in that country. Rank in England is based on
fictitious and accidental circumstances, not on a substantial reality. The title

448 PROGRESS AND POSITION OF MECHANICS.

which descends to a worthless heir, from some ancestor of even notorious
infamy, but the descendant, perhaps, of a feudal lord, is entitled to, and
receives more distinction, than the most ingenious artist, or the most thorough
student of science. The " nobility " are Und-owners. Titles are thus asso-
ciated with immense free-hold estates, while the mere artisan, whose whole
estate, it may be, is only his shop and tools, and the products of his own inven-
tive faculty, is left to acquire his own reputation. Atid, with few exceptions,
this, under such circumstances, is synonymous with being unknown, e.xcept in
one's own neighborhood, and having a reputation only co-extensive with that
of the village school-master.

In other words, the distinctions which ought to belong to merit wherever
found, are there monopolized by the few, and the entire mass of artisans
have to toil up the hill of distinction against tremendous odds.

Low wages are almost a necessary consequence of this state of things.
Moneyed capital may command a larger income, whether in one form or an-
other; but mere handicraft, almost equally at the command of each among
the masses of society, can conquer only by the greatest effort. In fact, the
vast expense attending the style of the higher orders, could not perhaps
endure the increased draft upon their incomes, required by a fair compensa-
tion to the masses for their labor, without diminishing materially the profits
■of the heads of the establishments who gave them employment.

In this country it is not so. Here, intellect is king. Money is not king.
True, it is second to nothing else ; too often not even to moral worth. But
give money to a fool, and how soon is it safely deposited in the pockets of
those who have more wit! Arms are not strength. But cut off the arms
of the strong man, and how easily, in comparison, can he be overpowered!
Such is wealth to intellect. Intellect may be strong, but without arms.
Often, this is the explanation of the want of success.

But intellect is king. The intelligent artist stands on the same level with
his compeers in other pursuits. His individual position may be more or less
favored. He may have more or less of motive to make effort. His facilities,
in various ways, may be more or less ; but there is no barrier that he may not
break down, there is no honor he may not achieve, there is no title of dis-
tinction he may not acquire. The agriculturist is not in his way. He is not
a rival. On the other hand, he glories in his success. The entire yeomanry
of the whole land glory in the names of Watt and Whitney and Fulton and
Perkins, and a host of others, who have lived, to say nothing of the present
generation, and ai'e as really household gods as those who by their swords
achieved their independence.

Sometimes the artisan becomes peculiarly an object of interest. Look at
the Crystal Palace, and see how small a space is occupied by the agriculturist.
The things there exhibited, numbering thousands and tens of thousands, are
almost exclusively the works of art. And how rich, how splendid ! What
a field, is here opened ! American mechanic, if the spirit of A man is in you,
take possession of that field. It is as broad as the acres of God's earth. It
is as deep as the sea. It is as rich as wealth.

We had purposed when we began to write, to give another train of thought
connected with this subject, but must defer it till our next number.

FRUIT CULTUEE. 4M

FRUIT CULTURE NOW, AND FRUIT CULTURE TEN YEARS AGO.

In fruit time, most every body likes good fruit ; every body is animated and
made thrice glad by the appearance of fine apples, peaches, and pears. Ten years
since, horticultural science and the poraological art had not made much impres-
sion upon the minds of the people, at least in this country. In New-Jersey, it
is true, the fruit-growing business had developed itself to a considerable ex-
tent, and the peach was raised with success at that time ; but we have now,
in the United States, more than five hundred difi"erent varieties of peaches,
and different kinds are constantly increasing as the horticultural art becomes
more and more developed. Horticultural societies are springing up in most
every quarter of the Union. In California, the people boast of raising larger
fruit than we — boast of their poraological societies, and the luxuriant gardens
of Los Angelos ; so that the Avhole country seems to be awakened to the
importance of growing an abundance of wholesome fruit. This is as it should
be ; for there is no branch of agricultural labor so lucrative to the farmer and
gardener as is that branch which relates, to fruit-raising.

Set out a grape-vine next spring, and in two years, with good management,
you can eat, from your vine, fine bunches of Isabella grapes, and they will not
injure your appetite, much less the coats of your stomach ; on the contrary, you
will be benefited by them. Set out a thrifty apple-tree, seven feet high, in the
spring of 1854,and in the summer or fall of 1857 you can pluck from it apples
that would do credit to any body's table. But you must not manage the tree
as it was the people's wont to doctor apple-trees ten or fifteen years ago — set
them out in grass sods, without paying any attention to them. Men formerly
seemed to think that fruit-trees would stand almost any kind of treatment,
and come out well. But this is not true. They must receive due care and
attention, and they will pay you a large per centage for the labor you lay out
in their cultivation ; but if you abuse them by cutting oft" large limbs unne-
cessarily, and by ploughing up the lateral roots when the tree requires them
to give it nourishment, you cannot expect that they are going {o bring you
in a large profit. We were taught se\'eral years since, that large limbs should
be cut oft' from the trunks of apple-trees ; but modern science now teaches
that this is a bad practice, and results in the material injury of the tree._ Old
farmers, and I don't know but I may say old gardeners, made it a practice to
cut off the lower lateral limbs of their apple-trees, and what they did it for
I cannot for my life imagine, unless it was to plough under the trees for tur-
nips and potatoes. But modern science says to them, " You have made fatal
havoc among your fruit-trees ; for, first, you have caused them to decay by
cutting off their most important branches ; and, second, you have ploughed
too much under them, which ploughing has resulted injuriously in respect to
their roots and spongioles." Modern horticulture tells us that large limbs do tot
want removing from fruit-trees ; that the spongioles, or absorbent vessels, and
the larger roots, must not be ploughed up if we would be successful in rais-
ing thrifty apple and pear-trees. It is sometimes necessary, we a,dm.it, to root-
prune, but such instances, in our estimation, are quite rare, and allowable
only where the roots afford too much nourishment to the tree.

The process of pruning of late, has become important to the fruit grower.
Prune, but don't prune too much. You can form a tree most generally to
your own liking, by judicious pruning. For instance, the apple-tree can be
kept low by cutting off the top shoots when it is young, or it can be made

450 GRAFTING STONE FRUn\

to run up hig¥ in the air, by " nipping off" the side branches. But we
should be careful, I think, in cutting off lateral branches; for if we run the
apple-tree up twenty or thirty feet high, our fruit, as a consequence, will be
jammed and spoiled when it comes in contact with the ground. As a gene-
ral thing, we ought to think to keep our fruit-trees down low to the ground,
and thus we would be enabled to gather our apples, pears, (fee, without thirty
or forty-feet ladders. And. another thing ; all trees should be pruned while
they are young, for it is very difficult to nip the end of the limbs off after the
tree attains to the height of twelve or fifteen feet. I have tried the process,
and found it to be very hard work for the arms and neck. The grape-vine,
no doubt, is greatly benefited by judicious pruning ; but some people say
that it ought to be pruned but very little, while others say that it should be
pruned more than any other plant. It is sufficient to say that it wants tho-
rough care to make it a profitable vine, as do all other plants.

Modern horticulture teaches some new things in relation to propagating
trees. For instance, we learn that the grape-vine — the native grape-vine —
may be grafted by simply this process: cut it off below the surface of the
ground, then split it, and insert the desired kind of grape-scions ; bandage it
tightly, (use wax if thought to be necessary ;) and then close the dirt over it,
and it is said its success cannot well be doubted. And our present experience
informs us that in reality, the " currant-bush " is wrongly named, for it ought
to assume the name of a tree, since, in fact, by judicious pruning, it can be
made to grow with a trunk and top like the apple-tree ; and by thus pruning
it, the fruit, says Barry, as well as my humble self, grows twice if not thrice
as larfje as it does when the bush is left without culture.

These are facts for the million. Prune, cultivate, and manage your fruit-
trees in accordance with the teachings of modern horticulture.

W. Tappan.

Baldu-insville, ^^. Y., February, 185-i.

GRAFTING STONE FRUIT.

Ir is a mistaken idea that many entertain, that there is difficulty attending
grafting stone-fruit. It may as safely and as surely be performed with the
plum and cherry as with the apple and pear. A little more care may be
necessary, from the fact that the wood of these fruits does not split so easily ;
and a greater care becomes necessary, in consequence >f the different arrange-
ment of the bark, which, with the apple and pear, is easily cleft with the
wood, while on trees producing stone-fruit, it runs around the stalk, rendering
it liable to be irregularly torn, unless precautions are taken in cleaving to in-
sert tlie graft.

silence, we find it necessary to make a longitudinal f^lit in the bark, with a
very .sharp knife, previous to cleaving the wood, which should also be done with
a sharp instrument. Sometimes, when the bark was very firm, and a dispo-
sition was shown in the cuticle to curl, we have found it necessary to secure
it in its place by a bandage, and for this purpose, we have used an India-
rubber ring, cut considerably smaller than the stalks, and drawn over it when
rendered pliable by warming. This will hold the bark in its place until it '
heals, when the bandage may be taken off.

Another cause of failure in grafting stone-fruit arises from the delay which
attends the operation. To be successful, it should be done before the frost

ON MANURE FURNISHINa FOOD FOR PLANTS. 451

starts at all. We (in lat. 42° 20") have performed the operation early in
March — when it was so cold we were obliged to have a pan of coals with us to
warm the wax, in order to keep it pliable — with entire success. It may be
performed from that time forward, but more care is necessary, and more
doubtful success will attend if they live at all.

Grafting large trees may sometimes succeed very well, but as a general
thing, we cannot recommend it. The better way is to get the right kind of
stocks, and graft near the ground, when the trees are no larger than a per-
son's thumb. Then, if the scion is like to outgrow the stock, earth can be
placed around it, to give strength, and, it may be, new roots, to the scion.

Yours truly, W. Bacon.

' Elmviood, January 21, ISSi.

FOR THB PLOUGH, THH LOOM, AND TDE AKVIL.

ON MANURE FURNISHING FOOD FOR PLANTS.

Permit me to offer you for the pages of your very instructive journal, the
following extract from a work I prepared for another purpose, but which may
be acceptable to your readers, and be followed with others, should you so
deem it. Yours truly, Benjamin Willard.

Lancaster, Jan. l^, 1854.

We have said that plants contain four organic and ten inorganic constitu-
ents, and that the laws of nature demand that, from the so!l and atmosphere,
each one of these should be available, in order to secure perfect crops ; and a
full supply of each, to secure abundant crops. Perfect ears of corn can be
raised on a soil lightly manured, from hills four feet apart, and one stalk in a
hill, one ear to a stalk, even if the ground is ploughed only six inches deep,
provided the soil is not too wet or too dry. But quite a different culture and
manuring is required to grow twice the number of hills, three stalks in a hill,
and twin ears on most of them. The same will apply to raising wheat.

Waiving remarks on the laws requiring a deeply and finely pulverized soil,
for another article, we will, in this, consider manures as furnishing food for
plants. From repeated experiments, it has been ascertained that the stale of
animals contains a great amount of nutriment, or food for plants ; that simi-
lar effects are produced by applying the droppings of poultry, (guano,) ani-
mal manure, (blood and offal of slaughter-yards,) &c., &c. Much of the
value of these is liable to be lost by putrefaction and evaporatic^. By che-
mistry, we ascertain what this is, and the way to retain it. It is well known
that in cleaning horse-stables, especially under the floor, there is a very pun-
gent smell. The same is true in opening a heap of stable manure that has
been thrown up and heated. This smell is produced by the escape of
ammonia, which is the essence and value of the manure. The loss is greater
from privies, because their contents are still richer, and more highly charged
with fertilizing- gases. How to retain these, and to fix them in a state in
Avhich they will remain till used by the growing plants, is a question of great
importance, which a scientific knowledge of these elements alone can an-
swer.

An English writer says : Before you begin to clean out your stable, dissolve
some common salt in water; if a four-horse stable, say four pounds of salt,
dissolved in two buckets of water, and poured through the nose of a water-
pot over the stable-floor an hour or so before you begin to move the manure;

452 STARCH MANUFAC5TURE,

and the volatile salts of ammonia will become fixed salts, from their having
united with the muriatic acid of the common salt ; and the soda, thus libe-
rated from the salt, will quickly absorb carbonic acid, forming carbonate of
soda.

This powerful solvent will be a valuable agent in preparing the manure for
the reception of plants, after it is applied tothe soil. Night-soil is rendered
inodorous by mixing it with charcoal-dust, (carbon.) Dry pulverized clay,
and plaster of Paris, and ten times its weight of peat muck or turf may be
added, or any other carbonaceous matter, with good etiect. In heaping up
manure, a portion of these mixed with it will, in a great measure, prevent
the escape of ammonia, by their chemical action as above described. I have
long practised sprinkling pulverized charcoal, or plaster, daily in our stables,
and also in heaping up my manure with a free use of salt. ' The result has
been most satisfactory. This gives it double value when kept under shelter.
When mixed with alternate layers of meadow mud, treble the quautitv may
be obtained.

STARCH MANUFACTURR

Mr. Edward Tucker, Esq,,Belfast, Ireland, has invented a process of man-
ufacturing Starch, from grain and potatoes, which appears valuable. It is
'substantially this : The reduced grain or potatoes is submitted to the usual
process of fermentation, and is washed, so as to separate the bran, or refuse
of the potato, from the rest of the materials forming the substance to be
treated. The starching liquor is then run into a vat and allowed to remain
for about thirty-six hours, for precipitation. The supernatant liquor is next
run off, or removed, and the precipitate is broken up. A solution of sulphate
of soda, or Glauber's salts in boiling water, is prepared, in the proportion of
about 13 lbs. of the salt to one ton of the wheat, or other grain under treat-
ment; and after cooling down this solution, it is poured into the precipitated
starch ; and the vat being filled up with water, the entire contents are thor-
oughly mixed, and intimately incorporated by stirring. The mass is then
allowed to stand for twenty-four or thirty hours perfectly quiescent. In the
subse;^uont process, technically known as the " fine shift," when the water and
slimes are removed, another solution of the same salt is employed, but jn
much smaller proportions; about 3 lbs. weight only being applied to one
ton of wheat. At this stago, in combination with the sulphate of soda, a
portion of*sulphuric acid is used, in the proportion of about one quart of the
acid to the produce of four tons of wheat. The acid, in a diluted state, is
poured gradually into the vat, which is then nearly tilled up with fresh water ;
and the whole contents are thoroughly mixed by agitation. When the
starch has been precipitated, it is finished, and prepared for sale, and used in-
the ordinary manner. The patentee remarks that he has found sulphate of
magnesia, muriate of soda, and other salts and acids, available for a similar
purpose. This general process renders pure all water suitable for manufac-
turing starch, however hard and unsuitable it may have been originally. The
pure starch is also better se]<arated from the glutinous cpnstituent of the
grain ; whilst the manufactured starch is superior in purity, sweetness,
strength, fineness of texture, and whiteness, as compared v.ith all starch
made in the usual way ; and the yield is greatly increased.

ELECTRIC GAS.

458

ELECTRIC GAS.

We publish tlie following statements of the London Mining Joiirnal, and
also the comments of the Scientific Americany\i\\h our own views of the
subject at the close :

The proverb says, " There is nothing new under the sun ;" we have been
led to doubt the truth of this from having witnessed a private exhibition of
"electric gas." That is, gas produced from water by means of electricity,
and by which is developed, for the first time, the extraordinary phenomenon
of burning the two gases together, without the least fear of explosion, which
the most scientific and learned of men have ever hitherto deemed an imprac-
ticability.

The gases produced by electricity are free from all possibility of explosion.
Its production requires no expensive materials, nor are large premises neces-
sary, whilst all existing pipes and lamps may be used if requisite ; and in
the economy of production there will be a saving of at least fifty per cent,
upon the present cost of coal-gas.

Mr. Gamble, a scientific gentleman, connected with gas-works and rail-
ways, has made a report on this electric gas, in which he says :

" I cannot find language sufficiently expressive to convey the astonishment
I experienced' at witnessing the effects of the electro-magnetic machine in the
production of gas applicable for the purpose of artificial light and heat by
the decomposition of water. Water is found, on a chemical analysis, to be
composed of two permanently elastic fluids, or gases, called oxygen and hy-
drogen. When water is decomposed, an enormous increase in volume is the
result ; this increase is about 2,000 times. It has been long known that
water is decomposable by electrical agency, but this has been generally ef-
fected by the action of a galvanic trough, at an expense so great as to be
commercially prohibitory. But by the magnetic apparatus the expense is
very trifling, being little more than interest on first cost of the machine,
with a small addition for renewals, and the cost of the motive power. The
decomposition of water for the purpose of obtaining a gas applicable for
the production of artificial light and heat, has long engaged the atteii-
tion of chemists : and numerous discoveries professing to attain this
desideratum have been made'. All these (so far as I am acquainted
with them) have for their object the separation of the hydrogen -gas only ;
no attempt, I believe, has hitherto been made to make use of the oxygen.
The general mode in which the hydrogen is obtained, is by passing steam
through scrap-iron, or a variety of other materials heated to a higk tempera-
ture ; in this manner, the vapor of water is decomposed, the oxygen unites
with the heated solid body, and the hydrogen is liberated in the gaseous form,
and collected in a gas-holder. But the gas resulting from the decomposition
of water by the magnetic machine is altogether different. Here is collected
not merely the hydrogen, but the oxygen also ; this increases the volume of
production one-third, and the gas is altogether different in its composition.
It is an invention, the most gigantic of the age of wonders.'.'
[The above is a very long quotation, and we would not republish it unless
we thought of accomplishing some good thereby. We will therefore point
out the errors contained in it, and show the utter unscientific qualifications of
its author, who is reported to be " a scientific gentleman." And we do this
as a duty, because we have seen the above republished in many of our ex-

454 ELECTRIC GAS.

changes, and we certainly do not wish nonsense to go abroad uncorrected,
under the panoply of science.

It is well known to almost every child in our land, that water is composed
of hydrogen and oxygen, and when decomposed into these elements, they
increase in bulk about 2,000 times their volume — as water. But it is not
true that water has generally been decomposed heretofore, by passing steam
through red-hot scraps of iron, by which process the hydrogen is set free,
while the oxygen unites with the metal. Zinc and iron, submitted to the
action of dilute sulphuric acid, will generate hydrogen by decomposing the
water ; but platinum, heated to a white heat, if plunged into water, will set
both its oxygen and hydrogen free.

But water has been decomposed into its elementary gases many times by the
very plan set forth above, namely, electricity. This was Paine's plan of de-
composing water to obtain his light. It is more than twenty years since this
was first done by the magneto-electrical machine of Mr. S^ixton, a scientific
American, residing in London : he accomplished the very thing said now to
be " the most gigantic invention of this age of wonders," and in the very
city where the above affair has been thus unblushingly announced by a scien-
tific rientleman.

In 1838, Dr. Page, formerly of the Patent OflSce, made a great improve-
ment on the magneto-electrical machine, by which powerful currents were
generated, perfectly applicable to the decomposition of water.

The gases of water are not fit for illumination, unless burned on lime or
chalk, forming the Drummond Light. This light is very expensive and
troublesome. The gases of water cannot be conveyed, and used in pipes like
our common carburetted hydrogen, nor can they be used with safety. A jar
containing hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions for forming water, will
explode with great violence if a spark of electricity be passed through it ;
these gases will also explode if a light of any kind he applied to them.

The statement above, that the gases of water "are free from all possibility
of explosion," is an unqualified untruth, and so is all thivt is stated about its
cheapness of production. These gases can be safely burned by well-known
apparatus made for the very purpose; still they are dangerous. They pro-
duce, when burned, an intense heat ; a heat so great, indeed, as to melt
platinum like wax, by Dr. Hare's blow-pipe ; but unless burned upon lime or
some solid incandescent substance, as we have already stated, they will pro-
duce only great heat, but not good light. In the above extract which we
have quoted, there is nothing new except that which is untrue. — Scientific
American^

The literal sense of the proverb quoted above, " There is nothing new un-
der the stin," so far as inventions and new applications of long-known prin-
ciples are concerned, American mechanicians have long since discarded.
There are a thousand things that are new, and many, which, in one sense,
never will be old, for they will be exploded as soon as they are brought to
the light.

The endeavor to manufacture gas by the decomposition of water, has been
often and pei-severingly pursued by many persons, who were both practical
and scientific; but, as the editor of the Scientific American observes, without
available success.

Still, we have some substantial objections to make against the positions
taken, both by the London editor and by our learned neighbor. Both are
well versed in the principles of science applicable to the question discussed,
no doubt; but is not the latter going too far in denying what is claimed by

ELECTRIC GA!?. 455

the LondoA editor, as having now been accomplished, simply because it never
before was accomphshed ? Even the chemists here have no knowledge of the
mode of doing it ; it may perhaps be done.

When the elements which compose water are transformed into gases, and
are brouo-ht into contact, they are explosive. This has long been known.
But suppose some fortunate experimenter should be successful in arranging
machinery, with the requisite chemical contrivances, so to speak, as to modify
■essentially, by combination or otherwise, one of these elements, either hydro-
gen or oxygen. It is obvious that the conditions of the mixture may be so
changed, that there is no longer any danger of explosion. Whether Mr.
Oamble has, in fact, accomplished this, remains to be proved. This result
need not be considered impossible, even if it remains yet unachieved. The
compound blow-pipe, as now constructed, is considered perfectly safe, and yet
two gases combine to give to it its tremendous power.

There is another point, on which the chemistry of the past, so to speak,
must not be too positive. Reference is made above to the discovery of Mr.
Paine. It is not perhaps generally known that the results which he obtained
were accomplished by a very simple modification of the machinery in com-
mon use. He was always willing to exhibit every part of his apparatus, with
the exception of one piece, scarcely larger than one's fist, namely, the helix.
The change made in the construction of this magic coil secured to him his
measure of success, whatever that may have been.

But what was this success ? Perhaps the best answer may be a reference
to his English patent. He succeeded in producing an excellent light. The
economy of the process was also quite satisfactory. But the machinery was
in constant danger of being blown to pieces, and th's danger he long tried
in vain to remove. Wh^P, at last, he supposed that this difficulty was also
overcome, he found that there was another " more excellent " way, namely,
the use of atmospheric air without decomposition. This ghostly obstacle
was thus removed far away from the pHth of the experimenter.

But it was the "electric light" of Mr. Paine which was the subject of
general discussion, and which led more than one very respectable committee
to visit the beautiful town of Worcester. Among these, one committee, of
which the late accomplished President of the Boston Gas-Light Company,
Mr. George Darricott, was chairman. Mr. D. reported that the light exhi-
bited by Mr. Paine was a good light, but they,' the committee, did not be-
lieve that it was produced in the manner described by Mr. Paine. One rea-
son assigned for this disbelief was because the gentleman, then in attendance,
a brother of Mr. P., was very unwilling to take the machinery to pieces, and
when he finally did separate its parts, and then replace them, the light was
less brilliant than before. Now^the fact was, this brother had no inclination
to run the risk of being blown up, and by mixing his gases with atmospheric
air, this liability was greatly increased. As to the second reason, we are sur-
prised that so sensible men should attach to this fact any importance. All
illuminating gas gives a dim light when mixed with atmospheric air. We
happened to be in Worcester the first evening in which coal-gas was used for
lighting the town, and we and other guests of the American House (and a
capital house it was, and is still) complained bitterly of the dimness of the
lights, before we had an explanation of it.

Another matter of fact in respect to which these gentlemen were mistaken,
and on which the comments above quoted need some modification, is in re-
ference to the mode of giving brilliancy to the flame of hydrogen. This
Committee stated that, in their opinion, the passage of the gas through "cold

456 SUBSTITUTE FOR GUTTA PERCHA.

turpentine" would not catalyze it suflBcientlj to give it the brightness required*
They were mistaken. With the improved machinery, there was nothing to
be desired on this point. Our learned neighbor repeats the same thought,
and suggests that lime or chalk, as used in the famous Drummond light, and
which many of our city readers have seen on the top of Barnunvs Museuna,
is necessary to impart to it the requisite brilliancy. This is true only when
used in connection with the old machinery. Paine's experiments on this
point were quite satisfactory. Whrj they should be so, why so slight a
change in machinery, or why any change in machinery, should so change the
properties of hydrogen gas, we do not know, nor so far as we have learned,
.^oes any one pretend to explain. The whole process of "catalysis" is ut-
terly inexplicable. The greatest chemists do not pretend to be wiser on this
subject than their unlearne'd neighbors.

We do not, liowever, attach so ranch importance to the discovery of
" electric gas," as does the editor of the London Mining Journal, even though
all that is claimed for Mr. Gamble's discoveries should appear to be true.
We have something still better. There can be nothing cheaper than atmo-
spheric air, and no carbonizing mixture has yet been offered to us, cheaper or
more convenient than the Benzole mixture of the American Gas Company,
now used in producing light at No. 3 Broadway. But we are open to con-
viction, and shall rejoice to be able to set forth a greater good, when it shall
be shown to us.

SUBSTITUTE FOR GUTTA PERCHA.

Dr. Riddell, officiating superintending Surgeon of the Nizam's array,
in making experiments on the Muddar plant of India, {Asclepio Gigitntea,)
had occasion to collect the milky juice, and found that as it gradually dried,,
it became tough and hard, like gutta percha. He was induced to treat the
juice in the same manner as that of the gutta-percha tree, and the result has
been the obtaining of a substance precisely analogous to gutta percha. Sul-
phuric acid chars it ; nitric acid converts it into a yellow resinous substance.
Muriatic acid has but little effect upon it ; acetic acid has no effect, nor has
alcohol. Spirit of turpentine dissolves it into a viscid glue, which, when
taken between the finger and thumb, pressed together, and then separated,
shows numberless minute and separate threads. The^ foregoing chemical
tests correspond exactly with the established results of gutta percha. It be-
comes phustic in hot water, and has been moulded into cups and vessels. It
will utiite with the true gutta percha. The Muddar also produces an excel-
lent fibre, useful in the place of hemp and flax. An acre of cultivation of it
would produce a large quantity of both fibre and juice. The poorest land
suffices for its growth, and, no doubt, if well cultivated, there would be a large
yield of juice and a finer fibre. A nearly similar substance is procurable
from the juice of the Euphorbia Titucalli, only, when it hardens after boil-
mg, it becomes brittle. The subject is most important ; and if common
hedge-plants like the foregoing can yield a product so valuable, the demand
for which is so ceutain quickly to outVun supply, a material addition will have
been made to the productive resources of the country. — Journal of the Sa-
tiety of Arts.

FEMALE ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 457

FEMALE ACCOMPLISHMENTS.

We take the following very pleasing paragrapli from the address of C. P.
Holcomb, Esq., before the Maryland State Society, of which we have before
•given some notice :

As showing the interest English ladies take in agriculture, I cannot but
relate a casual interview I chanced to have with an English lady, in going
up in the express train from London to York. Her husband had bought a
book at the stand as we were about starling, and remarked to her that " it
was one of her favorite American autliors — Hawthorne." I casually observed,
-*'! was pleased to see young American authors found admirers with English
ladies," when the conversation turned on books and authors. But I said to
myself pretty soon, " this is a literary lady ; probably her husband is an
editor or reviewer, and she handles the ' scissors ' for him; at all events, I
must retreat from this discussion about authors, modern poets, and poetry.
What should a farmer know critically of such things ? If 1 was only in those
fields — if the conversation could be made to turn on crops, or cattle, then I
«hould feel quite at home." I finally f)ointed out a field of wheat, and
remarked it was very fine. The lady, carefully observing it, said : " Sir, I
think it is too thin — a common fault this season, as the seeding was late."
■"Those drills," she added, turning to her husband for his confirmation, "can-
not be more than ten inches apart, and you see, sir, the ground is not com-
pletely covered ; twelve, and even fifteen inches is now preferred for the width of
drills, and two bushels of seed to the acre will then entirely cover the ground,
on good land, so you can hardly distinguish the drills."

If the Goddess of Ceres had appeared with her sheaf, or her cornucopia, I
could not have been taken more by surprise. A lady descanting on the
width of wheat drills, and the quantity of seed !

"I will try her again," said 1, " this may be a chance shot," and remarked,
in reference to a field of ploughed ground we were passing, that it broke up
in great lumps, and could hardly be put in good tilth. "We have much
clay-land like this,-" she replied, "and formerly it was difficult to cultivate it
in "a tillage crop, but since the introduction of Croskill's Patent Clod-Crusher,
they will make the most beautiful tilth on these lands, and which are now
regarded as among our best wheat lands."

The conversation turned on cattle. She spoke of the best breeds of cows
for the pail, (the Ayrshires and Devons;) told m€ where the best cheese was
made, (Cheshire ;) the best butter, (Ireland ;) where the best nulk-maids
were to be found, (Wales.) " Oh !" said I, "I was mistaken ; this charming,
intelligent woman, acting so natural and unatiected, dressed so neat, and so
very plain, must be a farmer's wife, and what a help-mate he has in her!
She is not an extravagant wife either, not an ornament about her ; yes, a
-single bracelet clasps a fair rounded arm — that's all." The train stopped at
York ; no sooner had my travelling companions stepped upon the platform,
than I noticed they were surrounded by half a dozen servants — men and
maids — the men in full livery. It turned out to be Sir John and Lady H.
This gentleman, I learned, was one of the largest landed proprietors in Berk-
shire, and his lady, the daughter of a nobleman, a peeress in her own right ;
but her title added nothing to her — she was a noble woman without it.

It is a part of our. task to excel in horliculture, in which female taste and
«kill must aid us. We must embellish our homes ; we must make them

458 FURS AND SKINS.

sweet and pleasant homes. The brave old oaks must be there ; the spacious
lawn with its green sward, and the fruit orchard, and the shrubbery, and the
roses ; the vines festooned and trained about the walls and balconies ; even
the birds will think that a sweet home, and will come and sing, and make
melody, as though they would " teach the art to imitative man."

Such a home will be entailed to our children, and to their children, not by
statute laws of entail, but by a higher law, the law of nature, through the
force of sympathy, the associations of childhood,

"The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild wood,
And every loved spot wbich our infancy knew,"

These will hold them to it — these early memories, which we should take care
to deepen with a binding and indissoluble tie.

Talk not, then, 0 ye fathers and mothers ! to your sons of forensic fame ;
of senatorial halls ; of the distinction of professional life ; or of the gains and
emoluments of commerce. It is not for our class, surely, to furnish more
recruits to this hazardous service, in which so many of the youth of the coun-
try have been lost — lost to any useful purpose of living ; themselves miserable
from that hope deferred that makes the heart sick ; or disappointed of the
objects of life, have been overwhelmed by bankruptcy and ruin. Give to
your sons the 2)ur suit of Washingtoh, who gloried in being a Farmer ; the
field and the council-chamber he sought from duty, but his farm at Mount
Vernon, where he wisely directed the plough, from choice and pleasure.

" Wide — wid*^ may the world feel the power of the plough,
And yinld to the sickle a fullness d. lighting ;
May tliis be our conquest, the earth to subdue,
'Till all join the soug of the harvest inviting;
The sword and the spear
Are only known here,
A3 we plough, or wo prune — or we toil void of fear,
And the fruit and the flower all smile in their birth,
All greeiing the Farmer, the Prince of the Earth."

FURB AND SKINS.

A GREAT trade is done in these on the Missouri river and at St. Louis, and
much romantic incident as well as wealth is connected with the traffic.

The silver fox is found only on or near the mountain tops, where the colof
is perpetual. The trappers take them principally from the Utah, Sierra Ne-
vada, and other portions of the dividing ridge west of California and Oregon.
Even there, however, they are rare. The fur of the silvery gray is larger,
thicker, and finer than that of any other fox. It derives its chief value,
however, from its extraordigary and beautiful color. The skins, Avhen pure,
will readily command from $100 to $150. They are used for muffs, and for
trimming female articles of dress. The Democrat says that the fur trade has
declined in importance within the last twelve years. At that period, fur was
held at $6 and $8 per lb., but it is now generally superseded by silk and
plush. Twelve years ago, no hat was fashionable that was not of beaver,
and the cost of a good beaver hat in St. Louis was from $14 to $25; and
of caps, made of other skin, $15 and $20, and even more. Since the de-
cline in the price of beaver, that kind of game has been visibly on the in-
crease. Buffalo and other large game, however, do not increase. They have
or are rapidly abandoning the large extent of plains over which the immi-
gration pours. Being thus herded in a narrow compass, the supply must
begin materially to fail in the course of a few years.

IOWA COAL FIELD. 459

NEW COAL MINE.

Mr. Emmons, State Geologist, in North Carolina, in a letter dated Decem-
ber 27, .1853, to the Raleigh Register^ gives some jjarticulars of a very valu-
able development of a coal field :

It appears that the first seam was cut at 360 feet. When I first saw the
statement, some weeks ago, in the public prints, I remarked that this five-foot
seam is not the main seam. There is at least another just below it, which
has more than twice the thickness of this. So that it will be found my
estimates of the quantity of coal in the Deep River basin will fm- exceed the
amount I stated in my report. I am not at all surprised at the results of the
boring. I could not expect, from my own observations, that the first seam
would be cut nearer the surface than 350 feet at any place. When the
seams are covered with the entire mass of slates, I expected also, and sus-
tained my expectations, that the seams would have become flatter at a dis-
tance from the out-crops.

It will appear, then, that I am justified in assuming the position that, at
the point within the out-crop, where the auger penetrated the slates, there is
three times as much coal to the acre as I stated in my report. This will
make 24,900 tons to the acre; or, for every 1,000 acres, 29,400,000 tons.
This coal, considering its quahty, will be worth in market $7 per ton, and
will amount to $203,800,000.

It may be said that I am holding out false lights ; but I abide my time.
Somewhere on Deep River, there remains to be built a city greater than
Lowell. Deep River has the water, the coal, the iron, the copper, the corn,
the wheat, and the cotton. Lowell, of my honored native State, had the
water only ; and there arose, by the industry of a few men, a great city. If
the olil State can't build one, somebody north of Mason and Dixon's line
will, and call it after his own name.

IOWA COAL FIELD.

This zone of limestone has an average width of twenty-five miles ; it cir -
cumscribes, with a short interval, the great coal-field which occupies the whole
of south-western Iowa, extending north, to latitude 42 deg. 30 min.; and
separates it from the Illinois coal-field by a calcareous belt, varying in width
from twenty-five to fifty miles.

Of this coahfield, (in Iowa alone, not including its extension souih into
Missouri,) the dimensions are as follows :

'Its av. r.ige width from east to west is less than two hundred miles ; its
greatest : ..glh from north to south, about one hundred and forty miles ; its
contents, about 25,000 square miles. It extends, measured in a direct line,
nearly two hundred miles in a north-westerly direction, up the valley of the
Des Moines.

After crossing the Iowa boundary line into Missouri, the boundary line of
this coal-field bears nearly south, through Clark, Lewis, and Marion counties,
to near the junction of the three forks of Salt River ; thence through the
western part of Ralls county, towards the head-waters of Riviere au Cuivre,
in the eastern part of Audrian county, and north-western corner of Mont-

460 COAL ASHES.

gomery county ; thence it sweeps in a soutli-westerly curve throutjh Calloway
county, towards the Missouri River, which it crosses near its confluence with
the Osage; leaving a belt of country some ninety miles wide, between this
coal region and the out-crops at Charbonniere, and the coal-pits worked on
Riviere des Peres, in St. Louis county. These are, in fact, outliers of the
Illinois coal-field. From the Missouri River, the boundary bears, with a west-
erly curve, up the valley of the Osage, north of that river, which it crosses,
but for a very limited distance only at three points ; in Camden county, near
the mouth of Niangua ; in St. Clair county, near the mouth of Sac River ;
and in Bates county, near the confluence with the main river of the Little
Osage. Thence the line bears, with a northerly curve, towards the western
confines of Fayette, recrossing the Missouri at Wellington ; thence up the
valley of that river, keeping from ten to twenty-five miles from the river, to
the State line.

The coal measures of Iowa are shallow, much more so than those of the
Illinois coal-fleld. They seem attenuated, as towards the margin of an an-
cient carboniferous sea ; not averaging more than fifty fathoms in thickness.
Of these the productive coal-measures are less than a hundred feet thick.
The thickest veia of co(il detected in Iowa does not exceed from four' to five
feet; while, in Missouri, some reach the thickness of twenty feet and upwards.

COAL ASHES.

For several years after the use of hard coal was introduced into this part
of the country, the ashes were considered of no value. • This has been found
a mistake.

We long ago used them on the walks of our door-yards or other thorough-
fares, and found them to be very useful, securing a hard path that was not
easily broken. Sometimes, indeed, it is desirable to cover them with a thin
coat of fine gravel, or some other substance equally clean.

On some soils, which are too loose and too "light," we have no doubt that
coal ashes would be permanently beneficial.

Again, on a hard clay soil, we know of nothing that is more promising.
It contains much silex, in which all clay soils are deficient.

But silex is not the only element which it supplies. It contains alumine,
carbon, and iron, in a soluble form, nearly to the amount of twenty per cent.
Hence, it is obvious that it is a valuable manure for many varieties of soils.

Caxnel Coal. — It is now settled, beyond a doubt, that Western Pennsyl-
vania po>ses.ses inexhaustible quantities of cannel coal, of excellent qualities.
It is found in Beaver, Armstrong, and Indian counties, and, no doubt, exists
in Butler, -Jcfterson, and Clearfield counties. The quantities already discov-
ered are immense. Western Pennsylvania possesses fine water-power, inex-
haustible supplies of coal aVid iron ore, a fertile soil, a salubrious climate,
magnificent scenery, and a central position.

HINTS OK BREEDING GRAZING CATTLE. 461

HINTS ON BREEDING GRAZING CATTLE.

We commend tlie following suggestions, whicli we take from the New-
York Spirit of the Times :

Some breeds of cattle are disposed to carry fat internally, and others ex-
ternally, while in others it is deposited between the layers of muscles, forming
what is called " marbled meat," In the races of cattle disposed to carry far
externally, are the once-famed " Dishley breed," with large fatty rumps, and
the African ox, with his immense humps of fat on his shoulders. These
animals have little or no internal fat. The Herefords are distinguished for
this peculiarity of carrying much external fat, making these exceeding good
"handlers." The " improved Durham " are highly prized for their "mar-
bled beef."

The animals which reach the greatest weight of muscle and fot, with the
least consumption of food, are the Herefords and Durhams ; the former breed
will fatten, at the age of two and a half years, to one thousand pounds;
"while nearly all other breeds require at least one year longer to attain this
weight — an important fact that should not be lost sight of by breeders of
grazing cattle.

In calling attention to the " principles " of breeding, we cannot perhaps do
better than examine the " rules " followed b}" the most successful English
breeders.

The following are the means by which Bakewell established the permanent
character of his cattle :

He first selected the best animals of their respective kinds, and coupling
these, endeavored to develop in the highest degree those characters which he
deemed good, looking mainly to those peculiarities of conformation which
indicate a disposition to fatten. He arrived at producing a large cylindrical
body, and a smallness of the neck, head, and extremities, or what is called
fineness of bone. A saying of his, often quoted, is, that " all was useless that
was not beef." Hence, the principles which guided him, were the most meat
from the least food, the least offal, and the size of the best joints : smallness
of the bones, aptness to fatten, and arrive at early maturity, he kept con-
stantly in view. He always bred from the best animals, making the very
best selections of both male and female. He thought the production of a
large quantity of milk was inconsistent with the property of yielding much
meat.

Charles and Robert Colling made many improvements in the Durhams.
They, like Bakewell, seem to have regarded size in their animals as a quality
secondary and subordinate to those which they wished to produce, and to
have directed almost exclusive attention to beauty and utility of form, and
development of the properties of early fattening. Having, by skillful selec-
tions, become possessed of animals with the properties sought for, they con-
tinued to breed in and in.

C. Colling's first great improvement was made on a young bull, which he
obtained by a kind of chance of a poor man, from a cow fed by the road-
side. His sagacity led him to see the value of the young animal. He like-
wise afterwards obtained a cow, which, however, on being removed to supe-
rior pasture, became so fat, that she did not again breed. The calf inherited
the same property, and as he grew up, became so fat as to be useless as a
bull. This bull was termed Hubback : he was the sire of the celebrated
Bolingbroke.

VOL. VI. — PART II. 6

462 HINTS ON BREEDING GRAZING CATTLE.

Colling, by continually breeding from his own stock, seems to have pushed
refinement in breeding to its limits, having produced that delicacy and im-
pairment of constitution which never fails to accompany a continued inter-
mixture of blood in a hraited number of animals. He now attempted
various crosses with cows of various other breeds ; but his most fortunate cross
was with a most beautiful polled Galloway cow, of a red color, and his
" short-horn" Bolingbroke. The produce, being a male calf, was in due time
conjoined with Johanna, a fine short-horn cow ; the produce being another
male calf, was put to " Lady," a true-bred short-horn. This cow, with her
descendants, at his sale in 1810, forty-eight lots, brought £7,115, or about
8716 each.

Michael Dobson, one of the earliest improvers of Durhams, visited Holland,
for the purpose of selecting bulls of the Dutch breed. His stock were of
great size, coarse, great consumers of food, did not fatten very early, pro-
duced much internal fat, and were well adapted to the uses of the dairy.
This district, Holderness, was distinguished beyond any other part of Eng-
land for its dairy stock, and many cows of this variety are yet to be found
more or less mixed with the Durham blood. The effect has been to improve
their form, but to impair taeir milking properties ; nevertheless, the niudern
Holderness still stand in the first rank of dairy cows, and the great Loudon
dairies are chiefly supplied by them. ' <

The following are the principal characters, found in animals possessing the
faculty of fattening readily *.

The head small, face long from the eyes to the point of the nose, frontis
broad, muzzle fine, nostrils capacious, neck short, light, nearly straight, and
small from the back of the head to the middle ; full, clear, and prominent
eye ; the back straight from the top of the shoulders to the tail, which should
fall perpendicularly- from the line of the back ; the chest wide and deep ; the
ribs deep and circular — this depth of " barrel" is most advantageous in pro-
portion as it is found behind the elbow ; hips wide apart ; loins and back
well filled up with muscle ; quarters full and large ; flank deep and well filled
out ; bones small and fiat, but not so fine as to indicate too great delicacy of
constitution ; the hide, a very important part, rather thin, expansive, and
mellow, well covered with fine and soft hair.

These are the principal characters which indicate the property of secreting
the fatty tissue, and they may be said to be universal, extending to all do-
mesticated animals, the horse, the sheep, the hog, the dog, and the rabbit.
In breeding, always observe the following rules :

1. Breed from sound and healthy animals.

2. Breed from the most perfect in form, and take a special care that a ten-
dency to the same defect does not exist in both parents.

3. Breed animals of a distinct and positive character, to insure a cettain
description of offspring.

4. Select the very best males; for the produce inherit much more of the
qualities of the male, whether good or bad, than they do from the fem;de.

5. In crossing, the true system is to take one cross, and then return and
adhere to the original breed.

It is a common practice, in the rearing of blood-stock intended for exhibi-
tion, to place the young animals, shortly after they are weaned, in a narrow
stall, or box, and to feed them with milk and meal — sometimes sugar an
molasses are added — and afterwards with grass, hay, carrots, &c. ; the ani-
mals look fat and plump, and their owner is satisfied. Now, the effect of
this is without doubt to lessen the size of the lungs and other organs con-

WILL DRY GYPSUM ABSORB AMMONIA? 463

cerned in nutrition, and produce a breed that will carry an immense mass of
fat, come quickly to maturity, and also, when they breed, produce the sj^me
qualities in their oiFspring.

By breeding from animals having a great tendency to fatten, or from
those kept constantly fat, function must react on organization, and at last
these qualities become not only increased, but fixed, in the race. By func-
tions reacting on organization, is meant, when an organ — the lungs for in-
stance— becomes diseased in consequence of not performing their natViral
functions, the diminished structure is likely to be reproduced in the progeny
of an animal so affected ; hence the reaction. The great secret of rearing
animals for profit, is to obtain the fat kind, and supply them with all the food
they desire, from their birth to maturity.

But, however desirable these qualities may be in animals intended for the
butcher, others of an opposite character must be attended to : these are,
weight of muscL3, constitution, and capabilities of propagating their species ;
to produce all which, quite a different system must be adopted. The proper
development and growth of muscles depend in a great measure upon the use
that is made of them ; as a set of muscles in active exercise increase in size
and vigor, while those that are but little used, lose their firmness and dimi-
nish in bulk. Cattle require not such exercise as would harden the muscular
fi[bre, but just so much as would tend to keep them in health, and prevent
their getting too fat.

By merely feeding an adult animal, we have not the power of increasing-
its muscular substance, but we have great power over the increase of fatty
matter, which, along with the fleshy fibre, forms food.

Daily experience fully proves the "folly and impolicy of neglecting young
stock of any kind; but especially is such neglect injurious in the case of
those animals whose value depends on their size, symmetry, and constitution,
which are mainly promoted by a careful provision of shelter, and a liberal
supply of food during the first two years ; as nearly the whole of the fleshy
parts (muscle) of an animal, which afford most profit, are assimilated during
the period of its growth.

WILL DRY GYPSUM ABSORB AMMOOTA?

How shall we secure the ammonia of our barn-yards, is one of the great
(questions of the day. Among the discussions of the subject which we pub-
lish, we present the following remarks from the JV. E. Farmer, and add only
that the experiments described appear to have been very properly managed. —
Eds. p. L. A.

That is, will dry ground plaster, spread on the manure heap, prevent the
escape of its ammonia, so that on entering the stable where horses are kept,
m- the barn-cellar, where the droppings from the lean-to are collected, we shall
not smell any odor from them?

As these escaping gases are very valuable, and as the amount of plaster
now annually used for this purpose amounts to a heavy item of expenditure
in farm husbandry, the question is an important one.

That the plaster so used upon manures will absorb the ammonia, the editor
cf the Maine Farmer says he "has always considered to be the true doctrine,
he having sprinkled it on fermenting heaps of horse-manure, and thereby
destroyed the odor." He adds, " we have also scattered it in and about

464 WILL DRY GYPSUM ABSORB AMMONIA?

privies, and neutralized the offensive odors thereof, for a time ; and withont
any further examination, supposed the theory correct."

On the other hand, the editor of the Rural Netv- Yorker " denies that
plaster will thus unite with ammonia, unless it be dissolved." To establish
this theory, he says, a scientific farmer and writer took some plaster and
iruano, and rubbed them together in his hand, and upon applying it to the
nose, found that "instead of fixing the ammonia, the plaster aided the de-
composition of the guano, and the ammonia was driven off with considerable
rapidity."

The test w^as a simple one, but v/as it a fair one ? Could a sufficient
quantity of plaster be held in the hand to neutralize the odors of even a
single thimble-full of so concentrated and powerful a manure as guano ? W«
think not, and do not consider such a test as settling the question.

The editor of the Farmer, in support of his theory, quotes the experi-
ments of another practical man. Professor Campbell, of North Carolina, " by
which it would seem that plaster, in a dry state, does actually absorb, or
rather decompose, carbonate of ammonia, while flying off from fermenting
manures."

Mr. Campbell made an experiment which he says was conducted as fol-
lows :

"A barrel was filled with fresh scrapings from the stalls of horses. Over
the manure, as thrown in, a little ground plaster was sprinkled from time to
time. After the barrel had been compactly filled, it was allowed to stand
some weeks, until it had gone through the heating process, which always-
takes place when newly collected manure is thrown into heaps. But daring
this heating or fermentation, (as it may with propriety be called,) there was
none of that ' vapor' or strong odor which ordinarily arises from fermenting
manure heaps. When the mass had become cool, clean rain-water was passed
through it, and collected at the bottom of the barrel. This water was found
■ to contain one of the elements of plaster, and one of the volatile subslancea
■(carbonate of ammonia) above alluded to. On emptying the barrel, a white
powder, looking very much like plaster, was found mingled with its contents.
But when tested, this powder vras found to contain only one of the element?
of plaster, while it contained also one element of the volatile carbonate of
ammonia just mentioned."

We have great confidence in the theory of the editor of the Farmer, and
that confidence has been gained by several years' practice of that theory.
When the horse-stalls have been neglected, and the odor arising from them
lias become exceedingly pungent, we apply the dry plaster, axiA, presto ! the
stalls are sweet. And so of the cattle-stalls, the cess-pools, the drains, and
any other olfactory nuisance that comes in sight.

This dry plaster, however, is never applied to dry substances. When
thrown upon the horse and cattle-stalls, the litter and the floor are wet ; if
they were dry, there w^ould probably be no odor. But who has dry piles of
manure in these days of inquiry and progress? Certainly not the man who
is in the habit of using plaster. The dry heaps under the barn windows,
resembling camel's dung that has bleached an age on deserts of sand, belong
to men of another age, who laugh at you {or expecting to find virtue in stones,
and look upon ammonia as a cabalistic word, which, like Pandora's box, is
filled with all manner of evil.

The theory of the editor of the Rural New-Yorker, in this view of the
case, may be correct; we do not believe, however, that it is necessary to go to
the trouble of leaching the plaster, and using the water thus impregnated
with it.

COTTON". — MODE OF CULTIVATION, 465

The best mode of retaining the valuable properties of manures, until the)'
are wanted for use, is to apply to them daily such portion of finely pulverized,
old meadow-muck as will take up the juices, so that none of them will leach
out. This muck is the cheapest, most accessible, and convenient, and at the
same time one of tha most capacious absorbents and best deodorizers at the
command of the farmer. Try it in the filthiest pool, or on the XQo?^i fragrant
heap of ofial you can find, and see what a magic power it possesses ! Keep
a winrow of it in the cellar, in front of the place where the droppings from
the stall accumulate, and each day cover them so as to add as much again
muck as there is of the droppings, and the whole mass shall be of as much
value as the same number of loads of pure droppings, left

" To waste its sweetness on the desert air."

No man in this State was better qualified, we think, to pronounce an
opinion upon this subject, than the late Mr. Phiuney, of Lexington ; no other
person, probably, had used so much muck, or made so many careful experi-
ments with it upon almost all kinds of crops. We have often heard him say
that three loads of compost, prepared as we have described above, were fully
equal to three loads of the unmixed manure.

COTTCK— MODE OF CULTIVATION.

Messks. Editors : — In accordance with my promise in my article on guano,
I propose giving you my views on the culture of cotton.

The cotton plant is not easily suited in soil and climate, and it seldom
happens that they are so combined as to perfect the plant.

The best cotton lauds are of a deep, rich, soft mould, a medium between
the spongy and sandy. The most important part of the cultivation consists
in a judicious and proper preparation of the soil for planting. All cotton
lands should be broken up deep and close, at the latest, by January ; it would
be better to have it done in November or December, but picking out gene-
rally prevents k. Plough deep, the deeper the better; use the subsoil as
much as possible ; even if your land has been in cotton the year previous,
bi-eak it uj) deep, at least one foot.

About the 25th of March, I prepare for planting. I lay oflf my rows from
thirty-two to thirty-six inches wide. Cotton should be so planted, that when
it arrives at maturity, the branches will slightly interlock on every side. I
lay off" these rows as deep as I can with a shovel or scooter from two to three
inches broad; the plough is one half inch broader at the point. I then drill
my manure as regular as possible. I follow with a turning plough, laying
oil two furrows, raising the bed as high as possible ; I then break out the
middles. If the land is low, I draw up the bed with hoes ; with a small,
narrow plough, I lay open the bed, making a furrow of uniform size and
depth. A careful hand follows, strewing the seeds evenly in the farrow, al-
ways using enough to secure a good stand, (about three bushels per acre.)
I cover with a board of hard wood, an inch or inch and a half thick, seven
or eight inches broad, and a foot in length, slightly notched in the centre.
The board is screwed on the plough -foot, and when drawn over the row,
covers the seed nicely. If the ground is well broken up, and the seed well
planted, half the labor is done.

As soon as the cotton is up, I commence thinning out, leaving bunches

4:QQ LINEN IN OLDEN TIMES.

from tM<^lit to twelve inches apart, passing along rapidly with hoes. I follow
with a small shovel, running close to the cotton, ploughing very deep, and
throwing up a little light soil to the roots of the cotton. This ploughing, too,
should he close and deep, so that the roots may easily penetrate the soil, as
they strike deep into the earth. If the ground is very rough, the ploughs
shall precede the hoes.

In the second working, which should follow as soon as possible, the ploughs
go before the hoes. This ploughing also should be deep and close. I now
brinor my cotton to a stand. This should be carefully done, and the hoes
attentively watched, as a stand is often ruined by this working. Sore shin,
nist, &c., are often chargeable to the way in which this working is done. I
now leave one stalk in every bunch heretofore left, making my cotton stand
from eight to twelve inches apart. I throw a little dirt to the stalks of cot-
ton, and leave the crop clean, free of grass and weeds. The cotton will then
grow off finely, and not suffer for work for twenty or twenty five days.
Every subsequent ploughing should be shallow and not close ; sufficient, how-
ever, to cover all the small grass that may have sprung up since the last
plougliing. The hoes should also pass over the crop, killing such grass and
weeds as the ploughs cannot reach. It is difficult to say how often the crop
should be ploughed, as that will depend a good deal upon the seasons. My
rule is to keep the crop clean of grass and weeds, and to keep the earth well
stirred up until the branches interlock, or the cotton commences to open.
The two first ploughings should be deep and close, the subsequent one shal-
low. I use the sweep, bow, twister, side-plough, scraper, and the old-fashioned
shovel, in my crop. The selection of seed is also a matter of great import-
ance. But I must close, for fear I tire you. John P. Kinard.

We again urge our Southern readers to multiply statements of the charac-
ter of this paper, in all our journals. We shall be happy to publish several
with each issue. The foreafoinof was taken from the Alabama Planter.

LINEN IN OLDEN TIMES.

The following paragraph is taken from the Neio-Yorh State Agricultural
Journal for December last.

Ancient Spinning Wheel. — E. H. Pease, Esq., of this city, deposited in
the Agricultural Rooms, a spinning-wheel, in good preservation, received from
"Mrs. Elinor Fry," of East Greenwich, who gives the following interesting
account of it :

"I will with pleasure give thee the history of the curious spinning-wheel,
as far as I know. In 1754, the wheel came to my father's house, in East
Greenwich, from Narraganset. Whether it originated in England or Ireland,
I cannot say, but it had been in America near one hundred years when it was
brought hei-e. In 1111, I, Elinor Fry, spun on the said wheel one piece of
lawn handkerchiefs, 12 in number, as good as those imported from England.
The ladies here were emulous to excel, and were so patriotic, they chose the
fabric of (,>ur countiy, and toiled with their own hands to spin lawn for their
dresses, proclaiming independence of Great Britain ; for some of us were so
happy to have farms of our own to clothe us ; and our fathers encouraged
us to wear such as we made. The identical wheel spoken of, Samuel Fry,

LUMBERING IN MINNESOTA. 467

my father, gave to me, and I, Eliuor Fry, presented it to Erastus H. Poase,
to hold or sell, as he pleases.

" In regard to the Spinning Party, it was done in 1789, to celebrate the Fede-
ral Constitution, and to encourage manufacturing in the State of Rhode
Island. 21st of April, 1*789, forty-eight patriotic ladies assembled at the court-
house, iu East Greenwich, with their own wheels, their own flax, and for their
own use, spun l73 skeins of linen yarn in one day, from sun-rise to setting at
night ; one lady spun seven skeins and one knot, it being the most spun by
any of the company ; there were several that spun six skeins in the same
time ; the usual custom was two skeins in one day for each to spin. There
was a festival in Providence, 1*790, where there was a splendid ox roasted,
called the Federal Ox. I was there at the time, and saw the ox while roast-
ing. This may not be interesting to thee, so I will omit saying more on this
subject. I herein sign my name, this 9th day of the 4th month, 1853.

Elinor Fry."

LUMBERING IN MINNESOTA.

It is well known that the extensive pineries along the Wisconsin, Chip-
pewa, and St. Croix rivers, in Minnesota, are annually visited by troops of
stout lumbermen, who spend the winter in chopping and hauling logs, which,
in tbe spring, when the ice breaks up, are launched upon the turbulent waters,
and floated down to a market. They ascend the river in batteaux, taking
with them all their supplies for the winter. By dint of poling and pushing,
they arrive at their destination about the 1st of November. Their first busi-
ness is to build a cabin, say twenty by forty feet in size. The cabin is con-
structed of logs, daubed with mud inside and out, and covered with slabs of
pine. A chimney is built in the middle of the room, a long table at one end,
and bunks for the men are arranged on either side. We gather the follow-
ing description of the wild and exciting, although laborious life of the lum-
berman, from an interesting article furnished by the correspondent of the
New- York Tribune:

" Each man has his blankets and straw, if he can get it, and makes up his
own bed, if it is made at all. A cook, usually a man, is employed. The
oxen and teamsters arrive, hay is hauled in from the ' bottoms,' where it was
cut the summer before, and our men are ready to commence the work in
earnest. Two or three hands are set to chopping. The trees are cut down,
cut oft' at the top and root, and thus hauled along ; three or four hands go
to ' swamping,' or clearing roads for the teams ; one or two persons peel the
bark from the trees, which enables us to pull it more easily ; three or four act
regularly as teamsters; a few extra hands to assist' them whenever they are
needed. • Breakfast is prepared at an early hour. As soon as it is light in
the morning, the hands are started off for work. The time to quit at night
in the winter is at dark, but as the days lengthen in the spring, the men are
allowed to leave off" at sundown ! Every man knows his place and business,
and expects to keep ' up his end.' A good orew of men will put into the
river from 5,000 to 8,000 logs in a winter. No where can a jollier set of men
be found than these same woodsmen. During the long winter evenings, tales
and songs, and. jests and laughter, are heard in the rude cabin ; and every man
is expected to furnish his mite to make up the social repast. A good tale is
considered 'none the worse for being twice told,' and songs are sung over

■468 ELECTRIC TIME-BALL,

and over again. "Whatever books are owned by individuals become common
property, and are looked upon as a kind of free circulating librar3\ It is
not uncommon to have debates. At almost any hour of an evening, you will
tiiid the men, some standing, some sitting, some reclining, and all talking,
laughing, reading, or singing, as though work and hardship were gone to
return no more. Socially, there is no happier circle to be found than that
which is formed about the chimney-fire in the rude log-cabin in the woods.
The very soul of good-fellowshij) is there. They are glad to escape its ennui
by going to work on Monday. The hours of Sunday are killed in many dif-
ferent ways. Those who are religiously inclined employ themselves in read-
ing, writing, <fec. ; some are to be seen washing their clothes ; a few are
asleep, and othei's are off hunting. In the evening they retire at an early
hour, and are up bright and early on Monday morning to begin their week's
labor.

Thus passes the time till winter and snow are gone ; then tiie work of the
logs begins. The men keep the logs in the stream by poles, and often ride
them in the stream for considerable distances. It is amusing to see 'green
hands' attempt to ride logs; for they often tumble 'neck and ears' into the
river, and swim, panting and frightened, to the shore. When the streams
are shallow, large booms are built into them to draw up the water, so that
the logs can be got to the mills. About the end of June, the logs arrive at
the mills, when they are rapidly sawed, and rafted down the river.

Common hands in woods at present receive from 825 to $30 per month ;
teamsters, $50 to $60. Men on the ' drive,' as it is called, get $2 and $2.50
per day, ."Sundays included."

ELECTRIC TI ME -BALL.

While the attention of the public is directed to the convenience of a time--
ball on the State House, a similar apparatus has been put in operation in
Edinburgh. The utility of the Greenwich ball to the ship-masters in the
Thames led to the erection of a ball in the Strand, for the convenience of
London mercantile houses. The raising and lowering of flags on public
buildings, where legislative bodies assemble, marking the commencement and
close of each day's session, have long been a convenience to many in the
neighborhood of such edifices. The ball on the Observatory, at Washington,
is relied upon by great numbers to regulate their time-pieces.

We copy from the Illustrated London JVews the following :

"An electric time-ball has recently been erected on the top of the Nelson
Monument, on Calton Hill, Edinburgh, and is now in operation. The ball
rises about five minutes to one o'clock, P.M., and falls at the hour. It is
placed under the charge of Prof. Piozzt Smyth, the Astronomer Royal at the
Observatory.

If the public look to the Monument at five minutes before one o'clock,
P.M., Greenwich time, (now Edinburgh time also,) they will see the ball
raised half-mast high ; at two minutes before, full-mast high, or in contact
with the cross-bars; and when one o'clock, exact to a tenth of a second, it
will fall — the instant to be observed being the commencement of the fall, as
shown by the formation of a line of light between the ball and the bars.
Those, who, on the Monument, have witnessed the fall of the ball, describe the
effect as extremely interesting.

INFERENTIAL ANALYSES. 469

The huge mass is first of all seen rushing downward with terrific velocity,
as if likely to carry all before it ; when suddenly, at about three-fourths
down, it is brought, by some invisible agent, almost to a stand-still ; and then,
with two or three slight movements iip and down, it rests on its bed-block as
quietly as if nothing had happened.''

INFERENTIAL ANALYSES.

We have often spoken of the importance of knowing the condition of
soils, and have recommended, under certain circumstances, a careful chemical
analysis.

We have also described modes in which the general character of the soil
may be ascertained, without these expensive processes. Thus, we have re-
ferred in this connection to the character of the spontaneous growth of the
soil, that is, the variety of the weeds which infest it ; and we have explained
a mode of ascertaining the presence of various elements by washing the
soil, &c.

Reference has also been made to the character of the crops it has produced,
as a fact of great importance in deciding in what elements it must now be
deficient. We purpose a few additional suggestions, with some minuteness
<5f detail, as to the use to be made of such facts.

We must, however, in this case, as in former ones, bear constantly in mind
that the original condition of the soil will often, in respect to one or more
of these elements, essentially modify and change the result at which we
would arrive. On a " silicious soil," for example, it is impossible to exhaust
the silex by any growth that can be cultivated. This element forms so large
a portion of the whole body of " earth," in many cases, that to exhaust that
element would be to use up entire " solid " feet of earth, leaving a void ob-
vious to the sight, and changing the whole appearance of the field. On the
other hand, clays are often, and, indeed, usually furnished so sparingly with
silex, that it must be furnished from abroad, while the alumina is practically
inexhaustible. A mere glance at some table Hke that exhibited on pages 24
and 100 of our numbers /or July and August, vol. 5, will indicate what those
elements are, in the soil in question, which may always be presumed to be
present.

It obviously follows from these suggestions, that any specific instruction as
to the probable absence of given elements, after certain oft-repeated crops are
removed from it, must be taken as applicable to soils that are originally alike
abundant in all required elements ; and, at the same time, it is obvious that
in fiict, there is a small number of elements that seldom are found in excess ;
and repeated croppings, which make large demands on those elements, will
leave the soil practic;illy destitute of them.

One further remark, by way of limitation or explanation, is of paramount
importance. Any element, silex, or almost anything else, may exist in large
quantities, but in an insoluble form. To dissolve silex to a very limited ex-
tent, it is now ascertained, water only is necessary ; but to obtain it in solu-
tion to the extent often required, it is necessary to supply some other solvent.
Here, of course, there is more necessity of science, than in any other depart-
ment of the subject.

We are thus prepared the better to appreciate the following suggestions :
If we examine the straw of wheat, we find it composed of common vege-

470 INFERENTIAL ANALYSES.

«

table matter — oxygen, hydrogen, and cartion, with a small quantity of car-
bonate of lime ; so, if we examine the constituents of the grain, we find them
distinofuished into starch and gluten ; the elements of the starch are the same
with those of common vegetable matters ; but the elements of gluten are
analogous to those of animals, or in addition to oxygen, hydrogen, and car-
bon, there is also nitrogen. The production of this nitrogen cannot he ef-
fected by common vegetable matter, and the manure employed in the pro-
duction of the straw and starch cannof produce the gluten. That the gluten
of wheat-flour may always be present, it is necessary that a quantity of
animal substance should exist in the manure to be applied to the wheat crop.
If we pursue our investigations a step farther, we find that phosphate of lime
is as constant a constituent of wheat as gluten. In barley, instead of phos-
phate of lime, there is a small quantity of either nitrate of soda or nitrate
of potassa, (saltpetre ;) whence thpse salts should be present in the soil where
barley is to be grown. The ashes of bean-straw always yield a large quan-
tity of a carbonate of potash. A considerable quantity of superoxalate of
lime in the pea crop has been discovered. Clover contains a notable quantity
of gypsum, (fee, (fee.

"Wheat, oats, barley, and other cereals, make large drafts on the phospho-
ric acid and the potash, soda, and magnesia of the soil. Hence, if repeated
crops of either of these grains are taken from it, these elements must be
supplied in the manure, or the land will become barren.

The following table shows the actual and comparative demands which cer-
tain crops make upon lime :

20 bushels of wheat consume 13 lbs.

40 "
50 »

barley " 17
oats " 22

20 tons
8 "
2 "

turnips " 118
potatoes " 40
red clover " 77

Hence, it is obvious that when these and like crops are grown, in succes-
sive seasons, lime must be supplied from abroad.

There is an important fact, by the way, in reference to lime, which it be-
comes us here to notice. It is found that in process of time, lime sinks into
the earth, and must be brought to the surface by deep ploughing. This
eflFect is occasioned by the rains and melting snows, in which it is dissolved, ■
•which are absorbed by the earth, and which carry the lime, in a state of so-
lution, along with them into the sub-soil.

If a soil is overlimed, it will not produce good crops, though even then,
turnips and barley thrive well upon it. But if guano or the superphosphates
are supplied too liberally, turnips acquire a very large size at the expense of
quality. They are then liable to early decay. This arises from the fact that
they conl,ain an excess of water. Turnips are cultivated more successfully
in a light than in a stronir soil.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. " 471

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

Instead of continuing the plan adopted iu previous numbers, except the
last, we shall make our sketches of this great collection, hereafter, rather by
topics, or classes, than with reference to their position. We do this, because
we suppose that few will hereafter visit the palace, under circumstances which
require such a guide as we then proposed to furnish, while a better idea of
the actual condition of the several departments may be obtained by the
course now to be pursued. We begin by a short account of light-houses,
and —

THE FRESNEL LIGHT.

The Fresnel Light is constructed upon the exact principles of optics. The
reflectors are so arranged in connection with them, that few rays are lost by
spreading themselves over a large surface, thereby of necessity appearing
very dim, or by taking an upward or downward direction where they would
be useless. So perfect is this arrangement of curved reflectors, that a single
lamp is quite as effective as the many employed in the old methods. At the
same time, such a direction is given to them parallel to the surface of the
ocean, as the condition of things at each station may require.

These reflectors are placed about the sides of the revolving lantern, the entire
section of the tower which forms the lantern being made to revolve by ap-
propriate machinery. This revolving lantern is formed almost exclusively of
glass. The original invention contemplated cut-glass prisms for their re-
flectors, but our own artists have already contrived a good substitute., very
much cheaper, by prisms of pressed glass, of the requisite curve. These
prisms being located at intervals around the lantern, a stationary observer
would see the excessively brilliant beam of rays at short intervals, as one re-
flector after another comes into the line of his vision, while, in fact, this beam
sweeps the entire horizon, or rather a succession of them constantly traverses
the horizon, as if searching for some object requiring its assistance.

The light exhibited in the Ciystal Palace was designed, we understand, to
be set up at Cape May. One or two others had previously been in use in
this country, but they were of the original early pattern — before Fresnel and
his brother had perfected this invention. The diff"erence between it and those
at present used in France, is very great. In that model, Fresnel employed
only prisms with straight sides ; he had no apparatus for making any other ;
they were put together in small pieces; the hght was obstructed by the
cement used to confine them in their places, and the stray beams of light
■which escaped through the space between the prisms were caught upon mir-
rors, and reflected in the desired direction. But, in the new Fresnel lights,
the mirrors are laid aside as no longer necessary ; the prisms have taken a
curved shape ; they are larger and less numerous, and the sphere of glass
which they form, enclosing the lamp, is of a far simpler and more solid con-
struction, and a more perfect transparency.

The lamp of the Fresnel Light consists of four concentric wicks, of the
argand pattern, each having, of course, a current of air on both sides of it,
for promoting combustion, with its separate frame or rack f^r regulatmg^ its
height. The oil is supplied by a pump, after the manner of the mechanical
lamp.

472 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

GLASS-WARE.

Glass, as most of our readers know, is composed of silex, clay, and an
alkali. Its first discovery, it is said, was an accident, resulting fioni the
melting into a transparent mass, a handful of clay and silex, mingled with
the ashes of a watchman's fire on the sea-shore. Chemically considered, this
process is analogous, to some extent, to the manufacture of soap. No two of
the three elements, Avhich form either of these compounds, will unite by them-
selves, but the three together are necessary, and the philosophy of this action
no wise man has yet attempted to describe.

The various kinds of glass are produced by the use of substances differing
in fineness, purity, &c., as the presence of other metallic substances modifies
the appearance and the essential qualities of the glass. Hence, the selection
of the materials is a matter of very great importance. We have seen, for
example, in Southern Vermont, in the town of Westminster, a "ledge" of
rock, which was exceedingly free from all impurities, of perfect whiteness, and
easily reduced to a fine powder. This, of course, is of great value, in this
manufacture.

Among the exhibitions of glass-ware are elegant specimens from France
and from the German States, from Austria, and the United States. Many of
the articles from abroad are colored, but of these we shall speak presently.
Some of the specimens which are not colored are exceedingly beautiful,
Austria and France send not only the usual forms of household utensils, but
beautiful lenses, for optical instruments, of numerous sizes and various focal
distances. We notice also the rough material unground, or in the form of a
very short cylinder. The collection of M. La Hoche, now removed, was very
beautiful. M. Maez, of Clichy, near Paris, in the gallery at the end of the
western nave, (Sixth avenue), has a beautiful display of glass-ware, colored
and uncolored. His assortment of paper-weights is the largest and most
beautiful we have ever seen.

But our own artists, in most respects, are not far behind the European..
The goods shown by the Nev/-England Company who mauufecture at Sand-
wich, Mass., and by the Company at Brooklyn, N. Y., are very handsome. In
the quality of the glass, and in the beauty of form, we have recently made very
great progress. He must be very difficult who cannot suit himself from these
establishments.

Colored Glass. — But in coloring, the foreign ("Bohemian") Avare still
bears the palm without a rival. Our own establishments produce colored
wares in great variety, but they are not so clear and so brilliant its those they
imitate. The combination of several colors in one specimen may be seen in
the collection of M. Maez. This is done by a simple process. The specimen
is first formed in glass of natural color. It is then dij)ped in a melted mass
of colored glass, and immediately withdrawn. The surlace is thus covered by
a thin coating of this colored mixture. The specimen, after cooling, is then
shaped and ground, and the "cut" parts will of course disjilay an uncolored
surface.

The substances used in coloring glass are gold, copper, cobalt, manganese,
iron, &c. The oxide of gold gives the rose and ruby tints, uranium that of
the topaz, copper an emerald green, &c.

The New-England' Company exhibits specimens of peculiar appearance.
They resemble, in tint, surfaces of silver, as if of pure metal, with a glass
lustre.

THE GEEAT EXHIBITION. 473

This is done as fallows :

The glass is double, and the space between the double surfaces is filled
with a solution of silvering preparation, whicli is then reduced to pure silver
by the addition of a solution of grape sugar. The liquid matter is then
poured off, and the vessel is sealed.

American Glasses. — The manufacture of glass in this country was under-
taken about the beginning of this century, near Fredericktown, Md., by Ger-
man artists. That establishment was broken up, and the workmen were
scattered. Some of th^ra were employed by Colonel James O'Hara, of
Pittsburgh, in the first window -glass establishment in this country. Such was
the commencement of this manufacture in tbe United States. At the pre-
sent time, similar establishments are numerous.

Part of the workmen who had been employed in Maryland, who went to
Pittsburgh, established a flint-glass manufactory upon the premises now occu-
pied by Bakewell & Tears. But they were unsuccessful, and the whole con-
cern was sold, and passed into other hands. The expenses of freight of the
rough material were excessive, the pearlasli and red-lead being brought from
Philadelphia, and the clay from Burlington, N. J., and all v,-as transported in
wagons. For several years, the saltpetre was obtained from the caves of
Kentucky, but afterwards was imported from Calcutta.

Still other embarrassments were encountered, as, in some other kinds of
manufacture, these foreign artists refused to allow apprentices to be taught,
and having the whole power in their hands, they used it without any regard
to the interests of their employers. We have becoiTie acquainted with simi-
lar conduct on the part of foreign artists in more recent times. Indeed, we
are not sure that at this day, there is not an establishment at Thompsonville,
Ct., into which native citizens are not allowed to enter, even to examine the
goods produced, while the idea of teaching American apprentices is, or very
lately was, utterly discarded. Indeed, the presence of the agent of the Com-
pany himself was looked upon as rather suspicious. Perhaps a similar state
of things might be found elsewhere in the States. But in the case before us,
the owners ventured to resort to England, in spite of their severe laws, regu-
lating, or rather prohibiting, the departure of their mechanics for other coun-
tries, and thus means were provided for carrying on the business successfully.

More recently, similar establishments have been set in operation, in Pitts-
burgh, Wheeling, AVellsville, Steubenvilie, Cincinnati, <fec.

Since this manufacture was commenced in this country, a very great im-
provement has been introduced, which has quite revolutionized the whole
system. Our readers are aware that the more elegant and costly specimens
of glass-ware are what is called "cut glass," though we suppose the term less
appropriate than are most technical terms which are used in the arts. This
process, much of which might be termed " grinding," is slow, and of course
costly. Our own artists have contrived to avoid this expense. When glass
is melted, or reduced to the condition of a liquid, it is exceedingly ductile.
The visitors at our museums and similar exhibitions have witnessed the feat
of making glass birds, ships, and toys of all descriptions. Availing them-
selves of this ductility, moulds Avero contrived, so that by pressure, any
desired form might be secured. By various improvements in the machinery
employed in this service, the quality of the work has been so improved, that
a practised eye is necessary to detect the difference between the cut and the
pressed glass. The cost of these wares has, by these means, been so much
reduced, that their consumption has increased some ten-fold ; and more flint
glass is now manufactured in this country than in England.

474 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

The materials used in these processes, are now obtained extensively in this
country. We are told by Mr. Jarvis, of the New-England Glass Company,
that the materials annually consumed in the manufacture, not including the
manufacture of window-glass, are nearly as follows :

Coal for fuel, - - - 48,000 tons.

Silex, ... - 6,500 "

Ash, nitre, &c., - - - 2,500 "

Lead, 3,800 "

STEAM-CARRIAGE.

Among the recent additions to the Exhibition, is a steam-carriage, invented
by Mr. J. K. Fisher, and built under his direction, at the Vulcan Iron Works,
in Utica. We have, a year ago, spoken of the plan of this carriage, and
expressed our confidence in its ultimate success. An examination of it in its
present state — complete as to its working parts — confii'ms our belief; and its
actual performance is such as to dispel all doubts upon several important
points, if not to settle at once the question of its general economy. It is to
remain in the Exhibition until the weather and the roads become such, that
it may be run to some place of recreation, for profit ; and in the meantime,
the inventor wishes to make arrangements to manufacture and introduce car-
riages of a large size for passengers, offering, as a first condition, to show, by
his carriage, tliat they will work at less expense than horses, at all rates of
speed above six milcS per hour.

The length of this carriage is thirteen feet ; the width, five and a half feet;
the height, when covered, will be about six and a half feet. The floor of it
is seven inches from the ground; but the invent@r considers, that this
is too low, except for the best roads, and in future the height will be from
twelve to fifteen inches. The size is therefore about that of a common pri-
vate cariiage without its horses.

The steering and turning are eflfected by a new apparatus, which is more
simple than any hitherto used. The steering-wheels are firmly jointed to the
axle, one being keyed fast to it, the other turning tightly when going round
curves. The axle revolves with the wheels when going straight forward.
The advantage of this is that the wheels will never become loose and rickety
upon the axle, and will always stand upright and firm — a condition necessary
to enable them to work well under the lateral strain to which they are ex-
posed in slipping one of the driving-wheels when turning a corner. The
joint which coniiects the steering-axle to the body of the carriage is very
low, so that the strain is in a direction not so far from horizontal as to ren-
der the steering-wheels liable to overturn, although they are but eighteen
inches apart ; this small distance between them is adopted, because it makes
it easier for the conductor to tui-n them than it would be if they were wider
apart. The axle woiks in a slot, in an upright spindle, which is jointed to
the ends of two springs, the one of which is directly over the other, at a
height of about two feet above it ; and to the top of the spindle is fixed a
lever, which goes backward into the carriage, by which the steersman can
guide the vehicle, without being exposed to the weather.

It may seem that the arrangement here described, of keying the driving-
wheels firmly to the axle, and forcing them to slip when turning, is so ob-
viously the best that no credit is due for it. But it was the general opinion
of the English inventors that it was necesscary to have one wheel loose when
turning to the right, and the other loose when turning to the left, if a short

THE GREAT EXHIBITION". 475

turn was to be made ; aud it was their practice to run witk one wheel loose;
except when ascending a hill ; and to attach and detach the wheels, it was
necessary for a man to dismount. This opinion arose from actual failures to
turn when both wheels were attached. 13ut these failures resulted from a
bad distribution of weight: the driving-wheels were wide apart, aud the
steering-wheels were not far enough forward ; an arrangement that prubablj
arose from an anxiety to make the carriage occupy little room in the street.
There is, therefore, due to this simplification, the credit of unlearning what
Is false, and thus liberating the invention from an expensive and troublesome
clog.

The suspension of the body is new. From two boxes, close to the hubs
and the hind-wheels, a pair of springs descend, and are connected to the bot-
tom of the carriage, about twenty inches below the axle. Under the fore
part of the body, in the middle, is a spring, half of it projecting forward
beyond the body, being jointed, at the back and the middle to the body, and
at the fore end to the steering spindle; and over this is another spring, pro-
jecting the same distance, which is jointed to the upper part of the spindle.
These forward spriugs cannot be bent literally, but are flexible upvv;!rd and
downward ; and they thus afford a connection of the wheels with the car-
riage, which is suflSciently firm in the lateral direction for the purpose of
steering, and which allows whatever play of springs may be required for ease
and security against jolting.

The connections, as they are termed in locomotives, are effected in a novel
way. The axle, it is evident, should be so connected to the carriage, that the
engines cannot move it backward and forward, nor upward and downward.
This is a point of the utmost importance ; as it is necessary, for the durabi-
lity of the machinery, as well as for the comfort of the passengers that the
springs should be of the most yielding and elastic kind ; and it has been
found, especially when the cranks are outside the wheels, that the carriage is
rocked and shaken by the oblique direction in which the force is ajiplied du-
ring a poition of the stroke, the sides of the carriage being lifted alternately
as the cranks attain the vertical position, and allowed to fall as thty attain
the horizontal position. This rocking is entirely prevented by a new connec-
tion, which we will endeavor to describe.

The driving-axle is attached to the body by three radius rods ;' two of them,
parallel to the sides, connect the ends of the axle to the body, and receive
the strain of the engine ; the other is parallel to the axle, jointed at one end
to the box that bears the weight, and at the other, to the body of the car-
riage, allowing free motion up and down, but checking lateral moiiun. All
the jointe of these rods are equivalent to universal joints. A slender shaft
turns in the joints by which the pair of radius rods are attached. Upon this
shaft are two cranks ; and upon the driving-axle are two cranks of the same
length, but much stouter. The ends of these cranks are coupled by a paral-
lel rod of the same length as the radius rod, working like the parallel rods
that couple the wheels of locomotives. The connecting rod is jointed to the
parallel rod. When the piston is at the middle of its stroke, there is an up-
ward strain of one end of the connecting rod, tending to lift the guides, with
a force of about a fifth of the whole pressure upon the piston ; but this strain
is balanced by an equal downward pressure upon the small crank, which
turns in a bearing fixed to the body ; hence, there is no tendency to rock the
carriage. There is, however, a slight motion of the fore end of the carriage
upward, and the hind end downward, but far less than that of a gig, and not
enough to be injurious or unpleasant.

476 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

The engines being outside the wheels, room is allowed for the boiler to be
low down, and also for the seats to be low ; so that the vehicle is not top-
heavy, nor liable to overturn; and the motion is less jolting, in consequence
of the body hanf/ing from the axle, instead of being perched above it, as
would be tbe case if the cranks were near the middle of the axle. Besides,
the machinery is more accessible; and the liability to break is much less than
if the axle were cranked. These advantages, we think, will always secure a
preference to the outside connections, thus improved, as to steadiness. And
we think that the connection by gearing-chains, bands, and toothed wheels,
which v;ere used in some carriages, cannot be regarded as worthy to be used
in competition with these rods.

The valves for the distribution of steam are so arranged, that a back pres-
sure of any required force may be used to retard, stop, or run backward, so
that no brakes are required. Most of the early English carriages used breaks,
drags, and other means of regulating the speed down-hill ; but they threw
them aside, finding the steam much more efficient and convenient.

We may here remark that the history of the steam-carriSge shows that
some of the most important improvements in it have consisted in disencum-
bering it of unnecessary apparatus. Soon after its first invention, and in
consequence of a carriage with a single engine slipping its wheels, it became
loaded with propellers, gearing connections, breaks, and other ricketty and
useless appliances, the last of which, perhaps, have now been exploded by
Mr. Fisher; but we will not say that more may not be spared. However,
the simplicity attained is such as to give an appearance of durability and
economy ; and yet all that has heretofore been attained by complex means,
is attained without them. The steering, stopping, and other operations, are
effected with certainty and precision.

The cost of a steam-drag, or drawing carriage, of the largest size that
plankroads Avili bear without injury, say two tons' weight, will probably be
within twenty-five hundred dollars, and the annual repairs within a fifth of
the original cost.

RAILWAY SIGNAL.

A VERY ingenious contrivance is exhibited by Dr. Clayton of Virginia, in-
vented by himself, for giving signals upon railways. The approach or de-
parture of a train may, by means of it, be made known, with scarce a
possibility of mistake, while the machinery is in working order. This inven-
tion consists of a set of signals at the top of poles, say three or more, placed
on the same connection, (which is of wire,) two miles in length, with a lever
at each end. The one at the end first entered by the train is an upright one,
so that, as the engine passes over it, it is pressed forward far enough for the
train to pass, and draws the connecting wire, by which means all three of the
signals are set, discernible at any distance, at the same time elevating a rule-
pointed lever at the other end, for depressing the signals. The train runs
the two miles with the signals up in advance, and then, in passing the lever
at the other end of the connection, it is pressed down by the engine, which
depresses all the signals, setting them down behind the train. Again, a
signal is up behind the train always, to guard it from being run on from
behind, thus preventing concussions. For safety at bridges, it is only ncces-
.sary to set the levers at the draw, and every time the draw rises, the signals
will go up a mile each way ; and when the bridge lowers, the signals fall.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

47^

WILSON'S IMPRO^^D PATENT SEWING-MACHINE.

The annexed engravings are views of ilie celebrated^ sewmg-machine, m^
vented by 1 B Wilson%f the firm of Wheeler, Wilson & Ca and for
whici? a patent was gra;ted on the ISikof June, 185i?. Mr. Wilson had

which a pate ^

VOL. VI. — PART II. <^

478

THE GREAT EXHIBITIOJT,

invented and received patents for previous sewing-machines, but this is a
manifest improvement over all others.

Figin-e 1 is a perspective view ; figure 2 is an end elevation of the same ;
figure 3 is a transverse vertical section of the same ; figure 4 is a view in
.perspective of the rotating hook which opens the loops; figure 5 is a view
in perspective of the cymbal spool which carries the thread ; figure 6 is a
perspective view of the feed-bar and appendages detached from the machine.
The same letters refer to like parts.

The machine is a peculiar one, and works with two threads, and forms the
firm-lock stitch ; but it has no shuttle, and has but one needle. The work-
ing parts are secured to a neat small frame, A B, and when in operation, is
placed on a small table before the operator, and is driven by stirrup-band and
pulley, like a foot-lathe, or it can be driven by steam or water-power, with
band and pulley ; C is a mandrel, and D a pulley on it to receive motion
by a band as described. At the front end of the mandrel, C, there is a ro-
tating cam plate-hook, E, (best seen in figure 4,) on it; this rotating cam-
hook is of a peculiar form ; it is concave on its face, and has portions of two
threads of a screw formed on its periphery; a portion of the periphery is also

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 479

cut away to form the hook, a, which opens the loop in the needle thread.
One part of the front or outer thread of the screw is chamfered off at b, to
the back or inner thread, and the notch, c, between the portions of the screw
threads, is made to extend back from the hook, a, about one third of the
circumference. Within the concavity in the face of the hook, plate E, there
is a hollow quoit-formed bobbin, F, which carries a thread to be passed
through the loop formed by the needle-thread when it has passed through
the cloth, so as to form the lock or true binding stitch. This peculiar bob-
bin is held by a ring, G, attached to a rod, H, which is adjusted by a screw,
I, secured in the frame ; this ring keeps the bobbin in its place, but allows it
to turn freely. One part, d, of the mandrel is turned eccentrically, and is
encircled by a ring, J, to which a rod, K, is attached, which connects to an
arm, L, and is secured to the arbor, M, which is fitted in bearings in the
standards, B B, of the frame, and forms the fulcrum of a two-armed lever,
one of whose arms, N, is the needle-arm, and to the other, 0, is secured the
spindle, upon which is hung the spool or bobbin, P, which carries the thread
for supplying the needle and forming the loops. By the revolution of the
mandrel, C, the eccentric d, is caused to give a vibratory movement to the
lever, N 0.

The cloth or material to be sewn is laid upon a plate, Q, which is secured
to the top of the standards, A A, and forms a small table. It is held down,
by a small pressing plate,/, which is attached to the end of an arm, R, se-
cured to the back of the standards, B B, and extending over the top of the
needle to pass through; and an opening corresponding to the notch, r/^ is cut
through the plate, Q, for the same purpose ; N is the vibrating arm which
carries and works the needle, ?i ; the hook, a, rotates and passes as close as
possible in front of the needle ; the movements of the hook and needle are
so regulated, that the hook passes the needle just as the latter is commencing
its ascent. The cloth is fed forward to the needle by means of a peculiar
feed-bar, S, (fig. 6.) This bar is straight and flat, with a slot nearly its whole
length, and with two ears, i i, on its under side ; under the slot, is secured a
spring-bar, k, which has a pointed tooth, I, at the end. The bar, S. slides in
mortices in the standards. A, below the plate, Q. The point of tooth, I, is
below the small slot in plate, Q, and passes through it, catching the cloth,
and moving it forward a short distance for a stitch, then dropping down to
take another stitch. This action, it performs by a cam, T, (fig. 3,) on the
mandrel, C, which has a projection on it, that presses on the spring under bar,
k, and forces up the tooth, /, while at the same time its front part acts on the
back of ears, i t, and moves the feed-bar forward towards the plane of the
needle's motion. When the cam, T, ceases to act, the tooth, I, that catches
and carries the cloth, drops down, and the feed-bar is pushed back for a new
stitch, by the pressure of the spring, n, which is secured to one of the stand-
ards on the ears, i i. The length of stitch is regulated by an eccentric stop,
p, which is pivoted on a pin, q, to the under side of the plate, Q ; the feed-
bar is forced against the stop by spring, n.

The material to be sewed is placed on the top of plate, Q, under the press-
ing-plate,/, and close up to the upturned part, r, which serves as a gauge to
regulate the distance of the seam from the edge of the cloth. The thread
from spool, P, is conducted through hole, u, near the end of the needle arm,
and then through the eye of the needle near its point. The thread from the
hollow plate bobbin, F, is passed through a slit between a small spring, s, and
the edge of plate, Q, to the opeiMng through which the needle passes ; in
this opening it plays freely. Its m'd is passed under a spring, f, which holds

480 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

it, and the end of the thread from the needle is held by the attendant, and
all is then ready to commence work.

When the mandrel is rotated, the descent of the needle-arra forces the
needle through the cloth, which carries the thread with it — the thread lying
close to the needle behind and in front of it. When the needle commences
to return or rise, the cloth offers a slight resistance to the return thread,
which forms an opening ; the rotating hook, o, comes round and catches it,
carries it forward, and forms a loop. As the rotation of the hook continues,
it enlarges the loop, and that part of it which is on the front side of the hoot,
is drawn between the bobbin and the concave face of E, while that part of
the loop behind the hook passes into the notch, c. The loop being extended
bv the rotation of the hook, the plate bobbin, F, in the concave of E, passes
through it, and on the next descent of the needle, the loop is slipped over the
chamfered part, h, of E, and drawn over the front of bobbin, F, between it
and ring, G, and thus it will be understood, that as soon as one side of the
loop passes on one side of the bobbin, and the other on the opposite side, the
bobbin passes through it, and on its being drawn tight, it locks the thread of
the needle. Every second stitch is commenced before the previous one is
completed, the extension of the loop for the second stitch drawing the first
tight, and thus every stitch must be alike — not one slack and one tight as in
some machines. The form of the rotating hook causes it to perform three
beautiful and ingenious operations, namely, forming and throwing off a loop,
and drawing the preceeding one tight at the same time. While the needle
is operated, the cloth is regularly fed forward by the feed-bar described.
There is a brake spring applied to the spool, P, to give the needle-thread its
proper tension ; and a piece of leather, applied to ring, G, produces the
proper tension on the threads of the loops. The needle-arm has a vibratory
motion, and the length of needle stroke can be increased or diminished by a
screw.

This machine is exceedingly neat and portable ; it performs the finest
quality of stitching, such as collars and shirt-bosoms. One girl can stitch
■with one machine, thirty-five dozen of shirt-collars in one day. There are
1500 of them now in operation in various parts of the country, and the work
which they perform cannot be surpassed. They can sew straight and curved
sieams ; the stitches do not rip out, and from 1000 to 1500 stitches can be
made in one minute by a good operator. One machine, all complete, occu-
pies no more room than a small work-table, and it is as ornamental as useful.

Messi-s. Wheeler, Wilson & Co., have their office at No. 265 Broadway,
this city, where these machines can always be seen in operation, and to see
them is to admire their ingenuity of construction and excellence of action.
Every machine is made under the eye of the inventor, at the Company's ma-
chine shop, Watertown, Conn., so that every one is warranted. As there has
been much dispute about the originality and identity of sewing-machines, as
related to Mr. Ilowe's original patent, no person who buys one of these ma-
chines is clogged with an impending prospective law-suit, as there is an ar-
rangement and perfect agreement between Mr. Howe and Messrs. Wheeler,
Wilson <fc Co. ; so every customer will be perfectly protected. These ma-
chines are adapted to sew fine and coarse work, leather, canvas bags, men's
clothes, or the finest collar stitching.

For further particulars, address, or call at the oflBce of the Company.

See also their advertisements.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION. 481

WADSWORTh's MEASURINa MACHINE.

An apparatus capable of determining the one-millionth part of an inch, may
be viewed in the English department of the New- York Exhibition.

The use of such an instrument is chiefly for copying or regulating the
standards of weights and measures, and in the construction of delicate philo-
sophical instruments. The principle of this curious contrivance will be readily
understood from a brief description. Two steel bars are placed in a cast-iron
block, and are made to approach or recede from each other by means of
screws moving accurately in their axes. The screw which moves one of the
bars (the other being supposed stationary for the simplicity of the explana-
tion) has twenty threads to the inch. On the head of this screw is a wheel
with two hundred teeth. Hence a motion of one space on the wheel would
advance the bar 1-4000 of an inch. An endless screw, which moves the
wheel, has upon it a circle graduated with 250 divisions. One division of
the graduated circle will therefore correspond with l-250th of one of the
wheel divisions, or to an advance of the bar of (1-250 x 1-4000) one mil-
lionth of an inch.

PORTFOLIOS, PORTMONNAIES, &C.

There are several cases in the Crystal Palace in whfch these goods are ex-
bibited, but among them all we have noticed none superior, if equal, to those
of Messrs. Zunn & Ranftle, whose sales-room is at 14 John street. They are
well made and of good material. The elegance of these goods led us to
make a visit at the rooms of these gentlemen, and we were not disappointed
at the appearance of their stock. All their goods are well made, some are
very handsome, while their prices are very reasonable. Go and see them.

HARRIS' PATENT PORTABLE CIRCULAR SAW MACHINE.

A LARGE and heavy wheel, perhaps three feet in diameter, is suspended
by its axis upon a strong frame. A circular saw is fastened,' upon another
axis, so placed above the former, that its surface rests upon the flat face of
the periphery of the large wheel. The motion of this, whether by hand
power, applied to a crank, or by a treadle worked by the foot, or by other
motive power, by the surface-adhesion referred to, gives motion to the saw.
But this is not all. As different degrees of adhesion may be required for
different kinds of work, the axis of the circular saw is inserted in a movable
centre or box, which is regulated by a screw and spiral spring. It is a cheap
and very convenient arrangement.

HARRIS' PATENT RECIPROCATINa STEAM-ENGINE.

The novelty and improvement of the invention consists in the mode o'
communication between the cranks, shaft, and the cross-head, or lever-beam.
In the ordinary mode of producing a continuous revolving motion from a
reciprocal one, a single crank and one connecting rod are used : the effect ot
which is an unequal leverage at different positions of the machinery. To
counteract the effect of this, a heavy fly-wheel is added, which diminishes
the effective power of the engine. The use of two cranks placed at right
angles with each other, connected by means of rods to the ends of an oscil-
lating lever, whose fulerum is a pin attached to, and travelling with, the cross-
head, avoids this evil. " When attached to beam engines, the lever should
be connected at the end of the beam. At the commencement of the stroke,

482 AGRICULTURE IN .VIRGINIA.

the crank-pins stand at equal distances above and below the central line
drawn between the cylinder and crank-shaft ; consequently no motion can
ensue, and the cranks are on the dead points. Now if the shaft be turned
in either direction, on the admission of steam to the cylinder, the majority of
the power will be communicated to the crank which has the greatest leverage,
and the shaft will revolve in that direction. "When the cranks have made a
quarter revolution, the leverage is nearly equal on both, and the piston has
travelled over one half its stroke ; on continuing the revolution the crank
which at the commencement had the greatest leverage now has the least,
the majority of the power being transferred to the other, which continues to
the end of the stroke, when the cranks assume their other dead position.

The office of the oscillating lever is to equalize or average the combined
eflfects of the cranks of the piston.

In this engine, the cylinder is one sixth shorter (or as 24 to 29) than that
of the common engine with a crank of the same length, and turns the dead
points independent of the piston which in a measure, checks its momentum,
and thus avoids the pressure upon the journals and boxes, and consequent
wear of both."

AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA— ADDRESS OF HON. WILLOUGHBY NEWTON.

We have received from Mr. Corbin, 1st Vice-President of the Rappahan-
nock River Agricultural and Mechanical Society, a copy of the address
delivered by Hon. Willoughby Newton, in November last. A union was
formed, at that time, with this and the Fredericksburg Society.

The following officers were chosen : President, Edward T. Tayloe. Vice-
Presidents, 1st, James P. Corbin ; 2d, William Pollock ; 3d, Richard
Baylor ; 4th, O. M. Crutchfield ; 5th, Colonel H. T. Garnett ; 6th, W. R.
Ma.son. Recording Secretary, Major J. H. Kelley. Corresponding Secre-
tary, .John Taylor. Treasurer, R. G. R. Catlett. Agent and Collector,
John W. Kidd. Executive Committee, Dr. Edmond P. White, John Sed-
don, Thomas F. Knox.

The address is able. It gives a historic sketch of several counties, with
their more prominent citizens. Their condition, as to agriculture, is pro-
nounced eminently progressive. The value of slave-labor is discussed, and is
pronounced more economical than any other. He may be correct in this,
but he does not appear to take into his account several particulars, which
Avould necessarily be considered in a general change of this sort. The import-
ance of cotton is next considered, which, he says, is " the autocrat of the world,"
and certainly its actual importance is not easily exaggerated. Reference is
then made to certain agricultural improvements, and on this subject we ex-
tract the following pages, which we will entitle,

PERUVIAN GUANO IN VIRGINIA.

But by far the most remarkable improvements, which indeed seem almost
the work of magic, have been made in the extensive barren and exhausted
region known as "The Forest," and are to be attributed, almost exclusively,
to the general use of Peruvian guano. A question of great interest here pre-
sents itself. Are these improvements real or illusive ? Are we, with the im-
providence of fraudulent bank directors, using up our capital in dividend>-,
or in the spirit of a spendthrift, ruining our inheritance for the sake of large
immediate profits ? My own opinion, sustained by long experience and ob-
servation, and by the judgment of many intelligent and prudent farmers, is,

AGRICULTUEE IN VIRGINIA. 483

that no improvement is so immediate, and none so permanent, if a judicious
rotation be observed, as that effected bj guano. The farm of my resi-
dence, the first, I believe, in the State on which guano was used, affords in
every part of it unmistakable evidence of this fact, not only by the increased
product of grain, but in the clover and grasses that thickly cover it. A single
detached acre affords a striking illustration in support of my opinion. Dur-
ing five years, it has produced three crops of wheat, one of clover, and one of
corn. The wheat crops were dressed with guano ; the first crop with one
barrel of African, costing four dollars, the other two with less than 150 lbs. of
Peruvian. The entire cost of the guano for the three crops was about eleven
dollars. The corn received no manure except the droppings of the stock
pastured on the lot the previous year. At the commencement of the oper-
ation, it would certainly not have produced more than five bushels of wheat.
The crops of wheat were respectively IT, 22, and 21 bushels, the last crop
being that of this year, after a yield of 40 bushels of corn.

I will not fatigue you with figures, but any gentleman can readily make
the calculation himself, from which it is obvious that this acre has paid in
cash, for a series of five years, a clear annual profit of six per cent, on a capi-
tal of not less than two hundred dollars. The lot, though cultivated one
year out of turn, so far from being impoverished, exhibits every sign of great
permanent improvement. It is proper to state that the surface is level, and
the soil originally rather better than the average of the form. I have been
induced to examine this subject with some care, by the views expressed in the
excellent address of Mr. Hallowell, before the Agricultural Society of Loudoun,
sustained, as they are, by the communication in the National Intelligencer,
signed L., published with the addi'ess, and which I attribute, without know-
ing the author, to the pen of Dr. Lee, a well-known agricultural editor and
writer for the Patent Office Reports. I have not a word to say against the
friendly and judicious counsels which they give against the improvident use
of guano, accompanied by an exhausting tillage. So far from it, I highly
approve and fully indorse them. But their views, though in the main correct,
are liable to misconstruction, and have been very generally misunderstood by
our farmers. Indeed, the views of L., adopted by Mr. H., are so strongly ex-
pressed, and without any qualification, as necessarily to lead to erroneous
conclusions. I should regard our condition as hopeless, indeed, if it were true,
as stated by him, that it "is in cities that both the study and the practice of
good husbandry must begin, before they are possible in the country, as so-
ciety is now formed." If our lands are destined to sure exhaustion, unless we
can return to them, in addition to guano, all the bones, night-soil, and other
offal now wasted in the cities, we had as well surrender at once in despair ;
for that, except in the immediate vicinity of the towns, is plainly impossible.
Though very desirable, this is by no means indispensable to a very high de-
gree of agricultural improvement. I will not repeat here views already pre-
sented to the public, as to the proper plan for renovating exhausted lands. I
may say, however, that my confidence in the system is strengthened by every
day's experience.

The opinions of these gentlemen are entitled to very great respect, and I
would not question their correctness, if I were not satisfied that they tend to
promote very erroneous impressions as to the value of the most active and
extensively beneficial of all fertilizers. They state, what is not questioned,,
that all cultivated plants exhaust the alkalies in the soil ; that potash and
Boda, in definite proportions, are necessary to the production of wheat, and
ask, " How can the application of twelve pounds of potash and soda to an
acre of wheat, producing twenty-five bushels, make good the loss of thirty-

484 AGRICULTURE IN VIRGINIA.

six pounds of these ingredients, removed from the land in the crop ?" Now,
twenty-five bushels of wheat to the acre, is much more than is usually pro-
duced, and in our easily tilled lands, is greatly beyond a remunerating crop.
But even supposing that to be the product, there is not the slightest reason
to apprehend the exhaustion of the land, though no foreign material be used
except the guano, and the small quantity of lime that may be used as aa
alterative, if a proper rotation be adopted, and the usual care practised in
returning to the land the straw of the crops, and the putrescent manures
raised in the ordinary course of farming. According to Mr. Hallowell, such
a crop of wheat consumes of potash and soda thirty-two pounds, of which
twelve pounds only are restored to the land in two hundred pounds of Pe-
ruvian guano. This statement corresponds nearly with the various analyses
of diiferent agricultural chemists, and may be regarded as correct. Of the
thirty-two pounds of these elements consumed by the crop, more than two-
thirds are in the straw, leaving less than ten pounds in the grain of the
wheat, which is all that in the course of judicious husbandry is ever re-
moved from the land. We have, thus, two pounds more than these alkalies
in the guano, than necessary to supply the grain, even if twenty-five bushels
were produced to the acre. Supposing twenty bushels to be produced, which
is an exceedingly profitable yield, we should have in the guano four pounds, of
these alkalies in excess, for the benefit of future crops. In addition to this
excessive supply of the alkalies, derived from the guano, we have a consider-
able quantity in clover, which contains a large per centage of potash, drawn
by its tap roots from below the cultivated soil, and in the ashes from our
houses and quarters, and in the saline air of the sea-coast, which, according to-
Dr. Higgins, the State Chemist of Maryland, contains a sufficient amount of
soda to enable lands in the neighborhood of the bay and salt water rivers,
almost destitute of these alkalies, to produce fine crops of wheat, the soda
acting vicariously and supplying the place of potash. We may, therefore,
banish all apprehensions on this subject, being taught by both science and
experience, that guano is not only a most active manure, but, properly man-
aged, a most efficient agent in the permanent improvement of our lands. The
progi-ess already made by the farmers of Eastern Virginia is most encourag-
ing, yet we should not rest satisfied until we have effected much greater and
more general improvement. We have still a wide and inviting field to be
explored. Our labors have of late been principally devoted to the easily tilled
and improvable lands of the "Forest," and to the alluvial lands of our rivers
and creeks, already open to the plough. There are extensive tracts of the
very finest lands yet in their virgin state in what are called the "Necks,"
that have been in a great measure cleared of their heavy timber, and now
only wait the employment of skill, capital, and labor, to render them most
valuable and productive. Lime, draining, and persevering energy, would, in
a few years, convert these now waste lands into the most beautiful and pro-
fitable farms. Lands similar to these, on the Eastern Shore of Maryland,
have in a few years been reclaimed, and raised in value from i>5 or $10 to
850 and $60 an acre, which they now readily command. The State Chem-
ist in Maryland has, in his first report, given very accurate descriptions of
these soils, and offered many useful suggestions for their improvement. I
cannot too earnestly urge you to enter on this field of labor. The wealth
acquired from the increased profits of agriculture cannot be better invested
than in their cultivation. It would, by improving neighborhood roads,
greatly facilitate social intercourse; health would be farther promoted, and
this beautiful region rendered still more attractive, and milhons added to the
roductive capital of Virginia.

STATISTICS OF COTTON.

48o

STATISTICS OF COTTON.

The Alabama Planter publishes the following table, showing the receipts,
export, and stocks of cotton at the times and places designated :

'?'0

B "

S 3

a p

C =" ^'-i

s!,p's.g=.2.gs:?

p o c o p ft p

t-A to i-L iC ^ *2 (O CO to
— < O O M. <C O bP to C ^

> i-t 4^ kfi^ c^ — "^ ot1:,t

I O O CO OS Oi O rf». I>3

H- I

IKJlft. CO *i

) O or*— ijT _ _.

1 O O M "-^ O O O OD

o oooi— ^.

. >-iO>

CO 51 00
r- T CO

■— l-il-np.
1-' W CO O K. 0>

00 to 00 O l^i'oo'cnVj
Oi 00 M O ^J C^ 4-* O:

1-' " l£ 00 I

^s CO CI CO h-i lo 1-1

01 OO O 0> OS ^ 4. ^) '"^
U ^ to CT> Oi C5 31 ti) i

■— r- w

r" oi ot

_p3 J*i»
OI -t'ooId

Oi O -. — I

■'"—JO

1- ^> • *^

>^ 00 o o

' y-^

Ox K>0>| I^

~< c;» ta >-*■ . w

050

c *.

K

►f^ *.. ^Oi

o

H;

■— »

^ WO-i

05

■-^

o o

^ o C5 OL cr; CO'

Ol

1-* t-- ►fik tn CO «o
J>5_^^-» CO CO Cs in <D *.

CO lO Cn Hi M ro lO o
►— IOCS in ^ CC -4 CI

"cc'o

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_CO Jf^ rfi CJtjio en CO

(00 = i5KJOCO--3tO
K) O O 00 -^1 fO ^1 (X' O

■ Ot K^OS I l->

COS

cr ID o
S.3

486 IMPROVEMENTS IN PLANK-ROADS.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THB LOOM, AND THB ANVIL.

IMPROVEMENT IN PLANK-ROADS.

Messrs. Editors : The advantages claimed for plank-roads are, that they
are easier of draft in all weathers, and that in wet weather they are not
broken up, and wheels do not sink into them. These claims are just with
respect to " plank-roads that are plank-roads, and nothing else ;" but with re-
spect to that great number of roads that are composed of two or three inches
of dirt spread over about the same depth of planking, the claim is but par-
tially allowable. Upon a new and clean plank-road, the force of draft re-
quired is one in ninety-eight ; but upon the dirty roads, usually but errone-
ously called plank-roads, the force required is little less than what is required
upon a gravel road, or one in fifteen.

The apology made for allowing plank-roads to remain dirty, and for some-
times covering them with dirt or gravel, is that they are thus protected from
wear. But if, at the same time, their utility is lessened in the proportion of
six to one, the protection to the property of the road-proprietors is too dearly
paid for by the excessive expenditure of motive power at the expense of the
toll-payer ; and we do not hesitate to say, that this condition of plank-roads
is an imposition upon the public, in all cases in which county roads have been
turned over to companies, to be planked by them, on condition of their levying
tolls. Still, the theory is, " plank-roads don't pay; we lose by them." Per-
haps the following improvement, suggested by an engineer who has studied
the subject, may enable the proprietors to get paid, without gross injustice to
those whom the legislature compels to pay them.

If a thin plate of wrought-iron, four or five inches wide, be laid directly
over each sleeper, with one spike passing through each plank into the sleeper,
to secure the plate, planks, and sleepers together, a road not much inferior to
a rail-road, for moderate speed, will be the result. And the wheels, especially,
when heavily loaded, will be kept upon the iron, and therefore directly over
the sleepers, and will not break through the planks as they now do. As to
the wear by the feet of animals, it may be greater than it would be if the
planks were "protected" by dirt; but if the wheel-tracks be really good, a
rough horse-track will not be complained of; nay, it may be preferred for
the sake of the foot-hold it gives to animals. And when a hole is made, it
may be filled up with a block or a stone ; and thus, by trifling repairs, the
road may be kept in order until it is thoroughly worn out.

Not so with mere planks; they become broken, and deep holes are made,
into which the wheels fall with great damage to both the road and the car-
riage. Moreover, the effect of animals' feet is to wear the planks round at the
edges, and, after a while, to convert a plank-road into something like a cor-
duroy-road. These evils will be obviated by the iron plates ; and the wheel-
track will always remain easy of traction, if the road be kept clean.

On a good railway, the force of draft required is one in three hundred, or
seven and a half pounds per ton ; on an oak plank-road, when clean, twenty-
three pounds per ton ; hence, upon a level, a team can draw upon an iron
surfoce, three times as much as upon wood. It may, however, be said that a
thin plate of iron will bend under the wheel ; that the wood also will sutler
compression, and therefore, such a road will not compare with a rail, which
bends much less. We allow something for this difterence ; but, on the other
side, much more should be allowed for the speedy wear and deterioi'atiou of

CORN CULTURE IN VIRGINIA.

487

planks that are not faced with iron. In this view, we may see that instead
of drawing thrice as niuch, a team may draw six times as much as it could
draw upon planks that had been crushed under heavy wheels and battered
by horses' feet, even if the rounded edges and the dirt be not considered.

To iron a plank-road with plates five inches wide and a quarter of an inch
thick, would require about two tons per mile, costing, say Si 60; add for
spikes, |50 ; and for laying, $100 ; making |310 per mile, or about twenty-
five per cent, additional cost, to increase the utility of the road threefold, and
its durability to a very great extent.

Now, this estimate may be inexact ; but we think that any intelligent pro-
prietors, if there be any, will venture upon these reasons, if they are not at
variance with their own, to iron a few rods of their road, as an experiment.

In reference to this matter, we invite attention to our article on steam-
carriages, for which, see article on Great Exhibition. F.

FOB THB PLOtTGII, THB LOOM, AND THE AKTIL.

CORN CULTURE IN VIRGINIA.

Messrs. Editors : I promised you a short article on the culture of corn
in the South.

Corn land should be well and deeply broken. Two good, strong horses
will do, but three are better, hitched to strong two or three horse-ploughs.
(Prouty & Mear, of Boston, make a superior plough ; and there are several
manufacturers of ploughs and farming implements at Richmond, Va., not
often excelled.) Let the ground be broken up eight to ten inches, and if sub-
soiled, so much the better. If of stiff soil, it should be ploughed in the
winter, particularly sod land. Let it be w-ell harrowed in April, and laid off
horizontally, so as not to disturb the sod ; for good land, the rows should be
four to four and a half feet wide ; if land is level, it may be crossed, and
four grains of corn dropped in the chuck ; to be thinned out at the proper
season, so as to leave two and occasionally three grains in the hill. If the
land is rolling, plant in drills from nine to twelve and eighteen inches, agree-
able to the strength of the land, one stalk to be left at a place.

The sod should never be disturbed, but worked on top, with three or five-
tooth cultivators ; twice or thrice going over will do ; two strokes of the cul-
tivator in each row at a working, followed Avith the hoes, to get out such
weeds, &c., as the cultivator can't reach. Corn does best on sod lands, or
clover-lays, as but (ew weeds follow those crops. As soon as the corn is suf-
ficiently matured, which is generally from the 15th to 20th of September, with
us, cut it off near the ground, and stack it snugly, two to three bushels to
the shock, secured by two bands, one at the top, and the other about two feet
below it. If well put up, it will stand all the winter ; but it is better to crib
it in November or December, and pack away the fodder for your milch cat-
tle, &c.

In cutting up my corn, I usually, if it is heavy, put twelve rows together ;
first, about every eight to ten steps, bind and tie together four, six, or eight
stalks ; then fill up the squares, taking six rows through the field ; after I
have got through the field, in a day or two, finish the row of shocks, by bring-
ing the remaining six rows, and makina: all snus: and secure. This plan is
necessary, if the corn is not well ripened. If the fodder is pretty well ma-
tured, you may finish the shocks as you go. If my corn is very tall, say nine

488 COTTON CULTURE IN ALGERIA.

or ten feet liigh, I use small baud-ladders, with four or five rounds, that the
shocks uiay be well secured, which is very important. Oats should follow
corn ; and wheat, oats. The land to be ploughed immediately preceding
seeding with wheat. By ploughing under the volunteer oats, your land
is "clear for wheat. The land should now be laid down in grass fur two
or three years. Clover is the best fertilizing grass crop, and if sown with
orchard-grass, which ripens about the san.e time with the clover, you have a
fine crop for hay or grazing. I am under the impression that wire-grass
may be killed by this process of cropping. Winter ploughing, and the sod
well turned, are essential to the destruction of this grass.

Your obedient servant, &c.,

Henry B. Jones.
Roehbridge County, Va., January 10, 1854.

COTTON CULTURE IN ALGERIA.

In 1851, there were only six or seven acres planted to cotton in French
Algeria as an experiment, which turned out satisfactorily. Last year, (1852,)
fifty acres were planted with the like result ; and in 1853, 1730 acres, which,
from last accounts, was promising.

Mr. E. Feray, of Essones, one of the oldest and most distinguished cotton
manufacturers of France, thus writes in a letter, which has been published in
the Moniteur, touching Algerian Cotton, and the prospect of its culture
in the Colony :

"I have carefully examined the specimens of Algerian Cotton, which form
part of the permanent exhibition of the products of Algeria at the Ministry
of War. These Cottons are produced from

Seeds of Georgia Sea Island Cotton, *

" Louisiana Cotton.
" Egyptian "
" Nankin "

" Cotton grown in Algeria itself.

These cottons are all, without exception, of good quality, and suitable for
manufacture. The Georgia long-staple cottons (sea-island) whether produced
from American seed or from the seed of those cottons grown in Algeria, at-
tracted, in a special manner, my attention. It is solely the Georgia long staple
cottons that are adapted to the spinning of the fine numbers above 100,000
metres, (109,400 yards.) The manufacture is tributary for these cottons
to the United States exclusively ; and even there they can be cultivated in a
limited extent of territory in Georgia, and upon the sea-shore, whence comes
the name of sea-island, by which these cottons are designated in England.
The crop of sea-island cotton in America varies from 25,000 to 30,000 bags
per annum, and it has been found impossible notably to increase this produc-
tion. They are worth at present, (25th May, 1853,) in the Havre market,
ordinary qualities, from 700 to 800 francs the 100 kilograms, (equal to 59^
to 68 cents per lb.) In February last, they were only worth in Havre 550
francs, but the insufliciency of the crop to supply the wants of manufacture
caused a gradual rise, which, at the present moment, is not less than 50 per
cent, over the prices of February. There are not now to be found in Havre
500 bags of sea-island cotton, and manufacturers are obliged to pay what-

HORTICULTURAL. 489

ever the holders please to ask. The American crop of 1852 was about
4,200,000 kilograms, (9,264,000 lbs. avoirdupois.) But the manufacture
actually needs, of the fine numbers at the very least, 6,000,000 kilogi-ams ;
and it is obliged to supply the 2,000,000 kilograms deficiency by recourse
to the better quality of Egyptian cottons, which only answer, and that very
imperfectly, for the numbers from 100 to 130. Egyptian cottons have also
risen considerably in price. The demand for the fine numbers increasing
daily, the manufacture would in ten years from this date call for upwards of
10,000,000 of kilograms (22,057,000 lbs.,) if the culture could supply this
quantity at a reasonable price, say 500 francs the 100 kilograms. This
price would leave to the producer a handsome profit. Of these ten millions
of kilograms, worth fifty millions of francs, ($9,350,000,) America could
not produce more than four or five millions ; there remain about five mil-
lions of kilograms, equivalent to twenty-five millions of francs, for the
country that can produce sea-island cotton. Egypt cannot do it. All the
efibrts which have been made in this direction have only resulted in the pro
duction of a strong nervous cotton, very good for the numbers from 60 to
80, and of which the first qualities very rarely may go up to No. 120. But
Egyptian cotton does not possess either the fineness or the length of staple
of the American Georgia sea-island cotton, and cannot be used for the higher
numbers.

The cottons produced in Algeria from the seeds of Georgia sea-island
cotton have preserved the qualities of the good American article, the strength,
fineness and length of staple. These cottons, as well as those of the Province
of Oran, as those of Blidah, would sell to-day in the Havre market at from
Too to 900 francs the 100 kilograms. The better qualities of these will
spin up to the No. 300,000 metres, (328,000 yards,) that is to say absolutely
the finest thread, the wants of manufacture hardly ever exceeding 250,000
metres. "What proves that the sea-island cotton of Algerian production has
not degenerated, is the fact that this cotton has yielded seeds which, planted
in Algeria, have produced cotton comparable for fineness, length, and
strength of staple, with the best American specimens sent to the Exhibition
of London."

This subject is receiving a good deal of attention in France, and no reason-
able efibrts will be spared to extend the culture of our important staple in
the new colony on the South side of the Mediterranean. Whether Algeria
shall do better than British India iu growing cotton, time alone can deter-
mine. D. Lee.

HORTICULTURAL.

The culture of Roses is one of the pleasantest and surest kinds of floral
labor. We give below a description of the mode of procedure which will
secure flowers out of season. We find it in the (Eng.) Gardener's Chron-
icle :

Culture of Roses in Pots. — No person possessing a taste for floral
beauty or fragrance can be insensible to the attractions of the Rose ; and its
praise has been so often told that it need not be repeated here as an excuse
for ofiering to those of your readers who stand in need of such information,
directions how to grow and flower it in pots, so as to be able to enjoy roses
during the winter months. It is not very many years since it was considered
impossible to produce good specimens of roses in pots, and in those days gar-

490 , HORTICULTURAL.

deners who could place a few sweet rose blossoms in the Christmas bouquet,
were thought more than ordinarily clever: and as to keej^ing up a succession
of handsome, well-bloomed plants in the flower-house during the winter and
spring,, that was not so much as dreamed of^ for the few flowers obtained
were produced by leggy and all but leafless plants, which were not fit to be
seen, even amongst such examples of cultivation as the plant-houses of twenty
years ago aflforded. Now, however, thanks to the all-prevailing spirit of im-
provement, it is not unusual to see, in well-managed collections, specimens of
Roses in bloom at Christmas, such as would not disgrace the rose-bed in
June, and these are obtained at as little trouble ©r expense as is required in
the production of many other plants which are commonly grown for winter
flowering, and which possess neither the beauty nor the fragrance of the
rose. To have well-cultivated, well-bloomed specimens at Christmas, the
plants must be previously managed with a view to this end, and persons com-
mencing this kind of culture will probably have to provide a stock of plants.
I will begin with directions for propagation. The varieties best adapted for
winter-flowering are Bourbons, Teas, and Hybrid Perpetuals, which are better
on their own roots than budded, and they root very readily, especially when
good strong cuttings can be obtained early in spring from plants growing
under glass. Short-jointed, stiflf pieces of the firm young wood planted in
sandy soil, covered with a glass, and set in a shady corner of a warm house
for a week, and then placed in a bottom heat of about 75* or 80° will be
rooted and ready for potting singly in small pots in little more than a month.
Indeed, I find the rose to strike so freely from cuttings under glass in early
spring, that, when I obtain a variety which I wish to increase as fast as pos-
sible, I place it in a growing temperature in November, and when I have got
a fair amount of growth in a 2>roper state for cuttings, the plant is cut up :
and well-ripened shoots, on which the eyes may be about an inch apart, are
divided just above each eye, by which means each eye is made to form a cut-
ting. For this method, however, the wood must be rather firmer than is
necessary where two or three eyes are allowed to a cutting, as it is necessary
to cut in a slanting direction on the side opposite the leaf for about half the
length of the cutting, removing the bark and a thin shaving of the wood ;
this exposes a large surface of inner bark from which roots are ultimately
emitted, ajid cuttings prepared in this manner will be found to root very
freely, and form equally good plants as those having two or more eyes. It
must be observed, however, that the success of this, as of all methods of
propagation by cuttings depends upon selecting wood in the proper stage of
maturity, and how to do this can hardly be learnt except by practice. But
to return to our rooted cuttings. These should be potted singly in four
inch pots as soon as they have become sufliciently strong, to bear handling
(using good fresh loam and decayed leaf-soil in about equal proportions, with
a liberal mixture of sharp clean sand,) and placed in a close moist atmosphere
till well established in their pots. They may then be removed to a light, airy,
and rather cool situation, with a view to induce close stocky growth ; for, let
me remark, there will be nothing gained by keeping the plants, after they
are well established in four-inch j^ots, in higher average temperature than
55°. It will doubtless be necessary, in order to secure a bushy habit of
growth, to pinch oflf the top of the first shoot, and this should not be done
until the plants are removed to a cool situation, nor while the eyes at the
base are flat and imperfectly matured, otherwise the probability is that the
top bud only will start. As soon as the plants are well rooted in their
first pots, shift into others one or two sizes larger, as circumstances may point

J

HOETICULTURAL. 491

out; and when moderately well-rooted, after the second shift remove them to a
cold frame, and gradually inure them to full exposure to sun and air, merely
protecting them from heavy rains and cold drying winds. During the sum-
mer months, a liberal supply of water must be given to the soil, using weak
manure-water twice a week, and the plants should he syringed morning and
evening during bright weather, and shifted into larger pots as may be neces-
sary. Stop any gross, over-luxuriant shoots, and have a constant eye to the
formation of dwarf compact specimens ; also guard against the attacks of
aphides, which will probably be somewhat troublesome, but they are easily
destroyed by means of tobacco-smoke, and therefore should not be allowed
to disfigure the plants. During summer, plants that are established after
the first shift will be better removed to a warm sheltered corner out of doors,
placing the pots on a bed of coal-ashes, to exclude worms, and where they
will enjoy the night dews, and will not be so liable to red spider as if retained
under glass. With good management, many of the plants should be nice
compact specimens in seven-inch or eight-inch pots at the end of the first
season's growth ; and the Teas and Bourbons, if removed to a close pit or
frame early in autumn, will continue growing and afford a succession of blos-
soms throughout the winter and spring months. But, where handsome
specimens are desired, it will be better to afford the plants a second season's
growth ; as allowing them to flower would retard their progress the following
(season.

HELIOTROPE.

Many varieties of the Heliotrope have been introduced to cultivation within
the last few years, but, taking all things into consideration there is perhaps
none more desirable than the old well-known H. Peruvianum, a universal favor-
ite on account of its delicious fragrance, which, combined with its free growth
and profijseness of bloom, makes it a very desirable plant for furnishing bou-
quets during the winter months. By keeping up a succession of healthy young
plants, flowers may be obtained at all seasons, with the aid of a warm green-
house in cold weather. As a plant for the flower-beds during summer, it
grows luxuriantly, provided the soil is moderately enriched. It is however
very susceptible of cold, and will show the effects of a slight frost sooner than
almost any other shrubby flower-garden plant. It is indeed an easily managed
plant; cuttings of it will strike root at any season, and grow in any or-
dinary garden soil. To secure plants of sufficient strength to flower during
early winter, cuttings should be inserted in June. They will form roots in
two or three weeks at this season, if inserted in a shady situation ; they
should be immediately placed in small pots, and when these are filled with
roots, sl.ufted into flowering pots ; eight-inch pots will be suflacient in size
They now'require to be grown in a situation fully exposed to the sun, and if
the pots are plunged to their rims, less water will be required and the plants
otherwise benefited. The roots of plants in pots fully exposed to the action of
the sun and atmosphere are very liable to sustain injury. A few hours' ne-
glect in watering will counteract the progress of weeks. The young, incipient
points of roots are so easily destroyed that nothing short of the most vigilant
attention can keep plants in a vigorous state when the pots are thus exposed.
Hence the necessity of plunging the pots, that evaporation from their outer
surfaces may be prevented. This is more especially necessary with pots of a
soft or porous chai-acter. Hard burned-pots are condemned by many, for
what reason I do not know. So far as my experience goes, I decidedly prefer
pots glazed on the outside, both on account of the benefit they confer on the

4&2 CAST-IROX RAILS f OR RAILROADS.

plant, and their freedom from becoming green and unsiglitly when placed in
a warm, humid atmosphere. This latter circumstance alone is worthy of con-
sideration.

When the plants are removed into the green-house, they should be placed
in the warmest position, near the light, in order to flower them freely. Plants
that have been growing in the flower-beds during summer, lifted and potted
before frost, will commence blooming in early spring. As a permanent climb-
ing plant, for a green-house or conservatory, it is worthy of notice. When
once properly establislied in such a position, it will keep in flower during the
year, and speedily cover a large surface if allowed sufficient root-accommoda-
tion,— Cor. of The Florist.

CAST-IRON RAILS FOR RAILROADS.

Why cannot cast iron rails be used for railroads ? is a question which has
been examined at considerable length by Mr. R. W. Hughes, the able and
accomplished editor of the Richmond (Va.) Examiner. We are not able to
go over the whole ground in the present number of this magazine, but will
notice the important considerations in favor of cast-iron rails, with the inten-
tion of returning to the subject again. After speaking of the importance of
the subject, Mr. H. proceeds :

If this be so in reference to roads now in course of construction, the diffi-
culty will but be increased with the growing demand for other roads. These
facts, together with the present high price of railroad-iron, consequently press
the question upon the intelligent mind, " Why cannot cast-iron rails be used
on railways ?"

The fact is daily before our eyes, that cast-iron is made to bear the heaviest
burdens that can be imposed. It forms a part of almost all machinery, and
is subjected to enormous strains. With it we construct houses and build
bridges. It is given the preference over wrought-iron for railroad <:ar wheels ,
which, when running at sixty miles an hour, make about nine hundred revo-
lutions per minute, the cast-iron wheels thumping the road with the momen-
tum due to that velocity. All these things are constantly presenting the im-
portant inquiry, whether cast-iron rails may not be safely used on roads ? It
is known to be vastly cheaper than rolled iron, and can be made at a profit
for one third the price of rolled iron. It requires no very great expenditure
to prepare the works requisite for its manufacture, but it n-iay be run into bars
directly from the ore, which abounds along many of the projected railway
lines of Virginia.

Supposing its substitution practicable, no limit can be set to the industry
and ^enterprise it at once calls into being. It invites population into our
mountain lands now waste and barren, yet teeming with iron. It multiplies
their value to owners, and increases the fund for taxation of the State. It
projects railroads, by enabling them to be built by persons along their lines,
who, by labor alone, could convert their iron lands and ore into active capital.
By doing these things, it would so far cheapen railroad transportation, as to
make those works far greater beneficiaries to the public than they now can be.

Indeed, no single result could be imagined which would tend so much to
develop the resources of Virginia, and stimulate her enterprise, as the adop-
tion of cast-iron rails on her projected railways. It would advance internal
improvements in the State at least twenty years, and afibrd a cheaper, and, it
is believed, aiore durable structure than we now have.

CAST-IRON RAILS FOR RAILROADS. 493

But the advantages which must result from the successful application of
cast-iron rails to railway tracks, are far too numerous to be detailed. They
suggest themselves to every reflecting and intelligent citizen. The question
is, Can cast-iron be advantageously used on railways ?

Whether all our ores will be suitable for the purpose, we shall not under-
take to decide ; but that we have large bodies of iron ore which, directly
from the blast, will make more durable rails than many we now import, we
have not the slighest doubt. The Lynchburg and Tennessee railroad runs
through the county of Wythe, and within five or six miles of a body of iron
ore, equal, if not superior, as it has often been competently pronounced, to
any in the world. It is better than the Swedish ; it is better than the Penn-
sylvania Juniata. It is unlimited in quantitj^, and may be gathered from the
surface of the earth. Wood in abundance, and mountain streams for driving
machinery are at hand ; and withal, the iron is of so tough a texture, that
castings, such as pots and ovens, made for the neighborhood, have frequently
been tried by being pitched some ten or fifteen feet, several times, into a pile
of stones, by the foundryman himself, under which severe test very few in-
stances have been known of their being broken. Yet a railroad is to run for
miles along this great iron deposit, the rails of which are ordered from Eng-
land !

Descend one of those English mines, where for ages the work of excavation
has been going on ; go down a thousand feet or more, traverse these caverns
for miles under the earth, until you are told the ocean is rolling above your
head, and at the farthest extremities of these infernal caverns you will find
men plying the pick-axe, and extracting iron ore. You will find railway
tracks throughout one of these abodes of Pluto and Vulcan, leading to the
shaft. Here a car is filled with ore. Inquire the destination of this car.
The answer, calculated quite to astonish a citizen of Wythe, would be this :
It is to be sent several miles to the shaft ; then to be raised up a thousand
feet to the surface of the earth ; then hauled to the foundry to be made into
pig metal ; then to the rolling-mill to be converted into bars ; then to the
sea-coast to be shipped to the other continent. After crossing the x\tlantic
ocean, some three thousand miles, it is to go up James and x\ppomattox
rivers ; to be discharged at Port Walthal ; to be hauled by railroad to Rich-
ipond, and thence by wagons from the depot to the canal ; thence along the
canal to Lynchburg, and thence by railroad and wagons to Wythe county,
Virginia, to be distributed along the Lynchburg and Tennessee railroad,
which runs over great iron deposits of that county, where iron lies upon the
surftice, of a much superior quality, and has to be removed out of its way in
excavating for its track !

This case is similar to hundreds of others, and the practical remedy for this
state of things is the adoption of cast-iron rails. Public opinion at first ob-
stinately pronounced that cast-iron wheels could never be used — that they
would break under the velocity required of them. Economy rendered it ab-
solutely necessary to try them, and they have been found not only cheaper,
but, in fact, to wear longer than wrought-iron wheels.

Strange as it may seem, all the early writers concur in stating, that cast-
iron rails were used before the wrought, and that the latter were introduced
chiefly on the ground that they were cheaper than cast-iron rails — cheaper
for the reason, as then contended, that wrought-iron rails being not so likely
to break, might be made much thinner and lignter than cast-iron, and would
be more economical in that way. Since it has been found necessary to
VOL. VI. — PART II. 8

^^^ CAST-IRON RAILS FOR RAILROADS,

increase the thickness and weif/ht of the rail, for the purpose of firmness and
steadiness in the superstructure, it has never occurred to the engineer to re-
turn to cast-iron rails.

Experience has shown that wrought-iron rails wear out rapidly, and this
although they are now made heavier than it was supposed would be requisite
even for cast-iron.

From an essay on this subject, by Ellwood Morris, Chief Engineer, Phila-
delphia, published in the Journal of'the Franklin Institute, in the year 1841,
we extract the following observations on this subject:

"We are informed in Wood's treatise upon railroads, that in the early part
of the seventeenth century, railroads were first used in England, and they
were then formed of wood ; the wooden rails were used for about one hun-
dred years, when, in 1767, cast-iron rails were first introduced, and thereafter
continued for a period of near fifty years, to be used instead of any other
materials; but in the year 1815, malleable iron rails were devised, and after
Mr. Birkinshaw, in 1820, had obtained his patent for an improvement in the
form of such rails, and applied the rolling-mill to their manufacture, thej
were very extensively adopted, and subsequent to that period of time, have
been almost exclusively used. The chief reasons which seem to have induced
engineers, both here and abroad, so much to prefer malleable before cast-iron
rails, as to exclude the latter from use, appear to have been originally a be-
iief that —

1. Malleable iron rails were cheaper than those of cast-iron.

2. Malleable iron rails being made in longer lengths, caused fewer joints.

3. Malleable iron rails were less liable to fracture from concussion.

4. Malleable iron rails were thought to be somewhat more durable."

The writer then takes up these reasons seriatim, and shows how little they
are worth, when tested by experience.

That the first and principal reason for the introduction of malleable iron
rails — their greater cheapness — has no foundation in truth, is apparent to every
body at all conversant with the iron business ; and yet, all the early writers
on this subject concur in stating this^.as the chief reason for their introduction
at the time.

Secondly. That cast-iron rails may now be made from sixteen to twenty
feet in length, about as long as the rolled we are accustomed to see.
/^Thirdly. While malleable iron rails, of equal weight, may be less liable to
fracture from percussion than cast-iron rails, yet there is no such impinging
direct force on the rails in working a road suitably constructed, as would be
likely to produce this. He compares the relative strength of the two metals,
and makes the cast-iron rails proportionably heavier. He denies that the
liability to fracture, at high velocities, is greater than when going slow, but
shows the greater the velocity, the less will be the vertical pressure, and says
upon the same principle it is that a musket ball, shot parallel along a hori-
zontal plane, so as barely to touch it tangentially, will not press upon the
plane at all within the limits of its level or point-blank range.

Whether these views agree or not with those commonly entertained, con-
cerning fast trains on railways, they are, nevertheless, legitimate deductions
from the established doctrine of forces, and serve to account for the small
efiect produced by the ordinary inequalities of a railroad, as shown in the
results displayed by the following direct experiments touching this matter,
which were made by Professor Barlow, and recorded in his work, on the
'•Strength of Materials," English edition, 1837. These experiments are con-
clusive, and establish beyond question, the fact, that the vertical stress im

EDITOKS' JOTTINGS, ETC. 495

posed on a railway by the transit of locomotive engines of velocities ranging
from twenty-two to thirty-two miles an hour, is but little, if any, in excess of
that produced by a quiescent load of the same weight !

More experiments, by Professor Barlow, were made with an ingenious and
accurate instrument, to determine the deflection of rails under trains running
at high speed ; and as the deflection of the materials under a strain is as the
insistant weight, the vertical pressure upon the rails is by this means accu-
rately indicated.

Again, he says, after quoting largely from Professor Barlow's experiments :

" These experiments having demonstrated, as they distinctly do, that the
vertical stress of trains at speed, surpasses so little the effect of quiescent loads
of the same weight, that it is only necessary to proportion the rails of rail-
roads to resist quiescent and not concussive forces, to change the whole face
of the question between cast and wrought-iron rails — they strike away all the
objections heretofore urged against the brittleness of cast-iron ; for it does not
admit of doubt, that a beam of that material, of suitable proportions, is quite
as competent to carry a quiescent load, as one of malleable iron." Again :
"A cas-t-iron rail will yield sufficiently to impart a return to its proper level
the moment it is relieved of the weight of a train ; for it is well known that
its elasticity and power of restoration after deflection, is within certain hmits
so perfect, that owing to its regularity in that respect, it was even proposed
by Tredgold to use beams of cast-iron as weighing-machines, measuring the
weights imposed by the deflections produced."

From the various experiments made, he deduces that the proportion be-
tween wrought and cast-iron rails, should be as 1 : 1 3-10 — and says these
calculations refer to rails supported at intervals only ; but if the plan of con-
tinuous bearings should be adopted on railways, the propriety of which has
been strongly urged by English engineers, as a perfect remedy for acknow-
ledged defects, all objections against cast-iron rails must wholly vanish.

EDITORS' JOTTINGS, AND MECHANICAL RECORD.

Baltimore and Ohio TwAilhoad "Woeks. — The machine s'lop of the Balti-
more and Ohio Railroad Company at Mount Clare, near Baltimore, is quite a curi-
osity, and well worth a visit. The wliole management of the road is < ivided into
three departments, namely. Transportation, of whi Ji Mr. John H. Done is mas-
ter; Machinery, of which Mr. Hayes is master; Eoad, of which Mr. Bollman
is master. The master of transportation performs the duty of superintending
all the freighting throughout the whole length of the road, and has about seven
hundred men under bis command. The master of machinery has the entire
control of the building of locomotives, cars, &c., and has about two thousand
four hundred men under his control. The master of i-oads attends to all con-
structions and repairs of roads, depots, water stations, and other buildings, and
]ia.s about nine hundred men under his control. Thus it will be seen that four
thousand mechanics and laborers are employed in the several departments of
the road.

The most interesting department is that of machinery. The first in the
department are the blacksmith and moulding shops. Of the former there are
sis, devoted to the manufacture of the various parts of machinery. The first is
for the preparation of the heavier portions of the machinery, such as shafts and
axles of the cars and locomotives. In this shop there are twenty-four forges,
several of which are attended by three hands each. This number is requisite

496 editors' jottings, etc.

to handle with facility the heavy shafts, which are swung by a crane, and carried
to a lar{):e steam-hammer in the centre of the shop. The hammer is managed
by a lad, who, by simply turning a screw, regulates the force of blow to any
required power. The hammer weighs fifteen hundred pounds. All the forges
are blown by a pipe conducted from the blowing boxes in the main building.
The other shops are for the manufacture of the smaller portions of machinery,
and for repairs.

The principal machine shop is devoted exclusively to the turning and finishing
of the nice and more important pieces of machinery, both of iron and brass. In
this are some thirty lathes, and while one is engaged in polishipg a small piece
of brass- work, another is boring out the hub of a wheel, or preparing its surface
for the tire. And the shop is exclusively for heavy work, such as planing down
the rough surface of a heavy iron plate, or preparing the several parts of new
bridges, which are in course of construction for the use of the road. Here, too,
are the boilers, smoke-stacks, and furnaces of the locomotives manufactured,
and also the tenders, which are constructed principally of iron.

In the moulding shops are two cupolas, blown by pipes from the main build-
ing, where all the iron is prepared, and where all the wheels and other necessary
parts are cast. In this shop two tons of iron are cast daily. Twelve wheels
are cast every day. On such occasions as the castings for the bridges are made,
the amount of iron consumed is much larger.

The carpenter shops are for the construction and repair of cars. The company
have just completed fifty-two cars, intended exclusively for the transportation
of hogs and sheep. They are made with two floors, which will enable them to
carry just twice the amount that can be carried by an ordinary car. Besides
these, there are buildings for the trimming and painting of passenger-cars.

All the immense machinery is worked by two steam-engines, one of sixty
horse power, and one of about thirty horse power.

The Company have nearly completed two powerful engines, one for passen-
gers and the other for freight, and intended to be used on the western end of
the road. There are also machine shops at Wheeling, Fettermau's, and at Mar-
tinsburg, the two former being for repairs, and the last for the construction of
machinery. It is estimated that the machinery and stock on hand are alone
worth one and a half millions of dollars.

Each shop has its foreman, who is responsible to the master presiding over
the department to which it is attached. The road department is now engaged
in the manufacture of two miles of rails, composed of three pieces. This rail is
so arranged, that much of the danger of the trains running off will be avoided,
by the breaks in the rail having a proper bearing upon the side rail. The whole
number of buildings at Mount Clare, including car and engine houses, is thirty.
The total number of cars now running, of all descriptions, is five thousand ;|and
locomotives, with those now building, two hundred and eight.

The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad is next to the Erie road in length, the main
stem, from Baltimore to Wheeling, being 380 miles, and the Washington branch,
40 miles. The road is of vast importance to those portions of Maryland and
Virginia through which it passes, and opens a direct line of travel to the great
West and South-west. It is under the very best of management ; and the travel-
ling public already find it one of the most safe and speedy means of reaching the
great West from Baltimore and points further north. The freight of the road
in agricultural products and coal, is enormous; and when its value as a means
of passenger transit is fully appreciated, it will be second to none in the country
in this particular. It passes through a most romantic region, and, during the
warmer months, would fully compensate a lover of nature in pursuit of the
beautiful and the sublime, for a ride over its entire length. Like the Erie road,
it is a stupendous monument of the perseverance and enterprise of those who
have overcome almost insurmountable obstacles, to effect its completion.

Camden and Amboy Railroad.— Passing on a steam-boat from Pier No, 1,
North River, lately, on our way to Philadelphia, we found ourselves surrounded
with new objects, and for the moment feared we had made a mistake, A little
inspection, however, satisfied us that what we feared was another boat was

editors' jottings, etc. 497

nothing more nor less than our old friend, the "John Potter," in a new dress!
It has been re-painted, re-gilded, and re-furnished, " from stem to stern," and
though always a beautiful boat, is now really magnificent. The splendor and
comfort of the boat were the themes of frequent remark by numerous passengers,
who, knowing the advantages of this route over the other,^ always give it the
preference. Nor were they less enthusiastic in their admiration of the excellent
viands prepared for the comfort of the " inner man," over which Capt. Simpson
presided with his wonted ease and gracefulness. Our preference for this route
increases every time we pass over it. The beautiful scenery ; the change from
water to land, making a pleasing variety ; the handsome cars, the sumptuous
dinner on board the boat, the familiar intercourse with the officers, and the
desire of all to please, really relieve travel of all disagreeableness, and render a
trip to Philadelphia a pleasant pastime, rather than a burthen. We do not won-
der that this route is so extensively patronized, as those who pass over it once,
are sure to give it the preference over the other one.

New-Jerset Central Railroad. — This road extends from New-York to
Easton, Pa., from which place to Mauch Chunk a track is already graded for a
road which will bring New-York within six hours of the coal regions. The
value of tins road can hardly be estimated. Coal can then be brought direct
from the mines to New- York at any season of the year, which will tend to keep
the price of that indispensable article at moderate rates. We see no reason irhy
a train may not leave Manch Chunk every thirty minutes through the entire
year, laden with coal, which now finds its way to New-York via the Lehigh
canal, which is closed during the cold season.

The construction of the New-Jersey Central Railroad has paved the way for
this movement, so important to the city of New-York and surrounding places.
The road is constructed of the best material, and in view of the increase of busi-
ness by opening the Mauch Chunk road, the Company are about to lay a double
track from Easton to New-York. It passes through the beautiful towns of
Elizabethtown, Plainfield, Somerville, &c., and brings Easton within four hours
of New- York. The engines and cars are of the best possible make, and its affairs
are conducted with that enterprise and public spirit which might be expected
from having so able and energetic a gentleman as John T. Johnson, Esq., for its
President. When the thoroughfare is completed to Mauch Chunk, many a
New-Yorker will visit the coal regions, and witness scenes and sights so startling
in beauty and romance, that if described to him, would be regarded by him as a
"second edition" of a GulUver or a Munchausen!

Ether as a Locomotive. — The steamboat Du Trembley has an engine adapted
to the use of the combined vapors of ether and water. In order to secure the heat
of the steam which has done its service, the spent steam is received in an apparatus
consisting of several small vertical cylinders, standing close to each other, but not
in contact, and their bases plunged' in a reservoir of ether, which is under the
apparatus which conveys the steam. The ether rises in the tubes and partly fills
them. "When the steam enters this apparatus and surrounds the tubes, the water
is condensed, and the ether evaporates. This condensation produces a vacuum,
which adds to the expansive force of the steam in extiniejuishing the resistance
which it had encountered; and the ether vapor, collected in a separate compart-
ment, above the vaporizing apparatus, and in which the tubes terminate, contri-
butes a new force which is added to the steam.

The piston of the" second cylinder may or may not be connected with the
same beam as that of the steam cylinder. The ether vapor is treated like that
of steam, being condensed by a jet of cold water which fills the apparatus
around the tubes. The ether is then carried to the vaporizer, to commence
another similar circuit.

In the four experiments tried by the commission, on the quantity of coal
expended, the force of the engine was constant at about 70 horses. Tlie quan-
tity of coal consumed during the 36 hours and 50 minutes through which the
experiments lasted, was 2860.9 kil., or 77.67 kil. per hour, and 1.11 kil.per horse
power. When using the steam alone, under the same pressure, acting on the

'^^S editors' jottings, etc.

two cylinrlers, the amount of coal consumed daring the 28.18 hours, was 8519.5
kil., or 302 kil. per hour, and 4.3] to 4.51 per horse power.

The ether is not lost doing this work, and hence the cost of this combined
steam is small. The greatest difficulty encountered was to secure tlie joints so
closely as not to allow the escape of this subtle and intlamraable vapor.

Ammonia in Rain-watek. — M. Bousingault has been making numerous
experiments on the quantity of ammonia in rain-water, both in city and country.
One station was at Puri.-^, and the otiier at the old monastery of Liebfrauen-
berg, iu the department of the Lower Rhine, and on the eastern slope of the
Vosges. The i)rop()rtions of ammonia varied, at Paris, from 1 to 5.45 milligrams,
the mean being 3.35 milligrams per liter. At Liebfrauenberg, the rain-water
hardly contained one milligram. The excels at Paris was attributed to emana-
tions. Tiio learned chemist says that "Paris may be viewed as a vast mass of
smoking chimneys," — not the most captivating view to be taken of that elegant
city.

New Publishing House. — The new publishing firm of Ivison & Pliinney,
who continue the well-known house established by the late Mark H. Newman,
deserve, on several accounts, a cordial reception by " the trade " and the reading
public. The gentlemen constituting the firm are both from old publishing
houses, distinguished by many excellencies, business and personal. Mr. Ivison,
commencing life in moderate circumstances, was the first to make the city of
Auburn the conspicuous inland book-mart it long has been. His character and
business energy had given him an honorable position in " the trade" prior to his
connection with the late Mr. Newman ; and during his connection with Mr.
Newman, whose health was very infirm for several years, the chief labor of their
extensive business devolved on Mr. Ivison. Mr. Phinney is from a veteran stock
of publishers. His grandtathcr was one of the early friends of the celebrated
Judge Cooper, the founder of Cooperstown, and before the beginning of the
present century, published the Otsego Herald, referred to in the Pioneers, and
one of the first newspapers printed west of Albany — a little, blue, 7 by 9 siieet,
•which, as now preserved, is a very mummy of a newspaper. Fenimore Cooper,
the novelist, was, in his youth, regularly engaged on this paper; and not long
before his deatii, acknowledged to a publisher in this city that much of his
knowledge (if printing, and the practical part of his authorly profession, were
acquired in tliis oflice. This elder Phinney also commenced the publication of
Pkinney's^ Calendar, a faiuous almanac in the West, which has been continued,
nearly in its original form, to the present time — a curious specimen of the infancy
of book-making. His two sons, under the old firm of H. & E. Pliinney, com-
menced business in Cooperstown in the early part of the century, and continued
it under tlie same title, though in time embracing the son of one' of them, till the
death of the elder brother, in 1852, a period of over thirty years. They were
an energetic pair, with strongly-marked and original characters, of whom many
curious anecdotes are told among their old neighbors. Among their achieve-
ments, was the stereotyping, in the little village of Cooperstown, some thirty
years ago, the Family Quarto Bible, of which they manufactured and sold
untold thousands. On being burnt out in 1849, the business was removed to
Boftalo, and reorganized under the firm of Phinney & Co., M'ith two of the sons
■as leading partners, which still continues one of tlie largest and most responsi-
ble houses in the West.

With such antecedents, and wiili the experience, capital, and character which
Ivison & Phinney bring to their business, it is fair to expect that their house
■will speedily take a place among the staunchest and most honorable publishing
firms of this city.

Harper & BuoTniiRS. — Tiie calamity which i-ecently befel this well-known
house, by fire, is well known to our readers. They will be glad, also, to learn
that they are again at woi'k, at 82 Beekman street. We make the following
abstract of their immense business, as publislied in the January number of their
magazine:

editors' jottings, etc. 499

Tliey employed 33 Adams power-presses, of the largest and best description,
each of which averaged 6000 impressions, or 190,000 16iao pages, a day. Six-
teen of the presses had been built expressly for working wood-cuts. About 40
compositors were employed in their buildings, much of tiie type-setting being
done elsewhere by stereotypists, who supplied them with plates. Their own
stereotyping rooms employed about 20 men, who made from 25 to 30 casts a
day, averaging about 120 pages. A new department had just been added, for
carrying on the process of electrotyping, an art but lately introduced.

The bindery employed about 250 persons, 150 being females. Besides the
130,000 cojjies of their monthly magazine, they had daily on hand, and in pro-
cess of binding, over 12,000 volumes of books. Since the Harpers have been in
business, a period of about 36 years, they have published about 1,549 works,
including 2,028 volumes.

A Fanciful Gate. — A correspondent of the Home Journal gives a pleasant
account of a gate he passed through. The gate was a common one, shut by a
Cham and ball. But the post to which the inner end of the chain was attached
•was carved and painted in the likeness of a negro, with one hand raised to hi?
cocked hat, and the other extended to welcome you in. As you opened the
gate toward you, in going in, the negro post-pointer bent toward you, by a joint
in his back fairly bowing you in. Upon letting the gate go to, a spring in his
back " brought him up standing " again, ready for the nest comer. This faith-
ful fellow performed the amiable for his master for many years, without reward,
except now and then a new coat— of paint ; and finally died of a rheumatic back,
contracted in his master's service.

The Apple Man in 1853.— Mr. N. P. Morrison, of Somerville, last year
received $10 for one barrel and twenty-eight apples of the Hubbardston variety.
These apples were sold by the retailer at fifty to seventy-five cents a dozen. Mr.
M. cultivates, says the New-England Farmer, eight acres of land ; his fruit, this
barren year, 1853, brought him $850. For twenty-six bushels of apples he
received $60. For one hundred and thirty-six barrels, he received $408. For
strawberries and raspberries, $100. The balance, to make up the whole sum,
$850, was for cider-apples, sold at from eight to twelve cents a bushel, and for
early wind-falls sold in July and August. Perhaps some of our young men will
come to the conclusion that the market for good fruit is not yet over-stocked.

The Dauphin and Susquehanna Coal and Railkoad Company have completed
their connection from Harrisburg to the line of the Reading Railroad at Auburn,
with the exception of two miles of heavy excavation. We understand now that
the road is entirely finished, and that an engine will run over it on Monday nest.

County Societhis in Ohio.— Of the eighty-eight counties in the State of
Ohio, seventy-five have an organized agricultural society, and he'd fairs last
year. This far exceeds those of any other State in the Union. Of the thirty-
one States, seventeen have State fairs.

^ The Belvidere and Trenton Railroad was opened to Easton on the 16th
inst. By this road the distance from Easton to Philadelphia will be about
the same distance it is from Easton to New- York by the Central Railroad of
New-Jersey.

Improved Car-brake.— Mr. Marcus P. Norton, of West Poultney, Vt.. has
secured a patent for a Brake for Railroad Cars, which will have a tendency to
dimmish the number of accidents, and save the machinery of the cars. It is so
constructed that all the brakes are applied to the wheels at the same time,
throughout the_ entire train. This is done by the engineer or baggageMnaster.
In case ot collision, the engine may be separated from the train, thus" removing
some thirty tons of burthen from the train, which renders the passenger-cars
niore easy to^be suddenly stopped ; if any ihing is to be destroyed, it must be
the engine. The same kind of brakes are on the engine, but it cannot be stopped
so quick as the passenger cars, on account of the great weight which is in such

500 editors' jottings, etc,

rapid motion. The cars may be stopped in two or three rods. It is, also, so
constructed, tliat if an axletree break?, it cannot foil or rise up ; it must, there-
fore, keep in its place, and the train upon the track. There is no strain in the bear-
ings, or upon the wheels ; no loose chains to be gathered up before the brakes
are applied, but are instantly brought to act on tlie wheels. If a rubber should
break, it cannot fall under the wheel and throw the train from the track, as is
sometimes the case by the ones now in use. The brakes are applied to the
sides of the wheels, and being applied to all the wheels at the same time, remove
all strain upon ditferent parts of tlie machinery and throw it upon each part
alike. So much friction being applied at the same time, the train must stop.

American "Wool. — Peter A. Browne, Esq., of Philadelphia, who has given
great attention to the subject, in a communication to the Richmond (Va.) Wliig,
asserts that lie can show that "as fine fleece can be procured in the United
States as in any portion of the world." He says that he has in his possession
wool grown in Allegheny county, Penn., by William Hall, which measures from
1-2186 to 1-2500 part of an inch, while the finest wool in the collection sent
to him by the King of Prussia, and the finest among the specimens sent to him
by the King of Saxony measures 1-2186. Mr. Browne denies the correctness of
the decision on this subject at the London Crystal Palace Exhibition, and pro-
duces facts to show that the jury on wool did injustice to the specimens of
American wool exhibited.

Important to Milk-Dealers. — Milk-Dealer. — " Mr. Registrar, I come to
pay my bill for water tax ; but I would like to know why I am charged five
dollars more than last year."

Water Registrar. — " You did not keep milk for sale last year, I believe."

M. Z*.— " I did not."

W. i?.— "You sell milk now."

M, Z>.— " I do." .

W. R. — •' Y''our bill 's all right, sir. Five dollars a year for extra Cochituate
to milk-dealers is a moderate tax."

Exit milk-dealer, looking as though he had been skimmed.

Artificial Silicification of Limestones. — This process consists in impreg-
nating the limestone with silicate of potash, and has been used on a grand scale
in certain parts of the cathedral of Notre Dame. The architect of the cathedral
reports as follows :

1. The infiltration of silica made upon the terraces, "et contrefortdu choeur,"
in October, 1852, have preserved the stone from the green moss that covers
stones in moist places. 2. That the gutters and flagging of limestone, subjected
to this process, present surfaces perfectly dry, covered with a silicions crust. 3.
That upon stones so prepared, dust and spider-webs are less common than upon
the stone in the ordinary state. The report also states that tender stones have
become hard; have lost their porosity, and that after they are washed, they
dry more rapidly than stones not silicified.

"We regard this as a very importaut discovery, nor do we see why it may not
open very widely the door for the sculptor, enabling him to work on the softer
rocks, and harden their surfaces afterwards. This is precisely what was done
by Mr. Samuel Perkins, in relation to the use of steel for engravings. The
work is done on soft iron, and then the engraved plate is converted into steel.

We hope our own artists will make their experiments in this direction, and
lead their foreign brothers into paths which, though they were the first to open,
they were not the first to explore.

ViTpiFicATioN OF PaoTOGRAPnic PICTURES. — Here we are promised anotlier
step of progress in the most wonderful art of jdiotography. M. Plant, the
author of the process, first procured a photograph on glass covered with albu-
men, and-subjected it gradually to a strong heat, so as to redden the glass. The
albumen was destroyed, and tlie pliotograph, if negative, became positive by
reflection. The picture was marie of pure silver, which adheres quite strongly
to the glass, so that it may be polished- without alteration.

editors' jottings, etc. 5ttl

Sal-ammoniac Manufactured at Gas Woeks. — MM. Moerhlin & Stoll have
obtained a premium from the Industrial Society of Mulhausen, f<3r the manufac-
ture of sal-ammoniac from the ammoniacal liquid of gas works. The process is
as follows : The ammoniacal hquid is mixed with slaked lime, and is then sub-
mitted to distillation in a boiler heated by steam. The parts volatilized pass
into a worm, in which tlie larger part of the tar is deposited. The ammonia
passes on into a Wolff's apparatus, where it leaves the foreign substances
present, and is finally carried into cold water, where it is condensed, in a nearly
pure state. It is then neutralized with chloro-hydric acid, and evaporated in a
lead boiler.

As it is deposited, it is withdrawn by means of a wooden rake, and is allowed
to drain. It is then introduced into a brick mould, and subjected to a strong
pressure. Blocks of sal-ammoniac are thus obtained, which are dried in an
oven, heated by the evaporating furnace.

Peemanent Magnets are now made of cast-iron, by means of an electric cur-
rent. The only difficulty consists in tempering the metal. They must be tem-
pered at a bright red heat.

New Use of Balloons. — Experiments have been successfully made in the
use of balloons as a hydrostatic apparatus. The particular object in view was to
raise heavy bodies in deep water, and it may also be applied, perhaps, iu navi-
gation, for the passage of sand-banks. A balloon of four metres in diameter
raised at least 31,000 killograms, and if filled with hydrogen, the effect would be
much greater. Dr. Gianetti, the experimenter, used carbonic acid, which he
obtained by the decomposition of a carbonate at the bottom of the sea. The power
of such apparatus would be proportioned to the difference between the weight
of the gas filling the balloon, and that of the water in which it is immersed of the
same bulk. It seems a very great improvement over hogsheads, and the like,
which are sometimes used for similar purposes.

Effect of Industry. — We regret that we did not observe the following table
before our January issue. We might then have made a more emphatic state-
ment of the enormous value given to that which costs a mere trifle, by the
labors of an artist. A number of the British Quarterly Review gives the fol-
lowing calculation :

Bar-iron, worth only £1 sterling, is worth, when worked into
Horse-shoes, - - - - £2 10

Table Knives, - - - 36 00

, Needles, . . . - 71 00

Pen-knife blades, - - G57 00

Polished buttons and buckles, - 897 00

Balance springs for watches, - 50,000 00

Now AND Then. — The diftcrence between the state of things now and some
seventy years ago, is strongly exhibited by the reading of the following singular
proclamation. The object of Mr. Paine is evident from the document itself. It
was published in the pa[)ers.

"As the subscriber is appointed by the Honorable Trustees of Dartn;iouth Col-
lege to carry into execution the erection of an edifice for said college, for which
there will be wanted a large quantity of lime,

"These are therefore to request those who know of a quantity of lime within
thirty miles of said college, that will answer the purpose, and also of any person
or persons who will undertake the making of it, to give tlie subscriber informa-
tion ; in doing which they will contribute towards the professed design and
advantage themselves by undertaking. Elisha Paink.'"

" Lebanon, Sept. 22, 1784."

The American Journal of Science and Arts, conducted by learned gentle-
men, at New-Haven, Ot., to which we are indebted for the statements of two
or three' new discoveries on the arts on a previous page, retains the eminent
distinction it has so long possessed over all other scientific journals in thiscoun-

502

editors' jottings, etc.

u^ puglit to have a vastly incrensecl patronage, and the fact that it takes so
very high a stand in matters of science, is probably the reason why it is not
more generally read. It is beyond the reach of all but a few. Still it should be
patronized by all. The subscription of a five-dollar note is due the learned edi-
tors from every lover of science, whether he reads the journ;.l or not. It is due
for the honor of the country. The work is very poorly sustained. Gentlemen
ot wealth, send them a New Year's gift.

Clements' Live-stock Agencit.— While in Philadelphia recently, we visited
tlie extensive live-stock agency of Aaron Clements, Esq., in Cedar street. Mr.
C. has the choicest breeds of cuttle, horses, hogs, sheep, turkeys, ducks, hens,
&c., &c., constantly on hand, which he is selling at a fair price, and thus afford-
ing the agricultural community easy and cheap facilities for improving their
stock. lie ships to any part of the Union, and orders may be given by mail
^f' n^^^""-^ assurance that they will bo promptly and satisfactorily answered.-
Mr C. has been engaged in raising stock for more than a quarter of a century^
and possesses unusual qualitications for conducting such an agency.

MiLKFOu Manufaotukers.— Milk now possesses other offices besides the
production of butter and cheese, and the flavoring of tea. It has made its way
into the textile factories, and has become a valuable adjunct in the hands of the
calico-printer, and the woolen manufacturer. In the class of pigment-printing
work, which, indeed, is a species of painting, the colors are laid on the face of
the goods in an insoluble condition, so as to present a full, brilliant face. As a
vehicle for eftecting this process of decoration, the insoluble albumen obtained
froin eggs was always used until Mr. Pattison, of Glasgow, found a more eco-
nomical substitute in milk. For this purpose buttermilk is now bought up in
large quantities from the farmers, and the required insoluble matter is obtained
from it at a price far below that of the egg-albumen. This matter the patentee
called " lacbrine." A second application of the same article— milk— has just
been developed, by causes arising out of the recent high price of olive oil. The
woolen manufacturers are now using the high-priced article mixed with milk.
This mixture is said to answer much better than oil alone, the animal fat con-
tained in the globules of the milk apparently furnishing an element of more
powerful eflFect upon the woolen fibres than the pure vegetable oil alone.— Lon-
don Medical Journal.

Self-adjusting Switch.— -The Buffalo Commercial says : " A trial of Dick's
self-adjusting switch was made Thursday afternoon, on the Buffalo and New-
York City Eailroad, and was entirely successful. The main object of the
invention is to provide against the accidents which too frequently occur on rail-
roads throunh the carelessness of switch-tenders, in leaving open the switches
when a train is about to ])ass over the main track. This it efiectually does by
means of a spring, which, being touched by the wheels of the locomotive as they
pass along, instantly throws back the switch into the main track. A locomotive
was driven over the main track at a very high rate of speed, when the switch
was open ; and the instant the spring was touched, the rails sprang back into their
proper place, and the locomotive passed safely along. It has the appearance of
being a most hazardous experiment, but after its operation has once been wit-
nessed, all fear of an accident is at an end. The engine was driven by Myron K
Brown, engineer, and A. D. Garlick, assistant. The expeiiment was witnessed
by a large number of per.>-ons connected with, and interested in railroads, all of
whom expressed much satisfaction at the operation of the switch. Mr. James
W. Dick, the patentee, is in a fair way of realizing a good profit from his inge-
nious invention."

Imi'jjovement IN UuiLDiNG. — Kn improvement is introduced in a fine
row of stores going up in Chambers street, worthy of attention. In construct-
ing the walls, an iron girder is used, which serves two valuable purposes. It is
of the shape of an II on its side, (thus, W,) and is built into the wall, longitudi-
nally, at the point intersected by the floor-beams, the ends of which are made fo-
rest on the same ; and by this means fire is prevented from communicating

editors' jottings, etc. 503

between the extremities of the floor-beams, they being separated by about two
inches of solid iron. A primary object, however, is to facilitate tlie conversion
ot two or more stores into one, or their restoration to the oriirinal number ; for.
the girders being supported throughout their length by perpendicular iron posts,
the masonry of the walls may be at any time removed, leaving the iron work
unimpaired.

Safes.— Upon the subject of fire-proof and burglar-proof safes, there has been,
and still i.-;, a great difference of opinion among men of all classes.

In the general outside appearance of safes of our principal makers, there is
great similarity; but in the locks used, and in the mode of putting together, and
in what may be considered of more importance, safety from fire, which depend?
much upon the packing, as it is termed, there is great odds, as we have proofs
irora almost every great fire that occurs in our city.

Our friends need not to be directed ; yet if before purchasing, they will call at
iNo. 33 Maiden Lane, and examine there Avhat saved thousands in the great fire
in Pearl street, and then take a look at the stock ready for similar or anv fiery
trial, and burglar- proof, we feel sure that they will do as one of us did, mark one.
and order it sent home, feeling that he had as good, if not the best, safe hi^
money would buy.

This house is not as old as some others in our city ; yet that is no reason why
they should not make a better safe. Progress is the order of the age ; and while
some plod on in the beaten track, others strike boldly forth, and do works that
astonish the world. So if McFarland's new improved fire and burglar-proof
safe saves valuable property from destruction, it were better than to be burned
up in a safe of ancient fame.

Amekican Madder. — The experiments which have of late been made with
home-grown madder, have proved that, when properly heated, American is equal
to the best French madder. Like Turkey, Dutch, or Alsace madders, the Ameri-
can requires the addition of a little chalk to produce the best effects.

During the past winter, the Merrimack Company, Lowell, have used, with
great success, some madder grown in Montague, Franklin county, Mass., and are
now about to^dye some calico with this Massachusetts madder, to be exhibited
at the New- York Crystal Palace. The s:ime Company has also received a small
sample ot madder grown in Georgia, which proves to be an excellent article-
quite equal to that of Massachusetts.

We have been informed that there grows wild in Florida, a plant, whose root,
wJien eaten by hogs, colors their bones red. Such is the effect of madder.
Doubtless this is an indigenous species, whose cultivation would richly reward
the planter. It is hoped that samples of tliis "Pink-root," as it is termed in
Florida, may be forwarded to Lowell for trial in dyeing. It is very desirable to
determine whether it is madder requiring the peculiar treatment of all other
madders, (except the Avignon,) to produce the fullest, fastest, and most brilliant
colors.

Oysters.— According to the Baltimore American, the product of the oyster
trade of the city is equal to or greater than the product of all the wheat and 'corn
raised in the State of Maryland. The whole shores of the Chesapeake Bay and
Its tributaries are adapted to the growth of the oyster, and as but one year is
required for their full growth, an immense profit accrues to those engaged in the
business— a profit which is estimated at some three hundred to six hundred per
cent. There are 250 vessels engaged in the business, whicli average about 900
bushels to the cargo, and require nine or ten days for the trip. These vessels,
making in the aggregate 6000 trips during the eight months in the year in
which they ar^ engaged, give a total of 4,800,000 bushels per year sold' in the
Isaltimore market. The oysters bring an averac;© price of fifty cents per bushel,
winch gives a grand total of $2,400,000 per year paid for oysters by the dealers
in the city. Some of the houses send by the Baltimore and Ohio, and Baltimore
and Susquehanna Railroad, to say nothing of the other modes of transportation
from eight to ten tons of " canned" oysters per day. The shells are carrie ! ) ,

504

NEW BOOKS.

manure to all parts of Virginia and North Carolina. In the " shocking " of oys-
ters, the shells will increase about one fourth, which would give a total of about
0,000,000 bushels of shells, which sell for two cents per bushel, making a return
of $120,000 per year for the shells alone.

NEW BOOKS.
Th£ Lost Prince ; Facts Going to Prove the Identity of Louis XVII. of France and
the Kev. Eleazar Williams, &c. By John H. Hanson. New-York : G. P. Putnam.

1854. pp. 479.

We comraenced the examination of this volume free from prejudice ; and while we
know that it is easy to pronounce a course of reasoning as illocical and unsatisfac-
tory, even without the trouble of weighing it, we are also aware that those who
enter upon new fields of inquiry, or who depart from the beaten track of established
opinions, must encounter no little reproach.

But we do not hesitate to say that the testimony and circumstantial evidence here
set iorth, if not forged, are stronger and more satisfactory than that which is presented
in a majority of verdicts in our courts, in all sorts of disputed cases.

It may be interesting to our readers to know something of the kind of evidence
rehed upon by our author. We depart from our usual course, and give a very
meagre abstract of more prominent points.

It is not denied by any person that a plan was laid for the escape of the young
Prince from his confinement. It is also admitted by all, (that is by Duchesne, who
denies in his book that the Prince is now living) that one of his keepers was privy
to this plan. It was desired by all parties of the revolutionists to be rid of him, and
a motion was actually made in the Assembly that he be exiled.

At the time of his pretended death, he was visited by a Committee of the Assem-
bly, wno took no measures to establisli the identity of the corpse before them, but
w-ere satisfied with the general statements of his attendants.

.Surgeons were appointed to examine the question of identity, but they made no
such examination, nor do they testify to this point.

The young Prince was diseased in" all his joints, especially is his knees. The sur-
geons describe two tumors only, namely, in the right knee and the left wrist.

M. Desault, his family' physician, who well knew his condition, described his dis-
ease as tlie ffcrm of a scrofulous affection. This physician suddenly died, it is said,
by poison, just before the " death " of the Prince. The surgeons say that in the sub-
ject they examined, were the marks of scrofulous disease, "which had existed a long
time." Tumors were in both knees, both wrists, and both elbows.

All his keepers describe the Prince as mentally imbecile arid silent, while the boy
who died was " talkative, forward, animative, imaginative."

Persons familiar with the Prince, publicly pronounce it as their opinion, that the
child that died, whom tliey also saw, was not the Prince.

In 1795, and afterwards, arrests were made by the French Oovernmcnt, of persons
vharged with being the Dauphin. In the same year. Chare tie issued a proclamation to
the army of Vendee, in which he declares that the Dauphin was then in his posses-
sion ; and again, it is asserted that Carabaceres and others acknowledged that the
public " were deceived on this subject," but would never reveal what he knew. The
sister and other relatives of the Prince have apparently believed and known the
Prince to be still alive. Thus far, as to the fact of the death of the Dauphin.

Turn now to this country. Soon after these events had transpired, two French
children were brought here, and resided for a time in Albany-, where the peculiar
appeai'ance of the boy was a subject of common observation "among families of the
highest respectability ; and the contrast noted between him and those who acted as
his parents, or guardians, and these were so dissimilar in their appearance, tliat they
were not then supposed to be hu-^liand and wife. These people had many articles of
very great value, which had "belonged to the deceased King and Queen"of France."
They suddenly disappeared, none knew whither.

About the same time, two Frenchmen, one, apparently, a Catholic priest, brought
a weak, sickly boy to Ticonderoga, and left him there among the Indians. These
two men informed a Mr. (t'Brien^ that the boy was born in France, and he, having
often seen him, both in youth and manhood, testifies that this "boy " is the same

NEW BOOKS. 506

person with Mr. Williams. The Indian reputed to be his mother, has frequently called
hjm her " adopted son ;" and while the names of all her other children are duly re-
gistered, no entry is made of his.

The recollections of Mr. Williams, who is an Episcopalian clergyman, and who has
been a missionary of unsullied reputation for many years among those Indians, do
not extend beyond his twelfth year, or thereabout. All beyond is mist and confu-
sion. _ But when Prof. Day, of New-llaven, in an interview with Mr. Williams, was
showing to him, among many others, a certain portrait, the name of which was con-
cealed, "Good God," cried Mr. W., "I know that face; it has haunted me throush
life !" It proved to be the portrait of Simon, the jailor of the young Prince!

Many French gentlemen, some of them artist?, familiar with the faces of the royal
family, pronounce that of Mr. Williams to be a Bourbon, and specify the peculiarities
about it. The scars which the}-, some of them, remember on the face of the younij
Prince, are now risible on his. Again, Count de Balbi, an illegitimate son of' Louis
XVIII., was for a time in this country, and formed numerous acquaintances. Some
of them, on meeting Mr. Williams, have mistaken him for the Count, and have ad-
dressed him as such.

The Prince de Joinville, when in this country, it is shown by several witnesses
well known to the public, spoke of Mr. Williams with great interest, and asked for
an introduction to him, going, apparently, out of his way to see him. Mr. Williams
declares that in a private interview, he, the Prince, told him that he was the Dau-
-phm. And though, on the publication of this statement in Putnam's Mar/azine, the
Frince eame out with a fat denial of the whole story, he denies too much,- and en-
tirely destroys all the weight of his 'statement ; for he denies what is sworn to by
half a dozen witnesses, the captain and passengers of the steamer; and no jury in
the world but would pronounce his positive declarations as thoroughly hnpeached.
This tells very strongly for Mr. Williams's correctness ; and why should 'De Joinville
think them worthy of any notice? We have thus given a very nieagre account of this
singular affair. But it is enough to show its nature ; and those who wish for more
hght must order the book. They will then see, that not half has been told in this
abstract, though it is aU for which we have space.

And though one of our Puritan editors, and one or more of our city press, seem
to consider this mass of testimony, some of Avhich is from the most respectable citi-
zens of this country, as quite unworthy of attention, we are willing to place our-
selves in company with such learned, accomplished, and judicious men as Rev. Dr.
Hawks and the Hon. John G. Spencer, and others, in the list of those who attach to
it no small degree of consideration.

The Missionary of Kilmant ; being a Memoir of Alexander Paterson, with notices of
Robert Edie. By the Rev. John Baillie. New- York: Robert Carter & Bros.
1853. 12mo. pp. 253.

Me. Pateesox was a cohvert to the preaching of Dr Chalmers, who befriended him
to the day of his death. He was a faithful missionary, and has preserved the journal
of his humble but very successful labors among the poor, in these unpretending but
well-written pages.

Clinton; a Book for Boys. By Wm. Simonds, author of "Boys Own Guide."'

"Friendly Words," <fcc. , Boston : Gould «fe Lincoln. 1854.

This is & well-told story, designed merely to illustrate the importance of early
habits of industry and obedience, the danger of vicious companions, and the ability
to say N"o. Kindred and collateral topics are of course brought out, and all is done
m good taste, and interests the reader.

The Am];i:.\n Statesman; or, Illustrations of the Life and Character of Daniel
Webste, . lesigned for American Youth. By Rev. Josepu Banvard. Boston : Gould
& Lincoln. 1853. 12mo. jjp. 334.

TuE name of Daniel Webster is a host in itself, and is intensely suggestive of great
thoughts. Every incident of his life, as one after another is broughtlo our attention,
IS but a new phase of mountain scenery. Hence this volume cannot fail to be at-
tractive. But we think that Mr. Banvard has tried to accomplish two things that
are inconsistent, though we scarcely know how to define the term " youth." If he
uses It in its popular sense, the plan of the work is quite deficient. If by "youth,"

506 NEW BOOKS.

he means all not belonging to old age, he should have omitted sundry paragraphs of
advice, unsuited to all but the very young and useless to tliem, and eome really
childish allusions. Tiie few points selected for prominent relief, however, in this lit-
tle volume, if for understanding readers, are geuerally very judiciously selected. All
such will read the volume with pleasure.

Haps and Mishaps, of a Tour iu Europe. By Gkace Gekenwood. Boston : Ticknor,

Reed & Fields. 1854. 12mo. pp. 437.

Grace Greenwood is one of our most sprightly writers. She is never sleepy, and
is very successful in keeping her readers awake. As a traveller, she is remarkable.
Her words are apt, and her opinions quite worthy of lespect. She knows what is
worthy of notice, and how to convey the best idea of what she describes to the mind
of others. Hence her journal is peculiarly attractive. We have read it with great
interest.

The Priest and the Huguenot ; or. Persecution m the age of Louis XV. From the
iS French of L. BuNGENER. Boston: Gould & Lincoln. 2 vols. 12mo. 1854.
t M. BusGENER was a minister of the Reformed Church of Geneva. He is an able
man and a powerful writer. His object is to give a history of the persecutions of
tliose times. A former work, kindred to this, entitled "The Priest and the King,"
we have not seen. But this work we have read with intense interest, and commend
it, unqualifiedly, to all our readers.

Glad Tidings; or, the Gospel of Peace; a series of Dailj'^ Meditations for Christian
Disciples. By Rev. R. W. Tweedie, D.D., of Edinburgh. Boston : Gould & Lin-
coln. 1 vol. 12mo. pp. 276. 1854.

This little volume is composed of some 120 or 180 short articles, on some import-
ant religious topic, accompanied by some passage of Scripture, and a selection of
poetry. All evangelical denominations will give to it their hearty approval.

The Christian World Unmasked. By John Berridge, A.M. ; with a Life of the Author,
by Rev. Thomas Gulhrie, D.D., Edinburgh. Boston : Gould & Lincoln. 1853.
12mo. pp. 183.

John Berridge is a quaint and racy writer. The book represents a spiritual phy-
sician, prescribing for a sinner ignorant of his own malady. His introductory sen-
tences are a fair sample of the whole. " Lend me a chair, and I will sit down and
talk with you. If my company proves unseasonable, or my discourse unsavory, you
may be relieved from both by a single cast of your eye." Few will fail to listen, till
he has finished his discourse.

The Religions of the World and their Relations to Christianity. By Frederick
Denison Maurice, M.A., from third revised London edition. Boston: Gould &
Lincoln. 1854.

The substance of these lectures was delivered, according to the directions of
Boyle's will, in one of the London churches, at stated times, in 1845 and 1846. Thej*^
embrace a view of the origin, princi|iles, and character of Mohammedanism, Ilindooism,
Buddhism, and the old Persian faith, with the relations of each to Christianity. They
are ably written by one who was well informed in his subject, and are replete with
interest

Hot Corn ; Life-Scenes in New-York Illustrated. By Solon Rouinson. New-Yoi'k :
Dewitt &. Davenport. 12mo. pp. 408. Price, $1.25. Elegantly bound.
Thls work is written in good style, and is brim-full of intensely interesting scenes.
While we were reading some of the stories, as they origiiiady appeared in the 2Vi-
bune, we thought them capital, but the work of a vivid imagination. We have,
however, been assured by the author, that if the volume has any merit, it consists in
its trutlifulness. This adds wonderi'ully to ils interest. If any one would know what
poverty is, and what is the severity of sufFt-ring, too common, alas, in all large c.tiee,
and the mode of cure, let him read these pathetic tale*.

LIST OF PATENTS.

5or

Cakl Krixcken; or, The Christmas Stocking. New-York : G. P. Putnam. 1854.
'li^l' p"" capital juvenile. The book consists of stories that are told, and well told,
little Oarl, by the different articles which he found in his stocking on Christmaa

fco

morning. Everj boy would like it in his library.

List of Patents Issued,

FROM DEC. 6 TO JAN. 3.

fOur list of new patents is unbroken thus far, though in our last numb«- the dates were mispriateU.]

James Cochrane, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
provement in hydrant valve.

John Comstock, of New-London, Ct., for improve-
ment in bit-stocks of braces.

Norman Cook, of New- York, N. Y., for improve-
inent in mode of fixing the colors of cotton um-
brellas.

Carrai ITart, of Bridgeport, Conn., for improve-
ment in car wheels.

_ Jos. Nock, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improvement
ux inkstand covers.

F. S. Hotchkiss and C. W. Blakeslee, of North-
field, Conn., for improvement in spring clamps for
«lothes-lines.

Melvin Jinks, of Wayland, N. Y., for improve-
ment in turnkeys. i

■y^ E. Merril and Freeman Tupper, of Nashua, I
N. H., for improvement in bedstead-fastenings. j

J. E. Nesen, of Buffalo. N. Y., for improvement
m harvesters and binders.

Chfts. Page, of North Danvers, Mass., for im-
provement in sectional bedsteads.

Joseph Sawyer and Lyman Clark, of South Royals-
ton, Mass., for improvement in pt-g rasps.

Jno. Wilmington, of South Bend, Ind., for im
provement in machines for cutting sheet-metal.

J. R. Bassett, assignor to James B. Williams, of
Cincinnati, 0., for improvement in pump-vaUes.

John Butter, assignor to James Sully and John
Butter, of Buffilo, N. Y., for improvement for
machines for moulding brick.

J. E. Brown and S. L. Bartlett, of Woonsocket,
R.I., for improvement in grain and grass-harvesters.

William C. Creamer, of New-Haven Co., Conn.,
for improvement in operating brakes by sicnal
cards. "

B. H. Franklin, of Worcester, Mass., for im-
provement in manure and other forks.

Uriah H. Goble, of Springfield, O., for improve-
ment m grain and grass-harvesters.

Joseph and .James Montgomery, of Lancaster,
Pa., for improvement in shoes to winnowers.

_ T. F. Nelson, of riarke Co.. Va., for improvement
m manure-crushers and sowers.

Wm. and Ttiomas Schnebly, of New- York city,
for improvement in grain and grass-harvesters.

H. N. Tripp, of Alfred, Me., for improTcraent in
power-rakes.

• ?• T,: ^^"^l'«'". of" New- York city, for improvement
m hullmg and scouring coffee.

J. B. Armstrong, of Barnwell, S. C, for improve -

ment in cotton-presses.

Charles Atwood.of Birmina;hara, (Derby,) Conn
^'^'" I'nprovement in attaching hooks and eyes ii

n. E. and M. Battershall, of Troy, N Y for
improvement in candle-mould machines. "'

James Baxendale, of Providence, R. I , for im-
provement in stamping patterns on rollers.

James Bolton, M.D., of Richmond, Va., for im-
provement in hot-air furnaces.

Lazare Cantel, of New- York, N. Y., for improved
metalhc trunk-frames.

David Carroll, of Baltimore, Md., for improve-
ment in shuttles. , 'ur irapiove

John D'Homergue, of New- York, N. Y for im-
provement in car-brakes.

Alexander Frankenberg, of Columbus O for
improvement in soda-water fountains ''

_ W. J Hatfleld, of Dayton, 0., for improvement
in jointing table-tops.

L. 0. P. Meyer, of Newtown, Conn., for vulcaniz
ing caoutchouc compounds.

• "I: -^^ '^'■'chell, of Ringgold, Ga., for improTement
in hand-looms.

Ephraim Parker, of Rock Island, III., for im-
provement in sawing and planing clapboards.

Godfrey Simon, of Reading, Pa , for improve-
ment in carriages with shifting seats.

Solon Staples, of Topsham, Me., for screw for
planking ships.

H. L. Sweet, of Foxborough, Mass., for guides
for sewing on bindings. > & ucr,

Wm. H. Towers, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in horse-shoe.

E:ias Unger, of Dayton, Ohio, for iwlygonal sur-
faces in timber. i -ro

E. H. Bard, and H H. WUson, of Philadelphia,
Pa., for improvement in gold pens.

h,l^?n-lT'fl°™' r^ Cleveland, O., for cleansing
hair and feathers from insects, &c.

• ^- r "■■,eenou?h, of Cincinnati, O., for separat-
ing alcohol from water and other heavier fluids.

B. F Stevens and Walter Kidder, of I^well,
Mass., for shingle-machine.

A. E. Better, of New- York, N. Y., for foldin"-
bureau or wardrobe-bedsteads. "

L p. Garli'-k, of Lyons, N. Y., for self-actinff
machines for weighing grain.

608

LIST OF PATENTS.

C. F. Sibbald, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
ment in steam-boilers.

S. C. Blodgett, of Georgetown, Mass., assignor
to Chas. JVlorej-, of Boston, Mass., and Morey, as-
signor to Neheniiah Hunt, of Boston, Mass , for
improvement in sewing-machines.

Wm. II. Atkins, a.ssignor to W. T. Huntington,
of Ithaca, N. V., for improved time-registers, for
showing the day of the week and month.

J. C. ConkUn, of Peekskill, N. Y., assignor to D.
Tompkins, of North iiaverslraw, N. Y., and D. F.
Tompkins, of New-York, N. Y., for improved pick-
axes.

Wra. A. Martin, of Brooklyn, N. Y., assignor to
W. Watson and Peter Van Zaudt, of New-York,
\. Y., for improved metliod of folding Seidhtz
powders.

Alfred C. Cook, of Russelyille, Ky., for machine
for sawing bevel surfaces.

Samuel Champion and Thomas Champion, of
AVashington, D. C, for improvement in feathering
paddle-wheels.

Isaac Crandal, of Cherry Valley, N. Y., for im-
provement in running-gear of v.-agons.

John Collman, of Pilver Creek, 111., for ruling-
machine.

Wm. S. Dillehay, of the county of Shelby, Ky.,
for imijrovemeut in straw-cutters.

John Donkvy, of New-York, N. Y., for the
method of forming jilates for polj'-chromatic
printing.

F. P. Dimpfel, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
ment in steam-boiler furnace.s.

J. Hamilton, of New-York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in quarlz crushing-machine.

M. W. Helton, of BJoomington, Ind., for im-
proved method of hanging and operating saw
gates.

G. D. Miller, of New-Berlin, Pa., for improved

tyeres.

Lucius Page, of Cavendish, Vt , for improvement
in screw bolts and nuts.

Jonathan Russell, of Philadelphia, Pa., for cutting
irregular forms.

D. H. Chamberlain, of Boston, Mass., assignor
to himself and Neliemiah Hunt, for improvement
in banding puUies for saws.

J. li. Longbotliam, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for im-
provement in bookbinder's boards.

G. A. Xander, of Hamburg, Pa., for improvement
in corn-shellers.

C. Muller, of New- York, for improvement in
machines in casting type.

Matthew Stewart, of Philadelphia, Pa., for floor-
jilates of malt-kilns.

E. A. Tuttle,of Williamsburgh, N. Y., for hot-air
registers.

J. B. Terry, of Hartford, Conn., for machine for
sticking pins.

Z. C. Ogden, of Glenn's Fall?, N. V., assignor to
L. C. Ogden, for lowering, raising, and fastening
Ciurriage-tops.

W. H. Price, of Pliiladelphia, Pa., for improved
bedstead-fastening.i.

P. P. Tapley, of Lynn, Mass., for improved ma-
chines for polishing leather.

\V. B. Tilton, of New-York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in guitars.

C. Desbeau, of Paris, France, for improved
method of turning the leaves of books.

John Sliuttleworth, of Frankfort, Pa., for im-
provement in power-looms.

Joseph Nason,of New-York, N. Y., for improved
method of cutting screws in lathes.

Reuben M. Hiues, of Mentz. N. Y., assignor to
Horace C. Silsby, of Seneca Falls, and Reuben M.
nines, of Mentz, N. Y., for improved hay and
maniu'e forks.

Tliomas W. Harvey, of New- York, N. Y., as-
signor to John B. Terry, of Hartford, Conn., for
improvement in machines for sticking pins.

Sherburn C. Blodget, of Philadelphia, Pa., for
trimming and cording umbrella-covers.

Patrick Clark, of Rahway, N. J., for regulating
the damper of steam-boilers.

R. H. CoUyer, of San Francisco, Cal., for im"
provement in quartz-pulverizer.

T. F. Englebrecht, of New-Yorlc, N. Y., for im-
provement in double-acting spring-hinges.

Banford Gilbert, of Pittsburgh, Pa.,formiprove-
ment in corn-shoUers.

J. D. Greene, of Cambridge, Mass., for improve-
ment in breech-loading fire-arms.

J. B. Holmes, of Cincinnati, O., for improvement
in machine for nailing washboards.

Samuel Malone, of Tremnnt, 111., for improve-
ment in corn-planters.

6. F. Page, of Baltimore, Md., for improvement
in ratchet catch for head-blocks in saw-mills.

Thos. Rogers, of Philadelphia, Fa., for improve-
ment in cutting hand-rails.

H. C. Nicholson and James Spratt, of Cincinnati,
for improvement in sealing preserve-cans.

Oren Stoddard, of Busti, N. Y., for machinery
for sawing logs.

Wm. Wright, of Hartford, Conn., for operative-
cut-off valves of steam-engines.

E. L. Freeman, of Bclville, N. Y., for bog-
cutting cultivators.

WEEK ENDING JAN. 10.

David Clark, of Philadelphia, Pa., for oil-cup and
steam-engines.

Lucian A. and J. W, Brown, of Hartford, Conn.,
for press for veneering.

Leonard Campbell, of Columbus, Miss., for cot-
ton-gins.

D. S. Darling, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for improve-
ment in preventing dust from entering railroad-
cars.

D. M. Clunmings, of North Enfield, N. IL, for
improvement in machinery for mortising frames
for window-blinds.

C. W. Fillmore, of Cor.-il, HI., for improvement
in clamps for holding steel plates, while being
hardened and tempered.

B. C. Goffin, of New- York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in attaching cross-bar fastenir gs to vault and
safe-doors.

B. D. Gullet, of Aberdeen, Miss., for improvement
in cotton-gins.

Ilalver Halvorson, of Hartford, Conn., for im-
provement in machine for pegging boots and uhoe.s.

CI)e panijlj, tl)e foom, anli tl)e ^nml.

Part II.— Vol. VI. MARCH, 1854. No. 3.

GEOLOGY.— COAL FORMATIONS.

We purpose to give a concise view of this great subject in its several
phases. It must be admitted to be a topic replete with interest, whether
viewed in a scientific or economic connection. To understand the latter,
however, we must know something of the former, and we shall venture there-
fore to presume upon the approval of our readers, while we attempt a simple
statement,^ intelligible to the unlearned, of the more important facts belonging
to such an essay. And we invite you, reader, whose eyes are now glancing
along these lines, by way of testing their quality, not to be deterred from
following us from page to page, in successive numbers even, until we are
convicted of tediousness upon a fair trial.

The opinion was advanced by Liebnitz, and is still entertained somewhat
exjjensively, that in some distant period the entire earth was a liquid mass,
under the action of heat of great intensity. As the outer surface began to
solidify, and form a crust, granite was one of the oldest " formations." It
does not occur in regular strata, or layers. It has not the appearance of
having been poured out upon a hard surface, and sufiered thus to become
solid, but always consists of compost masses, granulated, that is, in grains or
concretions, not in crystallized forms. Nor does it contain any fragments or
other remains of previously-formed rocks.

If the world was ever in such a condition, what other consequences could
rationally be anticipated than the following? As the melted mass, now con-
fined by a solid crust, boiled and heaved, being wrought upon by forces
mighty beyond conception, but ever-varying in their intensity, frequent erup-
tions ensue. Some portions of this crust are elevated; others, perhaps, are
depressed. By-aud-by, huge quantities of the melted matter burst through
the walls which have confined them, and pour themselves out on the uneven
surface, and are there left to cool and solidify, in their turn to be covered by
similar eruptions. The elevated portions would still be left bare, while those
which were depressed would gradually approach to the condition of a uniform
plane. So far, the results supposed completely answer to phenomena every-
where witnessed on the crust of the earth.

It is not, however, a point upon which all are agreed that the entire earth
was ever, at one time, in the form of a liquid. Various theories have had and
still have their defenders, although so far as behef in the fact that all has
been in that condition at some time or at diflferent times, there is but little
disagreement. Numerous fractures on beds of granite, which are filled with
more recent granite or other crystalline rocks, strongly indicate successive
operations of this kind. There are some very notable examples of this.

Go another step. Let these repeated eruptions cover the solid crust with
the liquid matter still occupying the central regions of the earth, and let

VOL. VI. — PART II. 9

olO GEOLOG¥. — COAL FORMATIONS,

chemical or other existing forces, operating through a long period of time,
cause these substances, after they have become solidified, to waste and crum-
ble— a process which is now constantly going on— and then let the waters and
the winds exert their natural influence in collecting or scattering these granu-
lated or fragmentary portions, and chemical agencies exert their legitimate
influence, as they do at the present day, and we shall have all that is neces-
sary to explain the general condition and arrangement of tlie outer crust of
the earth. And if we can thus account for admitted facts, it may be wiser
to receive than to reject this theory of the earth's formation. . If this is not
the rational explanation of these phenomena, the scientific world would gladly
hear something more in accordance with known facts.

This process would require a vast period of time. The progress of the new
creation, or the change from utter chaos to a condition suited to the support
of animal life, must "have been very gradual, requiring the lapse of ages, and
this long period may have been previous to " the first day," as is generally
believed, or during the progress of the "days," each day being an epoch.

But if granite is the oldest among the rocks, what other forms of solid
matter were coexistent with it ? Gneiss is one of the oldest, and bears marks
of having been formed under water. Often, it is stratified, or in layers, show-
ing that a solid mass was beneath it at its formation. Sometimes it is hard
as granite, and other specimens we have* often made to crumble into powder
in our fingers. Mica slate is perhaps nearly as " old." So is hornblende.
No remains of animals are ever found in these rocks, and who can tell us
vwhy we should believe that, during the process of these formations, any ani-
. coals existed? If they did exist, they must have possessed peculiar organ-
isms, to endure such extreme changes as those to which they must have
been exposed in the midst of such revulsions of nature. This is the epoch of
the primary formations, although it is not now supposed ihat all " primary"
rocks were formed at the earliest period.

It ma^'^ be in place here to state that the phrase, "the crust of the earth,"
has not a very definite meaning. That is, we know but little of its thickness
or its substance. Perhaps a depth of ten miles may have been examined,
but even this is only about 1-400 the distance from the centre of the earth to
the surface.

Another remark is necessary, that we may not mislead. All granites are
■not sup[X)sed to belong to the rocks first formed, or sohdified, but certain
foi'ms known by this general term, are believed to be of more recent origin.
Still, all granites underlie, that is, they occupy the lowest place in tlie order
of super-position. Hence, Sir Charles Lyell proposes to call them hypogene
rocks, a term formed of two Greek words, signifying to he and under.

For the same reason, other rocks, as volcanic, have been termed overlying.
These terms define their position, but not their absolute condition ; for since
they fii-st occupied the spot where they are now found, they may have essen-
tially changed their external and also their essential characteristics.

Other names are applied, of obvious import. Thus, rocks formed more
recently by the action of subterranean fires, are called volcanic. These
contain no vegetable or animal reniains.

Those rocks which spread out in strata, or beds, like the sediment at the
mouths of rivers, are called aqueous, as they are generally supposed to haye
been thus disposed by the action of water.

Fossils ai-e the bodies, or the traces of bodies, animal or vegetable, which,
by the action of natural causes, have been long buried in the earth. Of
these, shells are most abundant. These are sometimes found forming a large

GEOLOGY. — COAL FORMATIONS. 511

portion of the solid mass of rocks. They occur at very different degrees of
elevation above the ocean. In the Hiramalayas, fossils of sea-shells occur at
an elevation of 16,000 feet. In this northern section of country, the vicinity
of Lake Champlain is most abundant in these interesting remains. We have
seen localities so full of them that one could scarcely step without treading
upon them. These are imbedded in limestone. They are also found, as we
ourselves have witnessed, more than a hundred feet above the present surface
of that lake.

Rocks of igneous origin, yet differing in their characteristics from the vol-
canic, are called plctonic. They are supposed to have been formed under
great pressure, perhaps at great depths, and to have been melted, and after-
ward cooled with extreme slowness.

One other class remains to be described. There are certain rocks that con-
tain no fossils, no sand, pebbles, nor any such indications of aqueous origin,
which do still form strata, corresponding in form and arrangement to aqueous
formations. These may have been originally deposited by water, and after-
ward been exposed to the action of subterranean fires, and thus made to as-
sume another texture. These rocks are highly crystalline. Statuary marble
is an illustration of this class; so are mica and hornblende slates. These are
termed metamorphic rocks, the name denoting the change or metamorphosis
which they have undergone.

These four classes, the aqueous, the volcanic, the plutonic, and metamorphic,
have reference, it appears, to their origin, and not to the time of their forma-
tion.

The various degrees of elevation at which any given rock is visible, do
not necessarily affect its general relative position. If at a certain point, you
forcibly thrust the lining of your coat through the broadcloth, it does not
follow that it ceases to belung to the lining. Granite " crops out" in a thou-
sand places, just as the ends of one's fingers do through his gloves, though
by a different process. Instead of wearing away the outer covering, the in-
ner one is forcibly thrust out.

Next above these " primary formations," are those which Werner called
TRANSITION rocks, the period of which is divided into three systems, though
that name has recently been discarded. The lowest group is the Cambrian,
into which the mica slates, and gneiss, and slaty gray-wackes are found.
Organic remains also occur, which consist chiefly of the lowest forms of ani-
mal life, the polypod, with the brachipods, corals, &c. Above these, is the_
Silurian period, in which are organic remains of sea-weeds, zoophytes, trilo-
bites, shells, corals, &c. Recent discoveries, however, have brought to light,
from these rocks, the track of a fresh-water turtle, a species of animal (rep-
tile) not found in earlier investigations. This occurred on what is known as
the " Potsdam sandstone," which lies at the base of the silurian system. It
is not a single specimen, but such remains are very numerous. In 1851,
specimens were^laid before the Geological Society of London, containing the
fossil of a quadruped, which gives strong evidence of having been a fresh-
water tortoise. Previous to these discoveries, the trias (which lies above the
coal, and to which we have not yet referred) was the lowest formation in
which any trace of a chelonian had been discovered, though others have
since been found, and are described in the last work of Sir Charles Lyell.
These fossils of the higher species, in the older and lower formations, occur
both in England and in this country. We allude to this, not as specially
important as to the specific object before us, but because it belongs to the sub-
ject, and is full of interest to those especially who hold to the doctrine of

512 GEOLOGY. — COAL FORMATIONS.

" progressive development" from the lowest forms of animal life to the high-
est of all, man. And so far as that theory is concerned, one such example,
if well established, is as ruinous as a million. Nor are such examples solitary.
A molar tooth of an animal belonging to the order "mammalia" has been
found in the stratum of the lias, which is just above the coal formation.
Mammalia fossils occur also in the trias of Germany. Birds have been dis-
covered in the lower eocine of England and of Switzerland, and North Amer-
ica. Four species of reptiles have been brought to light from the old red
sandstone of Europe, while remains of fish have been found, " plentifully in
the devonian, and sparingly in the silurian strata."

Next occurs the devonian period, in which occurs the old red sand-stone, a
conglomerate of various pebbles and fragmentary rocks, and abounding in
marine fossils. Various metallic ores also occur. This underlies

The coal formation, which consists of carboniferous deposits, and which
abounds with vegetable remains, among which those of numerous varieties
of the fern are most abundant ; and nearly all these vegetable fossils belong
to tropical climates; and this fact adds to the probability that the theory above
suggested as to the formation of the solid earth is correct. Those regions are
now very far from being of tropical temperature. Marine fossils are rarely
found in this formation.

The COAL or carboniferous group contains a variety of minerals in con-
nection with the coal, while often and usually even the coal constitutes but a
small portion of the whole mass. According to Sir Charles Lyell, the coal
strata in the north of England are, by estimation, 3000 feet in thickness,
while the veins of coal do not in the aggregate exceed 60 feet. In Soutli
Wales, the coal measures are found by actual measurement to be 12,000 feet
in thickness. In breadth or horizontal extent, there is nothing like uniformity.

Among the minerals found in connection with coal, are limestone of differ-
ent varieties, with various marine fossils, and the old red sand-stone, which
often underlies it, sand-stones, and shales. Arenacious shale, which is some-
times called fire-clay, or that suited to the manufacture of fire-bricks, is often
found underlying the coal. In South Wales, this uniformly lies beneath the
coal. As there are certain minerals found in this connection, so there are
certain kinds of vegetable fossils, which are usually found among the veins of
coal. Among these, as already suggested, ferns are the most numerous, about
five hundred different species of them having been described. Some of these
species are still living, but most of them are extinct. All these vegetable
fossils belong to the grand divisions, acrogens and endogens, though the
number of the latter is but small, not a single fossil specimen of an exo-
genous plant having yet been discovered.

Among the coal-beds, growths of the vegetable kingdom have been discovered
in all conceivable states and conditions. Sometimes trees are found in a verti-
cal po-^ition, that is, vertical (perpendicular) to the plain of the bed. Sometimes
the stump and roots only have been found, while, in other instances, the
trunks of trees, <fec., are inclined, or in a horizontal positton. Indications
often leave no doubt that these are found on the spot where they grew, while
it is equally obvious, elsewhere, that they were drifted from their native
forests and swamps by some mighty force. In South Stafftjrdshire, according
to the authority above cited, in about a quarter of an acre, 78 stumps with
their roots attached were found, while their trunks were lying prostrate in
all directions. Portions of these trunks were converted into coal. The roots
of these trees formed a stratum of coal ten inches thick, beneath which was
a layer of clay two inches thick, and below this another forest, resting on a

GEOLOGY. — COAL FORMATIONS., 513

seam of coal two feet in thickness. Five feet below this, was a third forest,
with large stumps.

BTere, then, are evidences of forests submerged, which, by various chemical
agencies, and during the lapse of an immense ,period of time, have changed
tl;e composition of their elements, and broken up their regular organisms, so
as to become coal.

What agencies overwhelmed these forests, and covered them with drift,
may never be demonstrated. But in the Bay of Fundy are witnessed pro-
cesses which illustrate the possibility if not the probability of changes like
those described. There, as is well known, the tides are very high, often more
than sixty feet, and to this the rapidity of their currents, of course corre-
sponds. These rapid currents constantly undermine and sweep away the
whole face of the cliffs, while new growths of trees are constantly seen, suc-
ceeding those which were destroyed ; to be, in their turn, overwhelmed and
succeeded by others. This condition of things is seen for two or three miles
in extent, from north to south, and to much greater distance from east to
west, in the banks of the streams which intersect the coal-fields. A piece of
coal has been found in Germany, near Laubach, on which the annual circles
could be counted.

The nature of the change from wood to coal, according to Liebig and
other chemists, is as follows : The elements of carbonic acid are disen-
gaged fiom the wood, and the elements of water unite with it All varieties
of wood-coal contain more hydrogen than wood, and less oxygen than is
necessary to form water by uniting with this hydrogen. It is a remarkable
fact that in coal regions the springs of water are often impregnated with car-
bonic acid gas. So also the inflammable gases which stream out of clefts in
the strata of mineral coal, always contain carbonic acid. Various analyses
and experiments prove that by this continual removal of carbonic acid the
wood is gradually changed into mineral coal, while hydrogen being constantly
disengaged from mineral coal, in the form of a compound of carbo-hydrogen,
until it entirely disappears, the mineral coal is converted into anthracite.

Coal-fields, then, are composed of decayed vegetable growths, and they
were formed after that period in the liistory of the world's formation when
it possessed a temperature fitted to sustain vegetable life, and those remains
being to a great extent, apparently, of the vegetation of a tropical climate,
though far removed from the torrid zone, indicate a very different condition in
respect to heat and moisture, from that witnessed in the same regions in our
own times.

We have thus at length reached our subject, the coal region. We purpose
to give a general description of the several strata above the coal, and thus
a more intelligible view of the subject of practical mining may be obtained,
including the indications of its presence, &c,, with the principal localities
which occur in our own country, and other parts of the world.

All the rocks which we have mentioned belong to the pkimary fossilife-
Rous or paleozoic, of the most recent classification.

Stock Importation in Ohio. — Dr. A. Watts and Alexander Waddle
have gone to Europe, to select stock for the Clark County Company, We
also notice a movement in Tuscarawas county for a stock company.

514

ANALYSIS OF MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN.

rOR THB PLODQU, TBB LOOM, AMD TBI AKTIL.

PROXIMATE ORGANIC ANALYSIS OF THE SEVERAL PARTS OF THE
KERNEL OF MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN.

BY J.\MES H. SALSnURY, M.D.

Although this examination may be of little practical value, yet, so far as
it bears upon the physiology of the kernel, it has many points of interest
That each of the several parts should possess a composition so peculiar to it-,
self is sufficient evidence that each is designed to perform a distinct office.
It has formerly been supposed that the oil resided mainly in the corneous
part This, however, is not the case. There is a much larger per centage in
the chit than in any other portion of the kernel. This part also is decidedly
rich in albumen, while it contains less zein or gluten than the corneous portion.

SMALL WHITE FUNT

VARIETY.

Corneous part.

Farinaceous part.

Chits.

With the

Calculat-

With the

Calculat-

With the

Calculat-

water.

ed with't
the wat'r.

water.

ed with't
the wat'r.

water.

ed with't
the water.

Oil,

2.38

2.867

2.85

3.068

28.50

30.256

Zein or gluten,

5.02

6.048

0.55

0.592

2.45

2.601

Starch, ....

43.96

52.539

54.65

58.827

11.80

12.527

Sugar and extract,

16.96

20.292

21.50

23.043

17.70

18,790

Dextrine or gum,

8.56

10-242

3.80

4.090

8.00

8.493

Fibre, ....

4.74

5.671

4.50

4.845

7.05

7.433

Matter distilled out of fibre

by potash,

0.62

0.742

3.05

3.283

3.00

1.061

Albumen,

1.26

1.508

1.60

1.722

16.40

17.409

Casein, ....

0.08

0.096

0.40

O.^SO

1.30

1.380

83.58

100.

92.90

100.

94.20

100.

"Water,

16.394

8.32

6.^6

99.974

101.22

100.76

CHITS OF THE SMALL WHITE FLINT AND RHODE-ISLAND CAP VARIETIES.

Chits of the

Chits of thesBiall white

Chits of the Kbode-

early Can'da

fliut

variety.

Island cap variety.

white.

Calculations

With the

Calculations

With the

Cal'l'tiona

without the

water.

without the

water.

without

water.

water.

the water.

Oil

Zein or gluten,

29.333
1.500

25.320
2.150

26.724 :
2.269 :

27.530

29.882

Sugar, ....
Sugar and extract.

6.400 )
11.600)

14.666

15.473

14.667

15.920

Dextrine, ....

9.000

8.933

9.425

8.933

9.696

Starch,

9,7»3

10.578

11.161

11.100

12.049

Fibre

10.200

11.133

11.746

11.133

12.084

Matter separated from fibre

by a weak sol. of potash,

2.433

2.659

Albumen,

19.634

17.235

18.184

16.433

17.837

Casein, ....

2.600

2.333

2.461

2.333

2.532

100.

94.781

100.

92.129

100.

Water,.

6.410

8.016

100.191

100.144

A15-ALYSIS OF MAIZE OR INDIAN" CORlf. 515

The analysis of this and the preceding table afford some results, which, if
not valuable in an economical light, are at least very interesting, so far as
they bear upon the composition of the several parts of the kernel. The em-
bryo or chit is the essential part of the seed. Indeed, it is to the forming,
maturiuf^, and protecting of this that the main eflforts of the plants are di- .
rected, and the rest of the seed is subservient.

When matured, the whole plant seems to have accomplished the end in
view ", and if an annual, it soon decays, or if not, after a short period of par-
tial repose, its efforts are again directed to the forming and maturing of an-
other set of embryos.

In maize, the farinaceous and corneous portions of the kernel seem to be
designed merely for the purpose of protecting the embryo, and for furnishing
to it nourishment in the early stages of its vital action.

The chit or embryo is decidedly the richest part of the seed. It is literally
the store-house in which are collected a large portion of the most nutritive
bodies of the kernel. They seem to be stored here for immediate use in
nourishing the plumule and radical during their early stages of development.

In composition, the chit differs materially from the rest of the kernel, in
containing a very large per centage of oil and albumen, and a small per
centage of starch. In the analysis of the chits given, the oil amounts from
26 to 30 per cent., and the albumen to from 17 to 20 per cent, of the dry
matter, while the starch ranges from about 10 to 12-J per cent. In the corn-
eous part, the oil does not exeeed 3 per cent., and the albumen 1^ per cent.,
while the starch amounts to about 52|- per cent. A farinaceous portion af-
fords a little over 3 per cent, of oil, and a little less than 2 per cent, of
albumen, while it gives of starch nearly 59 per cent. The zein exists more
largely in the corneous portions than in any other part, and the dextrine and i
gum more largely* in the corneous part and chit than in the rest of the
kernel.

It is well known that the mouse and squirrel prefer the chit to the rest of
the kernel. It is generally supposed they choose it on account of its softness.
These analyses show, however, that their tastes have taught them to prefer it
for another reason.

The fact is, they have preceded us in a discovery of its superior richness,
and up to this day have kept their own counsel, and refrained from divulging
this secret to their less (in the field) discriminating neighbors.

The very large per centage of oil in the chit may have something to do in
guarding this part under some circumstances from becoming hard and shri-
velled, and under others, from absorbing a sufficient amount of water to favor
germination. In this way, it may give to seeds their power of retaining
vitality for so great a length of time. Seeds of maize have been known to
germinate when thirty yeara old, and would probably retain their vitality
much longer when placed in circumstances which would neither cause them
to germinate nor decay.

Oil-Cups. — An improvement in self-acting oil-cups for steam-engines, is
said to have been made by David Clark, of Philadelphia, who has taken
measures to secure a patent. The oil-cup has an opening at its bottom, in
which a conical double steam-valve works, which is opened by the steam to
allow a certain quantity of oil to be fed in at regular intervals, by the letting
on and shutting off of steam.

516 FLAX. — ITS CULTURE, ETC.

FLAX.— ITS CULTURE, «fec.

Flax, as an economical crop, is worthy of and is receiving increased atten-
. tion. It has been often cultivated for the seed alone ; but recent improve-
ments in machinery give additional facilities for the preparation of the fibi-e
for the market. The seed is used for the manufacture of oil, and for me-
dicinal purposes. An acre of the plant produces from 18 to 20 bushels.

The chaflf of flax is also of value, and the refuse of the seed, after its oil is
extracted, is sold as oil-cake. As fattening food for cattle, and for increasing
the milk of cows, no kind of food, perhaps, has stronger claims to our atten-
tion.

Since the manufacture of flax-cotton has been introduced, a new impetus
has been given to the growth of this crop, and when our farmers are better
instructed as to its culture and manufacture, the amount grown will be greatly
increased.

In Great Britain, linen manufactures are carried on to a very great extent.
According to the statement of Mr. Wilson, the President of the Royal College
of Agriculture, in Chichester, the annual import into England of dressed
fibre, during the last ten years, was 70,000 tons, and for 1851, was 124,784
tons, worth twenty-five millions of dollars, and the import of linseed for crush-
ing was 650,000 quarters, and of oil-cakes, 75,000 tons, worth ten millions
more — making thirty-five miUions of dollars per annum, which goes chiefly
to Russia and the northern ports, and which could be supplied by the United
States.

There were employed in spinning flax in 1851, in

Spindles.

Russia, - - - - 50,000

Austria, - - - 30,000

ZoUverein States, - - 80,000

Switzerland, - - 10,000

U. S. America, - - 15,000

g Spindles.

England, - - - 265,658

Scotland, - - - 303,125
Ireland, - - . . 500,000
France, - . - 350,000
Belgium, - - . 100,000

Holland, - - - 6,000 ,

And the capital thus invested may be estimated at 40 millions of dollars,
of which 25 millions belong to Great Britain. Spinning is carried on on the
Continent, to so great an extent that the yarn thus produced is much more
than is spun on all these spindles.

It further appears, from the same authority, that the manufacture of linen
in England has increased from 45,000,000 yards in 1805 to 110,000,000
yards in 1850, and that her aggregate export of yarns, thread, small wares,
and woven goods in 1852, was"" $26,684,355, of which near three fifths were
consumed in the United States.

The culture of flax in Ireland, in 1848, was 53,868 acres, and has gradually
increased, until in 1853 it was 175,469 acres. Under favorable circum-
stances, we may expect an average crop to produce from 30 to 40 cwt. of
straw, and 16 bushels of seed per acre.

Experiments were made by Doctor Hodges, for the purpose of ascertaining
the relative proportions of the produce of flax, and the distribution of the in-
organic matter in them. The flax employed had been steeped in the ordi-
nary way, and was found to contain 1.73 of ash. Of this air-dried straw
4000 lbs. weight were taken, which produced of dried fibre 500 lbs. ; of fine
tow, 132 lbs.; of coarse tow, 192 lbs.; of fibre in all, 824 lbs. These pro-
ducts contained in the dressed flax, 4.48 of ash ; in the fine tow, 2.08 of ash ;

FLAX. — ITS CULTURE, ETC. 517

ia the coarse tow, 2,56 of ash ; or in the whole fibre 9.12 lbs. of inorganic
matter ; so that of 69.08 lbs. which the crop had withdrawn from the soil,
remained the useless portions, while only 9.12 lbs. were carried off in the
dressed fibre. So if we compare these results with those obtained from the
analysis of an acre of wheat, for instance, we shall see that while the flax
fibre takes away with it 9.12 lbs. of inorganic matter, the wheat crop, grain
and straw together, abstracts about 365 lbs. from the soil.

By the census of 1850, it appears that there are grown in this country,
13.391,415 lbs. of flax, and that from this is obtained 562,810 bushels of
flax-seed. New- York, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania cultivate flax more
extensively than any other States, while Ohio exceeds every other State in the
quantity of flax-seed. Whether this difference is true, or only founded on
truth, we are not certain, although, as already suggested, the plant is culti-
vated in many places exclusively for the seed.

At the rates mentioned above, the value of this crop would be as follows :
13,391,415 lbs. flax, - - - $2,008,712.25
562,810 bushels seed, - - 703,512.00

The various experiments that have been made, the results of which have
been given to the public, ought to induce careful attention to this subject.
With good and land tolerable cultivation, we cannot doubt that the crop
would prove highly profitable. We select the following from those that have
been published. The first is from the New-York Agricultural Transactions,
and was furnished by Mr. W. Newcomb.
Weight per acre - - - 3848 lbs.
" threshed straw, - - 2664 "

" dew-rotted, - - 2009 "

' dressed lint, - - - 348 " at 10 els - - $34.80
Clean seed, - - - - 13 bush. 1 pt. - - 16.27

Yellow, 11-4 bush. - - 78

$51.85
In 1849 he had one acre yield 548 lbs. of flax lint. He says, the aver-
age yield of seed is eight bushels per acre, and that the average yield of flax
is 250 lbs.

In the Norwich (Eng.) Mercury, the following results are given, as the cost
of cultivation and the value of the crop, the seed not being included :
Expenses and profits of one acre of flax. £

Two winter ploughings,

Spring harrowing, ploughing, sowing, and bushing.

One thousand gallons liquid manure, - - - -

Three bushels of seed, ------ l

Weeding and pulling crop, - - - - - - 1

Steeping, drying, re tying, &c., - . - _ i

Scutching 54 stone of flax, 3s. per ton, - - - - 8

s.

d.

12

0

11

0

15

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

2

0

Expenses, £13 2 0

Value of crop
54 tons of flax, sold at 9s per stone, - - - -2460

Realized profit, £11 4 0

Samuel Druce, a distinguished agriculturist of England, read before the
Royal Agricultural Society, the following :
Cultivated, 1851, 5 acres, 2 roods, 35 perches.

518 FLAX. — ITS CULTURE, ETC.

Sales of produce.

£

s.

d.

Sale of flax-seed 116 3-4 bushels, at 8s, - - -

46

10

0

Sale of flax-straw, 12 tons 2 cwt 2 qrs. not prepared, which

would have been far more profitable, but sold on gross

at £3 per ton,

36

1

0

Sale of chaff at 5s. per acre

1

8

7

Gross return of seed and straw, - - -

£84

6

1

Expenses of Cultivation.

£

s.

d.

One plowing, 10s, per acre, - -

2

17

3

Sowing and harrowing Is 6d, • - - - -

-

8

7

Weeding at 2.s. per acre, ......

11

5

Flax-seetl 13 1-4 bushels at 9s., ....

- 6

1

6

Rent of land 483. per acre,

13

14

9

Taxes at 6s. per acre, - ......

- ]

14

4

Pulling flax at 14s. per acre, - . . . .

4

0

1

Carting and staking at 4s., - - . .

- 1

2

10

Threshing, _ . . . . . _

5

1

1

Winnowing, - - - - - •

-

12

6

£36

10

4

Net profit, £47 15 9

This instance is related by Mr. Deman (p. 48) in his excellent treatise on
Flax Cultivation. It will perhaps only be necessary to quote one more table
from Dickson's book, p. 12.

Produce. £ s. d.

40 stone flax at 10s, 20 0 0

Seed for feeding cattle, - - - - - - 4100

£24 10 0
Gross returns of one acre.
Rent and charges, ...
2 1-2 bushels of seed,
Tillage, - - -
Weeding, . . . .
Pulling, watering and grassing, -
Expense of sowing seed.
Scutching 40 stones, --'-200 949

Net profit per acre, £15 5 3

Mr. Wilson estimates the product per acre, at from 30 to 40 cwt. of straw,
and 16 bushels of seed. If we take this estimate, with the cost of produc-
tion as he calculates it, the result will be as follows :

16 bush, seed at 1.25, $20

500 lbs flax fibre at .15, 75

130 lbs. fine tow at .10, - - 13.

200 lbs. coarse tow at .4, - 8

Produce per acre, -* $116

The cost of preparing the fine fibre, by Watt's process, is estimated at $50
per ton. One laborer can cultivate 20 acres of flax.

£

s.

d.

7

11

6

1

10

3

1

5

0

12

0

1

16

0

10

0

2

0

0

MINNESOTA. 519

MINNESOTA.

We give below, the substance of an interesting, letter from O. H. Kellev,
Esq., Secretary of Benton County Agricultural Society, to the Secretary of
the New- York State Agricultural Society. The statements made are interest-
ing to all farmers, and especially so to the farmers of the West, presenting
the very details we desire to know of that extensive region.

NoRTHWooD, Minnesota, July 19, 1853.

In giving you information regarding crops, and our mode of culture here,
you must bear in mind that our farms are all' new ; that is, it is not more than
four years since our largest and best farms were comprised in the vast prairies
of our Territory. The sod, older, probably, than Methusalah, at any rate as
hard and tough, generally, as if it had been trodden down by innumerable
herds of buffalo, for centuries. This has to be turned over by means of large
breaking plows, of a medium size ; 17 inch, drawn by three yoke of cattle,
I prefer, where there are not many grubs; a 24 inch, with five yoke, is better
where grubs are plenty. Our " grubs " are mostly the roots of oaks, the tops
of which have been burnt off by prairie fires, year after year, leaving only
annual shoots above the soil, while the roots are frequently from four to ten
inches in diameter, and often spreading near the surface so as to cover three
feet in diameter. These require a heavy plough and team to cut them off
without checking the progress : and speaking of this, there seems to be
a diversity of opinion as to the best season for breaking, and the manner of
leaving the land. Many contend that the sod will rot better where it is " cut
and covered," and left uneven, so that the air may get under; others prefer
that the plough turn only what it cuts, and leave the sod flat. From my
own experience and observation, I must say I favor the latter method, and
have the sod at least 3^ or 4 inches in thickness, or plough to that depth.
As to the former, it is always advocated by those who own breaking teams,
and who break by the acre ; prices ranging from $3.50 to |6, therefore,
the more ground they go over (they don't go through more thant wo-thirds)
with the plough, the more they make. By the sod being laid flat, there is a
good chance of sowing a crop of grain the first year ; and if some of the
under soil is turned with it, it is easily harrowed without tearing the sod up,
and also furnishes a chance for the sod to sprout, and can better then push
down its roots through the matted roots of the sod ; otherwise, when the sod
is " skinned," there is no soil to cover the seed with, and consequently no
chance to plant until the sod rots ; and if broken the last of May, or first of
June, the grass will sprout up nearly as well as if it had not been turned
at all.

The best time to "break prairie" is another question. I always break in
June, as near the first as possible, and prefer to sow with oats, at the rate of
three and a half bushels per acre. This srop grows rapidly, and shades the
ground, answering for mulching ; harrow twice before sowing, and once after ;
this loosens the soil, and allows the rain to soak in, and consequently to rot the
sod ; leave the stubble on the field, and cross-plough the following spring.
This prevents the weeds from getting ahead of the crop the second year, and
the sod is generally suflSciently rotted to be quite mellow the second year.
The crop, the first year, if a fair season, is from 10 to 20 bushels of oats
per acre, (call it 15,) at 50 cents per bushel, our lowest market jirice, in this
country ; this pays all expenses of breaking, seed, and harvesting, &c.

520 • MINNESOTA.

The second year, follow with corn or potatoes, any crop that will require
the free use of the hoe, so as to cut up all clumps of sod, and pulverize the
soil. This year I harrowed all my ground as soon as ploughed, twice, and
a part of it. four times, as some of it was not cross-ploughed until two years
after it was broken. I think myself a gainer by so doing — I mean harrow-
ing, for I certainly raised a third as much weeds last year as I did grain, on
the piece not cross-ploughed, and that was of course a loss.

Some say they prefer to break in July or August ; but, as a general thing,
they would break in June, if they could, for the grass is always high enough
then to allow of turning under a good sward, whereas, if left, till later it is
too high to cover. As to breaking later in the season, I have seen the ex-
periment tried; about twenty acres were broken in September and October,
and as much more in the spring of the next year — all sowed with oats ; the
spring crop did well, and sold for six bits per bushel, (75 cents,) whereas the
fall-ploughing produced a crop that was so feeble they were left standing,
and were eaten by the black-birds, which, by the way, are plenty here, and are
exceedingly fond of corn.

There is no necessity of manuring the soil here until the sod is demolished,
though the third year I found that compost did not do any harm to the
crop ; and this year, (my fourth,) I find that manure does good service in
the corn where it is very sandy.

I have mentioned our method of getting our farms under way, that you
may compare them with the old farms in the East ; but I assure you I had
much rather cultivate ten acres on this farm than one on any farm I ever
visited in the East, for this reason ; now that the soil is in good working
condition, it is, in comparison, like hoeing or shovelling in clear sand ; and
as to rocks or stones, there is but one stone larger than a hen's ^g^^ on thirty-
five acres of ground now under cultivation, and there are a hundred and
fifty more acres just like it on the farm ; that stone will be out of sight in a
few days.

The soil is a sandy loam ; on the bottoms, and also where there is a good
growth of oaks and hazels, the soil is almost jet black, with much less sand
than on the open prairie. In some parts of the Territory there is clay, pro-
ducing excellent crops ; in other parts (though, if I recollect correctly, they
are found in the same vicinity,) rock in ledges of limestone and trap-rock of
granite, in considerable quantity; but within a circuit of twelve miles, in my
vicinity, there is no ledge of any kind yet discovered, and we have to resort
to the river, at low water, where we can obtain stone or loose rock, of all
shapes and variety, for cellar walls. The soil stands a drought exceedingly
well; we had a fair trial in that line last year, and yet it seems almost im-
possible, with a subsoil of red sand lying upon gravel. Our dews are very
heavy, coming on about sunset, and in such copious quantity that the grass,
and every thing out of doors, appears as if drenched with rain ; about ten
o'clock in the forenoon the grass is dry. Our seasons are peculiar ; cool
nights and mornings commence the latter part of August; generally about
the twenty-eighth of September we have the first frost, and often there is no
second frost for ten days after. October is generally a delightful month here. In
November the air gets cool, and we are ready for winter by the middle of
the month. Ice runs in the river ; generally a flurry or two of snow. About
the tenth of December the Mississippi closes, and this is a season of interest
to all on the river, for it is from the islands, and the opposite shore, we pro-
cure our fuel and timber; and there is a noble beauty and grandeur in the
closing of this river, which is equalled only by its breaking up in the spring,

MINNESOTA. 521

and it must be seen to realize it ; my pen is too feeble an instrument to de-
scribe the wild freaks of this mighty river. Snow falling in November
frequently stays on the ground until the January thaw, which commences
about the middle of the month, and we have very pleasant weather for a
couple of weeks, and perhaps it will thaw at noon of each day. I have seen
the snow nearly disappear, one year, in January. In February we have our
coldest weather — the mercury going into ecstasies; ranging, during last
February, at sunrise, from thirty-four degrees above zero, to thirty-two degrees
below. In March, about the first to tenth, we finish crossing the river on the
ice ; and from the tenth of March to the fifteenth of April, the ice starts, and
in three or four days after, a week at furthest, the river is again clear for
navigation. During the winter and spring months, the farm-work here is the
same as with you in the East ; sugar-making in March, and cutting up fire-
wood for summer ; ploughing, and building and repairing fences and tools for
spring work, in April. We begin to plant and sow in May, beginning with
wheat, oats, and peas; then corn, about the 15th, and so on, finishing, if pos-
sible, with ruta bagas, the 1st day of June. We then have a week or ten
days for " fancy-work," before hoeing, which we contrive to complete by the
great and glorious Fourth of July, a day, by the way, which we Yankees,
even here, on the outskirts of creation, think as much of as our kindred do
in the Eastern States. On this day, we have the first green peas, plenty of
strawberries, (wild ones are very plenty and very large, of delicious flavor.)
About the middle of July, we commence haying, at present resorting to the
sloughs and bottom-lands, where the wild grasses are more luxuriant ; tame
grass not having yet been introduced, to any extent. Of the grasses native
to our latitude, I must speak hereafter. The grain harvest usually com-
mences about the last of July, or first of August. This completed, we are
reminded of the near approach of autumn, and the end of the season soon
arrives, with the reward for our labors, oftentimes ten fold what we deserve,
for I hardly think there is any part of the country where labor is more plen-
tifully repaid by good crops, than Minnesota.

I have gone somewhat more into minuteness than I intended, but it is to
enable you to compare the seasons with those of New- York.

In the summer season the weather is very warm, and if it were not for the
fine breezes we almost daily enjoy, the heat would be too oppressive for out-
door work — commencing the latter part of May — and until the last of August,
our growing season, the mercury, at 12 o'clock M., very often is at ninety de-
grees above zero, in the shade ; and frequently, for curiosity, I have placed
the thermometer in the sun, from four to ten minutes, and seen it rise rapidly
to 130 degrees. And yet, with all this severe heat and cold, we are healthy
and vigorous, with appetites that would astonish the servants at the "Astor
House," or " St. Nicholas." I sometimes think it is fortunate that our crops
are plentiful, or else we should come short before a harvest.

New Telegraph-Machine. — An attorney at Rising Sun, Indiana, by the
name of Hayden, has invented a very simple machine, by which any child
who knows his A B C's, cun- send dispatches with perfect accuracy. There
is no possible chance of a mistake being made, which is so much desired in
this important science. Steps have been taken to secure a patent, and the
machine must necessarily come into immediate use. It will lessen the ex
pense of telegraphing 50 per cent. — Exch.

522 BREADSTUFFS. — PRODUCTION, ETC

BREADSTUFJ^.— PRODUCTION, EXPORTS, AND PRICE.

The subject discussed in the following paragraphs is exceedingly important,
and the ojiinions advanced are worthy of careful attention. They are taken
from the Railroad Record^ published at Cincinnati.

There has been in the last year a decided failure in the grain crops of
Europe, except in Russia and Poland ; so much so, that in France and Italy
all custom duties have been taken off for the importation of grain, and in
England the price has risen since last June from twenty-two shillings to forty
shillings per quarter, or nearly double.

From the beginning, we have regarded this as the most serious difficulty
in the way of relief to the money pressure. There is double the amount
required to manage the transfers of grain, which makes a difference in Eu-
rope and America of one hundred millions of dollars in the demand for
money. But this is not all. The price of all other food rises with the price
of bread, and alternately it requires a vast deal more money to carry on
public works. These facts will suggest to our readers the difficulty caused
by the rise in the price of grain.

In this country we are undoubtedly gaining, to the extent of our bread
export, in the increased price and quality. We share, however, in the finan-
cial difficulties which that deficiency in foreign crops occasions.

But how much of breadstufFs have we to export ? One thing is certain,
that in regard to wheat, we have not near so much as many sanguine persons
believe. We can raise wheat almost indefinitely, but we do not, because there
has been a very moderate foreign demand, and a very moderate price.

In the Record^ (No. 36,) November 3d, we said :

" In regard to the amount of wheat actually raised in the United States,
there is a mistaken idea. We do not (according to the English allowance
per individual) raise any surplus whatever! But, by the great consumption
of Indian corn, as a breaclstufF, we make a surplus of wheat; and it is in
that way only. The past two or three years being good wheat years, we
have an old stock lying over ; but we cannot after all export to any such ex-
tent as England and France need. They get their largest supplies from the
Black Sea. If we export twenty millions of. grain this winter, the spring
price in our markets will be unusually high."

The truth of this is now seen at New- York and New-Orleans, where grain
and fluur have not come forward with anything like the freedom expected.
In the face of this fact, the exports a,re larger than they have ever been. Tlie
consequence of this is obvious. The price is steadily ri&ing, and in all pro-
bability will continue to rise. The crop of wheat in Ohio, in 1853, was pro-
bably equal to those of 1851-2, but by no means equal to that of 1850
when it rose to the enormous amount of thirty-five millions of busheh.*
Probably our crop in 1853 was 25,000,000, and of that, (by eating some
Indian corn,) we can manage to spare fifteen millions. But all the United
States cannot spare as much more.

Let us now look at former exports of grain from the United States. Re-
ducing wheat to flour, we give the export of flour and grain for the last eight
years, in quantity and value :

BREADSTUFFS. — PRODUCTION, ETC. 523

In 1846,

bbls.

Amount.

, 2,612,176

Value.

$13,350,644

" 1847,

6,482,000

32,183,166

" 1848,

2,589,393

16,788,568

" 1849,

2,413,873

13,036,030

" 1850,

1,511,178

7,762,193

" 1851,

2,437,635

11,550,067

" 1852,

3,337,239

14,424,352

It will be seen from this statement that the highest amount of wheat ex-
ported in any one year (1846-7) was 27,410,000 bushels, and the price was
not as high then as it is now. In 1846-7, we exported 612,000 barrels of
flour to France, but we have now exported nearly that amount to France
since the 1st of September.

In our last number, we stated that the exports of flour and grain from the
United States, since the 1st of September, were greater than they were in
1846-7, but the price is also much higher. The advance of price proves
clearly enough that although in consequence of the heavy European demand,
the exports from New-York have been hurried with great rapidity, yet, in
fact, the domestic supply/ is not equal to that demand. The result is, that the
export cannot be continued largely, except under the temptation of very high
prices. In that case, a large part of our population will resort to Indian corn,
and export the wheat. But how is that to be done, when the price of Indian
corn is also rising rapidly? We need not inform our readers (who well
enough know it) that potatoes are treble in price to what they were a few
years since.

There is an idea that an immense amount of wheat is brought from Michi-
gan, Wisconsin, &c. This is all fallacious. The whole amount of flour and
wheat brought into Milwaukee from the interior, in 1853, by the Mississippi
railroad, was 187,000 barrels, a mere drop in the bucket. Of all the. flour
and wheat cleared by the canal at Buffalo, three fourths came from Ohio,
The population of the frontier States grows faster than their grain produc-
tion. New-England and the South are importers of grain from the new
States. There are but four or five States that are really exporters of wheat.
If in 1846-7 we could export only 27,000,000 bushels of wheat, it may
be put down, as quite certain, we shall not export more than 30,000,000 in
1853-4, unless the price is enormously high.

From the facts we have here exhibited, it appears that the bread ques-
tion is one of momentous interest. We pretend to no knowledge, hardly
an opinion, as to the continuance of scarcity, or the rate of prices ; but it is
quite certain that our remark of November 3d is strictly true, that "if we
export 20,000,000 bushels this winter, the price will be unusually high." It
is already so, and we have only reached the 20th of January.

We would in no way aid speculation in grain, but facts are things which
should be known and reflected upon.

A. Profitable Farm. — The farm of Bryan Jackson, near Wilmington,
Delaware, consists of 220 acres. On this farm he employs three hands all
the year, at $132 per annum, each; two men extra for six months, at $12
per month, and day-hands, whose wages amount to about SoO a year ; mak-
ing in all, for labor, a cost of $590 a year. Mr. Jackson, in the American
Farmer, says : " The sales of the farm the past year will not vary much
from fifty-three hundred dollars."

524 USEFUL FOR FARMERS.

USEFUL FOR FARMERS.

We find the plan of a cheap green-house in a recent number of the
Country Gentleman, which is worthy of attention. Though we cannot illus-
trate with diagrams, it is quite intelligible without them.

A Cheap Gkeen-hou.se. — For those who are fond of flowers, there is no-
thing more interesting than their culture during the dreary months of winter.
A few kinds will flourish well in the dry, hot, and changeable air of ordinary
stove-rooms ; but it is not always convenient nor practicable to occupy the
limited space of living rooms in this way, and most plants will not succeed
so well here as in a cooler and more uniform temperature. An ordinary
green-house is a somewhat costly structure ; and regulating the fire during a
whole winter is quite a formidable task. For green-house plants, properly so
called, or those which do best in an air but few degrees above freezing, we
have lately adopted a plan which we find to succeed admirably with but litr
tie care, and without the cost or attention of fire-heat. Although this plan
is not altogether new, we believe a description will be useful and acceptable
to many of our readers.

It consists of an extension made to an ordinary cellar, on the south side,
and covered with a sash like that of a common green-house.

In order to obviate the necessity of fire-heat, it is requisite that so large a
surface of sash should be double-glazed. The bare are made on both edges
in the same form that ordinary sash is made on the glass side for the recep-
tion of the panes. We have had cross-bars made between these sash-bars,
like ordinary window-sash, so that the lower panes are set in as in common
windows, the upper or lapping-panes merely resting on these cross-bars. This
arrangement makes the windows rather more secure from the passage of air,
but it is not absolutely necessary.

This structure being attached to an ofiice where a fire above the cellar is
not regularly kept up, sometimes needs a very small fire in a stove when the
thermometer sinks to zero; but if connected with a dweUing constantly occu-
pied, no artificial heat would be ever needed.

We find also in the same paper the following account of an experiment
in the culture of peas, which meets our views :

Plaster for Peas. — At the request of some of my friends, I send you tht
result of an experiment I made last season in the use of plaster.

I have used i)laster_ for fifteen years, on all sorts of grain, potatoes, &c.,
upon all the kinds of soil I possess. But thinking that I derived no benefit
from its use on grains, for the last ten years I have only applied it to grass
and peas.

I bel(»ng to an agricultural society, as every farmer should do, and of
course intend ray crops for premiums. When the committee examined them,
I called their attention to the difference in the diff"erent ridges of my pea-
crop, the parts where plaster was sown, exhibiting a dark-green and thrifty
appearance, while those ridges without plaster were pale and unthrifty. In
harvesting, I cut two ridges of equal size, one plastered, the other not — and
threshed them separately. The one plastered yielded one bushel and eighteen
quarts, while the unplastered one produced two quarts less than a bushel.

GRUBS IN PEACH TREES. 525

FOR THB PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

GRUBS IN PEACH TREES.— SHORTENING IN.

It has become a fact pretty well established, that soil and climate adapted
to the growth of the peach are to be found, in greater or less extent, in nearly
«very portion of the country. This is seen in the exhibitions of beautiful
peaches so often witnessed in our cold New-England, hitherto celebrated
mostly for its productions of ice, rocks, and men. Scarcely an agricultural or
horticultural fair was held last autumn in which this fruit did not claim a
conspicuous position, and attract the admiration and wonder of the spectators.
Many, from what they saw at these convocations, will undoubtedly be induced
to try their fortunes in the" business, and we sincerely hope it will be with
satisfactory results, for we would gladly see so delicious and healthful a fruit
placed abundantly within the reach of every body.

We have alluded to the success attending the peach culture, (which, we
admit, is now carried on in a very small, yet promising way,) in New-Eng-
land, supposing that if it succeeded in these States, its success must be nearly
certain in every State of the Union.

Yet, as sure indications as the peach may have given of its adaptedness to-
a wide range of territory, there are obstacles to be contended with in order
to insure for it satisfactory results. Among these, the grub, so perpetual in
its annoyance, and so fatal in its operations, furnishes one of the least formid-
able. So far as our observation has extended, it slyly secretes itself in the-
earth until age and strength have armed it to the teeth for mischief, when it
insinuates its way into the tree, under the darkness and cover of earth, where
it noiselessly works on in its mission of destruction, until its errand is complete.

Different methods have been pursued to cutoff the march of this desolator-
of beautiful verdure and heart-gladdening fruits, each productive of different
results. Among the many which have been brought to our notice, none has
higher claims for simplicity and facility of application than one casually men-
tioned a day or two since. It was, simply to take a woollen rag, of sufficient
size, and wind it around the collar of the tree, not too tight, of course, when
setting out. The rag should be of sufficient size to extend quite up to.
the surface, and the lower it extends over the roots the better. If, in a
course of years, it wastes away, as it naturally must, a new one is easily re-
placed by removing the earth. We have been credibly informed that, when
at any time the earth is displaced, and the rag removed, the bark exhibits a
soundness and freshness nowhere to be found but in vigorous and healthful trees.

Since we are upon the subject of peach trees, we may as well suggest a
hint upon our favorite and successful process of shortening in. It is well
known that the tree is a native of warm climates. Consequently, it pushes
its growth to the full extent of our short seasons, leaving the later growth
wholly immature and unable to withstand the mildest severity of winter. Of
course, the extremity of the branches is almost uniformly winter-killed..
We only attest to the experience of others, when we say that we have
found a fully remunerating benefit in shortening in the branches, a process;
that may be safely performed at any time previous to the commencement of
the flow of sap in spring. We thin and shorten in every twig, until we are
sure it is reduced so much that none but healthy wood remains. In this
way the sap goes to work in healthful and vigorous vessels, and no impedi-
ment remains to its free circulation and rapid appropriation to the nourish-
ment of new branches and the fruit. Yours, truly,

Elmviood^ Feb. 16, 1854. WiLLIAM BaCON.

VOL. VI. — PART II. 10

526 THE FARM-HOUSE.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

THE FARM-HOUSE.— No. ii.

The reader will perceive that I use the term " Farm-house" in a very com-
prehensive sense, as embracing most of the movables and fixtures, tliQ in-
tftriial and external conditions of the "farmer's home."

Stock should not be permitted to roam at large during the winter season.

At the far South, cattle, sheep and hogs, are expected to get their living

by grazing, even in the dead of winter. Not so in the Middle, Western,

and Northern Slates, and the Canadas. From three to six months they must

have most of their living from the barn or the crib.

A good farmer will provide a comfortable shelter for his stock. IIq will
be urged to this by feelings of humanity, as well as by a regard to economy.
Exposed to the storms and the rude blasts of winter, animals require much
more food to sustain life, and cannot be kept in good condition.

I am led to this suggestion by seeing in this region, (York County, Maine,)
the stock of many a farmer, during this inclement season, permitted to roam
at large over the whole farm. Their paths may be seen leading to a neigh-
boring brook or spring, to the dwelUng-house, and to every place where
shelter or food may be obtained.

Now, who would apply the epithet " thrifty" to the keeper of such an
•establishment?

The secret of thrift in farming consists in husbanding one's resources, in
turning to account all the products of the farm. Manure is the farmer's
stock in trade. Without it he can do nothing, especially on partially ex-
hausted soil. And I am far from believing that the best use the Western
farmer can make of manure, is to dump it into the nearest stream or quag-
mire. Admit that the virgin-soil does produce in abundance without the
application of manures, it by no means follows that it will continue to do so.
The growth of vegetables is an exhausting process, and the cultivator should
-adopt as a rule to return to the soil as much as he takes from it.

But to return from this stroll. Farm-stock should be yarded. A plot of
(rround, surrounded with a substantial fence, should be devoted exclusively
to this purpose. It should have a southern exposure, and be protected on
the north and west. Without this inclosure should be a trough, or cistern,
m which should be kept constantly a supply of pure, fresh water. To keep
stock in good condition, water is as essential as hay or grain. If compelled
to wade a long distance in the snow for water, they will suffer from thirst
before undertaking it.

If a portion of the yard is sheltered by a roof, the watering-trough should
not be there. If so, the strong ones, having slaked their thirst, will remain,
and prevent the weak and timid from approaching.

In this arrangement, one object to be gained is the comfort and consequent
thrift of the stock. Another, and not less important, estimated in dollars and
cents, is the making and saving of manure.

Most farmers know something of the value of animal-excrement as a
manure, yet very few know how to save and make the most of it.

The surface should be covered with loam or muck. The liquid manures
are no less valuable than the solid. By spreading some absorbent over the
surface, these may be saved. This should, from time to time, be covered with
straw, atalks, or refuse hay ; thus making a comfortable bed for the stock, and

THE FARM-HOUSE. 527

preparing a supply of valuable compost. A quantity of ashes may occa-
sionally be spread over the yard. Indeed I know of no better mode of ap-
plying ashes and gypsum, than to spread them in the barn-yard, the pig-sty,
and the horse*stable. They are thus made to pay a double debt ; to fix and
retain the ammoniacal and other gases, and to impart their own virtues to
the soil.

In the town of Deerfield, Franklin County, Mass., celebrated fur its pro-
ductive farms and its fat cattle, a farmer was called upon by a citizen of a
neighboring town, for the same purpose that Joseph's brethren went down
into Egypt. In going to the corn-barn, they were obliged to pass through
the farm-yard, which, from excess of manure, was hardly passable. ' Says
the buyer, " Were i as well able as you, I would have a more decent barn-
yard than this." " Had you suck a yard," replied the seller, " you would be
saved the necessity of coming to me to buy corn."

Apple-Trees. — Every farmer should have a liberal supply of this valuable
fruit. In the Middle, and Northern States, aLd the Canadas, the apple is of more
value than all other fruits that are produced. Others are valuable as luxuries,
but the apple is prominent among the necessaries of life. Who that has
land would be without apples? Yet there are multitudes of such among
those who style themselves farmers. All admit the value of the fruit, and
that it is easily produced, yet very few set about its production aystematically.
The old man will not plant trees because he may not live to pick the fruit.
Ask him why he lays up money, or adds acre to acre ; he will tell you 'tis for
his children. Why not, for the same laudable purpose, plant an orchard,
which is far less liable to be misused or squandered ?

The young man contents himself to walk in the stops of his sire, thinking
to expend his time and money upon that which promises a speedier return.

But I know of no investment that promises the farmer a richer or surer
return. Let the land be sold in one year after the trees are planted, and he
is sure of receiving double or quadruple the cost of the trees ; for those who
would never plant a tree, will readily pay the additional cost of a farm upon
which they are growing. Good apples in variety and abundance are essential
to the health and comfort of every family, and if more are raised than are
needed, they will always find a ready sale.

In selecting and setting the trees, many things are to be observed.

1st. Varieties. If designed for the market, inquire what varieties are
best adapted to the climate and soil, and what will command the most ready
sale. But if for family use, consult the wants of the family. No farmer
should be satisfied without having green apples three hundred anil sixty-five
days in the year. To accomplish this, he must make a pro])er selection of
varieties. Commencing with the Sweet-bow and June-eating, he should
have apples ripening all the time, till compelled by hard frosts to pick his
Rhode-Island greenings and Roxbury russets.

2d. Selection and treatment of trees. Select healthy trees froui, the nur-
sery. To purchase at auction, or of travelling tree-pedlers, stunted shrubs,
because a few cents may be saved thereby, is being penny wise and pound
foolish.

Never take a sprout or ofiPshoot from an old tree, thinking to make a thrifty
tree of it; you will but lose your labor, and expose your folly. You might
almost as well attempt to make a man of one of those offshoots from hu-
manity's stock, ycleped dandies.

When properly planted, they must be cared for — pruned, dug around, and
manured. You may as well expect corn to grow without cultivation as an

~)2S SUMMER FALLOWING GOT KID OF.

;ipplt-tree, that is a civilized apple-tree. Tlie crab-apple will grow with the
forest-tree, but cultivated fruit must be nurtured, or it will degenerate into the
wildness of the primitive or medieval state, just as the refinements and virtues
of civilized society, without due culture, gradually lapse into barbarism.
Keep the earth loose about the roots while the tree is young; spread hay,
straw, or stones, underneath ; remove moss and other excrescences from the
bark ; once, or more, each season, wash thoroughly with weak lye or st rong
soap-suds; remove, not with a cross-cut-saw, or a meat- axe, but with a sharp
pruniiig-knife, all suckei^s and all branches which interlace, or come in contact
with others.

If but little ground, different varieties may be made to grow upon the same
tree by budding or grafting. Furthermore, by taking the blossoms from a
part of the tree when young, you may be sure of fruit every season. I have
a full-grown Baldwin tree, the halves of which bear regularly alternate
years.

The best manure for apple-trees is a compost of muck, lime, wood-ashes,
:md decayed leaves.

Let these simple suggestions be noted and put in practice, and kept in
jn-actice, and there will be no lack of good apples. K. B. H.

SUMMER-FALLOWING GOT RUD OF.— TREATMENT OF CORN.

A wraxER in iX^o, Michigan Farmer ihns, gives his account of his treatment
of his land, for corn and potatoes :

The twenty-five-acre clover-lot that I had designed to summer-fallow, I
broke up for corn and potatoes, and planted twenty-two acres of it with corn,
and three with potatoes ; rolled the ground well ; marked it one way by
dragging it with an ox-chain ; and dropped the corn by stakes the other way.
T planted four feet each way, in rows straight as a line, cultivated twice, then
ploughed each way ; followed with the hoe, and killed all the weeds and
grass, which was of course but a light job. In one week, the corn so shaded
the ground, that when it was fit to cut, it was as clean as summer-fallows
generally are from weeds and grass. The tending of the corn, I think, was
about the same labor as fitting for wheat the old way. I had a cultivator
made purposely for putting in ray wheat, in the following mode : I took a
drag-tooth iron, and welded a piece of spring-steel to one end, in the shape
of a shovel-plough, three inches square ; let the teeth project two or three
inches further to land than an ordinary cultivator, and thus the corn-roots
were prevented from choking it out. I then went through the field, cut four
rows and left four, and laid them in gavels close to the standing corn. I then
cultivated, then sowed, and cultivated again, and then dragged the ground
well. After that, I set up the gavels, and cut the remainder, and set it on
the sowed ground, and then put into wheat the remainder of the ground in
the same way. The corn-stalks, in fodder for my stock, paid for harvesting
the corn. I had eighteen hundred bushels of ears of corn, and five hundred
bushels of potatoes, and my prospects are as good as usual at this time for a
good crop of wheat. The ground is sowed to clover, and looks fine. There
was but little more labor expended, and no more labor lost for pasturing the
land, than to have had but one crop.

MR. GLIDDEN's sheep MANAGEMENT. 529

* MR. GLIDDEN'S SHEEP MANAGEMENT.

Gen, Glidden, one of the most experienced and successful in this depart-
ment, thus writes in a late number of the Journal of Agriculture. He
says :

I made my selection of sheep twenty-two years ago, from the best flocks
in this vicinity, for fine wool. T selected a farm for that purpose, and assigned
for my sheep-pasture ^x swell of land that bears sweet feed, and affords them
a chance to shelter themselves with the woods from the storms. I secured
to them a shade upon the high lands, by sparing trees for that purpose, when
I cleared the land ; but if I bad none, I should build them a shelter, until I
could grow one. I have been careful not to breed in, to get the proper shape
for bucks, and the right grade of wool. I turn the bucks with the ewes in
the middle of December. I let them have lambs at three years old, and
wean the lambs about the middle of September, giving them a cattle pasture,
or a field, always allowing them a better chance of feed at the time of
weaning, and putting a few old ones with them to prevent thera from getting
wild.

MODE OF WINTERING.

I take the old sheep that have raised lambs, and look them over carefully,
to see that the age is right, and that the shape and grade of wool is what I
want ; then put them in a yard by themselves, where they can be sheltered
from the storms ; not to exceed' 100 in a flock. I feed them three times a day
on good hay, when they first come to the barn ; after two or three weeks, I
give this flock coarse fodder once a day until the weather grows warm in
March ; then I give them good hay again until they leave the birn.

I take the wethers for another flock ; if they are to be stall-fed, or to be
turned soon after shearing, put them in another yard, where I can have the
means of giving them grain. I take my yearHng sheep to another yard.
for they are the hardest flock to winter, owing to the state of their teeth. I
take the lambs for another flock; give thera early-cut hay through the win-
ter, which causes them to grow through the winter.

In all cases, I feed in racks, and shut up the sheep in bad storms of rain,
as well as snow. If I over-feed the two last-named flocks, I turn the old
sheep in to clean the racks ; but in all cases where the hay is good, let them
eat clean. I rake out the sheep-pens once a day, and give to the colts or
cattle.

Having got my sheep selected, I then watch over them, and see that they
have water to go to at all times when the weather is favorable, and that they
all look full and plump. If any of the old sheep fail to do well, put them in
with the lambs. If this apartment gets too full, throw back, or give better
keeping to those flocks that fail.

When the snow leaves the ground, I turn into my mowing fields, appro-
priating to each flock a separate field. I then feed twice a day until they
leave for good. My sheep run against a common stone wall, and I believe
all sheep would if they were properly brought up and properly cared for. By
this I would say, that if I should put 300 sheep into a pasture of 100 acres
for the summer, I think they would be likely to leave it, even if the wall was
poled.

SUMMER TREATMENT.

I wash and shear from the first of June to the first of July, as I find the
season. I do not wash at this season, because I have done planting, or got

630 MR. glidden's sheep management.

thi' hiiiliway taxes worked out; but for the reason that the weather then i$
right for them to part with their lleeees. (

The sheep beintj; sheared, i sort them again, to suit the size of the pasture;
the wethera to take the best feed, if I intend to turn them early ; salt once a
week. If the sheep liave ticks, wash the himbs in tobacco-juice, or salt
brine ; or rub the wool full of snuft".

MODE OF REDUCING A FLOCK.

I sell all of the fat ones, (especially the old ones that have lost their lambs,)
also my oldest ewes, the smallest yearhngs and small lambs to go into small
tiocks ; and wlienever they have gone into good hands, they would average
in appearance with the tlock taken from the next year. 1 have known a ^
sheep kept in a small Hock fourteen years.

I sold ten of the oldest sheep I had in my flock last year, to Harry Neal,
Esq., for $6.67. He told me, the other day, he had sold them and their wool
and lambs for $45. If others that I could name, had taken them, they
would have told me that they all died with the worm in the head, (of
course.)

I am frequently told of flocks running out, and that pastures have had
sheep in so long, that sheep do not do well. Let me say to you, that I have
a pasture that has had sheep kept in it most of the time for 75 years, and
others that have been pastured with sheep 40 years, and I do not wish to
change my pastures nor my flock of sheep, which I have not changed for 22
years. I do not believe in running out flocks, or pastures, or mowing-fields,
by proper treatment.

1 have ke]jt on an average, for 22 years, 300 sheep, and never have had
any disease amongst them ; nor have I lost on an average, (the first year
excepted,) one per cent, in the winter or spring.

FOR THE PLOUGH THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

SHEEP-BREEDING. BY P. A. BROWNE.

A AVRiTER in the January number of the above-mentioned valuable period-
ical, has expressed a very decided opinion against sheep that are horned.
He even proceeds so far as to say, in regard to all animals, (by which I pre-
sume he means domestic animals,) that '■'■horns are good for nothing but to
wound and destroy^ We confess that we have no faith in these general
denunciations of the law of nature. God has constructed all animals in the
most perfect accordance with the places they are designed to fill and the
parts they are to play in the great drama of creation.

When the sloth was first discovered, he was misrepresented by a writer on
natural history as a very ungainly monster — a blemish in the universe ! but
subsi'quenr. examinations, more carefully conducted, convinced mankind that
the sloth is as perfect, of its kind, as the proudest animal that struts this
■iarth.

If horns llad been " good for nothing but to wound and destroy," they
would not have been planted upon the heads of so large a portion of rumi-
nnnts. Ask the manufacturer of handles for cutting-instruments,, the comb-
maker, the manufacturer of lanterns, the umbrella-maker, the manufacturer

CONSTRUCTION OF PIG-PENS. 531

of bell-pulls and drawer-knobs, the makers of prussic acid and Prussian blue,
Mhorna are good for nothing.

Five reasons are given why horns are thus denounced, one of which we will
now examine. It is asserted that " the substance which goes to make horns,
is the same that enters into the composition of wool."

But "hollow-horns," (to which class belong those of the ox and the sheep,)
are composed of two distinct materials, one of which, namely, phosphate of lime
for the construction of the plates and fibres of the osseous portion or inner
surface, and phosphate of lime does not enter into the composition of wool.
And as to the outer surface, Roget (who upon such a subject as this is of the
highest authority) says that it is a " mere excretion, which appears to be
destitute of vessels, and which is consequently removed from the influence of
the living powers."

We would likewise ask permission to call to your notice, that Russell altered
stags, and he informs us that in some of them their antlers grew irregularly,
and in others not at all. Bichat also says that a cock with his comb cut
languishes, and a lion deprived of his mane loses a part of his courage, and
probably a part of his vitality ; all of which shows that there exists some mys-
terious connection between horns and such other appendages indicative of
the male sex and its virility, and they ought to admonish us to " let (nature's)
well alone," lest while we are endeavoring to improve upon this great mistress,
we may be the cause of a lasting degeneration, having a most deleterious
effect upon our stock.

'Philadelphia.

CONSTRUCTION OF PIG-PENS.

We have heard of jewels in toads, while pearls are grown in oysters, and
diamonds even are dug out of the earth.

Science, in some sense, covers all the territory yet known, and though not
a common topic, as it should be, nor an inviting one, in all respects, we know
not why this wise dame should not preside over the pig-pen as much as in
other departments of farm management. We find a capital article on this
subject in " The Progressive Farmer," which we lately noticed among our new
books, and here copy it for our readets :

Mythology relates that one King Augeas had stalled 30,000 cattle for
many years without cleaning after them. Hercules, it is said, was appointed
to the task of cleansing these "Augean stables." The wily here, as the storj
has come down to us, turned a river through them, and made clean work
shortly. Whether the stalls travelled with the current we are not informed,
but the manure went down the stream. Agriculturally considered, this was.
just about as wise as the management of some modern pig-pans.

I have often seen these important structures built with their roofs facing,
the south ; the manure thrown out the south side ; the eaves washing it in
rainy days and the suu scorching it in fair weather ; till, between washing,
fermentation, and burning, there was little left. Others are so located that
rills, if not rivers, run into them, not enough perhaps to cleanse them, after-
the model of the aforesaid " Herculean labor," but enough to sweep away,
nearly all their soluble salts. Owing to bad management, pig manure has,
come into bad reputation, but it is good, nevertheless, if lightly man-
aged.

The pig-pen should be so constructed that the neves will be turned awaj~

532 CONSTRUCTION OF PIG-PENS.

from iliH manure. The ground should be in such shape tliat no water, except
what tails dirt-ctly from the heavens, can find ingress, and none find egress
but by evaporation. There should be an outside inclosure, where the ani-
mals can be <vs filihy as their swinish nature prompts; and an inside apart-
ment wluTe they can be as dry and warm as they please. If the first is not
allowed them, they may not pay for their keeping in summer ; if the last is
not furnished, they certaiidy will not pay fur their winter's food. No animal
can (jrow or fatten when suffering with the cold. It takes all his food to
keep him from freezing.

Let the outside inclosure be of considerable size, giving at least one square
rod to the first tenant, and half as much more to each additional occupant.
It is agreed on all hands, that American farmers have land enough. J hey
can attjrd to give their pigs a sufhcient range. The ground should be dish-
ing, the same^is in the barn-yard, and for the same reason, that nothing may
run ov(-r ill wet weather; and the material for the pigs to work over should
be so abundant as never to evaporate to dryness in the diyest times.

Now, what is to be done that a lot of swine may produce, partly in the
" natural way," and more by the manufacture of raw materials, ten loads
each, per year, of excellent compost ? If the number to be kej)t be ten.
they would give a hundred loads. Suppose this to be theaverage number for
the year, and let us see how the thing is to be done. In the first place, put
around the outside of the pen, or outer yard, seventy-five loads of peat,
swanip-riiuck, road-scrapings, top-soil, or whatever you can best procure, and
then proceed as follows :

After the pen has been cleared of its last year's manure, throw in plenti-
fully of this to begin with. Let it be scattered over the whole inclosure sev-
eral inches deep. As it becomes thoroughly moistened with the rains and
the droppings of the animals, throw in more, and so on through the sum-
mer and fall ; throwing in, more or less, nearly as often as you feed the
swine, taking care that it always be moist, but seldom or never thoroughly
drenched. The quantity will soon become so large that it will hold the water
of any ordinary rain, and withstand the evaporation of any drought
if not very severe. If it is inclined to dry up, it is well to throw over it a
few quarts of plaster. Plaster is very little soluble. Five hundred pounds
of water dissolves but one jiound of plaster. It cannot, therefore, be lost by
putting it on moist manure, as some otjier salts might be. Indeed, it should
be sprinkled over all manures frequently, but especially if they incline, either
in consequence of dry weather or too rapid fermentation, to become dry.

Some have supposed that the outer pen for swine should be under cover,
I think not. Remember that rain does not hurt manure, unless it run through
it, carrying off its soluble salts. Every drop of rain brings down ammonia
and other fertilizing matter from the air. The falling rain washes the air of
its impurities. After the shower we say, " How sweet the air is." It is sweet
bacatisii it is clean. Hence, in the neighborhood of cities and large villages,
.and every where to a limited extent, rain falls, im])regnated with enriching
imaterials. If it falls on a quantity of manure which has sufficient de])th
to hold it till evaporation takes place, it leaves these materials in the manure.
iHence, the more rain the better, provided it go off by evaporation and not
by filtration. The evaporation should not go on to perfect dryness ; for then
the ammonia, the carbonic acid, and other gases, are inclined to escape, and
the manure is approaching that state in which it may said to be "burnt."

Ahvaijs moist but never leachtd should be the farmer's rule for his manure.
'.The more manure he makes, both in his cow-yard and his pig-pen, the more

CYLINDER CHURN.

533

easily can he keep wiihiu this rule. A few inches of manure spread over
the yard or pen, will be as dry as powder one day and thoroughly leached the
next ; while a depth of ten, fifteen, or twenty inches will stand a long drought,
or hold the water of a long rain. Consequently, it generally happens to the
farmer who makes manure on a liberal scale, that his manure is as much bet-
ter in quality as it is more in quantity. ,

1 have said always moist but never leached. Closely allied to this is an-
other rule. Who has not noticed that a pig-pen, in which the occupants are
in dano-er of drowning, and one in which the manure is so dry as to be suf-
ferincr a rapid fermentation, always smell horribly ? To say nothing of the
keeper and his family, the pigs are less healthy in such an atmosphere,_ and
they will thrive less on the same keeping. To keep a stinking pig-pen is to
throw away part of the feed and part of the manure at the same time. i3y
giving corn to swine, shut up in a polluted atmosphere, the farmer loses a
portion of his last year's crop ; and, by letting his pig-pen "waste its sweet-
ness on the desert air," he fails of a portion of his next year s. A valuable
portion, and not a small portion of what should produce crops next summer,
is going beyond his reach. rp, • • ^t.

Not the least offensive odor should escape from the piff-pen. ihis is tne
rule before alluded to ; and it is as practical as it is important. To practice
it, will save something on last year's crop; something for the next, something
certainly in comfort, and it may he, something ill doctor's bills. In o'-a^^J* ^
practise it successfullv, one needs only to throw into the pig-pen, and all like
places, including the vault of the privy, plenty of peat, black mud, or top-
soil even, and to see that it is always moist hut not drenched. A little plaster
w^ould be a help, but it is not necessary. If it is not at hand, the other part
of the prescription will suffice. Plaster, however, should always be on hand.
This, and cured peat or muck, should never be wanting about the farmer s
premises.

The same rule should be observed with regard to every part ot the pre-
mises. If others sufter bad odors about their farms, they may lose their com-
fort and their health ; if the farmer suffers them, he will lose his wealth also ;
for these are the very quintessence of his manure; and it is a well-known
fact that growing plants absorb with avidity what is most noxious to animal
life. — Progressive Farmer, {by Hash.)

' FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND TUB ARTII-

Messrs. Editors :

Dear Sir: Please inform me through the columns of The Plough, the
Loom, and the Anvil, which is the best churn in use. I have tried several
" bests," but have found none worth a straw. Now, whose make would you
recommend ? I am very respectfully yours, ,W. C. W.

Norwalk, Conn., Jan. 19, 1854.

Editors' Reply.— We know of nothing better than the cylinder churn,
for common family use ; it is convenient in its management, portable, and
is easily cleaned. There are five sizes, holding from two to twenty gallons.
Cost is from $2 to U.

534 INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF VIRGINIA.

INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF VIRGINIA.

The lead mines in Wythe county have never been worked up to their
cap icity, but merely to the extent of supplying a limited home demand; the
weight of the article, and the distance to water communication, utterly exclud-
ing it from the great markets of the world. The lead region, which com-
mences at Aspiiivvall, extends through a considerable portion of Smyth
county, and is rich in all the most valuable ores of this metal. l>esides the
sulphurate of lead, (galena,) which is the ore chiefly depended on, oxide of
lead, (minium,) and the carbonate, (white lead ore,) exist in large quantities,
may be easily wrought, and are exceedingly rich; the latter yielduig about
75 per cent. Minium is the red lead of commerce ; and the carbonate, the
white, so extensively used as a paint. There is also in'connecdon with these
ores, a considerable per cent, of arsenic, which sublimes in the process of
smelting, and collects in large quantities around the mouths of the furnaces,
in the form of arsenious acid, (white arsenic.) This substance, of which no
account is made at th^e mines, possesses considerable value in the arts, and
could easily be purified and fitted for market.

Here, too, in inexhaustible profusion, we have the noblest of the metals —
iron. Whatever may be said in justification of the metallurgic idolatry wliich
is drawing so many thousands of our people to the EI Dorado of the west,
here, in the bowels of our mountains, in exuberant plenty, is a metal of far
more intrinsic value than gold, and needing only the union of labor and capi-
tal to make it as prolific a source of wealth to Virginia, as the celebrated
mines of Elaba to France, or Dalecarlia to Sweden. The Iron Mountain, (to
say nothing of the numerous other localities,) which extends througli the coun-
ties of Wythe, Smyth, and Washington, in Virginia, and Johnson, and Car-
ter, in Tennessee, contains ore enough to supply the nation for a century.
This ore, too, is of the richest quality, and precisely the same (the magnetic
oxide) as that from which the best iron of Norway and Sweden is obtained.
Other ores also here exist in abundance, as the brown hematite, the argillace-
ous carbonate, specular, (fee. In this mineral alone, is wealth sufficient to
enrich a nation, and the brow of enterprise may cheer up at the prospect of
gaining employment for centuries to come.

Contiguous to the salt deposit, and at numerous other points in the valley,
between Clinch and Walker's Mountain, we have gypsum in the greatest
abundance, and of the finest quality.' The value of this article to the agri-
culture of the country is too well known to require description, and nothing
is needed but facilities for cheap transportation in order to multiply its con-
sumption a hundred or a thousand fold. In the present condition of our
roads, perfectly execrable through nearly half the year, so great is the cost
of transportation that the price of ground plaster, which at present is $5 per
ton at " the bank," is increased 100 per cent, at the distance of eight miles,
and only a ^ry partial supply can be procureil at that. We perceive, how-
ever, by the taiitl' of rates, established by the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad
Company, that the price of transportation will be but three dollars per ton
for the distance of 200 miles. These rates, when the lines of roads are com-
pleted in both directions, will give the command of the market through a
scope of country of more than 400 miles in length, and furnish the article
cheaper by two dollars per ton at the point of greatest distance, than it can
now be obtained within eight miles of the works. This vast region of coun-

PKOGEESS OF MECHANICS. 535

try, it should be remembered, also, is wholly devoted to agriculture, and the
soil is of such a nature as to receive the most healthy stimulus from the use
of this fertilizer. The effects on the industry and production of the country,
as a consequence of our improvements, to result from this branch of business
alone, are absolutely incalculable.

Additional to the above-named industrial resources which pertain to the
mineralogy of the country, we might mention also the vast deposits of meta-
morphic limestone which are foUnd between the Clinch and Holston rivers.
These deposits furnish the beautiful variegated red marble, now well-known
as the "Rogersville Marble," in consequence of works for its manufacture
having been established only at that phice. The formation, however, extends
through Scott county, in Virginia, and Hawkins and Grainger, in Tennessee,
and the quantity is inexhaustible. Quarries might be opened in each of these
counties, and its manufacture for building and ornamental purposes carried on
to an extent limited only by the uses to which it may be put. This marble
receives a fine polish, and is mottled and variegated by numerous shells,
madrepores, and other fossils, which give it a beautiful effect. We consider
it scarcely inferior to the celebrated "gold-streaked" marble from Egypt.
As a new variety, it needs only a market in order to be much sought after
for furniture and ornamental finishings.

Besides this, throughout East Tennessee, we have reason to believe that
numerous other valuable varieties may be found. We have in our possession
a beautiful specimen of white granular marble from the Unaka or Smoky
Mountain, between Tennessee and North Carolina, that, for purposes of statu-
ary, cannot be surpassed ; equal, no doubt, to the best Parian or Carara. The
day is not distant, we hope, when our Greenoughs and Powers will not need
to seek their material on the classic shores of the old world, but when their
beautiful creations shall arise from native quarries, when our mountain glens
and nooks shall become artists' studios, and the clink of the chisel, and the
hum of busy industry give new life to these sequestered solitudes ; and when
the railroads, which, from different points, are now pressing towards these rich
but hitherto isolated regions, shall bear away to distant cities this mineral
wealth, to be reared into sumptuous edifices and stately temples. — Southern
Repertory.

PROGRESS OF MECHANICS.

We purpose to describe certain mechanic arts, in which the lapse of cen-
turies has brought no progress, but which remain, to this day, not only not
improved, but perhaps deteriorated.

^ We have occupied considerable space in a recent number, (for January,)
with an account of porcelain ware. We have made progress of a certain
kind in this department of art, the same kind which is made in so many of
the arts, and a kind too which is of immense practical value. We mean an
economical improvement, an adaptation of various kinds of clay to this kind
of ware, so as to bring its common use within reach of the mass of the peo-
ple, just as a certain amount of education is now diffused among all the peo-
ple.^ Science in its nature is diffusive. Thus, the knowledge of pottery, in
its finest forms, which was once exceedingly limited, while the ware cost far
too much to be enjoyed by any but a favored few, is now essentially com-
mon property, and the products of the art are in the humbler abodes of
poverty and toil.

036 PROGRESS OF MECHANICS.

No wares compare in elegance of finish and brilliancy of coloring to the
ancient Sevres. But we need not occupy space on this subject. We refer to
it, that our list may be more complete.

Glass-avare. — There are various department^*, each distinct from the rest,
all of which come under this general head. We will first refer to

Staining of Glass. — Perhaps nothing can exceed the beauty of many
modern works in this department of art. But in our own country such
specimens are few, and of the smaller forms. Abroad, it is otherwise, and
yet S(» tar as our information extends, but very few of the larger forms of re-
markable beauty are the work of recent times. In the middle ages, this art
was in its perfection. Many of the churches pf the old world display scenes
in their painted windows, that modern art cannot surpass.

The imitations of precious stones, by the ancients, has never been sur-
passed, -f it can be equalled. A piece of glass was found at Rome, less than
an inch in length, and a third of an inch in breadth, exhibiting on a dark
and variegated ground, the figure of a duck, beautifully executed, in bright
and varied colore. The plumage was executed with wonderful truth and
fidelity.

The most wonderful feature of this work of art consisted, however, in the
fact that the two opposite sides of the glass presented precisely the same
figure, the colors extending quite through the substance of the glass. A
fracture having occurred, the mode by which the work was executed was
revealed. This was by passing straight threads of glass, of diflferent colors,
through a hole in the tablet, and so arranging them, that a transverse section
presented the figure of a bird. These filaments were doubtless united, after-
wards, by fusion, as no microscope could detect the point of their junction.
Other specimens exhibited flowers, architectural ornaments, &c., in a blue
ground, of equally surprising execution.

Glass .AND Makble Mosaics. — This style of decoration was known both
to thi' Greeks and Romans, and as much skill was exhibited in these manu-
factures as in modern times.

Malleable Glass. — It was known long ago how to render glass mallea-
ble as iron, but the secret was confined to a few only, while the life of him
who should divulge it unwisely, would be forfeited. In the time of
Tiberius, an artist, banished for some political oSense, it is said, discovered
this art, and hoped on that account to secure the favor of the emperor. But
the glas.s-makers, supposing " their craft was in danger," employed all their
influence against him, and secured his death, and his secret died witii him.

In the time of Louis XIII., an artist who made this discovery was re-
warded, for a similar reason with j)erpetual imprisonment.

Glass Blowing. — Egyptian paintings, 3500 years old, represent glass-
blowers at work, with blow-pipes similar to those now in use, and in the
tombs of Thebes, implements of glass have been found similar to those of the
present day. So the arts of cutting, grinding, and polishing glass were un-
deretood in those early times. Tlie famous Tortlaiid vase, now in England,
was found in a sarcophagus at Rome, some two hundred years ago, and was
long believed to be of stone. It is now found to be of glass. Its color is
blue, beautifully yjolished, and ornamented with small figures of opatjue
white, in bas-relief, beautiful in design, and of exquisite finish.

Another very valuable specimen of this work was dug from the ruins of
Pompeii, in 1839, and is now in the museum at Naples. It is about twelve
inches high, and eight inches in width, and of a style similar to that of the
PortUmd Vcise. It is covered with figures in bas-relief, raised from a delicate

PROGRESS OF MECHANICS. 537

white opaque glass, overlaying a transparent dark-blue ground, the figures
being executed in the style of cameo-engraving. To produce this eflfect, the
artist must have been familiar with the operation described last month under
the head of Bohemian ware — the only mode known for exhibiting differ-
ent colors, ill such connection. This specimen is presumed by some to be
the work of Roman, and by others of Greek artists.

The art of cutting and polishing glass has been long known ; and in the
ancient ruins, specimens of such work have been found that com'pare well
with the products of modern skill.

Refining Metals. — The few specimens of ancient coins that have come
down to us seem to prove that the ancients understood the art of refining the
precious metals. These coins are supposed to have been made by the ham-
mer and the punch. Among the most remarkable antiques formed of the
precious metals, are two golden horas, found in Denmark, and supposed to be
drinking vessels. They are each about three feet in length, four inches
diameter at the mouth, and seven pounds in weight, and are very richly or-
namented. The gold of which they are composed, is of such fineness, that
the best refiners in Copenhagen, who were instructed to repair a blemish in
one of them, were unable to produce metal of equal purity.

The art of refining and tempering steel was practised in the East, at a very
early period. According to Pliny, the oriental steel was the best then known,
and the East Indian steel, called Wootz, is believed to be superior to any of
European manufacture. A sword of the steel of Borneo has been known to
sever a European sword-blade, without producing a flaw.

Working Metals. — The Chinese have long possessed this art in great
perfection. An old Chinese work on vases is yet extant, which contains
many hundred engravings of ancient vases, of gold and other metals, with
their inscri|:)tions, which refer their date to a period fifteen hundred years
before the Christian era.

Sculpture. — This art was not unknown, even in the rudest ages. The
various idolatries which have prevailed in all ages of the world must have
turned attention to this department of art, and as civilization and refinement
modified and even controlled the public manners and tastes, progress in it was
a matter of course. Accordingly, we find not a few of the ancient specimens
of sculpture still appealed to as models of perfection. Perhaps our own
artists excel the ancients in one point, and that indeed the highest of all, in
the development of intellectual expression, and of passionate emotion, though
they do not in symmetry or beauty of feature, or of form.

Not only were these finer arts famihar to the ancients, but some belonging
to the more necessary and economic departments were practised at a very
ancient period.

Spinning and Weaving. — The origin of these arts is entirely unknown.
The Egyptians, even in the time of Moses, we all know, understood both
these branches of labor. The pictures upon Egyptian tombs represent all
the various processes connected with them. Their mummies are rolled in
linen, some of which is of remarkable fineness. Some of the ancient speci-
mens of Greek sculpture are clad in flowing drapery.

Masonry. — With the sight of this word, the huge pyramids at once stand
up in their immense proportions. But perhaps it may be said that it is as
easy to erect a large as a small pile, a larger quantity ofc material only being
necessary. But these stones are found to have been of immense size, weigh-
ing, in some ancient structures, hundreds of tons. No ordinary architect of
our day is competent to the skillful management of such masses. In the

638 PROGRESS OF MECHANICS.

ruins at Balbec, some of the stones employed are sixty feet in length, nine-
teen ill breadth, and ten in thickness. At how many quarries on this conti-
nent can contracts now be made for the delivery of such masses ? It must
be reineinbered also that Ejjyptian granite was very hard. The oldest struc-
tures known, were erected without lime or other cementing substance. The
use of such materials is of comparatively later origin.

But when quarried, how could these inunense masses be conveyed to the
spot where they were required ? The obelisks, at Ileliopolis, consisting of a
single block, weighing more than two hundred tons, were conveyed 800 miles.
A colossal statue at Thebes, weighing 900 tons, was conveyed 138 miles.

The gothic structures of the middle ages exhibit wonderful skill of con-
struction. The tower of a cathedral, at Strasburg, is nearly 500 feet high.
A stone cist'rn, for collecting the rain which drops from the spire, is arranged
250 I'eet from the ground. So strong is the masonry of this structure, that
in the great earthquake of 1728, though the tower was rocked so as to spill
the water from this reservoir, when standing three feet below its margin,
still no stone was misplaced in the tower, nor was a crack produced in its
masonry.

A sti'ue arched-bridge, built by the Romans, at Bricnde, in France, with a
span of 195 feet, is still standing. The ancient Roman aqueducts are to this
day astonishing feats of skill in this department of art.

The obelisks conveyed from Syene to Thebes are from 70 to 90 feet in
length, and that at Karnac weighed 297 tons. A statue at the Ramessium
weighs upwards of 887 tons, and must have been brought 188 miles.

Hi-rodotus mentions a temple at Bato, in the Delta, hewn from one solid
rock, which was brought from the Elphantine. Its weight was reckoned to
be 5000 tons. An Egyptian obelisk, the largest in the world, stands near
the church of St. John Lateran, at Rome, the shaft of which is 105 feet in
height. It is adorned with the finest sculptures. Palmyra was a city of
palaces. Babylon was not only "the glory of the Chaldeans," but is the ad-
miration of the world. The artists of centuries gone by left a record of their
skill, which is not even dimmed by age. What is not thus eloquently ut-
tered in the chiselled.- lines of their solid rocks, their painters have given us.
Th*-y have illustrated the luxuries and pleasures and amusements as well as
skill in the arts, to an extent which should teach us not to boast too much of
our superiority, in all respects, over the olden times.

WoKKiNG IN Wood, Cabinet-ware, &c. — We find in Egyptian tombs,
as well as in their pictures, that workers in wood were familiar with the pro-
ducts of modern art in this department. From these discoveries, we find
that stuffed chairs were known in those early times, and that fashion and taste
were gratified by the finish of the claw-feet, and other devices of the present
time. They show skill in the practice of veneering, dowelling, dovetailing,
glueing, polishing, staining, painting, (tc.

Architecture. — We need here but to suggest a few specimens of ancient
skill and taste in this department. The most ancient structures in Europe
are among the most perfect. Westminster Hall, with its arched roof, still
perfect, was erected in 1380. The most raar^vellous, in some respects, liowever,
is the Riding House, at Moscow, which covers an extent of 10 acres, the roof
of which extends 2000 feet in length, and 235 feet in width, without cross-
wall or pillars. •

The most remarkable dome in existence is that of the Pantheon, at Rome.
It is 107 feet in diameter. Next, is that of St. Peters, still larger than that
of the Pantheon. It is constructed of double walls, with a flight of stairs

THE ACTION OF URINE. 539

between them. Tlie dome of the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, at
Florence, erected in the early part of the fifteenth century, is perhaps not infe-
rior to either in its design.

The principle of the arch was as well understood, and as variously applied
centuries ago, as at the present time.

In the construction of powerful machinery, the ancients must have been
well skilled. We have already referred to the moving of immense burdens,
and of elevating huge masses to great heights. We would also refer to the
\yarlike machines of Archimedes, who constructed huge engines for upsetting
the war-vessels of the enemy, when they came to attack Syracuse, the city of his
residence. The huge cross-bows, with which stones and other missiles were
thrown against the boats of the enemy, and which sunk them, are quite
worthy of mention in this connection.

Iron and Steel. — So well known are the claims of the ancients to perfec-
tion in the manufacture of wares and implements of this description, that a
simple reference is sufficient for our purpose.

But when we have enumerated these, and a few kindred kinds of art, we
have exhausted the list. We might, indeed, were it within the scope of our
plan, have referred to the painting, the poetry, and the eloquence of olden
times, but such topics scarcely come within the range of our discussions.

We purpose to follow this short sketch as our convenience will permit, with
illustrations of an opposite character, showing the wonderful progress
that has been made in other departments of mechanic art, with sketches of
the more prominent artists, both of the past and the present ; and if means
could be devised for giving their portraits to our readers, we should most
gladly avail ourselves of the opportunity.

THE ACTION OF URINE.

Dana thus illustrates the value of human urine as manure:

" Each pint of human urine will produce a j^ound of lukeat. Each pound
of ammonia is equal to a bushel of grain. Whatever may be the food, it
is evident that rivers of riches run away from farms, from want of attention
to saving that which ordinarily is allowed to be wasted.

"Each" man evacuates, annually, enough salts to manure an acre of land.
Some form of geine only is to be added to keep the land in heart, if the far-
mer has but the heart to collect and use that which many allow, like the
flower unseen, to waste its sweetness on the desert air."

By geine here is meant mould, and we infer, that it is immaterial whether
the substance used be woods-mould, marsh-mud, river-mud, peat-mould, from
head-lands, or any other kindred substance. According to the above state-
ment, 125 gallons of human urine, mixed with as much of either of the sub-
stances named, to dry the urine, and prepare it for broadcast sowing, if
applied to an acre, would produce 20 bushels of wheat, provided the season
and other circumstances combined to facilitate productions. Looking at the
constituent elements of urine, as compared with those of wheat, we most im-
plicitly believe, that 200 gallons of human urine, mixed with 30 bushels of
mould of either of the substances above enumerated, 5 bushels of ashes, and
1 bushel of plaster, would be sufficient, if broadcasted and ploughed in, the
land being properly pulverized, to produce not only a very large crop of
wheat, but carry it through a four years rotation of crops, with profit to the far

5-iO PRODUCTIVE ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES.

mer ; and that the land might be seeded to clover with the certain prospect
of luxuriant crops of it, provided the land naturally had litne in it, or that
mineral, in the event of their being none, were applied at the rate of 10, 12,
or 20 bushels per acre. The quantity of urine named would, ujjon decom-
position, furnish upward of 44 lbs. of amnuniia, a quantity abundantly
sufficient, by its direct and indirect action upon the vegetable and other sub-
stances in the soil, to fertilize an acre of land.

COMPARATIVE PR0DUCTI\T: ECONOMY OF TUB UNITED STATES.

UY CHAULES C. COFFIN, WEST BOSCAWEN, N. II.

National prosperity is subject to three pursuits, commercial, mechanical,
and agricultural ; the latter is atthe basis of all. Of agriculture we propose
to speak; but as some States are extensively engaged in manufactures, and
others in commerce, allowances should be made in the comparative results.

It is a natural supposition that a State possessing equal advantages with
another State, should be equal in its like productions. Such is not the fact,
as will be apparent from the annexed tables. Taking the article of butter,
a product universal the world over, and which can be produced in any
clime, we see the following results. The States being arranged in progressive
order.

Lbs. per Cow, per aunura.

Florida, 5

Texas, 10

Georgia, - - - - - -13

South Carolina, - - - - 15

North Carolina, - - - - - 18

Alabama, - - - - - -18

Arkansiis, - - - - - -19

Mississippi, ----- 20

Tennessee, - - - - - -33

Missouri, - - - - - -34

Virginia, - - - - - - 34

Rhode-Island, ----- 34

Kentucky, - - - - - - 39

Louisiana, - - - - - 41

Illinois, 42

Maryland, . - - - 43

Indiana, - - - - - - 45

Iowa, -..--- 47
Delaware, - - - - - - 50

Wisconsin, - - - - - 56

Massachusetts, - - - - - 62

Ohio, 63

Maine, - - - - - - 69

Michigan, 70

New-Hampshire, - - - - - 73
Connecticut, ----- 75
Pennsylvania, - - - - - 75
New- Jersey, - . - - - - 79

Vermont, 83

New-York, 85

PRODUCTIVE ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 541

In many of the States large quantities of milk are sold ; but if the above
table is examined, it will be seen that most of those States which produce
the largest amount of butter, sell the most milk. Vermont is an exception.
But the exception will be accounted for in the quantity of cheese produced.

The purely agricultural States of the West, with broad prairies, fertile
fields, and favorable climate are behind the bleak and barren States of Ver-
mont, New-Hampshire, and Maine. New- York stands highest on the list,
yet she sells millions of gallons of milk per annum.

The reasons for such discrepancy must be beyond climate or soil. They
are to be found in inferior stock, and improper management.
In the article of cheese* there is a wider difference.

Lbs. per Cow

Louisiana, .01

South Carolina, - - - - .02

Maryland, .04

Missouri, .09

Alabama, ------ .13

Oeorgia, - - - - - .14

Delaware, - - - - - -.16

Florida, .24

Arkansas, - - - - - -.32

Texas, .40

North Carolina, .43

Tennessee, .70

Kentucky, .89

Missouri, .89

Virginia, - - - - - -1.37

Indiana, - - - - - 2.25

Illinois, 4.00

Iowa, 4.00

Tennessee, 4.72

Wisconsin, ----- 6.00

Mississippi, 10

Rhode-Island, - - - - - 11
Maine, - . . . -i i i' - 18
New- Jersey, - - - - - ' 30
New-Hampshire, - - - - 31

Ohio, 36

New- York, 53

Massachusetts, - - - . - 54

Vermont, 59

Connecticut, 62

The State of Vermont produces more pounds of cheese, than all the rest
of the Union, with the exception of New- York, Ohio, Maine, Connecticut,
Massachusetts, and New-Hampshire ; and this from 146,128 cows.

It may reasonably be asked if there is aught in the geological formation,
geographical position, or climate of Vermont, to account for the successful
prosecution of such a branch of agriculture ; which may not be equally suc-

* It is well known that cheese is not an article of food so universal in its use as
butter ; yet, from such data, it would seem that many of the States were dependent
upon others for this article of food, which, with judicious arrangements, can be pro-
duced in all climates.

VOL. VI. — PART IL 11

542 PRODUCTIVE ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES.

cessful in otlier States? We answer no. New- York and Ohio, New-Hamp-
shire and Connecticut show the same capabihty.

But if we loolc at tlie number of cows per individual, surprise at the dis-
crepancy will be still greater. We shall see that some of the States, which
produce the least butter and cheese per cow, keep the greatest number of
cows per individual.

Cows per Individual.

Maine,

.

-

.22

New-Hampshire,

.

.

.29

Vermont, -

...

.

.46

Massachusetts,

...

_

.13

Rhode-Island, -

...

.

.13

Connecticut, -

.

.

.23

New- York,

-

.

.30

New-Jersey, -

-

.

.24

Tennessee, -

.

.

.22

Delaware,

.

-

.21

Maryland, -

-

-

.14

Virginia,

.

-

.22

North Carolina, -

.

.

.25

South Carolina,

-

.

.28

Georgia, -

-

.

.36

Alabama,

-

.

.29

Florida, -

.

.

.83

Mississippi,

.

.

.35

Louisiana,

.

.

.20

Texas, -

-

.

1.01

Kentucky,

-

.

.25

Tennessee,

-

-

.24

Arkansas, -

.

-

.44

Missouri,

.

.

.33

Ohio,

.

.

.27

Indiana,

.

-

.28

Illinois,

.

.

.34

Mississippi,

-

-

.25

Iowa,

.

.

.24

Wisconsin,

-

-

.21

"i^ermont is a purely agricultural State. The dairy is a branch of business
•natural to the State. It is made profitable by industry and energy. Each
individual is possessed of one forty-six hundredths of a cow, each cow pro-
ducing 59 lbs. of cheese and 83 lbs. of butter.

In the State of Florida, each individual owns eighty-three hundredths of a
cow. Each cow producing 24 lbs. of cheese and 5 lbs. of butter.

Now, for what purpose do the agriculturists of the South rear such stocks ?
' Surely not for profit.

The total pounds of cheese produced in the United States, in 1850, was
105,585,^219 or about 4^ lbs. to each individual. The export for the year
was 10,3^1,189, leaving about 4 lbs. per individual for consumption. Now,
if the consumption is equal in all the States, there are but seven States that
^produce their own cheese — Maine, New-Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,
'Connecticut, New-York, -and Ohio.

PennsylvHflia, with a population of 2,311,786, produces but 2,505,034 lbs.

PRODUCTIVE ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES. ^543

of cheese. If each individual consumes 4 lbs., there is a deficit of 5,742,110
lbs., which at 10 cts., anaounts to more than half a million dollars. And this,
■with a soil and climate equally advantageous with New-York or Ohio. In-
diana, with a population of 988,416, produces from 284,554 cows but
624,564 lbs. of cheese and 12,881,535 lbs. of butter.

This is a result where soil and climate are greatly in favor of the former
States. Neither of the States sell milk, and it is reasonable to suppose that
the proportionable consumption of milk, as an article of food, is as great in
one as the other. Hence, the discrepancy must be sought for iu the stock,
or in the management of the dairy, or in both. There is no reason to sup-
pose that Indiana may not be made to equal Vermont, but, on the contrary,
excel it in dairy products.

The discrepancy which exists between the States of Vermont and Indiana
is illustrative of that of the whole Union, not only in cheese, but in various
other articles. i • i. i

The amount of wool produced per sheep, shows results which must be at-
tributed to stock and management.

In the table appended, there is evidently an error in the computation for
Massachusetts ; for it can hardly be supposed that that State should range
so far ahead of all others, especially of Vermont, where wool-growing is a

profession. , , , o,

Lbs. of wool per Sheep.

Maine, - - - - * " ^-^^

. New-Hampshire, . - - - 2.90

Vermont, ------ 3.35

Massachusetts, - - - - 4.53

Rhode-Island, 2.9

Connecticut, ----- 2.9

New- York, 2.9 •

New-Jersey, 2.9

Tennessee, - -- - - -1.3

Delaware, 2.1

Maryland, 2.6

Virginia, ... - - 2.1

North Carolina, 1-6

South Carohna, - - - - 1.7

Georgia, !•'

Florida, -^ 0.99

Mississippi, - - - - - 1.8

Louisiana, 0.9

Texas, 1-3

Kentucky, ----- 2.0

Tennessee, - - - - * -1.6

Alabama, 2.0

Missouri, - - - - - - 2.1

Ohio, 2.5

Indiana, - - - - - - 2.3

lUinois, 2.4

Michigan, - . - - - 2.7

Iowa, - - - - - 2.4

Wisconsin, . . - . - 2.0

Vermont, with a climate of long winters, stands first on the list, probably

544 FAKMING Uf VIRGINIA.

as to quantity per sheep, and tjuality. No State has given so much attention
to wool-growing, and within the last ten years she has produced a stock not
surpassed in the country.

If Vermont has done thus, why may not Ohio, Pennsylvania, Kentucky,
and other States with climate to assist, surpass Vermont ?

It has been computed that each individual requires seven pounds of wool
per auuum, therefore the country requires not far from 100,000,000 lbs. per
annum. The pounds produced in 1850, were 52,780,17-4 from 21,721,814
.sheep, or 2.44 lbs. per sheep. Showing a deficit of more than 100,000,000
lbs. Now, if the pounds per sheep were raised to that of Vermont, it would
increase the amount to 72,000,000 ; and if the quality, which may now be
rated at 0.40 per lb., were increased to that of Vermont, which may be
called $0.50, it would give an increase of 15,000,000.

It is a well-known fact that it costs no more to keep a good animal than a
poor one ; here then would be actual gain of fifteen millions of dollai-s to
the country per annum. This applies with equal force, to all the products of
the country which are not in any great degree affected by climate.

The deficit of 100,000,000 lbs. of wool per annum, in value $40,000,000,
is worthy of the consideration of the agriculturists of the country. But the
discussion of the subject cannot be pursued. It has been theorized by econo-
mists, but it is a problem which will settle itself.

Yet to arrive at national wealth, it is absolutely necessary to understand
the laws of production and distribution. It is only by comparative analysis
that a State can understand its progress.

There is a legitimate business for every community. It is not a haphazard
course which a community can pursue successfully for a long period. Pros-
perity is founded upon i-ational laws, laws of nature, or of circumstances.
Some of the States must of necessity be manufecturing, othera commercial^
others agricultural, and others combining different employments.

It is impossible with the space at command, to do more than to glance at
the industry of the country. But perhaps enough has been said to call at-
tention to the comparative economy of the different States. No State can
float serenely on the tide of time to a great and glorious destiny. The great
moving powers are industry and energy ; making use of the best means which
nature or circumstances has given, — Journal of the United States Agricul-
tural Society.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

FARMING IN VIRGINIA.

Messrs. Editors : I herewith send you some thoughts on the subject of
farming in Rockbridge and our valley counties, which may not be altogether
uninteresting to your numerous readers.

Rockbridge county is situated in the Valley of Virginia, near the centre of
the State. As you are no doubt aware, the valley, from near the Tennessee
line to Harpers Ferry, boasts of as fine lands as are to be found in the State.
Much of this land is in a high state of cultivation, producing heavy crops of
corn, wheat, rye, oats, and buckwheat, with almost every culinary vegetable.
There are also many fine grazing farms, on which are raised fine cattle, sub-
stantial, and some fine, horses, Cotswold, Southdown, Saxony, and Merino,

FAEMING IN VIRGINIA. 545

and other sheep, with fine hogs of the different breeds. Much of our stock is
driven to the Richmond^ Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New-York niarkers.

There has also been a good deal of attention paid to fruit culture in late
years, and we will soon have abundant supplies of apples, pears, peaches,
nectarines, apricots, plums, prunes, damsons, strawberries, gooseberries, &c
Apples grow well every whore, but some of the other vaiieties do not succeed
so well on stiff clay soils. The county of Rockbridge and other counties lying
further south, produce all the above varieties in perfection, when propeily
<;u]tivated.

So far as my knowledge extends, there are not many dairy-farms in the
valley. There are, however, some, which I learn pay well. Butter of fine
quality, and in considerable quantities, is made, which finds a ready market
in Richmond, Va.

The Central Railroad, now ahnost completed from Richmond to Staunton,
120 miles, will, in a month, give us ready access to market. This road is
pushing west to the Ohio River, and it is said will be completed in the next
three or four years. It will pass by Covington, where it will meet the James
River Canal. These two improvements will open up unbounded stores of
mineral wealth in our western mountains, and when once completed, will
throw an immense trade into Richmond, in connection with the Tennessee
and South Side Railroads; a new era will dawn on the cities of Richmond,
Norfolk, and Petersburg.

There is now in progress a canal from the James River to Lexington, cur
-county seat, a distance of about 20 miles on the water line. About one half
of this canal will be in operation this spring, and it will probably be completed
in the next year, 1855 ; and it is thought it will pay well. The North
River, on the line of this canal, and above, afTords very fine water-power.
Indeed, our county boasts of almost unlimited water-power, being watered
on the south by the James River, Buflfalo, CloUier's Creek; the North River,
near the centre of the county ; Hay's, Walker's, and Moffett's Creeks, and
the South River running along the base of the Blue Ridge, with other
smaller streams, offer sites to small capitalists, for every branch of mechanical
labor.

Our lands vary in quality from the finest bottoms, worth $100 per acre, to
mountain lands at 10 cents. There are no arable lands w^orth having that can
be purchased for less than |5. From this price up: 810, $15, $20, $30, and
$50, for our best up-lands, well adapted to corn, wheat, and rye. As you
approach the James River, some tobacco is cultivated, but it is not one of our
staples. There are many good flouring mills in the county, and much of the
wheat raised here is of very superior quality, weighing often 66 lbs. per bushel,
rarely falling below CO lbs. per bushel. The flour manufactured in our val-
ley is generally of superior quality ; the yield being 20 barrels per hundred
for Mediterranean wheat, to 22 and 23 barrels for fine white wheats, jier
hundred bushels. Our best wheat-lands, under fine cultivation, yield 40
bushels }>er acre. Good farmers get an average of 20 to 25 bushels, and
poor farmers fall as low as 5 bushels per acre. Of corn the same may be said ;
all depends on proper cultivation and quaHty of land ; from 10 bushels up to
100 bushels per acre have been raised.

Before closing this communication, I will say a word about our servants,
as many persons at the North labor under mistaken views on this subject.
The servants of the landed proprietors in the Valley of Virginia are as well
fed, housed, and clothed, as the laboring classes of any other community If
it were not our duty, it is our interest, to see that they are properly cared for.

546 NATIONAL POULTRY SHOW.

Almtist evi ry fHrtnly of servants have their house, beds, and bedding. They
are regulirly worker), and called to their moals, where there is always plenty,
moruiiig, noon, and night; and during the harvest months, many fanners
send out an evening-piece, between 4 and 5 P.M. They very often work with
their mastery and fare as well. If sick, medical aid is always aftbrded, and
they are carefully nursed. They are rarely compelled to work in bad weather ;
;tnd always have a patch to work for themselves, if they wish it. Many of
them spend their nights till bed-time, in making baskets, mats, and brooms,
&c., for their own bene6t. All who wish it, are allowed to attend the
preacher of their own choice, on every Sabbath ; and in communion seasons
have Saturday to attend church.

I have no hesitation in saying that they are infinitely better off than the
free negroes amongst us, and as a mass are better fed, housed, and clothed
than many of the poor white families in our community. They are generally
much attached to the families in which they live, and good servants always
take an interest in the prosperity of their owners. When servants become
old, and unfit to work, the master is bound by the laws of the State, to take
':!are of them as long as they live.

There are some exceptions to this general rule, and you will sometimes
find hard masters, even when they have white servants.

Your obedient servant, Henry B, Jones,

BTOxvnsbuTg, Rockbridge Co., Va., Feb. Ath, 1854.

NATIONAL POULTRY SHOW.

The largest collection of the feathered tribe ever collected in this or any-
other city in this country, has been on exhibition at Barnum's Museum, dur-
ing the past month. The number on exhibition is said to be about 4000, and
embraces the common domestic fowl, geese, turkeys, ducks, pigeons, prairie-
hens, pheasants, pea-hens, quails, guinea-hens, eagles, swans, &c., each species
and variety being represented by both males and females. Besides these, are
deer, terrier-dogs, gazelles, rabbits, pigs, <fec., &c. They occupy all the room to
be spared for them in three stories of those large halls. The number of exhi-
bitors exceeds a hundred. The most extensive of these are Mr. McCormick,
of Long Island, (?) and Mr. Piatt, of Rhinebeck, N. Y. The States of New-
York, Massachusetts, New-Hampshire, Rhode-Island, and New-Jersey, are
represented in the coops, by natives of almost all the countries of the globe.

We cannot enumerate the various birds by their names, but were very
glad to hear Mr. McCormick, in his remarks on the iVth, recommend that
all the fowls from Eastern Asia be called by one name, Shanghais, and the
varieties be known by their color only, as white Shanghais, speckled Shang-
hais, &c., and to find that this plan was adopted by a resolution of the So-
ciety here and at Albany. We could never distinguish between several of
the " varieties" by their appearance, and perhaps it was not from ignorance,
but because they were all alike.

The addresses, on the l'7th, were by several gentlemen, but we were dis-
appointed in the amount of well-ascertained facts that were presented. We
call to mind but two items of practical importance, and these were — 1st, that
pullets seldom commence laving eggs till they are six months old ; and 2d,
that the best fowl for general use is the cross of the Shanghai and Dorking.

NEW-YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 547

These statements may be reliable, or they may not. We should be soi-ry to
eject the beautiful "black Spanish" from our yards, and still hope good rea-
son may be assigned for retaining them. The most beautiful birds, of these
varieties, in this exhibition, were the Mexican game-cock, and the handsomest
of the feathered race, the " golden pheasant." Then came the " silver phea-
sant," peacock, some varieties of pigeons, &c,, &c.

The only pigs exhibited were a beautiful pair of Suffolks, ticketed $150.

FEW-YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The Annual Meeting of the New- York State Society was held in the Hall
of the House of Representatives, at Albany, 8th inst. The following is the
list of officers chosen for the present year :

President. — William Kelly, Rhinebeck, Duchess county.

Vice Presidents. — J. C. Jackson, New- York ; A. B. Conger, Rockland;
Geo. Vail, Rensselaer ; Le Roy Mowry, Washington ; J. C. Woodruft', Onon-
daga; J. Barber, Cortland ; D. H. Abell, Livingston ; S. M. Burroughs, Orleans.

Corresponding Secretary. — B. P. Johnson, Albany,

Recording Secretary. — E. Corning, Jr., Albany.

Treasurer, — B. B. Kirtland, Rensselaer.

Executive Committee. — Edgar C. Dibble, Genesee ; Elon Comstock,
Oneida ; Charles Morrell, Tompkins ; T. B. Arden, Putnam ; Ambrose
Stevens, New- York.

Not being able to be present, we take the following extract of their
report from the American Agriculturist :

The report of the committee appointed last year to take into consideration
the subject of selecting two or more places to hold the future annual fairs of
the Society, was then made. The report strongly urged the propriety of
selecting two places to which the Society should limit their exhibitions. The
conclusions of the committee were, however, strongly controverted by General
Burroughs, of Orleans, and others of the members present, and the report
was not adopted. The perambulating habits of the Society are therefore to
be continued hereafter, and after a full consideration of the pros and cons on
this subject, we are inclined to the belief that this will be most decidedly for
the interests of the Society. If it incurs something more of expense and
trouble, and the shows are not in all cases so full or conveniently arranged,
the general result will be more satisfactory, and for this reason, we think,
more useful. This Society is eminently a democr^itic one, and its success,
and indeed its very existence, depends on its popularity with the masses, and
these will only be propitiated by an occasional show, at a point which may
be the most convenient to them.

The next, and only other engrossing topic of the meeting, was the location
of the show the present year. The committee appointed to determine this
had,, by a small majority, reported in favor of holding it in the city of New-
York, This conclusion was strongly opposed by several leading members,
who deemed it a desecration to bring the affairs of the Society into such close
proximity with the emporium of commerce and the arts. The report was, how-
ever, ably defended by Messrs. King of Queens, Stevens of New- York, Allen
of Erie, and others, and after a close vote, was carried in favor of this city.
On New-York, therefore, rests the onus^ and we hope also it may prove the

548 NEW-YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

honor, of providing for the forthcoming show, which a reasonable exertion on
the part of its friends, we trust, will make the most effective and remunerating
agricultural exhibition ever held in the United States. A persevering and
united eflfort on the part of its friends is all that is necessary to secure these
results.

The exhibition of fat cattle was very good. A large number were at the
Bull's Head, and generally were well-bred, meritorious beasts. Yet we be-
lieve there were not more than two or three thorough-bred animals, though
a majority were crosses of our best breeds. There is very great room for
improvement in this department, which we are conBdent we shall realize
within the few succeeding years. Most of our pure breeds are too valuable
to be turned into beef, and it will not be till we are more fully supplied with
them, that they can be appropriated to the shambles. Three remarkably fat
spayed heifers, and one ox, pure red, and worthy of the Devon blood, were
shown, and proved the very superior qualities of the breed for beef.

Only a few head of fat sheep were on the ground, and with the exception
of some three or four, were not peculiarly creditable to the exhibition. Some
fine carcasses were exhibited, though the display of good meats was rather-
meagre, and much inferior to that of last year.

No fat pigs were on exhibition, but there were a very few dressed swine of
very superior quality. One pig, 9 months and 13 days old, raised by J.
Winnie, weighed 386 pounds, Uve weight, and dressed 336 pounds, a loss of
only one eighth in dressing. We inquired of the owner its breed and treat-
ment. He said it was mostly China, and had been fed chiefly on boiled corn.
Later in the season it had, in common with some half dozen others, the offal
from a dairy of three cows, boiled pumpkins, soft corn, &c., with a free run
at all times of a good grass pasture. This is the true way, and the only way
in our opinion, of making pork-raising profitable in the eastern portion of the
United States; and with great deference to the ideas and practice which
generally prevail at the South and West, we believe it the true way of mak-
ing the utmost profit from swine there and elsewheie. Col. Sherwood, of
Cayuga, exhibited three remarkably fine specimens of Suffolk swine, which
were not destined for the butcher till their breeding capacity shall be ex-
hausted.

There were very fine samples of grain, though these were much less abun-
dant than we have a right to ex23ect fiom so large a State. AVe think the
interests of the producers would be largely promoted by increasing the num-
ber of samples, and make this in some measure 2i fair ox market, where buyer
and seller can both meet to exchange the choice seeds of the former for the
money of the latter.

The poultry exhibition, under the auspices of the Society, was very mea-
gre in its extent, though it contained some choice specimens of fowls. This
was owing to the large exhibition of the separate Poultry Society, held at
the same time in Albany, which, from the superior interest and c(<mpetition
excited, drew off most of the fancy birds. The latter was truly a grand affair
of its kind, and was by far the most meritorious exhibition of poultry, both in
excellence and number, we have ever seen.

The show of dairy products was quite limited ; and the display of fruits
much less than last year. But there were many very fine specimens of
apples, pears, and grapes. The two latter fruits are destined, ere long, to be
raised in large quantities for winter use. We know of no foreign luxuries so
desirable and wholesome, and at the same time so economical to the con-
sumer,,asour best native fruits. And we know of none, either, so remunerating

TRIAL OF REAPERS. 549

to the producer. We look for the production not only of the?e, but of other of
our more delicate fruits, such as the peach, the plum, &c., (to be preserved
by some new and more perfect process than hitherto adopted, by wliich their
peculiar flavor and aroma will be retained,) in such quantities that our tables
may groan under the weight of these luscious viands, instead of the crude,
half-ripe, or half-spoiled foreign fruits tuat now occasionally, and at high

prices, grace our boards.

TRIAL OF REAPERS.

"We have received the following proposal from Mr. Wright, and although
its details may possibly be improved, the substance of it appears free from
objection. Differences of opinion might exist in relation to the persons who
ought to bear the expense, and one question might come up still more sub-
stantial, namely : whether different reapers would not be preferred on different
surfaces. There might be a practical difficulty here which would lead to as
many opposite results as do the trials now had at annual fairs. But we let
Mr. Wright speak for himself.— [Eds. P., L., & A.]

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AKD THB ANVIL.

Dear Sir : As a manufacturer, I desire to enter my protest against any
more petty trials of reapers. They cost a great deal, and amount to nothing.
The decision at one trial is reversed the next week at another, perhaps with
the same machines, and often the competitors can show their defeat was
owing to some extraneous circumstance, as not having a suitable team, bad
driving, or unfortunate management in some way.

A reaper-trial is not like a horse-race, where the sole object is to beat,
regardless of every thing except,the coming out ahead ; it is, or ought to be,
to ascertain surely which is the best machine, and not so much to benefit the
owner as the farmers, who wish to know what kind to buy.

How absurd is it for any set of men — I care not how great their experi-
ence and judgment — to take from three to a dozen reapei-s, perhaps all of
acknowledged merit, and by the cutting of two acres each, as was done at the
Wooster, Ohio, trial, where mine was defeated ; or even by cutting five or six
acres, as at the Richmond, Indiana, trial, where mine was victor, decide posi-
tively and absolutely that one reaper is better than all others.

Such a trial might show whether a reaper would work or not, but to judge
between rival reapers, of which there are over twenty of established reputation,
each having its points of excellence, a long and thorough trial must be
requisite, to see how they work in different kinds of grain, and under varied
circumstances, and how they wear. A trial, to be decisive, should go through
an entire harvest. One, too, that was thorough and reliable, would be equally
available in one State as another. They are also expensive to all concerned.
I would therefore propose a general trial on something like the following
plan :

Let several State Agricultural Societies unite, each appropriating -^200 to
$500, and appointing one or two committee-men, in whose experience, judg-
ment, and fairness, entire confidence could be placed. Let the committee
make their arrangements early as possible, adopt their rules, and appoint
tim^ and place of first meeting. They might begin South, and proceeding

550 CONCRETE CELLAR BOTTOMS,

North, continue the trial for weeks if necessary, leaving out one machine after
another as its inferiority became manifest.

The committee should have all their expenses paid, and perhaps compen-
sation besides ; and the cost of removing reapers from place to place might
also be borne by the committee, in order to enable every builder to come
into the trial ; and for this reason I would not require any entrance-fee, though
some of the larger builders would doubtless be willing to contribute to the
general fund. If five or more societies can be got to unite in such a trial, I
will contribute $200 to $500, or as much as any other builder.

The surplus funds should be divided to the best machines, say half to the
first, one third to the second, and one sixth to the third, to be paid in plate
or money as might be desired by the winner.

To save time an(f expedite arrangements, I would suggest to parties inter-
ested, to correspond with Col. B.P.Johnson, Secretary New-York State
Agricultural Society, Albany, N. Y. 1 have not communicated with him,
but am quite sure his interest in agricultural matters will cause him to bear
the labors with cheerfulness.

Yours respectfully, J. S. Wright.

Chicago,' Feb. 1, 1854.

CONCRETE CELLAR BOTTOMS. '

The facility and cheapness with which the bottoms of cellars may be made
clean, sweet, and impervious to water, is generally but little known to house-
owners ; nor the ease and certainty with which water may be excluded from
cellars where it is difficult to drain.

In soft and pervious soils, this process is best performed by paving with
small stones, laid in sand ; but in common, cgmpact soils, the natural surface,
well levelled, will answer all purposes. Make a thin mortar with water, lime,
and coarse sand, of the consistency called grout, or so thick that it can be
poured from a pail on the ground. Commence with a portion of about eight
or ten feet at one end, and throw on sufficient to cover it an inch or more
thick, and with a scaper, or rake-head, spread it evenly and smooth ; then
throw on as much clean, coarse gravel as it will absorb, and so ctmtinue until
it is finished. In twelve hours, or as soon as it has set, sweep the overplus
gravel evenly over the surface, and ramp it down with a short plank and a
pounder, until it is smooth and compact, and in a few days of good weather,
it will become like a solid rock. It assists its durability and firmness, to give
it several good dashes of water after it is dry.

To render the sides impervious to water, where drainage is difficult or
costly, requires that the wall should be laid with mortar originally ; and at
the time of constructing the bottom, a good, well-proportioned water-lime
mortar should be plastered on, a little higher than the source of water, and
well and firmly slicked down when about half dry, and followed by another
coat of the same ; when, if a proper time intervenes before there is any out-
ward pressure of water, it becomes tight as a barrel or tub ; is always sweet,
clean, and cool, and no vermin can enter or find lodgment.

The sand used in the grout and mortar should be coarse, clean, and sharp,
and the gravel from the size of walnuts down to coarse sand. — Rural New-
Yorker.

COMMUNICATION BY HIGHWAYS. 551

IMPROVEMENTS IN COMMUNICATION BY HIGHWAYS.

BY ZERAH COLBURK.

The necessities of business and social intercourse have created various
means of communication. Upon the land, railroads, highways, and canals
for matter, and the telegraph for thought, are among the facilities in our
reach. Railroads afford the most expeditious, and at their working velotial
capacity, the most economical application of locomotive power. Railroads,
however, require a concentration of business for their creation and support;
they are the product of society, and not of the individual. They are in all
cases the trunks of which common highways are the branches, and so long
as railroads are used, so long will highways be occupied in both the primary
and the ultimate stages of transportation. However important the movement
effected upon the railroad, it can be only intermediate, the traffic being sup-
plied and distributed by the common highway. Railroads may occupy the
route, and supplant the business of coincident highways, but lateral roads
will be built, of an extent more than sufficient to restore the relation previous-
ly existing.

The engrossing interests of our railways almost preclude a calm compari-
son between them and the ordinary carriage-roads of our country ; but so
soon as we perceive the principle by which the latter must always exceed in
extent the former, we cannot fail to be impressed with the importance of any
improvement, having fer its object the application of the most efficient and
economical power on highways.

We must look upon the railway and the highway systems of the country
as mutually dependent ; neither can supplant the other.

The object of the railway and of the highway is the same — to facilitate car-
riage. The former, requiring greater economy to develop its value, has been
made operable by inanimate power. The latter is still worked in the most
primitive manner. There has been no important application of industry, or
process of production, in which the service of inanimate power has not
been been sought. Travelling by highway remains, however, essentially the
same as at the invention of carriages. Animals still furnish the locomotive
power. Without regard to the purpose of its ajyplication, the quality of
power sought in modern times is in all other cases inanimate ; involving less
first cost, less subsequent depreciation and expense of maintenance ; being
more efficient, more controllable, less in opposition to the impulses of human-
ity, and affording employment to a higher grade of labor.

We must therefore apply steam-power to common roads, not that such
application of poweV is as economical as upon a railroad, it being but about
one eighth as efficient at the best, but that common roads must exist by the
very existence of railroads ; and that they must also be worked tuith some
power, and that steam-power is better, for every reason, than any other.

There were many reasons which prevented the adoption of the early steam-
carriages. The motive for the use of steam-carriages was different then from
•what it would be now. The contest was then between the railroad, operated
by horse or stationary engine-power, and the highway, operated by steam-
power. The steam-carriage had been tried, well matured, and had become
successful, when modern railroad locomotives existed only as a suggestion.
The fortunate idea which afterward determined the application of steam to

552 COMMUmCATION BY HIGHWAYS.

the railway, and the gigantic enterprise offered in its development, the latter
not yet completed, arrested at once all further eftbrts in the introduction of
steam upon highways. The results given by the use of steam on railways
induced a belief that such was soon to be the universal means of locomotion
upon the land. The necessary relation between the two systems was forgot-
ten. The engineering energy and financial patronage of the country sought
only one channel.

There were other reasons which kept steam-carriages from general use.
While the locomotive was provided with its appropriate track, the one being
made expressly for the other, the steam-carriage could only run upon the
public thoroughfares, already occupied by the ordinary means of conveyance,
and in the success of which the proprietors of turnpikes were immediately
interested. Hence prohibitory tolls were imposed upon the intrusive steam-
ers, and it soon became a question with their owners, not if they would i)rove
practicable, but if they would become profitable. The influence opposed to
them soon settled that point, and established the fact, not that they could
not, but that they should not pay.

We have already said that steam-carriages proved successful as a mechani-
cal application. While the question was debating, whether steam-locomo-
tives or stationary engines should be adopted for the Liverpool and Manches-
ter railroad, (the pioneer in English railroad enterprise,) there had been built
a large number of steam-carriages; and by the time the "Rocket" had
proved its capacity for speed at twenty-two miles per hour, on the railroad,
steam had been used on common roads at speeds of thirty'viiles per hour.
In 1829, Goldsworthy Gurney had gone from London to Bath with his
steam-carriage, and in returning made a distance of 84 miles, including sev-
eral stops, in ten hours. He afterward made from twenty to thirty miles
per hour, while Summers & Ogle's carriage, built soon after, was run over
portions of the distance between London and Southampton at a speed of
from thirty-two to thirty-five miles per hour.

Li the third volume of the Executive Documents of the 22d Congress is
given a reprint of the evidence upon steam-carriages, given in to a select
committee of the British House of Commons, and first published Oct. 12th,
1831. Most of the inventors and proprietors of steam-carriages were exam-
ined before this committee, in the summer of 1831, besides a number of
prominent engineers, whose opinions were asked as to the ultimate value of
such modes of conveyances, and especially as to their eftect upon highways.

Not wishing to base any estimation of what may yet be done upon the
achievements of a period so long passed, we should not have alluded to this
document in any terms, but for the foct that it contains reliable information
upon the point, important to succeeding experimentalists, and such as is not
generally accessible.

At the time of the examination by the select committee, Gurney, Hancock,
Summers, and Ogle, and James Stone, the latter now of New- York city, had
operated steam-carriages upon highways. All of these men contended
against the greatest of difficulties. Discriminating and burdensome tolls had
been placed by the turnpike proprietors uj)on the passage of all steam-car-
riages, a disposition being evinced to obstruct their success; while a wide
misap[)rehension existed as to their effect on roads. To these were added
the great expense of such trials, undertaken by men looking solely to their
own interests, and who were not theorists, attempting the perfection uf inge-
nious models. And what was worse, tlie absence of those guides which
experience had given to other branches of engineering, was an ever-present

VALVE MOTION. 553

difficulty, requiring repeated and costly trials for the determination of each
proportion and arrangement.

The results elicited were, that carriages of from 53 to 80 cwt. had been
built ; that each 10 cwt. was equal to one-horse power, while in some cases
with better arrangement and construction, 5 cwt. yielded the same power'
that the boilers were safe from explosion, the machinery safe from fracture'
the engine not liable- to frighten horses, being free from smoke, and having
no escaping steam. That a speed of ten to twelve miles per hour was an
ordinary performance, while Summers & Ogle's carriage had gone at a slow
speed, up a hill of 1 in 6, and 24| miles per hour, loaded with passengers,
over the London road. The same engine had gone, with 19 passengers, up
a hill of 1 in 12, at 15 miles per hour. It had gone 4| consecutive miles on
a level, in 9 minutes, or at thirty miles an hour.

These engines could be stopped when going at eight miles an hour, within
21 feet. Hancock's carriage could turn around, on the inner circle of only 4
feet diameter, or could turn from one street to another at right angles, and
each of ten feet width, at six miles per hour.

It was proved that there was no slij^ping of the wheels at 22 miles an
hour.

McNeil, McAdam, and Telford, all eminent road-engineers, agreed that
the wear produced by horses' feet was much greater than that by the wheels
of wagons. One estimate of the proportionate wear by wheels and horses'
feet was 1 to 3 on common roads, aqd 1 to 7 on the London pavements.

With such results actually attained during periods of several months, and
in some cases for one to two years, there could be no doubt of the practicability
of steam-carriages. As to their economy, it was estimated that they could
save two fifths in first cost, and in wear and tear over hoi-ses doing the same
work, and five fifths of the expense of feed and attendance.

Independent of these results, which have been given merely to replace
them on record, the question of the adaptation of steam to good common
roads, appears of easy solution.

The power that usurps the place of animals in mills, in mines, and on
railroads, ought to do so with the same economy on common roads. The
crowded streets of our cities give the best test of such a plan. The objections to
tracks, being very serious where these are laid through streets occupied by
carriages of nearly all kinds, and the bulk, danger, noise, and expense of horse
omnibuses, would be essentially reduced by the substitution of a good sys-
tem of steam-carriages.

[The foregoing is taken from the R. R. Journal, and is followed by a
commendation of Mr. Fisher's steam-carriage, which was described in our last
number, and on which another article will be found in another pa^e —
Eds.] ^ ^

Vai.ve Motion.— T. Goodrun, of Providence, R. I., has applied for a patent
upon an improvement in the arrangement and mode of operating the valves
of steam-engines, which consists in regulating the admission of steam to the
cylinder by means of rotary tubular valves placed in the cylinder-heads, and
receiving a constant rotary motion, and in exhausting the steam from the
cylinder through ports in the cylinder-heads, furnished with puppet-valves
opening inward, these valves being so connected that when one is opened
the other is closed, they being operated by the piston, which opens the one
and closes the other at each end of its stroke.

554 AUSTRIAN SALT-MINES.

AUSTRIAN SALT-MINES.

Putnam's Monthly, for February, contains a description of a visit to a salt-
mine in Austria. It may be taken as a sample of the mining of Central
Europe. The author, having been robed in a miner's dress of white duck,
and having taken the precaution to guard his right hand with a thick mitten,
and his head with a well-wadded cap, commences his subterranean explora-
tion.

The first process was to walk through a long, narrow, dark, cool passage-
way, gently descending for three thousand feet, into the mountain's heart.
As the workmen passed me on their way to dinner, we had to make the best
of our poor candle-light to get by one another in the confined path, and each
said, "laub," a hasty contraction for the German, "with your leave, sir."
And now came the curiosity of this underground journey. The gently
sloping path, sustained by boards and beams, and just wide and high enough
for one beef-eating Englishman at a time, made a sudden dip, and the guide
threw himself down, and made me do the same ; slipped his right leg over
a smooth, wooden rail, and grasped with his right hand a cable supported on
roUere ; and thus we slid down as fast or slow as we pleased, a depth of one
hundred and forty feet at an angle of forty-one degrees. It was not very
funny to see your only dependence in human shape sinking out of your sight
into the bowels of the earth ; but I found the exercise delicious, and would
recommend it to all good people who have mines to exhibit or sunken caves
to explore, as certain to bestow upon them an unprecedented popularity.

This was succeeded by another gallery-walk, then a second descending
shaft — again a nearly horizontal footpath, followed by a third " coast" down-
wards— and so on, the longest walk being the first of about three thousand
feet, and the greatest descent at one time falling short of two hundred feet.
In no part was the air unpleasant ; the greater coolness was compensated by
the constant exercise and the thick miner's dress. Several times we came
upon large chambers, which showed with no brilliancy, as our poor candles
made their darkness visible, because the saltspar is mixed up with large
masses of earth, though some fine crystals are shovm at a little museum, in
the centre of the mountain. After this succession of similar passages had
begun to be monotonous, a number of little lights began to spring up all
around me, as if in fairy land ; and the guide to a flat boat, which an invisi-
ble Charon set in motion at once across this lake of salt, over three hundred
feet in length. Here was the secret of secrets. A chamber is excavated,
wooden pipes are led to it and from it, the first of which brings the fresh
water from mountain springs which gradually impregnates itself with strong
brine : then after a period of months the lower pipes are opened, and the
manufactured little ocean runs off to some place where wood is plenty, where
I had already seen it at a distance of thirty miles, boiling down into a beau-
tiful, pearly-white article for commerce. I was not a little perplexed at first,
and I find other travelers have come away without ascertaining how the salt
was procured, by not seeing the whole process going on at once, and from
supposing that this pond was made by nature, and had no special concern
with the government manufacture. But, as fast as this lake is formed and
the fresh water dissolving the salt and separating it from the clay, another is
prepared, where the mineral is thought to be more abundant; and only the
worihlefcs earth is seen in process of removal in little carts, while the precious

AUSTRIAN SALT-MINES. 555

Bait carries itself out silently and away from observation, in hollowed trunks
of trees. The great care is to prevent the earth from falling in upon the
workmen and crushing them, as has been the case repeatedly ; but the most
surprising puzzle to an uninitiated observer is, why, in the process of six
months or a year, this water does not run off through some natural outlet,
by dissolving the salt in its way. These ponds must sometimes lie very near
together, and directly above one another ; besides, as their roofs are entirely
flat, frequently destitute of artificial support, and what rock there is crumbles
to the touch, we might expect these wide sheets of water would break through.
Accidents, however, are rare, though there are sometimes forty excavations
in a single mountain.

How parties of pleasure feel in crossing over this deathlike lake at such a
funereal pace, with not a sound to break the oppressive stillness, and rarely a
single crystal reflecting the feeble twinkle of the illumination for which you
have paid, I cannot say ; but, to a lone voyager like myself, it was one of the
most solemn moments of life ; darkness seemed to rest like a tombstone
upon me ; none but fearful images filled my visions ; the repose of my body
added to the gloom of my mind ; and it was a blessed relief when I could
use my own limbs on what seemed solid earth again.

Still other slides came, one at an angle of fifty degrees, and one, the
longest in all the works, of four hundred and sixty-eight feet. This brought
me as far down as the four miles of winding road had carried me up ; but,
as there was none of its sudden changes of view, no wild forest, merry
mountain-stream, knot of cherry-faced peasant-girls, laughter of happy child-
hood to " cheer the toil and cheer the way," I may be pardoned for wishing
myself out.

But now came a new vehicle. I stood alone in the very heart of this
mountain of limestone, gypsum, and marl, when two wild boys mounted me
between them upon a wooden horse, on a rude enough wooden railway, and,
in a moment, my steeds began to show their metal, and I was run through
a passage of a mile tunnelled in the solid stone ; once only the ragged colts
paused to take breath, and to let me admire the light from the mouth, which
seemed nothing else than a bright blue star. Very soon genuine daylight
came to^'our relief; and but slightly wearied, I bounded from the cavern
mouth to take the Eilwagen on its return to Salzburg.

I learned a little more of the salt trade in Austria. It is a government
affair, and six thousand men are said to be employed, some in preparing the
rock crystal for the market, some in boiling or evaporating the sea water, and
more in connection with mines hke the Durnberg. The men did not seem
very healthy, and one part of the process must often cause the sacrifice of
life. At Ebensee, I found them boiling down the water brought from Hal-
lein in thirty miles of pipes, and I learnt that whenever the iron vat leaks, a
workman is obliged to wade through the boiling liquid to the injured place
upon a kind of stilts ; if his feet should slip, he would certainly boil to death,
and if not of strong lungs, he is likely to stifle, a horrible fate either way.
For more than a week, these fires are continued day and night, eating sadly
into the forest, the salt being removed as fast as it is crystallized, and fresh
brine poured in. Then the fire is extinguished, the pan, which is a foot deep
and sixty round, thoroughly retinkered, the calcareous crust which adheres
to the bottoti) and sides broken off, and poor plates replaced by new.

556 THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

THE GREAT EXHIBITION.

SixcE the matter for our last number w;is prepared, the various jurors and
judges have made their several examinations, and have pronounced tUoir de-
cisions. Medals have been awarded or denied, " honorable mention " has
been made or declined, and the hopes of some have become fruition, and the
fears of others have proved to have been well-founded. Nor would it be
strange if injustice should be, to some extent, the result. In justice to all
concerned, it is not, perhaps, too much to say that it is better to have jurymen
thoroughly familiar with the several matters on which they are to decide, than
those who are not specially practised in the business which they are to judge,
although they are very respectable, very honorable men. " Perhaps you
may sometimes be placed in the same position," was the remark of one to an
unsuccessful exhibitor, who found fault with his decision. And when asked
for an explanation of his language, he replied, " You may be called to judge
on a subject on which you are not informed." For one, we should not vo-
luntarily place ourself, nor allow others to place us, in such a position, and
we should regret to see others less cautious than we would be on that
point. It would also have been wise not to have allowed a single instance
in which one that could be called a rival in the market, even though he was
not a competitor within the Crystal Palace, to have been upon any of the
juries. We believe, however, that as much caution was used on all import-
ant points connected with this matter, as the nature of the case would admit.

The several degrees of honor are represented by a silver medal, bronze
medal with especial mention, and a bronze medal. The gold medal, so
common in the more important contests for distinction, was entirely omitted.
This may have been wise, but it unhappily admits of a less " honorable men-
tion." To invite artists to cross the Atlantic, and some of them the Mediter-
ranean besides, and at the best for a silver medal, is presenting rather
a small inducement, at least for a very expensive kind of exhibition, or one
liable to serious damage. Perhaps, however, the dissatisfaction, if any exists,
will be only momentary. The "honorable mention," if it be of light value,
is certainly bestowed with a heavy hand. According to an exchange, (for
we have not counted them,) the whole number of silver medals is IIC ; of
bronze medals, 1168 ; with 1210 instances of "honorable mention." Ameri-
can exhibitors receive most of these awards ; though 35 silver medals were
awarded to foreign artists. Out of 25 silver medals awarded to machinery,
our own artists receive 24.

" In the departments of agricultural products and implements, naval archi-
tecture, textile fabrics, ladies' garments, shirts, &c., and India-rubber materials,
our own country absorbs all the honors of the silver medal." We fear our
juries, in this, have not been just to "our trans-atlantic neighbors." They
surely exhibited some very beautiful goods.

invalid's locomotive chaie.

Among the articles designed to promote the comfort of the sick and dis-
abled, is an invalid's chair, patented by Thos. S. Minniss, Meadville, Pa. An
engraving of it is annexed.

It is so arranged, that it is set in motion and guided by the handle which
is attached to a crank on the wheel. When the chair is to be drawn by
others, the position and arrangement of the crank can be instantly adapted

STEAM CARRIAGES.

557

to such use, or the chair maybe pushed by another person, while it is guided
with the handle of the crank by the invalid. In its construction it is light,
compact, and durable, and in a cheap form is offered at $20. Tha uphol-

sterer can add whatever amount of expense may be desired, at the order of
Ihe purchaser.

Messrs. J. L. and D. J. Riker, 96 Suffolk street, are the agents in this city.

STEAil CARRIAGES.

The Scientific American affects to be surprised that, " in these days of
railways and cheap locomotion," several of its cotemporaries should advocate
steam -carriages for common roads.- It admits, however, that before railways
were invented, there might have been a show of reason for them. And, as wo
find in that jom-nal, (in 1848, we believe) an engraving and description of
Gurney's steam- carriage, and a recommendation of it for piank-roads, we pre-
sume that down to that date it will not deny that there was some plausibility
in the project. But since Mr. J. K. Fisher has proposed to build a carriage,
and has failed to pay this journal the necessary cost for publishing a descrip-
tion of it, the case seems to have changed ; and it has undertaken to prove,
by instancing the failure of some steam-carriages — Gordon's improvement on
Gurney's — that no steam-carriagts can successfully compete with horses. It
is unfortunate that no such carriages were ever built at all. But had they
been built, and failed as stated, it could have proved nothing; for we have
proof that Gurney's, Ogle's, Hancock's, Macrone's, and Russell's carriages were
brilhantly successful ; that they ran at 16 to 20 miles an hour when loaded ;
and that they would have worked with profit had they not been subjected to
prohibitory tolls, to such obstructions upon the roads as stopped horse-car-
riages, and to the action of magistrates, who were compelled to enforce
unjust laws against them.

If this journal supposes that railways ever will supersede common roads,.
and go to every house, it may preserve a logical consistency ; but if common
roads are to be used at all, then the cheapness of locomotion, which is due
partly to steam, is in favor of steam-carriages. And as the cost of light
engines, since the practise in locomotive-building, is about half what it was

VOK VL — PART II. 12

^68 THE IRON" MANUFACTURE.

before, while the woik is in;ich improved in quality, the advantage must be
greater tli;m it could have been before " these days of railways and cheap
locomotion."

Gurney, Forey, Gordon, and other ad\'ocatos of this system, estimated the
cost of steam-power from a fifth to a third of that of horse-power, in 1831. And
a committee of the House of Commons reported unanimously that they
would " become a speedier and cheaper means of conveyance than carriages
drawn by horses ;" and that they v/ould injure roads much less than horses.
At the present time their economy must be greater in proportion to the
improvements in machinery.

The courr.e pursued by the Scientific American upon this subject has, at
least, to those an interest too much the appearance of that of a paper which
expects a direct pecuniary benefit as a necessary preparation to a favorable
notice in their columns. This seems the most obvious explanatiou for their
distorted statements of facts on this subject.

SECOND ANNUAL MEETING OF THE UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL

SOCIETY.

This important meeting was held at Washington, commencing on the 22d
of February, and continuing several days. Able addresses and discussions
were delivered, but too late for our present issue. AVe shall give their pro-
ceedings careful attention in our next number. The weather at its opening
was very unfavorable, and the roads were blocked with snow ; but the at-
tendance was highly respectable.

THE IRON MANUFACTURE.

Iron is seldom found unalloyed in its native state, though such specimens
sometimes occur. In Canaan, Ct, is a vein, two inches thick, which is suffi-
ciently malleable to bo made into nails by a blacksmith. Similar veins have
been found in Europe.

Iron is, however, obtained for commerce from the ores or oxides, and the
more common forms of it are the magnetic oxide, the peroxide, and brown
oxide, and in the form of a carbonate.

The magnetic black oxide occurs over large parts of the Eastern continent,
and in this country, and to a moderate extent in England. On the New-
York side of Lake Champlain, in Peru, and in other township:^, it is found in
great quantities, and of very fine quality. We have seen !<pecimens that
contained 80 per cent, of iron. It also occurs at other places, as at Bridge-
water, Vt. ; Franconia, N. H., &c. The mines more recently opened in Mis-
souri are of this class.

This oxide is found in connection with gneiss, hornblende, greenstone,
limestone, epidoto, garnet, <fec. It is not found among the more recent de-
posits. The locality near Lake Champlain is exceedingly rich in the variety
of its minerals. It is strongly attracted by the magnet, and itself possesses
magnetic power. The form of its crystals is octahedron.

The peroxide is called the red oxide, and also specular iron. It has no
magnetie power. By heating it highly, it is reduced to a magnetic OJcide.
It contains from YO per cent, of iron to a much smaller proportion.

THE IKOX MANUFACTURE. 66$

This oxide is often used as a paint, after uudergoing the process of calci-
nation. It forms a red-brown, a Spanish or Indian brown. The houses of
the peasantry in Northern Europe are usually painted with it.

This oxide occurs extensively in Northern and Western Europe, and in
this country. An inferior quality of it exists extensively in the Pittsburgh
coal-fields, and it is also found in Ohio, in Massachusetts, and Western New-
York. It is often found in nodular forms in beds of clay, and gives color to
all our deposits of red clay. Specular iron sometimes occurs in crystals, in
the craters of volcanoes.

The brown oxide of iron, familiarly known as hematite, is also the hy-
drated oxide, as it contains a large admixture with water. It never contains
more than about 59 per cent, of iron.

Hematite is not magnetic, but becomes so by roasting. When calcined,
it yields a red powder. It is found in various forms, as globular, mammillary,
reniform, stalactitic. It is abundant in every part of the globe, and in almost
all geological connections. The principal beds of it in this country are in
Pennsylvania, where are found its richest varieties. In Kentucky, Tennessee,
and Alabama also, are inexhaustible quantities. Mines of it occur in most
of the New-England States. " It furnishes excellent material for the blast
furnace, yields cheap pijj-raetal, and of all classes of ore is the most suitable
for improvement in the forge, as well in the charcoal forge, as in the puddling
furnace."

The carbonate of iron occurs in various localities in this country, and in
Europe. Some of the best of iron and steel is manufactured from it. In
Austria, most of their iron is from this ore, and the "German steel" is one of
its products. In England and Scotland, the compact varieties of the carbon-
ate is their principal* ore ; and it occurs extensively in Pennsylvania, Mary-
land, Virginia, Ohio, North Carolina, Kentucky, and Illinois. The spathic
iron ore, the variety of which occurs in Austria and Germany, is also found
in considerable quantities in Plymouth, Yt., and is used there in the manu-
facture of iron. It is sometimes called native steel. It seldom contains
more than 30 per cent, of iron, often not more than 25.

The affinity of metals for oxygen is very strong, with the exception of gold,
silver, platinum, and iridium. Hence, these are called Royal metals. Simple
exposure to the atmosphere or to moisture will lead to a speedy oxidation.
This, in foot, is the process used in the manufacture of some of the oxides.
Thus, " white lead," which is the white oxide of lead, is obtained by exposing
plates or sheets of the pure metal to air and moisture.

On the other hand, it is the business of the metallurgist, the manufacturei*
of metals, to separate the pure metal fron) its oxygen, and from all oihev
substances. This is the business of the iron maker.

The manner in which this is to be done depends upon the nature of the
foreign substances mingled or combined with it, and the degree of its oxida-
tion. The strength of affinity varies with the number of difierent elements
in combination.

The processes for accomplishing tho object thus set forth are two-fold :

If A and B are combined, and A is to be preserved by itself, they may be
separated by presenting a third, which will draw away B, and combine with
it, or in some instances, it may be done by applying heat.

Now, it is well known that carbon and oxygen have a very strong affinity
for each other, and if carbon is presented to many oxides under favorable cir-
cumstances, the oxygen will unite with it, forming carbonic acid, while the
metal will be left in a pure form. Some of the metallic oxides are thos ee

560

THE IRON MANUFACTURE.

parated by heat alone. Gold is one of these, and so are platinura, iridium,
palladium, <fec. The oxides of iron are separated by a powerful heal.

But sometimes, and usually, other foreign substances are minsjled with the
oxide of iron, such as phosphorus, sulphur, and other metals. Hence, differ-
ent processes are required, under different circumstances, as already stated.
Our next object will be to state these processes, in a very general manner.

Let us premise, however, that certain terms are used in the arts, whicb^
however common, have a technical meaning. Thus, in this art, we have a
process called roasting, by which is meant the application of heat. But this
is done in various ways, in a furnace, under a direct and powerful heat, or in
large heaps "in the open air," and not unlike a brick-kiln in principle, or a
pile of wood ready for cliarring.

Furnaces are arranged especially for roasting, and the front section of one-
is given above. There are different forms of "these ovens, but they may be
reduced to two, the blast-furnace and the lirae-kiln, and they work either
perpetually or by charges. "We are able to present but this single form, and
for this and the other illustrations of this subject, we are indebted to our
very obliging friend, Mr. W. White Smith, of Philadelphia.

The furnace is always liable to chill, that is, the iron clinkers suddenly cool

THE IRON MANUFACTURE.

'561

near the tip or raouth-liole, impairing the draft and choking it up, in which

event the whole interior work
l.^^'^^-KJ ™."st often be taken out and re-
aid. To prevent this, the fur-
nace should be filled regularly;
the quantity of ore just filling
the furnace. To secure this, a
charge measure is often used,
constructed of two half-inch
round bars so connected that
one bar sinks into the furnace
while the other serves as a han-
dle ; b forming the handle, c the

measure, and a the iron plate which prevents the sinking of the rod into the

materials.

. -^s already suggested, divers kinds of furnaces are employed in the reduc-
tion of ores, and various kinds of fuel are employed, of which we may treat
separately hereafter. Also the various /ware^ which are used to expedite.
^ The figure on the margin represents a section of a blast furnace in opera-
tion, filled with coal, ore, and fluxes. If we introduce at the tuyere holes, a a,

a current of air, or blast, combustion in
the lower part will ensue, and carbonic
acid will be its product. But if there is
an excess of fuel, and a limited supply
of air, the result will be carbonic oxide.
In its progress through the coal, the car-
bonic acid combines with more carbon,
and is reduced to a carbonic oxide. Car-
bonic acid is of no use in reviving iron
from the ore, for the ore is iron and oxy-
gen, and the acid cannot combine with
an additional quantity of oxygen, and
cannot, therefore, .abstract any amount
of oxygen from the ore. But carbonic
oxide will combine with oxygen, with
which it comes in contact within the fur-
nace. The principle which governs the
construction and management of this
furnace, therefore, is so to arrange the
fuel and the draft, as to secure the great-
est possible combination of the product
of combustion with the oxygen of the
ore. If all the oxygen is thus abstracted,
the ore, as it descends, will become me-
tallic iron and foreign matter.
As we do not write this for the practical worker in iron, but for the gene-
ral reader, it is unnecessary to go further into this subject by pointing out
the difference })eiwoen white iron and gray iron, &c., but we merely add that
the b a&t works both chemically and mechanically in the destruction of coal,
and that a certain power of blast will produce particles of a size best calcu-
lated to penetrate the pores of the ore. If the metal is liquid, it is difficult
-to separate the carbon from it, and to secure a combination of carbon with it.
We shall pursue this subject in our next number.

562 CHOICE OF BROOD MAKES.

AMERICAN CtAS COMPANY.

This Company is now ready to receive orders for its newlv-invented appa-
ratus for burning atmospheric air ; rendered luminous by the Benzole mixture.
They have devised a beautiful machine, wiiich combines all the desirable
points of beinfir simple, easily kept in order, portable, cheap, and convenient
for U6e. But their orders now are far more numerous than their manufac-
turers can meet. Hence, early application is highly desirable. The cost of
an entire apparatus that will feed ei^rht argand lights, or their equivalent of
some twenty live fan-lights, will be within fifty dollars, exclusive of distribut-
ing pipes; and the small p.-rlable machines, for half a doaen lights, con-
siderably less. We shall be happy to transact any business of this descrip-
tion for our subscribers.

ON THE CHOICE" OF BROOD-MARES.

One of the most important elements of success is the choice of brood-
mares. Never breed from a mare which is not well bred. By well bred, I
do not mean having many crosses of blood ; for many mares, nearly and
even quite thoroushbrod, are very undesirable animals to breed from. A
well-bred mare, in the true sense of the word, is one of which the progeni-
tors, for many gt^nerations back, have been carefully selected. In this respect,
Yorkshire breeders poss( ss a considerable advantage over those who reside in
districts where breedmg is less exten.sively carried on. In the former coun-
try, it is easy for a farmer, even of moderate means, to procure mares which
are above the susj)ic'ion of being tainted with cart-blond. Owing to the
abundance both of thoroughbred and " nag"* stallions, a roadster mare is
seldom or never put to a horse of inferior stamp to herself. Thus, with little
or no trouble or cost, a class of mares is in the bands of Yorkshire farmers,
which elsewhere it would require much expense and research to gain. With
but little of outward show to recommend them, they breed excellent hunters,
when put to a suitable thoroughbred horse ; whereas, mares of similar ap-
pearance in other countries would only produce stock fit for harness, if, in-
deed, they were good for any thing. The' reason is, that in the latter case
ihe cart or other inftirior crosses would reappear, and thus baffle the calcula-
tions of the breeders.

Perhaps mar( s such as the Yorkshire farmers use are, on the whole, the
safest for the agriculturist to breed from. Although not so high bred as
some others, they are less expensive to purchase, and require less judgment
in their choice than those of a more ambitious character. They possess one
recommendation which the farmer should never lose sight of — I mean power.
Let his object be to produce a colt, which, if it fails as a hunter, will be use-
ful in harness ; or, if some accident should unfit him for fast work, will at
any rate take his share of work on the farm. I know no better test of suc-
cess than this, namely, that the colt which loses a portion of its conventional
value, should yet retain its real usefulness. Alwa3's make strong, well-set-on
fore-leg-s a primary object. They should be placed forward, so as to be an
efficient support to the animal ; and the shoulder ought to stand backward,

* A "nag" is a roadster. He is less in siza than a coach-horse, and better bred.

CHOICE OF BROOD MARES. 56S

m order to allow the legs liberty of action ; but it must bo somewhat round
and full, not thin and confined, which some persons conceive to be a fine
shoulder. Never breed from either mare or stallion with a decidedly bad
shoulder. An animal may dispense with almost every other point of excel-
lence, and yet be of some value ; but if it has a bad shoulder, it bears so
thoroughly the stamp of worthlessness, that nothing else can make amends
for this fundamental malformation. If your mare is tolerable in her shoulders,
but not very good, endeavor to find a stallion which is particularly excellent in
this respect. The fore-legs and shoulders being right, action usually follows.
But this being a very important point, do not take it for granted, but subject
it to your strictest scrutiny. For my o'^ part, I almost think as highly of
action in a horse, as Demosthenes did of it in reference to an orator ; at any
rate, not even the most fabulous combination of beauty, breeding, temper,
and shape would induce me to buy a horse which did not possess it.

The foot ought to be taken up straight, by a graceful bend of tiie knee,
and set down again flat, without any deviation either outwards or inwards.
The most common faults of action are a sort of shovelling movement for-
ward, with the knees almost straight, and a sideways motion, either out-
ward or inward, with one or both feet. But it is quite possible for the knee
to be too much bent, and the foot to be apparently pushed backwards when
taken up, instead of forward, thus causing it to be set down too near the
place whence it was raised. Objectionable, however, as such stand-still ac-
tion may be in a hack, I should prefer it in a brood-mare to the opposite
defect.

The great reason why action in the mare is so essential is, that she having
the roadster blood, ought to supply it; whereas, it is not always possible to
find it in a stallion ; it is, indeed, very rare to see a thoroughbred horse whose
action is such as would be desirable in the park hack, the roadster, or the
hunter. The racing man cares not, provided his horse's head is first seen at
the winning-post, in what form he moves his fore-legs. The qualities which
win fame for the racer are speed, endurance, and pluck. The conformation
most conducive to speed depends more on the back, loins, and hind-legs, than
on the fore-legs ; it is therefore by no means uncommon to find horses, whose
performances on the turf have been above mediocrity, with fore legs such as
would not wear for three months on the road, and with action such as no
man wowld willingly endure in his hack or his hunter. Thoroughbred horses,
with every point such as the breeder would desire, combining power and
beauty, equally excellent in their fore-legs, their ribs, and their hind-legs, are
not to be met with in every neighborhood, and even when found, will seldom
cover half-bred mares at all, and then only at exorbitant prices. These are
the magnates of the stud which will not condescend to mates of descent less
illustrious than their own. If, then, you cannot secure their services, you
must avail yourself of the best within your reach. Supposing your mare
has the fore-legs of the action which I have recommended, you may safely
put her to a horse which has tolerable fore-legs, provided he is in general
power, in pedigree, and in performance such as you desire. I mentioned in
a former letter that I once put some mares of my own to " Tomboy ;" his
fore-legs were by no means first-rate, and his front action was decidedly
scrambling and bad ; but ray mares being excellent in both these points,
their stock showed no traces there of their sire's deficiency. To breed colts
with bad fore-legs and insufficient bone, is to encumber your land Avith stock
neither useful nor salable. With mares of first-rate excellence in that re-
spect, you greatly extend the range of stallions which it is safe to put to them.

564 CHOICE OF BROOD MARES.

I shall not enlarge upon other points of the mare in detail, for the reasoH
that their selection may in general be left to the discretion of the breeder ;
and also, because there are many of them which in practice will be more
frequently supplied by the horse than the mare. I must say, however, that
I should not like to" breed from a mare with a bad head or a small eye.
Natural soundness, especially in the feet, is very important, and^ so is good
temper. With mares, as with cows and ewes, there is a certain character
difficult to describe, but which the experienced breeder knows by instinct, as
belonging to those likely to produce good stock. It is not the largest or the
most sho'wy, but those which have a certain refinement of form, and a grace-
fulness of outline, (which are aschargpteristic of the well-bred female as power
and muscle are of the male,) which will most faithfully reflect in their off-
spring their own merits, and those of its sire. Many a large, showy mare,
on the contrary, will be provokingly uncertain in her produce ; one year
bringing a foal as much undersize as next year it is overgrown. Such a mare
ought to be discarded as soon as possible.

By observing the course which I have recommended, farmers who exercise
ordinary judgnient will make as safe an investment as they would in the
breeding of any other kind of stock. Their colts will make either hunters,
oarriage'-horses,' or hacks of a useful and powerful kind.

There is a class of mares much higher than that which I have described
above ; I mean those which combine great power with a pedigi-ee little short
of thoroughbred — mares which have in their youthful days been foremost in
the hunting-ficild, and contended, perhaps not unsuccessfully, in the steeple-
chase. Su'cb are the dams of the cracks of the Melton field, and of the vic-
tors at Liverpool and Leamington. But they are so difficult to buy, and so
rarely in the market, that the majority of breeders have little chance of try-
ing theii- luck with them. Their owners naturally desire to secure a foal,
when it may be a great prize, won at a small cost, and will therefore seldom
be disposed to part'with them. It requires, moreover, a more ripened judg-
ment, and more mature experience, to select mares fit for the production of
first-class hunters and steeple-chasers, than for the rearing of a less ambitious
character of stock. The stallion to which they are put ought to be one of a
superior class to the majority of the itinerant animals which secure the custom
of so many farmers, simply because they save them the trouble of further
inquiry. It may be laid down as a general Kule that the horse ought, if pos-
sible, to be a better animal than the mare. Then there is the difficulty,
even' when a horse of tried excellence is found, of discovering whether his
points and his blood suit the mare. The art and the science of breeding
first-rate horses are not to be mastered without much thought, trouble, and
research. There is no royal road to it. He who wises, in spita of every
obstacle, to attain golden results, ujust adopt a course the very antipodes of
the too common one, of putting some mare, because he happens to have her,
to some horse, because it happens to come into his yard. He must never
breed from a bad mare or a bad horse ; nor must he grudge a few pounds
spent in securing the best of either sex within his reach. A judicious outlay
of capital will liere assuredly not fail to reap the reward which has attended
the improvement of every other description of ^iock.— Mark- Lane Express.

KDITORS' JOTTINGS, ETC. 565

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

LINIMENT FOR HORSES.

Messrs. Editors : I send you a recipe for a liniment, which is much "used
liere by farriers for bruises, sprains, and ulcers.

One individual in our place monopolizes the sale of the article, and designs
to keep it a nostrum. I learned the ingredients from his purchasing the
medicines of me. He is using and applying it to the human species, as well
as our domesticated animals.

R . One pint strong alcohol.

3 ss. Sulph cupreus or blue vitriol. ^

3 i. Camphor gum. >■ Pulverize.

3 i. Nit. potash, or saltpetre. )

3 ii. Aqua ammonia.

3 ii. Tincture myrrh. Let it stand twelve hours, frequently shaking it.

Add spirits terabinth, or spirits turpentine, half a pint.

When used, shake and mix well. Ariel Hunton.

Jfyde Park, January 6, 1 854. •

FOR THE PLODOn, IIH LOOM, AND THE ANVU-.

HOW TO RENOVATE ORCHARDS.

Gentlemen : I have a form, on which there is an old orchard. This
orchard, many years ago, bore very abundantly. Can there be any thing
done by grafung or pruning to make the trees bear fruit, or would you ad-
vise setting out new trees ? I have heard of old orchards that were made
to produce as well as ever by grafting and pruning. You will oblige many
interested in the cultivation of fruit, by giving the desired information.

Very respectfully yours, G. F. F.

Wilmington, Del., February 10, 1854.

Remakes. — Our reply to these inquiries is as follows : Scrape and tho-
roughly cleanse the bark of your trees; carefully trim the branches, not with
a hatchet, but with a fine saw or knife ; remove all the sods from around
their stumps, and kepp the soil soft and rich, in which work a iavf hogs will
be of material service, and it will not be long before the good results of these
means will show themselves.

EDITORS' JOTTINGS.

Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad. — In our Deeember
iinraber, we made mention of several valuable improvements introdnced under
the energetic management of Mr. Felton. The Evening Bulletin (Phil.) thus
refers to the new cars and car-seats :

''The Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Wilmington Railroad Company is entitled
to the honor of having been the first to introduce the conch-seat into the cars.
Mr. Felton, the President of the road, and Mr. SpafFord, the General Superin-
tendent, have tnken a commendable interest in the matter, and as a consequence,
the new seats have liad a fair practical trial. Two splendid car?, built fcjT the
pnrpose, at tlie company's works at Wilmington, were placed in the hands of
Mr, Hammitt, and were fitted up by that gentleman. A double row of hand-

566 editors' jottings, etc.

some walout spring-seat cliairs, covered with enamelled cloth, run along each
side of the c;\rs, much in tlie same manner as the okl-fashicmed arrangement.
Each chair is entirely independent of its neighbor ; at a first glance it presents
much the appearance of a mere comfortable chair for sitting purposes, but a close
inspection — or what is better, a fair trial — satisfies the traveler of its important
advuutiigcs. Each seat is furnished with a sliding head-rest, which can be
adjusted, without trouble, to suit the stature of any passenger, whether he hails
from Brobdinag or from Lilliput. The rest, which is made to conform to the
shape uf the head, is so padded and arrauged with elastic springs, that a most
delightful i)illow is insured. The occupant of the incipient bed has then but to
touch a brass knob at his side, and leaning back, he finds himself reclining at a
•omfiir table angle on a couch which might be considered luxurious in a well-
appointed ciiamber. The action of the chair when falling into its reclining posi-
tion, throws up a i)added leg-rest, and the occupant thus secures for his entire
body tlie recumbent posture so essential to the enjoyment of repose. By an
ingenious and simple contrivance, the seats are arranged so as to revolve to suit
the direction in which the cars may be moving.

*'As we have already intimated, the cars containing the patent seats were put
in service on the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore railroad during the
present week, and they elicited the universal approbation of the passengers who
occupied them. From the complete Kuccess of this experiment, we anticipate
that the time is not far distant when every railroad company throughout the
country will see tlie importance of ad(^>tiug this new seat, especially for the
night lines. Travelers who have once enjoyed the advantages resulting from its
use, will not be satisfied vtith the old-fashioned, permanent afiiair, in which many
a travel-worn mortal has worried through a long night, too weary to sit erect
or keep awake, ^nd deprived, by the fashion of his seat, of even a resting-place
for his drowsy head. To any one who has traveled in a train, at night, over a
long route, it will be needless to point out the miseries attending the old system,
or debate u[)cin the important advantages of the new improvement."

Long-Island Railroad. — Business led us a short time since, some distance on
this road, and we were jdeased to observe the signs of rapid settlement in the
erection of numerous tasteful cottages and villas, where, but a short time since,
was an <ipen i)laiu, or stunted scrub, oak, and pine. Long-Island is indeed wak-
ing up, and already on the line of the railroad have we the beautiful villages of
"Woodhaven, Brookville, Lakeland, Edenvale, and many others. That it should
not have earlier attracted the notice of emigrants, and those wishing a country
life or a home at small cost, may be attributed to the efforts made by the large
steamboat and railroad interest pointing to the great West, as the only spot for
successful emigration ; but the high rents in New- York, Brooklyn, and Williams-
burgh have caused attention to be given to places nearer home, and the great
facilities offered by the Long-Island railroad to parties doing business in these
cities, is shown in the numerous and thriving villages springing up along its line.
Long-Island has always been noted for the salubrity of its climate, and the
longevity of its inhabitants, its temperature being about ten degrees .cooler in
summer and warmer in winter than those parts of the Eastern States adjoining
Long-Island Sound. The fare on this road is about two cents per mile, and the
rates of commutation are, if not the lowest, among the lowest in the country;
and we learn it is the intention of the Company to run trains both in and out
of the city at such hours as will suit those who wish to be both early and late
at their places of business.

The Ottomans. — A late traveler in Turkey thus describes some of the peculi-
arities in the manners and customs of the Turks :

" They abhor the hat ; but uncovering the head — which, with us, is an expres-
sion of respect — is considered by them disrespectful and indecent ; no oflTense is
given by keeping on a hat in mosque, but shoes must be left at the threshold;
the shpper, and not the turban, is removed in token of respect. The Turks
turn in their toes ; they write from right to left ; they mount on the right side
»f the horse ; they follow their guests into the room, and precede them on leav-

editors' jottings, etc. 567

ing it ; the left hand is the place of honor ; they do the honors of the table by
serving themselves first ; they are great smokers and cofiee-drinkers ; they take
the wall and walk hastily in token of respect ; they beckon by throwing back the
hand, instead of throwing it town.rd them; they cut their hair from the head ;
they remove it from the body, but leave it on the chin; they sleep in their
clothes; they look upon beheading as a more disgraceful punishment than
strangling; they deem our short and close dresses as indecent, our shaven chins
a mark of effeminacy and servitude ; they resent an inquiry after their wives as
an insult; they commence their wooden houses at the top, and the upper apart-
-ments are frequently finished before the lower ones are closed in ; they eschew
pork as an abomination ; they regard dancing as a theatrical performuuce, only
to be looked at, and not mingled in, except by slaves ; lastly, their mourning
habit is white ; their sacred color, green ; their Sabbath-day is Friday ; and
interment follows immediately on death."

To Obtain Skeletons of Small Animals. — Put any subject, such as a
mouse or frog, (if a bird, strip it of its feathers,) into a box perforated with a
number of holes. Let it be properly distended, to prevent the parts from col-
lapsing, or being crushed together by the ])ressure of the earth. Then place the
box with its contents in an ant-hole, and in a few days it will have become an
exquisitely beautiful and perfect skeleton. The ants will have consnmed every
part of it except the bones and ligaments. The tadpole acts the same part with
fish that ants do with birds; and through the agency of this little reptile, per-
fect skeletons, even of the smallest fishes, may be obtained. To produce this, it
is but necessary to suspend the nsh by threads attached to the head and tail, in
a horizontal position, in ajar of water, such as is found in a pond, and change
it often, till the tadpoles have finished their work. Two or three tadpoles will
perfectly dissect a fish in twenty-four hours.

Metallic Cask-making. — The new and ingenious principle of making casks
from metal, patented by Mr. Clare, of this town, is now in operation at his works
in Nash-grove. The casks are made by machinery, expressly adapted to this
new branch of manufacture, by skillful engineers, whose services were secured
for the purpose. The staves, specimens of which have already been exhibited
in public, are of peculiar construction, and the great difiiculty to be overcome
was to produce each stave complete by one operation. This is effected by
means of a screw-press, to which a large mecljanioal power is applied. The
iron is cut into required lengths, and after being subjected to a powerful
heat in a furnace, is transferred to the press, where it receives its exact form, a
mould. The machine throws out the staves at the rate of one per minute. It
is necessary to cut the iron in opposition to the grain, in order that when the
flange is formed it may be made without cracking. The staves, on being com-
pleted, are grouped, and formed into casks when required for use. Each stave
is calculated to bear a pressure of 100 pounds on the square inch. The heads
of the casks are formed by a machine adapted to cut circles of a very large
diameter with the utmost precision. By a very simple plan the heads of the
metallic casks can be removed without disturbing the hoops which bind them
together — a matter of the utmost importance where it is necessary to transfer
liquids from one cask to another. It is thought that the metallic casks will ere
long come into general use, and almost, if not entirely, supersede the common
wooden casks now eraplo^-ed for all purposes. — English Paper.

A Substitute for Stereotyping. — Filhner & Co., of this city, according to
the N. Y. Evening Post, have adopted, with success, a system of electrotyping
moulds taken of type in wax, which is said to have a decided advantage over
ordinary stereotyping. Their process is as follows :

Having taken a mould of the type in wax, they put it into a solution of c©p-
per, and apply it to a powerful galvanic battery, which causes the copper to be
deposited with such accuracy upon the mould as to make a perfect copper-face,
which will last much longer than the ordinary metal-face, without costing any
more. The process occupies about twelve hours. We understand that the
Messrs. Harper employ this process exclusively in their establishment.

568 NEW BOOKS.

Governor Stevens reports a practicable and favorable route across the Rocky
Mountains, for tho Pacific Railway, and that the success of his expedition has
been unprecedented.

Limb. — Tiiere is not within lh<? wliole State of South Carolina the slightest
indication of tlie presence of lime-stone. The consequence is, that in many of
the interior towns of that State one dollar per huJul is paid for lime.

The California Almond. — Beautiful specimens of California Almonds have
been discovered by that indefatigable naturalist, Dr. Trask, growing wild in the
mountains back of San Jose. They are at lea«t half again a'* lar^e as the imported
nut, and are represented to be of delicious flavor. The tree upon which they
grew wa."? about 19 feet high, and loaded with fruit. The editor of the San
Francisco Herald lias seen .some specimens of a fully ripe almond, and another just
bursting through its green hull, witli a branch and leaves attached. The discov-
ery that tliis fruit is indigenou-", and grows to great perfection in California, will
prove of interest to our agricultural friends, and may induce the many horticul-
turists who are now setting out gardens and orchards to turn their attention to
its cultivation.

Kew Building Material. — An invention has just been patented, we are told
by a London paper, for the adaptation of a preparation of coke and other sub-
stances, by which bricks, paving-slabs, door and stair steps, tiles, pipes, blocks,
railway-sleepers, and other articles of general use by builders, can be jiroduced
with a perfection and a cost which, it is expected by the inventor, will effect a
complete revolution in the building trade. The price at which it is proposed to
offer the coke-brick to the public is scarcely one third of the clay-brick, while
in point of durability it is superior to the best article supplied from the kilns.
The manufacture, according to the specification, is effected by means of cast-iron
moulds, the interior of which are of the exact dimensions of the common brick ; in
this monld a certain quantity of duff, or waste coal, powdered coke, charcoal, or
cinders, is placed, nnd being carbonized, the amalgamated materials swell to the
exact form that is requisite.

When taken from the mould, it undergoes a finishing process, in which varnish
is applied to the end or side, having, while wet, a coating of powdered glass,
"with an admixture of a mineral coloring-matter sifted over it. The brick is then
vitrified, when a beautiful glaze of any required color is produced, and the arti-
cle is ready for use. During the manufacturing process the fumes are passed
ihrough w'ater. The finishing process is only required for particular purposes,
as in many instances the coke-brick is equally available witliout it. Tho mate-
rial is rendered fire-proof by the application of the m iriate of alumina, and is
impervious to atmospheric influence by the natureof its formation.

Hollow Axles are being extensively adopted on the London and North-west-
ern Kailway. It is found that they are double the strength of a solid axle, and
of course are more economical.

NEW BOOKS.

TiucaoLotiiA Mammauum ; or, a Treatise on the Organization, rroj>erties, and Uses of
Hair npd Wool ; together with an essay upon tlio Raising and Breeding of Sheep.
By Pktkr a. Browne, L.LD., of Philadelphia. Ducet amor palrice. Publiahed
under the patronage of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. 1853. 4to. pp. 179.

IIow many of our readers can inform us what the difTerence is between a hair and
a fibre of wool, or between these and feathers? Our learne 1 author has investigated
this question, and others kindred to it, and has followed the subject through all its
/amiiications to the consideration of growth, color, length, size, softness, firmness,
etrength, Ac, with tho diseases to which each is subject, and the growth of several
different animals, among which are the sheep, goats of different countries, camel,
latftft, alpaca, and others; and these learned and minute discusssions are followed by

NEW BOOKS. 5&9

a treatise on raising and breeding sheep. On these subjects, which were full of diffi
enlties and which required immense research, great leaining is exhibited, and great
labor has been expended. It is the only treatise of the kind which embodies go
much and of so practical a sort, and at the same time it is in a popular form, so that
persons of ordinary intelligence can quite understand it. We purpose, hereafter, to
avail ourselTes of much of the information here communicated, for the benefit of ouv

readers.

The Pictomal Sketch-book ok Penxsylvaxia ; or, its Scenery, Internal Improvements,
Resources, and Agriculture popularly described. By Eli Bowex. Ulustrated with
over two hundred engravings and a colored map. Eighth edition, revised and
greatly enlarged. W. White Smith, 195 Chestnut stiect, Philadelphia. 1854.
Svo. pp. 516.

This is a " guide-book" on a large scale, containing off-hand sketches of many of
the more interesting localities in the State, with accounts of their history,_ popula-
tion business, scener}^ &c., illustrated by numerous and very good engravings, and
an excellent map of the State. Many pages are devoted to an elaborate account of
the coal-fields of that State, and their iron works. The volume also contains Camp-
bell's "Gertrude of Wyoming;" " Loeoniotve Sketches, with pen and pencil," of the
route from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh ; and " Pedestrian Sketches from Sunbuty to
Lake Eric." The perusal of this work cannot fail to impart a very general know-
ledge of the condition of the State, in its agriculture, manufactures, resources, and
improvements. It is well printed on good paper, and is to be had at the ver^ lovi'
price of f 2.

Thk DovE-CoTE ; or, the Heart of the Homestead. By the author of "Cap-Sheaf."

Boston : John P. Jewelt & Co. 1854. pp.361. 12mo.

Tms volume is highly attractive. It is a series of connected stories, forming oao
tale Willie and Adam Brown, and Mies Nancy, and other characters, are lineiy
portrayed, and some of them excite the deepest sympathy; while every part of the
story is of excellent moral, without any thing to offend, but with every thing to
commend.

Similitudes from tue Ocea^ and the Prairie. By Lucy Larcom. Boston : John P.

Jewett & Co. Cleveland, Ohio: Jewett, Proctor & Worthmgton. 1854.

This little volume consists of sketches rather than stories, inculcating high moral
principles. Its execution is admirable. ,„.„,, -^ . i j

The following short extract from "Light in the Clouds," illustrates its style and

structure: i , i i at

" Heavy clouds, tinged with a lurid lieht, slowly arose and hung low along the
starry arch above. * * Suddenly a sparkling belt of fire gleami'd up along the hori-
zon. Merrily onward danced the flames, prostrating, as they ran, grass weeds, and
faded flowers. The prairie was on fire, and that ominous glare Avas only its retiee-
tion upon the clouds. „,-,„, ., ii t ^t, ;.

"0 ye who look out anxiously upon the broad field of humanity, and believe that
ye see hJrrid clouds, charged with the vengeance of heaven impending over it, watch
those clouds in faith rather than in fear. , • .. j

" The purifying as well as the scathing pens are at work in society, <tc.

Sketcues of the Irish Bar. By the Right Hon. Richard Lalor Sheil, M.I'., with
Memoir and Notes, by R. Shelton Mackknzie, D.C.L. In 2 vols. New-\ork ; hed-

field. 1854

These volumes include notices of the most prominent lawyers and etatetmen of
Ireland for the last half century, and give an insight into the interior lie ot tnac
nation not imparted by any volumes with which we are acquainted. \V e have rea..
them Avith very great interest. The sketches are written m excellent ^i-} ^'■'' •J'^^ 7 -f
great discriminaUon. No man was better qualified for this service than Mr. blieii,
and the intereet of the sketches is much increased by the explanatory notes ot Mr.
Mackenzie. We commend them to all our readers.

570 NKW MUSIC.

liAores* Almanac. 1854. Boston: J. P. Jewett & Co.

Tins ia a very neat little volume, full of useful iiiatters. Among other tilings, it
contains notices and portrait3 of several female authors, fire-side games, a page for
memoranda, with each calendar month, &c.

TuK I'ARMMa's Guide to SciENTinc and rjiAcrioAL Agiucultore. Detaihng the Labors
of the Farmer in all their Variety, and adapting them to the seasons of the year
as they successively occur. By Uenuy .Stephens, F.R.S.E., author of the " Book of
the Farm " etc., etc., etc. Assisted by Joun P. Kokton, M.A., Professor of Scienti-
fic Agriculture, in Yale College, New-Haven. In two volumes, with numerous
illustrations. New-York : Leonard Scott & Co., 19 Fulton and 54 Gold street.
Tars work is the last revised edition of Stephen's Book of the Farm. It is a re-
print of tlie second edition, and almost wholly rewritten, adopting all the more re-
cent improvements in the practice of agriculture, and suggested by scientific experi-
ment, and making it quite a new book. , , i.. ., , ^ ,

It is characterized by transcendent ability, and, beyond a doubt, the best work on
the subject of agriculture now before the world.

The position of Mr. Stephens, as editor of the Journal of Agriculture, necessarily
mskee him acquainted and familiar with the literature of agriculture, and with every
n^w li"-ht which continental and British discovery has slied upon the theory and
practice of agricultural industry. And Prof. Norton, of Yale College, well ksown
to American fanners as a practical and energetic writer, to Americanize it, and
adapt it to the wants of the fanner in this country, has given an appendix to each
parT blowing wherein any essential difference exists between the rules necessary to
be observed by farmers of this country and Great Britain, pointing out m a clear
and concise manner when such difference should be regarded, and adds from his
own experience and observatiousa large amount of useful information.

Altotiether, it is eminently practical^and agreeably enthusiastic and interesting m
ita fttvlo and w-e recommend it not only to the practical farmer, but to the general
reader, as a book of reference, and to societies for distribution ; and to all hbranes,
as a work that should not bo wanting.

^ B —'Hie work comprises two volumes, royal octavo, neatly bound in various
stvlcs, containing IGDO pages, fourteen steel, and about five hundred wood engrav-
ino-5 It is beautifully printed on thick, white paper, the British jmrtion of it from
the stereotype plates imported for that purpose. Price for the two volumes, muslin,
one copy, $6 ; four copies, ^IH ; leather, one copy, $0.50; four copies, $20.

The work will be sent by mail, free of postage, to any post-office not more than
three thousand mile-s from New-York, for $1 extra ; over three thousand mUee, for
$2 e«tra.

N Y. W MUSIC.

0i,ivKRDrrsoN, of Washington street, Boston, ha.? recently published some most
cKCcllent pieces of music. Among these • , . i

Dm Oiovanni, in a quarto volume, for a piano-forte solo, in an elegant volume,
with excellent type, in the same style with Norma, noticed in a recent niimbi-r ot
our journal. It is a choice gem for the amateur and the professor.

Uaves from my Musical Diary. By Adolph Kulblock. Consisting of three pieces:
] A Melody ; 2. A Song without Words ; 8. Remembrance of Germany.
L'Ai-t da Chant, appliqu6 au piano. 4to. De I'Operu I. Puritani. By lltaiberg.

A.mong the soncs are the following:

Reply to Lilly Dale. With chorus. By C. C. Converse.

First Gift Ballad. By Thos. Baker. ^ , „ ,,.„

Live with a Playful Heart A Bohemian melody. By A. F. Mailer.

Sweet i» a Summer's Night. By S. Nelson. r> a a*

She Shines before me like a Star. From the Opera of Charles II, By G. A. Mac-
sarron.

I^c Mwrioer Boy. By A. S. Thompson.

LIST OF PATENTS,

571

Songs of the Flowors— The Rose, Forget-me-Not, Poppv, Lily, Snowdrop and a
Daisy. By C. W. Glover. "

We have seen only the third, the song of the Poppy.

"Waltzes. — Favorite "Waltz. From Lucrezia Borgia. Admirably arran^-ed by Bur-
gomaster.

Cottager's "Waltz. By Mrs. L. L. Deming.

Jullien's Library "Valz d'Amour. Arranged by Thos. Baker.

Poi,KA.g. — The Eclipse Polka and Post Sleigh Polka.

List of Patents Is.sued,

Faoir JA?f. 3 TO feb. 7.

Darid Cl:irlc, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
■ment ia oil-oups for sleiim engiues.

Lucian A. Brown and Jeremiah W. Brown, of
Hartford, Ct., lor improved {5i"es3 lor veneering.

Leonard <"am!>bell, of Columbus, Mias., for im-
provemeat in cotton-gins.

Daniel S. Darling, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for im-
provement in preventing dusi froin entering rail-
road-cars.

D. M. Cummings, of North Enfield, Me., for
improvement in machinery for mortising frames
-of windoRT-bUnds.

Charles VV. Fillmore, of Coral, 111., for improve-
ment in clamps for holding steel plates while
being hardened and tempered.

F. C. Goffin, of New- York, N. Y.. for improve-
ment in attaching cross-bar fastenings to vault and
safe-doors.

Benj. D. Gullett, of Aberdeen, Miss., for im-
provement in cott«n-giDs.

H. Halvor-son, of Hartford, Ct., for improvement
in machines for pegging boois and shoes.

Jas. J. Johnston, of Alleghany city, Pa., for im-
provemeut in healers for smootbing-ironc^.

John Johnston, of A'leghany city, Pa., for im-
provement in self-heating smoothing-irons.

EbenezHf A. Lester, of Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in machines for squeezing and com-
pressing metallie bodies.

Harry H. Matteson, of Buffalo, N. Y., for im-
provement ill flexible cord;ige.

Wm. G-. Mea-ell, of Auburn, N, Y., foj- maciilne
for cutting ellipses.

Henry E Pierce, of Charlcmoiit, Mass., for ma-
chine for malting the i^nds of blocks, In making
matches.

David Pierce, of Woodstock, Vt., for improved
gold separator.

J. P. Spofford, of Cror-kett's Bridge, N. Y., for
improvemeut in saw-gumm^rs.

Caleb C. Walworth, of Boston, Mass., for im-
proved float-valve for discharging condensed
water.

S. D. Wilson, of Rpadlng, Pa-, for improveraent
in valves and valve-seats of steam-englnpfl.

Jno. H. E r th. of Indianapolis, Ind , for improve-
ment in bedsteads.

Harvey Brewer, of Fast Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in toroh-bsraps.

Jno. Kedzie, of Rochester, N. Y., for improve-
nMnt in filters.

J. W. McOaff.y, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
proved mortising-chjsel.

II. B. Smith, of Lowell, Mass., for improvement
in mortising-machines.

Jas. Swain, of Philadclr.hi.%. Pa., for laaffneliG
toy, called the Magnetic Cupid.

Thos. L. Jones, of Poughkeepsio, N. Y., assignft.-
(through Horace Dresser) to Jam^-s B. Jonee of
New-York, for improvement ia feathering puddle-
wheels.

Perry G. Bales, of Waterbury, Ct., for Foiral <k-
worm-joint hinge.

F. Davison, of Liberty, Va., for huprovement ia
saliva purajw.

Jno. Jap. Greonough, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in machines for pegging boots and ehoee.

D. T. Hitchcock, of Warren, Blase., for improve-
ment in diaphr.igm pump?.

K. C. Hyatt and Christopher Meyer, ofMiUtown,
N. J., for improvement in the manufictore of boot
and shoe soles, of gutta-percha or India-rubber.

Abraham McTnturff, of Liberty, Va.,for hnprovo-
mi ct in machines for mincing meat.

Loristoa (i. Merrell, of New-Bedford, Pa. for
improvement in frill-machines.

Thos. J. Sloan, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
provement in cppar.itus for indicatiag ftie action
of the feed-pump to steam-boilers.

C. W. Stimpson, of Cleveland, Ohio, for im-
proved photographic plate-vis b.

Ira Warren, of Boston, Mass., for impn>veinetU
in tonsil instruments.

George W. Griswold, of Carboiidale, Pa., for im-
provement in amputating apparatus.

Charles T. P. Ware, of New- York, N. Y a:-
signer to D. 0. Morchcad, of same place, for im-
IMovc-raent ia clasps.

Lewis B. White, of Moscow, N. Y., far improve-
ment in iru^aes.

Calvin Adams, of Pitt.sburgh, Pa., for improve*!
copying-press.

Romeo and Albert F. Andrews, of Avon, Conn,
for im|irovemeni in wood saws. '

Lueien B. B-Ucheller, of Arlington, Vt., for Im-
provemeot in .'aitroad-car brakes.

Chirles P. Bailey, of ZanesviUe, Ohio, for im-
menl in damping care.

Enoch Bnrf, of Manchester, Conn., for improve-
ment in fancy check-looms.

Sihm Constant, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for Jmpr<n-D-
ment in rosin oil lamps.

Wm. Cunningham, of Holliday's Cove, Ta., (ox
improvement in washing-machineF.

572

LIST OF PATENT.^.

J. H. fiensis, of Boston, Mas?
in bee-hiTes.

, for iniprovement |

Spencer D. Driggs, of Detroit, Mich., for im-
proved attachmeni to piano-fortes.

Charles R. Harvey, of New-York, for improve-
ment in air-heating furnaces.

Dennis G. Liltlefield, of Lowell, Mass., for im-
provement in stoves.

George Nelson, of Boston, Mass., for improve-
ment in ventilating railroad-cars.

Thomas Prosser, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in the manufacture of hoUow slabs
and flanged metallic plates.

Harvey Trumbull, of Central College, Ohio, for
improvement in the feed apparatus of straw-cut-
ters.

Peter, Wellington S., & Jerome J. Hench, of
Port Eoyal, Pa., for improvement ia mills for
grinding sumac.

James H. .lennings and Thomas Brierly, of Clay-
ville, N, Y., tor iniprovement in machinery for
fulling cloth. i

Joseph Marks, of Boston, Mass., for improve-
ment ill pisli'n-valves and steam-passages in cylin-
drical steam-boilerp.

James Robinson, of West Hebron, N. Y., fo
improvement in threshers and cleaners of grain.

Alexander Hall, of Lloydsville, Ohio, for im-
vroveraent in piano-fortes.

Daniel Haight, Jr., of Clinton, N. Y., for im-
provement in attiiching shafts to wagons.

Wm. Overend, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for machine
for wetting pnper.

Aaron Palmer, of f rockport, N. Y., and Stephen
G. Williams, of Jancsville, Wis., for improvement
in grain-harvesters.

Jacob Reese, of Sharon, Pa., for improvement
in rolling axles and shafts.

Charles R. Soule, of Fairfield, Vt., for improve-
ment ill thre- hers and sepaiators of grain.

Mosea C Stiles and Tristram S Iftwis, of Hol-
lis, Me., for improved machine for making wiii-
dow-hlinds.

Carl E. Werner, of Newcastle, 111., for improve-
ment in distilling apparatus.

Jacob E. Brown and Stephen S. Bortlett, of
Woousocket, R. I., for improved mortising-ma-
«hine.

Henry P. Anthony, of New-York, N. Y., for
improvement in presses for niaBiug miniature
cases.

Philander H. Benedict, of Syracuse, N. Y., for
improved diiguerrotype plate-hulder.

Enos Boughton, of East Bloomfield, N. Y., for
improvement in cultivators.

William Boyd, of Garrettsville, Ohio, for im-
proved mode of fixing likenesses in monuments.

Wm. Cleveland, of Orange, N. Y., for improve-
ment in fountain pens.

William O. Davis, of Pittsburgh, Pa., fur im-
provement in presses lor mouldinir glass.

Samuel L. Denncy, of Christiana, Pa., for im-
provement in divided railroad-axles.

Cyrus J. Fay, of North Lincoln, Me., for im-
provement in cotton presses.

Elcazer W. Johnson, of Perth .\mboy, N. J., for
improvemnnt in saw-mills.

Harry Leach, of Boston, Mass., for improvement
in propellers.

Thomas Lon^king, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for im-
proved apparatus for cleaning, &.c., bufling daguer-
reotype plates.

Harvey Lnll, of South Coventry, Conn., assignor
lo Harvey Lull, aforesaid, and Richard Porter, of
Wheellag,, Va., for improvement in shutter hinges.

T. 0. Cutler, of Jersey City, N. J., for improve-
ment in quartz-crushers.

James McCarty, of Reading, Pa., for improve-
ment in rollers for scarfing the edges of skelps for
lap-welded tubes.

Charles G. Page, of Washington, D. C, fer im-
provement ia electro-magnetic engines.

William Palmer, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
provement in water-gauges for steam-boilers.

John L. L. aiorris, of Reading, Pa.., for improvs -
ments in steam hammers.

Ebenezer G. Pomeroy, of Pittsburgh, Pa., foh
improvement in manufacture of sheet-iron.

Benjamin Underwood, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for
improvement in the construc;ion of printing blocks.

Frederic J. Thring, of New-Yoik, N. Y., for im-
provement in carpet-bags.

Edward Town, of Jersey City, N. J., for improved
machines for paging books.

Peter L. Weymer, of Reading, Pa,, for ijsprove-
meat in steam hammers.

Isaac h. Dickinson, of Richmond, lud., for im-
provement in churns.

Le Roy .«!. White, of Chicopee, Mass , for im-
provement in furnitiu-e-caste s.

Ebenezer Barrows, of New-York, N. Y., for ita-
provements in rotary engines.

A. Merritt Asay, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in dental chairs.

Edward Bancroft and Wm. Sellers, of Philadel-
phia, Pa., for improvement in turmiug-lathes.

John and Wm, McAdams, of Boston, Mass., for
improvement in machines for ruling paper.

Jacob Reese, of Sharon, Pa., for improvement ia
machines lor making nuts.

Michael Sidmer, of Union Township, Pa., for
improvement in winnowers.

Josiah Turner and W. C. Stuvoc, of Sunapee,
N. H., for improvement ia winnowers.

John 5L Bachelder, of Cambridge, Mass., and
M. C. Farmer, of f^alem, Mass., for improvement
in the mode of making batteiy connecion with an
eleutro-iiiaguetic coil ou the traveling carri-ge of
a telegraphic register.

1 homas Blanchard. of Boston, Mass., for improved
machine for polishing plough-handles aud other
articles.

George Edward Burt, of Westford, Mass., as-
signor to George Edward Burt and iMvid C, But-
terfie d, both of Westford, aforesaid, for improve-
ment in machines for cleaning and assorting
bristles.

Dexter n. Chamberlain, of Boston, Mass., for
improvement in bit or drill-stocks.

Dexter H. Chamb rlai >, of Boston, Mass., for
improvement in tool-holders.

John J. Crooke, of New-York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in the manufacture of tiu-fuil or sheets.

Lewis S. Davis, of New-Paris, Ohio, for improve-
ment in blocks for horse collars.

F. O. Deschamps, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in omnibus registers.

Jolin S. ILill, of Manchester, Pa., for improvs-
luent in ploughs.

J. B. }Iayden,of Easton, N. Y., for improvement
in metallic hubs.

Ansel Merrell, of New-Bedford, Pa., assignor to
Ansel Merrell and John M. Irvine, of Sh^iron, Pa.,
for improved macl ine lor dressing apokes.

Reuben Knecht, of Easton, Pa., for improved
dagu rreotype plate-holder.

Julius E. Merriman, of Meriden, Conn., for ini-
provement in sewing bird.".

Clark D. Page, of Rochester, N. Y.,for improve-
ment in lime kiln.'s.

Cl)c paugl), tlje f 00itt, anil tl)e ^m\l

Part II.— Vol. VI. APRIL, 1854. No. 4.

DUTIES ON LINEN.

We have no doubt that many of our readers have already seen the letters
which have recently been published over the signature of General Duff Green,
addressed to the Secretary of the Treasury, in several of the leading papers
of the country. But the views which he presents are so clearly expressed
and so forcibly advocated, that we are very desirous of spreading the sub-
stance of t'uem, at least, on th« pages of our journal. Were they not so
widely circulated already, we should be unwilling to erase a single paragraph.
But under the circumstances here explained, we must be content with the
following. The proposal to repeal the duties on flax and linen fabrics, was
the immediate cause of this argument. The first point urged, it will be seen,
is identically the same which we have ourselves urged in a recent number :

*' It may be said, and I presume it will be urged, that as Great Britain has
so much capital invested in the manufacture, it will be for our advantage to
furnish the raw material, in exchange for her manufactures. I know there is
a class of political economists, who argue that England cannot buy from us
unless we buy from her, and therefore insist that British manufactures be ad-
mitted, at a low rate of duty — and that linens be admitted duty free. This
may be true in theory but not in fact. If England and the United States
were all the world, there would be much force in the argument. But the
fact that Great Britaiu purchases from Russia and the North of Europe thirty-
millions of dollars' worth of flax, hemp, linseed and oil cake, and that Russia
and the North of Europe refuse to take her manufactures in exchange, proves
that if we will sell to Great Britain hemp, flax, linseed and oil cake, at as
low rates as they pay for it elsewhere, then Great Britain will purchase from
us, whether we take her manufactures or not. So that this argument fails
because the hypothesis on which it rests is not true.

But I meet this doctrine of free-trade and no duties boldly, and look it
directly in the face, and say that that which was at one time wise and proper
may be very unwise and improper at another, and that that poUcy which is
wise and proper for Great Britain may be most unwise and improper for us.

I proceed to illustrate. It is well known that I was for many years a dis-
ciple of Adam Smith — that I advocated the policy of buying in the cheapest
and selling in the dearest market. I was the advocate of free-trade. In
1836, I retired from the press. I was, nevertheless, an earnest and anxious
observer of passing events. Being withdrawn from the excitement of party
politics, I saw that the customs involved something more than the mere
question of revenue, and that the currency had much more effect on prices
than the tariff". I saw that ours was the weaker part of the British system,
an<l that there was a power connected with the Bank of England, and the
London Exchange, which transferred the effects of their overtrading and

VOL. VI. — PART II. 13

57-1 DUTIES ON LINEN.

speculation, causing the explosion to take place here instead of in Lon-
don; and I spent the greater part of 1842 and 1843 in London, investi-
gating and accumulating facts on which I could make up an opinion. I
found that the funding system had created a new power, by concentrating in
the hands of a few leading bankers, who were the agents of the monarcliies
of Europe, for the sale of their securities, and of the principal fund-
holders, to receive and reinvest their di\idends. I found that these dividends,
thus concentrated in the hands of a few individuals, and payable chiefly in
London and Paris, were more than two hundred millions of dollars per
annum ; that the greater part of this funded debt bore an interest not ex-
ceeding three or four per cent., and that when Mr. Jaudon went to London,
as the a^ent of the Bank of the United States, with some thirty millions of
dollars' worth of American Securities, bearing an interest of six and seven per
cent., these bankers, so much interested in maintaining the value of the
funded debt of the European monarchies, saw that if he Avas permitted to
establish a market for the sale of American six and seven per cents., in com-
petition with their European three and four per cents, the holders of the
European debt would exchange their three and four per cents for American
six and seven per cents. ; and that the inevitable, consequence would be the
overthrow of the existing European monarchies. They therefore combined,
and by preventing a sale, and compelling Mr. Jaudon to hypothecate his
securities, used up and broke down the Bank of the United States. The
war upon the credit of the States and of the Federal Government was part
of their system.

Until then, our merchants bought British goods on credit, and paid for
them in the proceeds of our agricultural labor. Then these large bankers
revolutionized the whole machinery of commerce, and since then have levied
heavy contributions upon us, in the shape of interest upon their credit, profits
iqwn our capital ! and upon the exchanges.

The more I examined into this subject, the more I became satisfied that
the real issue between the monarchies of the Old World, and the Repulican-
ism of the New, is financial ; and that instead of contending with the North
about the tariff", it is the interest of the South to unite with the North and
West, to sever the cord which binds us financially to the Bank of Eng-
land. Why is it that an Englishman's credit is worth more in New- York
than an American's gold ? Why is it, that while the rate of interest is less
in London than in any other part of the world, exchange upon London is
everywhere at a premium ? Is it not because all the rest of the world is in
debt to London, and that the London bankers have so organized the machinery
of commerce that every body must go to England to sell as well as to buy ?

I boldly assert, and challenge investigation, that the South loses much more
by placing her cotton under' the control of British agents than she would
lose if the tariff were doubled. Let me not be misunderstood. I am not
the advocate of a high tariff. My wish is to cultivate and economize our
resources, so that we may have, within ourselves, the means of giving profit-
able employment to our people. My wish is to stimulate American industry,
and economize American enterprise, by adopting that position which tends to
strengthen most our financial position. I see in the new development of the
hemp and flax culture, an element of great financial power, adding, as I be-
lieve it will, in a few years, an export equal in value to the cotton crop —
stimulating and aiding, as it will do, our system of internal improvement —
bringing into profitable culture hundreds of thousands of acres of new land,
and bringing into use many acres of land in the Northern and Eastern States,

DUTIES ON LINEN". 575

wliich can no longer be cultivated for wheat because of the weevil, and the
exhaustion of the soil. It should be borne in mind that the dividends arising
from the funded debt of the monarchies of Euroj^e is a tax levied upon the
industry of her population, as the interest upon the sum expended in wars,
and in the maintenance of armies, navies, and privileged persons, and that
this debt may be extinguished by a revolution ; while we have some seven-
teen thousand miles of raih'oad now in operation — that we have some thirteen
thousand more in progress of construction, and that a few years will more
than double the capital thus invested ; that while the European debt is con-
suming the substance of an over-burdened people, every dollar properly
expended on a well-located railroad may be estimated as adding ten dollars
to the wealth and resources of the country, and that persons having money
to invest will see that our railroad securities are a much better and safer in-
vestment than the credit of any trembling European monarchy. Under such
circumstances, we may well anticipate that w^hether Europe be involved in a
general war or not, large sums will be remitted to the United States for in-
vestment, and that the consequences must be, that if the culture of flax
and hemp increases, as I beheve it will, the increased value of property, the
dividends on the capital invested in railroads, the product of our mines,
the large amount of foreign capital seeking investment, and the export of
flax, hemp, and cotton will so augment our resources as to make us financially
independent ; and yet it may be that the repeal of the duty on linen fabrics
may so discourage the culture of flax and hemp as greatly to diminish the
product and delay the consummation of this great object.

Permit me to conclude, by earnestly entreating you to consider this sub-
ject as an enlightened American statesman, discarding theories generated in
party prejudice, and remembering that the funding system has organized the
taxing power of the European monarchies, which is so concentrated in the
hands of a few European bankers, (who are the agents of those monarchies
for the sale of their credit, and of the principal fund-holders to receive and
reinvest their dividends,) that they are enabled, through those governments,
to tax directly the labor and property of the people of Europe, and that they
have likewise so organized the machinery of credit, of commerce, and of
currency as to impose most onerous burdens indirectly upon the people of
this country. That this organization is a new power, originating in the pub-
lic debt of the European governments ; that it has so increased in strength
and consolidation, that it is stronger than the monarchies which created it ;
that strong as it is, its vital principle consists in the power of the monarchies
of Europe to tax their subjects, and that, therefore, being monarchical in its
origin and in its existence, all its sympathies are monarchical and anti-repub-
lican; that the funded debt represents the suras expended in wars, and in
the maintenance of armies and navies and privileged persons, and has no
value except as the pretense upon which the people of these governments
are taxed to pay the interest ; that in case of a conflict between the people
and the monarchies of Europe, this neiv poiver will take part with the mo-
narchies against the people, because, so long as the monarchies exist, it can
compel the monarchies to tax the people; and it knows full well that if in
a revolution the people prevail, there is great cause to apprehend that the
funded debt will expire with the monarchies, and that then their organiza-
tion, now so potent, must cease. Sympathizing then, as this potent organiza-
tion does, with the monarchies of Europe — deeply interested as it is in
maintaining the prestige of their governments and authority, its sympathies
and instincts are opposed to our republican institutions, and hostile to the
development of our energies and resources.

576 DUTIES ON LIXEX.

Yet, opposed and hostile as it is, it comes to us in the guise of friendship,
acting through such of its numerous agencies as can best accomplish its pur-
pose. Thus, when the purpose was to destroy the Bank of the United States,
and thus extinguish its agency in sustaining American credit, it was impos-
sible to sell the bonds of the general government in the London market.
Yet, that purpose being accomplished, we find that a large amount of our
public debt is held in London, and that while the bonds of many of our first
railroad companies are forced upon the market, at a great depreciation, you are
purchasing up, from these foreign creditors, the public debt, long before it is
due, and paying them a premium of twenty-one per cent. ! ! Believing as I
do, that the policy of these European bankers is to so regulate the machinery
of credit and of commerce, that we shall be compelled to buy more from
England than she purchases from us, and that so far as relates to our com-
merce with England, they deliberately make false the theory that commerce
is a reciprocal exchange of the products of industry, by so expanding or con-
tracting credit and currency as to depreciate the value of our credit and of
the products of our labor in the British market, as at all times to create a
balance against us, I am rejoiced in the hope that the rapid accumulation of
capital in the United States, in the shape of dividends and profits upon cur-
rent investments in railroads, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, will
create an American, re2mbllcan, financial organization, less concentrated but
stronger than this colossal monarchical power, because its revenues will be
greater, more certain, and permanent. Its elements will be more diffused,
but it will be so united in sympathy and interests, and so intimately connected
with our credit and currency that its energies and resources can be easily
rallied to protect us against the expansions and contractions which it is the
policy of the London bankers to create, and which will be inflicted upon us
so long as they are permitted to so regulate the value of our credits and
agricultural produce as to leave a large balance against us.

In conclusion, permit me further to add, that it is said, upon what appears
to be good authority, that the greater part of the 500,000 spindles in Ireland
are owned by six individuals ; that the linen manufacturers of Great Britain
are among her most wealthy and influential capitalists; that they have en-
listed the active cooperation of the British government, and of the British
^linister, at Washington ; that they have agents in Washington, who employ
the press, and penetrate both Houses of Congress. They have enlisted your
potent influence, and the Committee of Ways and Means, acting under your
advice, have reported a bill in accordance with their wishes. I again apj)eal
to you, as a patriot and statesman, as a citizen of a State in which hemp and
flax are staples, to reconsider this subject, /or upon you rests the responsibility.
If you give the facts a careful consideration, you cannot fail to see that your
recommendation was erroneous. Are you capable of seeing your error, and
confessing it? If you are, many will rise up and call you blessed; for in
that case the movement in the culture and manufacture of flax and hemp
will be such as to give profitable employment to many thousands of our
people, and will so augment our wealth and resources as greatly to aid in
relieving us from those periodical contractions and expansions of credit and
of value, which are the consequence of the causes that I have endeavored to
elucidate."

Again be says in another letter,

" The Constitution gave to Congress the exclusive power to coin money
and regulate the value thereof. And why ? The purpose of government is
to protect persons and property. As speqie is the standard which regulates

DUTIES ON LINEN.

577

the value of property, the wise men who framed the Coustnution wel nnder-
stood the necessity of giving a fixed vakie to the precious metals ; and hence,
they recoo-nized the power to coin money and regulate its value, as one ot the
highest attributes of sovereignty. They had denied the vig-ht of the British
parUament to tax the colonies, because they well knew that the power of taxa-
tion includes the power to appropriate the products of industry So jealous
were they of the rights of property, that they denied to tlie States the power
to recrulate the value of money, and gave it expressly to Congress. _ It thus
becomes the duty of Congress not only to coin money and regulate its value,
but so to re<^ulate our intercourse with foreign nations as to prevent, as .ar as
practicable, any foreign power from disturbing the values regulated by them.
For it is preposterous to suppose that the Constitution made it the duty ot
Cono-ress to regulate the value of money, and at the same_ time denied io
Congress the power to protect the value thus regulated against the financial
policT of foreign nations; that it gave to Congress alone the power to coin
money, and forbade the States to regulate its value, and yet left its value
subiect to the caprice, the speculations, or policy of foreign nations or of their
financial accents. If, then, it is the duty of Congress to regulate i\x^ value^ of
money, and the European funding system has created a power which, acting
throuo-h the Bank of England, can regulate the value of money by diminish-
ino- the value of our credit, and reducing the price of the products of our
labor, it must be the duty of Congress to protect us, as far as it can be done,
af^inst the periodical contractions and expansions of the currency, whicli is,
and ever must be, the inevitable consequence of the foreign policy ot the
European funding system and its agents.

We have no protection but through Congress, and Congress has no power
to act but through the tariff. It will thus be seen that the real question in-
volved in the tariff is not so much the protection of American^ industry
acrainst competition with the cheaper labor of Europe, as the protection of the
vilue of our money against the fluctuation which is the inevitable consequence
of a control over commercial exchanges, and the manner in which the power,
created by the funded debt of Europe, is used to maintain at all times a com-
mercial balance in favor of England-and while I admit that Congress has
no power t.. make a tariff for the purpose of fostering or protecting one cla^s
of American industry at the expense of another— or for the purpose of creat-
ines a surplus revenue, to be expended in works of internal improvements, I
insist that it is the duty of Congress to so regulate our foreign con.me.ce as
to protect the value of our money, and the price of our property, and ot the
products of our labor, from the periodical contractions and expansions which
it is the purpose and policy of the agents of the European funding systein to
create ; and which are periodically produced, because their system is to buy
at low rates when money is dear, that they may sell at high rates when

money is cheap. , ■, ^ e

How can Congress do this ? Will Congress regulate the value of mc.ney
if they so arrange the tariff as to greatly augment the imports ot men
fabrics ? Will not the increased importation increase the power ot tlie bank
of England to act upon our currency ? Can Congress rightfully transfer to
the Bank of England, or to the agents of the Europe^m monarchies, the
power to " regulate the value of" our money ? If the repeal of the duty on
flax and linens will have that tendency, is not that fact an imperious reason
why it should not be done ? To press this argument further, would assume
that you aie incapable of seeing, or unwilling to admit, its truth, i ther. tore
ao-ain recur to the question of profits. •

578 GEOLOGY. — COAL FORMATIONS, ETC.

Mr. McAdam tells us tliat such liave been the profits on the niaMufacture
of tins., that the single town of ]3elfast has, within a few years, invvsted in
works of public improvement alone, near nineteen millions of dollars ! Who
paid those nineteen millions of dollars ? The consumers. Who were the
consumers ? We, the people of the United States! Now, as it is well un-
derstood that eveiy dollar properly invested in a well-located railroad adds
ten dollars to the value of property, therefore, if instead of im])orting- linens
from Belfast, we had made them for ourselves, and having saved the nineteen
millions of profit, we had invested that sum in American railroads, instead of
sending it to hvland to enrich the manufactuiers of Belfast, the ditierence to
us would have been one hundred and ninety millions of dollars ; and instead
of sending the products of our labor abroad, that it may become an element
of power and intluence in the hands of those who, through the exchanges,
regulate the value of our money, up or cloivn, as they wish to buy or sell, we
"Would to that extent have added strength to our financial position. It is
thu-;, and thus only, that we can become financially independent, and until
this be accomplished, it is impossible for Congress to '•'■regulate the value" of
money.

Do you ask how else you are to j^revent a surplus revenue ? I answer
that Congress has monopolized the transportation of the mail ; that the de-
partment is compelled to employ railroads in that service ; that the present
disbursement is near two millions of dollars, and that it will soon be twice
th;it sum per annum ; that two millions is the interest at 'six per cent, on
thirty-three millions of dollars; that instead of paying this sum .to railroad
companies on contracts to run for four years, I would make contracts for the
permanent use of railroads, and deliver to them bonds, chargeable upon the
revenues of the department, bearing tlcree per cent, only, for an arnouni the
interest on Avhich, at six per cent., would be an equivalent, under the present
system, for the service rendered. Under this change of system, the saving-
would be one half the sum now ex|)ended, or one million of dollars, which,
compounded at six per cent., would, in less than twenty yeai-s, pay of!" the
whole debt, and give to the government the use of such railroads for ever
thereafter without charge."

GEOLOGY.— COAL FORMATIONS, <fec.

In our last number, under this title, we illustrated the geological arrange-
ment and the jiroduction of coal measures. We now come to speak of them
in connection with the strata that lie above them, and which must be re-
garded in all mining operations. But ere we advance, let us remind the
reader that, beginning from beneath, we have found, thus far, the silurian,
which is divided into lower and upper ; the devonian, which is also both
lower and upper; and then the carboniferous, consisting of the mountain
limestone, and upon which rest the coal measures.

iSText above the ci>al is the Peruvian group, consisting (the lower Peruvian)
of the new red-sand>tone, which underlies marl slates and magnesia, lime-
stones, &c., forming the upper Peruvian, and we thus reach the U|>jier limits
of t,he primary formations. Ascending still higher, we meet with the lower
middle and upper trias, then the lias. Tiie former of these consists of var-
ous sandstones, limestones, dolemite, gyj)snm, marls of various kinds, as red,
gray, green, blue, and white, while •the lias contains argillaceous limestone,
marl, and clay.

GEOLOGY. — COAL FORMATIONS, ETC. 579

The fossils which occur in the lower trias group are pUinls of pecuHar spe-
cies, not found in the upper trias ; in the middle strata, the equisetites or
order equisetaciie, and calamites, or the rush tribe, while the upper strata
contain batrachian reptiles, ferns, conifers, cycades, &c. In the argillaceous
limestone of the lias are reptiles, moUusks, and several genera of fish, which
also extend into the group next above.

Oolite. This group is above the lias, and consists of yellow sands, cal-
careous freestone, fuller's earth, sundry slates, Oxford and other clays, Port-
land sandstone, &c. Its fossils are ammonites, and belemnites, saurians, the
plerosaurius, and other reptiles nearly allied to them. These slates are very
rich in fossils, among which are also insects, including some of the beetle
tribe, with some mammiferous fossils. The wealden group, underlying the
cretaceous, lower and upper, complete the secondary formation.

But we begin to fear that our descriptions are becoming too ex-
tended. We dislike dry details in any department of science. We have
had far too much of them, in times gone by, either for the pleasure or
the profit of the learner. Let us, however, ere it passes from our thoughts,
inform the reader, who may have an opportunity to avail himself of the hint,
that in the Austrian department of the Crystal JPalace are some of the finest
ammonites we have ever seen. They are a fawn-colored marble, somewhat
variegated. The largest are some twelve or fourteen inches in diameter,
while other specimens do not exceed four or five inches. The latter com-
pare very nearly, in dimensions, with those found in one or more of the
islands in Lake Champlain, which are formed of a dark-colored marble, and
are very abundant.

Should we continue our dry description of the remaining strata which are
embraced in the eocene, miocene, and pliocene groups, of which the tertiary
formation consists, and which rest beneath the only remaining group, the
post-tertiary, which is divided into the post-pliocene, and the recent, we should
reach the surface; but the view would be very imperfect without numerous
details, Avith which we dare not, at present, challenge the attention of the
reader. We must lead him through more inviting fields, else, as we pile
strata upon strata, in our fast-multiplying rows of type, we destroy the little
sympathy the reader may have in the subject, and deter him from any fur-
ther examination of it. Thus our ill-formed devises, intended to lead to
more thorough investigation, may produce efifects entirely opposite. Beside,
we do not hesitate to admit that we write that we may be read. Writing
not to be read is a most stupid business. We pity the minister who writes
his sermons under the conviction that his audience will not listen with inter-
est to their delivery. Besides the interest which miners have in this subject,
which we purpose to consider, there is also taken an aqricultural view.

To the agriculturist, each of these formations has an interest of its own,
whether it be attractive or repulsive. Thus the lower silurian, which con-
sists of a mass of sandstones, often many thousand feet in thickness, is gene-
rally entirely naked, where.it crops out to the surface, or at best, it fur-
nishes a thin cold soil, capable of supporting only heaths and kindred vege-
tation. The limestones beneath these rocks are far richer. The upper silu-
rian produces a cold, wet, unmanageable clay. The old red-sandstone soils
are much more valuable. The soil of the middle oolite consists of a dark-
blue, adhesive clay, rich in lime, and well suited to cultivation, though often
difficult to work, being very adhesive in wet weather, and very hard when
dry. The lias forms a cold, unproductive, blue clay. The wealden formation
produces a hard, dry soil, but when properly drained and cultivated forms
good wheat land.

580 INDIAN-CORN OR MAIZE.

Wherever the chalk formation is exhibited, we find a dry, parched soil.
This is witnessed in Alabama, for example, where it is difficult to get a suffi-
cient supply of water, and, as we have described in former numbers of our
journal, the people resort to artesian wells, which are sunk five or six hun-
dred feet, and often to a much greater depth.

We may follow along from the sea to the interior, and find, with changes
of the geological formations, as many changes in the character of the soils,
and the crops that can be produced. Thus, taking the region of the South-
ern States, we first find low and swampy land, but rich soil, (post-tertiary and
alluvial,) which will produce good crops of cotton and rice. Receding from
the sea, and rising above its level, we find a harder, dryer soil, but still allu-
vial, consisting of both loams and clay, in which the oak and hickory grow
spontaneously. Here we also find good crops of tobacco, sugar, &c.
On the next higher level in the tertiary formation, is the region of dry
sand, stocked, with pines and kindred growths. Above these are the chalk
formations, nearly barren, and then the slopes of clay and loam, variously
mingled, and suited to a variety of crops. This is at the termination of the
plain, and the commencement of the slope of the Atlantic. The last forma-
tion only belongs to the primary formation.

It is within basins formed along the extent of the AUeghanies, that the
coal beds are formed ; and extending beyond the summit of the mountains,
and far on to the West, "the Appalachian coal field" spreads out, with an
inexhaustible supply of mineral wealth. In Ohio, in the region of Cincin-
nati, the Silurian rocks again develop themselves, interrupting the beds of
coal, but beyond this, toward the Mississippi, the surface is again depressed,
and we find the immense coal field of Illinois, &c.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

INDIAN-CORN OR MAIZE.— ITS HISTORY, GROWTH, &c.

BY G. BLIGHT BROWNE, OF PENNSYLVANIA.

Among the class of farmers who devote their attention to the cultivation
of corn, it has become a question, as to whether or not suckering should be
encouraged, or considered as an injury to the crop. Advocates of both sides
of this question have presented themselves, and have sustained their peculiar
views with considerable plausibility. But thus far, I have not seen any arti-
cle on the subject, in which tlie writer has sufficiently well based his argu-
ment on the nature and physiology of the plant itself.

Without going into the classification of this plant, by Linnceus, or by any
otber founder of an artificial system of botany, I will proceed to consider the
construction, habits, &c., of the zea mays, maize, or Indian-corn.

This plant is a native of America, and, properly speaking, belongs to the
tropics. It was, however, described as growing in the temperate zones, near
the tropics, by the earliest historians on the subject. It is an annual and en-
dogenous. Maize is physiologically constructed to endure great heat, and to
resist evaporization.

In the tropics, during the hot and dry season, vegetation undergoes a
species of hybernation, and awakens with the approach of the wet weather.
So soon as the earth obtains sufficient moisture, the seed of this annual vege-

INDIAN-CORN OR MAIZE. 581

tates, but in a way well adapted to resist the heat of the climate. For in-
stance, when a grain or seed of maize receives sufficient moisture, it com-
mences by exhibiting signs of germination, by throwing out roots and stem ;
but the roots will far outstrip the stem in growth ; in fact, the roots will at-
tain great length before the cotyledons will appear above the ground. By
this means, the plant is well fortified with an abundant supply of moisture
or sap-bearing roots, before it ventures to show its stem to the sun. The
cotyledons make their appearance enveloping one another, and the stem is
fortified with a glazed surface, through which very little liquid can evaporate.
The stem is composed of cellular tissue and spiral tissue, and does not be-
come woody.

This plant is capable of projecting shoots from eacli joint or node, and
these shoots bear the ears of corn. These shoots are by some (I think im-
properly) called suckers. From the summit of the stem is projected a stalk,
which is crowned by a tassfl, or the male organ of reproduction. Embryo
ears are formed, and put forth their silk at the same period that the tassel
makes its appearance. It is rare that more than the two uppermost nodes,
or those situated immediately below the tassel stalk, put forth any silk, and
those situated, lower down usually show at this stage that they are abortions.
No doubt more of the nodes would put forth true fruit, if the plant was
capable of perfecting it, and such is sometimes the case in the colder climates ;
but, often in the warmer latitude, plants have been known to produce seven
perfect ears. Some twenty years since, a Mr. Baden, in Maryland, had corn
that produced from four to seven ears on a stalk.

The female organ or pistil protrudes itself at the apex end of the ear, and
is called in familiar language the silk. Every grain on the ear has one of
these fibres of silk communicating with it. This silk is all produced at the
same time, and at a proper time to be impregnated by the pollen falling from
the tassel. If any ear should mature its silk too late for the pollen, (a case
which I cannot conceive to happen without some disturbing case,) it will not
bear any fruit. At the lower extremity of the silk is the ovule, and it is fer-
tilized by the pollen passing down to it through the cavity in the centre of the
silk. ' The ovules, after being fertilized, become miniature plants, consisting
of root, stem, and leaf. These ovules thus matured are accompanied by a
deposit of starch, and the whole enveloped in a glaze covering, constitutes
the grain. The grains occupying the apex extremity of the cob have, not-
withstanding they are generally somewhat smaller, been fertilized quite as
early in the season as any of the lower ones. They owe their diminished
size to a want of supply from the mother plant. Sometimes this want of
supply will occasion not only the superior grains to be smaller, but will occa-
sion them to dwindle away entirely. This want of supply is not occasioned
by any sterility of the soil. Any soil capable of affording to the plant the
means of producing the stem, tassel, and silk, will be able to continue its
bounty until full development. This defect in the superior portions of the
ear is occasioned by the climate, which, in such cases, has proved at the latter
portion of the season unpropitious for the growth and maturing of the seed.

Suckers (properly speaking) take rise from the stalk below the ground, and
are capable under some circumstances to become complete plants, producing
stalk, tassel, and silk ; and, no doubt, if the climate would fiivor the enter-
prise, would bear ears. In the natural climate of the maize, grown on a soil
undrained of its fertility by husbandry, and in the natural state, unimproved
by cultivation and art, it may be able to furnish to this sucker, or second
growth, sufficient nutriment to bring it to maturity. But in our climate, and

582 AMERICAN WOOL.

limited by one short season, no such result must be expected. Maize lias
been by cultivation much enlarged in the grain, and greater number of grains
are found on the cob of our cultivated varieties, than originally grew on the
natural plant. The great desideratum of the Northern farmer is to make his
corn in the allotted time, and to have his crop well matured before our early
frosts. We have usually no time to lose, and there can be no doubt that
any treatment which would retard the maturing of the ear, would not be a
good one.

Shoots from the nodes above ground can not do much,if any liarm, to the
plant, because they are soon arrested in their growth. The stripping of these
shoots will occssion a very bad wound, and is calculated to do more injury
than good.

The case is very different with the under-ground shoot or sucker. They
derive their sap from the roots of the parent plant, and consequently divert
the supply, at a moment when it is most needed to assist in procreation,
then going on in the parent plant. Nothing should be allowed to interfere
with this function, as the early maturing of the seed depends on the vigor
with which this process is prosecuted.

Therefore, on the whole, I should conclude that the shoots or suckers wliich
start from the nodes above ground, should not be removed ; and that those
which have their origin below ground should be removed.

AMERICAN WOOL.

The British Commissioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851, have deter-
mined to form, in London, a grand univvsrsal trade-museum. Mr. Solby,
their agent, has applied to Mr. P. A. Browne, of Philadelphia, to ascertain
how they will be able to procure for it all the leading varieties of the best
American fleece ; and Mr. Browne has recommended this direct appeal in
their behalf to the sheep-breeders and wool growers of the United States.
Any one disposed to countenance this laudable design will be pleased, Avith
as little delay as possible, to forward specimens to Mr. Browne, post-paid.

Each sample ought to be accompanied with the name and address of the
donor, and also of the breeder, where he is not the donor ; the name of the
species, variety, or breed of both parents or ancestors of the animal from
which the specimen is taken ; the age, sex, probable weight, and amount and
date of last clip, and the number of the flock to which he belongs, &c. All
specimens, when practicable, should be drawn out, (not cut,) and be taken
from the back, six inches in the rear of the neck.

Editoi-s of agricultural periodicals and of newspapers are respectfully re-
quested to insert this notice.

Time for Grafting the Apple. — The best time is the spring, when the
buds are beginning to swell, the scions for grafting having been cut a few
weeks previously, and kept in a moist, cool place, or in a box of damp moss,
in a cool cellar, so as to be neither shrivelled nor water-soaked. Gratis may
be cut and inserted the same day, if the buds are not swollen much. Grafts
are sometimes set much later, but starting so late, they do not make so good
a growth during the summer.

A MISTAKE. 583

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

A MISTAKE.— SOUTHERN PLANTER.— GYPSUM AND AMMONIA.

Messrs. Editors : If there be such a personage as a Professor Campbell, in
North Caroliua, who is in the habit of writing for agricultural journals, he
would doubtless be surprised as well as amused, on reading the 464th page
(February number) of your paper, to see the use there made of his name.
The paragraph there given, detailing an experiment to show that carbonate
of ammonia and gypsum mutually decompose each other, the ammonia being
'• fixed" as an involatile sulphate, seems to have been copied by the New-
England Farmer from the Maine Farmer, but appeared originally in the
Southern Planter, for June, 1853.

As the article from which this extract was taken has been considered of
sufficient importance to be copied, in whole or in part, by several papers in
this and other States, I see no reason why it should be attributed to an
authorship which probably has no existence. The substance of this article
formed part of a lecture on the chemical relations of different fertilizers, de-
livered before a class in Washington College, Virginia, in the course of
scientific agriculture, as taught in that institution. By an awkward mistake, the
printer, instead of W. C, (Washington College,) put N. C. In the summary
of " contents," it was printed in full, " N. Carolina." But, as the editor of
the Southern Planter lives about seventy-five miles from the office through
which that paper is issued, he knew nothing of the mistake until the paper
had been published. He made a very satisfactory apology for the error, in
a private letter, promising at the same time a " correction" in the succeeding
number ; but the correction never made its appearance, and moreover, the
mistake reappeared in the index at the end of the volume. Of course the
matter was forgotten by the worthy editor.

The experiment above alluded to was fairly performed, but can hardly be
considered as conclusive evidence that dry gypsum will act upon ammonia,
since the manure used was moist, and, therefore, soon moistened the gypsum
miagled with it. But there was certainly not moisture enough present to
dissolve the gypsum. Other experiments have confirmed me in the belief
that ground plaster affords one of the most convenient, as well as most effect-
ual means of " fixing" (that is, decomposing) the carbonate of ammonia,
generated in fermenting vegetable and animal manures. The presence of
moisture is certaiuly advantageous in this as in most other cases of chemical
action ; but there is no necessity whatever for having the gypsum in a state
of solution. On the contrary, I think this would result in a disadvantage,
from the large quantity of water required to dissolve it; the proportion being
not less than about five hundred parts of water to one of gypsum. If, in this
condition, a sufficient quantity were used to answer the purpose fully, a por-
tion of the resulting sulphate of ammonia would undoubtedly be washed out
and lost. The moisture always present in manure collected from stables and
barn-yards, if sufficient to cause fermentation, will also be sufficient to pro-
mote the required chemical action between the plaster and carbonate of am-
monia.

When gypsum is used for fixing the ammonia of guano, the mixture
should be moistened ; otherwise, the chemical interchange of elements nill
go on very slowly. Ashes should not' be used with the plaster when mixed

584: glover's models of fkuit.

witli guano, as the carbonate of potash in the ashes would reduce a portion
of the plaster to the carbonate of lime, which does not act upon the salts of
ammonia under ordinary circumstances.

Yours very respectfully, J. L. Campbell.

Laboratory of Washington College, )
Lexington, Va., February, 1854. )

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

]\IR. GLOVER'S MODELS OF FRUIT.

During a recent visit to the city of Washington, for the purpose of attend-
ing the meetings of the United States Agricultural Society, I was much de-
lighted with the collection of models of fruits, &c., belonging to, and manu-
foctured by, Townsend Glover, Esq., of Fishkill Landing, N. Y., and now at
the Patent office.

This collection exhibits in the most beautiful manner, and with inconceiv-
able accuracy, at one view, specimens of the various cultivated and natural
fruits of the United States. To each specimen is attached a label, describing
the taste of the flesh, habit of the tree, time of ripening, and the soil and
climate best adapted to each variety.

By inspection of these models, true to life, the farmer or horticulturist has
it in his power to select such fruit as he shall most fancy the appearance of,
and is enabled to judge for himself whether, as to the soil and climate, any
particular kind is more or less adaptable to-his own locality. The same fruit
grown on different soils, and in different climates, is here exhibited, and in
many instances would not be recognized as being identical in stock ; and, in
fact, it has often, from this cause, received new names to which it is not en-
titled.

Accompanying these models of the fruits, are also to be found fac-similes of
the new wood on which each specimen was grown, and in many cases the
blossoms are also included.

Mr, Glover has also numerous reptiles and fishes, modelled with equal
merit ; and the whole has such a life-like appearance, that one can scarce be-
lieve it is not real.

Mr. Glover is desirous to have the aid of government to complete this
arduous task, so far pro.secuted at his own expense; and when completed, to
deposit it at some suitable place at Washington. If the general government
should refuse to aid him, I would propose that a company should be formed
in New- York, who would be willing to aid him to completion, and that thu
work should be deposited in that city. In one season, the exhibition of such
a collection would reimburse the expended money, and New- York would have
one more gem in its diadem.

Such taste as Mr. Glover has exhibited, in this his chef-d'ceuvre, is seldom
found ; and if ever completed in its details, his collection would grace the
shelves of any scientific museum. It is sincerely to be hoped that he will be
encouraged as he deservt-s, and that the country may not be bereft of sucli a
gem for want of the small sum necessary to finish a work so far advanced
toward completion. G. B, B.

We have seen the models of Mr. Glover, and have always admired them.
It is impossible to distinguish many of them by the eye from tlie true fruit.
We commend them, and our correspondent's proposition, to the attention
of all fruit-growers. — Eds.

CIRCLING LAND. 585

FOK THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

.CIRCLING LAND.

If tlie restoration of worn land is so important and so economical as to
justify heavy investments in chemical properties, brought by great labor and
heavy expenses from far distant countries, how much more important, and
how much more economical, to retain those chemical properties which have
been placed in the soil by the hand of a kind Providence, when the expense
is comparatively nothing ! Even with the heaviest outlays of capital in chemi-
cal properties, the upland, in the cotton region, can not be kept profitably pro-
ductive unless the land is so cultivated as to retain them. Ploughing com-
mences in January, and is finished in August. During this long period, the
land is ploughed five or six times, and is drenched with rains again and
again. And he who undertakes to keep upland, in the cotton region, profit-
ably productive by investing his money in chemical properties without using
the precaution to retain them, almost as vainly toils as did the Danaids to fill
their sieves from the waters of the Lethe. As indispensable as guano, cotton
seed, pea-vines, muck, or manure of some kind may be, in keeping upland
profitably productive, yet neither can be profitably used by the cotton-planter
after a few years' cultivation, unless his land is so circled as to prevent the
soil from washing away. Circling not only prevents the soil from washing
away, but it causes the land to stand a drought much better than when the
rows are straight. No planter will require that these assertions should be
established by argument. He knows a heavy rain runs so rapidly down
straight rows as to wash ; and a moderate rain, after drought, passes ofi" so
soon as not to be taken up by absorption. The only question is as to the
best instrument for circling, the manner of using it, and the best fall to give
the rows.

When I tell the reader of The Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil that it
must be done scientifically, he will acquiesce with me. The only instrument
that should be used, is the engineer's level. It is perfect. Many instruments
are used, and any in use will do some good, but not one will compare with
it. Any one who will read this, can use it in circling as well as the most
accomplished civil engineer. There is nothing about it difficult to compre-
hend. The level sometimes gets out of adjustment, but not very often. I
will therefore first give the directions for adjusting the level.

1. To fix the intersection of the cross-hairs in the axis of the telescope,
loosen the straps over the telescoj)e ; place the cross-hairs on a small object ;
turn the telescope half round in the half circle in which it rests, and move
the cross-hairs by the four capstan-headed screws on the telescope ; loosen
one screw and tighten the opposite one ; do so until the intersection of the
hairs remains on the same spot, when the telescope is turned in the half cir-
cles in which it rests. Next, place the horizontal hair upon an object ; lift
the telescope out of the half circle in which it rests ; reverse it; then turn
it upon the tripod ; see if the hair comes on the same object ; if not, raise
or lower one end of the telescope by the nuts on the lower part of the half
circle in which it rests, until it will reverse upon the same object.

2. To adjust the spirit-level with the cross-hairs in the telescope, bring the
bubble in the centre by the four leveling-screws of the tripod ; turn the
instrument half round on the tripod. If the bubble does not remain in the
centre, raise or lower one end of the tube containing the spiiits, by the nuts

586 CIRCLING LAND.

at the ends of it, until the bubble will remain in the centre when the instru-
ment is turned on the tripod.

In order to circle correctly, you should examine the land well, by riding
or walking over it before commencing, observing the ridges and natural
drains. The water must be made to run gently to the natural drains, the
fence, if you have it on the line of your land, or to a road, if you have one
through your land. To draw the water to the natural drains, commence the
row at the natural drain, and let it rise one foot for every hundred yards, and
if the land is broken, a little more. When one half the length of the row is
run, let it fall in the same ratio until it empties into the natural drain at the
other end. If the land is broken, lay these rows off twenty yards apart ; if
the land is moderately undulating, they may be laid off thirty yards apart.
The water may be drawn to the fence if it is on the line of the tract, or to a
road if there is one through it. This, however, should not be done if it can be
avoided, as it will wash a ditch by the side of the fence, or wash the road,
and gradually wear off the ends of the rows. I have advised to commence
at the natural drains, but in a few days you will understand the use of the
instrument so well that you may commence on the ridge, or on the side of
the ridge, and let the rows rise or fall as you like. I have told how the rows
should run ; now I will tell how to run them. Get a flour-barrel of wooden
pins as large as a finger, eighteen inches long, and pointed at one end. Have
a small line twenty-eight feet long, with each end tied to a pin. Let your
target be a black circle, six inches in diameter, with two white lines a half
inch wide passing through the centre at right angles. The target-rod must
be eight or ten feet long, with inches marked on it the entire length. Have
two boys, and you are ready to commence. Let one boy take the target-rod
and one end of the line ; the other boy an armful of pins and the other end
of the line. Place the boy with the target-rod where you intend to commence
the row, and place the instrument on ground a little lower, judging by the
eye ; then level the instrument. To level the instrument, stick the feet of the
tripod firmly in the ground ; turn the telescope until it is over two of the
leveling-screws ; tighten the one and slacken the other until the bubble
remains in the centre of the tube ; then turn the telescope until it rests over
the other two leveling-screws, and level again, and so on, until the instru-
ment is level. The instrument may be placed from ten to three hundred
yards from the target.

Adjust the focus of the telescope to the distance by moving the large glass
in or out with the screw which moves it. Let the boy with the target-rod
move the target up or down on the rod until the cross-hairs in the telescope
rest on the white hnes on the target. Let him then stick the pin, with one
end of the line attached. If you intend that the row shall rise from the
starting-point, let the boy move the target one inch down on the target-rod,
and take the pin with the other end of the line attached, and move the length
of the line, and move up or down until the cross-hairs in the telescope again
rest on the white lines on the target. Let the boy with the pins stick a pin
at the starting-point, bring up the other end of the line, and stick the pin
attached to it at the foot of the target-rod, and another pin by it. Let the
boy with the target-rod move the target down another inch, and move as
before the length of the line, and up or down, until the cross-hairs in tlie
tele.-cope rest on the white lines on the target; and let theboy with the pins
do as before. Go on in this way until you wish the row to fall the other
way ; then move the target up every time instead of down, and instead ol
risiiiu: the row will fall. You may have the level to move before the row is

CIRCLING LAND. 587

finished ; then move it as you like from ten to three hundred yards, and
place it on ground a little lower than that on which the last pin is placed,
judging by the eye. It may be placed on higher ground, but you circle
more rapidly when it is placed on lower ground, with the sun shining on the
white lines of the target. When you have leveled the instrument, let the
boy move the target up or down on the target-rod until the cross-hairs in the
telescope rest on the white lines of the target, minding to keep the foot of
the taro-et-rod by the last pin that is set, and then go on as before. Divide
your row so that the highest point in the row shall be equally distant from
the two ends. When you have finished the row, go from one end to the
other with a boy, and when you perceive a pin that would make too short a
curve, move it up or down, so as to preserve the grade of the row as much
as possible, and at the same time to make the curve more gradual. When
you have laid off several rows, have the pins ploughed up with a light shovel
with a cutter before it, by your best plough-hand, with a single mule that does
not walk too fast. These rows thus laid off with the level are base rows. Fill
up the space between the base rows thus : Let your plough-hand begin on
the lower side of the base row, and lay off rows parallel with it, until the
space between it and the base row below is filled up. Then your short rows
will all fall on base rows. When you have finished laying otF, run a turning-
plough three or four times on the upper side of the base rows, taking a little
land only. Let the hoes follow, the hands moving on the lower side of the
base row, and draw the dirt out of the. furrows run by the turning-plough, so
as to make a ridge eighteen inches high on the lower side of the base rows.
Your base rows then become hill-side ditches.

In laying off the rows between the base rows, it is best to have a small
boy, with a rod, tied to the bridle of the mule, of such a length that when he
holds the rod to his breast, and walks in the row that is laid off, the row
that is being laid off will be at the distance wished. The length of the rod
is about equal to the width of the row.

I was once much embarrassed to replace the cross-hairs in the telescope
after they had disappeared ; but necessity was the mother of discovery. If
the cross-hairs .should be destroyed, unscrew the large glass and take it out ;
unscrew the small straps which attach the large screw to the instrument that
moves in and out the large glass ; unscrew and take out the screws which
adjust the cross-hairs ; turn the large end of the instrument down, and a
brass circle will fall out, to which the cross-hairs were attached. The circle
has drawn across its face four lines equally distant. Remove the paste, and
take a spider's-web and place it across the circle, letting it lie in the lines ;
attach it to the circle with paste, and then you will have the hairs crossing
each other at right angles. Return the circle to its former place by moving
it up the telescope with a round rod, and turning it until the screws will
confine it. Put the instrument together, and adjust it by the directions.

A Planter.

Yazoo Co., jMiss., February, 1854.

P.S. — The line twenty-eight feet long will give about a foot fall to the
hundred yards, when some of the pins are moved a little to prevent the short
curves.

One of the most distinguished physicians of New-England ascribes the
fearful increase of cases of paralysis to the use of stoves in close rooms, par-
ticularly in sleeping apartments.

588

EXPERIMENTS ON COTTON.

EXPERIMENTS ON COTTON,

WITH SALT, GUANO, AND SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

According to promise made you, I herewith send the result of a pari of
my experiments with guano, &c. Cotton seed planted soon after drilling
manure, which was done under my own eye, articles weighed and measured
by myself on 4th and 5th of April.

Kind of ma-

Product in lbs.

nure.

Order of rows and quan-
tity of fertilizers to each.

Seed, how prepared.

Per

No.

row, acre.

1. Salt

1st 2 bushels per acre

Seed brined and rolled

in drills.

in plaster.

121— 968

2d " " on row.

(< it

135—1080

2. Guano.

1st 247 lbs. guano per

Seed plain, brined and

acre.

rolled in jjlaster.

135—1080

2d 200 lbs. guano.

"

156-1248

3d 100

162—1290

4th 200 "

" brined, &c.

145—1160

3. No ma-

1st nothing added.

" plain.

130—1040

nure.

2d

3d 4 bushels salt per

" brined, <fec.

133—1064

acre in drill.

" plain.

117— 936

4th

" brined, <fcc.

118— 944

4. Super-

Ist 200 lbs, phosphate

phosphate

per acre.

" plain.

134—1072

of lime.

2d " "

" brined, &c.

132—1056

3d 100

" plain.

105— 880

4th " "

" brined, &c.

131—1048

5. Bones.

1st 4 bushels bones j^er

acre.

" plain.

112— 896

2d

" brined, tfec.

136—1088

3d 2

" plain,

135—1112

4th

" brined, <fec.

149—1192

6. Guano &

1st 200 lbs. guano, one

plaster.

bushel plaster per

acre.

" plain.

128—1024

2d " "

" brined, &c.

138—1264

7. Guano <fe

1st 200 lbs guano, four

bones.

bushels bones per

acre.

" plain.

162—1296

2d "

" brined, tfec.

142—1153

8. Guano &

1st 200 lbs. guano, 160

phosphate.

pounds phosphate

per acre.

" plain.

143—1144

2d ^'

" brined, <fee.

135—1080

Remarks. — I made other experiments with other quantities, but deem
them too cumbersome. The field in which these experiments were made is
the thinnest land on the place ; the rows 440 yards long, 4 feet distant, and
running due east and west. The 40-acre piece lying east of plantation road,
averaged 1370 lbs. These experiments embrace not the entire yield, as I
had made a light picking before I took note, and one or two after ; but as
there are three pickings from 13th of September to the 22d of November, I
deem the showing as fair.

I made only one note during summer: June 18. — I noticed on the ICth

BUTTER AND CHEESE. ' 589

that Nos. 6, 7, 8 were growing much faster than the others ; up to this date
I had not observed any difference. I see very httle if any difference between
1, 2, 3, and 4, whilst 5 really appears smallest; it may be the contrast be-
tween 5, 6, 7, 8. This was made without examining book as to manures.
You will observe in No. 3, 1st and 2d rows had no manure. Now, take No.
3, first two rows giving about 1050 lbs. per acre, and where 247 lbs. of
guano were used. No 2-1, and the product is equal or about. Showing, s6
far as this experiment goes, that 247 lbs. of guano did no good, whilst 100
lbs. No. 2-3, gave 240 lbs. increase for the 100 lbs., or nearly $5 for the
guano.

The greatest result was with the 100 lbs., and in No. 7-1 with 200 lbs.
guano and 4 bushels of bones.

I did intend to draw no inferences, and [believe I will do no more, but
leave the matter to your consideration and that of our friends. Of course, I
had no interest but to test what was my interest. The result has been so
unsatisfactory that I am now undecided ; yet, if others claim so much from
one experiment, I may as well do so too.

I think I will try again, yet the trouble of having rows picked separately,
for three, four, and five times, and for one to be present to prevent mistakes,
is rather troublesome. I think, therefore, only of trying^an acre or so, side
by side.

I can not resist bringing to your notice that salt drilled, 2 and 4 bushels
per acre was a detriment ; see No. 1-1 and 2, and 3-3 and 4.
' Again, Nos. 6, 7, and 8 were the largest and thriftiest, very green even
till frost. No. 6 having rather a preference all the time, and more bolls not
matured. M. W. Philips.

— ^rom the American Cotton- Planter.

BUTTER AND CHEESE.

We give below a valuable selection from the Report of the Committee of
the " Rhode Island Society for the Encouragement of Domestic Industry,"
on this subject.

From these experiments it is shown that to obtain the best of sweet butter,
that will keep for a greater length of time than any other without being
rancid, we must churn sweet cream — that if the butter-milk is valuable in
market, and the butter can be disposed of soon after it is made, there will be
the greatest gain by churning the sour milk and cream together ; that by
scalding the milk, and then taking off the cream, the milk is best for market :
although the yield of butter is greatest, and the flavor good, it must be put
in market direct from the churn and consumed without delay, or it becomes
rancid and worthless; that in proportion to the quantity of butter produced
from the cream of a given measure of milk, reference being had to the length
of time the cream is suffered to remain upon it, will be its liability to become
soonest rancid ; that the excess of weight, as exhibited above is to be attri-
buted in a great measure to the absorption and combination of caseine (curd)
with the oleaginous (oily) portions of the cream ; that the prevalence of
caseine, although it is not objectionable by imparting any impleasant flavor
while new, renders the butter of less value, as it soon grows rancid ; and for
the further reason that it is used, necessarily, more profusely than new butter,

VOL. YI. — PART II. 14

590 BUTTER AND CHEESE.

■which has less curd in it. It has been fully proved that milk contains, on
an average, only one per cent, more curd than butter.

Dumas says, " that the facility with which butter becomes rancid, depends
on the presence of caseine, (curd) from which it is necessary it should be
separated in order to its preservation."

This can be effected by fusion, (melting.) For exportation to hot climates,
or for the purpose of preserving early-made butter sweet through the heat of
summer, for winter's use, it should be clarified before salting or much work-
ing. For this purpose, it is put into a lipped vessel and placed in another of
water, which is to be gradually heated, till the butter is melted. Care must
be taken not to over-heat it ; it must be kept melted until the curd and butter-
milk have settled ; the clear melted butter is then poured off from the sedi-
ment into small white kegs, containing from twenty to thirty pounds each,
or into maplecannipails,ofShaker manufacture, for family use. When sufficient-
ly cooled, and before it hardens, it may be salted with less than half an ounce
of fine rock-salt to the pound, but as it is difficult to incorporate the salt well,
the salt may be omitted, and the butter will keep perfectly sweet. What
butter remains in the vessel will rise to the top, and harden like tallow ; when
taken off, the amount of curd and butter-milk will appear. You will then
have the pure article, equal to the best of table butter, for all the purposes
to which sweet oil (as we get it) or drawn butter is applied — it is perfect for
shortening — melt it in milk instead of water. It is not suitable to spread cold
on bread.

One of your committee, in the warm season, last year, took seventeen
pounds of sweet, salted, lump butter, and proceeded as above directed. What
settled at the bottom after melting, was composed of two ounces of limpid
whey, two ounces of fine salt, and twelve ounces of curd — in all, one pound.
Had this curd not been extracted, the whole, long before this (2d of Feb.)
would probably have been rancid. The experiment proved perfectly satis-
factory, and is recommended to the public. Store-keepeis back in the country,
who take in butter, would find it to their account by putting it in practice,
thereby diminishing the aijiount of "grease-butter" sent to market.

Adulteration of Milk, from Bowman s Medical Chemistry, as published in
the Providence Journal, some time since : " We have no chemical means of
ascertaining whether water has been fraudulently added to milk; the only
effect being to dilute it and render it of poorer quality. A knowledge of the
specific gravity can not here be made available, since the abstraction of cream,
which has a lower specific gravity than milk, may be made to neutralize the
effect produced by the addition of water ; the tendency of the removal of
the cream being to raise the specific gravity, or weight of the milk, and that
of the addiiion of water to lower it. A specimen of milk, therefore, which
has been impoverished by the abstraction of cream, and still further weakened
by the addition of water, may be made to possess the same specific gravity,
or weight, as it had when taken from the can."

The average product of cow's milk is 15 per cent, of cream by the lacto-
meter.

It is of quite as much importance to ascertain the average product of curd ;
but this can only be done by actual experiment, as no instrument will show-
it. Liebig says the nutriment in milk depends upon the amount of curd it
contains, and not on the amount of butter. An experiment was tried by feeding
a dog with butter only ; he became very fat, his hair was saturated with
grease, and he died at the end of thirty days. Those who were opposed to
this view of the subject repeated the experiment, and the dog survived, but

BUTTER AND CHEESE. 591

this result was attributed to the great amount of caseine (curd) contained in
the butter.

If the object of a dairy be to make cheese, cows should be bred and selected
that give milk rich with curd ; if the object be butter, those that give a light
milk will produce most; but if the object be the greatest profit in selling
milk, such cows should be selected as will give the most milk, and from which
the least butter and cheese can be made from a given quantity.

It is a remark often made, and with truth, by those who have the care of
dairies, that there are individuals among their cows, whose milk yields little
or no cream, but abounds in curd ; while the milk of others is very deficient
in curd, but is not lacking in cream. The perfection of milk is the union of
these two desirable properties, and its greatest defect is the absence of both.

A cubic foot of pure water weighs 1000 ounces avoirdupois, very nearly;

The weight of all substances, except the gases, (all being brought to one
temperature,) is, in relation to that of pure water, whose specific gravity,
(weight) is represented by unity, or one, thus :

Water - - 1.000

Butter is lighter 0.942

Cream " - - - - / 0-980

New milk average is heavier - 1.028

Skim-milk " " 1.038

In a former communication on the subject of butter-making, we disapproved
of the practice of adding water to the cream, and of washing the butter, to
rid it of its butter-milk. The carbonate of lime, found in water, causes the
incrustation which forms on the inside of utensils in which it is boiled.
Butter absorbs the lime and magnesia present in salt and in water, when it
comes in contact with them ; it has an injurious eff'ect on its quality and pre-
servation. It is therefore in all cases safest not to wash it, even if the water
be pure ; it will, in a measure, destroy its fine fragrance and flavor.

The use of pure salt can not be too often recommended to those who have
dairies in charge. More than a million of dollars can be annually saved to
our farmers in this country, by attention to this point. No one denies that
good pure salt is made at our salt-springs, by solar evaporation, if taken from
the first pafi where all the crystals are perfectly square ; but this salt comes
to the consumer with various degrees of adulteration ; and is therefore cheap,
as to the first cost. After the square crystals of pure salt have ceased to form ;
then, by further evaporation, the salts of magnesia, and glaubers salts begin
to show long needle-shaped crystals, very bitter to the taste ; easily dissolved,
and always found moist in damp weather. It will not preserve fish or meat,
and when used for butter, will dissolve and run from it like water. Whereas
rock-salt gives it firmness, which facilitates the extraction of butter-milk and
preserves it sweet. Many bags marked rock-salt have been filled more than
once; and many others never came in contact with it. Let the farmers club
together, and send to a sea- port, and get the best of rock-salt — sift out the
fine, wash and dry the lumps, and have it ground at any grist-mill in the
neighborhood, as our fathers did, before the introduction of the very improved
fine Liverpool bag or blown salt.

For the Committee, Stephen H. Smith.

We also add the following selection from some unknown source:
"Butter. — Butter made properly is very easily preserved. The cream
baould be churned ivhile it is sweet, the butter-milk thoroughly worked out —

592 BOOK-FARMING.

not washed out with cold water — about an ounce of salt applied to a pound,
packed away in the tub closely, and kept as much as possible from the air.
This is the whole operation of makinj^ and keeping good butter. It is not
the pure butter, which is an oil, that becomes rancid, but the butter-milk that
is with it. We have seen a statement from a French paper, that the bad
taste and smell of butter may be entirely removed by water mixed with
chloride of lime. The discovery was made by a Brussels farmer, whose
practice has been to take a sufficient quantity of water to work it in, and ])Ut
in it from 25 to 30 drops of chloride of lime for every 10 pounds of butter.
When it has been worked until the whole has been brought into contact with
the water, it should be worked again in pure water, when it will be found
sweet. This plan may easily be tested, and we should think it worth while
for those dealing in butter to try it."

FOR TUB PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE iNVIL.

BOOK-FARMING.

MessJis. Editors : Man is so constituted by early education and association
in early life, thai it is not strange that we should cling to them in after years.
Our early training in morals and religion is seldom forgotten ; our early
education in tilling the soil is apt to cling to us in after-hfe.

There is a common prejudice among farmers against book-farming. Most
of this we have received by eaily training. It is very important that the
ffxrraer should form correct theories — that he should understand the nature
of each crop he cultivates, the nature of the soil on his farm, the amount of
manure required for each successive crop, the kind best adapted to any par-
ticular location on the farm, the best time to pluugh different soils, the best
and most prolific seeds for cultivation, their character and habits, the most
proper time to sow and plant, and so on, through a long list of operations.
Now, is this science' all untrue and deceptive, because it is a matter ol"
record? Certainly not. Do any of our brethren know so much that it would
be injurious to know more ? Is there not room still for improvement? I)c>
our fields do all that they are able to do by an improved system ? We think
we hear the answer kg to all these questions.

But how are we to be benefited by books and agricultural journals ? AVc
answer, read and practice what is adapted to our case. We must use ou)-
best judgment. We are not bound to receive what we think is unreasonable.
If a correspondent advances a visionaiy scheme, we are not bound to follow
it. But some will say, w^e work our farm the same as our fathers did ! but do we
harvest as large crops as they did ? No ! They cropped a virgin soil. It has
now become exhausted. Books will tell us how to restore it to its original
fertility.

W^e are not apt to think of that vast pile of pork, beef, mutton, corn, <fec.,
cra-ried from the farm, for two or three generations, without having the same
elements restored again to it.

If there are the elements of five hundred bushels of corn in one acre of
land, with what the plant absorbs from the atmosphere, when we have taken
out four hundred, there is but one left, and so on, till we have taken the whole,
without restoring to the earth, in the shape of manure, that which has been
taken from it.

BLOOMSDALE. 593

Some will say, we have seen enough of book-farming. There was such a
man did this, that and the other, and " came out at the little end of the horn/'
as the saying is.

All very true. Do all hap-hazard farmers succeed ? Do not as many sys-
tematic farmers succeed in laying up a competence for themselves and families
as book-men do in any other occupation ?

A good agricultural journal is a great help to a practical farmer. We
might see there an experiment we had designed to make, and we may thus
be informed of the folly of renewing it.

On the other hand, we might see something the idea of which never had
come into our mind before, that might be of many dollars' advantage, pay-
ing the subscription, and leaving a balance in our pockets besides.

Epping, N. H. D. L. HARVEr.

BLOOMSDALE— THE SEED-FARM AND RESIDENCE OF DAVID
LANDRETH, ESQUIRE.

This establishment is situated on the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware
river, one mile above Bristol, and embraces about two hundred acres of land.

The father of the present Mr. L., who was the first in this country to sys-
tematically cultivate seeds for sale, commenced his operations shortly after the
Revolution, on a very limited scale, but at that day sufficiently large to meet
the demand, with the aid of occasional importations from Europe ; and within
the last quarter of a century, the grounds cultivated by this concern (then as
now the largest in the Union) did not exceed 30 acres. Now the shipment
of seeds is to far distant points. California calls for supplies by almost every
ship ; Oregon and New-Mexico make occasional demands ; South America
and the West Indies are regular customers ; and the British possessions in
Asia obtain annual supplies. Wiihin a short period Mr. L. has completed a
shipment oi four tons, ordered for distribution in British India! Thus has
increased the commercial demand for one of our country's many products,
and thus is answered a question which is very naturally asked on viewing the
crops at Bloomsdale : where is market found for all these seeds ? The amount
of labor expended on the culture is evidently great, and though nearly all
the crops are in drills, thus admitting of mechanical aid, still many hands are
requisite to subdue the weeds, harvest and thresh the crops, and perform other
operations incident to the business.

Mr. L. has found the system of providing household accommodations for
his hands, to work well. Eleven families now reside on the estate, (the single
men boarding with the married,) each provided with a neat cottage and gar-
den— keep their own pigs and cultivate their own vegetables and flowers.
They are encouraged to keep all neat and trim ; the inconvenience and tempta-
tions of remote residence are avoided, and as Mr. L. never changes his hands
but on compulsion, they feel assured good conduct will insure permanent
homes.

A tank for collecting liquid manure flowing from the barn-yard, has been
erected, and is capable of holding about 50 hogsheads, durably built of stone,
coated with hydraulic cement, and is emptied by an ordinary chain pump,
whiclT discharges into a cask on wheels. This, though an economy almost
universal among English farmers, is seldom resorted to in this country, though
it could be with decided advantage by every tiller of the soil.

594 ' WISCONSIN".

Among the live-stock is a pair of Norman ponies, which are made to serve
a double purpose — amuse the youngsters, and cultivate drillel crops; they
work within 10 inches and possess suffi^:ient power for tlie harrow. These,
with mules for similar labor, and oxen and heavy horses for ploughing and
cartage of manure, are the force employed.

The lawn at Bloomsdale embraces eight to ten acres, and though formed
but five years, promises to be highly attractive, it being laid out with unusual
care and judgment. It is planted with a carefully-selected variety of indige-
nous trees, also many rare specimens imported from abroad for the position
they now occupy.

We might here express regret, that many among us who have expended
largely in the erection of their mansions, have not decorated their grounds to
accord therewith. True taste consists in an harmonious whole — the grounds
and buildings to be pleasing and effective must be " in keeping." Even the
habit of trees should be studied ; certain trees suit certain styles of architec-
ture. Flat-headed ones do not accord with pointed buildings, nor do
spiral trees harmonize with Italian structures, the lines of which are mainly
horizontal. On these subjects we have much to learn — let us meanwhile
practice what we already know, and thus impart the information to others.

It is amongst the most gratifying evidences of the true progress of agricul-
tural and horticultural science in our country, that men are found who devote
their time and attention to one particular branch, and thus develop fully what
is capable of being effected by proper cultivation. Of this class are those
who liave demonstrated the progress that can be made by proper improve-
ment in cattle, horses, hogs, sheep, &c. They have furnished a seed from
which the farmer can greatly increase the quality of his products, and thus
have givL'U an impetus to this important resource of our country's pros-
perity. In this view of the subject, Mr. Landreth deserves to be ranked
as a benefactor of his race. He has brought science, skill, and experience to
bear successfully upon a department of agriculture which is developing the
capabilities of the soil, and adding to the products of the earth, whether cul-
tivated on an extensive scale by the farmer, or by him only vi-ho tills his
little plot in the garden.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THB LOOM, AND THK ANVIL.

WISCONSIN.

Messrs. Editors : — Thinking that a description of this country would be
of interest to some of your readers, who may wish to emigrate, I have deter-
mined to set forth the advantages of this particular county (La Fayette,
Wis.) for settlers.

Thei-e is but little vacant land in the county, nearly all having been en-
tered by settlers or speculators. The settlers are generally of an unquiet dis-
position, and fond of change ; many would sell out cheap, for the sake of
moving.

The land held by speculators is mostly timbered, and can now be bought
at from $5 to $10 an acre; but land is increasing in value daily.

Improved farms can be bought at from $7 to $14 an acre. One farr^ near
me, of 400 acres, over 100 under cultivation, 80 in timber, and 80 in mea-
dow, with a comfortable frame-house, and fine springs, can be bought for $7

WISCONSIN. 595

an acre. I know a lot of about 280 acres, 120 of the finest meadow, about
60 well timbered, the rest open prairie, belonging to speculators. This is one
of the most beautiful sites for a farm that I have seen any where, and can be
bought for between $4 and $5 an acre ; two years ago, it was held at |3 an
acre.

Land in this vicinity is very rich, the soil being from six inches to several
feet deep. The surface is covered to the depth of about three inches with a
rich vegetable mould, as black as ink, and as soft to the touch as velvet.
- There is a field on the river bottom, which has been cultivated twenty
years, and has never had a particle of manure applied to it, which, I am as-
sured, produces as abundantly now as ever.

Corn is the most reliable crop, and the yield is from 60 to 100 bushels per
acre. The soil is rather light for wheat, inasmuch as the wind blows it from
the roots in wi,nter, unless protected by snow ; though wheat will make a
good crop, if a proper spot is selected, and the wheat sown early and abund-
antly, so as to sod the ground before the cold weather sets in. Crops of
wheat raised on sod which was turned over the preceding summer, are al-
ways sure, and yield from 25 to 40 bushels per acre. Oat crops yield from
60 to 100 bushels. Rye and barley are good crops.

As to vegetables, they are produced in perfection. I raised carrots last
summer 18 inches long, and as large as a man's leg, on ground which was
only broken the summer before, and was not even ploughed before the seed
was sown. Under the same circumstances, I raised radishes, weighing 8 and
9 pounds ; turnips, 9 inches in diameter, which would probably weigh 15 lbs. ;
tomatoes, weighing 1 lb. 14 oz. Potatoes of the finest quality, and 350
bushels of corn, on seven acres. Next summer, I expect to get 100 bushels
per acre. I raised water-melons from seed brought from Virginia, which,
though not remarkably large, were as fine flavored as those from which I got
the seed. I planted a little tobacco last summer for experiment. I will sim-
ply add, that I sold some of it, in the leaf^ for fifty cents a pound.

This is a great grazing country, and is admirably adapted to raising stock
of all kinds. Cattle keep in good order all the winter, on wild hay. The
tame grasses grow luxuriantly, and the wild, of which there are several va-
rieties, grow six and eight feet high, and yield from two to four tons of hay
per acre.

There is a fine water-power within a mile of me, capable of supplying
several large mills, and I am surprised that it has not been taken advantage
of; particularly, as a grist-mill is very much needed in this neighborhood.

Limestone, in strata, from one inch to one foot thick, and sometimes eight
feet square, is abundant, and well suited for building purposes.

As to markets, we have the lead mines ; Wiota, 6 miles from me ; ShuUs-
burg, 18 miles; Warren, 111., 6 miles distant, at which place, there is a
depot of the Chicago and Galena Railroad, which road has just been com-
pleted to Warren, and will probably be completed to Galena by next summer.
Warren is also the point at which the Mineral Point Railroad intersects the
Chicago and Galena road ; so by next summer, we will have Chicago, Ga-
lena, and Mineral Point for our markets.

It is supposed that the Milwaukee and Dubuque railroad will pass through
the centre of this county. Several surveys have been made within a mile
of me.

I would not be surprised to see this, in less than five years, one immense
village from the Lake to the Mississippi, and eight or ten miles wide.

The country is very healthy, except on the river bottoms, where intermit-

596

HOP-EAISING.

tent fever prevails. The winters are severe, to me, a Virginian, and are six
monllis long. The summers are delightful, and in those months the coun-
try is positively beautiful, particularly what is called the barrens, which re-
semble a magnificent rolling-park, with its green trees, and rich grass, and
beautiful wild flowers. Respectfully youre,

G. W. Varnum.
Wiota, Wis., January 3, 1854.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL FAIR.

There is one feature about the fairs of Massachusetts whicli deserves es-
pecial mention. We refer to the great number of persons who receive pre-
miums. In some societies the number of applicants is limited, and the list
of successful competitors might almost be stereotyped. In the local societies
of the Bay State, no such criticism can be justly made. We have prepared
the following table from the returns of the State Board of Agriculture :

Number of towns in

Number of towns in

which premiums

were obtained.

Amount

Names of Societies.

territory represented.

of piem's.
obtained.

Essex,

30

22

882.12

Middlesex, ....

50

24

589.00

Worcester, ....

58

23

591.00

West, . .

—

11

4 5 '7. 00

North, . .

—

10

298.70

Hampshire, Franklin, &

,

Hampden, . . .

60

18

663.90

Hampshire, ....

f23

22

500.00

Hampden, ....

20

10

SOS.VS

Franklin,

26

16

388.41

Berkshire, ....

32

22

813.00

Housatonic, ....

15

865.00

Noifolk, ....

23

18

749.00

Bristol,

19

14 .

640.75

Plymouth, ....

19

18

597.75

Barnstable, ....

14

8

182.75

FOR Tms PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANTIL.

HOP-RAISING.

Dear Sirs : I have delayed mucli longer than I intended the notifying you
of the amount of hops raised in this vicinity. The crop this year has been
very meagre.

Not one half the quantity, in the same yard, has been produced this year
that was last, many yards having been brought under cultivation. In many,
the vines did not (a majority of them) ascend the pales over four feet. The
growers attribute it to a worm preying on the roots in the early part of the
season.

MORE PROFITABLE FARMING. 597

A set of sharpers came into the vicinity in July, and contracted with all
who would bargain, from seventeen to twenty-two cents. At the time they
were collected for market, the price was quick at thirty-four cents, and the
few who did not sell till winter, received thirty-eight cents.

There were seventy-five tons taken in at Hyde-park, that being the universal
depot. Those dealing in the article, say there must be deducted nine tons
for what came from other towns. Hop-raising is a money-making business,
(which appears to be the Yankee's god,) and is a vast benefit to our farmers.

Yours truly, Ariel Hunton.

Eyde-park, Vt, February 27, 1854.

MORE PROFITABLE FARMING.

The following is the account of a ftirmer of Ohio. We commend it and
others like it to the attention of all poor farmers. It is from the Ohio Cul-
tivator. The writer says :

"All the items below have been produced, and increased on the farmsince
January, 1853. We devote our attention mainly to raising wheat and corn ;
have some 15 acres in apple-orchards, &c. Our farm has iVl acres, 120 of
which is in cultivation. I am assisted by three sons, 17 and 19 years of age,
and therefore hire but little. I have not taken into account the labor done
by the family on the farm, nor the articles consumed by them raised from the
same.

Our wheat crop the past year was no more than two thirds of an averao-e
one. My wheat and corn is mostly unsold yet ; I therefore j)ut the prices they
are now selling for :

Farm, account from January 1, 1853, to January 1, 1854.

EXPENDITURES.

Taxes for 1853,

Hired lands, --.._._

Girl to assist in housework, - . . _ .

Machine for threshing grain,

Shoes and boots for the family, -----
Store bills, ---____.

Blacksmiths' bills, -.---..

Medical bills,

Churches, and building bridges, - - - • -

School bills, - - - - - --

Newspapers and periodicals,

Kepairing and building out-houses, - - - -

Reaping-machines, cost $130, say one quarter of this, -

Wagon-maker, repairing,

Two mares to a horse,

Market-wagon, cost $40, say for this year,
^ Expenses attending market at Columbus, - . -
' Various other small expenses, amounting to

Total, $551 T9

$41

08

71

10

30

00

22

96

41

00

138

SO

32

00

12

00

20

00

6

10

7

50

38

00

32

00

6

25

8

00

8

00

18

00

18

50

FEEDING HOGS ON COTTON SEED.

RECEIPTS.

625 bushels wheat sold and on hand, at $1.10, -
1200 " com " «' 30c.,

30 stock hogs,

Lumber and timber sold from the farm, -

3000 rails sold, (their places supplied by hedge,)
Rent of 2 houses belonging to farm,
Amount received for pasture from neighbors,
8 tons of hay, ------

Increase on 12 horses and colts — 1 sold.
Seven stock cattle sold for - . _ _
2 cows sold for ----- -

Increase on 28 head stock cattle and cows within the year,
160 bushels oats sold at 37|-c. per bushel, - - .
360 bushels apples sold in Columbus, averaging 60c.,
210 bushels sold at home for 25c. per bushel^
26 bbls. cider, at $2 per bbl., ....

4 bushels timothy seed, .--.._
Work done for neighbors to amount of -
Beef and hides sold --.__.

60 lbs. of wool of 14 sheep, at 50c. per lb., -
Increase in sheep in the year, -----

20 bushels sweet potatoes sold at Columbus, average |1.

bushel, - -'- -"-

80 lbs. honey sold in Columbus, average 22c. lb.,
260 lbs. butter sold in Columbus, average 18c. lb., -
90 chickens, 100 dozen eggs sold in Columbus, average
Chestnuts, vegetables, and other small things sold -
Shingles made and sold by us in the ytar, -

Total amount sold and on hand to sell,
Deduct expenses as above, - - . .

Amount of gain for the year, - - -

- $687

50

360

00

- 147

00

112

10

- 45

00

48

00

- 42

00

64

00

- 140

00

85

00

- 42

00

ear, 110

00

- 53

00

216

00

52

50

52

00

10

00

66

00

- 41

50

30

00

8

00

50 per

30

00

- 17

60

46

80

- 20

00

20

00

42

00

- $2,608

00

551

79

$2,056 21

FEEDING HOGS ON COTTON SEED.

There seems to be a great diversity in the practice of Southern agricultur-
ists in the use made of cotton seed, not required for sowing. The following
account, taken from the Soil of the South, seems obviously a very proper
application of this highly carbonized food. The writer says :

"I procured a large chaldron that holds ninety gallons, which I had put
up with brick, with an arch in front, and a chimney at the opposite end, to
draw the heat and let off the smoke. I put in this kettle three or four bushels
of cotton seed, with a quantity of turnip-tops and old corn-cobs, the under
leaves of cabbag.-s, and a portion of salt, to make it savory ; with this compo-
sition I feed twice a day, and keep my hogs inclosed in a ten-acre lot. They
will keep in fine growing attitude until harvest. I then dispense with steam-
ing their food, the gleanings of the oat fields will sustain them until I open
my corn-fields in September. The cow-peas, &c., &c., put them in good

HOW TO PRODUCE GUANO FOR A WHEAT CROP. 599

pork order, and by adopting this plan, I raise my pork plentifully, and to
spare, with but very little corn. I view cotton seed prepared in this way,
very wholesome and nutritious food. I generally kill my hogs when they
are one year old, and they will average from 175 to 200 lbs. net pork. I
keep from sixty to one hundred head of ditferent sizes in my piggery, and
living contiguous to market, send all ray female pigs to the shambles.

Pigs, Mr. Editor, are very susceptible of disease. When they are aJSected
with a dry cough, and mangy, I give them poke-root soup, take two or three
large bulbous roots, and put them in a large pot or kettle, and boil them until
they are soft and perfectly done, and put in a quantity of meal and salt, and
■when CO 1, convey it to the piggery, and let them feast on it. I also give sulphur
and pulverized antimony, copperas and strong ashes to my hogs, which de-
stroy the kidney-worm and keep up their appetite. Now, Mr. Editor, I have
given you ray plan of feeding cotton-seed to hogs, as also my prescription
for pigs. If you think it will contribute to inspire the farmer to try the ex-
periment. I shall feel myself fully remunerated.

"Montgomery City, Ala., January, 1854."

HOW TO PROCURE GUAXO FOR A WHEAT CROP.

A writer in the Country Gentleman gets off the following :

IIow to procure guano for a wheat crop ? Why, send the money to
Longett & Griffing, of New- York, and you will receive guano ii; return if
you so order it, the captious joker will say. Even so. But how obtain the
money for that purpose, without trenching upon any extraneous source ?
" Why," says the joker, " the extra product of wheat will pay for the guano."
Possibly it may, and more gain if it do. How to procure guano for a wheat
crop ? I will tell thee, gentle reader.

Instead of sun-drying your land all summer in the fallow system, plough
it crosswise in the first week of June, and drag it without lapping, and sow,
broadcast, from three to four bushels of Indian corn, and sweet garden-corn
if you can obtain the seed, and then cover it up with a gang-plough or large
cultivator. Take no further care till the last week of Augfust, when vou must
mow down the corn fodder, tie it up in bundles, and remove it to an adjoin-
ing field for the purpose of clearing the ground for ploughing, and set the
bundles up in shocks, and as soon as cured, put it into large cocks, say a load
to a cock, and let it take a sweat. In a dry spell of weather, open the cocks
in the morning, and cart to the barn in the afternoon, and stack it in the
mow the same as hay, and salt every two layers of bundles at the rate of a
barrel of salt to five acres of fodder. Or if you like it better, stack it to the
weather, in long, narrow stacks, in joints about ten feet long, and thatch it
with straw, English fashion.

The fodder from one acre, when oui-ed, will weigh from four to seven tons.
Mr. Alpheus Morse, of Eaton, told me at our county fair, that he had weighed
half an acre of dry corn fodder, and its weight was three and a half tons, or
seven tons to the acre. His farm, it must be borne in mind, is in a very high
state of cultivation. This corn fodder is worth $10 per ton when hay is
worth 17. Four tons at |10 per ton = |40 per acre. Seed, S3 ; mowing
and binding, $2 ; carting, $1.50 = $6.50. $33.20 />/-q;?^ on the acre to buy
guano loith! The land is left perfectly clean and mellow, and there is no

600 CULTURE OF THE CAMELIA JAPONICA.

loss in tlie consumption of the fodder, for the cattle do not leave a sign of it
in the manger.

For soiling milch cows in the dry months of August and September, corn
fodder is a complete stop-gap to the cows drying up, an object aimed at by
all practical men. Half an acre is amply sufficient for ten milch cows. Try
it, brother farmers, and see how much money you have lost in your lifetime.

If these calculations be cprrect, what an immense amount of fodder is lost
every year in New-York State alone ; for it is well known that all soils suita-
ble for wheat will grow corn fodder to perfection.

Who will profit from the fact, that one acre of corn fodder will buy two
hundred weight of guano to the acre for six acres of land ? Corn fodder
will revolutionize farming in the Northern States.

CULTURE OF THE CAMELIA JAPONICA,

As a green-house plant, the camdla stands second to none in its range of
admireis. In the old and new world it is equally sought after, forming a
conspicuous feature in the collections of the most costly exotics, as well as
the most humble.

It has two pleasing attractions, beautiful evergreen foliage at all times, and
flowers the entire part of the winter can be easily obtained, in shape and
color equal to the finest rose. Under the hands of the florist, no plant has
made more rapid strides to the standard aimed at ; and to this country be-
longs the history of many of the brightest gems.

Its native country is Japan, and it is very nearly allied to the plant that
produces the tea of commerce, [Thea sinensis.) It is a favorite with the
Chinese, who have been long known to possess a yellow one, a desiderata
much sought after, Mr. Fortune, during his mission to the Chinese, succeeded
.in procuring and sending to Europe specimens, which have since flowered.
It is thus described : They are of the kind known as anemone-flowered, of
a pale yellow or lemon color, the centre petals being the darkest. It flowers
very freely, and both in habit and foliage is very neat. The leaves are smaller
than in the ordinary kinds. It is thought to be much hardier than any other
known camelia.

The camelia has a regular period for growth, after which it forms its flower
buds ; and this period is of the most consequence to the cultivator, if superior
plants and flowers are desired.

As a general rule, they commence growing as soon as the flowering is
nearly passed, and should then receive an abundance of water at the roots,
the atmosphere at all times moist, and the plants syringed frequently over
head. The temperature also should be kept from 55° to "(30° as a minimum,
and the plants kept carefully shaded from the mid-day sun.

As soon as the growth of the wood is complete, they commence growing
at the root, and this is the time many prefer re-potting them ; but provided
the proper temperature is kept up, we prefer doing this just before they com-
mence starting their buds. All young plants should receive a shift once a
year, using pots about two sizes larger than those they are in. If very large
specimens, once in two years is often enough. They are better under than
over-potted.

After the growth is complete, they i-equire to be kept cool and shaded

THE VEGETABLE GARDEI!^. GOl

during summer, occasionally syringing over head, and the pots studiously
kept from becoming dry, or the buds are likely to fall off.

The best way to keep these and similar plants during summer is in the
open air, under a canvas awning, so that the driving ^Yinds and heavy rains
can be kept off them, plunging the pots to the rim in some non-conductino-
material. '^

No collection should be without the following sorts: alba-plena, white*
Beallii rose ; candidissima, white ; Abbey Wilder, waxy white, sometimes
faintly striped ; Chandlerii, rose ; Duchess of Orleans, pink ; fiuibriata, white ;
imbricata, red ; Jeffersoriii, red ; Landrethii, pink ; pictorum roseum, carmine ;
Sarah Frost ; sacco magnifique, rose ; Kermysina, red ; Lowii, ochi-oleuca,
pale yellow; and Wilderii, rose. — Country Gentleman.

FOB THE PLOUGH, THE L005r, AND THE ANVIL.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

Messrs. Editors: The "kitchen-garden" is much neglected. Most farm-
ers pay but little attention to the cultivation of vegetables for the table, and
what is attempted is done in the most imbecile manner. Some people seem
to think a wheel-barrow of manure is thrown away by bein^ put on the
garden. All that h done in many cases, only assists to make a rank o-rowth
of weeds. The garden, like all other matters of business, to be successful
requires promptness. The work must be done in the right time, and well
done, too. It must be manured and deeply cultivated, -and this will generally
insure a good harvest. We know of some farmers that think the cultivation
of a small patch as a garden is beneath their dignity — rather small business.
They have no particular dislike to the cabbage, beet, parsnip, <fec., if they aie
w^ell cooked, but they dislike the work necessary to raise them. Now we
believe there is no other spot on the farm of equal extent that pays so well
for the labor bestowed upon it as the kitchen-garden, if the work is done
well, and in the proper season ; and not an equal number of rods on the
farm that contributes so much to the support and health of the farmer and
his family as the garden. A small piece of meat, with the cabbage, beets
carrots, &c., will constitute a good healthy meal for a large family, at a very
cheap rate, much cheaper than is obtained from the broad acres.

There is an old saying, and a true one, " that a small garden, well culti-
vated, will half maintain a small family." We must remember it is to be
well cultivated, the weeds not allowed to sap all the nourishment from the
plants. If it will not be out of place, we will relate our system of garden-
ing. _ Having but little help, we have to economize what labor we can in the
working season. We cultivate as a garden about four square rods of land,
of a moist, deep soil, situated so that the team can turn on the grass at each
end. As soon as it is dry enough in the spring to work manure well, we
plough as deep as the plough will work, and in two or three days, give 'it a
good harrowing, and let it lie till about the first week in June, or when the
ground is suitable to work. We then take a plough, and begin to back-furrow
in the centre of the patch. After going out and back, we rake the furrow
down, smooth the clods, and throw small stone into the bottom of the furrow
out of the way. We then go round again, and rake down as before, till the
patch is completed. We now mark off the drills by a stick with three pegs

602 UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

driven in seventeen inches apart, drills running north and south, so that the
sun will fall in between the rows at mid-day. Then we sow the seeds by
hand, and cover with the hoe. By late sowing, beets and carrots grow with
great vigor, and soon cover the ground, and prevent the growth of weeds.
We generally weed but twice, which is mostly done with a hoe, and suffer
no weeds to go to seed.

The finest beets and carrots that ever we raised for winter and spring use,
were sown the 20th of June. On this small patch of land, we raise sufficient
for our family, and have a surplus for stock, being fully satisfied that there
is no spot on the farm of equal size that pays so weH for the labor bestowed
on it. We adopt a system of rotation, sowing beets one year and carrots the
next, &c., with the excejition of onions, which we can not raise on this spot.

Epping, N. H. D. L. Harvet.

UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The second annual meeting of this Society was convened in Washington,
at the Smithsonian Institute, on the 22d of February. But it being the an-
niversary of a day always regarded with especial interest, the meeting of the
Society was adjourned till Thursday, the 23d.

The following abstract will give a fair view of its proceedings :
' Second Dav, Thursday, February 23. — The Society' was called to order
in the morning at half-past ten o'clock, Marshall P. Wilder, E^q., of Massa-
chusetts, President of the Society, in the chair ; Ptecording Seoi-etary, W. S.
King, of Rhode-Island; and Nathaniel P. Causin, of District of Columbia,
Assistant Secretary.

The proceedings of Wednesday being read, credentials from the repre-
sentatives of various States present were received. Nineteen States were
represented, and about one hundred members present. The inclemency of
the weather had detained many on the road, and some had been compelled
to retui-n.

The President then made his annual address, during Avhich the venerable
G. W. P. Custis, Esq., of Arlington, entered, and was received by the Society
with the usual tokens of respect.

On motion of Mr. J. C. G. Kennedy, Corresponding Secretary, the Presi-
dent's address was referred to the Executive Committee for publication.

The Chair read a communication from the Secretary of the Treasury, in-
viting the members of the Society and their families to his resilience in ihe
evening. The invitation was duly accepted.

The Chair having suggested the appointment of a committee for the better
management of business, it was, on motion of Colonel C. B. Calvert, of
Maryland, agreed that committees of three members each be appointed for
eacli subject under consideration, and to be named by the Chair.

Mr. Dedrick, of Albany, N.Y., moved that a committee of three members,
on the subject of agricultural machinery, be appointed, and to report to the
Society. He spoke at some length in explanation of the great importance to
the agricultural interest of being placed in possession of the best implements
for the prosecution of their laVjors. The motion prevailed.

Mr. Denton Offutt, of Lexington, Ky., moved the appointment of a com-
mittee on animal physiology, and the general improvement in all respects of
domestic animals. It was a subject of high interest and importance.

UNITED STATES AGEICULTURAL SOCIETY. 603

Mr. Calvert testified to the influence, to him wonderful, whatever it was in
itself, of Mr. OfFutt's power over at least one animal, the horse. He had been
an eye-witness to a scene at the Maryland State Fair, which may be mes-
merism, or magnetism, or what not; but Mr. Offutt reduced almost instan-
taneously a horse noted for vicious propensities, to gentleness and tractability.
He warmly seconded the motion of Mr. Offutt.

Messrs; Browne, of Pennsylvania ; Earle, of Maryland ; and B. Perley
Poore, of Massachusetts, also bore witness to Mr. OfFutt's extraordinary powers
in this respect.

The motion was carried, and a committee of three, consisting of Messrs.
Browne, Earle, and French, of Massachusetts, was appointed by the Chair.

The Committee on Agricultural Machinery was then announced by the
Chair. It consists of Messrs. Dedrick, Musgrave, of Ohio, and Prof. Mapes.
An invitation from Mr. Glover to the Society, to visit his collection of
models of fruits at the Patent Office was then read.

General Worthington spoke in warm commendation of Mr. Glover's labors
and hiizh success.

The Recording Secretary explained it to be the wish of Mr. Glover to ex-
tend his collection, so as to include at length all the esculent fruits and vege-
tables, and he was desirous that Congress should purchase his collection for
national purposes. If the Society, after inspection and examination, should
approve of his labors and objects, Mr. Glover would be glad to get their re-
commendation to Congress in his favor. .

The invitation of Mr. Glover was accepted, and a committee appointed on
behalf of the Society to examine the collection in the Patent Office. The
committee consist of General Worthington, Messrs. Berckman, of New-Jersey ;
Warder, of Ohio ; Munn, of New- York ; and Richards, of Massachusetts.

The Chairman then offered for consideration the contents of two commu-
nications confidentially committed to him. One was from Mr. Joel Hitch-
cock, of St. Lawrence county, N. Y., on the subject of a remedy for the
potato rot ; the other on the subject of a remedy for the devastation of the
curcuUo on fruits, by some person, whose name did not transpire. The ob-
ject of the parties seemed to be to get their remedies to be tested by the
Society through committees of the same, and reports made at the meeting
of next year.

The question on the reference of these proposals, gave rise to a very ani-
mated debate, in which views of very opposite character, in respect to the
probable value of the alleged discoveries, were elicited.

Mr. Worthington moved that the communication just read be received,
and referred to the Executive Committee, to test the mode proposed, and that
they report to the next annual meeting of this Society, which was carried.

Mr. Corey moved that communications from other persons on the subject
of potato disease be referi-ed to the Executive Committee.

Mr. French thought the Executive Committee should be instructed to ap-
point proper persons, members of the Society, to institute experiments. He
moved an amendment of Mr. Corey's motion in consonance with these views,
which amendment was carried.

The Chair then presented a written communication from a gentleman in
Ohio, requesting that a committee of three be appointed to investigate the
sub^,ect of the remedy for curculio.

After considerable discussion, Mr. Wm. S. King moved a select committee
of three on the subject, of which the President of the Society should be

604 UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

cliairman. This was carried, and a committee ajipointed of Messrs. Wilder,
Brinckle, of Pennsylvania, and Birckman, of New-Jersey.

Mr. Bradford, of Delaware, asked if any communication had been received
by the Society on the subject of guano. The Chair having replied in the
negative, Mr. Bradford then asked and obtained leave to read a memorial to
Congress from citizens of Delaware, praying the interposition of Congress,
either by purchase of one of the Chincha Islands, or by negotiation with
Peru, to put a stop to the effects of the operation of the Anglo-Peruvian
monopoly, by which the price of guano has been raised, and kept at the ex-
travagant price of |54 per ton.

Mr. Bradford then pressed this subject on the attention of the Society as
one of primary concern to the agriculturists, and in fact, the whole people of
the country. On his motion, a committee of five was appointed in relation
to the matter, namely, Mfssrs. Bradford, Calvert, Browne, Burgwin, of North
Carolina, and Booth, of Virginia.

The list of the committee of nineteen on nominations was read by the
Chair, Dr. J. D. Weston, of Massachusetts, being its chairman.

The report of Prof. Henry on the order of business was next read. Other
committees were reported.

On motion of Mr. J. C. G. Kennedy, it was ordered that it be made the
duty of the committee on nominations to nominate a permanent editor of the
journal of the Society.

A communication from Mn James Pedersou, on the subject of introducing
the Alpaca or Peruvian sheep into the United States, was then read by Mr.
Munn, of New- York.

Papers collected by the Lighthouse Board were referred to by Prof. Henry,
who made some interesting remarks on one of them, being a paper on the
use and importance of Colza oil for burning.

An ear of corn was then exhibited by Mr. Henry Ives, of Ohio, and a dis-
tribution of the Japan pea was made by a member.

The meeting then adjourned till half-past five o'clock, P.M.

Evening Session. — At six o'clock, P.M., the President called the meeting
to order, and introduced Professor Mapes, of New-Jersey, who exhibited and
explained an improved sub-soil plough invented by himself.

On motion of Mr. Bradford, of Delaware, the subject was referred to the
Committee on Agricultural Implements.

Dr. J. A. Warder presented a quantity of Japan peas, and described their
nature and value. They were introduced in the neighborhood of Cincinnati
three years ago, and have been widely distributed. It is not a pea, nor a
vine, but has a stiff, woody stem ; the leaves, however, are broad, and are
greedily eaten by cattle ; the fruit is very abundant, and occurs in short pods
containing two or three beans; these are oblong when green, but round when
dry. They will not be valuable for table use when green, but are liked by
most who have tried them boiled or as soup, when ripe in winter, and must
prove of great value, especially in the Southern States; succeeding well on
all soils in which they have been planted. Their great value will be as food
for cattle^; they are easily threshed out when ripe.

In planting, give them ample room ; for the greatest effect, say at squares
of three feet; cultivate as corn.

The meeting then adjourned to ten o'clock this morning.

Third Day, Friday, February 24. — The Society was called to order by
the Recording Secretary, W. S. King, Esq., of Massachusetts, who stated that

UNITED STATES AGRICULTUEAL SOCIETY. 605

the President of the Society was prevented from attending at the opening of
the rueeting by indisposition, but he hoped to be present during the morning
session. On motion of the JRecording Secretary, the Hon. John A. King, of
New- York, was called to the chair pro tempore.

Prof. Fox, of Michigan, then commenced his address on the important
subject of extending and improving the education of tke agricultural popu-
lation of the United States, so as to elevate that vast majority of our people
up to their proper level, and to brmg a greater amount of intelligence to bear
upon that important interest, the judicious cultivation of the soil. During
the lecture, the President of the Society entered, and took his seat as chair-
man of the meeting, held temporarily by Mr. J. A. King. Not long after,
and before the conclusion of Prof. Fox's address, the President of the United
States, accompanied by the Secretary ol the Interior, came in, and were in-
troduced to the Society, which received them with courteous greeting.
■, /I^he sentiments of the lecturer, which were that such institutions were not
feasible, at present,, were fully discussed. j

The President of the United States then rose; and, addressing the chair,
thanked him for the intelligence that had been furnished him of the session
of the Society ; spoke in terms of compliment and a^.proval of so much of
Prof. Fox's address as he had heard; acknowledged the high interest and
importance of the objects of the Society, and of the questions before it ; and
said tliat, whilst he should be most happy to remain daring the interesting
proceedings yet to be ha;d, other duties demanded his retirement, and com-
pelled him to bid them good morning.

Mr. Taylor moved a resolution commending the purchase of Mount Ver-
non by the General Government, and making a portion of it the site of a
national experimental farm.

.; The Chair stated that the subject was already before the Society, under a
jFecoiftmeftdatjon in the President's annual address. .v. .. :

Mr. Earle proposed, a substitute, which he read, for Mr. -Taylor's resolution,
the intent of which was, that the United' States. Agricultural Society should
indorse the eftbrts of the Maryland State Society to effect the same object.
Mount Vernou, he said, was on all. accounts the best place for a national ex-
perimental farm, and he believed there w«re many members of Congress in
favor of purchasing it; and after a lengthy discussion, in the course of which
Mr.; John Jones, of ; Delaware, spoke strongly in favor of a home market for
our wheat, the subject was laid:. an the table, to be taken up to-mon-ow
morning. ,• ; . .■ !.• . > :■; -J .;}..:

; Reports of committees wen© received, ahd duly referred.! o yj*j.w.^ \-i. do

The venerable G. W. P; Custis, Esq., being then called on, addressed the
Society; for upward of half an hour in an eloquent and acceptable manner.
He recited circumstances, which occurred in the early years of the century'
connected with the rise of American manufactures. The old Arlington sheep-
shearing was established to improve the sheep culture, and was kept up for
nine years in succession. That was an age of agricultural barbarism, and it
was thought a matter of great progress at that day, when from one he-lamb,
of a year old, twelve pounds of wool were clipped. Mr. Custis compared
the products of his farm now with what it was in former times, when for
forty years, one of his forms, with one hundred working hands on it, only
served to starve him. . Now, from seven thousand to nine thousand bushels
of wheat per year, with a prospect of fifteen to twenty thousand, was the
state of his affairs. He advocate<l an imitation of the good Methodist prac-
tice of giving in experiences. Why did they not every year have a meeting

VOL. VI. — PART II. 15

606 UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

for that.' The President from Essex county, Massachusetts, could report on
his pumpkins, bio; enough to inclose himself and a party of friends at a rub-
ber of whist. Prof. Mapes, of New-Jersey, could tell of his doings in
superphosphate uf lime. Mr. Custis enlarged in eloquent terms on the dig-
nity of agriculture, the high respect pnid to it and its devotees in England,
from the prince to the peasant. In conclusion, he said it might be the last
lime he would address them. For the seventy-three years he had lived, he
had also luved his country, and, though a Southerner, loved the true Yankee.
He ended by entreating a blessing on the Society and its members, and that
they might leLuru in peace to their homes.

Mr. Robbins, of Ohio, presented a memorial from citizens of Ohio, asking
the countenance and patronage of the Society to a cattle exhibition, to be
held in September next, in Springfield, Clark county, Ohio, which, after con-
siderable discussion, was referred.

Dr. Warder, of Cincinnati, then being called on, addressed the Society on
the subject of the culture of the Catawba grape-vine, illustrating his remarks
by reference to a series of drawings of the plant in various stages of progress.
Though extemporaneous, the address was a very excellent one, and so lumi-
nous, that every body could understand it. Dr. Warder was much questioned
by several members on various topics connected with the culture of this vine,
all of which he answered most readily and satisfactorily.

The Society passed a vote of thanks for the address, and ordered a written
paper on the subject to be printed among their transactions.

Prof. Mapes testified to the value of charcoal in vine-culture.

Dr. Warder spoke of the admirable effects of potash, as a manure for the
grape plant. It supplied sweetness, increased the size, and improved the
flavor.

Mr. Darius Clagett, of the District of Columbia, gave the history of a
Catawba vine, now in his possession, more than forty years old, the parent
of the greater portion of the vines now in the country.

Evening Session. — Mr. Myron Finch, of New-York, stated that a move-
ment was now in progress for erecting a monument to the memory of the
late John S. Skinner, the pioneer of American agricultural editors, and that
the measure was receiving the sanction and cooperation of the most distin-
guished friends of agricultural science in the country. The subject had been
before the National Washington Monument Committee, and that body had
passed a resolution unanimously, authorising a block, with an approved in-
scription, to be placed in the National Monument now erecting to the memory
of the Father of his Country. Mr. Finch then offered the following resolution :

liesolved, That this Convention has heard with pleasure, that measures are
now in progress for erecting a monument to the memory of the late John S.
Skinner, the diitinguished friend and patron of agricultural science, and that
we cordially commend said object to the favorable consideration of the agri-
cultural community throughout the United States.

Geo. Blight Browne, Esq., of Pennsylvania, supported the resolution in a
brief speech, in which he paid a deserved tribute to the memory of Colonel
Skinner. The resolution was then unanimously adopted by the Convention.

^Ir. Browne aho presented a work on wool and hair, written by Peter A.
13rown, LL.D,, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Bradford, of Delaware, made a report on the guano trade, narrating
the interview of the committee on the subject with Mr. Dudley Mann, As-
sistant Secretary of State. Hopes are entertained that arrangements may
be made with Peru, by which the price of guano will be reduced.

UNITED STATES AGRICULTUEAL SOCIETY. 607

The report was re-committed.

On motion of Mr. Earl, the memorial of the Maryland State Agricultural
Society, petitioning Congress to purchase Mount Vernon for an agricultural
school, was taken up and read.

Mr. French, a member of the committee, spoke favorably of Mr. OfFutt's
system, and after some discussion, it was carried, and Messrs. Blair, of Mary-
land; Earl, Browne, King, of New- York ; and French, of Massachusetts,
were appointed a committee to present it to Congress.

Mr. Browne, of Pennsylvania, made a report from the committee appointed
to investigate Mr. Denton OfFutt's system of animal physiology.

Mr. Causin, who was associated with E. P. Blair, Esq., to examine and
audit the accounts of the treasurer, reported, (in the absence of Mr. Blair,)
complimented their accuracy, and stated a balance of $3005 in favor of the
Society. Of this, upward of one thousand dollars have been contribute<l
at the present meeting.

Mr. Benson read a bill now before a committee of Congress, creating an
agricultural bureau.

Mr. Calvert recommended the creation of an agricultural department, on
an equal footing with the other departments, the Secretary to have a seat in
the Cabinet.

G-eorge Blight Browne, of Pennsylvania, spoke at length on the various
propositions for Congressional aid, and gave his own opinions.

Mr. French moved that the matter be referred to a committee, but with-
drew his motion.

^ Mr. King, of New- York, moved that the Society adhere to the resolution
of last year, asking for a full department.

Hon. Mr. Benson presented a resolution in behalf of Mr. Meacham of
Vermont, that a national exhibition of sheep be held in the course of the
year in the State of Vermont, at such time and place as the Agricultural
Society of Vermont shall appoint. Carried.

On a strong expression of the wish of the Society, Benjamin Perley Poore,
Esq., addressed the Society, although the appointed hour had elapsed. Al- .
though prepared in haste, Mr. Poore's sketch of the rise and progress of
agriculture in the old world, and more particularly in the new, was very in-
teresting. He gave an account of Indian agriculture, and, passing throuo-h
the history of colonial and revolutionary farming, came down to the present
time.

On motion of Mr. Calvert, an address was ordered to be published by the
Society.

On motion of Mr. Poore, it was resolved that a committee of three be
appointed to collect facts and statistics illustrating the Indian and subsequent
agricultural history of this Republic, embracing statistics, accounts of tools,
and biographical sketches of noted farmers, and report to the Executive
Committee in season for publication in the next report, if worthy. The com-
mittee are Messrs. B. P. Poore, W. S. King, and J. A. Warder.

The Society then called upon Dr. Eddy, of Massachusetts, for his lecture
on Bees and Bee Culture. He described this branch of rural industry as the
most profitable of all, as he had proved by his own experience. He pursued
the history of the bee, in its family and social characteristics, and explained
the process of honey-making.

Dr. Eddy having concluded his lecture on bees, and a vote of thanks
awarded him, it was, on motion of Mr. W. S. King, of Massachusetts,

Resolved, That the thanks of this Society be and are hereby presented to

608 PROGRESS OF MECHANICS.

Professor Henry and the officers of the Smithsonian Institution, for the use
of their lecture-room, and for their kind attentions ; and also to Mr. H. Hardy,
for his faithful attendance upon our sessions, and for his full and cprrect re-
ports of our proceedings in the National Intelligencer.

And the Society adjourned sine die.

Officers roii the Ensuing Yeak. — The officers of the United States
Agricultural Society for 1854 are :

Marshall P. "Wilder, of Massachusetts, President.
I •)' -Nineteen Vice-Presidents, (one for each State represented.)

C. B. Calvert, John A. King, A. L. Elwyn, J. D. Weston, B. P. Poore, A.
Watts, John Jones, W. S. King, Executive Committee.
,.r; U. S. King> of Boston, Corresponding and Recording Secretary.
„■: William Selden, of Washington, Treasurer.
j>)jifu.:(i;i. ■ \i'/''. :>v.;i ;;illvj; : : .,

PROGRESS OF MECHANICS.— No. II.

In. our, ,las,t number, we presented a short but tolerably complete view of
those mechanic arts, in which, for the last few centuries, no progress has been
made.

We now purpose to give some of the more important branches in which
new discoveries have been made, new inventions devised, or greatly improved
skill in application acquired. The shortest possible description of all these
in detail, would be of most indefinite length, if it should include each of the
departments of art, but we can aim only to present a few, which, for some
reason, might claim more special notice. We begin with certain branches of
art, very nearly allied to those mentioned in our last number, and somewhat
in the same order.

Glass-waues. — As already suggested, there are various departments be-
longing to this general title, and in some of them the moderns have greatly
excelled the ancients.

1. In the manufacture of plates. The large plates often seen in our modern
windows were foruxerly unknown, and the most elaborate of the stained win-
dows, of the ancient temples are of small panes; the mirrors of modern
parlors were never seen in the houses of the ancients. This is the result of
improvement in the implements employed.

Optical Instruments have also been chiefly the result of modern art.
Nothing was known to the astronomers of olden times to compare with the
telescopes now found in almost every prominent institution in the world. Even
the smaller instruments, used by artists, as watchmakers, jewellers, (fee, are of
modern invention. The engravings of the ancients were executed by the
eye, unaided by any thing but a single lens, and unremitted care and practice,
and therein their skill is proved to be the more wonderful.

Weaving Glass. — This is a new application of this material. The fabric
is exceedingly beautiful, and quite flexible. Progress in this department is
. yet anticipated.

,,.,, Refining Metals. — ^No progress has been made in the results obtained,
but there is very great improvement in the processes that are employed. The
metals of various sorts are now extracted fiom their ores by means far more
simple, more expeditious, and more economical than formerly. Some of those
now employed will be considered under other titles in our journal. Suffice it
here to say, that the process by which our best blistered steel is manufac-

PROGRESS OP MECHANIC^.- ''^ ■'-';■ 609

tured, was unknown till 1*750. Case-hardening is also^ modei-A invention.
Sheet-iron and sheet-tin are now prepared with much greater facility than'
they formerly were. Cementation is a process invented by modern English
artists.

Iron and Bronze Castings. — In this department of art, within a few
years even, we have made wonderful progress, chiefly, perhaps, the result of
improvements in moulding. There is, however, one style or branch of the
art now on exhibition at the Crystal Palace, which is far superior to any
thing we have ever seen. It is from the R6yal Foundry of Berlin, Several-
specimens are exhibited. The lines are nearly as perfect 1)s if made by the
chisel. '

Another foiTO or branch of this art consists' in casting vegetable fortas,
plants, tfec, with their stalks, branches, twigs, leaves, buds, and flowers. Some
of these also are on exhibition at the Crystal Palace, and are really Avonder-
ful. The process is described as follows : ■'_ '■ ■'■' '■'•'

The object to be represented is placed in an empty vessel, with small wires
attached, to the extremities of each bud, leaf, twig, (fee. Silt, or fine sand,
of a proper quality, mixed with water, of the consistence of cream, is then
poured into the vessel till the object is covered. This mould is then left to
dry, after which the wires are withdrawn, and the entire mass is exposed to
a powerful heat, while streams of air are dij'ected against the insertions of,
or holes left by, the wires. The plant is thus consumed, and the incombusti-
ble ashes are expelled by blasts of-wind.' A 'perfect mould is thus obtained,
ready for the melted metal. -hT!;!.- . ■ .< ; •

Rolling Mills. These are now of almost ni^mberless forms. Iron and other
malleable'metals are rolled into almost any desired shape?. We shall exhi-
bit elsewhere, rollers of various shapes, and one of them of peculiar economic
value — that for forming the railroad bar. Almost every new variety of form
that may he desired, Aay be thus produced by these means, at an iaameiise'
saving of human labor, ■ ■ -

The fine surface of Russia sheets is obtained by some secret' process, which
our artisans or those of England can not even approach. ' ■■ ' s •

Electrotyping. — We only refer to this, now, as a modern discovery, by
which almost any snbstancei • may be Covered 'with a metallic plate of greater
or less thicknei^s, as may be desired. We purpose hereafter to give these
processes, v/hich are within reach of almost any one, in considei'abfe detail.
This is a discovery of the present gene'raliom i ii.-' ■■•

Am^algasis.- — The use of mercury, in the "silvering" of glass for mirrors,
01" for covering other rnetals, and other similar operation?; -is' a modern dis-
covery. ■ It is the peculiar property of mercuvy, that it formg an- amalgam
with almost every other metal. In this form, resembling a paste, it is' applied^
to the sufface, which is to be covered. It is then exposed to a heat of 000°
or 700°, by which the mereui-y is evaporatediaud the metal;, gold,; silver, &<2.,
is Mt in a pure, unYnixed ^ta^e on ^the surface to which the ^ftm-algam had
been applied. ■ !■:.■, In;;, • , , ■•; ■ _. ■ ; ^m . ; . ,i ■;■ or

A similar use is made of it in obtaining gold in quantities, unmixed. This
process is familiar to the miners of California, Australia, &c.- Even pressuve
will accomplish the same result as fire. The amalgam is placed'in a leathern
bag. When powerful pressure is applied, the merctry esicapes through' the
pores of the leather, leaving the gold unmixed. ■ ■' ' ' ;.f <. , ;

Spinning AND Weaving. — The improvements which hftve been made,
even within thirty j ears, in these departments, would occupy a large volume.
We name them only to suggest that on future occasions we purpose to go

610 SUSPENSION BRIDGE FOK THE OHIO.

extensively into the illustration of this, one of the most successful, most won-
derful, and most triumphant achievements of our day, in which our own
country has utterly out-distanced all other nations, so that England herself
can not produce a yard of more than one kind of fabrics, so as at all to com-
pete with our own manufactures, without buyinj^ the right to iise American
inventions. In more than one kind of goods, she pays a tribute for every
yard she produces to one of the distinguished sons of New-England.

Labou-saving Maciiinerv. — This may be worthy of a separate title, al-
though its practical application may concern some of the arts specifically
named. It is, however, an art of itself, to apply the force of wind, water,
steam, <fcc., to the ten thousand forms of mechanical labor. There is scarcely
a purpose or design to be achieved in the transmutation of forms, that is not
essentially aided by machinery. But these inventions are nearly all recent.
Even the trip-hammer is a modern notion. So are the innumerable machines
or tools employed by turners in iron, in wood, of various forms, workers in
sheet-iron and tin, shoemakers even, and many others.

SUSPENSION-BRIDGE FOR THE OHIO.

The following is a brief description of the proposed bridge across the Ohio
river at Cincinnati, as designed by D. Griffith Smith, Civil Engineer :

This bridge will consist of one principal opening between two stupendous
towers of suspension, the centres of which are 1400 feet apart.

From these towers the road-way will be suspended by three lines of wire
cables, at an elevation of 112 feet above low water, leaving the wholp width
of the river clear and unobstructed. *•

The road-way will consist of two carriage-ways, separated by the centre
lino of cables, and four foot-ways ; the width of carriage-ways at the centre
of bridge, will be 10 feet each, and the foot-ways 3 feet, making the entire
width of platform 32 feet in the clear.

The carriage-ways' will pass through two magnificent gothic arches in each
tower of suspension ; the width of each arch will be 12 feet, and to the crown
of arch about 30 feet.

There will be, as we have stated, three lines of cables, and in each line
four cables ; these cables will pass over rollers in cast-iron saddle?, firmly
fixed on the summits of the pyramids ; the extremities of the cables will
connect with strong anchor-chains, laid in the most substantial hydraulic
cement masonry.

The grade of the road-way, on the Cincinnati side, will commence at
Columbia street, and rise at an angle of five degrees to the tower of suspen-
sion. At Front street, an elevation of 16 feet will be obtained. In crossing
Fi'ont-street, it is proposed to construct a " Malleable Iron Bridge," of the
Tubular Girder pattern. On the south side of Front street the road-way
will commence, and be suspended to the shore-cables. The same plan of
approach on the Covington side will be adopted.

The entire structure will be so arranged, and united in such a manner, that
each of the parts may be taken out and replaced sej-arately ; so that there
can be no difficulty in repairing any part of the bridge whenever required.

The principal dimensions may be more conveniently examined in a tabular
form.

- 1400 feet.

1985 "

- 112 "

2000 "

12

2000

18000 tons,

24000 tons,

- 924 «

794 •'

- 1718 '•

5326 "

12704

- 1588

SUSPENSION BRIDGE FOR THE OHIO. 611

SYNOPSIS OF THE CAPACITY OF THE PROPOSED BRIDGE.

Length of span, .-..---.
Total length of suspended platform,

Elevation of platform above low water, - - - .
Total length of cables, ---._.

Number of cables, .-..-..

" wires in each cable, -----

Ultimate strength of cables, . - - - -^
Total sectional area of anchor-chains, 800 superficial inches.
Ultimate strength of anchor-chains, . - - .
Maximum permanent load, -----

" transitory load, ------

Maximum load, -------

Maximum tension of cables at the points of suspension, -
Number of persons that may collect on the platform,
Number of oxen that the platform will contain,
Tension of cables resulting from weight of floor and 1588

oxen, (each weighing 1000 lbs.,) - - ' - - 5230 tons.

Approximate cost of bridge, ----- |450,000
Time required for its construction, about two years.

The design exhibits a plan of structure far exceeding in strength and
grandeur any similar work ever projected either in Europe or America.

When M. Telford constructed the suspension-bridge across the " Menai
Straits," it was regarded by all Europe as the mightiest achievement of man.

The first stone of that magnificent structure was laid on the 10th of August,
1819. On the 20th of April, 1825, the first chain of this stupendous work
was thrown over the " Straits of Menai," and on the 25th of February, 1825,
it was opened to .the public: "a magnificent spectacle," says Dr. Arhott, " to
behold chains of tenacious iron stretched high across a channel of the ocean,
and supporting an admirable bridge-road of safety, along which crowded
processions may pour, regardless of the deep below, or of the storm ; while,
beneath, ships with sails full spread, may pursue their course unmolested."

Let us now compare this bridge, which was the wonder and admiration of
all Europe, with the proposed bridge across the Ohio river at Cincinnati.

DIMENSIONS OF THE MENAI SUSPENSION-BRIDGE.

Distance between the points of suspension, . - - 579 feet.

Height of road-way above high-tide, - - 100 "

Deflection of cables, - - - - - - 43 "

Total length of bridge, 880 "

Maximum permanent load, ----- 489 tons.

" transitory load, - - - - 300 "

Maximum load, 789 "

Sectional area of anchor-chains, - - - 260 inches.

Two years after the completion of the Menai Bridge, Mr. Telford added
another laurel to his justly-acquired fame, by constructing a suspension-
bridge across the Conway river, one tower of which stands within that an-
cient fortress, " Conway Castle," built by Edward IIL

The span of the Conway bridge is 350 feet. Elevation above high tide,
18 feet.

The span of Freiburg bridge, in Switzerland, is 960 feet.

612

IBpN MtAJ!f Uf AC^URE. .;;,r7i T?.' I ?.

The span of the Hammersmith, bridge across the Thames is 400 feet, 3
inches.

The spau of the suspension-bridge across. the Danube, at Pcsth, in Hun-
gary, is 1000 feet. ' ;MMfr.

The span of the Wheeling bridge is 1010 feet. ' "'

It will appear from the history of suspension-bridges,' that no span has
ever been constructed that will rank in magijitude and grandeur with the
proposed bridge across the Ohio, at Cincinnati.

Mr. Smith's plans aie at the Merchants' Exchange, where they can be ex-
amined by all who feel aw interest in the enterprise.

We proceed with the general tie \t of' 'this subject, commenced in the last
number, and shall endeavor that neither ihroygh our omission to examine the
proofs, nor neglect so to do "elsewhere,'' we shall fail to say, in these pages,
what we wish to communicate to our readers.

We conmienced a description of ^certain furnaces, in common use, in this
department of, art. Beside those already named, we would give our readers,
not femiliar with the subject an idea, of the form of one oiil\e MJasteru-
Penntylvunm charcoal furnaces^ , .,

Tlie figure in the maigiu lepr&sehts.on^ of these. lis height is 32 feet.;
width of boshes, 9 ifeet 6 inches'; hearth, 5 feet high, 2 feet wide at the bot-

ttom,. and 2-|- feet wide at the top. The ores
^^ <;v;neraliy used are the rich hydrates, pipe ores,

to«Ml ores, ttc, 2^ tons of ore produce, ou an
.i\eiage, one. ton of the uietal. About 18,0
bushels of charcoal are required in obtaining
one ton of iron. Different uro,Quuts, however,
arc required, accorcjing to the quality, of ;^e
material used. , .,. ,,..,,

West of the Alleghanics, instead of, using
chaicoal, coke is used in many places, that is,
coal, from which the bituminous matter and
the sulphur have been extracted. This is done
either by burning the coal in large heaps, co-
\eied with earth, as are piles of woocl for the
manufacture of charcoal, or by the use of ovens
designed for the purpose. \ ./ ' ,' \

tigure 2 represents one 'of 'tliesie ovens,
sometimes called the Pittsburgh coke oven.
Laige quantities of bituminous coal are thrown
Mito the oven when the fire is kindled. The
doois a {aid h h are then closed, and the bitu-
miiiou.s matter is separated from the coal, leav-
ing behind a spongy mass of about the same quality as charred wood. This
oven is built of stone or of common brick, against the slope of a hill, so that
the coal may be readily discharged into it from the top of tlie oven. The
English coke-ovens, long in use, were of a different construction, being an
oblong square, with perhaps four ovens abreast. This form secures

f

Wm^^j

IRON MANUFACTURE.

613

» greater economy in fuel, and also in masonry. The walls are two
fiset thick, of common brick, and the linings of fire-brick. The principles
of both are the same, and the arrangement in the English form is more
perfect, but more expensive. In some European countries still other forms
prevail, from the fact that the coal tar is collected as a valuable article for
trade. And we have no doubt that in this country it will be found profitable-
in many establishments to have especial regard to this product. Indeed we
have kuowledge of one such in New-England, recently constructed. The
products obtained by the manufacture of coke, are said to be sufficient to paj
all the expense of the process. The coke is therefore clear profit.

PuDDLixG Furnace. — The reverbatory or puddling furnace is best adapted
to convert cast-iron into bar or wrought-iron. There'is a great variety in the
construction of these furnaces in different countries, and even in our own
country. Through the West, the single furnace i» us^<l, \\ I loli .s the most
ancient form, and which is substantially in gene) il u^, i Enj;] \m] Ea-^t of
the Alleghanies, the double furnace. "^ The single Ld^ oi.t. wuik door; the
double has two, one opposite the other, and admits tv\o sets of workmen.' ''

^ The figure annexed shows a vertical section of a puddling furnace for anthra-
citecoid. In this furnace, coal can be filled to the depth of from 20 to 24 inches,
while in those designed for bituminous coal, a depth of 10 or 12 inches is suflS-
dent. The letters a a aa a denote the cross-binders, or bars, of wrought-
iron, which bind the cast-iron plates^ of the inclosure, and prevent the sfnk-

614 IRON MAIs'UFACTURE.

ing of the roof, caused by the expansion and contraction of the fire-brick.
The two holes below serve for the passage of the draft. The blast machines
are fans. There are \arious points worthy of notice in the detail of the sin
gle and double furnaces, but they are of interest only to the practical artisan.

It may be well to state here that an important improvement is said to be
practised at some of the English forges, wdiere scrap-iron is worked up. In-
stead of carrying the piles for some distance to the rolls or hammers before
being compressed, and during which the "scale" is forming, an anvil is fitted
directly at the mouth of the puddling furnace, and a hammer arranged over-
head, so as to drop once or more, at pleasure, upon the opening of the fur-
nace-door. A hammering weld is thus taken at the moment the iron leaves
the furnace. In rolling, the ends of the piles are not drawn, as is usually the*
case, and a considerable amount of "cropping" at the shears is saved. The
quality of the iron is said to be improved five dollars per ton by this mode
of working.

The European ovens referred to are cii-cular, about four feet in diameter,
and nine feet high ; are bound with hoops, and are made of common brick or
stones, bound with fire-brick, with suitable arrangements of doors, draft-holes,
&c., with the addition of a tube or pipe of iron, conducting the bar from the
upper part of the oven into proper receivers. The tar is condensed in warm
weather, by having the pipe surrounded with cold water. Still other forms
are in use, which we need not here stop to describe. The properties of good
coke are as follows : It should be silvery white, compact, with a ring like that
of crockery-ware, pure from sulphur, hydrogen, and all bituminous substances.

Difl:erent kinds of coal produce different quantities of coke. In England,
15 per cent, by weight, and 120 by measure, is a fair average. The extremes
vary from 55 to 88 per cent, of coke. Pennsylvania coals range from 68 to
88 per cent.

After the fuel is provided, the next point is to prepare or clean the ore.
This is for removing all the earthy matter from it, and may be by washing
or pounding. Afterward, some ores are roasted in kilns, not unlike those
■Hsed for burning lin,..

It is a sight full of interest to those unaccustomed to such scenet:, to wit-
ness the processes which follow these preparatory steps. The fires having
been kindled a suitable length of time, and the iron sufKciently smelted or
melted, the mouth of the furnace is tapped, and sufficient quantity of the
red-hot liquid being allowed to run to waste, to clear away the cinders, &c.,
from the melted iron, the stream is then turned so as to run through iron
troughs, or canals made in the sand, to the beds that have been prepared for
it. Here it cools. It is then cut up into pieces some two feet long, and is
PIG-IRON or cast-iron.

There is a question whether the hot or cold blast furnace is most desirable
in its action. The hot blast secures the greatest quantity of iron, but it is
more likely to be oxygenized. The efiect of this intensity of the hot blast
is concentrated at a single point, to wit, directly opposite the tuyeres, and the
oxygen supplied so liberally at that point is consumed there, while the blast
is not diffused equally through the furnace, nor are the impurities of the coal
or coke driven off so effectually. On the other hand, the cold blast, becom-
ing suddenly heated, abstracts from the temperature of the iron at that point,
and thereby retards its oxydation, or rather tends to prevent it, and then be-
coming itself heated, is diffused at unequal temperature through the mass.

The object of the operations which succeed those just described is to
give strength and convenient form. The pig-iron is next converted into

AMERICAN COAL STATISTICS. 615

Blooms. — This may be done in the forafe fire, resembling the forge of the
blacksmith on a large scale, or in the puddling furnace, which we have before
described. The masses of pig-iron are here heated to near melting, and are
then carried to the forge hammer. Here, whatever impurities the pig-iron-
may contain, will disappear under the repeated blows of this powerful ma-
chine, and at the end of the operation it is formed into rounded pieces, about
one foot in length, whieh are called blooms. These blooms are then ready
for the rollers, of which we shall speak in our next number.

The pig-iron is the " cast-iron" of common parlance, and it is only whea
it has become a " bloom" that it becomes " wrought-iron." It is proper, how-
ever, to state here, that recent practice has shown that the processes which
we have here described are not absolutely necessary, and that economy, in fact,
demands for certain ores and for certain kinds of iron, a different mode of manu-
facture. Indeed, the practice of ancient times was to produce wrought-iron di-
rectly from the ores, and the process, as now witnessed, is this. The ores are
reduced, at a low temperature, in furnaces of a modified form, by which the
impurities are not melted. The pure iron, more easily melted, leaves these
behind. Iron thus manufactured is stronger, it is said, than when smelted in
the usual way, and then puddled.

AMERICAN COAL STATISTICS.

The following statistics are from the Pottsville Mining Journal :
The consumption of coal does not increase as rapidly as was supposed. In
1852, the increase was less than 13 per cent., and left a surplus in the market.
In 1853, the increased supply was less than 9 per cent., from all sources. To this
of course is to be attributed the high price of coal during the latter part of the
year; but taking the average over 12 per cent., it will reach it. We see no
good reason to believe that this average per centage in the demand is likely
to be exceeded the present year, which would require an increase in the sup-
ply of about 623,000 tons, in 1854, from all sources, to keep the market
healthy.

This increased supply can easily be furnished by the different regions, pro-
vided dealers and customers will come forward and take coal early in the
spring.

The same paper gives the following summary of operations in Schuylkill
eounty :

Total number of collieries, - - - - 113

Red Ash do. . . . 58

White Ash, do. - - - - 55

Number of operators, ... 82

Employed at collieries, - - - ' - 9,792

Miners' houses out of towns, - - - 2,756

Whole capital invested in these collieries, - $3,462,000
By individual operators, about - - 2,600,000

Thickest vein worked at Heckscherville, feet, - SO

Smallest, _-..-- 2

All the coal-lands now worked in Schuykill county are owned by six corpo-
rations, and about sibcty individuals. About twenty-five of the ownei-s reside
in Schuylkill county, and the balance abroad. The coal rent will average
about 30 cents a ton. The product of 1853. in Schuylkill county, waa.
2,-551,603 tons. This would give an income of $765,480 to the landholders,
in the shape of rents, for the year.

616

Gardner's rock ];kill.

GARDNER'S ROCK DRILL

Tins new and powerful machine is designed to be of immense advantage
in tunnelling, mining, quarrying, and all kinds of soUid excavations. By an
ingenious adaptation of two forces, one to compress and vitalize the other, it
accomplishes an amount and kind of ^York which no direct application of the
prime motor could possibly do. It is operated by hand, horse, or steam
power, by means of which a very powerful cylindrical India-rubber spring is
compressed. The reaction of this spring, which can be graduated to a nicety,
and directed at will, drives forward the drill with a rapidity and force that
will accomplish more work than forty men, who should never need rest or

Fig. 1.

GARDNEES ROCK DRILL,

617

recreation could do. A saving of fifty to seventy-five per cent, in the cost of
excavation can easily be effected by it. And the time saved is often of more
consequence than the cost.

Kg. 2.

Fig. 1 is a view of the whole machine in perspective, and fig. 2 is a top
view looking downward, of the swinging frame, which holds the drill, being-
detached from the machine, and represented upon an enlarged scale. It drills
horizontally, vertically, or at any angle with the horizon. The part shown
in fig. 2 it may be seen, consists of a stout cast-iron fr;ime playing by two
trunnions in two iron boxes, which are raised or lowered (and there securely
fastened on each side by a large nut and bolt) between the uprights on each
side of the platform ; chains from each of the four corners of this frame,
(called the " swinging frame," hooked to staples on the platform, hold the
frame at any inclination desired.

By means of the band-wheel (fig. 1) the shaft which bears it, passing
through the trunnions mentioned, is rotated, turning at the same time the
cam wheels, (C 0, figure 2 ;) these cams press against pins fastened securely
to, and protruding from, the lower side of the cross-head B ; thus, as they
turn round, they push the cross-head B back. A is an India-rubber spring,
(with 3^- horse-power ; tlie spring is 14 inches long and 5 inches diameter,)
which, as the cross-head B is pushed up, is compressed by the " plunger" on
the upper part of the cross-head B. This spring is supported by a spindle
passing longitudinally through it, and bolted to the upper cross-piece of the
frame. When the cams have receded from the pins mentioned, the expansion
of the rubber spring drives the cross-head and all it bears with it, forward
with tremendous force, chipping otF, with the drill, large pieces of granite or
other stone. Attached to the cross-head B, and turning loosely in it, is a
screw, E, passing down through a left-handed screw in the lower cross-head
F. By means of a ratchet-wheel, pall, (fee, seen at J, this screw is turned
slowly, thus feeding foiward the cross-head F, which cross-head bears at its
lower side a hollow mandril, G, into the upper part of which the screw E
passes. This mandril has a steel drill at its lower end, (fastened in by a set-
.screw,) made of such bore as may be desired.

When the cross-head F has been screwed down as far as the length of the
frame will permit, by means of a straight rack, with a handle applied to the
cog-wheel I, (on the screw shaft E,) the cross-head and drill are ready to
commence operation again.

At H, on the mandril G, is a ring, (with ratchet-wheel and pall,) and a pro-
jection at the lower part of the pall, which slides on a bar (not seen) placed
diagonally under the frame, and by this means, as the drill is withdrawn,
twisting round the mandril, and consequently the drill. The same simple
arrangement at T eff'ects the turning and feeding down of the screw. By

618 JAPAN MANUFACTURES.

means of a sliding bar beneath the frame, tlie two diagonal bars are connected,
and thus, by the simple and easy rotation of a hand wheel, (on the sliding-bar,)
the drill is made to feed forward at the rate of half an inch, or less, or even
three or four inches per minute, and the drill to turn at the rate (as desired)
of ten, twelve, fifteen, or eighteen teeth upon the ratchet to a complete revolu-
tion of the wheel.

At the other end of the platform (fig. 1) is ])laced an upright steam-boiler
with cylinder bolted to it, with force-pump, &c., and band fly-wheel. By
means of the sheave wheels (seen at the top of the upright standards) a
chain passing to the iron boxes, (before mentioned,) and fi-om there to a shaft
running across the braces of the standard*, raise and lower the " swinging-
frame" to any desirable elevation. A great desideratum has been a machine
which would bore rocks at any angle with the horizon as well as vertically.
This desideratum is accomplished in this machine.

The machine here represented will be in operation at the New-York'
Crystal Palace.

The patentee has also a mode of applying this arrangement to drilling the
wedge holes for splitting rocks; the saving of time, and use of the water-
vial (in consequence of the holes being uniformly straight) must recommend
this to all quarry owners ; it is applied also in sinking shafts in mines, and
must here effect a great saving. A most important application is also made
■of it to tunneling for railroads, &c. A small portable arrangement, worked
by hand, is used for quarries and mine galleries.

Further explanation and information will be given on appHcation to the
patentee during business hours, or by letter addressed to him.

JAPAN MANUFACTURES.

WORKS OF ART AND CURIOSITIES, FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE KING O*'
HOLLAND, EXHIBITED AT DUBLIN.

The following account is from the Dublin correspondence of the London
Daily News, and will be read with interest. — [Eds.

The unique collection, of manufactures, works of art, and curiosities from
Japan, contributed to the Exhibition by the King of Holland, demands notice,
independently of its intrinsic merits, from the circumstance that it is the first
time similar productions have been seen in Europe, beyond the walls of the
Museum at the Hague; and an early notice is well deserved, also, because
with Dutch punctuality and business-like management, this collection was
ready for inspection at the opening of the Exhibition, when all around was
confusion ;md packing-cases.

That branch of manufacture which, from the place of its origin, has in this
country obtained the name of "Japanning," is not so largely represented as
might have been anticipated ; but the comparatively few specimens are suffi-
cient to show that the Birmingham manufacturers have not yet attained so
high a degree of finish in this art as the Japanese. It is not that the polish
of the varnish is brighter, but there is a perfect evenness of surface that
reflects the light equally as from a surface of ground and polished glass, with-
out any of the irregularities so generally observable in English goods of a
similar kind. It would appear that the varnish of the Japanese must be of a

JAPAN MANUFACTURES. 619

superior quality to that of the EngHsh ; forjudging from a set of tea-cups
made of papier inache, that material is accustomed to be used in contact with
hot water, without much injury to the surface, and without imparting a dis-
agreeable taste to the beverage. There is a specimen also of a bowl for hold-
ing hquids, made of straw japanned, which feels lighter than papier mache,
and equally strong. It is evident, indeed, even frem the small variety of
specimens of this branch of manufacture in the collection, that the Japanese
apply the process of japanning to many other uses than Ave are accustomed
to. Among the warlike accoutrements, for instance, there is a highly-finished
Japan shield, entirely black, without ornament, which projects in the centre,
in the approved form of ancient shields. Whether a ball would glance from
the curvature may be very quesionable, but it is at all events well adapted to
ward off any missile projected by hand.

The specimens of silks and velvets very clearly show that the Japanese
makers of such fabrics can rival the European manufacturer in the quality of
the article, however rude may be the machinery they employ for the purpose.
Some silken cords, of various degrees of thickness, will also bear comparison
with any tkat can be produced by the improved machinery of England. The
wax candles, of which there are several specimens, deserve notice, from the
peculiarity of their shape, and the mode of manufacture. They are made of
the hardest wax, and are evidently formed by the process of successive dip-
pings, hke the wax candles in this country, the unevenness of the surface be-
ing in like manner subsequently removed by mechanical means. The pecu-
liarity of their shape consists in their being conical instead of cylindrical, the
broader end being placed uppermost. To give additional finish to the exte-
rior, the candles are painted.

The accoutrements of war do not present a very formidable appearance, nor
is a figure of a warrior armed cap-a-pie, with a visor over the lower part of
his face resembling a demoniacal mask, calculated to excite much alarm in
any but little children. The fire-arms are long and heavy, and are not adapted
to be fired from the shoulder; the swords are short, with daggers attached,
and they are inclosed in clumsy cylindrical sheaths. The armor of mail with
which the model warrior is clad is composed of a woven fabric sufficiently
thick to resist an arrow or the thrust of a spear. There is nothing in this
display of weapons and armor to deter the Americans from making their
inroad into Japan, and the only seemingly rational cause of making it a death
penalty to take any arms from the island must be to prevent exposure of the
defenseless condition of the people. The martial music consists of drums of
various kinds, and with them are placed several lutes and guitars, curiottsly
shaped, but there are no wind instruments.

The articles of luxury do not exhibit so much refinement and finished
workinauship as those of the Chinese. There are several cabinets, but not
one of them is elaborately decorated ; the fans are common, and the articles
of a lady's^ toilet, though they indicate the great variety of things requisite
in the dressing of a Japanese belle, are rather coarsely manufactured. One
cabinet is expressly adapted for smokers. There is "a censer at the top to
hold fire for lighting the pipe, with drawers underneath to contain the pipes
and tobacco. ^ The Japanese /ummr is very choice in his tobacco, and remark-
ably delicate in its use, for the specimens of pipes exhibited — one gold, the
other eilver— will not hold half of a small thimbleful of the plant. A para-
sol is, perhaps, more an article of necessity than luxury in Japan, and the
specimens of them are certainly not externally ornamental, though they de-
serve notice from the materials of which they are constructed.

620 AMERICAN STEAMBOATS ON THE AMAZON RIVEB.

The part that is silk in our parasols is made of paper creased into many
folds, the ribs of thin spliced bamboo, and they open and close with great
ease. The outer covering is of a dark color, the interior white, which is the
reverse of what theory would declare to be the proper colors for repelling
heat ; but these paper parasols must nevertheless form much better shades
than semi-translucent silk.

A collection of Japanese coins, from the largest gold to the smallest silver,
forms an interesting part of the collection. The gold coins are oblong, with
rounded corners, and the value of the largest is about £50. The smaller of
the silver coins are oblong, with sharp corners. Ne.xt to the coins are placed
specimens of Japanese printing-types. They are made of wood, the body
of the type being cylindrical, with the letter at one end, and they must
consequently be used separately, and not set up in " form," like our printing
types.

Those who are not experienced naturalists may be somewhat startled at
the stuflfed monsters from Japan. What the unexplored parts of that island
may not contain it would be presumptuous to state ; but it requires a con-
siderable stretch of credulity to believe in the existence of flying monkeys, and
of serpents with monkeys' heads; yet such objects are i>resented with indu-
bitable skin, hair, and bones ; and it is difficult to detect where the skin of
one animal has been joined to that of another. To artists so skilled in the
manufacture of monsters, the creation of a mermaid would present little diflS-
culty ; and though there is not the bodily j 'resentment of one, there is a pic-
torial representation, which, instead of realizing the poetical idea of such a
being, seems to be a literal copy of a mermaid, manufactured by the junction
of the body of an ape to the tail of a fish. There are several other specimens^
which indicate a prevalent taste for monstrosities.

jAirERICAN STEAMBOATS ON THE AMAZON HIYER.

A LETTER addressed to the Boston Traveller:^ dated) Para, South America,,
December 22, 1853, gives an account of the trial tripof Dr. Whitmore's
new steamers, designed to navigate the river Amazon. : Some time ago ho
took a contract from the Peruvian government, to furnish two or more steam-
boats suitable for the navigation of the Amazon, a treaty having been made with
Brazil with this end in view. Dr. Whitmore came to New- York, contracted
for the boats and machinery, superintended their construction, had them taken
to pieces and packed in a sailing vessel and shipped for the mouth of the
Amazon ; all at his own hazard. He then secured a sufficient number of
competent mechanics to go out with him, to put the steamers together, and
set up their machinery, and on the day of the date of the letter, the enter-
prise had been so far crowned with success, that the first of these little river
boats had made its trip, and appeared off Para, some seventy miles from the
mouth of the Amazon.

It was a gala day. The city was astir with joyful anticipations ; and the
little steamer was received with every demonstration oi satisfaction. She
was decked with flags, among which the stars and stripes were conspicuous,
and bore a gladsome company, some two hundred persons.

THE BENZOLE GAS. 621

THE BENZOLE GAS.

The American Gas Company, 3 Broadway, New-York, are now prepared
to supply Benzole to order, in any quantity from thirty gallons upward, and
to furnish machines of any size, for making their improved Benzole Gas-light.

They are also prepared to dispose of the right to use and vend their
invention, patented July 13, 1852, for any district, county, or town in the
States of New- York and Pennsylvania, and in nineteen other States south
and west of New-York.

The great principle of this invention, as we have before explained, is the
burning of any of the hydro-carbons, such as Benzole or its equivalent, either
pure, or in combination with water and any alcoholic liquid, by passing
through it a current of humid air or aqueous vapor, however obtained.

Any machine that requires humid air or aqueous vapor, can not, therefore,
be used for burning Benzole or its equivalent, either pure or mixed with water,'
and alcoholic liquid, without the license of the American Gas Company or
the other owners of this patent in States not held by the company.

No hydro-carbon can be used economically for illuminating purposes with-
out the presence of water or moist air. This, Mansfield tested in England
by several years' trial, under the patent which we described two months since,
and he gave up the problem. It was solved, at last, by the inventor of the
principle herein described.

Recent experiments have demonstrated that for twenty-five cents, the same
amount of light, for the same length of time, may be obtained from a pint
of benzole and a pint of alcohol mixed with a pint and a half of water, that
can be obtained from two pounds of Judd's patent sperm candles of six to
the pound, the price of which is fifty cents a pound ; or, in other words, one
hundred cents' worth of their candles.

The transportation of this gas through the ordinary gas-pipes is perfectly
feasible, and machines with thirty argand burners, each equal to eight
sperm candles or thereabouts, may be had at from $50 to $100, according to
the finish.

There jire various kinds of machinery suited to furnish this light, for which
the American Gas Company will receive orders to be furnished by their
mechanician and manufacturer.

Several houses in New- York and the country round will soon be furnished
with this light in all its splendor.

Thus, we have proved our own assertions as to the immense importance of
this patent, which assertions we made long ago, in private circles, in the face
of ridicule sometimes, and always with distrust. The light in the machines
of this company is even better than we had anticipated.

We add that if any of our subscribers wish for information, or for any
interest in this light, as above set forth, we will act for them, and, under or-
dmary circumstances, without charge to them. If they wish any service
especially laborious, we might tax a ver7j small fee. But we shall be glad
to be the instruments for extending the use of this light over the whole
country, and thereby do our friends and the public a great service, while we
rejoice in the triumph of perseverance and science in the face of much and power-
ful opposition. We hope our friends will make known their wishes freely,
and without hesitation.

VOL. VI. — PART ir. 16

622 CAST-IRON KAILS FOR RAILROADS.

CAST-IRON RAILS FOR RAILROADS.

We recently noticed the examination by Mr. R. W. Hughes of the ques-
tion, " Why can not cast-iron rails be used for railroads ?" We return to the
subject again, in order to present the view of it taken by the author :

"An elaborate and able report was made by a select committee of the
Pennsylvania Legislature, in 1S43, on the propriety of relaying the State
railroads with cast-iron rails. This report, together with the facts and argu-
ments in our former article, we deem conclusive as to the commercial and
practical adoption of cast-iron rails. It is impossible to controvert them with
argument, and we feel just as confident that actual experience will confirm
the deductions of the report.

The rapid destructibleness of wrought-iron rails has been more and more
apparent from the day the report was made, up to the present time. This
results from two causes : first, from the increased weight of the locomotive ;
and secondly, from the great demand for railroad iron. The latter cause in-
duces a demand for all material which can be made into railway bars ; and
the consequent hurry in which they are made, withdraws from them that
special attention which was devoted to their manufacture in earlier days.

We therefore repeat our conviction, that cast-iron rails maybe made which
v.'ill prove better, in all respects, than most of the English rails we are daily
importing.

Why have not cast-iron rails been generally introduced ? To this there
are several answers, and not one afiects their fitness for this purpose. Since
the introduction of railroads, the world has never stood still long enough to
think. A railway mania pervades the land, and it has crushed every obstacle
which has opposed it. Reflection would have required time, and none of the
persons or States which have been engaged in the eager race of internal im-
provement, would consent to exercise it, but preferred imitation. Hence, the
fact, that the railway system has undergone no positive changes since its first
introduction, with the exception of the now universal adoption of cast-iron
wheels instead of wrouffht-iron, a matter taken up, as it were, on the way-
side, in order to supply the absolute demand for constant repairs resulting
from the use of wrought-iron wheels.

Secondly. Whose duty was it to introduce cast-iron rails ? That of char-
tered companies, in which it was every man's business who had a personal
interest in the road, and what is every man's business, is generally regarded
as no body's.

The construction of roads is always left to the engineer, and suggestions
as to the mode of building them would be expected to come from him. But
he, like the rest of the world, has had little time for study and reflection, and,
deriving a comfortable living from the present plan of railways, would not be
apt to originate suggestions where failure would involve him in loss of pro-
fessional reputation.

Captain Moering, an engineer in the service of Austria, writing upon this
subject, says, ' He eagerly sought, in this country, from engineers and others
conversant with the subject, information relative to cast-iron rails, and after a
deliberate examination of the questions which arose, he was impelled to the
conclusion that cast-iron rails had not been rejected from the American rail-
tvays in consequence of any defect inherent in that material ;^ but that ' this
rejection, or omission, appe«js to have resulted partly from the sur[)rising

CAST-IRON RAILS FOR RAILROADS. 623

celerity with which these works were simultaneously urged forward ; partly
from the inexperience of many of the engineers, necessarily employed, in
consequence of the great demand at the time for men of that profession hav-
ing induced a number of imqualified persons to throw themselves into it ;
partly from a want of due deliberation consequent upon the rapid progress of
the railways, which favored imitation, rather than reflection; partly from the
vigor with which rolled-iron rails, then exempt from duty by law, were pushed
into use in every quarter of the country by interested parties ; and partly
from a long chain of fortuitous circumstances, which conduced to the results
we have witnessed, without deciding the merits of the technical questions in-
volved. '

If railroads were private entei'prises, we have no doubt cast-iron rails
would long since have been brought into use ; for the projector being the
owner, upon him alone would fall the failure ; but with chartered companies,
each member is unwilling to take the responsibility of suggesting any thing
new, for fear of failure.

Upon an examination of the report, as well as our references in a former
article, it will be seen that the only suggestions heretofore made, and deemed
sufficient to render cast-iron rails entirely suitable for railways, were, first, to
lay them on continuous wooden sills ; secondly, to increase the weight of the
cast-iron over the wrought-iron rail, in the proportion of six to seven ; and,
to make assurance doubly sure, as it is expressed, to cast, as suggested by
Mr. Morris, a small wrought-iron rod in the top table of the cast-iron rail, so
as to keep the parts together in the event of fracture.

At first view, this seems a great additional safeguard, and ought to have
insured the adoption of cast-iron rails ; but we are assured by one who has
paid a great deal of attention to the subject, that the suggestion was imprac-
ticable— the rod, upon coming in contact with the melted iron, being twisted
by expansion ©ut of line with the cast-iron at many points. Besides, it is
questionable whether so small a rod would not itself become so much hard-
ened, as to impart but little additional strength to the cast-iron. That the
rod would not be kept in line, one time in ten, Avhen merely laid in the
mould, he satisfied himself by actual experiment. This may have had its
efiect on the recommendation contained in the report we publish.

But the other suggestions render the use of cast-iron rails entirely practica-
ble ; and we have lately seen a section of cast-iron rails, with a wrought-iron
rod cast throughout their centre, a feat which has been rendered practicable
by a very simple device, and which enables the road to be so constructed that
it is impossible, even in the event of a fracture of one of the rails, for it to
get out of place. If, therefore, the rails be laid on continuous wooden bear-
ings, the fracture of the rail would only make another joint to it, and nothino-
more. There is thus provided, what we believe every practical man will pro-
nounce, who will examine it, a far better and more economical material for
our railroads than the present wrought-iron rails.

We, therefore, in this substitution of cast-iron for wrought-iron rails, pro-
pose a protective tariflf, such as no one can reasonably oppose.

We say the State, in building her railroads, should use for that purpose
her own iron, particularly when she has often to dig it up out of her way to
locate the track, of a far better quality than she can import.

And while she may not deny to her railroad companies the privilege of
using what iron they please, or buying it where they choose, she can simply
say, I can not be a partner with you, unless you agree to use cast-iron, after
demonstration of its fitness for rails."

62.1: NEW MODE OF APPLYING THE BRAKES.

KEW MODE OF APPLYING THE BRAKES.

m ■ . ^

The following statement relating to a veiy important matter is from the
Boston Traveller:

"It appears that on Thursday, by special invitation, a large number of gen-
tlemen assembled at the depot of the Boston and Worcester railroad, for the
purpose of witnessing experiments with a new rail-car brake operator. The
improvement consists in the application of a powerful spring to the work of
turning the brakes, instead of by hand as heretofore. The spring is con-
tained in a square box at the top of the car, from which a shaft runs down
and connects with the brake beneath the car. A wire chain runs along the
top of all the cars, and connects with every box, so that the engineer, by
pulling the end of the wire, can remove the check from every spring at the
same instant, allowing the springs to operate and stop the train. The springs
have to be wound up with a few turns of a lever before erery operation, but
this is but the work of a moment.

The train consisted of five cars, and was accompanied by an extra engine^
On the way out, the engineer applied the brakes twice, in both cases with
success. At Cambridge-crossing, the company, among whom were many
eminent gentlemen, left the cars, and took places at the side of the road,
where the experiment could be witnessed with the greatest facility. The
engine and cars then went up to the Brighton station for the purpose of get-
ting sufficient headway, and came thundering back again at the rate of be-
tween thirty -five and forty miles an hour ; owing to the fact that the engineer
had neglected to make a slight rearrangement suitable to the reversed dh-ec-
tion of the train, the brakes did not operate, and the train passed on half a
mile toward the city before it could be stopped by the application of the
brakes in the ordinary way.

This only served as a contrast to the second experiment, in which, after
again attaining a tremendous headway by approaching from a distance, the
train rushed toward the crossing ; at a signal from the flag of Mr. Twitchell,
the superintendent, who stood by the roadside, the engineer sounded his
whistle and pulled the break-wire. Numerous gentlemen were holding their
watches, and some counted but eight seconds, and others but nine seconds
between the giving of the signal by Mr. Twitchell, and the complete stoppage
of the train ; the train, even at the speed of thirty-five miles an hour, going
only eight feet more than its own length before coming to a stand-still.

A third experiment was then tried, in which the rear car was suddenly dis-
connected from the train by raising the coupling and inclosing the wire above.
The brakeman on the last car set the spring in motion, and stopped the car
80 suddenly as almost to throw off several operators who were standing on
its platform, while the train passed ahead. The wire-chain is coupled be-
tween every car, but if a car should accidentally break loose from the rear,
the jerk upon the wire would operate the brakes without further intervention,
and stop all the cars. These operator do not interfere with the ordinary
mode of applying brakes, as either mode can be worked independently of
the other.

Such an arrangement as this, working as well as it did to-day, would have
given the means of preventing such an accident as that at Norwalk last
summer, even when the train had come within its own length of the draw,
and its successful application must be the means of preventing many similar
accidents in the future. There is no disagreeable jerking where a whole train
is thus stopped, although there might be in the case of a single car.

FAMILY MARKETING.

625

FAMILY MARKETING

The following table gives the retail prices of the principal articles of farm
produce in the city of New-York, on Wednesday, March 15 :

Hind quarters, per lb 10 a —

Fore quarters, per Ih. Sj^a —

Porter-house steak?, per lb 1<5 a —

Sirloin steaks, per lb.. 14 a —

Rump steaks, per lb IS^a —

Roast pieces, each 10 a 14

Corned, per lb 9 a \^}i

Tongues, each 75 a —

Mutton car., per lb 9 o —

Mutton,perlb 10 a 12

Carcases 8 00 a —

At retail, per lb 11 a 12^

Hams, smoked, per lb 12^(1 14

Shoulders, do., per lb 10 a 11

Sides, do., per lb 11 o 12>^

Pickled, per lb 10 a 11

Sausages, per lb 12>^a —

Head-cheese, per lb 12>]^a —

Pigs, roasting, each 1 50 a2 50

Carcases, per lb 8 a 10

Fore quarters, per lb 10 a —

Hind quarters, per lb 12>^o —

•Cutlets, roasts, per lb 16}^a —

VENISON,

Saddles, per lb 15 a 18

Fore quarters, per lb 4 a 7

Retail, per lb l&%a —

Turkeys, per lb 13 a 15

Rhode -Island do., per lb 15 a 18J

Oeese, per lb 11 a 13

Ducks, (tame,) per pair 1 25 a2 25

Chicksns, per lb , 14 a 15

Fowls, per pair 1 00 al 75

Guinfa, per pair 62Xa 87X

Pigeon squabs, per doz. 2 25 a3 00

Wild pigeons, per doz 1 00 al 50

BIRDS.

Wild turkeys, each 1 50 fl3 00

Ducks, canvas backs, per pair. 1 00 al 50

Ducks, gray and teal, each 25 a Zl}4

Widgeon ducks, per pair 62>^a 87^^

Brant, each 75 a —

Wild geese, each 1 00 al 25

Prairie hens, per pair 1 00 ol 25

Mallard duck, per pair 100 a —

Black duck. Per pair 62Xt ^1%

Red-head duck, per pair 1 00 al 25

Capons, per lb 16 a ISJi

Bucks county, per pair 1 (tO a2 00

Broad bills, per pair 50 a 62)^

Rabbits, each ., 25 a 31^

Squirrels, each 12;^a 18%

Hares, per pair 75 a 87>^

HOUSEHOLD PRODCCTS.

Eggs by barrel, per doz \%%a —

By retail, 7 for 1~Xa —

•Orange county butter, per lb 28 a 30

Delaware county butter, per lb... 25 a

Ch^eese, in bo.\es, per lb 10 a

By the pound, per lb 11 a

Pine-apple cheese, each 1 13^a

Sap sago cheese, per lb 25 a

Lard, by lub, per lb ll)<S^t

City made, retail do 14 a

28
12
14

12^

Halibut, per lb 12Xa —

Pike, per lb 12Xa —

Pickerel, per lb 12Xa —

Muscalonge, per lb 12}^a —

Bass, perlb 10 a 12>^

Smelt, per lb •••• 10 o —

Codfish, per lb 6 a —

Eels, per lb 12 a —

Flounders, per lb. 6 a —

Savannah shad, each 75 o 1 00

Salt mackerel, per lb 8 a 18%

Salt shad, per lb 8 a 18^

Haddock, per lb 6 a —

Frost fish, per lb 6 a —

Sunfish, per lb •> <i —

Salmon, fresh, per lb 1 00 a —

Salmon, smoked, per lb. 123^(i 15

Codfish, dry, per lb 5 o —

Terrapin, per doz 10 00 al2 00

Oysters, in shell, per hun 62}^ i 2 00

Clams, round, per hun 37>^a 1 00

Crabs, per doz 25 a —

VEGETABLES AND FRUIT.

Apples, per bbl 4 50 a 5 00

Apples, per half peck 50 a 75

-Apples, dried, per lb 6 a —

Apple sauce, shakers, in pails, tvro

gals 100 a —

Pears, dried, per lb 9 a —

Peaches, dried, per lb 12J<ja —

Plums, dried, per lb 15 a —

Cranberries, per bbl 6 00 alO 50

Cranberries, per half peck 50 a 62^^

Potatoes, com , per bbl 3 00 a 3 75

Potatoes, per bask-et 1 25 a 1 50

Sweet do., per basket 2 25 a —

Sweet do., per half peck 62Xa —

Turnips, white, per bushel 62>^a —

Turnips, Russia, per basket 87j^a —

Beets, per basket 50 a 62^

Carrots and parsnips, per basket.. 75 a —

Onions, white, per bushel 1 12>!S'o 1 25

Onions, red, per bushel 62^a —

Cabbage, wholesale, per 100 5 00 alO 00

Cabbage, retail, each 12>^a 15

Lettuce, per head 6 a 8

Celery, per bunch 12j^a 15

Spinnacb, per half peck 25 «

Pumpkins, each 62^0 1 OO

Beans, Lima, shelled, dry, per bus. 7 00 a —
Tomatoes, quart cans, per dozen . 2 50 a —

MISCELLANEOUS.

Bologna sausage, per lb 25 a —

Beef tongues, each 68%,a 7S

Tripe, per lb « " ~

Tripe, pickled, per lb iss/" —

Maple sugar, cakes, per lb l°-4<*

626 editors' jottings, etc.

SHOE BUSINESS.

The following statements illustrate the benefit of a variety of pursuits, aud
especially of mechanic trades :

A Busy and Growing Place. — The population of Milford, in Mass.,
at present exceeds VOOO. The number of buildings erected last year
was 78, valued at $173,200. The number of boot manufactories is 40,
which turns out 1,450,198 pairs. Their value in 1853 was $2,594,346.
Number of firms engaged in mercantile business last year, 46, the amount
of whose business was §1, 050,800. Amount of woollen manufactures, &c.,
$285,000. Total business, $4,103,346.

The Legislature has just passed a bill to establish a police court in Milford,
and the judge's salary is to be $300 — not a very tempting inducement; yet,
it is said there are several anxious competitors for the appointment.

The Shoe Business in Haverhill. — The Haverhill Banner says there
are more than two hundred difterent kinds of shoes manufactured in that
town, from the brogau to the finest kind of ladies shoes, the sales some days
amounting to from seventy to eighty thousand dollars. It is estimated that
there are at least five million pairs manufactured annually, the shoe business
of the place being only second to that of Lynn, the great shoe-mart of tbe
country."

SOFTENING HORN.

*' Can horn be so softened as to be moulded into any required shape, or
pressed into moulds ? And can it be made white, or is white horn to be pur-
chased ?" — Querist.

Horn may be softened by a degree of heat not exceeding melted lead, and
may afterwards be moulded into any required shape. The horn handles of
knives, razors, (fee, are now commonly raad3 by moulding. The softened
horn is first pressed into a mould or die, which is then inclosed in a nut-
cracker sort of clamp, and the die, clamp, and horn immersed in boiling
water for a few minutes, after which the clamp is screwed as tight as possible,
by means of a screw attached to the end opposite the joint. In about twenty
minutes, the horn is taken out and finished. It is commonly dyed of various
colors, and may also, we presume, be blackened, though we do not recollect
to have seen any articles of white horn. Ivory is usually whitened by boil-
ing it in pearl-ashes and water ; and perhaps horn may be so also. — Me-
chanids' Magazine.

NOTICES.

American Association for the Advancement of Science. — The next meet-
ing of this Association opens at Washington on Wednesday, the 26th of April,
and non on the 30th, as stated in the May number of the American Journal of
Science. — Eds. Am. Jour. Sci.

Oculist. — Dr. Koehrig, now employed in the foreign department of the
Astor Library, announces himself as " oculist and special physician for amauro-
\ sis, even in cases of complete blindness." lie is a gentleman in manners, of most
extensive learning, is familiar with the theory and practice of Eastern and Eu-
ropean physicians, among whom lie has passed several years. lie can not fail
to receive a liberal patronage. His rooms are 887 Fourth street.

editors' JOTl'INGS, ETC. 627

EDITORS' JOTTINGS AND MECHANICAL RECORD.

The StTGAR Manufacture. — The following interesting account of the first
attempt to make sugar in Louisiana is from the report of the United States
Patent Office for 1847:

Judge Rost, in his address before the Mechanical and Agricultural Association
of Louisiana, gives an interesting description of the iirst attempt to make sugar
in Louisiana, which shows from how small beginnings the great crop now raised
of this article has proceeded. He says:

" How is it with the sugar-cane in Louisiana? It was introduced here at an
early day from the "West Indies, and cultivated to a small extent at Terre aux
Boeufs, and in the neighborhood of New-Orleans. No body at first imagined
that sugar could be made of it. The juice was boiled into syrup, which sold at
extravagant prices. In 1796, Mr. Bore, residing a few miles above New-Orleans,
a man reputed for his daring and his energy, formed the desperate resolve of
making sugar. He increased his cultivation, put up the necessary buildings and
machinery, and procured a sugar-maker from the West Indies. The day ap-
pointed for the experiment was come, and the operation was under way. The
inhabitants of New-Orleans and the coast had assembled there in great num-
bers ; but they remained outside of the building, at a respectable distance from
the sugar-maker, whom they looked upon as a sort of magician. Tlie first strike
came, and he said nothing; this they thought tatal, but still they remained fixed
to the spot. The second strike was out ; the sugar-maker carefully stirred the
first, and then, advancing toward the assembled crowd, told them with all the gra-
vity of his craft, 'Gentlemen, it grains.' ' It grains!' was repeated by all. They
all rushed in to see the wonder; and, when convinced of the facts, scattered in
all directions, greeting every body they met witli, 'It grains!' And from the
Balize to the Dubuque, from the Wabasl) to the Yellow Stone, the great, the all-
absorbing news of the colony was, that the juice of the cane had grained in
Lower Louisiana. It did grain ; it has continued to grain ; it grained the last
season at the rate of 215,000,000 pounds ; and, if no untoward action of the
government prevents it, in ten years it will grain to the extent of more than
double the quantity."

Talbot's Eock-boreh. — This machine is, in efi:eet, a huge seventeen-feet auger,
slowly turning at the rate of one revolution per hour, and advancing at the
same time from four to eight inches per hour, according to the solidity of the
rock perforated. The common auger, as every one knows, is fitted with two
fixed cutters, vertical to its centre, each cutting its way spirally into the
wood. The cutters of this auger, four in number, are likewise fitted vertically
to the centre, and cut their way spirally into the rock, with the combined revo-
lution and advance of the machine. The only difl:erence is in the construction
of the cutters, which we shall presently attempt to explain.

The principal parts of the machine are as follows : A carriage of massive iron
resting on ways, and pushed forward at the rate above named, by means of a
screw, turned by a simple contrivance similar to that which propels the carriage
of a saw-mill, which is readily graduated to produce any desired speed, from
two to twelve inches per hoar. Upon this carriage rests all the machinery, en-
gine included, and its total weight of 150,000 lbs. affords a sufficiently steady basis
of operations to prevent the slightest perceptible tremor. 2. A great face-plate
like that of a lathe, circular and vertical, resting and revolving on a hollow shaft
large enough to admit the play of a horizontal beam, pistoa-like, througli its
cavity. 3. Four sectors, (as if a wheel were divided into quarters,) with their
appxes hinged upon the face of the plate in such positions, equidistant, as to
bring their segments of circumference at right angles to each other, meeting at
the centre of the plate. The horizontal beam above mentioned connects by an
arm with each of these segments, at tlieir corners, which meet at the centre
of the plate ; and, in playing back and forth, causes each to vibrate in a
segment of a circle which passes through half the diameter of the tunnel, the

628 editors' jottixgs, etc.

four meeting at the centre. 4. The circumfereuce of each sector is armed with
three small wheels having teeth, not unlike circular saws, set ohliquely, so as to
strike tlie face of the rock in the same direction as a stone-cutter's chisel, and
to act upon it in substantially the same manner, as they are rolled upon it back
and forth by the vibratory swinging of the sectors. Each cutter in succession
thus steadily carves away its proper thickness of rock, as it swings back and
forth from the centre to the circumference of the tunnel, urged against the rock
by the slow advance of the carriage, and borne around by the revolution of the
face-plate. The thickness of the shaving carved away by each cutter, varies
from one to two inches, according to the hardness of the rock.

Four cutters, passing around once in an hour, and each cutting one and a half
inches deep, make, of course, a progress of six inches per hour, which is the
rate now made at Harlem. It is said that, after allowing for all necessary in-
terruptions, the machine may be run steadily for twenty hours out of twenty-
four, making a progress of ten feet per day. Sixty horse-power of steam, two
engineers, and two men to shovel out the broken rock, comprehend the expense
of working the machine at this rate; to which the expense of keeping up the
cutting-wheels is the only additional item of importance which seems necessary
to be added.

PuBLiOATiONs DELATED BT FiRE. — A disastrous fire broke out in No. 8 Spruce
street, New-York, on the night of the 4th of March, destroying Nos. 8, 10, 12,
14, and 16. Amongst the publishing offices destroyed, were The Independent, by
J. H. Ladd; Ladies' Wreath^ by Burdick, Reid & Co.; Christian Diadem^ by
Z. P. Hatch; and the Poimlar Educator^ the Historical Educator, CasseWs
Natural History, and the Magasin Fittore^que, by Alexander Montgomery.
These parties have all sutfered more or less by the fire, and the works of some
of them will be delayed in consequence. But from the business character and
energy which have distinguished them heretofore, we may expect that the in-
terruption will only be temporary. The public may soon expect to see these
several works appearing with their accustomed promptness, while our readers,
like ourselves, will sincerely sympathize with their unfortunate publishers in the
severe calamity which has befallen them.

How TO MEND Broken China or Glass-ware. — Mrs. William Shelton, of
Frankford, Pa., sends us the following recipe for mending broken china or glass-
ware : we do not know that the discovery is original with Mrs. S., but she has
long used it with invariable t-uccess. Take unslaked lime, made fine by pound-
ing or grinding, which mix with the white of an egg to the consistence of starch
or paint; thoi'ouglily cleanse and dry the edges to be united, then apply the
mixture to the parts to be cemented, place them together firmljf, and let them
become perfectly dry. Articles thus mended can be handled or washed without
injury.

Ammonia in Rain-water. — From experiments by Mons. Boussingault, Lower
Rhine, it appears that the rain of the country contains less ammonia than the
rain of the city, and that it is more abundant at the beginning than at the end
of a shower. He has also found that dew contains ammonia. The proportions,
by several trials, were six milligrams to the litre. On the 14th and 16th of
November, a thick mist prevailed, so rich in ammonia tliat the water had an
alkaline reaction. A litre of the water contained about two decigrams of car-
bonate of ammonia.

Durability of Wood. — The piles under the London bridge have been driven
500 years, and on examining them in 1846, they were found to be little decayed.
Old Savay Place, in the city of London, was built 650 years ago, and the wooden
piles, consisting of oak, elm, beech, and chestnut, were found upon recent ex-
amination to be perfectly sound. Of the durability of timber in a wet state,
the ]Mles of a bridge built by the Emperor Trajan, over the Danube, aftbrd a
striking example. One of these piles was taken up and found to be petrified to
the depth of three fourths of an inch ; but the rest of the wood was not difier-
ent from its former state, though it had l>een driven 1600 years.

EDITOKS' JOTTINGS, ETC. 629

The Umbrella Trade. — A recent visit to the United States Umbrella Manu-
factory, 292 Pearl-street, owned by Mr. James Woods, impressed us with the
vast extent of this branch of American industry, which, within a few years, has
more than quadrupled. The establishment of Mr. Woods is one of the largest
in the country, and his wares, from their deserved popularity for beauty and
durability, find their way to every part of our country. Mr. Woods purchases
his own materials himself, and gives his personal oversight to their manufacture
into umbrellas. His well-known character for integrity and uprightness fully
warrants us in commending his establishment to the public, as one where they
will find a good article at a fair price ; and where, too, any statement made by
the salesman can be relied upon with the most implicit confidence.

Dress-makees' and Milliners' Guide. — A work of the foregoing title, with
several numbers of which we have been favored, is published by S. T. Taylor,
307 Broadway, at $4= per annum. It contains beautiful and accurate fashion-
plates, besides patterns cut out of paper, which accompany each number. Our
"gude wife" says that no family should be without it, and that it is worth triple
its subscription price to ladies who have families, and who are at all tasty about
their dress. The high estimation in which she holds the work, warrants us in
recommending it to all our readers as indispensable to family economy.

Ladies' National Magazine. — Mr. T. B. Peterson, 102 Chestnut street,
Philadelphia, publishes a magazine with the above title devoted to the interest
of the ladies, which is really a meritorious work. It is only $2 per annum, and
is a richly-embellished periodical, filled with choice reading matter, adapted to
the taste and gratification of those for Avhom it is particularly intended. Mr.
Peterson adds a premium of a rich collection of engravings to all new subscribers.

Godey's Lady's Book. — Age seems to impart vigor and beauty to this pioneer
in a pure and eminently useful periodical literature. Godey, for March, and for
all the months of the year, is entertaining and sprightly, and embellished to a
degree that defies competition, and almost challenges credulity. Published by
Louis A. Godey, 107 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, at $3 per annum.

Arthur's Home Magazine. — Our friend Arthur, on whose reputation the sun
never sets, makes a selection from the columns of his Gazette, which he imposes
into a monthly, with the above title. The idea is a good one, and enables him
to give to the reader a very large amount of literary matter at a comparatively
low rate— $2 per annum. A few handsome steel engravings, added to the nu-
merous wood-cuts with wliich the work abounds, give it a place beside the most
respectable periodicals of the day, and must render it a very acceptable monthly
visitor. Published by T. S. Arthur & Co., 107 Walnut street, Philadelphia.

Improved Hakrow. — W. B. & G. M. Kamsay, of South Strabane, Pa., has
taken measures to secure a patent upon an improved harrow, the nature of
which consists in constructing a harrow of three separate parts or squares, so
arranged that one of their diagonal lines will run parallel to the line of travel,
and the other transversely thereto, securing a greater breadth of sweep than'a
harrow composed and jointed, as is common in these implements.

Coal for Burning Brick. — Eecent experiments made with Cumberland and
anthracite coal in the burning of brick, have shown that this fuel is peculiarly
adapted for this purpose, and that it can be used advantageously and economi-
cally, as compared with pine wood. Three several experiments were made in
Baltimore and Philadelphia by persons engaged in the manufacture of bricks,
and the results were the saving of three days' time in the burning of such kiln,
and one dollar and ten cents per thousand on each thousand burned.

United States Stock. — Taking the last census as the basis of calculation,
there are at this time about six hundred millions dollars' worth of live stock
in the United States. Their value exceeds that of all the manufacturing estab-
lishments in the country, and also exceeds the capital employed in commerce,
botb inland and foreign.

630 editors' JOITINGS, ETC.

The Patent Extension Bit, made by Mr. C. L. Barnes, of this city, is an article
that will be appreciated by a large class of our mechanics. A set of three sim-
ple bits will perform all that thirty-oue ordinary bits of one sixteenth of an inch
sizes can be made to do, beside cutting any size between, from a quarter of an
inch to two inches and one eighth diameter. See advertisement.

Meneei.ys' Bells. — The bells from the extensive e-itablishment of Messrs. A.
Meneely's Sons, West Troy, N. Y., received at the "World's Fair, recently held
in the city of New- York, the highest premium or 07ili/ silver medal awarded for
bells.

Their church, factory, steamboat, school-house, and plantation bell^, as "well
as their chimes, were adjudged by the commitiee to be " the hest in fullness and
richness of tone, clearness of vibration, and workmanship" of any on exhibition.

The Messrs. iMeiieely attach the more importance to the decision, from the
fact that the bell-founders of Europe were represented at the Crystal Palace, as
well as those from the United States.

Electric Weaving-machine. — The Commerce Sericole, a French paper, gives
an account of a remarkable invention, by which it is proposed to utilize the
electric current in the process of "weaving. It remarks that the Jaquard loom,
although an admirable invention, is not without certain difficulties and defects.
Thus, for each passage of the shuttle there must be a piece of card-board of cer-
tain breadth, pierced with holes arranged so as to correspond with the design.
To direct the electricity, a series of points is arranged in a line like the teeth of
a comb, each point communicating with an electro-magnet. The weaver will
only have to pass underneath these points the design, traced in varnish on a
cylinder or on a metallic leaf, in communication with the bsttery. The current
"will pass only where the varnish is wanting, and it will be the corresponding
threads only which will remain suspended, and which by that means will repro-
duce the design as it came from the hands of the artist. It is estimated that
this new mode will insure a saving in the most complicated designs of nearly
three fourths of the expense, and in others of at least one half.

The inventor of this method is Signor Bonelli, the General-Director of the
Sardinian telegraph. In the Jaquard loom, the figures are produced by a move-
ment on a pedal operated by the weaver himself, instead of employing children,
as in the old way, to draw the threads under the loom. This improved method,
however, is not without defects. For instance, with the passage of every thread,
a cartoon of a certain size is necessary, pierced with holes, arranged so as to cor-
respond with the design. But these operations are expensive, and the machines
are very liable to get out of order. They are also very noisy, and occupy much
room.

All these difficulties are prevented by the application of electricity. It avoids
the use of complicated mechanism, of cartoons, and in foct, of machinery almost
altogether. The threads are raised by a pedal, as with the present arrangement,
and by means of a fine copper wire, are subjected to a current of electricity,
•which does the work at once.

The necessary steps to procure a patent for this invention in Europe and the
United States have been commenced, and as soon as they are completed, the
electrical loom will be exhibited to the public at Turin.

IIats. — A good hat not only promotes the comfort, but also the personal ap-
pearance of its wearer. This being the case, it becomes a matter of some mo-
ment to know where a good article can he found. Beebe & Co., 156 Broadway,
have an established reputation for furnishing the most be.'.utiful, durable, and the
cheapest hat manufactured in New-York. "We have used their hats for a long
time, and only add our testimony to that of many thousands of others, in
aAvarding them the foregoing unqualified commendation.

New "WnEELBAUROW. — An Englishman has invented a new "wheelbarrow.
The wheel is placed under, and is sunk into the bottom, so that there is less
oscillation. By means of this barrow, it is stated that twice the usual weight
can be wheeled.

EDITOES' JOTTINGS, ETC. 631

Bending Timber.— An exhibition and trial of the model machine of the Ship-
timber Bendmg Company, took place lately, at the office of the Company, in
Irinity liuikling, and was witnessed by a considerable number of ship-builders
and other persons interested. Experiments were made with pieces of wood of
various sizes, mostly of live oak, which were easily bent in any desired curve,
without steaming. The leading principle in the process consists in the applica-
tion of an "end pressure" to the timber, at the same time that it is compressed
and turned, thereby destroying the capillary tubes by forcing them into each
other. The model employed was one twelfth of the size of the working ma-
chine. It is alleged that there is no longer a necessity for searching the forests
lor crooked sticks suitable for ship-building, as all timber, under the new process,
IS equally serviceal)le; and it is claimed that the bent timber is stronger, and less
liable to defect than the crooked and cross-grained pieces ordinarily selected.
Cabinet-makers can also be furnished with materials suitable for their purposes.
A thick piece of black walnut was shown at the office, which has been bent in
the forin of an ellipsis, the two ends meeting. Mahogany, and other woods
equally brittle, are said to bend with the same ease. So far as we observed, the
spectators were well satisfied with the result of the trial. Mr. Jarvis, timber
inspector and measurer at the United States Navy Yard, Gosport, expresses the
opinion that the whole frame of a ship, except perhaps the floor-timbers, will
ultimately be bent m this way.— iVeio- York Journal of Commerce.

Impoktant Means of Lubrication.— We are informed by the London Mining
Journal that Mr. John Flick, of Bolton, has patented a new plan of lubricating
revolving-shafts, axles, &c. At or near the centre of the step of bearing, and
at about right angles to the axis, a groove is formed both in the upper and lower
portions of it, thus extending all round the journal. The lower part of this
groove forms a receptacle for the lubricating fluid, and there is another small
horizontal groove formed in the step, parallel with the axis of the shaft. A
metal ring is placed loosely on the shaft, and is carried round with it by means
of the friction of the surfaces ; the lower part of this dips into the fluid, and is
constantly passed to the upper part of the shaft, carrying supplies of the fluid,
which becomes attached to its surface.

Potato-Planter.— Alexander Anderson, of Markham, C. W., has invented
an improved potato-planter. His machine has an endless apron at the bottom
ot a hopper, which is provided with a series of apertu'-es, which receive the
potatoes and carry them to the discharge spout, through which they fall into the
turrow at equal distances. These apertures also convey those potatoes which
are too large for seed, to a knife at the bottom of the hopper, by which they
are cut into pieces of suitable size. The inventor has applied for a patent.

State Agricultural School and Farm.- A meeting of the Maryland State
Agricultural Society was held recently at the rooms of the Society, in the Ame-
rican Building, which was called to order by .J. Howard McHenry, Esq.; C. B.
Calrert, Esq., President of the Society, occupied the chair. The Committee
appointed at the last quarterly meeting of the Society, to whom was referred
the duty of preparing a plan for the establishment of an agricultural school and
tarm, submitted their report, which was read. After a few remarks from Hugh
Celston, Esq., the charter of incorporation was read, when a supplement was
presented, granting greater power to the Society, and providing for the purchase
and turnishing of an experimental farm, and providing for its stock to be divided
into one thousand shares, at the rate of one hundred dollars per share.

Ihe President thought the charter was a very liberal one, but some action
was necessary by the Legislature. When the stock was sold to persons outside
ot the Society, it might be voted away by the by-laws of the Society, and it
was necessary to prevent that to have it controlled by a majority of the stock-
holders. That course would throw a guard round it, and many gentlemen, not
members of the Society, could purchase in the stock of the farm without any
tear whatever. No particular form of supplement to the charter was fixed upon,
but it was determined to apply to the Legislature for an extension of the powers
of the incorporation.

632 editors' jottings, etc.

The Largest Engine. — Messrs. Stillman & Allen, of the Novelty AVorks, of
New- York City, are now constructing the largest engine that was ever built in
this or any other countr}'. The diameter of the cylinder is 105 inches, and the
length of stroke 12 feet. It is designed for the Bay State Company's new Fall
River boat, which is to run in connection with the Fall River and Boston rail-
road.

Spider ARcniTEOT. — The nest of a tarantula (spider) has been found in California
of the most singular construction. It is about three inches in length, by two in
diameter, built of adobes, the walls being nearly half an inch thick. Inside is a
projection, which nearly divides into apartments, about an inch in diameter.
The inside is lined with a white, downy substance, not unlike velvet, and presents
one of the cleanest and most tidy little households imaginable. But the most
curious part of it is a door, which fits into an aperture and closes it liermetically.
The door is secured by a hinge, formed of the same fibrous substance as the lin-
ing of the house, upon which it swings with freedom. The nest is occupied by
a dozen little tarantulas, which seem to subsist upon a yellow secreted substance
that appears upon the walls of the front apartment. The arrangement of the
door for the protection of the little inmates indicates great instinctive architec-
tural knowledge. It is the intention of the finder to forward this curiosity to
the Smithsonian Institute at Washington.

The Springfield, Mount Vernon, and Pittsburgh Railway. — From Spring-
field to Delaware, forty-eight miles, the grading, masonry, and bridging is nearly
completed, and will be entirely done by the 10th or 15th of October. The ties,
iron rails, spikes, and chairs are all in readiness. The track-laying was com-
menced at Springfield, and has progressed fifteen miles, and will be completed to
Marysville (32 miles) in 40 or 50 days. The track-laying was commenced at
Delaware the present week, and will be completed west to Marysville in from 40
to 50 days.

From Delaware eastward to the intersection with the Ohio and Pennsylvania
Railroads, 54 miles, the road was let last winter for all the work and mate-
rials, excepting the iron rails, and chairs, and the work was commenced in the
spring, and has been prosecuted vigorously. It is in the hands of as good con-
tractors as any known in the AVestern country, and it is not doubted but that
the grading, masonry, and bridging, will be ready for the superstructure as early
as Aftril or May, so that this part of the road may be brought into use in the
summer or fall of 1854.

The Panama Railroad — The whole length of this road from Aspinwall on
the Atlantic side, to Panama on the Pacific side, is 49 miles. It crosses an eleva-
tion of 276 feet above high tide at Aspinwall, which will be graded down to 250
feet. The general direction and course of the road from Aspinwall to Panama,
is from north-west to south-east, a direction hardly anticipated by those
acquainted with the topographical peculiarities of that region. The gauge of
this road is five feet, and the sharpest curve one of fifteen degrees. The iron is
brought from Wales, and is what is called the heavy W rail, but some T rail
will be used. It strikes the Chagres river about seven and a half miles from
Aspinwall, and follows the general course of the river to three miles above Gor-
gona, where it leaves the river, and continues in a south-east direction to the
height of land between the two oceans, in the direction toward Panama. It
crosses the Chagres river at Barbacoas, the present terminus of the road, where
a substantial bridge, 624 feet long, with three piers, is now erecting, the timber
and wood-work of which is constructed at Darien, Ga. There will be no grade
on the road over the 50 feet to the mile, except for one mile, where it is 70 feet.

PoRT-MONNAiES, &c. — We Doticc that our friends, Messrs. Zurn and Rnntfie,
14 John street, of whom we made mention lately, in our account of the Crystal
Palace, have received a premium for the goods they exhibited in the Crystal
Palace. This agrees with our opinion of tlieir merits, as before stated. They
are excellent workmen, and very courteous and obliging gentlemen. Some of
our New- York acquaintances do not sufficiently appreciate either of these traits,
judging from the exhibition which they make.

editors' jottings, etc. 63

Flying almost. — A curious spectacle (says the Paris Pays) was witnessed in
the great avenue of the Champs Elysees the day before yesterday. A well-
dressed person appeared, with a great number of bladders, each nearly filled with
pure hydrogen gas, covered with a net-work of silk, and attached to his body by
means of a strap fastened to a belt beneath his arms. The bladders possessed a
sufficient ascensional force to diminish the weight of the man by three fourths,
without lifting him from the ground. Thus lightened, he was able to take leaps
of five or six yards at a time with extraordinary rapidity. After descending the
great avenue from the quartier Beaujon to near the Palace de I'Industrie, he
returned in the way he came. A vast crowd followed him, and seemed astounded
at his feat.

Improvement Claimed. — Mr. "W. Rice, of Boston, Lincolnshire, has patented
an invention which will tend greatly to decrease the labor of draught-horses. It
consists of a spring-link, formed of steel or india-rubber, attached to the traces,
hame-chains, or any part of the harness, so that, instead of a horse taking a dead
pull at starting, and frequently coming down, the load is gradually admitted to
the shoulder.

New Coal Fiklds. — Professor C. T. Jackson, of Boston, has been lately en-
gaged in an exploration of some new coal-fields at Deep River, N". C, about forty
miles from Fayetteville, and reports that there is a rich deposit of coal there well
worth working.

Obstructing the Sidewalks. — Teamsters in most of our cities need informa-
tion on the rights of foo1|passengers. It often happens that a teamster, wishing
to unload his team, will back it across the sidewalk to the door of a store, with-
out any regard to the convenience of pedestrians. In the police court this morn-
ing, James A. Douglass, charged with obstructing the sidewalk in Atkinson
street, in this manner, was fined $5 and costs. — Boston Paper.

Crystal Palace. — Circumstances have compelled us to omit, for this month,
any account of this great show. But it remains unchanged in most of its de-
partments, and has received large additions in others, many of which are of the
highest order of merit. "With the return of warm weather, the number of
visitors will no doubt be much increased.

Piano-Fortes. — It is not generally understood that the pianos manufactured
by Messrs. Grovesteen & Truslow have a peculiarity that no others possess. Its
base or bottom-board is peculiarly constructed. The makers have a patent. It
can neither settle nor spring, while it is light, being partly hollow. It consists
of several pieces ; the principal ones being the upper and lower boards, supported
by an arch which is itself supported above and below in different places. For
tone or beauty of finish, nothing of the kind excels them. The juries at the
Crystal Palace awarded three prize medals to these gentlemen for the best
piano-fortes on exhibition. The American Institute also awarded them prize
medals for five years in succession.

The New- York State Poultrt Society have chosen the following officers
for the ensuing year :

President — D. S. Heffron, of Utica.

Vice-Presidents — Francis Rotch, Butternuts ; M. Vassar, Poughkeepsie ;
Lewis F. Allen, Black Rock.

Corresponding Secretary — R. C. McCormick, jr., Woodhaven, L. I.

Recording Secretary and Treasurer — R. U. Sherman, Utica.

Managers — Samuel T. Tabor, Duchess; Thos. W. Ludlow, jr., Yonkers ;
Samuel Thorns, New- York City; 0. W. Godard, Albany; A. P. Hammond,
Westport, Essex county; W. H. Southwick, New-Baltimore ; Samuel S. Brenian,
Hampton, Washington county; George St. George, New- York Mills, Oneida co. ;
A. A. Hudson, Syracuse; R. H. Van Rensselaer, Otsego county; F. W. Collins,
Ontario county ; Isaac E. Haviland, L. I. ; Abner Baker, Rochester ; William
Walsh, Bethlehem, Albany county ; John H. Cole, Columbia county ; D. W. C.
Van Slyck, Warner county ; J. Wyman Jones, Utica ; N. S. Smith, BuflTalo ;
Curtis Moses, Syracuse ; Thos. Gould, Cayuga county.

634 NEW BOOKS.

NEW BOOKS.

Four Tears i>j the Government Exi'louin-g Expedition, Commanded by Capt. Charles
Wilkes ; a Narrative of a Cruise to the Island of Madeira, Cape Verd Islands,
Brazil, Coast of Patagonia, Chili, Peru, Paumato Group, Society Islands, Navigator
Group, Australia, Antarctic Ocean, Friendly Islands, Fejee Group, SandwicU
Islands, North-west Coast of America, Oregon, California, East Indies, St. Helena,
<fcc. By Lieut. Geo. M. Colvocore.sses, U. S. Navy. 1 vol. Cloth, gilt. 12aio.
pp. 3.50. 25 illustrations. Price reduced to $1. New- York: R. T. Young, UO
Fulton street.

Tuis work, by an officer of the expedition, has reached its fourth edition. It con-
tains a description of the natural scenery, manners, custoin.s, religions, tfec, of the
countries visited. It is an interesting book of voj^ages, full of useful information,
written in a good, easy style, that is calculated to impress the facts related upon the
memory of the reader.

It is compiled from a journal kept by the author in obedience to a " general order"
from the navy department, and for the general reader it is in a more desirable form
than the massive government editions.

Elliott's Fruit Book ; or, the American Fi-uit-Grower's Guide, in Orchard and Gar-
den. Being a compend of the history, modes of propagation, culture, &c., of fruit-
trees and shrubs, with descriptions of nearly all the varieties of fruits cultivated
in the country; notes of their adaptation to localities and soils, and also a com-
plete list of fruits worthy of cultivation. By F. R. ELuorr. IS'ew-York: C. M.
Saxton, agricultural book publisher, 152 Fulton street.

This is a work of more than five hundred pages, profusely interspersed with cuts,
illustrating not only the great variety of fruits, but the modes of planting, pruning,
grafting, budding, laying, training, &c., &c. It treats understandingly of manures
and the general culture of plants and trees, and the best modes of guarding against
the various insects that prey upon our fruit-trees and fruits. It is evidently the re-
sult of long experience, careful study, and persevering industry. To the fruit-
grower or gardener it will be found of great value, and the plain farmer, who cul-
tivates only his small apple-orchard, will find here all he needs to know in securing
the object at which he aims.

The Farmer's Miscellany and Agriculturist's Guide ; Treating upon Gases, Salts,
Atmosphere, Manures, Seeds, Hot-Beds, Grains, Vegetables, Fruits, Gardening,
Grafting, Pruning, and Animals ; with forms of agreement with laborers, and a great
variety of agricultural matter, and an appendix of valuable receipts, &c. By Geo.
W. Marshall, author of the Farmer's and Emigrant's Hand-Book, (fee. Sixty illus-
trations. New-York : R. T. Young, publisher, 140 Fulton street.
This is a valuable cabinet of information. No one can peruse it, and not find for

himself a thousand truths of importance, which he may not have learned before.

It is of good print and paper, Avell bound, and we commend it to our young farmers,

gardeners, and all others.

Meyer's Universum. — We have on several occasions referred to this series of illus-
trations, and numbers subsequentl}' published have been quite as good as the pre-
ceding. The two volumes thus far published, contain a good variety of views of well-
selected scenery in both continents, well executed, and form a handsome ornament for
the centre-table and for the library. We commend it without hesitation to all our
readers. The text, written by Mr. Dana, of the Tribune, is worthy of its accom-
plished author. The numbers are but twenty -five cents each, and contain at least
four engravings, with well-ari'anged descriptions.

HoM(EOPATnic Practice of Medicine. By Dr. FnELicn, New-York : Lamport, Blake-
man & Law, 8 Park Place.

A volume of 576 pages, devoted to this subject, has been published by one of our
enterprising houses. It is from one of no little eminence in the profession, and is well
recommended. It may be regarded as the highest authority in the school to which
the writer belongs, and will, no doubt, take rank among the best text books in tlrat
department Its price is only $1.50.

LIST OF PATENTS.

635

Illustrated Record of the Crystal Palace. — This handsome volume, woi'thy of the
publisher, Mr. G. P. Putnam, Park Row, is now closed. Mr. Putnam deserves much,
not only of commendation, but of returns more substantial, for his efforts to do the
subject justice. He has succeeded to the entire satisfaction of all reasonable men.
The task was full of difficulty; every thing was to be prepared for it; artists were
not easily found for so extensive and varied labor, but all has not only been done,
but well done. The editors have done their part equally well, and furnish matter
for the gratification and profit of the reader.

List of Patents Issued,

FROM FEB. 7 TO MARCH ^.

A. H. Caryl, of Sandusky city, Ohio, for improve-
ment in picking and cleaning flax.

Matihias W. Baldwin and David Clark, of Phila-
delphia, Pa., for improved arrangement of vertical
tube feed water-heaters, in locomotive smoke
stacks.

Lewis S. Chichester, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for im-
provement ia machines for cleaning wool.

John Griffiths, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
ment in valve-cocks.

P. 0. Goflin, of New-York, for improvement in
fire and burglar-proof safes.

Jonathan Knowles, of Trenton, N. J., for im-
provement in process of treating vegetable fibre.
Patented in France, April 4, 1S53.

Sam. G. Lewis, of Delaware Co., Pa., for im- j
provement in making thick paper.

Thos. Cook, of New-York, assignor to Starkie
Livsey, of same place, for improvement in fire-
arms.

John Standish, of Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, assign-
or to John Standish and Horace A. Miller, of same
place, for improvement iu machines for pegging
boots and shoes.

Robert Preston, of North Pownal, Vt., for im-
provement in drying cloth.

Warren Robinson, of New-Haven, Conn., for
improvement in ships' ventilators.

Jacob Reese, of Sharon, Pa., for improvement
in hanging the fore-plate to iron-rolling machinery.

W. G. Sterling, of Bridgeport, Conn., for im-
provement in planting-hoes.

Henry S. William, of Malta, Ohio, for improve-
ments in apparatus for controlling the pressure of
steam.

Jiicob D. Woodruff, of Newark, N. J., and J. H.
Butterworth, of Dover, N. J., for Improvement in
drop-bridges.

Arcalous Wyckoff, of Wellsburgh, N. Y., for
improvement iu machines for making links of jack-
chains.

Jno. Webster and Orson Spencer, of Cleveland,
Ohio, assignors to Jno. Webster, of same place,
for improvement in gas-burners.

Geo. B. Ambler, of Trumbull, Conn., for improve-
ment in saddle-trees.

Freierick H. Bartholomew, of New- York, for im-
provement in water-closets.

Jason Barton, of Middle-Haddam, Conn., for im-
provement in horse-bell.".

J. L Burdick, of New-York, for improvement in
machinery for paging blank books.

John W. Newell, of New-Paris, Ohio, for improve-
ment iu machines for stufling horse-collars.

Horace Smith and Daniel B. Wesson, of Nor-
wich, Conn., for improvement in fire-arms.

Allen Goodman and Lyman Wheeler, of Dana,
Mass., for improved machine for scraping and
toothing veneer.

Joel R. Bassett, of Cincinnati, Ohio, assignee to
Caleb H. Williams, of same place, for improvement
in ball-valves for pumps.

Frederick T. Andrews, of Georgetown, D. C, for
improved method of operating saws.

Jason Barton, of Middle-Haddam, Conn., for im-
provement in the mode of attaching horse-hells to
straps.

Jeremy W. Bliss, of Hartford, Conn., for improve-
ment in window-cord pulleys.

E. G. Connelly, of ludianapolis, Ind., for im-
proved carved sash-bolt.

Jno. T. Foster, of .Jersey City, N. J., for improve-
ment in stone-picking machines.

Wm. Perry of New- York, for improvement in
oar-locks.

John B. Holmes, of Boston, Ma's., for improve-
ment in derricks.

Daniel J. Stearns, of Pittsfield, Mass., for im-
provement in stretching and drying cloth.

Jos. M. fchuylerand Wm. Zern, of Pottsville, Pa.,
assignees to Daniel L. Easterly, of same place, for
improvement in weaving wire-ecreens.

Samuel F. Holbrook, of Boston, Mas?., for im-
provement in contrivances for protecting passen-
gers in railroad cars.

Amos P. Hughes, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
proved tool for dovetailing.

Richard Montgomery, of New-York, for im-
provement in corrugating metal plates.

Martin Newman, 2d, and N. C. Whitcomb, of
Lanesborougb, Pa., and G. C. Cook, of Hartford,
Conn., for improvement in whiffletree-hooks.

Elnathan Sampson, of Claremont, N. H., for im-
provement in attaching hubs to axles.

Jno. B. Smith, of Sunapee, N. H., for improved
machine for slitting clothes-pins.

James Foster, Jr., of Cincinnati, Ohio, for im-
provement in seal presses.

Jno. Gledhill, of New- York, for improvement in
treating hair for weaving.

Chas. F. Packard, of Greenwich, Conn., for im-
proved niHchiiie for cutting lath.

Smith Thompson, of Newburyport, Mis?., for
iniprovenient in spooling jarn from t^e cop.

636

LIST OF PATENTS.

Jno. Zink, of Greensville, Va., for improvement
in thrashers and separators of grain.

Rufus Porter, of Washington, D. C, assignor to
George Stephenson, of Northfield, Ind., for im-
provemeut in machinery for making cordage.

Solomon Smith, of Acton, Mass., assignor to
himself and Wm. Schoaler, of same place, for im-
provement in parti-coloring machines.

niram Tucker, of Carabridgeport, Mass., assignor
to himself and Joseph Storey, of Boston, Mags., for
improvement in applying colors to stone. Patented
in England, Sept. 14,"l852.

S. B. Batchelor, of Lowville, N. Y., for scythe
fastenings.

J. W. Chilteuden & Wm. C. Mead, of Vevay,
Ind., for machine for splitting hoops.

John P. Conger, 01 Newark, N. J., for improved
salt-kilns.

Lewis ^V. Colver, of Louisville, Ky., for a seed-
planter.

R. W. Davis, of Rodgersville, N. Y., for im-
proved churns.

A. K. Eaton, of New-York City, for machine for
pulverizing ores.

Abijah Hall & Sylvanus Sturtevant, of South
Paris, Me., for improved snow-ploughs and rail-
roads.

Timothy D. Jackson, of New- York City, for dies
for making seamless metal tubes.

Smith W. Bullock, of New-York City, assignor
to Stillman, Alien & Co., of same place, for im-
proved quartz-crushers.

Michael M. Gray, of Philadelphia, Pa., for rail-
road chair-machines.

Thomas D. Henson & George Rohr, of Charles-
ton, Va., for seed-planters.

Wm. Burnett and John Absterdam, of Boston,
Mass., for fusible discs in steam-boilers.

James Renton, of Newark, N. J., for zinc white
I\irnaces.

F. G. Johnson, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for table to
hold bank-notes when cut.

A. S. Lyman, of New-York .lity, for improved
air engines.

\Vm. McBride, of Bristolville, Ohio, for machines
for making bed-pins.

James Pills, of Lancaster, Mass., for cotton-picker
cylinder.

Joseph Sawyer, of South Boyalston, Mass., for
socket for bench-hooks.

Wm. Sumner, of Worcester, Mass., for improve-
ment in organs.

Solyman Bell, of Marseilles, 111., for an improved
harvester,

George A. Rollins, of Nashua, N, H., for a tool-
rest for turning-lathes.

John S. Snyder & Joseph Young, of \\aieatfleld
Township, Pa., for an improved seed-planter.

Linus Yale, of Newport, N. Y., for improvement
in bank-locks.

Jacob Zook, of Ilarrisburg, Pa., for new carrier
for lathes.

L. O. P. Meyer, of Newtown, Conn., for new
mode of vulcanizing India-rubber and other gums.

James F. Brodhead, of Rondout, N. Y., for im-
proved Forceps saw-sets.

Stephen P. Ruggles, of Boston, Mass., for an
improved printing press.

David Swartz, of Tonls Brook, Va., for additional
improvement in ploughs.

William Burnett, of Boston, Mass., for improved
arrangement of fusible plugs or disks for steam-
bcilers.

Isaac Hussey, of llarvcysburg, Ohio, for im-
provement in machines for plastering.

Caleb Cook, of Nashville, N. U., for improved
arrangement of valve motion for locomotive-
engines.

Warren Gale, of Louisville, Ky., for improve-
ment in the gauge of straw-cutters.

William G. Phillips, of Newport, Del., for im-
proved method of opening and closing gates.

Joel P. Heacock, of Marlborough, Ohio, for ap-
paratus for rounding and bevelling barrel-Iieads,

George W. Cooper, of Palmyra, Ga., for improve-
ment in cotton seed-planters.

Henry P. Kimble, of Rochester, N. Y., for im-
provement in sash-fasteners.

Wm. H. Johnson, of Granville, Mass., for im-
provement in sewing-machines,

George C. Hinman, of New-Haven, Conn., for
improvement in sash-stainers.

George Levan, of West Earl Township, Penn ,
for improvement in reeling machines.

Samuel Loveland, of Astoria, N. Y., for improve-
ment in sectional dry docks.

Levi B. Tyng, of Lowell, Mass., for improvement
in tail-stocks for turning- lathes.

R. J. R. Stone, of Berlin, Ohio, for improvement
in machines for boring and morticing carriage-
hubs.

Joseph Sotlenberger, of Higginsport, Ohio, for
improvement in carriage-brakes.

James W. Stoakes, of Milan, Ohio, for iraprove-
meut in apparatus for paying the seams of vessels.

Chauncey D. Woodruff, of Toledo, Ohio, for
Improvement in suspending eaves troughs.

Luther B. Fisher, of Cold Water, Mich., for im-
provement in seed-planters.

Jeremiah C. Gaston, of Beading, Ohio, for im-
provement in seed -planters.

Charles Miller, of St. Louis, Mo., for improve-
ment in sewing-machines.

Clark PoUey, of May's Landing, N. J., for im-
proved method of operating hydraulic rams.

David B. Marks, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
provement in artificial legs.

Seaman C. Ripley, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in brick-machines.

Joseph Sawyer, of South Royalston, Mass., for
improvement in machines for splitting rattans.

Addison M. Sawyer, of Templeton, Mass., for
improvement in miichines for splitting rattans.

William Wickersham, of Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in sewing-machines.

Robert W. Andrews, of Staffordville, Conn., for
improvement in Britannia tea and coffee-pots.

Jesse Young, of Franklin Furnace, Ohio, for
in' provemen tin connecting the joints of air-heuting
pipes.

William C. Wright, of Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in machines for drilling stones.

Ashley Ilotchkin, ofShencvus, New- York, N. Y.,
for improvement in hanging gates.

Daniel Ryan and John Flanagan, of New- York,
N. Y., for improvement in water-closets.

Jo.'ieph Wilson, of Hartford, Conn., for improve-
ment in self-acting railroad switches.

Christopher Ilodgkins, of Boston, Mass., assignor
to Neheniiah Hunt, of same place, for improve-
ment in sewing-machines.

Thomas Klcgg, of North Andovcr, Mass., as-
signor to Thomas Clcgg and Nathaniel Stephens,
of Andover, Mass., for improvement in wire heddle-
eyes for looms. |

il0ttglj^ i\)t f 0oitt, mh tl)e Jtnuil.

Part II.— Vol. VI. MAY, 1854. No. 5.

COAL-FIELDS— PENNSYLVANIA MINES.

The extent of the coal regions of this country is very remarkable. This
important mineral is absolutely inexhaustible. The quality of it, at various
places, and the value, vary, of course, according to its geographical and geo-
logical position.

As we explained in the last number, there is no coal, comparatively, on
the Atlantic slope, or between the Atlantic and the Appalachian chain. But
here the anthracite coal-measures at once present themselves; and as soon as
the summit of these mountains is passed, the Appalachian coal field,
properly so called, abounding in bitumenous coal, also extends over an
immense extent of country. This mountain range extends, in fact, from
Vermont to Alabama, a distance of more than a thousand miles, and varying-
from fifty to a hundred and fifty miles in width. The structure of these
ranges is very complicate, from the frequent occurrence of fractures, and
deviations from "ligh/. lines; but as we go westward, the strata are less dis-
turbed, until they regain a horizontal position. On the south-easterly side
of the chain, numerous dykes also are found, consisting of igneous or plutonic
rocks, which essentially interrupt the regularity of the strata.

It is estimated that the extent of the coal-fields in the several States
named below are as follows : Alabama, 3400 square miles of coal ; Georgia,
150; Tennesee, 4300; Kentucky, 13,500; Virginia, 21,195; Maryland,
550; Ohio, 11,600; Indiana, WOO; Illinois, 44,000; Pennsylvania,
15,437 ; Michigan, 5000 ; Missouri, 6000 ; or a total in these twelve States
of 133,132 square miles.

In Pennsylvania, nearly 10,000,000 of acres are occupied by anthracite
coal, or more than one third of the whole area of the State.

The coal-beds decrease in thickness as we advance toward the West. Near
Pottsville, in Pennsylvania, where the thickness of the coal-measures is the
greatest, there are thirteen seams of anthracite coal, one above another,
several of which are more than two yards thick. Following: alonsf this tract
for several miles, it is found that seven of these seams successively unite into
one, forming in the region of Mauch Chunk a mass between 40 and 50 feet
thick. According to the statement of our friend, Mr. W. White Smith, of
Philadelphia, in his "Off-hand Sketches," "the coal strata appear to have
over-tilted, thus forming an almost solid area of coal of great thickness.
Lying near the surftice, it was for many years rained in open quarry."

The phraseology hei'e used by our friend in the passage just cited, reminds
us of a very ingenious theory, but recently broached, by which geologists
undertake to account for the state of things we have been describing, namely,
the union of different coal seams into one. A diagram would be very con-

VOL. VI. — PART IL 17

638 GOAL-FIELDS — PENNSYLVANIA MINES,

venient; but even without one, we will endeavor to make ourself under-
stood.

First, then, suppose a layer of roots of trees and other vegetable matters,
resting upon a bed of coal. Above this " layer" is a growing forest. Let
one extremity, or perhaps hidf or a third of this forest, become submerged
by some great convulsion, sinking down some 20 or 30 feet. A lake is
formed. The trees are in all conceivable positions, and many slowly decay.
Their stumps, and the lower part of the trunks of those still standing, become
enveloped in sand and mud, with which the lake is gradually tilled up. In
the process of time, another forest starts up from this new-fonned land, and
other masses of vegetable matter accumulate, each of which in its turn is to
be transformed into coal ; and the process of sinking and filling- up, &c., is
repeated again and again, as before. These various beds will evidently be
united at the point at which the original formations, which remained quiet,
and the sunken portions unite, and there will be as many beds of coal, one
above another, and in a position like rays from a common centre, as there
are repetitions of the process we have described.

It will not be expected, of course, that these changes will all commence
and terminate at the same spot, and hence frequent irregularities in the
number, thickness, and direction of these seams must bo almost inevitable.

But to return to t^ extent of these veins. In the South basin, in Penn-
sylvania, that is, from the Sharp Mountain to the Mine Hill, there are thir-
teen veins, some of which are white ash and some are red — the whole
thickness of the coal-voins ninety feet.

The xVppalachian coal-field extends, according to the report' of Professor
Rogers, for a distance of 720 miles, continuously, from N.E. to S.W.; :Ls
greatest yidth being 180 miles^ and ib> superficial area excooding 63,000
■square miles.

Toward the western limits of this field, the strata become more nearly
horizontal, as already suggested, and the coal is more bituminous. I'hus m
the eastern sections, near Pottsville for example, it contains only some 10 or
12 per cent, of bitumen, while 05i the Monongahela and Ohio, it contains 40
per cent.

There are three well-marked divisions in the anthracite coal fields of Penn-
sylvania, known as the South anthracite region, the Middle, and the North
or the Wyoming coal-field. The South anthracite region extends from its
■eastern extremity near the Lehigh, to its western terminus near the Susque-
hannah, a distance of about 15 miles. Its greatest breadth is about six
miles. The Middle region extends from the Lehigh to the Susquohannah,
about 50 miles. The Northern from the head-waters of Lackawanna Creek
to Sbickshinn}-, on the north branch of the Susquehannah, a distance of more
than 60 milej-.

The Southern district includes the Lehigh, Tamaqua, Tuscarora, Schuyl-
kill Valley, Pottsville, Minersville, Swatara, and the Lykens' Valley, and
Dauphin ; the last two being the North and South forks of its Western
extension.

The Middle includes Sharaokin, Mahany, Girardsville, and Quaquake coal
districts, with several contiguous basins.

The North contains the Shickshinny, Wilkcsharre, Newport, Pittston,
Lackawanna, and Carbondale districts.

These sections are separated by various rocks, namely, a conglomerate of
white quartz pebbles, red slate, sandstone strata, &c.

The discovery of these coal-fields has given an immense value to these

COAL-FIELDS — PENNSYLVANIA MINES. 689

wild, precipitous mountains and to the more level tracts beyond them. Much,
of this land had no market %'alue, in the proper sense of the term, before the
discovery and raining of the coal, and none, or next to none, of any sort.
But estimating the value of the coal buried beneath them at 25 cents per
ton, the value of the land in the Schuylkill basin, for example, one of the
richest in the State, will be worth twenty or thirty thousand dollars. A
single vein, as we are informed by Mr. Smith, in the Mine-Hill region, " has
returned an annual rental of over 162,000," to its proprietors. The Mining
Register (Pottsville) considers an acre of coal-land worth |1 8,000.

But not only is the value of these lands much better appreciated now than
formerly, but the increase of railroads and other facihties is essentially adding
value to them every year. In fact, there is no coal-field that will not pay for
the construction of a railroad of considerable length, provided its terminus is
practically at or near a good market.

Before we proceed to describe other and more westerly sections, it will no
doubt interest our readers to give them a rather amusing account of the dis-
covery and early mining operations in the Lehigh district, which we find in
the volume repeatedly referred to in this and a former number, the " Off-hand
Sketches," published by Mr. Smith of Philadelphia, recently described among
our " New Books."

DISCOVEKY OF ANTURACITE GOAL.

The discovery of coal in the Lehigh district is said to have been purely
:iccidental. There had been legends of long standing, supposed to have
emanated from the Indians, that coal abounded in this section of Pennsyl-
vania ; and among some of the credulous German farmers in Lehigh, Berks,
Lancaster, (fee, one is occasionally reminded of them, and grave intimations
thrown out that coal is reposing in "certain places" beneath the luxuriant
;5oil of those countit'S. Such traditionary reports prevailed for a long time
among the early settlers of the territory now comprising the several counties
of the anthracite regions; and if similar ones in the counties above named
should ever be realized in the same happy manner, all will unite in admira-
tion of the German stoicism with which they are still maintained by the
•'older inhabitants." The story of its discovery near Mauch Chunk, in the
present county of Carbon, is doubtless already familiar to many. Neverthe-
less, it is so curious and romantic in itself, and is fraught with such miraculous
results upon the physical and mental condition of mankind, that we can not
omit it here. The account was given by the late Dr. James, of Philadelphia,
who, in the year 1804, in company with Anthony Morris, Esq., of the same
city, visited some lands, held jointly by them, near Sharp Mountain.

" In the course of our pilgrimage, we reached the summit of Mauch Chunk
mountain, the present site of anthracite coal. At the time, there were only
to be seen three or four small pits, which had the appearance of the com-
mencement of rude wells, into one of which our guide, Philip Ginter, de-
scended with great ease, and threw up some pieces of coal for our examina-
tion. After which, whilst we lingered on the spot, contemplating the wildness
of the scene, honest Philip amused us with the following narrative of the
original discovery of this most valuable of minerals, now promising, from its
j^eneral diffusion, so much of wealth and comfort ta a great portion of the
(Taited States.

He said that when he first took up his residence in that district of coun-
try, he built himself a rough cabin in the forest, and supported his family

640 COAL-FIELDS — PENNSYLVANIA MINES.

by tlie proceeds of liis rifle ; being literally a hunter of the backwoods. The
game he shot, including bear and deer, he carried to the nearest store, and
exchanged for other necessaries of life. But at this particular time, to which
he then alluded, he was without a supply of food for his family ; and after
being out all day with his gun in quest of it, he was returning, toward even-
ing, over the Mauch Chunk mountain, entirely unsuccessful and disappointed ;
a drizzling rain beginning to fall, and night rapidly approaching, he bent his
course homeward, considering himself one of the most forsaken of human
beings. As he strode slowly over the ground, his foot stumbled against
something, which, by the stroke, was driven before him ; observing it to be
black, to distinguish which there was just light enough remaining, he took it
up, and as he had often listened to the traditions of the country of the exist-
ence of coal in the vicinity, it occurred to him that this might be a portion
of that stone-coal, of which he had heard. He accordingly carefully took it
■with him to the cabin, and the next day carried it to Colonel Jacob Weiss,
residing at what was then known by the name of Fort Allen, (erected under
the auspices of Dr. Franklin.) The Colonel, who was alive to the subject,
brought the specimen with him to Philadelphia, and submitted it to the
inspection of John Nicholson and Michael Hillegas, Esqrs., and also to
Charles Cist, a printer, who ascertained its nature and qualities, and author-
ized the Colonel to pay Ginter for his discovery, upon his pointing out the
precise spot where he found the coal. This was readily done by acceding to
Ginter's proposal of getting, through the regular forms of the patent-office,
the title for a small tract of land, which he supposed had never been taken
up, comprising the mill-seat on which he afterward built the mill which
afforded us the lodging of the preceding night, and which he afterward was
imhappily deprived of by the claim of a prior survey."

Coal was known to exist in the vicinity of Pottsville more than seventy
years ago, and searches for it had been made repeatedly ; but the coal found
was so different from any previously known, that it was deemed utterly
valueless — more especially as no means could be devised to burn it. Searches
for it were abandoned, at least for a time, when a blacksmith, by the name
of "Whetstone, luckily chanced upon some, and immediately undertook to
use it in his shop. After experimenting with it for a short time, his efforts
proved successful, and his triumph having been duly communicated, in the
shape of local gossip, to the citizens of the suri-ounding neighborhood, atten-
tion was very soon after directed to the expediency of instituting further
inquiries as to the nature and extent of the deposit, and its applicability for
other purposes. Among those who at a very early period did not hesitate
to declare his belief in the existence of coal in this district, was the late Judge
Cooper ; and it was through the influence of such persons that searches Avere
continued through circumstances and prejudices at once discouraging, and
seemingly fool-hardy. Among the first, if they were not the first, who under-
took explorations for coal, were the Messrs. Potts. They made examinations
at various points along the old Sunbury road, but in no instance did success
attend them. The late William Morris, soon after the operations of Messrs.
Potts were terminated, became proprietor of most of the lands lying at the
head of the Schuylkill ; and about the year 1800 he was fortunate enough
to find coal, and in the same year took a considerable quantity to Philadel-
phia. It was in vain that he held forth its peculiar virtues, and vast future
importance ; all his eflbrts to convince the people of its adaptation to use
proved abortive ; and when, occasionally, an individual was found who could

COAL-FIELDS — PENNSYLVANIA MINES. 641

be induced, through the force of argument and eloquence, to coincide in the
merits of " stone-coal," the well-known lines —

" A man convinced against his will,
Is of the same opinion still " —

would be involuntarily forced upon his mind ; and finally he had no other
alternative but to dispose of his lands, and abandon his projects as altogether
fruitless.

We do not know that any further notice had now been taken of this coal,
for six or seven years afterward. Peter Bastons made some discoveries of
its deposit, while erecting the forge in Schuylkill Valley ; and a blacksmith,
named David Berlin, continued to improve upon the suggestions of Whet-
stone, (who, by this time, had discontinued business, or perhaps left the
vicinity,) and imparted his successes freely to others of his craft. But few,
however, could be prevailed upon to use it. Prejudice — prejudice was ever
keen, and it seemed to keep men of ordinary spirit at a respectful distance.
Men of iron nerve could only oppose themselves to the current.

In the latter part of the year 1810, a practical chemist, combining science
with practice, made such an analysis of the coal of this region, as convinced
him that there was inherent in the mass all the properties suitable for com-
bustion. He therefore erected a furnace in a small vacant house on Front
street, between Philadeli^hia and Kensington, to which he applied three
strong bellows. By this means he obtained such an immense ivhite heat froni
the coal, that platina itself could have been melted ! From this experiment
was derived such proofs of its qualities, as ultimately favored its general intro-
duction into that city.

But although it might easily be inferred that such experiments could not
fail to have secured for it immediate favor, yet such was by no means the
fact. Intelligent men, it is true, calmly deliberated over the subject, but that
was all ; the time had not yet come to act. Two years after this, the late
Colonel George Shoemaker and Nicholas Allen discovered coal on a piece of
land which they had but recently purchased — in times past called Centreville
— situate about one mile from Pottsville. They raised several wagon-loads
of it, but no purchaser could be found. Mr. Allen soon became disheartened,
and disposed of his interest in the lands to his partner ; who, having received
some encouragement from certain citizens of Philadelphia, pei-severed in his
operations. He got out a considerable quantity, and forwarded ten wagon-
loads to Philadelphia, in quest of a market. Its arrival there was, as usual,
greeted with the warmest ^>»jY_;ttc?tce, and there were few who appeared to
evince any curiosity or interest in the subject. Nearly every one considered
it a sort oi stone, and, saving that it was a "peculiar stone" — a stone-coal —
they would as soon have thought of making fire with any other kind of
stone! Among all those who exarainecl. the coals, but few persons could be
prevailed upon to purchase, and they only a small quantity, " to try it ;" but
alas ! the trials were unsuccessful ! The purchasers denounced Colonel Shoe-
maker as a vile impostor and an arrant cheat ! Their denunciations went
forth throughout the city, and Colonel Shoemaker, to escape an arrest for
swindling and imposture, with which he was threatened, drove thirty miles
out of his way, in a circuitous route to avoid the officers of the law! He
returned home, heart-sick with his adventure. But, fortunately, among the
few purchasers of his coal, were a firm of iron factors in Delaware county,
who, having used it successfully, proclaimed the astounding fact in the news-
papers of the day. The current of prejudice thereafter began to waver some-

642 THE COAL TRADE.

what ; and new experiments were made at iron works on the Schuylkill, with
like success, the result of which was also announced by the press. From
this time, anthracite began gradually to put down its enemies — and among
the more intelligent people, its future value was predicted.

The first successful experiment to generate stearii with anthracite coal, was
made in 1825, at the iron works at Phrenixville. Previously, however, John
Price Wetherell, of Philadelphia, made several efforts to accomplish this, at
his lead works — but we have understood that he only partially succeeded.

Note, — ^TLe printer made us talk in the last number, of " Peruvian" system of
rocks. We wrote " Permian," and of coiu-se intended it should be so printed.

THE COAL TRADE

To such an extent has our coal industry been developed, that at the pre-
sent time not less than 37,000,000 of tons are annually raised, the value of
which at the pit's mouth is little less than £10,000,000; at the places of
consumption, including expense of transport and other charges, probably not
less than £20,000,000. The capital employed in the trade exceeds
£10,000,000. About 400 iron-furnaces of Great Britain consume annu>ally
10,00,0000 tons of coal and 7,000,000 tons of iron-stone, in order to produce
2,500,000 tons of pig-iron, of the value of upward of £8,000,000. For the
supply of the metropolis alone -3,600,000 tons of coal are required for manu-
facturing and domestic purposes; our coasting vessels conveyed in 1850 up-
ward of 9,360,000 tons to various, ports in the United Kingdom, and
3,350,000 tons were exported to foreign countries and the British posses-
.sions. Add to this, that about 120,000 persons are constantly employed in
extracting the coal from the mines, and that in some of the northern coun-
ties there are more persons at work under the ground than upon its surface,
and some approximate idea may be formed of the importance of tliis branch
of our industry. The extent of the coal areas in the British Islands is 12,000
square miles, and the annual produce 37,000,000 tons; of Belgium, 240
miles, annual produce, 5,000,000 tons ; of France, 2000 miles, annual pro-
duce, 4,150,000 tons; of the United States, 113,000 miles, annual produce,
4,000,000 tons; of Prussia, 2200 miles, annual produce, 3,500,000 tons; of
Spain, 4000 miles, annual produce, 550,000 tons; of British North America,
180,000 miles, annual produce not known. Taking the British Islands alone,
and dividing them into districts, we find the supposed workable area as fol-
lows, in acres : Northumberland and Durham, 500,000 ; Cumberland, West-
moreland, and West Riding, 99,500; Lancashire, Flintshire, and North
Staffordshire, 550,000 ; Shropshire and Worcestershire, 79,950 ; South Staf-
fordshire, 65,000; Warwickshire and Leicestershire, 80,000; Somersetshire
and Gloucestershire, 167,500; South Wales, 600,000; Scottish coal-h'elds,
1,045,000. Irish coal-fieMs— Ulster, 500,000 ; Connaught, 200,000; Lein-
sler, 150,000; Munster, 1,000,000. Our exports, which in 1840 amounted
to ], 606 000 tons, valued at £576,000, had increased in 1850 to 3,531,000
tons, of the value of £1,284,000. In 1841 our e.\ports to France were 451,-
800 tons; to Holland, 173,378 tons; to Prussia, 116,296 tons; and to Rus-
.sia, 77,152 tons. In 1850 they were to France, 612,545 tons; to Holland,
159953 tons; to Prusiia, 186,528 tons; and to Russia, 235,188 tons. — Dur-
ham Chronicle.

PURE WATER. 643

PURE WATER.

A FULL supply of good water is not only a very great couvenience for culi-
nary and other household purposes, but is of very great importance as a mat-
ter of health. We are, therefore, glad to see movements in any quarter for
an increased supply for the Avants of our cities and large towns. The follow-
ing statements, we believe, will be found essentially correct in reference to
these matters :

Cincinnati is supplied with water from the Ohio, raised 175 feet into a
reservoir of stone, upon a hill 700 feet high, containing 5,000,000 gallons,
through iron pipes 800 feet long. These works were carried on by private
enterprise till 1839, at which time they were purchased by the city. Cost
$1,000,000. Further improvements are contemplated.

Pittsburgh is supplied from the Allegheny River with water raised into
two reservoii-s successively: the first being 160 feet, into which the water is
forced through a pipe 2000 feet long, and from which it is raised by another
engine into the upper reservoir, which is 390 feet above the river level, through
pipes ^ mile long. The works have cost $700,000.

Allegheny City has water works costing .$33 1,000. The reservoir is of
earth embankment, and of 10,000,000 gallons capacity.

Buffalo works are owned by a company. The water is drawn from the
Niagara River, and passed under the Erie Canal through a tunnel 300 feet
long and 6 feet square, cut in solid rock. Reservoir of earth embankment^
will contain 13,000,000 gallons, on Prospect Hill, about a mile from the cen-
tre of the town. Cost $400,000.

Albany is supplied with water from a creek, across which, six miles from the
Hudson, a forty-foot dam is thrown, forming a pond called Rensellaer Lake,
containing 160,000,000 gallons of water; the water is conducted thence to
the city in a brick aqueduct, four miles long. These works, and another dam
lower down on the same creek, cost the city $800,000, and will deliver ten
million of gallons per day.

New-York. — This city is supplied from the Croton River. The work was
commenced in 1835 and completed in 1842, at an expense of $12,000,000«.
The Croton Dam is in Westchester county, 50 miles from the Battery in
New-York. The length of the aqueduct from the dam to Harlem River is
32f miles. To this point the water flows through a conduit of hydraulic
mason work, 7-^- feet in height, and 7 feet in width. It crosses the Harlem
River at High Bridge, 11 miles from the City Hall, in huge pipes, resting
upon arches supported by 14 piers of heavy masonry, eight of which are 80
feet span, and six are 50 feet, the height of the bridge being 114 feet above
the tide-water. The cost of the bridge was $900,000.

The water is first conducted into the Receiving Reservoir, near Yorkville, and
thence, through a double line of iron pipes, three feet in diameter, to the Dis-
tributing Reservoir, by the Crystal Palace, from which it is distributed through
the city. The average supply of water is 30,000,000 gallons daily, which
may be doubled.

The Receiving Reservoir, bounded by 79th and 86th streets, is 1825 feet
by 836, and covers 33 acres. Its capacity is 150,000,000 gallons. The Dis-

644 PURE WATER.

tributing Reservoir is between 40th and 42d streets, is 420 feet square, and
covers an area of 4 acres. Its capacity is 23,000,000 gallons.

The Fairmount Works, on the Rchuylkill, are the oldest and most cele-
brated in the country. The water is forced to a height of 90 feet, through
the mains of sixteen inches diameter, varying in length from one hundred
and eighty-three to four hundred and thirty-three feet. On the hill at Fair-
mount are four reservoirs, containing in the aggregate 22,031,976 ale gallons,
and at a distance of three fourths of a mile is a fifth reservoir, containing
16,646,24*7 ale gallons, making the total storage of the Fairmount works
equivalent to 38,678,223 ale gallons. During the year 1852 the average
quantity of water pumped daily was 5,731,745 gallons, which was distributed
in a district containing 20,821 houses, in which there were 29,582 rate-payers.
The cost of these works to January 1st, 1853, was 83,247,894.

Boston is supplied from Cochituate, formerly "Long Pond," from which
it is conducted by means of a brick aqueduct (except at the crossing of
Oharles River, where there is an inverted syphon of fifty-eight feet dip) fifteen
miles in length, with a fall of four and one fourth feet to the Brookline re-
servoir. This reservoir covers an area of twenty-two and one-third acres,
and has a capacity of 88,909,730 wine gallons. From the Brookline reser-
voir the water is conducted through iron pipes to three distributing reservoirs,
as follows : one on Beacon hill, in Boston proper, capacity 2,678,968 gallons ;
the second on Telegraph hill, in South Boston, capacity 7,508,246 gallons;
and the third on Eagle hill, in East Boston, capacity 5,691,816 wine gal-
lons.

Chicago, for the last two years, has been engaged in consti'ucting water
works, which are now so far advanced that they will soon be brought into
use. An inlet-pipe, made of pine staves, thirty inches in diameter, is extended
into Lake Michigan, a distance of 000 feet, through which water is supplied
to the pump well, from which it is elevated, by means of two steam-engines,
(a condensing and a duplicate non-condensing,) into a reservoir at a height of
80 feet. For want of elevated ground, they are compelled to make use of a
tower and tank similar to the one in use at Detroit. The tank is made of
boiler iron, braced across its centre with wrought iron rods, is 60 feet in dia-
meter, 28 ifeet deep, and contains about 493,000 gallons. Other reservoirs,
of like capacity, will be constructed as required. The works are calculated
to furnish a daily supply of 3,000,000 gallons, and have cost about $400,000.
The unprecedented growth of that city will probably require the immediate
extension and enlargement of the works.

The following analyses of the water of three cities are given by Professor
Silliman, Jr. :

PHILADELnilA.

Chloride of sodium, .1470

" magnesia, ...--- .0094

Sulphate of magnesia, - - - - - - .0570

Carbonate of lime, 1.8720.

" magnesia, - - - - - - .3510

Silica, .0800

■Carbonate of soda, and loss on analysis, - - . 1.6430

Total solid matter, 4.2600

Carbonic acid in one gallon, - - - - - 3.879

MANAGEMENT OF THE LOCUST TREE.

645

NEW-YORK.

Chloride of sodium and trace of potassium,
Sulphate of soda, . _ . .
Chloride of calcium, . . - .

" aluminum, . . -

Phosphate of alumina, - - - .
Carbonate of hme, - . - .

•' magnesia, . . - .

Sulphate of lime, . . . _
Silica colored by manganese, - - -
Carbonate of soda and loss,

Total solid, . . . -
Carbonic acid in one ijallon, . - -

.153
.372
.166
.832

2.131
.662
.235
.077

1.865

6.660
17.817

BOSTON.

■Chloride of sodium, -

" potassium, -

'' calcium,

'• magnesium,

Sulphate of magnesia,
Alumina, - . - .
Carbonate of lime,

" magnesia, -

Sihca, - - - -
Carbonate of soda, and loss, -

Total solid, -
•Carbonic acid gas in one gallon,

.0323
.0380
.0308
.0764
.1020
.0800
.2380
.0630
.0300
.5295

1.2200
10.719

MANAGEMENT OF THE LOCUST TREE.

The editor of the Ohio Farmer gives the following very useful article on
this valuable tree.

The Locust, Rohinia pusedo-acacia, is a native of the United States.

Method of Cultivation. — " It is capable of being raised from the seed, cut-
tings, layings, and suckers ; but the seed method is said to afford the best
plants. The seeds should be sov?n about the end of March, or beginning of
the followinof month, on a bed of light mould, being covered to the depth of
about half an inch. The plants usually appear in the course of six or eight
weeks. They should be well weeded and watered, and, when sufficiently
strong, should be set out in tho spring, or autumn, in nursery rows, for two
or three years, in order to remain to have a proper growth for final plant-
ing."— Rees^ Ci/clojoedia.

Dr. Drown, of Rhode Island, says that "The easiest method of raising the
locust is as follows: Plant fifteen or twenty trees on an acre, and, when fif-
teen or twenty feet high, run straggling furrows through the ground, and,
wherever the roots are cut with the plough, new trees will start up, and will
soon stock the ground with a plentiful growth."

646 MANAGEMENT OF THE LOCUST TREE.

Use. — It is observed in the North American Sylva, a celebrated work, by
F. Andrew Michaux, that "The greatest consumption of locust- wood is for
posts, which are employed in preference for the inclosing of court-yards, gar-
dens, and farms, in the district where the tree abounds, and the circumjacent
country. Tney are transported for the same use to Lancaster, Baltimore,
Washington, Alexandria, and the vicinity. When the trees are felled in the
winter, while the circulation of sap is suspended, and these posts are allowed
to become perfectly dry before they are set, they are estimated to last forty
years. Kxperience has shown that their duration raries according to certain
differences in the trees from which they are formed ; thus about Lancaster,
and at Harrisburg, a small town on the Susquehannah, where a considerable
trade is carried on in wood that is brought down the river, those trees are
reputed the best whose heart is red; the next in esteem are those with
A greenish-yellow heart; and the least valuable are those with a Avhite heart.
From this variety in the color of the wood, which probably arises from a dif-
ference of soil, are derived the names of red, green, and white locust. In
the Western States there is a variety which is sometimes called the black
locust."

It is probable that the locust with a "greenish-yellow heart," spoken
of by M. Michaux, is the same with that which Mr. Briggs calls the yellow
locust; and although M. Michaux supposes "this variety in the color of the
wood probably arises from a difference of soil," it is not impossible that there
may be permanent specific differences in the several varieties. If so, the dis-
covery is of importance.

M. Michaux says, " In naval architecture, the shipwrights use as much
locust-wood as they can procure. It is as durable as the live oak and the
red cedar, with the advantage of being stronger than the one, and lighter
than the other."

With regard to the insect which destroys the locust, M, Michaux says^
*' Within eighteen or twenty years, an obstacle has unhappily appeared,
which will contribute greatly to prevent the multiplication of the locust in all
the anciently-settled parts of the United States ; this is a winged insect, which
attacks the tree while standing, penetrates through the bark in the centre of
the trunk, and, for the space of a foot, mines it in every direction, so that it
iseasily broken by the wind. This inconvenience is already so serious as
to induce many people to forego all attempts to form plantations of locust.
In Virginia, I have not learned that trees of the natural growth have been
visited by this destroyer, but those that have been reared about the planta-
tions have already felt its ravages. This evil, which is hard to remedy, will
be more sensibly felt when the destruction of the forests now on foot — an
inevitable consequence of the neglect of all measures of preservation — shall
force the inhabitants to have recourse to plantations which they will wish to
form, in a certain proportion of the locust. Hence it may result that, disap-
pearing from the American forests, by constant consumption, and not being
reproduced on account of the insect, the locusts will become extremely rare in
their native country, and abundant in Europe, where no similar catastrophe
forbids their propagation."

The Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Af/riculttire have offered
a premium of fifty dollars " for a mode of extirpating the worm that attacks
the locust tree, which shall appear to the satisfaction of the trustees to be
effectual."

The following, copied from a report of a committee of the SJssex Ayricul-
tural Society, on farms in Essex county, Mass., places the advantages to be

SONG-BIRDS — BREEDING OF FISH.

C47

anticipated from the culture of the loctist in a fair, and, we believe, just point
of view :

" A practical illustration of the advantages of cultivating the locust tree,
presented itself on the farm of Dr. Nichols. Several acres, that were, a few
years since, barren and gravelly pastures, arc now covered with a good coat
of grass, almost entirely by reason of planting and permitting a growth of
locust trees upon the land. This is easily done, after a few trees have taten
root, either from the seed, or by being transplanted, and taking care that
horned cattle do not go upon the land while tho trees are young. In addi-
tion to the increase of feed, the trees themselves are well worthy of cultiva-
tion. . No growth is more rapid, and none more in demand, or of greater
value when arrived at maturity. It may be doubted whetheir an acre of land
can be made to yield more in the course of twenty-five or thirty years, with-
out the application of any manure, than by planting it with locust trees. On
a fair computation, the number of serviceable posts that might be obtained in
this time would be from three to six hundred, worth from fifty cents to one
dollar each. The increase of feed and surplus wood would fully pay the labor
of cultivation; so that the proceeds of tho timber would be the profits of the
land.

An objection to the cultivation of tho locust tree is often brought, from
the fact that they are sometimes destroyed by worms. This is true ; but the
ravages of this insect are found to be greater where the trees are few and
scattered. In the grove on this farm, which extends over a number of acres,
and in the groves in the vicinity, but very few of the trees are at all injured
by the worms. This objection is by no meaus sufficient to authorize the
neglect of their cultivation. It certainly is of the highest importance to the
farmers of Essex, to inquire how they can improve their pastures ; or rather,
how they can save them from ruin ; for it must be obvious to all, that, as at
present managed, they are constantly growing worse, and many of them have
already become of very little value. ' If, by planting them with trees, by
ploughing, by applying plaster, as has been done with good success on the
farm of Mr. Bartlett, or in any other way, they can be reclaimed, it surely is
worthy of the experiment."

SONG-BIRDS— BREEDING OF FISH.

The following was brought out in one of the discussions of the American
Institute, at a late meeting of the Farmers' Club :

SoNG-BiRDS. — Mr. Hooper, a distinguished naturahst of this city, read a
paper upon the introduction of the song-birds of Europe into this country.
He .stated that in 1852, a committee of gentlemen undertook to introduce
these birds into Greenwood Cemetery. Mr. Wo.)dcock, of Brooklyn, then in
England, introduced fifty goldfinches, fifty English larks, fifty robin ^red-
breasts, and some others, which have been let loose in the groves of the
cemetery. These are now probably well established upon Long Island.

Breeding of Fish. — Dr. Adams communicated the success of those
engaged in the business, as it has now become a bu.siness, of breeding fish.
Fish eggs can be transported between folds of wet linen in a box, and 500,000
eggs can be hatched in a stream under a sieve fifteen inches in diameter. An-
other paper treated of the mackerel fishing of the Black Sea and Bosphoms.

643 METEOROLOGY, ETC., IN VIRGINIA.

Tlie fisliing season commences at Constantinople February 12. The fish are
then five or six inches long. By the time they reach Gibraltar, the mackerel
are about half grown. In September, the same fish arrive on the American
coast, and are then full grown. Hundreds of thousands of people are en-
gaged in the fishing in the spring of the year in the Bospborus. The water
seems alive with these fisb as they conie down from the Black Sea.

Mr. Pell said upon the subject of fish, that he would give the Club some
information. He was convinced by his own experiments that all salt-water
fisli can be bred in fresh water, and that fish are easily domesticated, lie
feeds his fish upon liver, Indian meal mixed with blooJ, and boiled rice. He
says his pike a^e very voracious : he has seen one strike into a school of
small fish he was feeding, and take a full mouthful in an instant. He said a
percli or golden carp can be frozen in ice solid and thawed out without injury.
He spoke of the great talue of fish as a manure, containing all the elements
necessary for the farmer to fertilize his crops. He said that he had succeeded
in producing Swedish leeches in his fish ponds. By cutting otf the tail of
the leech, the blood will pass ofl', and the leech do double the duty.

rOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

METEOROLOGY, CROPS, FRUIT CULTURE, &c., IN VIRGINIA.

Messrs. Editors : The opening of the spring month, March, was beauti-
ful. Its balmy air induced the belief that we were to have an early and very
favorable spring. The gardeners were every where at work, seeds for early
vegetables were planted, oats sown, wheat-fields looked green and gay, with
a bright promise to the husbandman, meadows and clover-fields wore the
spring livery ; up to St. Patrick's Day the weather was delightful. Since the
17Lh March we have bad blighting winds to the 29th, when the mercury
stood at sunrise at 22°, and the ground in many places too hard froze to plough
till 9 A. M. The range of the mercury from the first to the 30th March, at
sunrise, stood as follows: 33°, 44°, 59°, 4G°, 40°, 33°, 44°, 55°, 58°, 63°,
42°, 33°, 40°, 53°, 52°, 58°, 40°, 40°, 28°, 36°, 32°, 28°, 41°, 38°, 30°, 26°,
30°, 34°, 22°, 36°, rising at noon as high as 75° in the early part of the
month. It is now snowing, which I hope will take the frost out of the air,
and give us more genial weather. The mercury has not rose above 50° for
the past ten days at noon, for about which period we have had fine weather
for ploughing and getting ready to plant corn, which, with early farmers on
sandy lands, is usually put in by the 15th April in the Valley. Our clay
lands, are not usually planted till 1st to 10th May, and good new lands are
sometimes planted as late as 1st June, and fair crops realized.

It is too soon to say any thing with regard to the wheat crop ; many fields
look very well, the ground being completely matted, and promise well.
Thin, sandy, badly-farmed lands, as is usual, look badly. The crop of old
wheat has nearly all been ground out, and gone to market; the last crop
with us was short, and the bulk of it went into market early, and at short
prices. The oat crop was also short, and is worth at home 35 to 40 cents.
Corn crop good, and commands 50 to 55 cents. Much of our corn is fed
to fat cattle, which now command 88 to §10*per hundred in the Richmond
market. We yet have a few distilleries in my neighborhood, on a small

METEOROLOGY, ETC., IN VIRGINIA. 649

scale ; four are left in a district which in 1827 numbered above forty. They
are a bane to any country — a curse to any community. Public opinion has
done much to suppress them, and good men of every name and party have
labored long and earnestly to banish the evil from our beloved country, and
I pray they may not cease in their efforts until alcohol, in all its phases, may
be placed under the care of the apothecary, and only dealt out as a medicine.
Where is the family in all our broad land that can not point to some one near
and dear to them who has brought sorrow and sadness to their hearts from a
too free indulgence in intoxicating liquors ? Degradation, disgrace, crime, and
death follow the inebriate, and woes are denounced against him who putteth
the cup to his neighbor's lips. May the day not be far distant, when
enlightened public opinion every where will banish the evil from the length
and breadth of our widely-extended repubHc.

There is beginning to be much attention paid to fruit culture in this part
of Virginia, and many of our farmers are getting select varieties. Too little
attention, however, is paid to the trees after being set out; many believe it
is only necessary to stick a tree in the ground, and after a while they will
have good fruit. In order to insure success, the ground should first be snug- -
ly secured by a good fence, then carefully cultivated and regularly manured.
If the trees are carefully spaded under for two or three yards round, and in
dry seasons three or four inches of half-rotted straw put round them to keep
the roots moist, they will grow as much in one year as they will in two or
three, if neglected and left to take care of themselves. While the treea are
young, tlxey should be carefully pruned every spring, cutting oft' only small
branches, so as to form a well balanced head, and that no main branches will
be crossed, thereby rubbing each other. Where land is rich, the trees should
be planted forty feet apart ; if the soil is thin, thirty to thirty-five will answer.
My trees, set out nineteen years since, at thirty-three feet each way, are now
nearly touching each other where the land is good, and in a few years more
the ground will be too much shaded for cultivation. On the hill-side there
is yet ample space, the Fruit appearing equally good, but the trees not so well
grown. I have cultivated and manured my orchards regularly, and for ten
or twelve years have kept my hogs in them from August to October. The
fruit, with a small feed of corn,"cut up and fed, stalk and all, fattens them
very finely, and it requires only a few weeks' feeding to make very superior
pork.

The article in your Mai'ch number, from Mr. Bacon of Elmwood, on peach
culture, meets my views exactly. I have no doubt the woollen cloth wrapped
around the root of the peach tree, wnll keep the tree safe from the depreda-
tions of the borer. Fruit trees will become acclimated. I have now a fig
tree that stands the winter tolerably well, which for many years was killed
to the ground ; for the last two years it has borne full crops of figs. I also
find that some of your fine winter apples in the northern States are fall apples
with us, when they first come into bearing, but in time become good winter
fruit here. Yours, &c. H. I".. Jones.

J^ear Brownnburg, Rockbridge Co., Va., iFarch 30, 1S51.

American Forest-Trees.^-Iu North America we have fifty species of the
oak, while all Europe has only thirty species. North America has forty
species of pines and firs, the United States over twenty, while Europe has
but fourteen species.

650 THE HOP AJt^D ITS CULTURE.

THE HOr AND ITS CULTURK

TiiK Committer of the N. H. Agricultural Society, upon root and grass
•croj«, report as follows as to the article of hops :

They award the first premium of $5 to Gen. William P. Riddle, of
Manchester. To William Riley of Hooksett, the 2d premium, a diploma.

The average price of hops per pound, for 48 years, is 12 4-5 cents.

The whole amount of Lops grown iu the United States for the year 1849,
as computed in the census returns of 1850, is 3,467,514 pounds.

New-England raised 707,850 lbs.

New-York " 2,536,299 lbs.

3,244,155 \y

Balance for other States, .... 223,359 lbs.

l^'rora the abo\ e table, it will also be seen that the price of hops during
48 yeai-s never has gone below five cents per pound, the actual cost of gi'ow-
ing a pound of hops. Of what other agricultural product can the same be
said, that is grown iu New-England ? Then, this very year, and at the time
of writing this report, hops readily bring 45 cents per pound, giving the
enormous profit of $450 per acre !

The hop, Ivpulus humtdns, in botany, is a genus of plants, neither the
male nor female flosver of which has any corolla ; the cup of the male flower
is composed of fivo leaves ; that of the female is made up of only a single
leaf, very large, and of an oval figure ; the seed is single, roundish, covered
with a coat, and contained within the cup.

Mortimer reckons four kinds of hops : Ist, the wild garlic-hop. 2d, the
long and square hop. 3d, the long white. And 4th, the oval hop. Thie
first of these is not worth cultivating. The second is u good hop, but looking
frenerally red toward the stalk, it will not fetch so good a price at the market.
The long white hop is tlie most beautiful of all, and produces the greatest
quantity ; this kind and the oval will grow very well together. They delight
in a deep, rich garden mould.

The hop sends its roots four or five yards deep, and for this reason it
thrives best in that land where there is a good bottom below what is usually
stirred, or manured, for agriculture. If the hop-land be wet, it must be laid
np in high ridges, and drained, that the roots be not rotted or chilled.

New land is found to succeed better with hops than old.

The following is (ieneral Riddle's method of cultivating, curing, and
drying :

J^KITINO TIIK KOOTS.

Tlie .spring of Hie year is the proper season for setting the lOOts. Pre-
pare the ground by f sloughing and manuring iu the same manner as for a
grass crop. Plant the hops in hills seven feet apart each way, putting three
pieces of the root, each about four inches long, in a hill.

The roots will not vine the fii-st year, consequently a crop of corn may be
taken from the same ground, by planting in intermediate rows. In the fall
succeeding, put a &hovel-full of manure ujwn each hill of the hop-yard, a=
protection of the roots against the fro^t.

THE HOP AND ITS CULTURE. 651

SETTING THE TOLES.

Nothing further is necessary for their welfare till May, the proper time for
setting the poles.

Hemlock is the best material for poles — 18 feet long, shaved on four sides
in order that they may season well, thereby lasting the longer. Set two
poles to a bill, about nine inches apart, and in ranges, leaning a little to the
south, so that the branches of the vine may swing free. When the vines
have grown to the right length, select two of the most thrifty, and tie
them with woollen yarn to each pole. This is very important. And
attention also should be given to keep the main vines always upon the
pole.

Cultivate the yard well, so as to keep it free from grass and weeds,
and prevent the branch vines from growing about the hill.

The hop generally blossoms about the 2d of July, and is matured fit
for picking by the 5th of September. "When the burr beginning to open
at the base, acquires a yellowish tinge, and the lupulin or flower has
covered the tip of its stem, the hop is ripe and ready for harvest.

PICKING THE HOPS.

The method of securing the hop crop when ripe is quite simple.

The vines are cut at the hill, and the poles, pulled from the ground,
are laid across a box into which the hops are picked. This box is usually
about six feet long, three feet wide, and three feet high. Four or more
can work at ihe same box. Females are generally the, most expert in
picking. A man or boy is necessary to tend the box and handle the
poles. One person can pick from 25 to 30 pounds of dry hops per day.
They should be gathered as free from stems and leaves as possible.

CURING THEM, AKl) THE KIND OF KILN.

After picking, the green [^oles are brought to the kiln to be dried, which
is the most important part of the hop-*growing process. It requires no
inconsiderable degree of skill to be successful in this department, as
knowledge of the mechanism and nature of a kiln is also necessary.
The most approved kiln is constructed after the following plan :
A brick foundation-wall is built seven or eight feet high, and ten bv
«leveu feet in dimension. It is well to have this wall plastered internally.
In the centre of the front wall at the base, there is placed a large stone
or biick furnace, suitable to receive fuel from without, and furnished with
a funnel passing around within the foundation, above three feet from the
top, and terminating in a chimney provided for the purpose. At the base
also of this front wall, and on each side of the stove or furnace, there
are two small openings, one foot by three feet in diameter, to let in cold
air at the bottom of the kiln. The top of this foundation is laid with
lathing one inch wide, the strips being one inch apait, and coverexl with
a thin flaxen cloth. Boards about ten inches wide, are placed lengthwise
around this cloth, leaving a narrow walk around the kiln. The super-
structure is placed upon the tbundation-wall, as convenience uiay require,
with a roof for shedding the rain. The walls are about eight feet high,
and provided with elide or blind openings, suitable to admit the air for
driving off the dampness which arises in the process of drying the hop.
Such a kiln is capable of curing 150 pounds of hops in twelve houi"s, if
properly regulated.

652 THE CRANBERRY.

Tho green hops are placed in the kiln-box and spread upon the cloth
about eight inches deep.

DRYING AND BAGGING.

A constant heat must be kept up until the dampness of the hops has
passed oft'. Attention also should be paid to tho I'egulation of the windows
above spoken of.

To ascertain when the process of curing is over, take a medium-sized
hop and snap it ; if the leaves fall off", and the stem breaks short off", it
is sufficiently dry. The hops may then be removed to a room as free
from light as possible, but provided with windows to admit a free circu-
lation of air. A room adjoining the kiln is most convenient, where they
should he ten or twelve days before bagging. Hops are pressed into bales
five feet long, eighteen inches thick, containing about 200 pounds — much
in the same manner in which cotton is packed. The cider-press is com-
monly used for this purpose.

EXPENSE OF GROWING HOPS.

It requires 1 1-4 acres of land to grow 1000 pounds. Good soil pro-
duces one to one and a half pounds to the hill, if properly cultivated.

The cost of hemlock poles prepared for setting is two and a half cent.-.
a-piece.

It requires six feet of hard wood to cure 1000 pounds of hops.

The cost of a kiln, after the above plan, is 8-50, or thereabout.

The whole cost of cultivating a field of hops, including picking, curing, and
pressing, is about five cents per pound.

THE CRANBERRY.

It has frequently been asked, *What is the most successful metbi'd of
cultivating the cranberry ? This may perhaps be a somewhat difficult
question to answer, as it has been grown "successfully" in a great variety
of ways, and on almost every description of soil, intervening between dry
and dusty sands, and those composed of viscid and tenacious clay. It is
indigenous to low, boggy lands, and consequently lo such its cultivation
has, till recently, been almost exclusively confined. When grown on such
lands, the plants are generally "set" in the fall. The bog-land retjuires
no -preparation, except a covering of sand about two inches deep. The
vines are removed from their original position, with a small quantity of
soil attached to their roots, and transplanted two or three feet apart.
They develop IVjli^ige rapidly, and require hoeing only during tlie first
two years after being set out. When circumstances admit of it, it is a
good plan to keep the water on them from December till about the first
or second week in April, and after that to keep it, if possible, level with
the ground's surface, so as to retain a supply of moisture about the roots^
(luring the first part of the season. Early frost, or frost in the autumn,
before the fruit begins to ripen, proves fatal to the crop. Cranberries are
obtained from vines thus managed, the second or third year, and the plants,
when once established, never run out.

A writer in the Massachusetts Plowman gives an experiment in trans-

ALSYKE CLOVER. 653

planting cranberries from low, swampy land, into good corn-land, "in
hills far enough apart to admit the cultivator, and clean hoeing." The
work of transplanting was performed early in the spring; at midsummer
■they blossomed, and in the fall produced fine fruit. The berries were large,
very handsome, and many of the hills produced a pint of fruit."

In 1846, the Cultivator contained an interesting article on cranberry
culture, in which it was asserted that Mr. Sullivan Bates, of Bellingham,
Mass., had raised this fruit in great abundance, " by transplanting the
vines from low ground to high." The system this gentleman pursut^s is,
3t seems, to plant them in lines, or drills, twenty inches apart, (whether
vines or seeds, it is not stated,) and seven inches in 'the drill. His plan
is always successful. He has from a single acre in one season, cranberries
to the amount o^ four hundred bushels! It is essential, however, to the
success of this plant, that the soil be such as will not parch or bake,
and should be replete with energetic humus in a state of slow but uniform
decomposition and decay.

It is also asserted in the Farmer's Dictionary, that the cranberry is a
plant easily and successfully cultivated on uplands, and that the powers
of prolification, and the general health and physiological character of the
production, appear to be ameliorated and greatly improved by changing
its medium, and also that the product is more desirable, being of a fairer
development, and superioi- flavor. " The runners," says this authority, '*can
be 'layered,' or seed sown in the spring. They grow rapidly, covering
nearly every thing, and are but little subjt-ct to the attacks of insects. The
plants are set about eight inches apart, and are kept clean at first. The
yield increases for several years, and becomes as great as four hundred
bushels per acre, in five years, although two hundred is a good average.
The fruit is gathered with rakes, which serve to prune the plants at the
same time. When the berries are intended for keeping, they should be
rolled over a gently inclined plane of wood, in order to remove such as
are soft or rotten. They keep well for a year in tight casks, filled with
water, and headed close."

It is stated in the American Agriculturist, that Mr. William Hall, of
Norway, Maine, "sowed the berries on the snow, in spring, on a boggy
piece of land, about three rods square. The seed took well, rooted out
the weeds, and produced accordingly." It is greatly to be hoped that the
•cultivation of this plant, now ascertained by so little trouble and expense,
will become more common, — Germantown Telegraph.

ALSYKE CLOVER

We copy the following from the London Gardener's Chronicle, and ask the
attention of our readers to it. The seeds of this clover have been distributed
by the Patent Office for a year or two, but we have not heard of any one
giving it a fair trial.

The following is from a printed circular : " Alsyke," or Perennial Hybrid
Clover Seed, is indigenous 'in Sweden, where it has been cultivated in the
native pastures of that country for the last hundred years, and has in some
cases been known to grow to the height of five feet, although in England it
attains only that of two feet. The root is fibrous, and the heads globular,

VOL. VI. — PART II.. 18

654 ALSYKE CLOVER.

The plant bears a greater resemblance to the white than to the red clover ;
and although its stems are recumbent, they do not root into the soil like those
of the white clover ; in short, it may be described as a "giant" white clover,
with fiesh-colored flowers. The plant yields two mowings annually. Linnceus
observed the Alsyke clover growing on poor, bare, obdurate clays in the
Morea, where no other plant could be made to vegetate; and yet, under
such unfavorable circumstances, this clover flourished with an uncommon
degree of luxuriance, and yielded shoots as tender and succulent, although
not so abundant, as if reared in the most richly-manured fields. Micheli
mentions the plant as growing in open situations on a clayey soil, and as being,
in his opinion, worthy of cultivation. Sturm says it is found in Holland, and
that he tried its cultivation along with that of a great number of other clovers,
placed under the same circumstances, and that the result convinced him that
there is no other kind of clover equal to it for the purpose of feeding cattle.
The red clover will last only two years in perfection, and often, if the soil be
cold and racist, nearly half of the plants will rot, and in the second year bald
places will be found in every part of the field ; beside that, in September and
October many crops left for seed are lost in consequence of the heavy rains
during that period; while the Alsyke clover, on the contrary, ripening its
seed much sooner, and continuing in vigor much longer, much risk and ex-
pense are avoided, and a large profit accordingly accrues. Further, when this
plant is once established, it will remain for a great many years in full vigor,
and produce annually a great quantity of herbage of excellent quality. The
best method of disposing of the Alsyke clover crop is either by mowing it for
hay, cutting it occasionally as green food, or feeding it down with sheep, in
which latter case it may be turned on sooner than any other clover ; and if
eaten down quite bare, and the stock taken off the first week in June, the
next crop will come sooner to the scythe than any other species of clover
so treated ; and if saved for seed, the seed will be ripe sooner than any
other, and the plant will again aflbrd a good bite for the sheep until the land
be required to plough for wheat — a heavier crop of which is invariably pro-
duced after Alsyke than any other clover. If mown for hay, it should be
cut as soon as most of the heads are in full bloom, and before they begin to
turn brown and die away. Observe the foliage in the lower parts of the
plants — when the leaves turn yellow, decay, and drop oif, the crop should be
cut ; for by standing longer, the plant will lose more at the bottom than it
gains at the top. The weight of the seed required to be sown i?, according
to circumstances, from ten to fifteen pounds per acre, an extent oi' crop which
will produce many tons annually of green herbage, independent of a crop of
seed. The hardy nature of the plant is proved by the fact of its thriving by
transplantation ; it will admit of being taken up at the expiration of two or
three yeare and planted in any other situation ; the plant when taken up is'
merely divided, and its fibrous roots cut a little with a pruning-knife ; so that
the farmer need never be at a loss for a crop of clover. The Alsyke doe* not
suffer from the severest frosts; it will flourish on the most barren land, where
few grasses will grow at all, producing a heavy crop of seed, and aftbrding an
abundance of nutritious herbage for horses, oxen, and sheep; and when land
has become clover-sick, and can not be depended on for a crop of the ordi-
nary sorts of clover, this has never been known to fail, — Farmer's Companion
and Horticultural Gazette,

SOUTHERN FRUIT. 655

SOUTHERN FRUIT.

No luxury, -within our knowledge, can be had at so low a cost, considering
its value, as good fruit. Good fruit can be raised in all climates except that
of the polar regions ; for where one kind fails, another is found readily to
adapt itself. But we would now refer especially to our Southern States. A
change of climate modifies essentially, in many cases, the character of a given
kind of fruit. Some are improved by going South, some are deteriorated,
and it is the business of the efficient horticulturist to ascertain, by actual ex-
periment, what good fruits remain good, and what poor fruits are greatly
improved by being transplanted from the Northern to the Southern States.
Not a few experiments have been made, and we should be glad to avail our-
selves of an early opportunity to set them forth in an accessible form. But
other experiments are yet to be made, and these we shall not fail duly to
chronicle.

We are specially moved to these remarks by reading a valuable "Address
on Fruit," by Robert Nelson, of Macon, Ga., which we find in The Soil of
the South, and gladly make the following extracts :

"Many splendid fruits have sprung up in the South, and are lost again for
want of the proper way of propagation ; but from the great impulse at pre-
sent given to this matter, I venture to predict, that in a few years the South
will have its own collection of fruits, independent of Northern varieties, adapted
to its climate, in many parts peculiar to itself, and inferior to none.

And why should we not have them? Did not the Romans, in an equally
warm climate, cultivate twenty-two varieties of apples, thirty -six of pears, and
eight kinds of cherries? Are not the plums and peaches natives of Persia,
and thence introduced to Italy ?

It was at the Agricultural Fair at Macon, Ga., in October, 1852, that a
few gentlemen collected and exhibited for the first time our native Southern
apples ; and those that examined and tasted the beautiful specimens exhibited
by J. Van Buren, Esq., John Murray, Esq., and Z. Jones, Esq., all of Georgia,
will admit tiiat they were of superior quality. Who will doubt the possibility
of raising Southern winter-apples, when it is a fact that an excellent apple for
culinary purposes, which will keep until April, is already grown in Thomas
county, Ga., close to Florida ? I am confident that the South will soon
produce apples enough, not only to supply the home market, but even to
export, and our early Southern apples will become a very acceptable article
in the Northern cities.

In spite of all carelessness, peaches will grow every where in the South
though often of very inferior quality for want of proper attention. For some
time the opinion has prevailed, that many fine varieties of peaches from
Northern and Middle States would not bear well here. This is quite contra-
dictory to ray experience, as I for several years have raised heavy crops of such
varieties, and therefore I can not see any reason for rejecting them, particularly
as we have but few, if any, early Southern seedlings, that can replace them.
But as to late peaches, where can they be obtained ? Not from the North, for
the latest peach in the Philadelphia market, the " Heath Cling," which there
ripens during the month of October, is here gone by the first of September,
and still we have a pretty warm fall left, during which we would very much
relish a fine peach. For such late varieties we must rely entirely upon South-
ern seedlings, several of which have already been raised, and are now in pro-

656 SOUTHERN FRUIT.

pagation. The "Baldwin" peach, raised by Dr. Baldwin, of Montojomery,
Ala., and ripening about the first of November, is a very superior fruit, and
the finest late free-stone peach yet known. When we once get all these late
Southern seedlings, (and I have now a good many of thera under propaga-
tion,) we will have fine peaches, ripening in succession for five months, name-
ly, from the beginning of June to the beginning or middle of November, and
this more than hitherto has been met with in any country.

* * * * ' 1: * *

For a lonof time it was the common opinion, that pears could not be
grown successfully in the South. The splendid specimens, however, shown
by Dr. T. Camak, of Athens, Ga., and Rev. Henry Deane, of Griffin, Ga., have
sufficiently proved what skill and cultivation will do. It must always be
borne in mind, that the pear requires a rich and deep soil, and when worked
upon quince stock, which brings it into bearing early, it also ouglit to be
rather moist. It is further not to be forgotten, that top-dressing, well inter-
mixed with charcoal, ashes, and rusty iron, and well worked in, near the tree,
has a very beneficial intluence upon pears. The number of varieties is almost
endless, a great many of them having been raised from seed by the celebrated
Prof. Van Mons, in Belgium. Here we again see the influence of our hot cli-
mate ; for those varieties that in France and in the North are late winter fruit,
can here hardly be kept longer than October. The pear, therefore, dissemi-
nated by J. V. Jones, Esq., of Atlanta, Ga., which in all its lusciousness will
keep till April, must be considered a great horticultural acquisition; ])erhaps
it may even he a native Southern seedling, as well as the pear recently dis-
tributed by J. L. Moultrie, Esq., of Chunnenuggee, Ala., and which was found
in an old Indian yard, may be one of the very few native Southern pears in
existence. Such facts certainly ought to encourage the planting of all seeds
of superior fruits, and much good may result from it.

There is no difficulty in raising plum, apricot, and nectarine trees, and
the trouble in raising the fruit is to be attributed to the plum-weevil, against
which insect, uowever, frequent syringing of the trees with lime-water, and
afterward dusting it over with air-slacked lime, when the fruit is as big as a
pea, has lately been highly recommended. I also know a man in my vicinity,
who is always raising fine crops of nectarines and apricots. His remedy is to
build a lightwood fire, and let the smoke draw through the trees for several
times during the dangerous period. It is but fair here to mention that S.
Rose, Esq., of Macon, Ga., has succeeded in raising from the seed a magnifi-
cent, large, and pure white nectarine, which I think a great acquisition.

Though the Romans cultivated eight varieties of cherries, though this
splendid and luscious fruit is grown in abundance as well as in great perfec-
tion in the South of Spain and Italy, amongst grapes and oranges, still it is
almost a failure in Georgia and Alabama, south of latitude 34°. Several
trials have been made, and more will be made, and probably some success-
ful means of raising them will yet be discovered. Perhaps the surest method
for cherries also, would be to raise new Southern varieties from seed.

It is indeed surprising to see the immense quantity of dried figs, aimually
imported from the Mediterranean to America, when tliis fruit can be raised in
the Southern States in such an abundance as to make the crop profitable
even as food for pigs and poultry ; and still no body thinks of drying them for
market, which would, unquestionably, be as profitable a business as the ope-
ration is an easy one. The ripe figs are only jilaced on hurdles or trellis-
work, and exposed to the heat of a spent oven for about twenty-five minutes,
in order to kill the vegetable life, after which they are dried fully in the sun,

SOUTHERN" FRUIT. 657

and packed in drums. As there yet are but few Southern nurseries, and figs
are not vaUied in the North, on account of their being too tender for out-of-
doors cultivation, it is rather diflBcult to get a good collection of this fruit. I
have been fortunate enough to procure the celebrated genuine '' Smyrna"
fi;;, as well as the luscious Portuguese fig, " Lambe Deidos," (Lick the
fingers,)

In a climate so warm and pleasant as that of Alabama and Georgia, any
body would suppose that grapes would grow to the highest perfection. This
is, however, not the case. But few of the European grapes can be grown
with any thing like success, and even the American varieties, the Catawba and
Isabella, will not come up to what they are in Ohio. It appears to me that
their blasting is caused by the sudden changes from heat to cold, and then to
heat again, from which the European grapes are so much more liable to suf-
fer, as they bloom pretty early, and have a tender skin ; for I have often
found that, whenever a grape-vine has been allowed to run on the ground
amongst weeds and grass, where the temperature is more uniform, tlie fruit
is quite perfect, while that on the trellisses, and exposed to the sun, will blast.
I am therefore inclined to think that they might do better, when the vines
are trained on the shady side of a rather close trellis. Amimgst the foreign
grapes I have as yet succeeded best with the " Golden Chasselas," "Blue
Froiitignac," "Muscat of Alexandria," and " Warren ton," which, though often
considered a native American grape, undoubtedly is a European variety.
But amongst all the varieties of grape-vines, the " White Scuppernong," a
native Southern seedling, stands alone, as a peculiar grape, and unquestion-
ably takes a high rank. It is a never-failing bearer, of most luxuriant growth,
and, though in flavor very different from all other grapes, of superior quality.
It can not be too highly recommended for the South. Though it almost invari-
ably is deteriorating, when raised from seed, still it might be worth a trial, I
think, to raise hybrid seedlings between this and the European varieties. It
may perhaps not be generally known, that few plants are more benefited by
having a mixture of rotten leaves, ashes, and soapsuds worked in by the roots,
than the grape-vine.

The successful cultivation of strawberries, as described by Charles A. Pea-
body, Esq., of Columbus, Ga., is above all praise, and I can not give it any
higher recommendation than by calling attention to his method, as ray pen
would be insufficient for the task.

Beside speaking of hardy fruits, I must finally draw attention to the
orange family. It is true, oranges and lemons can not be grown successfully
unprotected in the open air, with any certainty, north of latitude 31°. With
a slight protection, however, rhey can be raised a couple of degrees farther
north. For this purpose, I would recommend to arrargethe slope of a hill in
terraces, about six feet high, on which oranges and lemons could be trained,
on trellisses, as wall-trees. A slight covering in hard frosts would protect
them, as they are not so much injured by the frost itself as by the sudden
thawing up, and thus they could be grown profitably even for market.

But in order to be successful in growing all these fine and wholesome
fruits, we must bestow some care and attention on our fruit-ground, for surely
it will not do to " plant a tree as you would plant a gate-i)Ost." When a
thing is worth doing at all, it is worth doing well, and as it is worse tlian
useless to spend labor and expense on planting fine fruit-trees, without some
expectation of raising fine fruit, let us at once go to work and prejiare the
ground.

If deep working of the soil is valuable in a cold climate, how much more

658 SOUTHERN FRUIT.

SO must it be in a warm one ? Work your soil deep, put your manure c?ee^?,
give all your plants a chance to strike their roots a couple of feet down, where
they always will find it cool and moist, and you will see how finely tliey will
grow, and how well they will withstand a drought. Five years ;igo I took the
very top of a dry, piney-woods sand-hill : it was a worn-out and abandoned
plantation. I manured it, and worked it two feet deep, where nothing but
yellow sand was to be found, and where, before that time, not more than one
bushel of corn could be raised to the acre. Now you can on the same spot
see a complete nursery, where fruit-trees, shrubbery, roses, and even hard-
headed cabbages, are growing in the greatest luxuriance ; and this, I think,
will sufHciently prove the advantage of working the soil deep. Therefore,
throw aside the hoe, which will only scratch the soil ; get a good spade,
spread good stable manure over the ground, (even fresh from the stall will
answer, when worked in during fall or winter,) and trench the soil two feet
deep. Don't be afraid of putting the manure too deep; I know it is a com-
mon error, that manure will sink too deep. I say error, for ammonium, the
essential element of manure, is a gas, which will always rise and evaporate.
Very im|iortant, however, is it to mix the manure thoroughly with the soil, as
it otherwise may become too dry in the summer. When your soil is thus pre-
pared, there will be nothing like failure. If this method should be too trouble-
some or expensive, the soil may only be ploughed deep, and sub-soiled, by
running the turn-plough twice in the same furrow, and every time as deep as
possible, previous to running the sub-soil plough. Then make holes at pro-
per distances, but not less than three feet wide by two feet deep. Throw up
the surface to one side, the sub soil to the other, and place eight or ten sho-
vels full of manure on the third side. In filling the holes, it is most con-
venient to go at it with three hands, one to each pile of soil and manure, and
throw it in promiscuously. Plant the tree a little higher above the general
surface than it was before, allowing about three inches for settling with the
soil ; water the tree, and tie it to a pole."

The lecture suggests that our progress would be still more accelerated by a
regard to the following particulars:

"1. If our agricultural associations should appoint a standing committee,
for the purpose of describing and classifying all new fruits, as well as such
older varieties which are deserving of general cultivation.

2. If a small fund could be raised, and a suitable person appointed to tra-
vel over the country at different times during the fruit season, to pick up and
describe all fine new varieties nowscattered over the South, and procure twigs
for propagation in the proper season.

3. If these scions were placed in the hands of such gentlemen as would
take care of them and propagate them, that they should not be lost again."

We append to this the remarks of a traveller, in the same paper, on the
same general topic. He says :

"Few of our up-country readers can realize the capacity of the soil and
climate around New-Orleans for horticulture. We saw in a garden on the
lake, oleanders in the open grounds, with trunks larger round than our body,
massive floral trees ! The pecan-nut tree flourishes in great luxuriance. We
saw groves of them near Carrollton, which resembled the massive oak groves
of Georgia. The pecan-nut meets a ready sale, and may be profitably culti-
vated through all the Southern States. They grow freely from seeds, pro-
ducing fruit in four to six years. We were astonished to find the top or tree
onion so common in New-Orleans; they are sold by the prominent seeds-
men at about one half the price they bring in the North.

CROPS AS FOOD FOR MILCH COWS. 659

The celery of New-Orleans is not first-rate; that of Mobile is very superior.
Mobile has many advantag;es over New-Orleans, horticulturally. Not the
least interesting portion of the horticulturist's travels, is the magnificent
steamers which float upon the waters. Here he sees the vegetables and
fruits, and ail the horticultural luxuries, and can form some proper conception
of the importance of his profession, not only to the denizens of the crowded
city, but to the travelling public. There is untold wealth yet in the undeve-
loped horticulture of the South."

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CROPS AS FOOD FOR MILCH COWS.

The following extracts from the report of the Essex County (Mass.) Agri-
cultural Society, are worthy the attention of our readers :

In the spring of 1850, I sowed forty-two square rods of land to carrots, on
which corn was raised for fodder the year previous, ploughing in two cords
of well-rotted manure. There were sixteen young apple-trees growing on
the land, which had been set out three years ; the soil a black, strong loam ;
the yield was one hundred and fifty-six bushels.

January 1st, 1851, I purchased twelve new milch cows and commenced
selling my milk. After the first two weeks, my son observed that he did not
have milk enough for his customers by about three gallons per day, and that
I had better buy more cows ; but, believing as I did at that time, I could
easily increase the milk of my present number one quart each per day, by
feeding with carrots, I accordingly ordered the man who tended the stock to
commence the next morning (January 15th) to give two and one half bushels
ef carrots to the twelve cows, morning and night, for the next seven days. I
then inquired of my son how much the cows had increased, and to my sur-
prise, his answer was not quite two gallons for the week. I then resolve to
attend to the feeding myself, and fed the next seven days with hay only.
The result was no diminution. I then fed with carrots as before, the next
seven days, and there was less than one gallon increase. I continued the
same feed alternately for the next four weeks ending March 12th; during
which time the cows fell off some in their milk, but not more than one gallon
when fed on hay only, than when carrots were added. The hay used during
the trial was first quality English hay, with a small foddering of salt hay in
the morning. I continued feeding the same kind of hay night and morning,
giving at noon as much rowen hay as they would eat in thirty to forty
minutes, which increased the milk more than one quart to each cow daily for
the next four weeks. By this time I was fully satisfied it would not pay to
raise carrots for milch cows, and that I would try some other method.

In April, 1851, I prepared and sowed the same piece of land with onions,
where carrots grew the year previous, using the same quantity of manure.
The yield was one hundred and sixty-eight bushels, which I sold for forty-
seven cents per bushel, amounting to seventy-eight dollars and ninety -six
cents. In November following, I bought four tons of shorts in Boston, at
nineteen dollars per ton — freight to Bradford one dollar and forty-five cents
per ton, making eighty-one dollars and eighty cents, or two dollars and
eighty-six cents more than the onions brought. I then had four tons, or
about four hundred bushels of shorts, costing but two dollars and eighty-six

660 CROPS AS FOOD FOR MILCH COWS.

cents more than the one hundred and fifty-six bushels of carrots. I think the
labor was no more to raise the onions than the carrots, and the labor less to
feed the cows with shorts than with carrots.

December 1st, 1851, I commenced giving ray cows from four to eight
quarts of shorts each per day, and continued through the winter, except eight
days in February I left off feeding four cows with shorts that had been hav-
ing eighteen quarts per day, and measured the milk the first four days. I
found they decreased on an average three pints each per day. The next four
days I fed them with about an equal quantity of rowen and coarse hay, which
increased the milk full up to the quantity when fed with shorts.

The next experiment I commenced December 25, 1852, by selecting three
of ray best cows as nearly equal in size, conditions, and goodness as I could.

No. 1, eight years old, dropped her calf Nov. 25.
Ko. 2, nine " " " " " "

No. 3, eight " " " " " "

I continued the experiment eight weeks, giving to each cow the same
money's worth of the diflferent kinds of feed by weight as the same cost at
the time, namely, shorts, twenty -six dollars per ton ; oil meal, thirty dollars per
ton ; Indian meal, eighty cents per bushel of fifty lbs. ; rye meal, one dollar
per bushel of fifty lbs. ; giving to each cow fifty-two and a half cents worth
per week, seven and one half cents per day.

The first week forty-two lbs. of shorts were weighed for each cow, and fed
night and morning, being about four and one half quarts each time, wet with
six quarts of water two hours before feeding. (Beer measure is used for the
milk.)

No. 1 gave in seven days 82^ qts.

No. 2 " " " "jsl "

No. 3 " " " '79

Total 239f qts.

Second week, thirty-five lbs. oil meal were weighed for each cow, wet and
fed same as the shorts, being about four quarts per day.

No. 1 gave in seven days 87 J qts.

No. 2 " *' " 81| "

No. 3 " " " 82i " :

Total 251J qts.

Third week, thirty-two lbs. thirteen ozs. of Indian meal were weighed for
each cow, wet and fed the same, being about three quarts "jDer day.

No. 1 gave in seven days 85 qts.

No. 2 " " " 84i- "

No. 3 " " " 84 "

Total 263J qts.

Fourth week, twenty-six and one quarter lbs. of rye meal were weighed to
each cow, being about two and one half quarts per day, wet and fed same as
above.

No. 1 gave in seven days 81f qts.

No. 2 " '.' " 83i "

No. 3 " " " I8i "

Total 243J qts.

CROPS AS FOOD FOR MILCH COWS. 661

Fifth week, thirty-five lbs. of shorts, weighed and fed as before.

No. 1 gave in seven days 76J qts.

No. 2 " " " Vsi "

No. 3 " " ♦' 74 "

Total 228f qts.

Sixth week, forty-two lbs. of oil meal, weighed and fed as before.

No. 1 gave in seven days 82 qts.

No. 2 " " " SU "

No. 3 « " « Sli «

Total , 247f qts.

Seventh week, thirty-two lbs. thirteen ozs. of Indian meal, weighed and fed
as before.

No. 1 gave in seven days 86|- qts.

No. 2 " " " 89i '•

No, 3 " " " 84" "

Total 260i qts.

Eighth week, twenty-six and one quarter lbs, of rye meal, weighed and fed
as before.

No. 1 gave in seven days 78^ qts.

No. 2 " " " 83 •'

No. 3 " " " 78f- "

Total 240i qts.

Three hundred and fifty pounds of English hay, and seventy pounds of
salt hay, were weighed and fed to the cows each week. When the cows were
fed on shorts and rye meal, the whole quantity was consumed. When fed on
oil and Indian meal, an average of fifty-eight pounds of English hay per week
was not consumed.

Cost of feeding three cows two weeks on shorts $3 15

750 lbs. English hay, 75 cts. per hundred 5 62

140 " Salt hay, 50 " " 70

Total $9 47

Quantity of milk for the two weeks, 468^ qts.

Cost of feeding three cows two weeks on oil meal $3 15

692 lbs. English hay, 75 cts. per hundred 5 18

140 " fcalt hay, 50 " " 70

Total , |9 03

Quantity of milk for the two weeks, 499 qts.

Cost of feeding three cows two weeks on Indian meal $3 15

692 lbs. English hay, 75 cts. per hundred 5 18

146 " Salt hay, 50 " " 70

Total $9 03

Quantity of milk for the two weeks, 51 3| qts.

Cost of feeding three cows two weeks on rye meal $3 15

750 lbs. English hay, 75 cts. per hundred 5 02

140 " Salt hay, 50 " " 70

Total ^... |9 47

Quantity of milk for the two weeks, 484 qts.

662 SWEET POTATOES.

It will be seen from the above experiment, that Indian meal possesses the
highest value for producing milk, diftering, however, but little from oil meal.
Many farmers object to the free use of grain of any kind, believing such feed
to be too stimulaiing. But my experience is otherwise. I have twelve cows
which, for the last five years, have dropped their calves in the fall of the year,
and have been fed during the winter and spring, till they went to pasture,
with as much meal or shorts as were used in the above trials, and were uni-
formly in as good health and better condition than a like number tbat dropped
their calves in the spring, and had no grain of any kind during the year.

It should have been stated above, tbat my cows are kept in a tight barn,
sufficiently ventilated during the days and nights, except when they are turned
out to water about nine o'clock, A.M., and four o'clock, P.M., when they re-
main out about twenty minutes each way.

William F. Porter, Chairman.

SWEET POTATOES.

We are rather late for the following directions, but in some situations it
may still be seasonable, and it will do for all another year :

In the spring, as soon as all danger from frost is past, the hot-bed for
sprouting the potatoes should be made, by boarding off the space intended
therefor in a warm situation, and filling it to the height of two or three feet
with manure from the horse-stable, and upon this a layer of three or four
inches of tine chip-dirt must be placed, upon which the potatoes may be laid
as closely as possible, and covered about two inches in depth with the same
material, or with any fine rich earth. If the weather should prove very dry, an
occasional watering with tepid water, or warm soap-suds, would be beneficial,
or, if the nights should be cold and frosty, the hot-bed should be protected by
covering it with any material most convenient. When the sprouts are suffi-
ciently large to warrant good roots, they may be pulled from the potatoes
and planted in ridges previously prepared.

The ridges are mostly made by throwing two furrows apart with the
plough, and applying some well-rotted manure, then covering the same by
returning the earth, thus forming a ridge of the height of ten or twelve
inches, in which sets are to be planted six or eight inches asunder. The best
time to plant them is immediately before or after a rain, or during a spell of
damp weather, or even in the cool of the evening, if watered occasionally until
fairly established.

The ground must then be kept mellow and free from weeds until the vines
prevent further culture. When the vines are killed by frost, the potatoes
should be taken up, and after remaining in the shade a short time to dry,
those not intended for immediate use may be packed away in dry sand or
earth in barrels or boxes, by first placing a layer of sand and then one of
potatoes, until the vessel is filled. Upon the approach of cold weather, they
should be placed in a situation secure from frost. In this manner they have
frequently been kept till May or June. In packing them away, all potatoes
that have been injured in taking up should be laid aside for present use. A
soil moderately fertile and somewhat sandy, with a southern aspect, is mostly
preferred for the sweet potatoe.

JSriGHT-SOIL, ETC. 663

N I G H T - S O I L , ETC.

We commend attention to this subject, and invite our readers to notice
the following from the volume recently published by Prof. Nash. We have
given similar advice heretofore :

" In European countries, as also in some of our cities, this has been wrought
by various processes into a dry, portable, inoffensive, but very powerful ma-
nure, under the name of poudrette. This is one of the forms in which the
fertilizing agents of the city are returned to the country, whence they came.

On the farm the night-soil may be put to good use in a less troublesome
way. After being carried off in the spring — or better, in the latter part of
winter, while it is yet cool — the bottom of the vault should be covered, at
least a foot in dt-pth, with fine black peat or mud, previously prepared and
dried for the purpose. A little of the same should be thrown down daily
through the summer, and once a week or fortnight during the winter. If
a little plaster be occasionally added, it will be well, though this is not essen-
tial. The peat itself will be sufficiently deodorizing, if put down in such
quantities as to be kept fairly moist and no more. It will withhold all foul
odor. It is well to have an opening in the rear of the building, and a pile
of prepared peat lying near, that it may be thrown down without much trou-
ble, lest it be neglected. Good farming requires daily attention to many little
things, and unless a previous preparation for them be made, these little things,
important in the aggregate, are apt to be lost sight of. A farmer might bet-
ter bring peat several miles for the foregoing purpose than not to have it. In
an ordinary family, as many as five loads of a kind of poudrette can thus
be made, not as concentrated nor as portable as the article bought under that
name in our cities, but suflaciently so for home use, and excellent for any soils
except peaty, and for any crops except it may be for potatoes and other roots.
For cabbages, wheat, corn, or clover, it would be first-rate. If used for corn,
and especially if tised as a top-dressing for old mowing, it would be well to
apply plaster pretty plentifully with it. I know of nothing that will bring
up red and white cl(3ver on an old mowing like it.

Many families make use of chloride of lime as a deodorizer, or disinfecting
agent, about the privy. They pay for it ten or twelve cents a pound ; and,
at that, it is ineffectual unless used in considerable quantities. Peat is cheaper
and better. When peat can not by any means be obtained, black, vegetable
mould from the edge of the wood, or wherever great quantities of leaves
have drifted together and decayed, will answer. If this can not be obtained,
there is a sort of home-made chloride of lime, which can be prepared easily,
and is worth more for agricultural purposes than it costs.

To prepare it, take one barrel of lime and one bushel of salt; dissolve the
salt in as little water as will dissolve the whole ; slack the lime with the
water, putting on more water than will dry-slack it, so much that it will form
a very thick paste; this will not take all the water; put on, therefore, a little
of the remainder daily, till the lime has taken the whole. The result will
be a sort of impure chloride of lime ; but a very powerful deodorizer, equally
good, for all out-door purposes, with the article bought under that name at
the apothecary's, and costing not one twentieth part as much. This should
be kept under a shed or some out-building. It should be kept moist, and it
may be applied wherever offensive odors are generated, with the assurance

664 NIGHT-SOIL, ETC.

that it will be effective to purify the air, and will add to the value of the ma-
nure much more than it costs. It would be well for every farmer to prepare
a quantity of this, and have it always on hand."

AofHin, he says :

"Night-soil should be removed to the land every spring. Its value, as a
fertilizer, is greatly increased, if mixed with six or eight times its bulk of dried
peat or swamp mud. Its value would be still more increased, if the peat or
mud, in a dry state, could have been thrown in with it daily, or once in a
few days during the previous year; and this either with or without (better
with) a little plaster, would have prevented the bad smell from that source,
which is too often noticed about premises. Poudrette can be prepared in
this way at little expense, and quite as effective as much that is offered in
market at a high price. Night-soil is valuable for grass-land, and for all
kmds of grain. In whatever form it is u<ed, it should be spread thinly over
a large surface, rather than be put in large quantities in one place.

Thpre is another article to which the last remark applies with great force.
It is old plastering from the walls of rooms. This contains silicate of lime,
carbonate of lime, and what is of more value than all the rest, nitrate of lime.
This last is a very soluble salt, and is so valuable for any of the grain crops,
but more especially for wheat, that not a particle of it should be lust. Every
ounce of old plastering should be put upon the field. Even the rubbish of
old brick walls should be pounded up and put upon the land. But this and
old plastering should be spread thinly over a large surface. Probably a ton
of either, if mixed with a compost that was to cover five acres, would benefit
the first year's crop more than five tons spread on a single acre.

Whether the new occupant of this farm should go largely into the use of
plaster, is a question for him to settle on the ground. He should, at any
rate, have some on hand to use about his manures. There is a strong pre-
sumption in favor of plaster on a farm upon which nothing is known of its
effects by experience. lie should inquire of his neighbors. If their testi-
mony is against the use of plaster in that region, let him not believe it, but
let him make the trial for himself He may n ake it on a small scale at first,
so as not to injure him much if it fails. If, on the other hand, the testimony
of the neighborhood is favorable to the use of plaster, he might take it as
undoubted. A hundred neighborhoods have testified falsely against the use
of plaster in their particular location, to where one has over-estimated its value,
very few are the locations where plaster is not worth the purchase-money, or
more.

It is very true that plaster can not be relied upon alone. It is not a ma-
nure m the fullest sense of the word. It contains but two ingredients, and
those are not all that plants need. Plants could not grow in plaster alone,
but that does not prove that they should have none. The truth is, it acts
partly as a manure — feeding the plants with its sulphuric acid and lime, the
very ingredients which clover, corn, potatoes, and some other crops, largely
require — and partly as a stimulant — hastening, by its lime, the decay of
vegetable matter in the soil. In other woi'ds, it feeds the 'plants a part of
their food, and it hurries the vegetable matter in the soil to feed them more.
On dry soils it performs another important office — that o^ attracting moisture.
Some say it has not this effect. I know very well that in its unaltered state
it has not. Set an open barrel of plaster in the air, and it will remain dry.
But it does not long remain unaltered about the roots of plants. The sul-
phuric acid and the lime part comp-iny, and in their transformations they
perform the three offices I have described — feed the plants, convert half-

UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. ^65

decomposed matter into vegetable nutriment, and attract moisture from the
air and from the suh-aoil. Tins last office is important on lands that are
dry. On wet lands it should not be used till they have been thoi'oughly

drained.

Plaster will not do well permanently without other manure. It requires
that organic matter should be present In pastures, this is supplied by the
droppings of the cattle and by the decay of grass-roots. On mowings, it
should be supplied by top-dressings ; and on plough lands, by harrowing in
manure. It would be as unreasonable to complain of plaster because it will
not act well always without other manure, as to find fault with roast-beef
because it does not afford a suitable diet without other food. The same
mio-ht b3 said of ashes. Land dressed with ashes alone, will soon be found
in "a sad condition ; and yet the potash, soda, and lime they contain, are
worth far more for agricultural purposes than the price generally allowed by
soap-boilers. Their alkaline salts act favorably upon the silicates in the soil ;
they render insoluble silica soluble, and are therefore valuable on uplands ;
while on peaty lands, if well drained, and on any lands which abound in inert
vegetable matter, their value is very great."

UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

In our last number, we gave an epitome of the journal of the late meeting
of this organization. But we had no opportunity for comnients, on account
of absence from home. We now say a word in relation to it.

We published an account of the organization of this Society at the time of
its formation, and used hopefid terms in reference to its future. But our com-
parative silence since that has not been from any change in our views in rela-
tion to it, but because the circumstances of the Society as to funds, &c., did
not furnish them convenient facilities for accomplishing very much, while
other matters were constantly pressing upon our attention, and asking a place
in our pages. The Society has had no means by which to wieM the great
energies which its list of members, well instructed in the art and in the science
of agriculture, might otherwise have put forth.

Again : The result of their collected and concentrated wisdom, nearly to
the p^-esent time, was put forth in but two issues — of moderate-sized pamphlets,
only one of which was ever received at this oflSce, and that one, so fiu- as we
can recollect, did not excite any special admiration, on our part, for the marvel-
lous ability of their official organ, and hence, in the absence of such stimulus,
we were content to remain silent.

The state of things in this last respect has now materially changed. The
last and recent issue of the Journal of the Society, under the editorship of Mr.
King, of Boston, is an admirable collection of well-written and practical trea-
tises. A copy should be in the hands of every agriculturist. One of our late
numbers contains several pages taken from that issue, though being in some
doubt whether they were original there, we thought it proper to credit the
author himself. We are not better informed now on the question of "first
appearance," but presume, on the whole, that their first impressions were in
the pages of that journal. With Mr. Wilder, Mr. King, Mr. French, Mr.
Proctor, Mr. Poore, and other gentlemen, for its directors in that section
of country, of whose remarkable abilities we are personally informed, failure

^^^ AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

IS a mere ira possibility, and inefficiency, except from actual withholding of
the pecuniary means, entirely out of the question. Leaving these Northern
regions fur the sunnier South, we find the same class of learned, talented,
and influential gentlemen, officers of State Societies, and other members, all
united to make the Society energetic and useful. Their treasury is also in
very tolerable condition, and we look for results of no small importance from
the combined movements of these gentlemen. We earnestly bid them anew,
God speed. Their influence will be felt in every part of the country.

AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The fifth session of this National Association will be held at Horticultural
Hall, in the city of Boston, Massachusetts, commencing on Wednesday, the
13th day of September next, at 10 o'clock, A.M.

It is intended to make this assemblage one of the most interesting that
has ever been held in this country on the subject of Pomology. All Hor-
ticultural, Agricultural, and other kindred Associations, of North America,
are therefore requested to send such number of delegates to this Convention
as they may deem expedient.

Pomologists, nurserymen, and all others interested in the cultivation of
good fruit, are also invited to attend the coming session.

Among the objects of this Society are the following :

To ascertain, from practical experience, the relative value of varieties in
difiereut parts of our widely-extended country. To hear the reports of the
various State fruit committees, and, from a comparison of results, to learn
what fruits are adapted to general cultivation ; what varieties are suitable for
particular localities ; what new varieties give promise of being worthy of dis-
semination ; and especially, what varieties are generally inferior or worthless,
in all parts of the Union.

In order to facilitate these objects, and to collect and diffuse a knowledge
of researches and discoveries in the science of Pomology, members and dele-
gates are requested to contiibute specimens of the fruits of their respective
districts; also papers descriptive of their art of cultivation; of diseases and
insects injurious to vegetation; of remedies for the same, and whatever may
add to the interest and utility of the Association.

The Massachusetts Horticultural Society has generously oflfered to provide
accommodations for the Society, and also to publish its propeedings free of
expense.

All packages of Fruit intended for exhibition may, therefore, be addressed
as follows : " For the American Pomological Society, Horticultural Hall,
School street, Boston, Mass.;" where a committee will be in attendance to
take charge of the same.

All Sacieties to be represented will please forward certificates of their seve-
ral delegations, to the President of the American Pomological Society, at
Boston. Marshall P. Wilder, President.

H. W. S. Cleveland, Secretary.

Boston, Mass., April 1, 1854.

DISCUSSION ABOUT CATTLE. 667

DISCUSSION ABOUT CATTLE.

At a late meeting of the Agricultural Club iu Boston, Mass., Sanford
'Howard presented the following excellent suggestions upon the comparative
merits of various kinds of cattle :

Breeds may be classed as natural and artificial; the peculiar character-
istics of the former are the result of natural causes ; those of the latter, the
result of man's interference. The Merino and Scotch black-faced aheep, West
Highland and Devon cattle, are examples of natural breeds; the Jjeicester
and improved Cots wold sheep, Ayrshire and improved Short-horn cattle, are
examples of artificial breeds. Breeds of cattle must be chosen according to
the situation in which they are to be placed, and the purposes for which they
are designed. Cattle are wanted for beef, milk, and labor. These properties
are in some degree antagonistical ; they can not be combined in the highest
perfection in the same animal. For instance, the fattening animal should
possess, as much as possible, a rotundity of form, with a broad chest, and an
even balance of the fore and hind quarters ; whereas the milker should be
characterized by flatness rather than roundness, and a considerable prepon-
derance of weight in the hind quarters. Animals which have the most
extreme tendency to fatten, are deficient in the muscular fibre and nervous
energy necessary to confer activity and strength. Opinions in reference to
the comparative merits of breeds for this section, must be in a great degree
conjectural, owing to the limited trials which have been made ; but we may
be guided in selections for particular purposes, from what is known of their
characteristics. On this basis, the lecturer submitted the following list:

As Dairy Stock —

1. For poor and rough soils, the Kerry breed, indigenous to the moun-
tains of Ireland, and represented by all authorities as combining remarkable
hardiness of constitution with superior dairy qualities, especially for the pro-
duction of butter.

2. For better soils, and for milk-selling establishments, the Ayrshires.

3. For cities and towns, the Jerseys, at the same time testing them by fair
trials, as to general adaptation.

4. A selection from the common, or so-called native stock, to be sub-
jected to a systematic course of breeding.

5. Crosses of the Ayrshire, and of the Jersey, with the common stock, the
oflFspring to be kept separately for a sufficient period to ascertain their
qualities.

As Fattening Stock, of Secondary Value for the Dairy —

1. For poor and rough soils, and a severe climate, the West Highland
Scots.

2. For somewhat better soils, the Galloways and Devons.

3. For medium quality of soil, the Herefords.

4. For the best soils and milder climate, the fattening variety of Short-
horns.

The Herefords, Devons, and West Highlanders are excellent draft cattle.

In this climate, owing to the extremes of heat and cold, strength of con-
stitution is an important requisite in cattle that are obliged to undergo more
or less exposure at all seasons. On this account, as well as for other intrinsic
properties, the lecturer advocated strongly the introduction of the West
Highlanders.

668 BREEDING DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

INQUIRIES FOR FARMERS.

Editoks of the Plough, thk Loom, and the Anvil:

Gentlemen : Permit me, tlirough the medium of your invaluable publi-
cation, to make one or two inquiries. I hope they will be answered by prac-
tical farmers :

The best mode of cultivating wheat when sown in drills ? The best imple-
ment, or implements, in use for cultivating wheat sown in drills ? The Best
machine for drilling wheat? Together with any remarks of practical utility
on this subject, that may suggest themselves to the mind of the writer.

I have never seen wheat sown any other way than broadcast, and I doubt
if a dozen farmers in the county have seen it drilled. Most of our farms lie
in the prairies; consequently, we have neither roots, stumps, nor stones to
interfere with the use of the best agricultural implements. Our prairies, in a
state of nature, are covered with a thick coat of sedge-grass. To draw a
fifteen-inch plough in it, requires a team of six or seven yoke of oxen. After
the sod has been turned, it lies several months, before the grass-roots roi suffi-
ciently to admit tillage. It is then generally "cross-broken," with a yoke of
oxen, or ])air of horses, harrowed, or brushed, and either sown in wheat or
planted in corn. It pays better to sow it in wheat the first year. Our average
crop of corn is about thirty bushels per acre. Of wheat, the average, accord-
ing to the present mode of cultivation, will not exceed twelve bushels. But I
am saying more than I designed. Yours, R. Sansom.

Prairie Home, Williamson Co., Texas, Jipril 1, 1854.

FOR TUB PLOUSH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL,

BREEDING DOMESTIC ANIMALS.— NO. L

BY P. A. BROWN, LL.D., PHILADELPHIA.

There is no subject relating to agriculture more important than breeding.
"Without the aid of domestic animals, this honorable and useful branch of
industry could not be carried on for a single season : where would be the use
of the plough, with no horses or oxen ? what would become of the dairy
were the cow annihilated ? and how is the farmer's family to be protected
from the inclemencies of the seasons, but by the covering of the sheep and
the gOHt ? It follows, therefore, that any discovery which relates to the
domestication of the lower atiimals, must always be of the first importance.
But of domestic animals there are various kinds, as regards their usefulness,
and consequently their relative value to the agriculturist, and to the com-
munity of which he is a member. It ought to be borne in mind, that a
miserable horse, that can hardly draw his own weight, eats as much hay and
oats as the high-bred animal who performs the greatt st tasks. Beside which,
it has often been remarked that hirelings will always take more care of a
fine-looking animal than of a poor, sorry-looking beast, who appears to be
wailing till his turn comes to die. A friend of mine had a fine Durham cow,
which his hired man was constantly currying, and when, by accident, she

BREEDING DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 669

died, the fellow was melted into tears. And, lastly, if the farnaer has to pay
more for an animal that is well bred, he always gets a higher price for the
progeny, of which he may feel an inclination to dispose. The great aim,
therefore, of every farmer should be to have about him the best breeds^ and
nothing but the best breeds, of domestic animals. "Whenever I visit a farm,
and encounter a miserable, ill-proportioned horse, or a raw-boned, slab-sided
cow, or a narrow-breasted, long-legged sheep, I set the owner down for a
slovenly, thoughtless person, who is destined never to rise in his profession.
Such a one never reads, attends no cattle-shows, and profits nothing by the
improvements that are in his neighborhood.

Some of these persons endeavor to excuse their inattention by urging that
there is a diflaculty in understanding the rules of breeding ; but this is an
entire mistake ; for although it is true that the breeding of domestic animals
depends upon the laws of nature, (the perfect understanding of which requires
some study and forethought,) yet these rules, like all those emanating from
this high source, are in themselves so simple, and so easily undeistood, that
the industiious farmer will find no insurmountable diflficulties to encounter.

The first rule is, to breed from nothing but a 2^ure stock. This rule is so
obvious upon its mere statement, that one is surprised that it should ever be
misunderstood or contravened. Yet there are many persons, well informed
in other respects, who set it at defiance as if it was of no value. It is no
uncommon occun-ence for a sheep-breeder, for instance, to purchase at a high
price, a first-rate merino ram, and breed him with the commonest native
sheep that happens to be on his farm. But such a one ought to reflect, that
both the sexes concur in the formation of the individual that is to represent
them ; and that the mother gives birth, sometimes, to one made in her own
image, and at other times to one in the image of the father. Here it is seen
that she is capable of producing two distinct types of animals. This twofold
effect is so certain, that naturalists have often referred the individuals derived
from the same parents as distinct species. Now, if we apply this rule to the
case above supposed, of a pure merino ram being coupled with a common
country sheep, we will see at once what sort of a flock the farmer who follows
this practice is preparing from his ill-timed parsimoniousness. He goes to
rest under the expectation, that having used, as the male breeder, one of pure
blood, he will be sure, after a few generation-^, to have a, pure flock ; but he
wakes up to the certainly that all his time and labor have been uselessly
expended, by adopting this half-way or rather less than half-way measure.
And the woret part of the affair is, that this well-meaning, but badly-
instructed farmer, has in a few years involved his flock in a difficulty for
which there is no remedy but to begin his breeding all anew, and upon the
approved plan of using nothing but the pure blooded of both parents. This
generally proves to be not only a loss of time and money, but is very apt to
disgust the breeder, who is too prone to lay the blame on any body or any
thing but himself; when it is obvious to every one else that he alone has
been in fault.

We would therefore sincerely recommend to all breeders of domestic
animals, to make use of none but the pure breed of both parents, when he
Avill find that having done his part, nature will never deceive him, but will
always perform hers.

But several persons on whom I have endeavored to enforce this rule, while
ttey acknowledge that it is correct, complain of the difficulty they encounter
im determining upon a pure animal. The vender, sometimes from dishonesty,
but more frequently from ignorance, insists tliat the animal is of the pure

VOL. VI. — PART II. 19

670 SQUASHES AND PUMPKINS.

breed ; and sometimes oflfers, in confirmation, a true or imaginary pedigree,
of the validity of which the purchaser is not a perfect judge. To obviate this
difficulty, I have laid down (in Frichologia Mammalium) a rule by which the
plainest farmer (in the case of sheep, to which I have given the most atten-
tion) can decide for himself, without running the risk of being deceived.

I was ODce waited upon by a gentleman, who was about to enter largely
into the business of sheep-breeding, to give him some information. I ex-
hibited to him my collection of pile, and made him acquainted with some of
the rules of breeding. He made the complaint to which allusion is above
made, whereupon I instructed him how to judge of the purity of breeds of
sheep. He declared that he esteemed that information worth more to him
than one thousand dollars. Upon this I handed him the subscription-book
for my work on hair and wool. He read it over attentively, and returned it,
but without his signature !

"Aviendo pregonado vino, veuden vinagre." — Spanish proverb.

SQUASHES AND PUMPKINS.

BY THADDEUS WILLIAM HARRIS, HARVARD COLLEGE.

I AM now acquainted with ten different kinds of pumpkins and squashes,
belonging to the same group as the Valparaiso, Cuba, and Marrow.

1. The mammoth pumpkin, of Potiron, {Cucurbita maxima.) The fertile
flowers have five stigmas, and the fruit five carpels ; having raised it in my
own garden during the past summer, I can vouch for the fact.

2. A glaucous or grayish-green pumpkin or squash, more or less turbi-
nated or top-shaped, growing to a large size, (three and a half feet or more in
circumference,) mistaken by some seedsmen for the mammoth pumpkin. It
was raised in my garden in the summer of 1861, and was found to have four
or five stigmas, and the same number of carpels.

3. Mr. Cole's Connecticut pie-squash or pumpkin; Spherical or spheroidal,
three and a half feet in circumference. Raised in ray garden in the summer
of 1851. Stigmas mostly four ; in a few flowers, five. Carpels mostly four;
a few of the fruit had five.

4. Elongated Valparaiso squash, tapering very much at each end, striped
longitudinally with white. Raised from Valparaiso seed in the summer of
1851, in my garden. Stigmas and carpels five in number.

5. The common ovate Valparaiso I have not rai.sed ; but have bought
and cut many specimens, in all of which I found four carpels. I have exa-
mined the young fruit, growing in grounds of my friends, and found often
five carpels,

6. The autumnal marrow, introduced into notice and use by Mr. Ives, of
Salem. This forms an exception to the general rule in the fruits of this
group ; having ordinarily only three carpels, and but three stigmas. Four
in some rare cases are, however, to be found, as already stated.

7. The Cushaw squash, probably introduced from Louisiana, where it wa.s
known and cultivated more than one hundred years ago. It Is mentioned
by Le-Page du Pratz, in his Histoire de la Louisiane, Vol. II., p. 11, byname
of Giromon en forme de corde-chasse, (hunting-horn,) and by the translator

SQUASHES AND PUMPKINS. 6Tl

of the work, by the vernacular name of Cushaio. This is a crook-necked
squash, -with permanent nipple-formed style, and stem like that of the mar-
row. It has only three carpels, at least I found but three in the few speci-
mens that grew in my garden in 1852. It is so tender and delicate, that it
rots in our climate before it becomes fully ripe.

8. The Acorn squash, evidently nothing but a variety of the one called by
French writers, Le Pepon turhan^ (^Cucurbita pili/ormis of Duchesne.) Fine
specimens were raised in my garden in the summer of 1851. It is the hea-
viest squash of its size that is known to me, and one of the best flavored.
Flowers mostly with five stigmas, some with four ; carpels five or four.

9. Mr. Stetson's Cuba squash. Though I have not yet cut it, I am con-
vinced from its external characters that it must contain five carpels.

10. Mr. Dunn's round, rough-skinned pumpkin or squash, weighing one
hundred and fifty pounds, which was exhibited at the last annual Horticul-
tural E.xhibition. This probably had five carpels, if its external characters
are to be relied upon.

In the same group are to be placed Mr. Hyde's Coquimbe squash, and Mr.
Pope's California squash, which were exhibited last September. The num-
ber of carpels in these is unknown to me, not having seen them cut. Proba-
bly in boih will be found more than three carpels.

I have enumerated these kinds, in order to show that the gi-oup character-^
ized by me has been established upon personal examination and dissection of
most of the known varieties ; and that the character of five or four stigmas
and the same number of carpels (rarely three) is one which prevails in this
group.

Heretofore it has been generally understood, and is so stated by most
botanists, that pumpkins and squashes were originally natives of Asia. On
the contrary, I find in ancient works abundant evidence that they were un-
known in the Eastern hemisphere before the discovery of America, and that
they were originally natives of the tropical and warm parts of America, and
that they were extensively cultivated by the native Indians from Canada to
Chili, before any European settlements Avere made on this continent.

After a very careful examination of the plants and the fruits of as many
kinds as I could obtain or raise, I have discovered certain distinguishing
characters which will enable us to class all of them in three natural groups.
These are :

1st. Summer squashes — such as the broad-scalloped, the long and warted,
the round or orange, the variegated or gourd-squashes, and various other
kinds. Most of these (but not all) have upright vines which do not run,
(hence sometimes called bush-squashes,) and small or feeble tendrils or
claspers. Their leaves are very rough, and mostly five-lobed, (like a grape-vine
leaf.) The fruit when cut across, is found generally to have five double rows
of seeds ; more rarely, only three double rows. The fruit-stem is enlarged
next the fruit, and is deeply five-furrowed and five-angled. The fruit (which
ripens early) is fit to be eaten only in an imripe state, or while it still remains
tender. When fully ripe, the rind becomes whitish or pale, hard and brittle,
lik a gourd-shell ; and the pulp is drj^ and f^pongy. The seeds are small and
thin, and of grayish or dirty yellowish color.

2d. Pumpkins and winter squashes — including our common New-England
field-])umpkins, the crook-necked squashes, the custard-squash, and many
other kinds. All these have running vines, with strong-branched tendrils or
claspers, very rough, more or less deeply five-lobed leaves, and a five-furrowed
and five-angled fruit-stem, which is very much enlarged toward the fruit.

672 CULTURE OF MELONS.

On being cut across, the fruit is found to have only three double rows of
seeds. The fruit is fit to be eaten only when fully ripe, and it may bo kept,
with care, all winter. It does not dry up like Kuiumer squashes, but finally
rots and becomes soft' and spoiled throughout. The rind, mostly thin and
tender, never becomes dry, woody, and brittle ; and the pulp remains fleshy
and succulent till it decays. The seeds are larger than those of summer
squashes, but are also thin and grayish or yellowish.

3d. Nippled pumpkins and squashes — such as the mammoth pumpkin or
potiron, your Cuba sq'uashes, Valparaiso squashes, the acorn squash, the
autumnal marrow-squash, and some others. All these have running or
climbing vines, with strong branched tendrils. The leaves are rather soft,
some of them as soft and velvety as those of the mallow; they are never
deeply lobed, but more often nearly round or heart-shaped. The fruit stem
is short, thick, wrinkled, but not five-angled and not five-furrowe.l, and when
green is nearly as thick at one end as at the other. The fruit, when cut
across, is found generally to have four or five double rows of seeds, more
rarely only three double rows ; and I have found this smaller number otily
in the autumnal marrow-squashes, and it is by no means a constant character
even in them, four or five double rows being occasionally found in them. The
fruit is fit to be eaten in autumn and winter, and only vv'hen fully ripe. It
!§ always distinguished, however various the shape and size, by having a small,
nipple-like projection at the blossom end ; this projection being the permment
style of the blossom, the rind, which is generally remarkably thin and ten-
der, never becomes hard, dry, woody, and brittle. The flesh, often of a rich
orange color, and remarkably sweet and fine grained, never dries up or be-
comes spong}', like that of summer squashes, but remains succulent till it rots.
The seeds are large, broad, thick or plump, mostly of a beautiful, clear white
color ; but in certain very dark-fleshed varieties, the seeds are of the color of
old ivory, or cream-colored.

Now, I am strongly inchned to the belief that all the pumpkins and
squashes of this third division were originally natives of the western side of
America, as Chili, Peru, Mexico, and California. Some of them have doubt-
less been introduced into the West Indies, whence they occasionally are
brought to our markets. — Journal IT. S. Agricultural Society.

CULTURE OF MELONS, <fec.

With judicious culture, melons of excellent quality may be produced in
abundance. Those who wish to be in season, sliould lose n'.> time now in pre-
paring the ground for it. For each hill, dig a hole two feet deep and three
feet w^ide, and fill one foot of the bottom with rich manure ; then till to the
natural surface with fine compost of rich earth and mould. In this, when the
weather is warm enough to insure quick germination, plant your seeds at equal
distances apart. If the weather should be very dry, the hills should be v.-atered
once a day, with water that has been exposed to the air long enough to attain
an equal temperature with the atmosphere; (-r better still, set a tall and
narrow box on the centre of this hill, and fill it with horse-stable manure;
once in a day or two, at night, pour in a few quarts of water, and let it leach
through the manure. When the plants show themselves above gronml, de-
fend them by a box covered with millinet, to keep otf the bng^, which will
also serve to ward off' cold winds. When the plants are well established,
select a few of the best, and pull up the others. Keep the plants U^^e from weeds.

Cucumbers may be treated in the same way.

THE ORANGE FAMILY. 678

CINCINNATI HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY— STRAWBERRIES.

This Society held a meeting oa the 15th of April. We find the following
report of Dr. John A. Warder among its proceedings, illustrating a subject of
especial interest to our readers genorally :

Finality on the Strawberry. — Wild or cultivated, the strawberry pre-
sents, in its varieties, four distinct forms or characters of inflorescence.

First : Those called Pistillate, from the fact that the stamens are abortive,
and rarely to be found without a dissection ©f the flower. These require ex-
trinsic inapregnation.

Second : Those called Staminate, which are perfectly destitute of even the
rudiments of pistils, and are necessarily fruitless.

Third : Those called Hermaphrodite, or perfect, having both sets of organs,
stamens and pistils, apparently well developed. These are not generally good
and certain bearers, as we should expect them to be. With few exceptions
they bear poorly, owing to some unobserved defect, probably in the pistils.
One tenth of their flowers generally produce perfect and often very large ber-
ries.

. .Fourth : A rare class — a sort of subdivision of the preceding, has not only
hermaphrodite flowers, but also some on the same truss that are of the pis-
tillate character ; and sometimes, in the same plant, a truss will be seen, on
which all the flowers are pistillate.

Now these four divisions are natural and real; they are also founded upon
permanent characters, so far as we have been able to discover, after a most
thorough investigation, extending through a long series of years, during
which millions of strawberry blossoms have been examined with the severest
scrutiny. Other forms may exist, and it is not claimed to be impossible that
we may yet find a seedling which will have the general character of a pistil-
late, that may show an occasional perfect or hermaphrodite flower, as a pecu-
liarity of that individual, but we have never yet observed such a variety ; and
further, we believe that whatever impress, as to peculiarities of foliage, pubes-
cence, habit, inflorescence, or fruit, each distinct seedling may receive with its
origin, it will be retained in its increase by runners, so long as the variety
remains extant. Seedlings may vary from the parent, but oflf-shoots will not
be materially diflferent, except by accidental malformation, or by development
of unimportant organs. On motion, adjourned.

THE ORANGE FAMILY.

The more remarkable varieties of the Orange, as given by Mons. Boiteau,
in the Histoire Naturelle des Grangers, and published in the Bon Jardemer
for 1842, are as. follows :

The China, pear-shaped, Nice ting-fruited, fingered, blood-red, ribbed, sweet-
skinned, Mandarin, and St. Michael's. The last two are by far the best worth
cultivating for their fruit. The Mandarin orange is small, oblate, with a thm
rind, which separates of itself from the pulp, so much so that, when fully
ripe, the latter may be shaken about in the inside like the kernel of some
nuts. It is originally from China, but is now cultivated in Malta. The flesk
is of a deep orange color, and its juice and flavor superior to those of most

674 THE ORANGE FAMILY.

varieties. The St. MichaeVs orange is also small, but the skin, instead of
being of an orange color, like that of the Mandarin, is of a pale yellow ; the
fruit is generally without seed, the rind thin, and the pulp exceedingly sweet.
It is the most delicious of all the oranges, and the tree is a great bearer. It
is generally cultivated in the Azores, from which it is shipped in great quan-
tities. The Tangerine orange is strongly recommended by some.

The Bigarade, Seville, or bitter orange, has elliptic leaves, with a winged
stalk, very white flowers, middle size, globose, deep yellow fruit, the pulp bit-
ter and acid. This is the hardiest variety of the orange, and that which has
the largest and most fragrant flowers, which are produced in great abundance.
The fruit is chiefly used in making marmalade. The tree is that chiefly grown
by the French gardeners for its flowers, to gather for nosegays ; the varieties
are the horned, the female, the curl-leaved, the purple, the double- flowered,
the Seville, the myrtle-leaved, and the Bizarre. The curled- leaved Bigarade
has small curled leaves, thick clusters ©f flowers at the end of the branches ;
the plant is very hardy, and it is that most generally cultivated in French
gardens for its flowers and its fruit. The douhle-floivered Bigarade is prized
on account of its fragrant double flowers, which last longer than those which
are single. The plant requires a very rich soil. The Seville Bigarade, or Seville
orange of the shops, has round, dark fruit, with an extremely bitter rind. It
is imported from Spain, and used for marmalades, bitter tinctures, candied
orange-peel, and for flavoring curafoa. The myrtle-leaved Bigarade is a
lusus naturce, with deformed leaves, purplish or white flowers, and fruit half
Bigarades and half lemons.

The Bergamot orange has small flowers and pear-shaped fruit, the whole
plant having a peculiar fragrance, much valued by the perfumer, who obtains
from the flowers and rind of the fruit his bergamot essences. The rind, first
dried and then moistened, is pressed in moulds into small boxes for holding
sweetmeats, to which they communicate a bergamot flavor. There are seve
ral varieties of this species in the Genoese nurseries.

The Lime has obovate leaves on a wingless stalk, small white flowers, and
roundish, pale-yellow fruit, with a nipple-like termination. The leaves and
general habit of the plant resemble those of the lemon ; but the acid of the
pulp of the fruit, instead of being sharp and powerful, is flat and slightly bitter.
It is principally used in flavoring punch and confectionery. Among the
varieties are the Pomo d'Adamo, in which Adam is supposed to have left the
marks of his teeth.

The Shaddock : the leaves are large and winged, and the flowers and fruit
very large and roundish ; the skin of the fruit is yellow, and the rind white
and spongy ; the pulp is juicy and sweetish. The plant forms an excellent
stock for grafting other kinds upon ; the fruit makes a splendid show at table,
and is found cooling and refreshing. It has been grown successfully in the
open air in the city and vicinity of Mobile. M. Boiteau considers the *' for-
bidden fruit" of the shops to be a variety of this species, but others make it a
variety of the lemon.

The Sweet Lemon : the fruit has the leaves, the rind, and the flesh of the
lemon, but with a sweet pulp. There are many varieties in Italy, but very
few are cultivated in France or England. The flowers differ from those of
the lime in being red externally.

The True Lemon : leaves ovate-oblong, pale green, with a winged stalk,
flowers red externally, fruit pale yellow, with a juicy and acid pulp. Unlike
the other kinds of citrons, the lemon on the continent is generally raised from
seed, and hence the great diff'^rence in the quality of the fruit obtained in
the shops, as also the sweet orange daily imported from the Island of Cuba.

THE OEANGE FAMILY. 675

The Citron: leaves oblong, flowers purple externally, and fruit yellow,
large, warted and furrowed; rind spongy "and thick, very fragrant ; pulp sub-
acid. Supposed to be the Median or Persian apple of the Greeks. As an
ornamental tree, it is one of the best of the genus citrus ; a delicate sweet-
meat is prepared from the rind of the fruit, and the juice, with sugar and
water, forms lemonade, and is used to flavor punch and negus, like that of
the lemon. The Madras citron is the largest and best variety, and has been
grown to an enormous size.

Oranges, like most other fruit-bearing plants, are propagated from seeds.
The seeds maybe sown at any period of the year, and slightly shaded during
the hottest hours of the day. When the plants are from sixteen to twenty
inches high, they are flt for grafting, taking care that the leading shoot be
not injured, nor any superfluous side-shoots allowed to remain on them.
They can be grafted, when about the thickness of a quill, iu the following
manner : Young shoots of a favorite variety are selected, being rather smaller
than the stock, and about four to six inches in leng-th; the stocks are pre-
pared for them by taking a thin slice oS" one side (at about half their height)
just merely to remove a very small portion of the wood y the graft is pre-
pared in like manner, by merely taking oflf a thin slice of it; they are fitted
together in the usual manner and fastened with fresh matting,_which is wound
round the stock from about an inch below the union, and carried up about an
inch above it ; no clay, but a little fine moss, is used to envelop the part ope-
rated on, and kept constantly moist ; the head or leading shoot is not now
shortened, but left growing until soma weeks after the union is ascertained to
be complete. It is then headed down as close to the part of the union as con-
venient, but not too close, for fear of displacing the graft ; the remaining piece
of stock is removed some months after the graft is estabhshed, and, if care-
fully done, the part of the union will, in a few months longer, scarcely be visi-
ble. Orange-trees are also propagated by budding,_ either when the stocks
are young, or even»when they are of considerable size. Handsome plants
may be formed by this method when young stocks are used, but this can not
be the case when the stocks have attained a large size ; and hence arises a
great defect in many of those that are annually imported into this country
from France, and particularly from Italy, &c., when the stock operated on is
often from one to three inches in diameter at the top, and in consequence seldom
forms a union so complete as to conceal the amputation of the stock. Seed-
ling orange-trees in this climate will fruit in six years. Observing that young
seedUngs put out thorns at the base of the leaf, and as long as they appear on
the voung wood, no fruit can be looked for, as the tree is in too luxuriant a
state, which should be corrected by cutting in the roots and reducing the soil
with loam, turf, and fine gravel. The practice of trimming and heading down
orange-trees is radically wrong— as by that treatment it is impossible for the
tree to bear fruit, for in spring they bring forth strong thorny wood, and are
no nearer bearing fruit than when only one year old.

In the management of orange-trees in large boxes and tubs, great care is
requisite to ascertain that the water reaches the roots of the plants ; for the
balls of soil become so firm and compact that the water will not penetrate
them, but passes off between the balls and the sides of the box ; the com-
pactness of the ball often arises from the fineness of the soil used in potting.
The present mode in every case is to use comparatively rough, turfy soil, more
or less mixed with fragments of stone. When orange-trees in boxes are
placed in the open air in the summer season, the situation ought always to
be partially shaded.

676 CUKIOSITIES OF THE PATENT OFFICE,

A CHEAP MODE OF PROCURING A VALUABLE BONE MANURE.

A WRITER ii> the Country Gentleman says, in reference to the cultivation of
the potatoe, and successful attempts to prevent attacks of the rot : " We
know a gentleman who for eight years has manured potatoes with bones fer-
mented in ashes, has had good crops uniformly, and not one of them has
rotted ; but unfortunately for the conclusion to which he would have been
glad to come, he has planted other potatoes, every one of these eight years,
with all sorts of manures, and some without any, and neither one of these
rotted, except a very few where no manure was put. The bones in the case
just alluded to were treated thss : In a large family, consuming much butchers'
meat, the bones were thrown into a hogshead from day to day; ashes as
taken from the fires daily were thrown upon them ; enough water to keep
the whole moist and to prevent the gases escaping, were added from time to
time, the falling rain generally being sufficient, as the hogshead was placed
in the open air, away from all buildings. When one hogshead was full, an-
other was taken. The bones treated in this way retained their form and
size, but became so soft as to be easily cut through with the shovel and rubbed
down with the back of the shovel into powder, with some extra ashes or dry
earth. The oily matter of the bones, together with the potash of the ashes
and the water thrown on, becomes a saponaceous mass, and the phosphate of
lime in the hardest part of the bones is diffused through the soapy mass in a
state of exceedingly fine division. Bones thus fermented in ashes are exceed-
ingly valuable for potatoes and for Indian corn, and probably for all crops.
There is reason, from actual trial, to believe that the effect on the land is per-
manent, lasting for several years."

CURIOSITIES OF THE PATENT OFFICE— AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

During the last year, 144 patents were granted for agricultural imple-
ments, twenty-seven of which were for harvesters, power-reapers, mowers,
&c. The following abstract of this interesting department of invention, as
exhibited in the Patent Eeport, is given in the Scientific American :

" Three patents were granted for horse-power potatoe-digging machines ;
the models of two of these we have seen, but have not yet had the pleasure
©f seeing a large one in operation. Fifteen patents were granted for improve-
ments in ploughs, and four for cultivators. No less than twenty-six were
granted for seed-planters. This number is very large, considering that such
machines are of no recent origin; it shows the importance of this class of
mechanics, and the dissatisfaction entertained with those already in use. The
devices patented, however, were mostly confined to the mode of distributing
the seed ; the novelties patented are said to be small, but that of B. D.
Sanders, of Holiday's Cove, Va., for operating the shove-rod to work the
valves by friction-rollers and rotary-cam, is a very good one. Three patents
were granted for horse-rakes, and threshers and separators ; one of the latter
consisted in having an inclined, rotary, cylindrical straw-carrier, supported on
friction-rollers. This cylinder is full of holes, and as the straw is carried, the
grain falls down through the openings. Ten patents were granted for huilers

NEW-YORK. — THE SEASON. 6tf

and smut-machines — one of them being for washing and scrubbing, and dry-
ing the grain. One patent was granted for a weigher combined with a win-
nower. The weighing apparatus is secured in such aiiiannerto the machine,
that when the measure is filled up to the proper weight, the balance tips the
weighed grain, which is thrown upon inclined ways, and immediately starts
off on a railroad track to the grain-depot. Four patents were granted for corn-
shellei-s ; in one the ears are allowed to accumulate, to act in the mass as as
elastic bed against the spiral shelling projections. Three patents were granted
for straw-cutters, and nine for miscellaneous agricultural implements, one of
them being for a metallic tube scythe-snatb."

NEW- YORK.— "THE SEASON."

New- York promises fine opportunities for affording gratification to the
thousands of visitors that are to visit the city the coming season.

The Crystal Palack stands in all its beautiful proportions and graceful
architecture, and within it offers a richer show than can be seen elsewhere
on the continent. It is true that some very rich goods are removed. It is
always with a degree of sadness that we pass the court so lately occupied by
our excellent friend, M. La Hoche, in whose goods we were more interested
than in those in any other part of the exhibition. The next court was orna-
mented by the Gobeline tapestries, which have also disappeared ; and on the
opposite side "of the nave the devotional face of St. John no longer captivates
us by its unrivalled artistic excellence. But a stranger finds all these sections
occupied with excellent wares. France does her next best, after the show of
M. La H. ; and for the Gobelines we have the best of Turkish goods. Powers' >
group of statuary is removed from beneath the dome ; but, while Pagani's
" Eve after the Fall" remains, the finest statue ever yet seen in this country is
within reach ; and though we miss " The Child's First Grief," " The Indus-
trious Girl" is there, and defies competition. But few pieces of statuary are
removed except those above-named. Of course this part of the show is still
very rich and extensive. The Picture Ctallery, to one not familiar with its
arrangement, would still appear undiminished in its attractions, though we
look in vain for not a few pictures which we have gazed upon so often with
undiminished pleasure. The Machine Arcade requires most labor to bring
it up to a standard that will compare at all with the abilities, and indeed with
the obligations of the country. We should like to devise some mode — through
the Patent Office, for example, by which exhibitors in this department should
be entitled to receive some especial privilege. Such, for instance, as priority
of examination — diminution of charges — or some other consideration that
should be effective in securing a satisfactory display of the extent and excel-
lence of American machines.

This exhibition will merit the attention of visitors for a long time to come,
and will no doubt excite even a more general notice than during the preceding
summer. (See notice on another page.)
_ McsicAL attractions will also, no doubt, be well and abundantly pro-
vided. We expect again to listen to the unrivalled strains of Madam Sontag
and her troupe, so univei-sally and so deservedly admired. New aspirants tor
public favor will also, no doubt, present themselves, while the various "Min-
strels" will continue to delight crowded houses as heretofore.

678 SCULPTORS AND SCULPTURE.

Magicians of different sorts. The unrivalled Blitz, who for years has
stood without an equal in his peculiar department, and who tells you that he
is deceiving you in each of his wonderful tricks, and the far less worthy spirit-
rappers, tippers, writers, et id omne gentis, who not only deceive many others,
but themselves too, while they constantly avow themselves no cheats at all, —
all these open their doors for all who will enter them. On the stage, little Eva
will still converse, with the wisdom of age, with the childlike Uncle Tom ; and
Wild Maggies be nightly transformed into devout and efKcieut ministers of
the truth. "The Elephant" will still be gazed upon, at Barnura's Museum,
while one of the most remarkable of all the wondrous things, is the manly
form of the industrious, persevering, and efficient owner of this great concern,
who, among the "intelligent," judicious, and business men of this great city,
has few equals and no superiors. Giants and dwarfs, lions, hyenas, and a
long list of curious animals, natives of other climes ; picture galleries, and
other exhibitions of kindred sorts ; the cemeteries, the libraries, the churches,
and other public buildings of the city; and, more glorious than all, the beau-
tiful scenery of the harbor of New- York, its shores almost covered with the
cities of Brooklyn, Williamsburgh, Jersey City, &c. All these will consume
a week or a month, as the circumstances of the traveller may permit.

The Latting Obskrvatorv gives an opportunity for obtaining a bird's-eye
view of the city, particularly in its upper half, which is not only extensive,
but minute, each street lying at your feet, like the block-town of the nursery,
while the North and East rivers, and even the harbor itself, are but narrow
strips in the great map you look upon.

Hence we expect great crowds among us in the months to come.

SCULPTORS AND SCULPTURE.

We purpose to give our readers a somewhat extended view of this sub-
ject, in the months to come, and begin with Grecian art. We are moved to
this, not only by the fact that Mrs. Lee, in her book noticed in another page,
has given us peculiar facilities for such service, but also to qualify our readers
for enjoying such treats as they have had, and may again have, at the Boston
Athenteum and the Crystal Palace, and also in travels abroad. An untutored
sailor would enjoy a bold figure-head as well as Pagani's Eve. It requires
culture to be interested in the fine arts.

Phidias was born at Athens 488 years before Christ. His first attempts
were under the immediate influence of Homer's poems. He amused himself
with imitations of insects and fishes, so perfect that it used to be said, " Give
them water and they will swim."

The Parthenon is the work of Phidias, who was eminent in geometry, etc.,
as well as in painting. This superb structure was of white marble, 2*70 feet
in length and 98 in breadth, supported by 46 fluted pillars of the Doric order,
8 being at each front and 15 on each s^ide, and each 42 feet in height and 1*7
in circumference. The pediments of the fronts were ornamented with nume-
rous statues, larger than life and of admirable workmanship. Basso-relievos,
of admirable design and workmanship, were also added to other embellish-
ment.-. In the interior of the building was the noblest work of Phidias, the
ohrysoliphantino figure of Minerva. The eyes of the statue were of precious

SCULPTORS AND SCULPTURE.

67©

stones, that changed their lustre with the changing rays of hght, seeming
almost like emotion of soul. The robe of vestment was entirely of gold.
The face, neck, and nude parts, of ivory ; the segis, the helmet on her head,
the drapery, and the wings of the figure of Victory, which she held in her
left hand, were all of burnished gold. The statue of the goddess measured
27 cubits, or 39 feet 1 inches, in height. It stood in the centre of the tem-

Phidias had previously produced a statue of Pallas, in bronze, a branch of
art which he brought to perfection. This statue was placed on the acropolis,
representing a guardian deity. So lofty was her height, that voyagers who
rounded Cape Sunium, beheld her crested helmet and pointed spear above
the battlements of the city. ^ .

The works of Phidias are arranged in distinct classes, — those ot mixed ma-
terials, ivory and gold, bronze and marble. He also worked in clay, wood,
and plaster.

The most celebrated of all his works was his Jupiter. He was seated on
a throne, which, Hke the statue, was of ivory and gold. He wore a crown
upon his'head, in imitation of a wreath of olive. In his right hand was a
sceptre of curious and exquisite workmanship, on the top of which was an
eao-le, composed of various kinds of metals. The robe and sandals of the
figure were of gold. The throne was variegated with gold and precious
stones, and inlaid with ivory. Four figures of Victory were represented at
the foot of the throne. Other figures stood at the feet of Jupiter, which is
supposed to have been sixty feet high.

Mrs. Siddons was so overcome by viewing one of the groups ot female
statues bv Phidias, as actually to shed tears ; and Mr. West, in speaking of a
horse, says, " Would not one almost suppose that some magic power, rather
than a human hand, had turned the head into stone, at the moment when
the horse was in all the energies of his nature?" We feel the same, when
we view the young equestrian Athenians ; and in observing them, we are
insensibly carried on with the impression that they and their horses actually
existed, and we see them at the instant when they were converted into mar-
ble. While it is the fashion to doubt the genuineness of all ancient works of
art, the works of Phidias are undoubted, and stand out from all others in
unrivalled and unquestioned excellence and originality.

Phidias was as remarkable for his integrity as for his skill. But he was
obliged to endure the persecution of enemies and rivals, and fell at last a
victim to their accusations in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Having suy-
rendered himself as a prisoner, awaiting the trial that should prove his inno-
cence, he died in prison, and perhaps by poison.

Pericles, Plato, Socrates, Alcibiades, and Asphexia, Protagoras, Zeno,
Anaxagoras, etc., are among the renowned characters of history who were
contemporaries, and many of them friends, of this great artist.

Alcamenes and Agoracritus were pupils of Phidias, and they, with Poly-
cletus, a cotemporary, formed what is called the "canon," fromwhich all suc-
ceeding artists borrowed their proportions. Ctesilaus was a rival artist, and
to him, erroneously, it is said, has been attributed the celebrated " Dying
Gladiator."

In the Boston Athenanim are to be seen the Head of Jupiter, by Phidias;
the Apollo, the Venus de Medici, and other casts of the antique.^

The most celebrated works of Agoracritus were the statues of two youths,
the Diadumenus and the Doryphorus.

Naucides, Lysippus, Scopas' etc., were also coteniporaries with Phidias. To

€80 SCULPTORS AND SCULPTURE.

Seopas was attributed the group, Niobe and her children, one of the finest
studies of ancient art. He represents them as pierced by the arrows of
Apollo. The originals are in the Gallery of Florence.

Winkelmann allots three epochs to sculpture. The style hard and stern ;
the style great and strongly marked ; the style graceful and flowing. The
first lasted to Phidias; the second to' Praxiteles, Lysippus, and Scopa?, the
first of whom commenced the third epoch.

Praxiteles was born about 364 years before Christ. The place of his birth
is uncertain. Some contend that he was born at Cnidus, perhaps on account
of his beautiful statue of the Venus of Cnidus. There is a copy of this
Venus, drawn by Flaxman.

The youthful mind of Praxiteles was kindled by the noble works of Phi-
dias. It has been said that art has not attained, and can not attain, any
higher excellence than Praxiteles gave to it ; and whether this is true or not,
it is at least a sentiment highly commendatory of this ancient sculptor. But
few of his works remain. The Faun, the Thespian Cupid in the Capitol, the
Apollo with a lizard, command the admiration of the uninitiated as well as
the scientific.

Lysippus was cotemporary with Praxiteles, and was born at Sicion. He
was originally a brazier. His chief works were in bronze ; his Tarentine Jupi-
ter, 60 feet high, and his twenty-one equestrian statues of Alexander's body-
guards, were held in the highest estimation. So great was his reputation,
that centuries after him, an attempt to remove one of his statues from the
public baths, occasioned an insurrection which made even Tiberius tremble.
Of six hundred works attributed to Lysippus, not one remains.

Chares. — The famous Colossus of Rhodes is attributed to Chares of Lin-
dus. This immense work is too well known to require a description. But
finding that the sum granted to him was utterly inadequate to complete the
work, in a fit of insanity he committed suicide. The statue was completed
by Laches, a fellow-eountrjiman and a celebrated artist.

The famous group Laocoon, found in the baths of Titus in 1506, is sup-
posed to have been executed during the period we have been considering,
and to be the united work of the preceding artists, as also many of the
antique marbles. So also is the Amazon of the Vatican, but its author is
unknown. The Knife-grinder at Florence, called by the Italians, " II Rota-
tore," is much admired. Silenus and the Infant Bacchus, and Hercules in
Repose, by Glycon, belong in this catalogue. The celebrated Venus de
Medici, in the Florence Gallery, and which is thought to have been suggested
by the great Venus of Praxiteles, is represented as landing on the shores of
Cythera. As early as the 16th century, it was placed in the gardens of the
Medici at Rome, and was carried to Florence in 1680. Napoleon sent it to
Paris. In 1815 it wtxs returned to Italy.

During forty-five years after the death of Alexander, the schools of Lysip-
pus and Praxiteles maintained their rank. But after their death, original
works of magnitude were not produced, and, according to Pliny, sculpture
lay dormant a hundred and twenty years.

The singular notions entertained by the unenlightened in reference to works
of art, are well illustrated by an anecdote given by Mrs. Lee. The Etrurians
highly valued a certain picture of Bacchus, and did not conceal their anxiety
when the Roman soldiers, their conquerors, had converted it into a table.
The Romans concluded that gold must be concealed in it, and the Roman
General gave it to the keeping of a common messenger, charging him to de-
liver it safe, under pain of being obliged to paint another equally good.

CONSUMPTION OF FORErGN GOODS. 681

Tlie Etrurians, who properly regarded these Romans as barbarians, inha-
bited the countries now known as Tuscany and Florence, which still excel,
not only in painting and sculpture, but also in architecture and other kindred
arts.

The Augustan age, so notable in Roman history, was not the age of the
fine arts. During this period, all their eminent sculptors were Greeks. It
was the age of war and conquest, not of the arts. Their sculptures were ob-
tained from conquered enemies. Augustus favored them, but he did not
revive them. Tiberius, his successor, had no regard for them. Caligula
eollected statues from Greece, and ordered that the Jupiter of Phidias
should be brought to Rome ; but, as this could not be accomplished, he
consoled, himself by placing his own head upon one of the beautiful Grecian
statues. This was decapitated for that purpose. But it was not till the
reigns of Vespasian, Trajan, and Adrian, that the arts can be said to have
had a home in Rome. Trajan's Column, which stood in the centre of the
square of the Forum, is well known. The Head of Antinous, which was
found at Tivoli, where stood the house of Adrian, is now in the ]5oston
Athenseum. But under the reign of Commodus, the love of the arts almost
totally disappeared. The Arch of Severus is a poor imitation of more ancient
works.

In the eleventh century, Germany oiitstripped all other countries in their
regard for works of art. Statues were executed at Aix-la-Chapelle, by order
of Charlemagne; German artists practised in Italy, Spain, and France.
Nicholas of Pisa, about 1250, introduced improvements, and formed the first
school of sculpture for modern Europe. In 1350 his grandson, Andrea
Pisano, established the first academy of design at Florence, and before the
olose of the century sculpture had become a national art.

CONSUMPTION OF FOREIGN GOODS.

The following table gives the amount of the several kinds of goods entered
for consumption, at the port of New- York, in 1S53, and which passed from
tte warehouse into consumption :

Cotton, ------ $27,357,550

Silk, .-.--. 33,315,116

Flax, 8,446,208

Miscellaneous dry goods, - - - 5,742,018

Total entered for consumption, - $90,530,782

SUPPLY OF COTTON.

The New-York Journal of Commerce shows the distribution of the cotttn
supply for the last ten years, expressed by per centage. For 1852-3 it is as
follows :

Total supply, crop and stock, - - - 3,354,058
Great Britaia, - - - - 51.78
France, .... 12.72

North of Europe, - - - 5.10

Other foreign ports, - - 5.77

United States, ... - 20.59
Burnt, and stock on hand, - - 4.04

682

IRON MANUFACTURE.

IRON MANUFACTURE.

We pursue our general account of the various steps in the process of
manufacturing iron from the ore. We have shown the different processes
for the production of pigs and blooms. It next becomes us to show the use
made of the latter. T3ut before we go further in that direction, we will give the
reader a view of another process by which the pig is converted into a bloom.
This is by what are termed Squeezers, When the pig-metal is suflSciently
boiled and worked in the puddlingfurnace, it is rolled into a compact ball,
and hastily borne, in huge pincers, to the squeezer. One form of this ma-

Fii^. 1.

chine is given in figure 1. The ball being placed in its jaw at d, is pressed
at every revolution of the wheel, by the crank on its axis, the meta! being
still held in the pincers, and turned as it may require. The impurities which
it contains are thus worked out, and the metal becomes solid and compact,
and is a " bloom."

Fig. 2.

'^^

IRON MANUFACTURE.

Burdon's Rotary Squeezer (fig. 2) is a more efficient machine for ac-
complishing this result. It is an American invention. The stationary part
of this powerful engine is represented at a «, and consists of a cast-iron cloak,
which iDcloses the movable pans b h h. An eccentric space is thus left be-
tween the main partes, in which ihe melted pig is formed into a bloom. The
ball is inserted between a and 5, and moved through nearly an entire revo-
lution of the squeezer, and comes out on the other side of the opening a
bloom. A few minutes will suffice to work off a heat of 800 lbs. This
squeezer is coming into very extensive use, rapidly superseding all others.

The bloom is already in the condition of wrought iron, but in a form wholly
impracticable for the use of the smith. Hence the manufacturer changes its
condition in this respect, by means of Rollers. These are of various
models and for various ends. One is called the Flat Roller, and is exhi-
bited in figure 3.

Fig. 8.

This engraving illustrates and explains itself. The rollers are about 14
inches from centre to centre. The gioove marked a is the finishing groove,
and is 4 inches wide and f of an inch thick. The next groove is 1-J inches
high and about 3^ wide. The third is If by 3f , then 2|- by 3f , and the
last 3|- by 3|. The other Iialf of the roller may be arranged for bars of dif-
ferent dimensions.

Another is for Railroad Ikon, of whieh ;i representation is given in

figure 4. It shows the gradual formation of the T rail from the square bil-
let. It is first received into the left-hand groove, or No. 1, then No. 2, and
so on. The first t'lp^e work out both flanges to a certain extent, but leave

684

IRON MANUFACTURE.

tbem imperfect; the fourth presses the top and bottom smooth, and improves
the bottom flanch. Nos. 5 and 6 finish the rail.

This is very heavy work, and requires the aid of machinery. Chains are
suspended from sliding pulloys, fixed over the heads of the operatives, to
which huge tongs are afifixed. These are guided by the workmen, who con-
duct them to the groove, while the hut metal is seized by the rollers and car-
ried through them. When the rail appear.:; on the other side, another
set of men, with similar mjichinery, grasp it and return it through the next
groove.

„ Having thus secured the proper shape to the railroad bar, its length and
the shape of its ends require attention. Figure 5 represents a sawing appa-
ratus, by which these changes are produced.

FiBT. s.

Fig. 0.

The saws are circular, and are put in motion by the belts at a. But one
end of the rail is cut at a time ; that being finished, the other end is drawn
under the saw and cut in a similar manner" The rail is then straightened ;
after which it is ready for the market.

The next engraving represents a roller tor (Lo manufacture of sheet-iron.

After leaving the rollers above de-
scribed, if it is intended for broad
sheets, it is passed through those
represented in figure 6. If it is
dei=^igned for small round or square
bars, rollers are used like those re-
{> resented in figure 7.

The iron intended for sheets
must first be formed into flat bars.
Such was not always the practice.
The sheets, in ancient times, were
flattened out by forge-hammers,
ai.'d afterward smoothed by small-
er hammers, on the anvil. In
sonio parts of Euro[>e, where labor
is very cheap, this practice still
prevails.

In the '■'■Locomotive Sketches"
it is stated "at this time, (1854,)
there are probably not less thaw
$15,000,000 invested in the production of iron in the vState of Pennsylvania,
aKclusivc (.f about S6,000,000 invested in rolliug-milis, and similar works for
the convtision of the metal into forms for use. The number of persons em-
ployed in mining the anthracite and iron ore i.s alK)ut 5000, iis making the

CORRUGATED IRON PLATES.

685

charcoal about 15,000, and the number of persons dependent on this descrip-
tion of labor about TOjOOO ; the number of those engaged in the conversion
of pig-iron, 90,000*, and the population connected with the production of

V\vV

iron, 100,000, making a total of 280,000 in that one State. This estimate
does not include those engaged in its transportation, sale, &c.

We are indebted for our engravings in this and the former article on this-
subject, to our friend, Mr. Smith, publisher of the book so often referred to.

CORRUGATED IRON PLATKS.

In this invention it is claimed that rolling the iron in small cui'ves or
arches, instead of planes, gives it largely increased strength. The inventor,
Mr. Richard Montiromerv, thus describes his invention and various tests to
which it has been put :

"The boiler-plate now in use is rolled in planes. This invention consists in
the employment of corrugated plates of metal in the construction of cylin-
drical flues, curved fire-arches, and curved shells of boilers. The plates are
rolled into curves or arches. The roll is so constructed as to leave a margin
or flange on each of the four sides of the plate, for punching and riveting.

The simplicity of the invention is evident. It borrows from the science of
architecture the 2}rinci2)Ie of the arch, and impresses it upon the manufac-
tured iron, and thus imparts to shells of iron, rolled into this new form, a
strength at least ten times greater than that possessed by plates at present in
use. It is* equivalent to the discovery of a new metal of increased strength.

The ' corrugated boiler-plate' is intended to be used in the constriction
of all forms of boilers, flues, and locomotives. The following are some of its
manifest advantages :

Various tests have been applied to the corrugated iron in New- York and
elsewhere. In New-York, the test was as follows ; Four strips of boiler-iron
were used, one fourth of an inch thick, 7 feet 11 inches in length; tioo of
them were bent in the form of an arch in the direction of their length, the
remaining two strips were corrugated by passing them through the luliers of
the required shape, the rise of each corrugation being one inch. The curved
ribs were placed in pairs, side by side, and weighed with pig-iron. The first
pair, consisting of plain iron, yielded with a pressure of 3126 lbs. ; the pair
of corrugated strips were loaded with 16,094 lbs., and afterward with 27,000
lbs., without any perceptible deflection. The subscriber prepared in New-

VOL, VT. — PART II. 20

686 GUTTA PERCHA — ITS NATURE, USES, ETC.

York a boiler six feet long. The flue was made of plain boiler-plate one
quarter of an inch thick, and nine inches in diameter ; the outer shell was
made of corrugated iron one eighth of an inch thick, and 20 inches in
diameter. Hydraulic pressure was applied to the boiler and Ihejlue collapsed,
without affecting the thin outer shell of corrugated metal.

In addition, it is charged that about 30 per cent, is saved in the construc-
tion of boilers with the corrugated j)lates, besides a great saving in space,
about 8 feet in 30. The corrugated boiler also presents one third more fire-
surface than the present boiler. The advantages claimed for this discovery
are, greater strength, safety to life, economy of space, economy of expense,
economy of fuel, less draught of boats, detection of defects in iron, greater
generation of steam, durability, economy of repairs, and increased diameter
of flues and boilers."

GUTTA PERCHA— ITS NATURE, USES, ETC.

GuTTA Percha, the Malayan term given to a concrete juice taken from
the Isonandra Gutta tree, is indigenous to all the islands of the Indian Archi-
pelago, and especially to the Malayan Peninsula, Borneo, Ceylon, and their
neighborhoods, in which are found immense forests of this tree, all yielding
this product in great abundance. Its fruit contains a concrete edible oil,
which is used by the natives with their food. The gutta, or juice, circulates
between the bark and wood of the tree, in veins whose course is distinctly
marked by black longitudinal lines. The natives were formerly in the habit
of peeling the tree when they required a supply, but have been taught by
experience that the juice can be obtained by cutting notches at intervals in
the trunk, and thus preserve the tree for future tappings, as our maples for
successive years yield their sap to the sugar manufacturers. The juice con-
sohdates in a few minutes after it is collected, when it is formed by hand into
compact oblong masses of from seven to twelve or eighteen inches in length,
by four to six inches in thickness, and these, when properly dried, are what
is known as the Gutta Percha of commerce.

It is only ten years since the knowledge of the existence of this ductile
secretion dawned upon the world. Dr. Montgomerie, an assistant-surgeon at
Singapore, observed in the possession of a native the handle of a wood-chop-
per, of such singular material that it awakened his attention, and, on inquiry
and examination, he found it to have been made of the juice of this strange
tree, becoming plastic when dipped in hot water, and when cold resuming its
original stiffness and rigidity. Within these few years, the exudations of
these dense forests have assumed, more especially in England, innumerable
forms.

The gutta percha of commerce is of a light-brown color, exhibiting a
fibrous appearance, much like the inner coating of the white-oak bark, and is
without elasticity. When purified of its woody and earthy substance, it
becomes hard, like horn, and is extremely tenacious ; indeed its tenacity is
wonderful.

The strength of tubes of this material is so great that no visible effect was
produced upon them by the proving-pumpof the Water Company of the city
of Stirling, in Scotland, which gives more pressure than any other pump in
Great Britain — a pressure that would scatter the rivets of leather-hose in alt
directions.

GUTTA PERCHA — ITS NATURE, USES, ETC. 687

The application of heat to the crude material makes it soft and plastic, and
in a temperature of about two hundred degrees it becomes ductile, when it
can be moulded into any desired shape, which it retains when cool. It can
be dissslved by sulphuret of carbon, or chloroform, or if immersed for a time
in spirits of turpentine. It is a repellant of, and completely unaffected by,
eold water, and, unlike India rubber, it resists the action of oil and other fatty
substances without injury. It is a non-conductor of electricity ; is proof
against alkalies and acids, being only affected by the sulphuric and nitric,
in a highly concentrated state, while the most powerful acetic, hydrofluoric,
or muriatic acids, or chlorine, have no perceptible effect upon its structure or
capabilities. This gum has qualities entirely different from India rubber. It
can not be worn out. It can be melted and re-melted, and repeatedly re-
moulded without changing its properties for manufacture, or losing its virtue.
It is lighter than rubber, of finer grain, and possesses certain repellant proper-
ties unknown to that material ; and is extremely tough. It disregards frost,
and displays remarkable acoustic qualities.

In its crude state, gutta percha has no resemblance whatever to India rub-
ber in appearance, nor are its chemical or mechanical properties the same,
nor does the tree from which it is taken belong to the same family, or grow
in the same latitude or soil ; yet, from the fact that it can be dissolved, and
wrought into water-proof wares, many, not informed on the subject, have in-
clined to the belief that the two materials are substantially the same, and that
a process for the manufacture of one would apply equally well to the manu-
facture of the other. But nothing could be more erroiaeous, as may be seen
by the following comparisons :

Gutta percha, when immersed in boiling water, contracts considerably in
bulk. India rubber, when immersed in boiling water, expands very materially,
and increases in bulk.

Gutta-percha juice is of a dark-brown color, and consolidates in a few
moments after exuding from the tree, when it becomes about as hard as
wood. India-rubber sap is perfectly white, and of the consistency of thick
cream. When it coagulates, it gives from four to six parts water out of ten.
It may be kept like milk, and is frequently drank by the natives.

Gutta percha, first treated with water, alcohol, and then dissolved with
spirits of turpentine and precipitated, yields a substance consistent with the
common properties of gutta percha. India rubber, similarly treated, results
in a substance resembling in appearance the gum arable.

Gutta percha, by distillation, yields 57 2-3 per cent, of volatile matter.
India rubber, by the same process, yields 85 3-4 per cent.

Gutta percha, in its crude state, or in combination with other materials,
may be heated and re-heated to the consistency of thin paste, without injury
to its future manufacture. India rubber, if but once treated in the same man-
ner, will be destroyed and unfit for future use.

Gutta percha is not decomposed by fatty substance ; indeed, one applica-
tion of it is for oil vessels. India rubber is soon deconjposed by coming in
contact with fatty substance, as is well known.

Gutta percha is a non-conductor of cold, heat, and electricity, and, in its
natural state, is non-elastic, and with little or no flexibility. India rubber, on
t-he contrary, is a conductor of heat, cold, and electricity, and by nature highly
elastic and flexible.

The specific gravity of gutta percha is much less than that of India rub-
ber— in the proportion of one hundred to one hundred and fifty — and it
is much finer in quality, and a far better conductor of sound.

(588 SELF-MADE MEN.

Fabrics wrought of India rubber require a separate varnisb to give them
polish. But the gutta percha possesses a nature of inherent polish, equal in
lustre to the varnish, and permanent.

From its first appearance in Europe up to the present time, all writei-s upon
the subject have spoken of gutta percha as certain to become a most import-
ant article in the mechanic art; but its manufacture everywhere presented
the same objections that existed from the beginning, namely, non-elasticity
and rigidity, variableness and extreme sensibility to heat and cold — so that,
for a great number of articles, the trade has diminished rather than in-
creased.

Numerous attempts were made, up to the year 1850, to obviate the ob-
jections to gutta-percha goods, as then manufactured. Eminent chemists,
through several years, toiled in vain for the secret which they believed to
exist, which would endow gutta percha with permanent elastic qualities. For
it was discovered that if this hidden secret could be unlocked, and the art
discovered of superadding pliability, in the strange capabilities this wonderful
gum already possessed, the already extensive range of its uses would be inde-
finitely enlarged. But the attempts were signal failures.

A final attempt, however, based upon a series of novel experiments, wholly
of original character, by Mr. William Rider, of the firm of Rider & Brothers,
of this city, and brothers Emory and John Rider, resulted in the astounding
discovery of a process of vulcanization, by which gutta percha was made per-
manently elastic and flexible, like India rubber, contrary to the conclusioa of
all other experiments, in this country and Europe.

No time was lost in making application for letters patent, which were
granted.

Under this discoveiy, gutta percha, which before was a fibrous, non-elastic
and horny material, and affected by the changes of climate, is converted into
pliable and elastic fabrics, which remain the same under all changes of cli-
mate, is not injured by acids or fatty substances, is free from offensive smell,
and, unlike India rubber, does not decompose and get sticky. With such
advantages, this invention must prove one of vast importance in the arts.

S E ]. F - M A D E MEN.

It is one of the most pleasing features of the genius of our government,
that it opens a wide door for individual progress in the various professions
and occupations in which our vast population are engaged. The man who
■wills it, has it in his power to arrive at almost any eminence, whether in pro-
fessional life, or in those pursuits in which the physical prevail over the men-
tal energies. Hence it is that our nation has had and will continue to have
so many self-made'men whose career affords strong motives of encouragement
to American youth who are rapidly crowding upon the stage of action.
Every populous town in our country can point to some one of its number
who has risen from obscurity to a position that now makes his name familiar
with every public enterprise connected with the growth of his town, village,
or city. Boston has had its Billy Gray, New-York its John Jacob Astor, and
Philadelphia its Stephen Girard — men who began the world with nothing
but their native energies, yet whose names will long be connected with these

BABY-SHOW IN GEORGIA. 689

cities frem the institutions to which they gave rise while living, and with
which their names will be associated down to the latest period of time.

We have been led to these remarks from a description, in one of the popu-
lar Philadelphia magazines, of an establishment which is attracting much
attention both in that city and elsewhere, whose proprietor, according to the
journal in question, began life with comparatively nothing, but whose esta-
blishoBGnt now exceeds any thing of the kind in that city, and who bids fair,
at no distant day, to be ranked as one of the most successful business men of
the country.

Charles Oakford, according to the authority already quoted, commenced
the hatting-business in Philadelphia twenty-five years since, with a capital of
five dollars. _ His stock of course was limited, his store small, but he devoted
himself untiringly to his business, and many times wa.s seen trundling his
own wheelbarrow through the streets, a feat which many young men at the
present day would hardly be willing to perform. A few ye^rs found his place
too small for him, and he moved ; and in a few years longer he moved again,
and again, and yet again, until now he occupies one of the largest and most
princely establishments in Chestnut street. His present store is the middle
one of three, planned by himself, and built with the fruits of his own industry,
after successfully toiling a quarter of a century. Its number is 158, and it
attracts the attention of many a passer-by, from the magnificence and splen-
dor of its finish, no less than from the exeellent hats, for the manufacture of
Avhich Oakford has become so deservedly renowned.

Charles Oakford is an example, in point, of the principle which we laid
down in the commencement of this article. His career, like that of many
other self-mad« men, is full of encouragement to the energetic and industrious
youth of our country. Success will surely attend him who laboi-s for it, re-
warding him abundantly for his enterprise and perseverance.

Baby-Show m Georgia.— The following are among the premiums to be
awarded at the Southern Central Agricultural Association, for the "handsomest
and tinest" specimen of babies. We give this timely notice, that those who
may find themselves able to comply with the conditions above annexed, may
get ready for this great show of infantile humanity which is to come off next
fall :

First Premium.— 'SiWyqv pitcher $50, for the handsomest and finest babe two
years old.

Second Frejnium.— Silver pitcher, $25, for the handsomest and finest babe one
year old.

Third PrmiMm.— Silver goblet, $10, for the handsomest and finest babe six
months old.

The children to be clothed in domestic fabrics ; the premiums to be awarded
under the direction of the executive committee.

We mast confess that this and one or two other similar notices, look to us
like gomg beyond the legitimate limits of an agricultural society. Do they
expect to improvQtJieireed ?

If these societies will give a premium for the best-disciplined family, for the
daughter best instructed in the duties of the head of a family, a boy best imbued
with good principles and devoted to good practices— if they will by premiums '
or HONOEABLU MENTION, commend instances of unwavering filial obedience, or of
PAEENTAL FIDELITY, the nation may have substantial cause to rejoice. It might
be a noUce of an early dismissal of thousands of policemen and other peace-
othcers. '

690 EDITOBS' JOTTINGS, ETC.

EDITOES' JOTTINGS AND MECHANICAL RECORD.

Gejtekal Agenot. — The pablislier of The Plough, the Loom^ and the Anvil,
believing it in his power to be of essential service to the readers of that journal
la the purchase or sale of various articles, and the transaction of various kinds of
business, would announce to them that he is ready to execute any such conamis-
sion which he may receive, including the purchase of books of any description,
inaplements connected with agricultural, manufacturing, or mechanical opera-
tions; artificial manures; farm and garden seeds, &c., &c. One of the gentle-
men connected with the journal is a proficient in music, and experienced in the
selection of piano-fortes, flutes, &c., and will execute orders in that department.

He will also act as agent in the purchase and sale of Real Estate.

^M° Particular attention to business connected with the Patent Office.

Letters of inquiisy on these matters will be promptly attended to.

A MONUMENT TO JOHN S. SKINNER, ESQ.

A DONATION TO HIS WIDOW.

A Special Appeal to oub Readers. — The attentive reader of The Plitugh,
the Loom, and the Anvil, has observed occasional paragraphs on the subject which
heads this article. Our last number contained the action of the United States
Agricultural Society in relation to the matter, including the resolutiou in wliich
the object was recommended to the favorable consideration of the agricultural
community throughout the United States. An event of recent occurrence has
induced the friends of the measure to couple with the movement a donation to
Mrs. Skinner. The particular circumstance which led to this measure, is best
stated in the following extract from an appeal issued in behalf of the object, by
a committee whom we will presently introduce to our readers :]

" Our deceased friend had but few of this world's goods in possession at the
time of his death, and those who had been dependent upon him during his so-
journ upon earth were, in a measure, thrown upon the charities of a cold world.
His estimable widow found a residence in the family of her beloved mother,
■whose decease, on the l7th of February last, at the advanced age of eighty-four
years, has deprived Mrs. Skinner of a home, and has entirely frustrated all her
plans for the future, A proposition was before the Maryland State Agricultural
Society, soon after the decease of Col. Skinner, to raise five thousand dollars as
a donation to Mrs. Skinner, which was received with much favor, but was never
successfully prosecuted. It has been earnestly recommended that the raising of
this amount for Mrs. Skinner, be united with the one thousand proposed to be
raised for the monument, especially since the death of Mrs. Bland, the mother
of Mrs. Skinner, has left Mrs. S. in circumstances of destitution."

It will be perceived that the whole amount proposed to be raised for the two
objects is six thousand dollars, to wit : one thousand for the block to be placed
in the National Washington Monument, and five thousand as a donation to Mrs.
Skinner.

The following gentlemen are the acting committee for bringing these objects
before the American public: Henry C. Carey, Esq., Chairman; the venerable
GEO. WASHINGTON PARK CIJSTIS, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, Presi-
dent of the U. S. Agricultural Society; Hon. James M. Porter, President
of the Corporate Council of Easton, Pa.; Dr. M. W. Phillips, a distinguished
planter and farmer in Edwards, Miss.; Lewis G. Morris, Esq., ex-President of
the N. Y. State Agricultural Society; Roswell C. Colt, E?q., of Paterson, N. J.,
a distinguished importer and breeder of stock ; Hon. Allen Trimble, ex-Governor
of Ohio ; Dr. Alfred Langdon Elwjn, President of the Pennsylvania Agricul-

I editors' jottings, etc. 691

tural Society; Peter A. Browne, LL.D., of Philadelphia; Hob. W. M. Meredith,
late Secretary of the Treasury ; C. M. Saxton, Esq., the extensive Agricultural
book-publisher of New-York; G. Blight Browne, Esq., es-President of the
Montgomery County (Pa.) Agricultural Society ; Benj. Perley Poore, Esq.. of
the Indian-Hill farm, and member of the Ex. Com. of the U. S. Agr.Soc. ; J. D.
B. De Bow, Esq., of the Census Office, Washington, and Editor of De Bow's Re-
view; David S. Brown, Esq., merchant, and President of the Philadelphia Board
of Trade ; Hon. John Perkins, Jr., Member of Congress from Louisiana; Saml.
Sands, Esq., Editor of the American Farmer, and Secretary of the Maryland
State Agricultural Society ; D. Jay Browne, Esq., author of the American
Muck Book, and Head of the Agricultural Department of the Patent Office,
Washington; Aaron Clement, Esq., agent for the sale of stock, Philadelphia;
Hon, A. G. Brown, ex-Governor of Mississippi, and Senator from that State ;
David Landreth, Esq., proprietor of the extensive farm and garden-seed store,
Philadelphia; H. D, C. Wright, Esq., merchant of Baltimore: Major John
Jones, of Delaware, member of the Executive Committee of the U. S. Agricul-
tural Society ; Dr. J. W. Thomson, ex-President, and Chauncey P. Holcomb,
Esq., President of the Delaware State Agricultural Society.

In an appeal recently issued in behalf of these object?, the committee use tbe
following language;

" The committee are anxious that you should act as promptly as possible in
ibis matter, as they wish to place the block in the hands of an artisan as soon as
they can be assured of the necessary funds to warrant them in giving the order.
Tbe work on the National Monument at Washington, which has been suspended
during the cold weather, is now resumed. The committee earnestly desire that
the block to the memory of our deceased friend may have a conspicuous position
in that stupendous pile, that the millions who shall visit it in ages to come may
be reminded of John Stuart Skinner, the distinguished friend and patron of the
Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Mechanic Arts in America. They confidently
hope that you, dear sir, will not only be hberal, but prompt, in responding to
this appeal. Shall these objects be accomplished ? Shall a block, which shall
perpetuate the memory of a great, because a useful man, be placed in the Wash-
ington National Monument, and the widow's heart be made to rejoice in the re-
ceipt of a donation which shall relieve her from temporal anxiety the residue of
her days ? The committee are unwilling to believe that objects so worthy, and
which commend themselves so earnestly to every feeling heart, shall be suflered
to fail for want of the very small amount which they ask each individual to con-
tribute. They ii;ake this appeal to every planter, farmer, merchant, manufac-
turer, mechanic, artisan, horticulturist, and professional man ; for John S.
Skinner was the friend and patron of all these promoters of our country's pros-
perity and greatness. It is expected that the personal friends of the deceased
will exert themselves in eifecting tbe objects contemplated by the committee."

The very small amount which they ask each individual to contribute, is the
price of one year's subscription to The Phngh, the Loom, and the Anvil, for
which the donor shall receive that work one year from the commencement of
the volume beginning with the July number, and containing a partrait of Mr.
Skinner, engraved from a daguerreotype taken a few days before his death, with
a Biographical Sketch, written by Benjamin Perley Poore, Esq., from materials
furnished by Mr. Skinner himself a few days before the close of his eventful life.
The number for July will contain the Portrait and Sketch, and the number for
June, 1855, being the last number of the volume, will contain an engraving of
tbe Monument, the inscription, names, and post-office address of donors, final
report of the committee, and every thing of interest connected with tke move-
ment.

The committee have made an arrangement with the publisher, by which any
person not now a subscriber, who contributes the price of one year's subscription
to The Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil, may, if he request it, receive that work
one year from July next, while one half thus contributed goes to the objects
contemplated by the committee. They thus state their reasons for tbis arrange-
ment :

692 editors' jottings, etc.

1. Every donor,' by this arrangement, receives the full value of the money con-
tributed, in the monthly journal, which will be sent to his address one year from
July, 1854, making a volume of the choicest agricultural, mechanical, and mann-
facturing reading matter, of 768 pages.

2. This arrangement secures to each donor a life-like portrait and biographi-
cal sketch of Col. Skinner, which every one, it is preswined, would be glad to
possess.

It will be perceived that six thousand subscribers on the foregoing plan,
would give the committee the six thousand dollars cesired for the monument
and donation to Mrs. Skinner, while each subsciiber will receive back the
full value of his subscription in the yearly volume of The Plough, the Loom, and
the Awsil. Tims will each donor aid in the sxicccsslul accomplishment of the
praiseworthy objects undertaken by the committe*;', and at the same time receive
a full equivalent for the money he contributes.

We believe our readers have it in their power lo raise, by this means, the full
amount of money required by the committee foi- liie monument and donation to
Mrs. Skinner. Take the journal to your neiglibor who is a non-subscriber, tell
him that by contributing tlie price of one year' subscription, he aids in rearing
a monument to a useful man, makes the widow's heart rejoice, and secures to
himself a yearly volume of 768 pages of choici! reading matter.

The committee have desired the publisher to act as their agent in the move-
ment, and thus announce the subject in their published appeal:

"The committee request that letters and donations in behalf of this object
may be directed to Mykon Fincu, Esq., Office of The Plovgh, the Loom, and the
Anvily No, 9 Spruce street, New- York, whom they have constituted their agent
for that piirpose. The pages of that journal will contain statements, from time
to time, of the progress of the work, in addition to theTuU account which is to
be published in the last number ot the volume, beginning in J uly next, and
which is to be sent to each person contributing towards the object."

We confess to a feehng of pride in our desire to see these objects accomplished.
We should feel flattered, as the successor of Col. Skinner, if the whole amount
required could be raised by the present subscribers to iTie Plough, the Loom,
and the Anvil. And we repeat it, this could easily be done, if every subscriber
would take a lively personal interest in the subject, and send at least one name,
with a year's subscription, one half of which is to aid the committee in the fui*-
therance of these objects. Will each one of our subscribers devote an evening,
a^half day, or a whole day if need be, in behalf of these measures? Remember,
it is for the widow that we make this appeal, and the widow of one who has
done more than any man living to help forward those industrial pursuits in which
you arc all engaged. Let not this appeal be made in vain. While the subject
is fresh in your minds, seek some one who will contribute the requisite
amount, and forward it for that purpose ; or failing in this, contribute the money
yourselves, and let the journal be sent to some friend. But act promptly, with-
out any delay — act decidedly and energetically — act generously, and you shall
have the blessing of the widow and the widow's God! Need we say more to
insure a hearty response to this appeal ?

DEATH OF RICHARD C. THOMSON".

It is with no ordinary feelings of sorrow that we record the death of one well
known to our readers as the Philadelphia publisher of The Plough, the Loom,
and the Anvil, to wit: TJichard C. Thomson', Esq. Mr. Thompson was born in
the city of Philadelphia, and at the time of his death was about thirty-two years
of age. His father was a druggist, in Arch street, below Second, and Mr. Thom-
son's early years were passed in his father's store. He subsequently entered the
book-store of Carey & Hart, and became perfectly conversant with the book-
trade in all its various departments.

editors' jottings, etc. 6^3

Soon after the commencement of The Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil, he
«?ntereel the emploo^mentof Col. Skinner, and at his decease became his adminis-
trator. It was in this capacity that the writer first became acquainted with
him, in June, 1851, in negotiating tlie purchase of that work. After the sale
was effected, Mr. Thomson became associated with Henry Carey Baird, in the
book-trade, but continued to conduct the agency of 77ie Plough, the Loom, and
the Anvil, at Mr. Baird's store in Philadelphia. His avocation caused him to
make frequent visits to New-York, and what commenced with the writer as a
business acquaintance, soon ripened into the most intimate friendship.

His last visit to New- York was on the 8th and 9th days of March. Tlie wri-
ter parted with him at our ofUce in the afternoon of the 9th, he purposing to
return to Philadelphia in the evening train. He was too late, however, for the
train, and returning, took lodgings at a hotel until morning; and it was there,
as he informed the writer, thatT he took a cold which was the immediate cause
of his death. He said the sheets of his bed were damp, and he soon found him-
self chilled through and through, in which condition be remained some time
before going to sleep.

On returning home the next day, he found himself suffering with a severe
attack of the asthma, but, unwilling to yield to the disease, he continued iu the
store until Friday, the 17th of the month. The Avriter saw him at his house on
Wednesday, the 22d, at which time he stated the origin of his disease, attributing
it to the dampness of the sheets at his hotel, as already stated. There was no day
between the time of his taking to the house and his death, that he was not able to
be up and post his books, which he had taken home with him for that purpose.
The writer was in Philadelphia at the time, but the condition of Mr. Thomson
was so comfortable, that he did not deem it advisable to call on him again, before
being informed of his death.

On Wednesday evening, the 29th, he was apparently much easier, and his im-
mediate friends felt not the slightest uneasiness in relation to his recovery.
Early on the morning of Thursday, the 30th, his symptoms became more alarm-
ing, and his disease continued to increase in malignity until five o'clock, when
he ceased to breathe.

Onr friend was constitutionally predisposed for such a disease as the one that
finally removed him from earth. He had long had a consumjitivc cough, and it
was the opinion of his friends that he would finally die of that disease. There
was nothing in his case, however, before taking the cold, which indicated that
he might not live many years. His cough was not unusually severe at the time,
and his general health was good. It was the asthma, in its most malignant form,
that was the immediate cause of his death.

Mr. Thomson has left a wife, and a child two j'ears old, a mother and a sister,
beside a numerous circle of friends, to mourn his loss. In all the relations of
life he sustained an untarnished reputation, being an affectionate friend, a kind
husband, father, brother, and son. His death has caused a void to be felt in
many a heart, which it will not be easy to fill. To the writer he was like a
brother, warm in his attachments, and kind and obliging to a fault. He has
left behind him the savor of a good name, derived from the practice of those
virtues which, if cherished by the living, would deprive the dying hour of many
a sad reflection, and rob death of its terrors. His memory will long be cherished
by many who will mourn his loss, and by none more fondly nor more sincerely
than by him who has penned this hasty tribute to his excellence and worth.
^ ^ M. F.

Ceystal Palace. — This great exhibition has been closed for a few days to
•open on or about the first "of May, with a new inauguration and with large
invoices of goods just arrived from Europe, as well as others from thivS countiy.
A season of great popular favor now awaits this great industrial institution. Wo
can not doubt it. Make your calculations to see for yourself.

694 editors' jottings, etc.

The Crystal Palace. — American enterprise is about to acquire new laurela
under the reformed management of this great Exhibition. The former board
did as well as they could in the entire absence of experience, but the show
promises to be far better for the coming season than it has yet been. The
nation has already been honored, though at the cost of individual stockholders.
We trust that all will now receive benefit, corresponding with their interest in
the exhibition. We give below the principal part of the letter addressed by Mr.
Barnum to the directors. It will be read with interest by every man, woman,
and child in the country, who takes pleasure in exhibitions of the beautiful, or in
the prosperity of the country in these numerous departments of art.

After speaking of the successful progress of the etfort to raise $100,000, in its
behalf, by the sale of tickets, &c., he proceeds thus :

" I have directed, therefore, that the Exhibition, in view of its new character,
be temporarily closed on Saturday evening the 15th inst., to reopen with &
popular re'inauguration and appropriate ceremonies on the 4Tn of May nest,
the details of which will be furnished by the Committee of Arrangements,
Messrs. Horace Greeley, Charles Butler, John H. White, Edward Haight, and
P. T. Barnum.

The interval mentioned will afford a much needed opportunity for the recep-
tion and arrangement of a world of rare and beautiful articles that have recently
come consigned to us from Europe, as well as some exceedingly interesting
American and foreign specimens in machinery, manufacture, and general art,
that have awaited our determination to place the Crystal Palace among the
imperishable enterprises of the age and the nation.

The Dutch Government has just contributed a large and choice variety ot
singularly unique articles of luxury and use from Japan. They number about
one thousand, and can not but prove wonderfully attractive, as tending to throw
much light upon the peculiar habits of a reserved and extraordinary people.

Our Foreign Agent, Mr. Charles Buschek, advises us, that in consequence of the
unsettled state of the European Continent, the number of costly paintings and
valuable chefs cVmuvres in sculpture ready to be placed at our disposal is unusu-
ally great, and will be forwarded without delay now that every apprehension
that the Exhibition will be a transitory speculation has been disposed of. Ilis
report in relation to the more novel and elegant manufactures of Europe is
equally gratifying ; and I may add that arrangements are being perfected for
the purchase of a collection of admirable copies of all the celebrated statues of
the Antiques — a collection that, in itself, will present the highest claim to the-
popular taste and attention.

A perfectly correct and handsome model of Venice, covering about one
thousand square feet, and exhibiting every minute detail of that beautiful city,
in carved wood, from the reality itself, will also be added.

Several eminent Horticulturists have manifested a desire to embellish the
Crystal Palace with a profuse variety of uncommon plants and flowers. A
number of musical societies and bands have also intimated a wish to add, in
turn, their attractions to the popularity of the Exhibition. With all these,
suitable arrangements will be efl'ected.

The Committee, (consisting of Messrs. Mortimer Livingston, Wtitts Sherman,
Wm. Whettan, Wm. B. Dinsmore, and Charles H. Haswell,) appointed to solicit
our own citizens for fine-art contributions, find that but one feeling pervades all
classes of the people in reference to our undertaking. All seem to manifest the
most earnest interest in its success, and all are anxious for an opportuaity to aid
us in its popularization. We may confidently depend, therefore, upon a very
extensive selection of gems of art from private and domestic sources, worth in
the aggregate several hundred thousand dollars, and in point of intrinsic merit
approached by no similar exhibition on this continent.

The amplest facilities will be extended to exhibitors, among which will be the
important right to aflSx the price to any article of which they may wisii to dis-
pose, to direct visitors where duplicates may be obtained, and remove their
contributions, at any time, by giving only one week's notice in advance.

The machinery department will be much fuller and more effective than hitherto,.

editors' jottings, etc. 695

There will be operating specimens of nearly every great invention, and in some
instances the entire process of manufacturing various fabrics will be exhibited.

As steam-power and space will be gratuitously furnished for the most interest-
ing processes in art and industry, and as inventors and exhibitors will be per-
mitted, under certain judicious regulations, to run the machinery for their own
benefit, this branch of the Exhibition is expected to become especially iuter-
esting.

Allow me to recommend, in this connection, that the Board of Directors
announce at an early day, its determination to award medals and other marks
of merit to those who may be, by competent judges, pronounced worthy of the
distinction. The medals and diplomas awarded for 1853, will be ready for
delivery in the beginning of May. Under the new organization, every article
will be classified to facilitate inspection. Those of the same kind, as far as
practicable, will all be grouped together, no matter from w'hat quarter of the
world contributed. The visitor may thus at a single glance, institute a just
comparison between the difterent developments of taste and skill in difierent
countries. A novel and useful plan of rearrangement has been decided upon
that will nearly double the space previously appropriated to exhibitors through-
out the entire building. We need not hesitate to publish, therefore, our ability
to find room for any thing pleasing or useful that may be intrusted to us, and to
invite every man and woman in tiie world to originate something for this con-
centration of the '• Industry of all Nations,'" that may redound to their credit and
benefit our common humanity.

Among the accommodations arranged for visitors to the Crystal Palace, will
be found two telegraph-ofiices, letter-boxes for the mails, express-boxes, a police-
station, an oftice for property lost and found, and two spacious refreshment
saloons, where every thing will be provided of unexceptionable quality at unex-
ceptionable prices.

Arrangements have been completed with some, and are in progress with
other steamboat and railroad companies connecting this city with various portions
of the Union, agreeably to which visitors will be conveyed to the Crystal Palace
from the remotest spot, at greatly reduced rates of travel. Nothing- else shall
remain undone, on my part, to conduct this magnificent enterprise with that
liberality which is due to the public, and that energy and economy which are
due to the interests of the Association."

Dk. Koehp.io, of whom we made mention last month, has shown us testimo-
nials from some of the greatest oculists in Europe. For a time he was first
assistant of Dr. Deval, the most eminent oculist in Paris. His name also occurs
with commendation in '■^ Annalcs d' Oadistiqxie^ vol. 17, 1847. We have also
witnessed his very successful management of a case of hemiope, or half-sight —
where the upper half of any object was entirely invisible. We have also known
his successful treatment of a Ciise, in which almost total blindness had been
occasioned by small-pox. He rarely uses instruments, and only when utterly
indispensable.

American Gas Company. — The demand for the machines of this company are
greater tlian their ability to supply them. They have contrived a portable gas-
light.

New-England Wine. — We find that in many localities in Connecticut, wine
of excellent quality has been made from the native grape within a few years, on
a small scale, but in sufficient quantities to test the question, whether good wine
can be made from the native grape of this State. In every instance a superior
article has been produced. A gentleman of Andover made two barrels a few
years since, and the physicians in his neighborhood ordered it to be used in sick-
ness, as a much better article than the imported. He readily sold it for $2.50
a gallon. Two gentlemen of this city, each made a barrel last fall, from grapes
purchased at $1 a bushel in the market. Six or eight bushels will make a bar-
rel. We find on our desk a bottle from Mr. A. G. Graham, of New-Briton, and
suppose from the word left with it, that it is from the native grape. We are
satisfied that wine can be produced in Connecticut in large quantities, and at a
great profit to the producer. — Hartford Times.

EDITORS JOTTINGS, ETC.

Moke Ime'Oeted Stock. — We learn that S. "W, Jewett, of Middlebury, Vt.,ha^
lately returned from Europe, where he has heen spending the winter, with more
Frencli sheep, Suffolk swine, of Prince Albert's stock, a large collection of fowls,
comprising Dorking, Spanish, and Normandy breeds. He also brought three
■varieties of the basket- willow.

The Hog Trade. — The Cincinnati Price Current publishes its final report of
the hogs packed in the West, showing a net increase in the number of three
hundred and thirty-three thousand, being equal to fifteen per cent over last
year. The report embraces two hundred and sixty points, and is the fullest
ever published.

A Happy Editoii. — The editor of the Ohio Cultidator — fortunate man ! — is
so happy as to be able — with a good conscience of course — • to indite and print
the following :

Acknowledgements. — "We have the best set of subscribers in the world, so
many of them arc willing to act as a committee of one to increase our list. The
]ate response to our friendly hint has laid us under renewed obligation, and we
will not trouble you again in that way till next December ; meanwhile we arc-
willing to have it understood that we are still ialing T''

If we could say the same of ours, how happy we should be ! IJut we are not
80 fortunate. We would add the promise of a gi/t premium for all such, and
even then, we scarcely dare hope. Friends, what say you?

The Little Miami Railroad is said to be one of the most successful roads in the
country. It has divided 10 per cent and has earned 14, with a fair prospect of
equal success hereafter — the result not of peculiar facilities, but of judicious
management.

National Poultky Show. — An official statement informs us that at the late
Poultry Show, at Barnum's Museum, there were 215 exhibitors, 700 coops, and
4000 fowls. The number of visitors was 30,000. It is pronounced the best
exhibition ever made in this couutry. Another is proposed some time next
antamn, perhaps in October. ,

Ohio and Mississippi Railroad. — The opening of this road from Cincinnati
to Aurora was celebrated on the 4th of April. 1200 guests from the city were
conveyed by three trains, and partook of a grand banquet at Aurora.

Horses. — The Middlebury (Vt.) Register states that Messrs. Douglass, of
Cornwall, have sold their chestnut horse, by " Black Hawk," to parties in Lock-
port, N. Y., for $2600. We also learn that S. G. Foot, of Cornwall, has lately
sold a horse of the same stock for $2000, to come to Ohio. Who has got him?

L. G. Morris, of Fordham, X. Y., has purchased the celebrated race-horse
'■' Monarch," of Col. Wade Hampton, of South Carolina.

Hov,r TO Treat your Boots and Shoes when Partially Burned. — On one
«f the coldest days of the present month, I pulled ofl:' my boots and set them
close to a stove which was very hot. The room was filled with a smell as of
something burning. Turning round, I saw my Loots smoking at a great rate.
I seized them and immediately besmeared them with soft soap, much of which,
•wing to their highly heated condition, quickly disappeared in the leather.
When the boots became cold, the leather was soft and pliable ; and now, after
several days of subsequent wear, they exhibit no marks of having been burned.

"Wo have some knowledge of the above in our experience, and commend it as
worthy of attention.

SHOv/EE-BATn. — Daniel P. Baldwin, of San Francisco, Cal., has invented a
form 0;' shower-baths, which consist in employing two revolving, trnmpet-shaped
shower-baths connected together by a collar, in combination with a passage in
the horizontal end of the main supply-pipe ; one serving, when fixed in the pro-
per position, to throw the water upward, so that it shall descend in the form
of spray, while the other may be so placed as to direct the stream of water
against any portion of the body. Either warm or cold water, or both, may
be applied to the sprinkler?.

NEW BOOKS. 697

One-Peice Clothi^tg Store in Philadelphia. — Lippincott & Co., at the red
store, south-east corner of Fourth and Market streets, Philadelphia, have a
very large assortment of ready-made clothing, both for men and boys, of a
superior quality and at low prices. They have adopted the one-price system, which
they find to work well, as they sell much lower than other establishments. We
purchased a suit from their ample stock, and can bear testimony to the cheap-
ness of the goods, and the excellence of their workmanship. Persons visiting
our sister city, in want of clothing, can not fail to be satisfied as regards price,,
quality, and an extensive assortment from which to select, at the one-price store
of Lippincott & Co.

PowEEFOL Locomotive. — The motive power of the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
road Company has been improved and rendered more efficient by the completion
of one of those first-class, powerful, coal-burning passenger-engines. It is de-
signed for the heaviest of the mountain grades, commencing at Piedmont, SOT
miles from Baltimore, and running about sixty miles near Three Forks, the
junction of the Parkersburg road. The engine has ten wheels, six of which are
drivers, and a truck of four wheels. The drivers are 50 inches in diameter, and
the trucks 30. The cylinders measure 19 inches in diameter, with 20 inches
stroke of piston. The cylinder part of the boiler is 48 iAches diameter and 14
feet long. The drivers are connected, and have a weight of 45,000 lbs., equally
distributed between them by means of levers and springs. The whole weight
of the engine in running order is 60,000 lbs., or 30 tons, and the entire lengtk
from back of foot-board, to point of fender in front, is 28 feet. It is supplied
with a cut-oflf, for working steam expansively. This engine is intended to draw
five passenger cars up the heavy grades at a speed of twenty miles per hour : is
known as No. 203, and was designed by, and bnilt under the direction of. Mr.
Hays, of the Company's foundry.

NEW BOOKS.

Familiar Sketches of Sculpture and Sculptors. By the author of "Three Experi-
ments in Living," "Sketches of the Lives of the Old Painters," &c. Boston: Cros-
by, Nichols & Co. 2 vols. 1854.

These volumes are exactly what they should be. The learned authoress has eiio-wn
great tact in selecting proper topics of remark, and in treating the several characters
she describes. We know of nothing so desirable on these subjects for the general
reader. Her style is finished, while" it is graceful and familiar. She deserves a high
rank among American writers.

Outlines of the Geology of the Globe, and of the United States in particular, with

two geological maps and sketches of characteristic American fossils. By Edward

HiTaicocK, D.D., LL.D. Second edition. Boston : Phillips, Sampson & Co. 1854.

This is a book much needed. It fills a gap which has long remained a blank. We

need not say it is done by one admirably qnahfied, and in a manner worthy of the

author. It is a condensed epitome, to refresh the memory of him who is well read

in the subject, and to give a bird's-eye view, and yet a comprehensive one, to him

who can devote but little attention to the subject. The maps are well designed and

well executed.

The Religion of GEOtoGV and its Connected Sciences. By Edward Hitchcock, D.D.,
LLD. Eighth thousand. Boston : PhiUips, Sampson <fc Co. 1854.
The first point of interest which attracts attention in opening this volume, is its
dedication to his wife, a lady whose illustrations of his Report on the Geology of Mas-
sachusetts added so much to the interest of the work. Without sentimentahsm, it ia
affectionate and respectful. The work itself has been written and been befoi'e the
public for several years, but has received from time to time such " additions and al-
terations" as the many discoveries in the science meanwhile have suggested. They

698

LIST OF PATENTS.

are the convictions of hia mind, deliberately formed and thoroughly examined. The
work embodies fourteen lectures, as follows: Revelation illustrated by Science; The
Epoch of the Earth's Creation Unrevealed ; Death a Universal Law of Organic Beings
on this Globe from the Beginning ; The Noackian Deluge Compared with the Geologi-
cal Deluges; The World's Supposed Eternity ; Geological Proofs of the Divine Bene-
volence ; Divine Benevolence as Exhibited in a Fallen World ; Unity of the Divine
Plan and Operation in all Ages of the World's History ; The Hypothesis of Creation
bj Law ; Special and Miraculous Providence ; The Future Condition and Density of
the Earth ; The Telegraphic System of the Universe ; The Vast Plans of Jehovah ;
Scientific Truth, rightly applied, is Religious Truth. These topics, among the most
important that can be discussed, are illustrated with great ability.

De Bow's Review, Industrial Resources, etc. — The April number of this very
elaborate monthly is uncommonly rich in its contents. Mr. De Bow deserves the
patronage of the entire community. He has an able corps of contributors, and he gives
U8 a monthly treat not inferior to the best of the kind ever publ shed in this country.
It is " primarily adapted to the Southern and Western States," but is fuU of interest to
all. We have often commended this work, and every month but confirms our liigh
opinion of it. May his shadow never be less !

Putnam's Monthly. — Some men can laugh at competition, and even rejoice to see
strong men labor to secure an advantage over them. Putnam is one of these. His
corps of racy writers moving along, in solid column, imder the lead of equally able
editor.", go on from month to month, without fear or doubt, and have nothing in fact
to do but just write on, Avhile they thankfully receive the laurels which the hosts of
their delighted readere, apparently as a matter of course, entwine for their brows.
Success to Putnam !

Harper's New Monthly. — Fires can not consume, human enterprise, though its
fruits may be buried in ashes fathoms deep The Harpers illustrate this in aa ejni-
nent manner. The April number of their magazine was promptly issued, and its con-
teats are as good as ever. Success to these excellent and enterprising men!

List of Patents Issued,

FROM MAR. T TO APRIL IL

Geo. B. Field, of St. Louis, Mo., for improvement
ia rotary cultivators.

(Biver Leslie, of Attica, Tad., for improved saw-
set.

Orrin Newton and J. A. Crever, of Pittsburgh)
Pa., for improvement in excluding dust from rail-
road cars.

Andrew Overend, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in machine for damping printing pa-
per.

Joseph W. Robinson, of Kirkland, N. Y., for im-
prorement in form of scythes.

Edwin Mi ford Bard, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement'in mould-boards of ploughs.
'.I'Jamea Perry, of Roxbury, Mass., for improved
method of constructing moulds for making print-
ing-blocks.

Russell D. Bartlett, of Bangor, Me., for improve-
ment in machiues for making shovel-bandies,
ff Frederick Espenschade, of Mifllintnwn. Pa., for
moYuble tapering nozzles to the exhauBt-pipes of
loctMDotives.

Cbas. W. Billing-?, of South Deerfleld, Mass., for
improvement in 'seed-planters.

Joshua Cross, of New- London, Ohio, for im-
provement in fauoeta for measuring liquids.

Edward P. Haskins, of Boston, Muss., for Im-
provemeni in spring-clamps for clothes lines.

Elbridge G. Hastings, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for im-
provement in machines for dressint? stone.

Albert Hock, of Paris, Fraiicp, for process for
gilding or plating fibrous substances. Patented in
France, Dec. 15, 185 '.

J. B. I.arwill and J. Cross, of Bucyrus, Ohio, for
improvement in laucets for measuring liquids.

Eldridge H. Penfield, of Middletown, Codu., for
improvement in metallic grummets for sails.

Orson C. Phelps, of Boston, Mass., for improved
stop-cock.

Ezra Ripley, of Troy, N. Y., for iaipravemeot in
rotary engines.

Nathaniel 8mith and Asa Crandall, of North
Kingston, R. L, for improvement m machines for
grinding cotton-cards.

LIST OF PATENTS.

699

Welcome Sprague, EUicottsville, N. Y., for ini-
proyement in seed-planters.

Jas. H. Sweet, of Pittsburgh, Pa., for hanging of
'ihe griping-jaw of spiking machines, in weighted
levers.

Philander Shaw, of Abington, Mass., forimprove-
aient in rotary cultivators.

Abijah Taylor, of PekiU; III., for improvement in
steam engine faucet-valves.

Mansel Blnke, of Sutton, N. H., assignor to him-
self, Jas. B. McAlestee, and Erastus Blake, of same
place, for improved folding-blinds.

Westel S. Daniels, of Panama, N. Y., for improve-
ment in obstetrical supporters.

Lewis Fagan, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for improve-
ment in smut-machines.

Alpheus Kimball, of Fitchburg, Mass., for im-
provement in securing window-sashes.

Daniel S. Mid'llckauff, of Hagerstown, Md., for
improvement in grain-harvesters.

Simon Pettes, of New- York, for improvement in
machines for drilling stone.

Jonathan Eurrage, of Roxbury, Mass., assignor
to himself and Frederick VV. Newton, of Newton,
Mass., for improvement in processes for making
varnishes.

J. G. Maefarlane, of Perry County, Pa., for im-
provement in seed- planters.

Victor Benumont, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
proved machine fi)r distributing types.

Henry Green, of Ottawa, III.., for improvement
Jn grain-harvesters.

Ralph Bulkley, of New- York, N. Y., assignor to
G. S. Camerin, of Charleston, S C, for improve-
jnent in machines for rubbing type.

F. C. GofBn, of New- York, N. Y., assignor to Al-
fred B. Ely, of Boston, Mass., for improvements in
safe-locks.

Obadiiih Marland, of Boston, Mass., for improve-
ment in iron safes.

R. P. Benton, of Rochester, N. Y., for improved
machine for dressing spokes.

Jeremy W. Bliss, of Hartford, Conn., for improve-
ment in lifting-jacks.

Chas. T. Appietoti, of Roxbury, JVIass., for im-
provement ill processes for dyeing.

A. C. Carey and Jeremiah Smiih, of Ipswich,
Mass., for improved hydraulic engine.

Dexter H. Chamberlain, of Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in screw-wrenches.

Thos. Carpenter, of Manlius, N. Y., for improve-
ment in concaves of clover-hullers.

Chas. If. Fonde and T. R. Lyons, of Mobile, Ala.,
ftir improvement in dredging-machines.

J. L. Garlinst m, <>f Snapping JShoals, Geo., for
improvement in graiu-threshers.

Chas. W. Hawks, of Boston, Mass., for improve-
ment in nippers for printing-papers.

Philip H. Kelts, of Hudson, N. Y., for improve-
ment in h'lrvesters.

Jordan L. Mott,or New-York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in railroad car-wheels.

Ambrose Nicholson, of Poland, N. Y., for im-
•provement in self-fastening shutter hinges.

J. G. Shands, of St. Loui*, Mo., for improvement
in machines for dressing mill-stones.

C. V. Ament, of Dansville, N. Y., for improve-
ment m devices for preserving hens' eggs in the
Best.

David A. Morris, of Pittsburgh, Pa., for improve-
ment in anti-l'riclion boxes.

Charles T. Appleton, of Roxbury, Mass., for im-
provement in dyeing .■vpparatus. Patented in
England, Jan. 7, IS-M.

D. A. Cameron, of Butler, Pa., for improvement
in belt-saws.

Thos. Dougherty, of Erie, Pa , for improvement
in shoe-lasts.

George VV. LiveiTaore, of Cambridgeport, Mass.,
for improved machinery for making barrels.

Samuel McKenna, of Cincinnati, Ohio, for im-
provement in portable metal-punches.

David and Herman AYolf, of Lebanon, Pa., for
improvement in seed-planters.

Alex. Wilbur, of Lancaster, Pa., for improve-
ment in machines for jointing staves.

Heman Gardiner, of New- York, N. Y., for im-
provement in quartz-crushers. Patented in Eng-
land, July 5, 1853.

Jeremiah W. Brown, of Hartford, Conn., assignor
to S. M. Folsom, of Charlestown, Mass., for rotary
smoothing-iron.

Elijah Valentine and Abel Bradway, of Monson,
Mass., for improvement in machines for jointing
staves.

Elbridge Webber, of Gardiner, Me., for improve-
ment in ship's blocks.

Ellsworth D. S. Goodyear, of Stapleton, N. Y.,
assignor to New-York Rubber Company, of New-
York, for improvement in processes for treating
India rubber.

Robert H. Harrison, of Washington, D. C, as-
signor to Robt. H. Harrison and Jno. S. Gal agher,
Jr., of same place, for improvement in churns.

A. J. Cook, of Enon, Ohio, for improvement in
the dischargitg-apparatus of harvesters.

H. G. Ellsworth, of Auburn. N. Y., for improve-
ment in belt-clasps for machinery.

Benjamin G. Fitzhugh, of Frederick, Md., for mi-
provement in harvesters of grain.

Luther B. Fisher, of Coldwater, Mich., for im-
provement in seed-planters.

Benaiah Fitts, of Worcester, Mass., for improve-
ments in feed-water apparatus for steam-boilers.

Richard Jones, of the county of Burlington, N.J.,
for improvement in making zinc white.

Seymour Ketchum, of Lancaster, Ohio, for im-
provement in smut-machines.

Charles P. Bailey, of Zanesville, Ohio, for port-
able head-rest for chairs.

Anson Balding, of Olney, 111., for improvement in
submarine scoops.

Ihos. W. Chatfield,of Utica, N. Y., for improve-
ment in hot-air furnaces.

Joseph Marks, of Dunkirk, N. Y., assignor to
VVm. Whiti g, of Roxbury, Mass., for improvement
in machini ry for oppiating car-brakes. Patented
iu England, Nov. 'J3, 1852.

Joseph Marks, of Boston, Mass., and John Huiv-
arth, of Salem, Mass., assignors to Wm. Whiting,
of Roxbury, Mass., lor improvement in machinery
for operating car-brakes.

John Absterdam and Wm. Merrell, of BostOD,
Mass., assignors to Jas. A. Woodbury, of Winches-
ter, Mass., and Wm. B. Merrell, of Boston, Mass.,
for improved device for tonguing and grooving ta-
pering boards.

Richard D. Mott, of Spring Garden, Pa., for im-
provement in stereotype-pans.

Nicholas G. Norcross, of Lowell, Mass., for im-
provement in feed-motion for sawing lumber.

David B. Rogers of Pittsburgh, Pa., for improve-
ment in machines for forming cultivators' teeth.

Wm. 11. Seymour, of Brockport, N. Y., for im-
provement in harvesters.

Ephraire, Titus and Emerson Sizer, and Amos
Halladay, of VVeatfield, Mass., for improveraeat in
Sackel's braiding-raachino.

700

LIST OF PATENTS.

Joseph Smart, of the Northern Liberties, Pa., for
improvement in pumps.

HenryC'Smith, of Cleveland, Ohio, for improved
construction of shingle-machines.

Thos. G. Stagg, of Jersey City, N. J., for machine
Xor tenoning, &c., blind-slats. *

Jonathan C. Trotter, of Newark, N. Y., for im"
))rovement in furnaces for zinc-white.

Geo. Trott, of Pittsburgh, Pa., for improved oil-
cup for steam engines.

Wm. Webster, of Morrisania, N. Y., for improve-
ment in machines for bending sheet-metal.

R. A. Wilder, of Schuylkill Haven, Pa., for im-
provement in railroad car-wheels.

Edward fi. Ashcroft, of Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in track-cleaners for railroads.

Joseph Leeds, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
ments in cooUing-stovef.

Henry Underbill, of Canandaigua, N. Y., for im-
proved hand printing-press.

James Baxendale, of Fall River, Mass., assignor
to himself, and James Ferguson, of Taunton, Mass.,
for improved method of operating the doctors of
calico-printing cylinders.

Solomon Andrews, of Perth Amboy, N. J., for
improvement in drop and die forging and punching
machine. Patented in England, Oct. 7, 1S52.

Bernard J. La Mothe, of New-T ork, N. Y., for im-
provement in railroad cars.

B. A. Lavender and Henry Lower, of Baltimore,
Md., for improvement in treating cane-fiber for pa-
per and other purposes.

Rodney Miller, of Middlefield, Ohio, for improve-
ment in carriage-tops.

Oldin Nichols, of Lowell, Mass., for improvement
in chain-cable stoppers.

Elijah Roberts, of Rochester, N. H., for improve-
ment in gates for water-wheels.

David A. Wells, of Cambridge, Mass., for im-
proved preparation of vegetable fibers.

Wm. H. Atkins, (assignor to Samuel J. Parker,)
of Ithaca, N. Y., for improvement in cops for sew-
ing-machines.

Lorenzo D. Goodwin, of Pennville, N. Y , for im-
provement in watex'-wheels.

Willis HumiHon, of Troy, N. Y., for iioproved
candle-mould apparatus.

E. U. Ball, of Kalamazoo, Mich., for improved
bedstead-fastenings.

Solomon G. Booth, of New-York, N. Y., for im-
provement in machines for corrugating sheet-
metal.

Benjamin Eakine, of Spring Garden, Pii., for im-
provement in valve-cocks.

A. K. Eaton, of New-York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in amalgamating gold and silver.

Henry W. Farley, of East Boston, Mass., for im-
provement in railroad frog-guards.

Phanael Flanders, of Lowell, Mass., for improve-
ment in cranberry-winnowers.

William Gates, Jr., of Frankfort, N. Y., and H. J.
Harwood, ofUtica, N. Y., for improved machine for
making friction-matche».

Charles Goodyear, of New-Haven, Conn., for im-
provement in treating vulcanizing-gums.

Carmi Hart, of Bridgeport, Conn., for improve-
ment in machine for cutting veneers.

Stephen Hedges, of Now- York, N. Y, for im-
proved combined table and chair.

Morris ^^altscn, of Boston, Mass., for improve-
ment in cr:ema syringes.

L. O. P. Weyer, of Newtown, Conn., for improve-
ment in treating eaoulchouc and o'.hervulcinizable
gume.

Jno. Nesmith, of Lowell, Mass., for improvement
in machines for making wire-netting.
, Abiel Pease, of Enfield, Conn., fui- improved
drill for metal-drilling.

Joseph Sollenberger, of Higginspon, Ohio, lor
imrovenient in training the vine.

Jacob Edson, of Boston, Mass., for improvement
in pumps.

Jas. McCarty, of Reading, Pa., for improvement
in heating skelps for the manufacture of wrought,-
iron tubes.

Wm. S. Loughborough, of Victor, N. Y., for im-
provement in bit-fastening for cast-iron bench-
planes.

Geo. W. Livermore, of Canibridgeport, Mass., for
improvement in crozing the ends of staves. Pa-
tented in England, Aug. ;U, 1S5S.

T. W. liafetra, of New-York, N. Y., for improve-
ment in machine for drying tobacco.

John Ogden, of Philadelphia, Pa., assignor to
Chas. S. Ogden, for improvement in making rail-
road chairs.

James MacGregor, Jr., of Troy, N. Y, for im-
proved coffee-pot.

Elbridge Marshall, of Clinton, N. J., for improve
ment in seed-planters.

Wm. Ball, of Chicopee, for improvement in mille
for giinding ores, &c.

Thos. Carter, of Laurens District, S. C, for im-
provement in seed-planters.

Stephen Colwell, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in iron buildings.

Samuel J. Parker, of Ithaca, N. Y., for improve-
ment in sewing-machines.

Hiram Stafford, of Mount Pulaski, iU., for im
provement in rat-traps.

Thos. E. Seay, of Columbia, Va., for improvement
in brick-machines.

Wm. A. Shaw and Geo. Parker, of Boston, Mass ,
for improvement in street gas-lamps.

Henry Sigler, of Houston, for improvement in
fish-hooks.

Chas. Leavitt, of Quincy, 111., assignor to Sterling
B. Cockrill, of Nashville, Tenu., for improvement
in machines for cleaning cotton.

James Harrison, Jr., of Milwaukie, Wia., for im-
provement in sewing-machines.

Jose Toll, of Locust Grove, Ohio, for improvement,
in rat-traps.

George W. Thayer, of Springfield, Mass., for im-
provement in trusses for iron bridges.

Nathan Thompson, Jr., of Williamsburg, N. Y.,
for improvement in reversible lite-boats.

John Webster, of New- York, N. Y., for improved
lubricator.

Henry Allen, of Norwich, Conn., for improved
boring and mortising machine.

Francis Arnold, of Haddam, Conn., for combina-
tion of loot-stoves and lanterns.

Stephen P. Brooks, of Boston, Mass., for im-
proved iron-frame upright piano-lorle.

Julio T. Buel, of Whitehall, N. Y., for inyjroved
attachment for fish-hooks and artificial baits.

Lewis y. Chichester, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for im-
provement in dressing flax aiid hemp.

Albert G. Corlis, of Ponlan'J, .Me., for improved
swell-mute attachment to piano-lbrtes.

John Elgir, of Baltimore, Md., for improvement
in door-hinge.s.

Bichard H. Emerson, of Chicago, HI., for im-
provement in earth-cars.

Alex. Hall, of Lloydsville, Ohio, for improvement
in piano-forte Jictions.

tlje |l0a9l), tl)e pom, onli ti)e JlHuil.

Part H.— Vol. VI. JUNE, 1854. No. 6.

GEOLOGY.— COAL FORMATIONS.

The mining of coal or iron is by no means so simple a matter as one who
has not studied the subject may suppose. The error often made here is not
unlike that which is entertained of gold-hunting in California. Many have
had the impression that the precious metal is readily found there, in larger
or smaller lumps, scattered everywhere upon the surface, and that the only
work of the adventurer was to pick it up. Those who have read " Golden
Dreams and Leaden Realities," or who have in any way become familiar
with, the modes of life and the severity of labor usually required for success
in that field, have come to a very difiFerent conclusion. This pursuit is
fraught with many difficulties, the result of the numerous disruptions and
other disturbances, through which the crust of the earth has passed.

It has been supposed that the surface of the sea has been changed, its hne
of altitude having been depressed. More careful observation has led to the
conclusion that, instead of this, the surface of the land has been elevated. It
was thought, for example, that the waters of the sea once covered the beds
of fossil rocks, which were always at their present level. The opinion now
prevails that these beds have been elevated, upheaved ; and this conclusion
seems almost necessary, when we look into the processes which it is well known
are now actually in operation. The evidence is conclusive, that in parts of
Sweden, and along the gulf of Bothnia, a slow but constant uphearino-
movement has been going on for centuries. The relative level of the water
and the land is essentially changed ; and that this change is not in the sea is
evident, because, among other reasons, this would necessarily involve a change
in the levels of all oceans or seass in connection with these waters ; that is,
a change of level throughout the great system of oceans. But this pheno-
menon is by no means universal, while, on the other hand, there are locali-
ties, as in the southern part of Sweden, where the land has become compa-
ratively lower than it once was. Where the change described has in fact
taken place, to a greater or less extent, the ratio or extent of change has
been very unequal, varying from a few inches to several feet in a century.

But though the general level of the seas remains the same, there is evidence,
as we have before taken occasion to remark, that the level of the bottom of
the sea has in many instances been essentially changed. One of the most ob-
vious proofs of this fact is found in the condition of many coral islands. It
is well known that the coral insect can not live many fathoms below the sur-
face of the water, and yet coral formations are known to exist at very great
depths. Hence the elevations, on which these formations rest, mudt have
been materially depressed. Again, other formations of this sort have been

VOL. YL— PAIIT II. 21

702 GEOLOGY. — COAL FORMATIONS.

greatly elevated. Suck are many of the islands in the Pacific ocean, and in
other regions very I'emote from these.

The remarkable position of many of the stratified rocks, seems to require
iLS to entertain this opinion. Their regularity has been more or less dis-
turbed, and sometimes completely destroyed, at least to the eye of the un-
skilled observer. Sometimes the strata are inclined, and in different regions,
at very different angles. Sometimes they are nearly vertical. We have
seen huge masses of stratified rocks presenting every appearance of having
been bent, by some tremendous blow, like the concussion of two planets,
nearly at right angles, and the solid rock broken by the violence to which it
■was subjected. In other cases, the strata have yielded to the force exerted
upon it, and bent as if they were elastic. The thickness of some of these
bent strata is also worthy of special note, and shows the immensity of the force
exerted upon them. In Scotland, certain strata which are found bent with
considerable regularity for some twenty miles in breadth, are nearly tvfo
thousand feet in thickness.

The more general appearance of these rocks is such as might be witnessed
were powerful pressure applied to their extremities. For example : lay cloths
of various colors over each other, upon a table, and then cause their extreme
edges to approach each other. They will form waving lines, of more or less
regularity, lesembling the curves in figure 1. If this disturbance is continued
to a given extent, the horizontal layers will assume a vertical position, like an
inverted ox-bow, or like a manuscript v inverted. Under certain circum-
stances, the layers will be quite vertical and in close contact throughout.
Such facts prove that the land, rather than the sea, has been subjected to
various disturbing forces, which have produced great changes in its condi-
tion.

Such changes in the condition of stratified rocks necessarily occasion great
uncertainty as to the value of what seems to off"er 'great facilities for mining
operations.

But these are not the only cause of doubt and diflSculty to the practical
miner. Suppose, again, that the upper portion of these strata are exposed to
violence a sufficient length of time to be worn way, as if those portions of the

No. 1.

curved strata in figure 1 , above the line a b, had disappeared, what pheno-
mena would then present themselves ? Plainly these : The various strata,
numbered 1, 2, 3, would appear at four diff'erent places on the surface, so
that, to an unskilled eye, it would seem that there were distinct independent
strata at each of these four points, while in fact there is but one of each,
though that one is exposed, or crops out, in different positions, four times.

But we have only begun to expose the difficulties the miner must
encounter from this or similar disturbances. Instead of being denuded,
or worn down to a horizontal surface, as shown by the line a b, in figure 1,
suppose a deep channel should be worn into these rocks. Then, standing in
this channel, it is obvious we should see the several strata, one above the
other, and, for aught that could be seen, we might supprse they extended in

GEOLOGY. — COAL FORMATIONS.

703

a horizontal direction ; and if we should make an attempt to trace a given
stratum for a considerable distance pra-allel to the surface, we should soon
discover our error, and be obliged to change entirely our mode of opera-
tions.

Or suppose the strata are found to dip considerably; that is, that they
extend in an oblique direction, with reference to a plain surface, and that a
channel or valley is scooped out in a direction contrary to the dip of the
No 2 strata, as in figure 2. Here h is the lowest

stratum or rock, and a the highest; that is,
they were such before they were tilted from a
horizontal position; and they still are such,
since the others must be removed ere any given
part of ihQ fiat surface of h can be exposed to
view. But in the channel, in fiijure 2, the
lowest stratum h is seen at the highest point
h\ while a, the highest stratum, is seen at the
lowest point a' . In other words, the order
of the series, under such circumstances, ap-
pears reversed. For it must be borne in
mind that the rocks are in fact visible only
within this channel, their other parts being
covered with earth, or otherwise hidden from
view, or only a single stratum perhaps is
visible.

We present but one other difficulty which the practical miner must encoun-
ter, and for which he ought to be prepared, and that is, the occurrence of faults.
While the dip of the strata may be uniform, and the relative position of the
several rocks be well understood, through their entire extent, a given stratum
may crop out in various places, and lead the observer to suppose that there
are several strata of the same rock. Figure 3 will illustrate this. If A H repre-
sent the surface of the earth, where
the strata abc crop out at several
places, an observer might suppose
that each of these was a continu-
ous stratum, and prepare his ma-
chinery to dig out the coal or the
iron at one or all of these points,
when by advancing a few f et
only, he would come to a com-
plete termination of the material
sought for.

Originally these rocks" formed
one regular and'uniformly inclined
series of strata, as indicated by the
dotted lines. But by successive,
or at least by several distinct depressions of its different parts, an equal num-
ber of faults have been produced, as denoted by the perpendicular lines;
and, instead of several extensive strata of coal or iron, etc., each of which
might have been thought valuable property, the disappointed owner does
not possess even one that will pay him for the outlay necessary to com-
mence his mining operations.

The various phases presented by denudation, in these and other cases which
we can not well illustrate by any means within our reach, are of very great

704 GEOLOGY. — COAL FOKMATIONS.

importance to the practical miner. The value of a vein of metal, or of coal, is
a question which science alone, witiiout actual experience, can determine ;
and yet this is the ijuestion which is first in order, as well as first in import-
ance, and he who essentially errs in its decision, may either waste a fortune
in the fruitless endeavor to increase it, or he may have a fortune just beyond
his fingers' ends, which remains of no practical value, because that value Is
not understood.

But there is another view in which this matter of denudation assumes
gigantic proportions. We refer to its bearing upon the question of the
earth's antiquity. It is obvious that the process which produced such
changes, must have been carried on, however slow its action may have been,
to an amount equal to all the alluvial and diluvial formations now existing.
The unstratified rocks must have furnished the material for all the formations
that have been poured over them. No new creation of matter for such pur-
poses can be supposed, and hence it must be taken for granted that the un-
stratified rocks furnished primarily the material of all stratified rocks.

That this was a gradual process, and not the result of some sudden over-
flow, from volcanic eruptions or the like, is evident from the nature and con-
dition of the new formations. These are not chiefly angular and fragmentary
bodies, thrown promiscuously into heaps, but rather disintegrated particles,
fine sands, rounded pebbles, and the like; and they often form thin and regu-
lar beds, as if the work of a skillful craftsman. Hence we infer that these
changes were the result of that gradual pi'ocess called denudation. But the
results achieved are mighty in extent. There are regions of country, as iu
Kosshire, in Scotland, for^ example, where this process of denudation has re-
moved a body of sand-stone, many miles in extent, and of a depth varying
from one thousand to three thousand feet in thickness. Those widely-sepa-
rated mountains bear striking evidence that they are but detached masses,
from which the material formerly uniting them from base to summit, has been
removed. According to Prof. Ramsey, in his Survey of Great Britain, there
must have been removed from around the summit of the Mendips, a mass
•nearly a mile in thickness ; and in South Wales and adjacent counties,
strata not less than 11,000 feet in depth must have been thus carried away.
JSTor will such statements tax our credulity, when we call to mind the im-
mense extent of territory formed by these means, on continents and islands,
and in filling up the mouths of rivers and bays. Indeed, whole countries,
almost, have been thus rescued from the sea.

Nor could changes of this sort have been the result of some single sudden
revulsion, for another reason. Living animals were buried in the soft, and
probably liquid mass, which, in the lapse of time, became hardened, so as to
be unaffected by a subsequent overflow, in which other animals, of a totally
diverse character, and indicating an almost entire change of circumstances,
became again part and parcel of solid rock above them.

There are localities which furnish evidence of as many as tenor a dozen
distinct disruptions and new formations. The mass once liquid became solid,
and then disruption followed. After which the crevices thus formed were
filled with matter which in its turn became solid rock, which rock, thus
formed, was again subjected to sufficient violence to cause its rupture, and its
fissures were again filled with matter, which passed through the same process
of harder.ing and disruption, and so on.

The number of these formations, and the length of time required for each,
indicate a period of inconceivable length, and all attempts to establish the
date of the actual creation of the earth, as described in the opening of Keve-
latlon, is shown to be utter'y impossible.

THE CENTRE OF POPULATION, ETC. 705

THE CENTEE OF POPULATION, AND OF COMMERCE, AND LOCOMOTION.

What really are the sources of commerce, and where commerce must ulti-
mately tend, seems to be little understood by many persons. We hear much
of the immense commerce of New- York ; that the revenue is collected there ;
that the public money must be expended there, because it is collected there ;
and various assertions and opinions of this sort, based upon the idea that an
importing city is the centre or source of commerce. Nothing is, in fact,
more absurd than such an idea. New-York, like all importing cities, is merely
an agent for the transfer of fabrics, money, and persons, to the place of their
■ultimate destination, and makes its living and its wealth by its receipts for
this agency, like a commission merchant. The importer of silk goods, for
.example, adds his commission on the price, for his services and capital in
transferring them froin France to Ohio. The broker adds his commission on
the money, which he transfers from the capitalist to the borrower. All this
makes a commercial city, but does not make commerce, and is not its end,
any more than a farmer's wagon makes the hay and wheat carried on it.
The sources of commerce are in a people and soil able to produce, and a
people and wealth able to consume. It is the producer who furnishes the
articles for the commercial agency to transfer, and it is the consumer who
takes them from him. New- York collects revenue, but who pays it ? Ohio
pays one tenth the revenue of the United States. The government informs
us it has collected fifty millions of revenue. Then Ohio has paid five millions
of it ; Indiana and Kentucky have paid five millions more.

The sources of commerce are production and consumption. Now let us
see where production and consumption are. If the wealth of a countiy were
very unequally distributed, they might be one-sided, especially if some por-
tions of the country were barren. But in the United States, the advantages
of the country and the wealth of the country are very equally distributed.
The older States have the laigest share of manufactories, but the new ones
in soil, and all natural productions. Ohio is probably as wealthy, in pro-
portion to its inhabitants, as any State, except, perhaps, Massachusetts or
New-York. In this nearly equal distribution of advantages, the centre of
production and consumption is practically not hr from the centre of popula-
tion. Where is the centre of population, and what has been its progress ?
Without calculating it to a single mile, we may state that in 1Y90 the centre
of population was in Adams county, Pennsylvania ; and in 1850, it was in Bel-
mont county, Ohio. Thus, between 1790 and 1850, (sixty years,) the centre of
population has travelled two hundred and twenty miles almost due west. The
centre of population travels about 37 miles decennially, or nearly four miles
per annum. In half a century it will be in Indiana ; and it will be a century
at least (if ever) before it crosses the Mississippi. Probably, if the Unioia
continues as it is, it will never cross the Missisippi. The reason is obvious.
Between the California mountains and the west line to Missouri, there is but
a small portion of fertile lands ; while east of the Mississippi, and west of the
AUeghenies, every acre may be made a garden spot. West of the Missis-
sippi to the Pacific, is a greater distance than from the Atlantic to the Mis-
sissippi, but far less fertile and productive.

The centre of population is in Ohio, and it is evident from the preceding
facts that it will be so for half a ct-ntury. Here in Ohio, then, is the centre
of commerce ; and it is this fact which so rapidly creates its wealth, develops

706 THE CENTRE OF POPULATION, ETC.

its industry, and gives such activity to locomotion ; and this activity, in-
dustry, and development, is not likely to be at all diminished ; on the contrary,
it will increase. The commercial growth of its chief ports have never been
equalled by the growth of any part of the world. Cincinnati, Cleveland,
Sandusky, and Toledo are all growing rapidly; and to these we should add
the interior towns of Dayton, Columbus, and Zanesville, more immediately
dependent on manufacture, but connected with the others by railway. To
illustrate the growth of commerce in Ohio, we will give the aggregate popu-
lation and growth of these towns; for it is well known that the, commerce of
these jilaces has increased more rapidly than the population, so that in giving
the growth of the towns, we rtally represent the growth of commerce.

The aggregate population of Cincinnati, Cleveland, Sandusky, Toledo,
Dayton, Columbus, and Zanesville, at difierent periods, were as follows :

In 1820 . - - - 13,141

In 1830, - 32,722

In 1840, 72,512

In 1850, - 180,351

In 1853, about 247,512

Here is a steady increase of 140 per cent decennially, or 14 per cent per
annum. The population of these towns in 1860 will, in all human proba-
bility, exceed half a million.of people. Cleveland will then have its 60,000,
Toledo its 40,000, and other towns in proportion.

This growth of towns is not so much the growth of general population as
it is of surplus production and of commerce. The following sums are some-
thing like the aggregate commercial value which passed through these places
in 1852:

Cincinnati, $110,000,000

Cleveland, 30,000,000

Sandusky, - . - 59,600,000

Toledo, 57,300,000

Dayton, 5,000,000

Columbus, 5,000,000

Zanesville, 3,000,000

Aggregate - • $269,000,000

The values at Toledo and Sandusky are said to be accurately ascertained ;
that of Cincinnati is very nearly correct. The others are estin)ates. The
value of flour, wheat, corn, and hog products exported from Toledo were
equal to eight millions of dollars. The value of the same articles ex-
ported from Sandusky and Cleveland was probably equal to that at each
place. The value of the same articles, with whiskey, candles, and
soap, exported from Cincinnati, was equal to thirteen millions. The value
of wool, cheese, and butter exported from the State is equal to four mil-
lions of dollars. Thus we have in the exports of half a dozen agricultural
articles, fifty -one millions of dollars. "When we consider an hundred other
articles of domestic export, the vast consumption of these, or four millions of
people for whom we import, and the already great extent of the manufactures
of Cincinnati, Dayton, Zanesville, Columbus, Pomeroy, and other places —
the vast amount of iron, coal, stone, and other heavy articles carried on river,
canal, and railroad, it is not difficult to comprehend that the internal com-
merce of Ohio already amounts to three hundred millions of dollars. When

KAILROAD TO THE PACIFIC. 707

we add to this the commerce of Indiana, of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Illi-
nois, lying in the Ohio Valley, we see that the boasted commerce of the
Atlantic cities becomes altogether an inferior thing. Important and hio-hly
useful and profitable as foreign commerce is, we should never overrate its
value. It is the internal commerce of a country like this, which spreads
from sea to sea, and almost from jjole to pole, which gives profit to enter-
prise and value to improvement.

This westward march of population, and the growth of commerce, carries
with it the centralization of locomotion. Already we see the comparatively
small town of Indianopolis become the greatest crossing-place of railways.
Already we see twenty railroads made, or making, into Cincinnati. Already
we realize the geographical certainty, that through here must flow all the
great channels of commerce which will intersect and irrigrate the valley of
the Ohio. Here North and South, East and West, must shake hands, and
if not friends, we will make them so. We will show them the great inherit-
ance of freedom, as it spreads out in beauty and glory over the continent.
We will show them the silver Ohio, winding its way through the garden
of America, and bringing greater wealth than golden sands into the lap of
its happy people.

Centuries will pass away before the centre of population, of commerce, of
wealth, and glory and grandeur shall pass from this valley. Happy will it
be, if contented to dwell amidst peace and plenty, and casting away the
avarice and the passions which make men the slaves of Mammon, or of
Moloch, they live in harmony with God and man. Thrice happy will they be,
if, unlike the Hebrews, they shall realize that this is the promised land, and
obey the God who brought them there. Fair is the inheritance, hopeful the
prospect, inspiring the progress, and beautiful that law of freedom, which
gives us security, order, and liberty. — R. R. Record.

RAILROAD TO THE PACIFIC.

We have received a long and elaborate report, approving of the " Northern
Route," by Edwin H. Johnston, C. E., 2d edition. We are happy to avail
ourselves of the opportunity to add pur mite in behalf of this great national
work. We can scarcely conceive of any thing which can have so immediate
and so vast an influence in favor of the commercial enterprise of this country.
Not a State, and not a county, but would realize substantial benefit from
it. It opens a direct communication with China and Japan, and the countries
adjacent. An immense trade is carried on from this region with the whole
world.

Chicago is assumed as the starting-point for several routes, being nearly in
a diiect hne from the Eastern cities, and connected with them already by seve-
ral railroads and by the lakes, and which need not here be described. There
is also easy communication from Chicago to the cities of the South. The
Western terminus of the road is not so easily selected. One plan proposes
to adopt the Straits of de Fuca, at the southern extremity of Vancouver's
Island. This point is 1752 miles, air line, from Chicago. But the geologi-
cal features of the countiy demand that the track should deviate essentially
from a straight line, and pass round the great bend of the Missouri River,
thereby avoiding the great elevation of the Black Mountains, and the cross-
jags of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Yellow Stone rivers, where they are

708 RAILROAD TO THE PACIFIC.

navigated by large boats. By this route, a convenient opportunity is afforded
for a branch-road with the west end of Lake Superior, a matter of no small
account.

From the great bend of the Missouri, the route proposed extends along
the northern side of that river, to one of the passes between its sources and
the sources of the Flat-head, or Clark's branch of the Columbia Kiver. It
then follows down that and the Columbia Eiver, to a point in the vicinity of
Fort Okanagan. The Rocky Mountains are not an unbroken range, but
rather a series of groups, like the White-hills and the Adirondacks. At dif-
ferent places there are very marked depressions in the elevation of this range.
The point already named is one of these.

The length of this route is estimated thus : In Illinois, 10 miles ; Wiscon-
sin, 290 miles; Minnesota, 620 ; Missouri, (N. W.) Territory, 420; Wash-
ington, 560. Total 1960. Of these, 990 are embraced in existing acts of
incorporation. The portion in Illinois is already under contract, and 40 miles of
it are graded, and the road will be completed to the Wisconsin line the coming
season. In Wisconsin, 55 miles are located and under contract, and the grad-
ing is in progress. This portion extends to Madison, the capital of the State,
and will be completed in a few weeks. The same company are authorized
to build a road from Janesville to Lake Superior, and this branch is also un-
der contract to Fond du Lac, and is partly built, 86 miles from Janesville ;
40 miles are graded. J^o locations have been made, for any considerable
distance, beyond the Wisconsin River, though several routes have been
examined and reported upon favorably.

The Straits of de Fuca are 96 miles in length and 11 miles broad. They
connect with Hood's Canal, Puget's Sound, Admiral Inlet, and the archipelago
of Arro. The country around is desirable in all respects, and is well supplied
with water, with many fine harbors and bays. Bituminous coal is abundant,
and the quantity of good timber is " inexhaustible." As an agricultural coun-
try, it is said to be remarkably productive.

Another point selected for the Pacific terminus is Astoria, at the mouth of
the Columbia. This, it is said, will lengthen the line of the road about 150
miles, but the Cascade Mountains would thereby be avoided ; and if no con-
venient pass cin be found at those mountains, the mouth of the Columbia
may be found the most desirable terminus.

San Francisco is also suggested for the Western terminus; but the valley of
the Sacramento and its tributaries, where the population is now chiefly col-
lected, could not, it is said, be conveniently connected with that city by rail-
roads.

In making the round trip to Shanghai or Jeddo, or to any port in China
or Japan, vessels from San Francisco must traverse nearly 1000 miles further
than from the Straits of de Fuca, while the route to China from these straits
passes near the Alentan or Fox Islands, the Kurile Islands, and the Japan
Islands, which form a chain nearly two thirds the whole distance to China,
and affording convenient opportunity for repairs, fuel, water, etc, besida
making valuable contributions to the trade of the Pacific.

The point of divergence from the Northern route above described, if the
mouth of the Columbia be selected for the Pacific terminus, is in the Clark's
River Valley, where that river emerges from the hill-country, thence aci'oss the
elevated prairie-plain, southerly, near to the junction of Lewis's River with
the Columbia, and thence along that river to its mouth.

Mr. Whitney's plan proposes a line from Prairie du Chien, on the Missis-
sippi, in Wisconsin, to the valley of White River, or White Earth River, west

CHAELESTON, LOUISVILLE, AND CINCINNATI. 709

of the Missouri ; thence to the valley of Salmon river, and along that and
Lewis River, and the Columbia, and afterward bearing northerly to Puget's
Sound.

A route still more Southern, follows the valley of the Platte Ptiver, thence
through the South Pass across the head-waters of the Colorado, and the tribu-
taries of Great Salt Lake, thence into the valley of Lewis River and the
Columbia to the Pacific.

Still other routes have been proposed, but they are probably much more
expensive than those before mentioned.

Walker's Pass, situated 35° 17' N. lat. and 118° 36' W. long., is proba-
bly about 5000 feet above the sea. But this is, perhaps, the best_ passage
across the Rocky Mountains proper. It is only VO miles, in a direct line, from
the Pacific. From this, three routes have been proposed to the valley of the
Mississippi, One runs from Walker's Pass, north-easterly, to the Vegas de
Santa Clara, or the Rio Virgen ; thence to the Colorado, and its Grand River
bratich, to the Coshotope Pass, in the mountain range, between the Colorado
and the Del Norte, to a point near Fort Massachusetts, in the valley of the Del
Norte ; thence by Bent's Fort, on the Arkansas River, to the Smoky Hill Fork,
of the Kansas, and along that river, across the State of Missouri to St. Louis,
making a total of about 2130 miles.

Still another route leads from Walker's Pass, or from the Tejon Pass, which
at the junction of the Sierra Nevada with the coast range, and is further south
than Walker's Pass, and about 60 miles distant from it, and thence across the
valley of the Colorado, near the 35th parallel of latitude, to that of the Del
Norte, crossing the latter a little south of Santa Fe, near the Albuquerke,.
thence to the valley of the Canadian River, and terminating on the Missis-
sippi, near the mouth of the Ohio. This is substantially the route proposed
by Mr. Gwin, in the United States Senate, in the last session. ^ By this route
the distance from San Francisco to St. Louis is about 2140 miles.

The last route we shall describe proposes a direction as follows : From
Walker's or the Tejon Pass, to the mouth of the Gila, on the Colorado, 50 or
60 miles from the mouth of the latter ; thence along the valley of the Gila,.
and thence across the elevated plateau to the valley of the Del Norte, down
the latter to El Paso, and thence through the northern part of Texas to the
Mississippi. This distance probably exceeds 2200 miles.

CHARLESTON, LOUISVILLE, AND CINCINNATL

We make the following abstract from one of our Western exchanges :
The connection of these three flourishing cities by a direct railroad commu-
nication, which has, been in contemplation for so many years, it is said will iu
a short time be consummated. The whole of the line from Knoxville south,
is under contract, and a large force is now engaged in grading the road. A
corps of engineers will commence the location of that portion of the southern
part of the road in Tennessee, and the work will be earnestly commenced
this summer, and diligently prosecuted to completion.

The late Legislature of Kentucky, which has just adjourned, granted^ a
charter, with liberal provisions, for a railroad through that State from Louis-
ville and Cincinnati, to connect with the Knoxville and Kentucky road at

710 CHARLESTON, LOUISVILLE, AND CINCINNATI.

the Tennessee and Kentucky line. For that portion of the road which is in
Tennessee, sixty-five miles, more than half the amount that is necessary to
complete it is already provided.

Cincinnati has always taken a lively interest in this enterprise. In fact, if
we mistake not, the projt^ct of uniting the southern Atlantic seaboard at
Charleston, and the Ohio River at Cincinnati, by a railroad, originated with
the citizens of the latter city. The management of this grand enterprise is
in the hands of gentlemen of such intelligence, enterprise, and credit in the
city, as leaves no doubt of its speedy and successful accomplishment. They
see clearly the great advantages and benefits their city is to derive from this
connection. It will open out to her manufacturers the richest portion of the
wealthy South. They will have complete possession of Western Virginia,
East Tennessee, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, where
scarcely an article from their workshops is at this time to be found. It will
make Cincinnati the great heart of the great West. Her streets will be
thronged by men from the East, the West, the North, and the South.

Charleston has cotton and rice, and is the entrepot for the products of the
West Indies and South America. She needs the flour, bacon, corn, and other
necessaries of life, which this road will give her. East Tennessee alone, in
the course of two or three years, by the time this road is completed, will
send her five hundred thousand barrels of flour ; and whenever an exigency
may demand it, she may draw any supply she will want from Kentucky and
Ohio. It is more than probable that Europe, as well as the West Indies
and South America, will hereafter look to the United States annually for a
large proportion of their breadstufts. When this railroad connection is formed,
Charleston will be able to make up an assorted cargo for any pait of the world.
Now she labors under the great disadvantage of being only able to export the
two articles of cotton and rice. With this railroad, she may yet rival Rich-
mond and Baltimore in flour and tobacco, and other northern cities in the sale
of mess-beef and pork. She will be directly connected with a country cele-
brated for its stock of all kinds, and its immense agricultural resources.

But beside the exchange of the commodities of diff"erent sections of the
country, which will be produced by this railroad connection at its extreme,
the development of the resources along the middle of the line, is a subject
of equal if not still greater consideration. The mineral wealth of the range
of the Cumberland Mountains, between Tennessee and Kentucky, is unsur-
passed. Coal and iron of the very finest quality are found in these moun-
tains in inexhaustible quantities, and in close proximity. Both these minerals
have been tested by our manufacturers in this city and elsewhere, and pro-
nounced to be of the best quality. Coal could be delivered from these moun-
tains at Louisville, Cincinnati, and Knoxville, at from six to ten cents per
bushel. An abundant supply could always be had at any season of the year.
The beneficial eflfects of tapping these mountains by a railroad, will not only
be fel: by these cities, but a dense population would fill up the valleys of
these mountains, and people what is now a comparative wilderness. Towns
and villages would spring up along the line of the road, and the busy hum of
industry awaken echoes from the solitude of the mountains and the hills.

IMPORTANT RAILWAY ENTERPRISE. 711

IMPORTANT RAILWAY ENTERPRISE.

The completion of the central link in the great chain of railway communi-
cation connecting the Atlantic cities with the Mississippi, was justly regarded
as the commencement of an important era in the history of railway enter-
prise ; and although an almost unbroken line of communication has thus been
formed, much yet remains to be done to afiord the increasing population of
the WL'stern States such facilities as their growing wealth and intelligence
entitle them to. The cities of Boston and New-York have been placed wiihia
about tbirty-six hours' distance of Chicago and Milwaukee, From the former
city, the most populous, although perhaps not the most important, in the
West, a continuous hue of railway extends to the Mississippi, which, con-
nected with the Michigan Central, Great Western, and New-York Central
Railways, brings New-York within forty-eight hours of St. Louis. Milwau-
kee, less fortunate than its rival, is deprived of a direct communication with
the Eastern States, and is at present compelled to pay tribute to Chicago, the
great bulk of the travel and traffic of the State of Wisconsin, as well as that
of Iowa and the neighboring territories of Missouri and Minnesota, finding
the route via Chicago and the shore of Lake Erie the only outlet to the East.
Situated as Milwaukee is, on the opposite side of Lake Michigan, her people
are compelled to travel at least 150 miles further than they ought, in order
to reach New-York or Boston. To remedy this, and render Milwaukee inde-
pendent of her powerful rival, a line of railway is being constructed from De-
troit to Grand Haven, on Lake Michigan, opposite Milwaukee. This road is
called the Oakland and Ottawa. From Milwaukee to Madison, the capital
of the State, a distance of 100 miles, a road is in full operation. From Madi-
son it is now proposed to run a line to Prairie du Chien, on the Mississippi
River, which is about 100 miles from Madison. Of this remaining portion
of what is called the Milwaukee and Mississippi Railroad, twenty-tive miles
more will complete the road to the Wisconsin River, which is navigable^ to
Prairie du Chien. This portion of the road is under contract, and is being
pushed vigorously forward. The great object, however, is to carry the road
through to the Mississippi, and this the capitalists of Milwaukee are confident
of accomplishing.

It may be said that such a scheme can be of no interest to Canada,
but we regard it as one of the greatest importance. The travel and traffic
from Wisconsin over the Great Western Railway is already great; but the
choice of route is not taken on account of any saving in distance ; for, once at
Chicago, the travel is more likely to find its way down the south shore of
Lake Erie than via Detroit. In order to secure the immense trade of the
West, it has been deemed advisable to construct the Oakland and Ottawa
road, in which the Great Western and Michigan Central companies are, we
believe, a good deal interested. This connection being formed, it is desirable
that some means should be devised to form outlets for the territories of Mis-
souri and Minnesota, which are now being so rapidly populated. These
objects being secured, there is still another, and by far the most important,
to be considered. It is settled beyond a doubt that a continuous line of railway
from the Atlantic to the Pacific must be built, the United States government
having now taken the matter in hand. Public opinion in the United States is
divided on the question of what route it shall take ; but there can be no doubt
that the most direct and cheapest route will ultimately be decided on. Such

712 OHIO AND CINCINNATI.

being the case, then, on referrino; to Mr. Johnson's map of the Northern
route of the proposed Atlantic and Pacific Raih-oad, it will be found lliat the
most direct route to the Pacific is from the point on the Mississippi at which
the Milwaukee and Mississippi road will terminate. With a continuous line of
railway, such as the one projected will form, the benefits to be derived, both
by Canada and our neighbors to the East and West, will be immense. The
roads forming the connection between the Atlantic and the Mississippi will
form the most important chain of railway communication on the American
continent, while it will traverse the most populous and wealthy portion of it.
— Hamilton Spectator.

OHIO AND CINCINNATI.

The first permanent settlement was made in Ohio, by the New-England
Ohio Company, in 1788, at Marietta, at the mouth of the Muskingum.
Cren. Arthur St. Clair was appointed Governor of the Territory. The second
was made at Columbia, five miles above Cincinnati, in October, 1*788. The
first cabin built on the soil now covered by the city of Cincinnati, was erected
in December, 1*788, on what is now Front street, a little east of Main street.
That region was then covered by dense forests. The settlement was first
called Losantiville. Other points were soon occupied, namely, Manchester,
in 1790; Gallipolis, 1788; Hamilton, 1794 ; Dayton, 1795; Chillicothe,
1796, etc.

Soon after the commencement of these settlements, the Indians became very
trouDlesome, wars were undertaken, with various success, and it was not
till 1794 that the Indians were so reduced, and the strength of the Ameri-
cans appeared so formidable, that they were induced to sue for peace. In
1798, the number of inhabitants was 5000, in eight organized counties. The
first meeting of the Territorial Legislature was in September, 1799, and
William Henry Harrison, since President, was then elected a delegate to the
Anaerican Congress. In 1802, a State constitution was established, and Cin-
cinnati was incorporated as a town. It had about 1000 inhabitants. That
portion of the State which lies west of the Cuyahoga river, was acquired, by
treaty with the Indians, and afterward the Mauraee and Sandusky regions.
In 1811, the Indians were defeated in the great battle of Tippecanoe, by
Gen. Harrison; and in 1816, the seat of government was removed from Chil-
licothe to Columbus, its present capital, on the Scioto river. The population
of the State, in 1850, was 1,980,408.

The limestone portion of the State, which comprises nearly the western
half of it, is admirably adapted to wheat and grass. This section com-
mences at the lake, near the mouth of Huron river, and running in a south-
erly direction, touches the Ohio river in Adams county. The counties form-
ing the Connecticut Reserve, which is a slate and sandstone formation, are less
productive, but need only careful cultivation to secure good crops of grain
and fruit. The middle and south-eastern section of Ohio, is more uneven, its
soil is excellent, and its fertility almost inexhaustible. The State embraces
an area of 25,000,000 acres, almost the whole of which might be put under
cultivation, and is competent to support more than 10,000,000 of inhabi-
tants. Her capacities of production are immense — far more than has yet
been called into action, although in her race of improvement she has made
rapid and healthful progress.

OHIO AND CINCINNATI. 713

The lakes and the Ohio river furnish ready communication with an im-
mense territory, while railroads and canals have been made to multiply these
facilities to a very great extent. The Ohio canal, begun in 1825 and finished
in 1832, extends 300 miles; its width is 40 feet and depth 4 feet. Its
■ branches are the Columbus feeder, 9 miles long ; the Hocking canal, 66
miles; the Muskingum "improvement," 91 miles; the Washonding canal, 25
miles; the Canton side-cut, 19, and the Mahoning, 81 miles. The last
named is connected with direct and continuous routes to Philadelphia. The
Wabash and Erie canal, in Ohio, with its side-cuts, is 91 miles long. The
Miami canal is 1*70, and has navigable feeders, increasing the total length to
321 miles, and terminates at the western extremity of Lake Erie. The sum
total of canals in Ohio is 920 miles.

She also has 4G railroads, either constructed or in progress. The number
of miles in operation in January last, was 2867, and miles in course of con-
struction, 15'78, at a total cost of $44,927,058.

The geological formation of Ohio is comparatively simple. Five distinct
rocks occur, namely, blue limestone, estimated to be 700 to 1200 feet thick;
black shale, 250 feet thick ; fine sandstone, 350 feet ; conglomerate, 200
feet ; and coal-beds 2000 feet in thickness. All these occur in some counties,
only a part of them in others. The coal region is on the west bank of the
Ohio, and occupies about one fourth part of the State. Iron ore also occurs,
in large quantities, some 1200 square miles, as it has been estimated, being
underlaid with it.

Manufactures. — These are chiefly confined to the production of raw ma-
terial, as leather, sugar, wax, potash, etc., beside those described elsewhere.
Vast quantities of beef and pork are annually sent to Eastern cities for ex-
portation.

Mineral Resources. — Prof. Mather says, in his report, that the single
county of Tuscararas contains eighty thousand millions of bushels ! The
county of Muskingum can furnish ten thousand millions of bushels ; Meigs,
Athens, and Summit contain much more. Coal occurs in twenty counties.
In 1848, 6,538,968 bushels were mined within their limits. By 1860, from
present appearances, the annual product will probably- reach 20,000,000
bushels.

Butter Trade. — Cincinnati has become the great distributing point for
butter and cheese for the South and South-West. During the year ending
Sept. 1, 1852, the imports of butter were 3,412,600 lbs., and the exports
3,321,250 lbs. These two quantities differing only about one million of
pounds, it follows that a quantity nearly equal to that actually consumed
by the inhabitants, must be received from private conveyances, and this is
computed to be about 4,000,000 lbs, annually. On this supposition,
3,000,000 lbs. being received by private conveyances, the whole quantity
actually supplied annually, from all sources, must be six and a half millions
of pounds.

Tobacco. — Formerly this was but one branch of the business of grocers,
but within a few years it has assumed a new importance, and large commis-
sion houses have been established, devoted exclusively to this product, and it
is now through these agencies that the wholesale dealers are chiefly supplied,
A city inspection has been established, and a tobacco warehouse, on an ex-
tensive scale, is already erected. This city is the centre of a great tobacco
region, and is its most convenient market.

Candles. — This business has been greatly increased within a tew years,
and has now acquired no liitle importance. In 1846-7, the expoils were

714 AGRICULTURE AT THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

16,622 boxes. In 1851-2, they were 121,72*7 boxes, and this perhaps is
scarcely a moiety of the entire manufacture.

Whiskey. — This article was manufactured in and around the city, in 1852,
to an extent of more than 4000 barrels, beside what was consumed by its
inhabitants. We hope tliis product is not destined to increase. " **'

By the census of 1850, the annual products of Ohio, in the several articles
named, are as follows :

Pigiron, entire value, - - - $1,255,850

Castings, 3,069,350

Wrought-iron, 1,076,192

Woollen goods, 1,111,027

Cotton " 39,4700

The agricultural statistics are as follows :

Acres of improved land, - - - 9,730,650

Value of farining inoplements, etc., - $12,716,153

" hve stock, . . . . 43,276,187 .

Wheat, bushels, - - - - 14,967,056

Indian Corn, " 59,788 750

Flaxseed, " .... 185,598

Wool, lbs. 10,089,607

Butter, " 34,180,458

Cheese, " 21,350,478

Maple Sugar, lbs. ... - 4,521,643

Wine, gallons, 44,834

Hay, tons, 1,360,636

Dew-rotted Hemp, tons, - - - - 628

Water « " " .... 464

Value of home-made manufactures, - $1,696,601

' The steamboats and barges constructed and registered during the year
1853, were 10,252 tons, custom-house measurement.

Commerce. — In 1852, 267 steamboats arrived at the wharf, the regis-
tered tonnage of which was 60,543 tons, and their capacity about 120,000
tons. The total nunaber of arrivals was about 3675, or more than 10 daily,
and from the following places: New-Orleans, 219 ; Pittsburgh, 574; St.
Louis, 218; other ports, 2654. The total arrivals in 1853 were 3630.

The value of the total imports imports into Cincinnati during the year end-
ing August 31, 1852, was $41,256,199, and for year ending 1853, was
$51,230,744. The exports for these two periods were, severally, $33,234,896,
and $36,260,108.

AGRICULTURE OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

While these Islands are being rapidly depopulated of their native inhabit-
ants, the foreigners are rapidly developing their agricultural resources.

By the Report of 1853 of the Royal Hawaiian Society, it apjtears that
sugar is one of the staple productions. The cane, although a native of that
island, does not grow so well as in the East Indies. The product of sugar
for the year 1853 was estimated at 700 tons, which, with the molasses, was
valued at $100,000. This is far below the capability of these sugar-fields, as
hundreds of them are lying idle for want of money and enterprise.

AGRICULTURE AT THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 715

Coffee grows well there.

Wheat, until recently, has been little grown. Now they are erecting
mills, and it is thouo-ht this grain may succeed well. Indian corn has not
succeeded well. Potatoes grow abundantly. The production of sweet pota-
toes is astonishing. They grow well tipon all the islands, and upon hills of
broken lava, where there is not a particle of earth to be seen. The sweet
potatoe is the great article of food in the dry, burnt districts of H;iwaii. The
amount of labor required to raise a crop is very small, even where a pre-
tense is made at cultivation, and the yield is from fifty to seventy-five barrels
per acre; but the quality is inferior to those grown in Bermuda or the south-
ern United States.

Apples, pears, plums, quinces, and cherries have not succeeded well.
They find the same difiiculty there that is met with in several of our most
southern States. The scale insect affects the trees, and the extreme heat of
summer dries them up so that the fruit fails to come to perfection. But
they have figs, grapes, bananas, oranges, etc., and no doubt will be able to
grow peaches to great perfection. Mr. Parker, of Hamahua, and Mr. Green,
of Makawao, have fine trees bearing fruit equal to New-Jersey or Delaware
peaches.

Tobacco. — Some attempts have been made to grow tobacco from Cuba
seed, which promises fair success.

Neat Cattle. — It is stated that this branch of farm business may be made
very profitable in all the Sandwich Islands. Cattle require no shelter, no
labor to provide winter food, no salting, and very little care. Horned cattle
are worth an averaoe of $5 a head at Oahu, and upon some of the islands
not more than half that sum. Most of the cattle imported have come from
Australia. Messrs. Hopkins and Moffit have introduced the Hereford and
Angus breeds, which have proved pro6table. Efforts are now making to
import Devon cattle from the United States, though the expense is very
great and the risk considerable. It is even talked of that butter and cheese
can be exported profitably from the islands. A Mr. Parker, of Hawaii, has
a herd of 140 cows, and although he gets a very small yield of milk and
butter, he sells it for fifty cents a pound, and receives $2340 a year for his
sales, and fats a large number of swine with the milk.

Sheep. — Several persons upon Hawaii and Oahu have engaged extensively
in sheep-raising, and have flocks of 1000 to 3000, though but little value
is placed upon the fleece — the meat and fat being the great object. Conse-
quently but little attention has been paid to breeds. Generally, the stock
are derived from the Merino and Saxon, principally from Australia. We
notice a late importation of South Downs from the flocks of Mr. Mcln-
tyre, of Albany, and L. G. Morris, of Mt. Fordham. The ewes produce
lambs at a year old, and two a year afterward. The greatest difiiculty there
in the way of sheep-raising is the same that afflicts all parts of the United
States — the packs of worthless dogs, the most worthless of all animals except
their owners. The only way to rid any district of these thieving curs is to
administer a grain of strychnine, disguised in a piece of meat, to each cur.

Swine. — Whoever knows any thing of the importations at San Francisco
for a few years past, must have come to the conclusion that pigs are among
the spontaneous products of the Sandwich Islands. Very large numbers
have been taken from the islands to California and Oregon, until the price
has risen from almost nothing to equal the price in this city — say four to six
cents a pound. Every native can raise swine there as well as in this country,
and with some they constitute their entire possessions. Several importations

716 AGRICULTURE AT THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

have been lately made with a view to improve the breeds. The Agricul-
tural Society have obtained some of the Suffolk and Mackay breeds from.
Boston. Capt, John Meek has imported a number of valuable swine of Eng-
lish and American varieties, and the royal family have the pure Cliinese breed.

Horses. — A very marked improvement has been made in this branch of
business by recent importations. Some of the improved colts have soid for
$300 each. It is calculated that the expense of freight, etc., upon one horse
from here to Honolulu would be |200, beside the risk ; and this deters par-
ties from getting some of our improved breeds of horses out there, though
■we have no doubt they would do well, as the wild animals on the islands
when run down and caught with the lasso, and broken in or broken down
by a rider wilder than the horse, seldom make good domestic animals for
the car li age or form work.

Mules. — They are very common in these islands. Now and then they
are seen ten or twelve hands high, but generally they are small and inferior.
These little mules are used by the natives to bring their produce to market,
and often present a ludicrous appearance, being so covered over with packs
as to be hardly discernible.

Poultry. — The hen-fever has reached the Sandwich Islands in a modified
form. The Shanghai is said to be too delicate to be raised with profit, but
makes a good cross upon the native fowls. Mr. H. M. Whitney has imported
some black Spanish and Dorking fowls, which will make a better breed than
either native or Shanghai.

Honey-bees. — Several efforts have been made to introduce bees into the
islands as well as into California ; and as the experiment has been successful
in the latter country, we hope it will be in the former. Mr, Henry A. Pierce,
of Boston, shipped a hive, packed in ice, last year, but we have never learned
whether they reached their destination in safety. The Agricultural Society
of Honolulu numbers one hundred and twenty-four members, who have paid
$620, while the Society has received $500 from the Hawaiian Treasury.

One of the greatest obstacles in the way of agriculture is the indolence of
the native inhabitants, who can not be induced to work for themselves or for
others upon reasonable terms. There is a great diflficulty in cultivating the
lands in the interior of the islands, because there are no wagon-roads upon
which to bring produce to market. There is also a great lack of capital
among those who are disposed to apply it to the production of crops. Like
almost all southern climes, this seems to be the home of all sorts of destructive
insects, which the farmer has to contend against.

The surface of the islands is formed of decomposed volcanic matter, which
is productive of many crops, and particularly of grapes, wherever it exists.
Wherever tried, grapes yield most luxuriantly, and an acre well set in vines
is valued at one thousand dollars ; yet there are thousands of acres lying
idle and waste, which might be rendered equally valuable.

A fruit called " papaya" is raised with facility from seeds upon any good
soil, and is a wholesome vegetable, and much used for tarts, and makes a
nutritious food for poultry and swine. It is stated that forty tons an acre
can be produced of papaya, and a crop of pumpkins at the same time;
the vines shade the roots of the plants, and those in their turn shade the
vines. Another advantage of growing this plant is one that would make it
highly valuable for this vicinity ; for a tough piece of beef suspended among
the leaves of the growing papaya is rendered perfectly tender in a few hours.

It is stated that the imports of flour, corn, rice, tobacco, and wine amount
to ^125,000 a year, all of which might be produced at home without any
diiHculty.

GOVERNMENT PATRONAGE. 717

GOVERNMENT PATRONAGE.

The connection between our government and t"he various interests of the
country, and the policy to be pursued in reference to them, has been a fiuit-
fal topic of discussion. Believing as we do that government is not a mere
cold abstraction, nor a senseless machine, whose only business it is to crush
what comes under its power in a manner contrary to the general notions of
propriety, but rather an institution for promoting, by positive enactments,
the good of the whole, and of its several parts, we fully agree with the spirit
of the article below, taken from De Bovo's Review for April, and we com-
mend it to careful attention. Says this writer :

" General Washington, Mr. .Jefferson, Mr. Madison, Mr, Monroe, and Mr.
Adams, fur a period of thirty-six years consecutively, all recommended an,
improvement of agriculture, or national schools ; and the same principles and
powers are involved in each of their recommendations, and no one of the
subsequent presidents advising against it; Mr. Taylor and Mr. Fillmore
strongly recommending, and their secretaries ; the resolutions of legislatures,
petitions of^agricultural societies and of the people, and the interest of eigh-
teen millions of our inhabitants, yea, of the whole, I ask, if all this combined
is entitled to any attention, to any consideration ? It has received but very
little. But I am told there is a patent office, and the farmers are abundantly
enlightened with the crumbs that fall from its table. The patent office, until
3 831, during General Jackson's administration, when he called Mr. Ellsworth
to it, was a burlesque, and is now, upon forming, compared with the wants
of this great nation. Mr. Ellsworth was a practical farmer ; but he had all
to do, and nothing to do with. He was the first in that office to give any
attention to agriculture. But the first appropriation for that object was in
1839, llOOO, for collecting agricultural statistics; in 1842, $1000; in 1843,
$2000; in 1844, $2000; in 1845, $3000; in 1847, ,^3000; in 1848,
$3500; in 1849, |3500; in 1850, $4500; in 1851, $5500 ;— total,.
$29,000 in seventy-five years. The cost of printing is not included, and
can not be ascertained, as the report of the Commissioner was all published
in one volume until the last two years. What can this small pittance do for
this great nation ? Scarcely enough in any one year to defray the ordinary
expenses of correspondence.

The fund is to be distributed by the Commissioner of Patents, who is not
selected for his knowledge of agriculture, (whose main business is of a differ-
ent character, and more than he can do,) and may or may not be acquaiuted
with it. The business must therefore be done by an unaccredited ao-ent.
Where is our agricultural department ? Pent up in the cellar of the patent
office, and can not be found at midday without a candle ; and when found a
single clerk, struggling to get up the report. When it is up and out, there
are but four hundred volumes for each Congressional district of one hundred
thousand population, and that a reading people ; and there is more call for
this document than all others of a public character, and fast gaining- in
reputation from editors over the Union, and the public generally, inadequate
as it is.

There is no country where the mind is so inquisitive and information so
generally desired and possessed as in America. Travel over the whole world
and return, and the truth is seen and felt more palpably. To us the ma ses
of the world are looking for improvement, physically and morally, and for it

VOL. VI. — PART II. 22

718 GOVERNMENT PATRONAGE,

they seek us in thousands daily. In the United States there are but about
thirty agricultural periodicals i)ublislied, and there are five hundred thousand
copies taken and read by the people — a mere drop to the ocean. There are
agricultural journals in the State of New-York that have six times greater
circulation than any single paper of the kind in Europe. This only shows
how great the thirst we ought to assist in gratifying. In America, there is
not an agricultural school aided or patronized by the government; and, in
fact, it may be said, there is none at all. Some are just beginning to strug-
gle for life, but the faint, feeble feeling of the general government infuses
itself into every part of its great family, and paralyzes the whole body.
There is not what may be regarded as a text-book in any branch of agricul-
ture or rural economy in America.

Compare what America as a nation has done, with what has been done by
other nations. I can but glance at it. Russia has in all sixty-eight schools
and colleges. She has an agricultural institution with forty college buildings,
occupying three thousand acres of land, and attended by several thousand
students. The Agricultural Society of St. Petersburg was established by
Queen Catharine. There are under the patronage of the French government
seventy school-farms, besides five first-class colleges, in which professors are
employed to lecture on botany, zoology, chemistry, agriculture, and the treat-
ment of diseases in cattle ; on the culture of woods, forests, etc. These are
supported throughout the country. National establishments for the improve-
ment of breeds of stock, and colleges for the education of veterinary sur-
geons, and investigatit.g the uses of all discoveries contemplated for agricul-
tural improvement. The government expend in three veterinary schools, a
year, for instruction, '754,200 francs ; for instruction in agriculture, 2,731,468
francs ; for encouragement in agriculture, 700,000 francs ; for improvement
in the breeds of horses and science connected with it alone, 1,776,400 francs.
The renuirements for admission into these veterinary schools are as follows :
The applicant must be not less than seventeen years of age, and not over
twenty-five, and have the following qualifications: to be able to forge a horse
or ox-shoe after two heatings ; pass an examination in the French language,
arithmetic, and geography, and after four years' study, is permitted to prac-
tise veterinary surgery, and receive a diploma. In Belgium, great attention
is paid to the subject. There are a hundred agricultuial schools or colleges
established by the government — a high school of veterinary surgery. The
science ' f agriculture is the most fashionable in the kingdom. They have
their palaces furnished more or less with rare specimens of the products of
the land, and are farmed like a garden. Tliese facts I know, having travelled
over considerable part of that country. In Saxony, they have five schools ;
in Bavaria, thirty -five; in Wurtemberg, seven ; in Austria, thirty-three; in
Prussia, thi sty-two; in Italy, two ; in Scotland, two; in Ireland, sixty-three.
The one at Glassnevin, near Dublin, I visited. It now consists of one hundred
and twenty-eight acres of good land, and convenient buildings, and are
about to add to their farm, and increase their buildings, so as to accommo-
date one hundred or more students. With the teacher, Mr. Donaghy, I
became acquainted. He is an intelligent, practical man. With him I viewed
the farm, and their farming and buildings, etc., and it is carried on very suc-
cessfully. These schools are doing more for Ireland than any other attention
the government is giving them. They have colleges and agricultural
schools in England sustained by the government — some four or five with
large farms attached to them — where all the sciences coiiuected with the
general business are taught with great perfection, and millions of money

SCULPTORS AND SCULPTURE. 719

■each year invested in the general science of ao-riculture by the nation. It is
an investment, aiid not an expenditure. Other countries are engaged in the
same business, but I can not go further into detail. Sufficient is said to draw
a parallel between their views and ours. Abroad, they invest millions each
year in a country not larger than an average of our States. Here, in all our
country, for seventy-five years, for the general object we have expended
$29,000. * * * The number of agricultural societies in this country
are thus given : New- York has a State society, and from seventy to eighty
county societies. Pennsylvania has from twelve to twenty county societies,
and many grouped together. Ohio has a State society, and seventy county
societies. Massachusetts has tweh^e societies, and in many of these societies
several counties together. Michigan has twenty county societies. Indiana,
a State society. Kentucky, five county societies. Georgia, a State society,
and fifteen county societies. South-Carolina has six county societies. Vir-
ginia has a State society, and three county societies. Maryland, a State
society, and four county societies. Vermont, a State society, and four county
societies, and was the first State to ask us to establish a National Board.
New-Hampshire, a State society, and eight or nine county societies, and also
asked Congress to establish a Board. Connecticut, a number of county socie-
ties. Rhode Island has also passed resolutions asking Congress to establish
a Board. Maine has six county societies. Iowa, a State society, and six or
eight county societies. Wisconsin, a State society. Illinois, three county
societies. Tennessee has some county societies, and two years since, unani-
mously recommended a National Board. Florida has passed a resolution for
a National Board. Louisiana, in 1848, passed a law for a Bureau."

SCULPTORS AND SCULPTURE.

DuRixG the middle ages, which extended from the sixth to the twelfth
century, universal darkness prevailed. The arts and artists were alike un-
heeded and unknown. Faint glimmerings of light only are vi.-ible till about
1064, when the great cathedral or Duomo was commenced, under Buschetto,
the first eminent sculptor in Italy. Venice was the first to establish her
liberty, but Pisa first founded a native school of art. In 1154, II Bueno,
both an architect and sculptor, founded at Naples the Capuan castle, and
erected the spires of St. Mark's at Venice. Niccola da Pisa introduced a
decided improvement in sculpture. He was called Niccola of th« Urn, from.
a superb work which he sculptured at Bologna, about 1225. His greatest
work was the altar of San Donato, at Arezzo, which cost 30,000 gold florins.
Giovanni Pisano was his son, and a distinguished sculptor and architect.
Andrea Pisano, his grandson, produced several eminent works in the four-
teenth century.

The great cathedral, called the Santa Maria del Fiore, in Florence, not only
from its mngnificence, but from the connection which it has with the history
of more than one eminent artist, deserves especial consideration The Flo-
rentines resolved to erect a cathedral which should exhaust the power of
human skill. The work was commenced with great pomp. At the laying of
the foundation, "the birth-day of the Virgin," great throngs were assembled,
and the greatest enthusiasm prevaded. Free indulgences were granted by
the Pope to those who contributed to the enterprise. The work was com-

720 SCULPTORS AND SCULPT U'RE.

mitted to Arnolfo di Lapo, who died soon after it was undertaken, and ere
long his associate, Andrea Pi«ano, followed him. Here the work was left
unfinished. Arnolfo's plans for the cupola were not undei-stood, and the
work was considered almost beyond human ability. This was near the com-
mencement of the fifteenth century. But in 14'J0, the wardens determined
that the cupola should remain unfinished no lonoer. Proposals were accord-
ingly issued, inviting all eminent architects to meet in Florence upon a cer-
tain day, and present their ideas upon the suliject. The day came. All
nations, in their peculiar costumes and various languages, were represented.
Each one was permitted to speak for himself Some asserted that a huge
scaffolding was necessary ; others, that a column should be built in the cen-
tre of the church, etc., etc.

Among these artists was Filippo Brunelleschi, a man diminutive and de-
formed in body, but of remarkable intellect. He was first educated a* a gold-
smith, and he soon excelled in setting precious stones. He executed also
small images in silver, and figures of half length which attracted much atten-
tion. Filippo became acquainted Avith Donatello, a young sculptor of great
promise, with whom he was ever afterward very intimate, and by whose
counsel he was often guided. Filippo turned his attention als^ to per-
spective, and did much to reduce it to a science ; also to geometry, in
which he became a proficient. These two friends often worked together,
and with mutual appreciation. Among others, he presented a plan and
design for reconstructing the two doors of the church of San Giovanni, which
none were thought capable of doing since the days of Andrea Pisano.
Lorenzo Ghiberti was the successful competitor, and both Filippo and Dona-
tello pronounced his plan superior to theirs, and declared that he ought to be
the artist. The two friends then departed for Rome. The sight of the mag-
nificent churches and buildings of that city filled Filippo with surprise, and
he determined, under the influence of the enthusiasm thus inspired in him,
to devote himself to architecture, leaving sculpture, in which he had become
eminent, to his friend. After a while he returned to Florence.

It was at this time, that the measures already described were taken for the
completion of the cupola of Santa Maria, and that, among others, Filippo pre-
sented his plans and designs for that work. After the other rival artists had
been called upon in turn, and each had given his own opinions, Filippo came
forward, and assured them that the work could be done at much less cost
than had been proposed, and without any scaffolding. He became at once
the subject of ridicule, and was even ejected from the hail by force. He then
urged his views upon the attention of the judges upon paper, and was at last
able to convince them that his judgment was the best, and that the work
should be committed to him. As it was a work of very great responsibility,
however, it was judged that another should share it with him, and, mucJi to
his chagrin, Lorenzo Ghiberti, above named, was appointed his colleague.
It was in vain that he protested, and he accordingly proceeded with his work,
Ghiberti being often called upon to sanction the plans of Filippo. Soon,
however, the latter was taken ill, and when the workmen still came to Filippo
for his directions, he utterly declined giving any, referring them to Ghiberti,
his colleague. But Ghiberti was utterly incompetent to direct them ; and as
Filippo did not hasten his recovery, the work came to a stand-still, and his
colleague Avas obliged to confes-^ that he was unable to proceed with or direct
it. The wardens at last, seeing that such was tlie fact, gave the whole manage-
ment to Filippo. He resumed his work with new energy, and was extolled
as the great'est architC'Ct in tlie world. And this was true. Plis own plan

SCULPTORS AND SCULPTURE. 721

for the lantern was also accepted, though he had many competitors, and he
was left to execute it alone. But in the midst of this project, he was called
away. He died in 1446, deeply deplored, and was more honored when dead
than when living. He was Luried in Santa Maria del Fiore, the place of his
noblest work.

DoNATELLO, who has been so prominent in the scenes just described, was
born at Florence, in the year 1383. From early life he devoted himself to
sculpture. His first work which had especial reputation was the Annuncia-
tion, placed in the church of Santa Croce, in Florence. He also executed a
crucifix, in wood, which was much admired. But the following scene, given
us in the volumes of Mrs. Lee, is too good to be omitted :

" While all the world were admiring the crucifix, and the artist himself
could see no fault in it, he conceived the idea that Filippo was cold tov/ard it.
At first he proudly determined to provoke no criticism by questions. At
length, however, his pride yielded, and he said, ' You have never told me
what you think of my work.' ' Ave you not satisfied with the approbation
you liave received V said Filippo. ' No,' replied Donatello, ' I must have
yours. Come, tell me honestly if you see any faults V

They took their station before the piece of sculpture ; Brunelleschi looked
long and earnestly at it. ' It is well carved,' said he ; ' there is no fault in
the crucifix.'

' JSTay." said Donatello, ' this ^s cold approbation ; I demand of you, by
our long friendship, to tell me truly what you think of the whole.'

Filippo knew the irritability of his friend; but, thus implored, he spoke:
*I have ever imagined the figure and form of Jesus Christ as perfect. The
sublin:iity of his doctrines, the grandeur of his conceptions, and the sweetness
of his character, have thrown a human idea of beauty over the whole. When
I think of Christ, I contempkte him in his transfigui-ation on the mount, and
I behold in him divine loveliness.'

' Well,' said Donatello, ' go on ; what have I done V

' Thoa hast placed a boor on the cross. Look at his robust limbs, at the
resolute, almost fierce look of his countenance. In vain I seek for the benign
expression that must have distinguished the Saviour — the submission and
resignation which triumphed over the agonies of death.'

'That is thy opinion, is \tV said Donatello, his eyes sparkling with sensi-
bility. ' Were it as easy to execute a work as to judge it, thou wouldst not
be so severe on my Christ. Thou hadst better try to make one thyself, after
■^ine own idea.'

Filippo made no reply, but determined to try his skill. He worked labo-
riously and secretly for several months, neither Donatello nor any one else
conjecturing his occupation. One day he invited his friend to dine with him,
and, according to the custom of artists at that time, they went to the market
together. When there, Filippo purchased various articles, and requesting
Donatello to take them home, said he would follow. ' Do not be impatient,'
said he, ' but look about and amuse thyself; I will be after thee in a few
minutes.'

Donatello took the articles in his apron, and proceeded to the house.
When h'i entered, the first object that .struck his eyes was a Christ upon the
cross, which Filippo had been secretly carving. Donatello, overcome with
astonishment, let the contents of his apron fall, and when Filippo entered, he
found him gazing in speechle-ss admiration upon the Christ.

' Why, what hast thou been doing with my dinner ?' said he, laughing.

' T have no apnetite for dinner to-day,' said Donatello ; ' I acknowledge

722 U. S. AGKICULTUKAL SOCIETY.

that thou alone hast executed as it deserved the figure of Christ. I see now
that mine is a boor, as thou hast said.' "

This was Brunelleschi's Crucifixion, which, it is said, has aroused infidels
to adoration. The two friends were more strongly united than ever.

In the Santa Maria del Fiore are two singing-boys, by Donatello, repre-
sented in alto-relievo, of uncommon beauty. In the Florence Gallery is a
bronze statue, supposed to be a Mercury, which is thought to equal the works
of ancient art. His marble statue of St. George is unrivalled.

His life is full of interesting: incidents. He died in 1440.

U. S. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY: CATTLE CONVENTION

Springfield, Ohio, May 1, 18S4.
To THE Editors of the Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil :

Gentlemen : The 25th, 26th, and and 27th days of October next, have
been fixed by the United States Agricultural Society, for holding its first
Cattle Convention, in the city of Springfield, Clark county, Ohio,

Six thousand dollars will be distributed in premiums for the best stock of
the various breeds of cattle subject to competition without territorial limit.

The Executive Committee of the United States Agricultural Society have
been careful to select a time that will not, so far as tbey are aware, conflict
with any of the State Fairs or other meetings of general interest ; and, after
due deliberation, have selected this place as the most eligible for holding the
Cattle Fair. Springfield is centrally located as regards the cattle region ; it
is most convenient of access by railroad from almost every point of the com-
pass. The means for accommodating, at very moderate charges, a large
number of persons, are ample. Private 'houses will be opened for the recep-
tion of guests. There are also eighteen cities and towns within reach by an
hour's ride on the railroads, on which extra trains will be placed to accom-
modate such as wish to go elsewhere for lodgings.

About twenty acres of ground have been inclosed, and more than three
hundred stalls will be prepared for the shelter of cattle during the Convention.

It is expected that very liberal arrangements will be made by all the rail-
road companies, both for the transportation of cattle and the con^-eyance of
passengers to and from the Fair.

We respectfully solicit your attendance on the occasion, and that you will
furnish us with such aid as you may feel disposed in making known the ob-
jects, time, and place of the Convention ; and if you have improved stock of
cattle, of any description, we cordially invite you to enter them lor competition.

A list of premiums and a copy of regulations will shortly be published.
Very respectfully, yours,

J. T. Warder, )

C. M. Clark, >- Local Exec. Com.

Chandler Robbins, )

We respectfully request you to give this communication a prominent
insertion in your paper, accompanied with such editorial remarks as may
promote the objects in view.

[We commend the above to general attention, and shall refer to it here-
after.— Eds. p., L., and A.

A SPLENDID BARN. 723

A SPLENDID BAKN.

Few farmers can afford to erect a building equal to one that t*hey can
plan, and still fewer to build one like that described below. Still, we publish
a description of it, because he who can not obtain all its advantages may-
secure a part. Perhaps some of them can be provided for in those already
occupied. We ask especial attention to the manner of feeding. The italics
in that paragraph are ours. The description was given, as appears below,
by a correspondent of the Rural New- Yorker. — [Eds. P., L., & A.

"A correspondent of the Rural New-Yorker gives an account of a barn,
belonging to David Leavitt, Esq., a merchant-prince of New- York city, who
has a farm in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, pleasantly located upon the
Housatonic.

It is two hundred feet in length, with a centre wing on the east side,
three stories high, with an arched roof covered with tin, and a cupola on the
centre, and erected at an expense of nearly $20,000. It is based in a ravine
-which it spans, thus affording an easy entrance into the third story. Through
this ravine runs a durable stream, with which is formed a beautiful reservoir
of water directly above the barn, that operates upon a wheel twenty feet in
diameter, thus forming an excellent motive power, that is used for a great
variety of purposes, such as sawing wood and lumber, threshing, cleaning,
and elevating the grain, cutting straw and stalks, unloading the hay, deposit-
ing it in any desired loft, churning, grinding, etc.

The first story is used as a manure vault ; the second for stabling ; the
third for grain, hay, and apartments for domestics. The arrangement for
feeding the cattle is most ingenious and convenient, the following descrip-
tion of which I give in the language of Mr. Wilkinson, namely : 'All the
manual labor required in feeding the cattle is to run a car which contains
twenty-five bushels of feed, before the line of cattle, and shovel the food
into the feeding-boxes, which are of cast-iron, quadrant-shaped, of about
one bushel capacity, and one to each stall. The boxes are placed one on each
side of a partition, that divides two stalls, and are each attached at the right
angle corner of the box to the front parLition-stud by hinges, so that the
boxes may be swung around into the feeding-hall, in front of the cattle, and
over the feeding-car, that the feed which spills in filling the boxes, may fall
into the car instead of on the floor. After the boxes are filled, they are
turned with a slight touch, before the cattle again. In the centre, betw^een
the next or adjoining pair of stalls, is an erect cylinder, two feet in diameter
at the bottom, and one foot eight inches at the top, which projects equally
into each stall, and extends from about a horizontal line with the tops of feed-
boxes (on the opposite side of the stalls) to the upper surface of the hay-loft
floor, directly over the cattle, that it may be filled from that floor. There is
a circular aperture six inches in diameter, in each side of the hay-tuhe, at a
convenient height from the floor, so that two animals may eat from the tube
at the same time. Under the tube is a drawer into which all the loose hay-
seed falls through its latticed bottom, which drawer, when full, isen:ptied, and
when a large quantity of seed accumulates, it is cleaned for use or market.
The seed obtained is of a superior quality, and the quantity ordinarily
saved hy this arrangement will pay for all th-e manual labor required about
the building throughout the year. Across the Iront of the stalls there is also
an ordinary box-manger, directly under which, and running the whole length

724 WORK — WORK RIGHT, WORK EVER.

of the stable, is a trougli for water, with suitable opening in the bottom of
the manger through "which, the cattle may be watered by removing the iron
slides that close them, which is done by means of a lever opening the line
of slides at once, and in an instant.

The very great economy and convenience of this arrangement is obvious at
a glance, and may be taken as a specimen of the perfection exhibited through-
out. Under one of the drive-ways, into the third story, is an arched room,
■well ventilated, and lighted with a glass front, which is used as a milk-room,
and has a great many conveniences connected with it for diminishing the
labor of taknig care of the dairy, which can all be performed without the
least exposure to the weather, and within the compass of a few feet. The
herd is fed with hay, cut feed, and steamed roots that are reduced to a pulp
by the revolution of a cylinder in which the roots are placed after steaming,
with four cannon-balls of ten pounds each ; and, I believe, during the sum-
mer season, the soiling system is to be practised in part. The building is
well lighted and ventilated, so that no diseases are generated by the confine-
ment of impure air and the deleterious gases, an important feature that is too
often overlooked. On the side of the barn facing the Housatonic, which is
but a few hundred feet distant, are projections of cut stone, so arranged as
to convert the water which falls over them into a sheet of foam, from which
it justly derives its name of Cascade Barn."

rOR THE PLOUGH, THK LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

WORK — WORK RIGHT, WORK EVER.

Let the cobbler stick to his last. This is an old adage, and if I were to
strictly observe its mandate, might never venture a line for publication. But
such is the waywardness of man, that he is seldom satisfied to stick to one
thing always. No ; change and variety is rather more congenial to his na-
ture. For an humble farmer in the hill-country of East Tennessee, who can
only lay claim to the name by occupancy, since all his earlier energies were
engrossed differently, to now turn agiicultural writer smacks somewhat of
strangeness ; and that, too, to first meet the eye of thout^ands of well-expe-
rienced practical men, deserving the name, ought well nigh to prove too
much embarrassment for me. But, disclaiming here any vanity at all about
seeing my desultory and perhaps useless ideas printed, and relying upon the
more ripe discretion of The Plough, the Loom, and the A'/ivil,mth. many thanks
to its generous conductors for the information it has yielded me, I come now
humbly, I trust, to award them — and next, if I should say a word lliought to
be of any value, and it shall appear, I shall be amply requited. Let the cob-
bler stick to his last. Yes, and why not — hammer, lajistone, and awl ? Well,
this lays down a principle of assiduous application to work for the cobbler.
Let it be understood, too, that it impliedly forbids meddling with other mat-
ters. Then, brother farmer, let me drop you, as meekly as I may, but with
as much candor, the key of success in farming. Work, and work right, and
work ever, and success is bound to be the result. But, when some of our
farmers who tuin to other pursuits, and make farming a dernier resso^-t to kill
time, may truly complain of the barrenness of this occupation in furnishing
suitable matter for the press. Why. it is said by many that farming is merely

PROPER USE OF GUANO. 725

a consecutive bundle of experiments adapted to the great order of nature.
Admit it — and the same might be said of steam, of electricity, magnetism,
etc., etc. — and what, I ask, would be fate of all the wonders of nature and art
of man, if God did not speed the plough ? It is, we know, inconvenient for
planters to meet together in organized bodies, and dt-liberate like others upon
questions of policy that interest them. Then they should, (should they not ?)
read, correspond, note down experiments, study to shorten and lighten labor,
fertilize the soil, grow the best seeds of the best crops, raise the best stock,
the most valuable fruits, the healthiest vegetables, and build the most durable
fences, dwellings, etc. A farmer's own interest always prompts him to raise
a surplus of that which is most marketable in his locality ; and, as for mar-
ket, I have heard the remark, that he that has nothing to sell is farthest from
it. Already, and long ago, have our worthy farmers known that education,
to their children, is of much importance ; and much to their praise be it
spoken, again and again, that they carry out the thing to the very letter.
Our greatest, best, most conspicuous, most learned, and most honored men,
are mainly farmers or farmers' sons. Then, as of cobbling, so of farming ;
as I borrow the adage, I return it — Let the cobbler stick to his last, and I add,
the farmer to his plough. A. L, B.

Mill-Bend, Term., April, 1864.

PROPER USE OF GUANO.

This is a fruitful topic, on which much more light is needed. With the
view of adding something in this way, we give place to the following judi-
cious article in The Farmer and Visitor. It deserves careful attention.

Mk. Editor : All the agricultural papers teem with articles on the use of
guano, which declare chemical principles and practical experiments. One
says, "Do not mix it with plaster — as I hare tried it." Another puts half
a shovelful of hen-dung (guano) in a hill of corn, and the corn utterly failed ;
yet the same writer says, "to guano a small quantity of house-ashes or caustic
lime might be added advantageously, and perhaps a small quantity of gyp-
sum would be of use." These are experiments of theory and practice, with-
out any true principle to guide. Just as well (and it is strange the farmer
does not seize the idea as of universal application) might the wheelwright
expect to make a symmetrical circular wheel by hewing out the hub, taking
sticks for spckes of any shape and dimensions, and setting them at ran-
dom in the hub, as that the farmer, who is now most rapidly becoming a
" Practical Chemist," can usefully, economicall)'^ employ purchased or any
manures unless intelligently.

Some look upon guano more mystei'iously, because it comes from the other
side of the continent — i'rom desolate, rocky islands, and covered there many
feet deep — sold in the cities at a great cost, and brought up into the country ;
yet it is, after all, nothing more nor less than the " manure of the hen-houseP
There is no rain in the regions of these islands ; hence it is preserved. All
rocky islands inhabited by sea-fowl would furnish guano, if their climate
were dry ; but now it is decomposed and washed into the sea in all moist
di mates.

In this neighborhood, ffty tons of guano have lately been purchased from
New-York; and it is a very important matter, therefore, whether or not the
cost, $2500, is to come back into the pockets of the farmer or be a dead loss

726 PROPER USE OF GUANO,

Should they put half a shovelful into each hill of corn, or spread it on the
barn-floor " to slack," or grind it at the mill, or mix it with caustic lime or
ashes, there would in every case be a loss.

^ Guano kept in bags wastes ou the same principle that the druggist loses
his ammonia or harsthorn, if the bottle is left open, and how rapidly if he
pours it out into a dish.

The smell of ammonia passing oft' is always present; the closest cask, there-
fore, keeps it best.

Seeds put into guano, or on it, where in quantities, and covered, are
"burned," like the manure-heaps when the heat of fermentation is too
great.

Guano mixed with sand would certainly not be acted on by the sand ; and
guano, it is believed, when mixed with plaster, is not at all aftected by it.
Guano mixed wdth ashes is raj^idly decomposed, and with lime more rapidly
than by ashes.

I have made these experiments in a way that can be repeated by the farmer ;
and if you please, I wish you to repeat them. I send you inclosed a sheet of
red litmus paper for the purpose.

If you take tea-cups, and place in one a tablespoonful of guano, mix the
same quantity of guano with an equal part of plaster in another, and with ashes
and lime in two others. Cut the sheet into squares, wet them in clear water,
and lay one tight over each cup, and observe the change, from red to blue.
The rapidity of the change, and the intensity of the blue tint, will illustrate
the passing oft' of the ammonia in the gaseous form.

The decompostion with ashes and lime was exceedingly rapid ; the other
two seemed to advance about equally, unless the guano alone exhaled more
ammonia than when mixed with plaster.

If the plaster acts on the guano to separate ammonia, the sulphuric acid
must take it and form sulphate of ammonia, set free the lime. Guano,
mixed with common salt, does not seem to lose ammonia, and if the two are
decomposed, still the ammonia ought to be retained, in combination with the
chlorine, as sal ammoniac. The first point is to retain the ammonia : and
any compost of guano that does not act to set free the ammonia, can not be
injurious.

De Bow''s Review for May also contains the following excellent remarks
upon the uses of guano as a fertilizer, based upon the experiments of D. J.
McCord, an intelligent planter of South Carolina :

"Langsyne, March 22, 1853.

My Dear Sir : In the winter I reside entirely on the plantation here,
and my post-office is Fort Mott. Your letter, being directed to Columbia,
was not forwarded to me until yesterday. I fear now that my answer will
reach you too late, especially if you wish to apply guano to your corn. For
many hereabouts have planted, or nearly done. I am not half <lone. But
to begin with my answer.

For two years I mixed four bushels of dry sand with one bushel of guano.
This year, to save trouble, I will mix two bushels of sand to one of guano.
Fine charcoal, taken from the railfoad, a blacksmith-shop, or coal-kiln, is ex-
cellent, because, like gypsum, it will retain tlie ammonia; any dry, fine dirt,
will do as well as sand. My object for mixing is to increase the quantity
to be put down more accurately by dull and careless bands.

My mode of mixing is this. I take for the purpose some dry shed — free
from the wind is better, for it may mix and blow away much of it. I then
take a coarse iron sieve and sift a layer of sand, and on that a layer of guano,

PEOPER USE OF GUANO. 727

until I get it all mixed for the field. If the sand or earth is damp, it will
cause evaporation and loss. When thus prepared, you may put it into the
ground just before you plant, or a month before. If put under the seed of
corn or cotton, it should be covered by the plough or hoe two, three, or four
inches, so that when you put the seed in the ground over it, there may be
two, or three, or four inches between the seed and guano ; for if they come
in contact it will kill the seed ; but by the time the roots reach it, it will be
diffused in the soil, and nourish and not destroy it.

I have only once tried it on an acre of corn. It was a very unfavorable
year for corn, being dry. I put a tablespoonful (not heaping) of guano in
each hill, and covered it with fresh earth, and the corn was then covered about
two inches. The adjoining acre was manured as usual with stable-manme
and cotton-seed mixed.

The acre manured with stable-manure and cotton-seed was seven or eight
inches high, while that manured with guano was so small and so wretched
that I had some idea of cutting it up and replanting them. It rained, and
in one week afterward the guanoed corn was as large as the other, and soon
became larger, and with much stouter stalks, and continued much the largest,
yielding much better fodder ; but the produce of corn was about the same^
each acre producing between sixteen and seventeen bushels. I planted in
five-feet rows the stalks two feet apart. A tablespoonful a hill will take from
180 to 200 lbs. But if I were intending to use guano on corn, I would not
put the guano to it until it was up, and at the first ploughing run a bull-tongue
near the corn, and sprinkle the guano opposite the corn — a tablespoonful on
each side might do, or half a tablespoonful on each side. It must be followed
by another plough, and covered immediately. I have heard of much less
doing. I have never made any other experiment with corn.

A bushel of guano weighs 58 lbs.

N'ow for cotton.

On cotton, I have used guano for three years.

The first year my experiment was a small one, but clearly showed the im-
portance of guano.

In 1851, 1 manured twenty acres old, worn-out red lands with two hundred
pounds guano to the acre. It yielded :

1st picking, . . . - -

2d "

3d "

4th "

5th '•

11,724 lbs.
Average per acre, 616^ lbs.

One acre adjoining, same quality exactly, unmanured, yielded :

1st picking, .__..- OO lbs.

2d " 00 "

3d " 60 "

4th " ....--- 108 "
5th " 76 "

900

lbs.

1,700

a

4,995

u

4,053

u

76

(.

244 lbs.
Difference per acre in favor of guano, 372^.

In 1852, I manured 36 acres with 180 lbs. per acre. It produced 31,540

728 PROPER USE OF GUANO.

lbs. seed cotton, or 875 lbs. to the acre. More than half of the land was very
old, sandy land, never manured ; the rest inferior, old red land. Of the ad-
joining acres unmanured, ray overseer by mistake did not keep the weights ;
but I do not believe that it averaged 450 lbs. At that rate, the difference
was 426 lbs. per acre.

For 1853, I intend to manure 34 acres with 174 lbs., which is 3 bushels of
guano, and 10 acres with 100 lbs. to the acre. I am told that quantity pro-
duces well, and perhaps pays best, costing so much less. One of my neigh-
bors last year used 1 bushel (58 lbs.) per acre. He kept no account of
weights. His overseer told me that he thought it produced more than twice
as much as that not manured.

Now for my mode of putting down.

My acres are 42 compasses square — 60 rows to the acre.

To put down 174 lbs. to the acre requires 3 bushels guano ; and if 2 bushels
of sand or dirt are put to each bushel of guano, it will take of the mixture 4
quarts, 1 pint, and 1 gill to each row.

To put doAvn 100 lbs. to the acre of the same mixture requires 2 bushels
of guano, (less 1 gallon,) and takes 3 quarts of the mixture to the row.

If you mix 4 bushels of sand to 1 of guano —

17-|- bushels of mixture will give 200 lbs. to the acre.

15t} bushels of mixture will give 180 lbs. to the acre.

15 bushels of mixture will give 174 lbs. to the acre.

13|- bushels of mixture will give 150 lbs to the acre.

So you must make your calculation in proportion to the material you mix
with the guano, and divide by the number of rows in your acre.

Let each hand have a small box to hold the quantity measured out of the
bags for each row, and take care that it hold out as even as it can be put.
They soon learn, after trying one or two rows.

You must not attempt to put it down in windy weather, or it will be
blown away. Take out what you want for the day only, in bags, to keep
from wind, and covered, if rain should come, for it would be injured by
getting wet before covered in the ground. I forgot to say why you should
sift it. In the first place, you mix it better by so doing ; and beside, the
guano has many lumps, and by sifting you get them out, and should break
them in a mortar or trough, so as to mix it with the earth ; otherwise these
lumps would burn up every thing.

I believe I have told you all I know. Gypsum is said to be excellent for
mixing with the guano ; and no doubt it would be so, as it would retain the
ammonia.

This year I bought guano in New-Yoik. It cost me, delivered here at
Fort Mott, $50 for 2000 lbs. If many planters would unite and take a large
quantity, it could be got still cheaper. By the new charter to the railroad to
Columbia, they can only charge 127^- cents per 106 lbs.

The fullest account that I have seen of the methods of using guano, is an
Essay on Guano, by J. E. Teschemacber, Boston, 1845. It was distributed
some years since, to those who bought guano, gratis. It was published by
A.D.Phelps, 124 Washington stu-eet, Boston, from whom, perhaps, it can be
had ; and by Saxton & Huntington, 295 Broadway, New-York.

I have been amused with some of the modes I have seen recommended by
knowing ones in the newspapers, namely, rubbing the cotton-seed with it,
etc. It killed the seeds wherever it touched it, the first year I used it ; and
my gardener, not regarding my cautions, burnt up every thing.

Let me know how you succeeded with your guano. I hope you will
receive this in time."

PLANTING IN MISSISSIPPI. 729

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANni.

PLANTING IN MISSISSIPPI.

BY H. W. STACKHOUSE.

I WILL now endeavor to redeem my promise, by giving you something
on the planting in this portion of Mississippi, being the souihern border of
this connty.

I do not offer my remarks for the purpose or with the expectation of in-
structing my brother planters. I present them, that you of the North may
have an idea what we are, and how we manage our crops.

The annalist, when he gives the history of a campaign, endeavors to pre-
sent, before the mind's eye of the reader, the topography of the country
where the events have transpired. The same should be the course of the
agricultural writer. To understand the mode of farming which he wishes to
delineate, it is necessary he should offer a cursory view of the country, and
the growth, color, and depth of soil.

Our uplands are generally gently rolling, except where they border on the
streams ; very often they terminate in abrupt hollows, forming ridges, fre-
quently not thirty feet across. Our level land is found on our streams. Most
of these streams only flow in the winter, or in wet weather. Very often when
we pass from the upland to the lowland, we strike a slip of wet land, lower
than that on the margin of the stream. This kind of land is a great trouble
to us ; it is either too wet or too dry, too hard or too soft, where ditching
renders a very poor equivalent for the expense. To make it available, we
should sink a ditch at the brow of the hill, another in the lowest part, then
cause the rovi^s to point to the latter ditch. After leaving this wet land, we
come to a rich body, bordering the stream, the width of either being governed
by the size of the stream.

The growth on our uplands embraces pine, several varieties of oak, dog-
wood, muscadine vine, and red elm. On the best cotton-land, in addition, we
have hickory, two kinds of gum, slippery-elm, the bunch-grape, with an occa-
sional poplar and walnut, and also chestnut ; but where the last grows, the soil
is rather too sandy. The lowlands have all of the above, the pine being
very scattering, indicating a poverty of soil. We faither have the magnolia,
linden, and wild peach, on the best; whilst on the socond-rate, considerable
beech and holly. We have other trees, but these, I think, are suflicient.

Our upland soil is from two inches to six in depth, based on a close, tena-
cious, yellowish clay, with almost all shades of color from gray to black.
That on the margin of the streams is in depth six inches to a foot, color a
light snuff" to a black, based on a light-colored, sandy clay. The wet land
is whitish, terminating in a sub-soil of the same appearance. The most dis-
tinctive feature of this land is a soft pebble, of the size of buck-shot, being a
species of iron-ore, which is black within and yellowish without. This pebble
extends into the sub-soil two or three feet, or until it reaches another stratum
of earth.

Our lands are deficient in lime. I think that deficiency affects the staple
of our cotton. In my next I shall treat on rotation of crops and the oat-crop.

JUnde County, Miss., April, 1854.

780 CORN CROP : ITS MODE OF CULTIVATION.

FOR THE PLOVGII, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

WOOL-GROWING IN LICKING COUNTY, OHIO.

Licking Countt claims, and we believe justly, to be the banner county
of the United States in wool-growing, having nearly two hundred thousand
sheep, many of them the very best Saxon and Merino, and a soil and climate
well adapted to growing the best of wool. Our farmers al.so, being in the
habit of keeping their pastures free from burrs, and washing and putting up
their wool in the best manner, it is a field well worthy the attention of the
manufacturer who purchases his supplies of this material from the grower.
He will find it to his interest to visit us about the first of June, and see for
himself. Also, persons wishing to improve their flocks will find all the varie-
ties of fine-wooled sheep, in the greatest perfection, not excepting some of
the best imported French and their descendants, with some good raiddle-
wooled sheep. W.

CORN CROP : ITS MODE OF CULTIVATION.

Mr. Luther Gilbert, of Grantville, Mass., thus reports his crop and his
cultivation.
To THE Committee ok Grain Crops :

Gentlemen : The field of corn entered by me for premium, contains two
acres ; the soil is a black loam generally, and part of it a mixture of gravel.
The condition of the field was poor; it was sowed dow^n to grass in the fall
of 1846, without any manure ; it has been in grass ever since, until Septem-
ber, 1852, when I had it broken up about ten inches deep. The manure used
on this field was a compost, made entirely between the 18th of November,
1852, and the last of April, 1853, from one horse, one cow, and sods taken
from the above field and composted in ray barn-cellar by my hogs. As the
bulk of the manure was taken from the same field to which it was returned, I
shall only estimate the value of the horse and cow-manure, the use of the hogs
for composting, and the carting the sods into the cellar, as that was the only
cost to me. The compost was carted directly from the barn-cellar (without
turning over) about the last of April, and spread as evenly over the whole field
as it could well be, and immediately ploughed in. The quantity spread in this
way was about sixteen cords to the field, (or eight cords to the acre ;) it was
then harrowed and furrowed both ways, three feet four inches one way, three
feet the other. There were about two cords of scrapings of the cellar put in
the hill ; on such parts of the field as the soil was poorest, one shovelful in
the hill. On the 10th and 11th of May, I planted it with the Plymouth-
county corn, puttin^^ six to eight kernels to each hill ; cultivated and hoed
it twice, taking out all but five, and sometimes four, stalks at hoeing-time.

On the ISlh of October, the Society's committee, after examining the whole
field, selected two places in separate parts of the field, and measured one
square rod in each, which the committee considered to be a fair average of
the whole. They measured from the centre between two rows, and gathered,
shelled, and weighed each rod separately. The first rod weighed 44^ lbs.,
the .second 467I- lbs., making the average 45^- lbs. to the rod ; reckoning

INCOMBUSTIBLE WASH, AND STUCCO WHITE-WASH. 731

56 lbs. to the bushel, as per rule of the Society, and it gives me 129 16-56
bushels to the acre. The coru was well ripened, and I commenced on the
same day to harvest it.

DEBT AND CREDIT ON THE ABOVK FIELD.

Land valued by the assessors at $225 an acre, interest on ditto, - 127 00
Taxes on the same this year, - - - ... - -2 66

Ploughing in September, 1852, 5 00

Carting sods into barn-cellar for togs at sundry times, - - - 10 00
Manure of horse and cow, 5^ months, ----- 8 00

Use of hogs to work over sods and composting, - - - - 10 00
Applying manure, $10 ; ploughing, harrowing, and furrowing, $6, 16 00
Seed-corn and planting, $3.50 ; cultivating and hoeing, $6, - - 9 50
Cutting stalks and harvesting, - 16 00

. ' $104 06

VALUE OF CROP.

Stalks and husks, - - - - $30 00

258 4-7 bushels shelled corn, at 90 cts., - - - - 232 20

Increased value of land, benefited by manure, - - - - 14 00

$276 20
Deduct cost as above. 104 06

$172 14

INCOMBUSTIBLE WASH, AND STUCCO WHITE- WASH.

The following preparation has been recommended as of great value, in
several of our exchanges, but appeared originally, we believe, in the JRailroad
Journal. We give it to our readers as we find it. Some of our acquaint-
ances have used it, and value it highly.

The basis for both is lime, which must be first slacked with hot water, in
a small tub or piggin, and covered, to keep in the steam ; it then should be
passed, in a fluid form, through a fine sieve, to obtain the flour of the lime.
It must be put on with a painter's brush ; two coats are best for outside
work.

First. To make the fluid for the roof, and other parts of wooden houses, to
render them incombustible, and coating for brick-tile, stone-work, and rough-
cast, to render them impervious to the water, and give them a durable and
handsome appearance. The proportions in each receipt are five gallons. Slack
your lime as before directed, say six quarts, into which put one quart of clean
rock-salt for each gallon of water, to be entirely dissolved by boiling, and
skimmed clean ; then add to the five gallons one pound of alum, half a pound
of copperas, three fourths of a pound of potash — the last to be gradually
added ; four quarts of fine sand or hard-wood ashes must also be added ; any
coloring matter may be mixed in such quantity as to give it the requisite
shade. It will look better than paint, and be as lasting as slate. It must be
put on hot. Old shingles must be first cleaned with a stiff" broom, when this
may be applied. It will stop the small leaks, prevent moss from growing,
render them incombustible, and last many years.

732 PATENT FERTILIZERS.

Second. To make a brilliant stucco white-wash for the buildings, inside
and out. Take clean lumps of well-burnt stone-lime ; slack the same as be-
fore ; add one fourth ot" a pound of whiting or burnt alum, pulverized, o«ie
pound of loaf or other sugar, three pints of rice-flour, made into a very thin
and well-boiled paste, starch, or jelly, and one pound clean glue, dissolved in
the same manner as cabinet-makers do. This may be applied cold within
doors, but warm outside. It will be more brilliant than plaster of Paris,
and retain its biilliancy for many years, say from fifty to one hundred. It is
superior ; nothing equal. The east end of the President's House, in Washing-
ton, is washed with it.

PATENT FERTILIZERS.

The business of manufacturing fertilizers, like many other kinds of busi-
ness, good in themselves, is so easily converted into a swindling speculation,
that we have not had the disposition, oft-times, to encourage it. If the pro-
prietor is honest, the workmen may not be so ; and though self-interest may
direct both to honesty in such business, it urges also to the same course in all
other business, and yet how often is its voice unheeded. With regard to ferti-
lizers, if half or even a quarter of the quantity sold is " genuine," and a use-
ful article, puffs enough may perhaps be secured to make sale of the other
three fourths to those who would try a hopeful experiment. All samples
direct from the manufactory, as a test, fail, in our view, to prove the value of
articles in general, and especially of that bought of second hands ; and
unless there is some indorsement by uninterested parties, of competent skill,
we should ever feel some doubt as to the actual worth of the mixtare.

But we fully accord to the remarks of our neighbor of the Agriculturist,
below, and can see no possible objection to the proposition of Mr. De Burg,
as here set forth :

" There is so much opportunity for deception or collusion on the part of
manufacturers of various artificial fertilizers, that we have uniformly declined
to publish reports of experiments made to test their value, and we have re-
fused to receive samples of any kind of special manures for our own experi-
ments, if we were asked to publish the results. We have no confidence in
the specimens put up for such experiments or for analysis ; neither do we
value the results obtained by the first samples sent into the market for sale,
for it is to the interest of manufacturers to furnish a good article at first, even
if at a loss. These doubts we have expressed plainly to different manufac-
turers, to Mr. De Burg among the number.

Mr. De Burg, however, has called upon us, and made a proposition
which we think obviates the above objections, and we cheerfully lay it before
our readers ; and we will with the same cheerfulness give the free use of our
columns to any other manufacturer who will make a like fair and open pro-
position. Mr. De Burg's proposition is as follows : He will furnish, at his
own expense, three to five hundred pounds (or more if desirable) of his super-
phosphate of lime, to any agricultural society, or club, or association of men,
who will give it a fair trial, and report the results, favorable or reverse; and
mark, ^aT^^ samples for experiments are not to be taken from the factory,
nor from any particular lot«, but from any that has been or may be sent into
)narket. To prevent any chance for deception, thos^ proposing to make such

THE AMERICAN CAMEL COMPANY. 783

experiments may first select their samples from any they can find in the
country, and then apply to Mr. De.Burg, and he will give an order fov ite
delivery to them free." — American Agriculturist.

Persons wishing to try the snper-phosphate, as proposed, can obtain it by
addressing C. P>. Do Burg, Williamsbnrgh, N. Y.

THE AMERICAN CAMEL OOMPANY.

A PAMPHLET has been given us by the Chairman of tlie Commissioners,
Mr. Wm. Gr. King, containing the act of incorporation of this Company,
which was granted by the State of New-Yoik in April last, and with it the
natural history of that useful animal, the camel. Perhaps we can do no better
service than to give this history, in its essential features, a place in our pages.

This company purposes to introduce the camel into this country. They
say, quoting from the late report of the Secretary of War :

"The absence of navigable streams in a large portion of ou! recently-
acquired territory, and the existence of the vast arid atid inountainou!^
regions, described in another {lart of this report, have entailed upon the
government a very heavy charge for the transportation of supplies, and for
the services of troops stationed along our new frontier, and operating against
the predatory and nomadic Indians of those regions. Tlie oo-t of transporta-
tion within that country for purposes connected with mililavv defense,
amounted, in the year ending .June, 1853, to =i5451,7'75.0'7.

The modes of tran^portuti*.'!! now uscl — wagons drawn bv l-.o:-e-. mules,
or oxen — beside being very expensivt,', .-u-e Jiecessariiv circuilL-us on the
routes travelled, slow, and generally so un!^adsfactory, as to prompt inquiry
for means which may be attended with better result--. la aiiv extended
movement, these wagon-trains must depend upon grass for forage, and their
progress will seldom average more than twelve miles per day ; and it often
happens, in traversing the country just referred to, that loug spisces are
encountered in which there is neither grass nor water, and hence the conse-
quence must be severe privation and great destitution of the aniir.als employed,
if not the failure of the expedition. These incon\enieGces arc felt in all
movements between the distant parts of that s.'ction, and Sr.Miously obstruct,
sometimes actually defeat, the pursuit of the mounted Indians of the plains,
who, by their intimate knowledge of the places where the small supplies of
water and grass are to be found, are able to fly across the most arid regions
after having committed depredations on our frontier populati.'n. or upon the
trains of merchants and emigrants.

Beyond the difficulties here contemplated in connection with transporta-
tion to the inteiior, it is proper to look to those which would arise in the
transportation of supplies for the defense of our Pacific coast in a contingency
of a war with a maritime power. Our expei'ience has been confined to a
state of peace, and to the use of routes of communication wdiich pass beyond
the limits of our territory. Reasoning from the difficulties which have be^n
encountered in supplying points v/here it was necessary only to traverse a
part of the space which lies between the Pacific coast and the points of sup-
ply, it may be claimed as a conclusion that it would not be piactieable,

VOL. VI. — FAFr TI. 23

784 THE AMERICAN CAMEL COMPANY.

with the meaus now possessed, to send across the continent the troops, muni-
tions, and provisions which would be required for the defense of the Pacific
coast. A railroad, such as has been contemplated to connect by the most
eligible route the Mississippi River with the Pacific coast, would but partially"
remove the difficulties. It would serve to transport troops, and to supply
depots along the route and at the extremity of the line, but there would still
be vast regions of the interior too remote from its depots materially to feel
its effects."

THE VATURAL IlISrORY ANI> COMMERCIAL VALUE OF THE CAMEL.

General Characteristics. — The camel, belonging to the class of ruminants,
is one of the larger quadrupeds, being six or seven feet from the ground to
the hi^'hest part of the back, and carrying its head, when erect, about nine
feet above the plane on which it stands. The carcase weighs about three or
four hundred pounds ; but the size and weight are far from being alike in all.
The neck is long and slender, and seems to grow out of the lower part of the
bodv, between the fore-legs. The head is small, and the ears short. The
-eyes are of various colors, from a black to almost a white, bright and spark-
ling with instinctive intelligence, and placed on the sides of the head in such
a manner that the animal can see before, behind, and on every side. The
tail is short, and hangs down, with a small bunch at the end. The legs are
long and slender, though their points are stout and strong. The feet are
divided somewhat like those of an ox, with hoofs on the extreme points of
the toes. The soles are soft, yielding, and remarkably broad.

The camel is generally of a light color, from which it varies to a dark-
brown, and sometimes reddish-brown ; it is also marked with white spots or
stripes on the forehead and on different parts of the body. It is subject to
the mange, to cure which the Arabs bedaub it with Tcitran, or tar. Physi-
ologists, in accounting for the peculiar property of the camel in resisting the
want of water, have supposed that it is provided with an additional stomach,
of peculiar conformation, to retain what is imbibed. But it does not appear
that there is a particular reservoir for the purpose ; and there is reason to
think that the same end is attained by the singular structure of the second
stomach, being composed of immerous cells, several inches deep, the orifices
of which are apparently susceptible of muscular contraction. It is conjectured
that when the animal drinks, it has the power of directing the water into
these cells, instead of allowing its passage into the second stomach. From
the structure of the second stomach, it neither receives food in the first
instance, nor does it afterward pass into its cavity. The orifice of the cells
composing it ;.re so constructed as to prevent the entrance of solid food into
them.

Fleece, Fabrics. — The camel annually casts its "hair, in the spring ; and it
all goes, to the last fragment, before the new comes on. For abottt twenty
days it is as naked as if it had been shaved from head to tail. While
in tills state, it is extremely sensitive to cold, rain, and the annoyance of flies,
from which latter its keeper is careful to preserve it by the application of tar.
But by degrees the hair grows again. At first it is extremely fine and beau-
tiful, and wlien it is once moie long and thick, the camel can brave the
severest frost. The fleece of an ordinary camel weighs about ten pounds ;
but its color and abundance depend entirely on the particular species of
camel and tht- climate which it inhabits. That of the Arabian camel is thin
and whitish ; that of the Baetriau camel, thicker and darker-colored. From

THE AMERICAN CAMEL COMPANY. 735

the hair a coarse kind of clothing, almost impermeable to water, is made for
camel-drivers and shepherds ; and the same commodity, for an analogous
purpose, is used as wrappers of merchandise long exposed to wet in heavy
rains. But in Persia and the Crimea, more valuable manufactures are pro-
duced in narrow cloths of diflferent colors, and fine stockings, of which white
are the highest-priced. It is wrought into shawls, carpets, and coverings for
the tents of the Arabs. The Tartar women of the plains manufacture a kind
of warm, soft, and light narrow cloth from the hair of the Bactrian camel,
preserving the natural colors. The hair, of different colors, is an article of
export from Asia and Africa ; its value is proportioned to the fineness and
depth of color, that which is black being the dearest.

MUJc^ Flesh. — The Arab generally rises before early dawn, and his first
task is to milk his camels, who have been prevented straying away from his
tent during the night, by tieing up one of their legs and fastening it with a
noose ; while at the same time he removes a net which is placed so as to pre-
vent the young camels sucking the mothers, until a certain portion of the
milk is drawn for the use of the tent. The milk is excellent^ both for butter
and cheese. The natives of Africa esteem camel's flesh more than that of
any other animal. It is related that Heliogabalus had camel's flesh served
at his banquets, and that he was especially partial to the foot. This latter
dainty the emperor had the honor of discovering.

Food, Suslenance. — The camel feeds on thistles, on the stunted shrubs and
■withered herbage of the desert, and can pa?3 successive days in total want of
water ; thus seeming as if purposely designed by nature for the most cheer-
less and inhospitable regions. It is exceedingly fond of the huge, succulent
leaves of the cactus, the strong, needle-like thorns seeming to act upon its
leathern palate as an agreeable stimulant. It also munches with great gusto
the dry hones with which the routes in the desert are strewn. On long
journeys over a desert destitute of herbage, a few beans or flower-balls, or a
little barley, suffice to enable it to perform its task. Over large expanses of
desert, where the soil is dry and powdered with saline matter, the water,
when water there is, is brackish. This want of fresh streams is very
unfavorable to cattle, but occasions no suffering to the camel, which delights
in salt in every shape.

Intelligence, Docility Traininr/. — The camel grows up like a child under
the tent of its master, partakes of his plenty as well as his penury, enjoys his
songs, and understands his bidding. Its docility springs from habit and re-
flection— nay. wo may almost say from moral feeling; for it rebels when its
temper is not sagaciously managed. When the French went to Algiers, and
got possession of camels, the-y thought that their obedience might be enforced,
like that of mules and asses, by simple beating ; but they soon showed their
conquerors that they were not to be so treated, and that both their kick and
their bite were rather formidable. The Arabs assert that the animal is so
sensible of ill-treatment, that when this is carried too far, the inflictor will
not find it easy to escape its vengeance. Eager, however, to express its re-
sentment, it no longer retains any rancor when once it is satisfied ; and it is
even sufficient for it to believe that it has avenged its injury. When an
Arab has excited the rage of a camel, he throws dov/n his garments in some
place near which the animal is to pass. It immediately recognizes the
clothes, seizes and shakes them with its teeth, and tramples on them in a
rage. When its anger is thus appeased, it leaves them, and the owner may
then appear and guide it as he wills. There is no trouble in littering or
feeding the camel. As soon as its load is taken off", it is turned out to graze

736 Tfcnfi' 'AirERicAN camel company.

on wbatever it can find" ^r^Tin'd its owner's tent, and never looked after until
iiis again required tb-icOritinue its journey. At other times it skelters the
weary traveller stret'chexi hlbrig the sand, watches over his slumbers, and like
the faithful dog, vvarrii-Wto'of the enemy's approach. Its instinct enables it
to smell the distant watery and it recognizes the spot with wonderful pre-
cision. It is the very type 'of 'patience, fortitude, and perseverance. Charged
with a heavy load, 'ddtifetantly travelling over tlie sand — from which its
nostrils, shaped like nai^i^oW- oblique slits, and provided with :>. sphincter
niuscle like the eyelids;' Sfe 'defended with hairs at their margins — exposed
to hunger, thirst, and- th'e hottest rays of the sun, it sutlers the fatigue and
pain with incomparable ibeekness. It lies down on the burning sand, with-
out betraying the least dfegi'ee of impatience ; while at all able to support its
load, and continue the journey, it strains every nerve to proceed ; it neither
flags nor relaxes,' Until absolutely worn out, when it falls, to rise no more ;
thus i-endering its last bVeath on the very spot it ceases to be useful. The
camel is occasionally eihp^Oyed in the plough and other agricultural pursuits,
like dxen or horses ; and ifi -tnany Tartar countries, it is used to draw the
coaches of the kings dr'-jTritlces ; but physiologists remark that when used in
the yoke or h'arne^, -the -elevation of its shoulders is cause of a waste of
strength; beside, for the- l^turpose of traction, it can only be used at all upon
flat grovmd, its fleshy feet,''ts'hich are tv,-o in number, and not externally
separated, not peruiitfing* it to ascend hills, and draw a carriage after it. It
is as a beast of burd'ettthat'the camel is chiefly valuable ; and its qualities
in this capacity are improved to a great extent, by the mode in which it is
trained. At the earliest' ^beriod, the legs are folded under the body, in which
position it is cor^train'ed-- to remain. Its back is covered with a carpet,
weighed down with- a quantity of stones, gradually augmented ; it receives a
scanty portion of food ; -itis rarely supplied with water; and in this manner
is brought to endure privation. When the time of trial has elapsed, and it
is broke into subservience; it kneels at the command of the master, who
either mounts it himfeeU^wloads it with a heavy burden ; and then trusting
to its strength, and the -privations it can sufter, he ventures to traverse the
tracklessdesert.' Whfenit lies down to receive its load, it rests upcm the
callosities of its breasts and limbs. It is ridden upon, loaded or unloaded,
either with or without the pack-saddle; if without, the rider rides behind
the hump, using no' manner of bridle, guiding the beast only by striking
gently with a stick on liis neck. The saddle, when used, is placed upon the
withers, in front of; the hun^p, and the legs of the rider, when mounted, rest
upon the animal's neck" ;' when razzias are made, two men are mounted on
each;' In rising from' its 'crouching posture, the camel, which i.i in general
so deliberate in all its actions, mounts on its hind legs first very briskly, as
sooja a& the rider leans ^ on- his saddle to spring up, and throws him fli-st
forward and then backward; and it is not until the fourth motion, when the
beast fe entirely on its.- leg's; -that the rider can find his balance. The camel
signifies that it is sufficiently loaded either by a hiss or a shake of the head :
it will refuse to rise if laden'with even half a pound beyond its exact burden. A
drove of camels will all rise'or lie down, at the word of command, as if struck
by the same blow. T-hey are made to eat in a circle, all kneeling down,
head to head, and eye to eye. Within this circle of heads is thrown the
fodder; each camel dairas its' portion, eating tliat directly opposite to its
head. ''' -

Tra'i>el. — The progress of the camol is in general slow, especially when
collected in numbers itoeorapose a caravan ; but its pace is regular and uni-

THE AMERICAN CAMEL GOM?,ANY. . 737

form, and constitutes no inaccurate measurement of. distance over desolate
regions, where there is no guide. It does not appear .that the load of the
camel materially ati'ects its progress ; the chief ditfereii,ce, in that case, lying
in the daily duration of its march. Tiie camels are. ti^d, one after another,
held together by strings in their nose, and arc not allowed to graze during
the march. This is an advantage ; for much, time would otherwise he lost
by the camels cropping herbage by the way- The files are twenty and
thirty in number, and sometimes these files are doijble. In mountainous
districts, they are untied ; otherwise one camel slipping would draw anotier
after it, and so the whole line would be thrown into, confusion. The opera-
tion of piercing the nose and passing through it. 3. piece of wood, which is
to serve as a bit, is painful, and causes the anipaal to fitter loud wails. " Slow
and sure," has in no case so good an app!ica,tion as it has to the progress
of the camel's maich. It is in the desert it .gives . proof of its peculiar
advantage.^ : its long neck, perpendicularly erected, removes its head from
the saud-waves ; its eyes, which it keeps half shutj, are well defended by
thick eyelids largely provided with hair; the construction of its feet prevents
its treading deep into the sand ; its long legs enable it to pass over the same
space with only half the number of steps of any .other .animal, and therefore
with less fatigue. These advantages give it a solid and easy gait on a
ground where all other animals walk with slow, short, and uncertain steps.
In fact, it is only in mounting or descending, or. upon a wet and mai'shy soil,
that it becomes unsteady and unwieldy, Soijjietimes, when there are many
camels travelling together, the drivers beat drum^, and attach small bells to
the knees of the leading camels, and if it becomes necessary to quicken their
pace, the Arabs strike up a kind of song which has tlie effect of cheering the
Avhole party, and urging them forward.

Foo.l, Longevity. — Though the camel produces but. one at a time, or
rarely two, the care which is observed in their puUiplication renders them
numerous. A caravan will exhibit a thousand^ nay, . four or five thousand
collected together, and a single individual will , be </he master of four or five
hundred. The Dey of Tunis, singly, owns thirty ^thousand. The period of
gestation brings no rest to the camel; the female is delivered by the way,
at a halt in the desert ; the foal may be seen streX9hed on the ground as if
lifeless, the mother standing over and looking, at it.^ But the foal does not
remain so long; for in one or two days it will b^ up on its legs ; in four or
five days it will be able to run after its dam a part of a day's march ; and in
seven or eight days it will be able to continue f),'whole day's journey. The
cry of the foal is very much like that of a child ; in marching it is tied upon
its mother's back ; it I'emains v.ith its mother .a^d .sucks a whole year ; it
sucks its mother within four hours after its bir-ih. . the mother sometimes
makes a great noise over her young one. The foal }"i;oU.cs in awkward antics
a few days after its birth, but apparently soo.n l9Ses'ii,s infant mirth. The
she-camels have a foal every other year, but some few. every year. It is five
years before the camel attains maturity. The. training of the foal com-
mences when about a year old ; when first laden with fight weights, it will
cry, groan, grumble most piteously, and run off", like , mad, trying to, throw-
off the load. The camel lives between forty and fifty years, but it is
not unlikely that the duration of its life depends upon the treatment it
receives.

Variel/es. — Notwithstanding our familiarity with the camel, the difterent
species and varieties are by no means well undeistQpd j which produces some
inconsistency in the account.^ of the properties -.whick .it possesses..- There

738 THE AMERICAK CAMEL COMPANY.

are two species so distinct, however, that they can not possibly be mistaken;
the one, the Bactrian camel, having two humps on its back ; the other, of
somewhat smaller size, called the Arabian camel. The hump, which is of a
fleshy or glandular consistence, but not produced by a curvature of the spine,
is a prominent character of the whole race.

Bactrian Camel. — This variety is characterized by two humps — one on
the rump and another above the shoulders. It is larger, stouter, longer of
body and shorter of limb than the Arabian camel. It is able to carry one
thousand pounds, and is even sometimes made to carry fifteen hundred
pounds for short journeys, or to escape the tribute which is levied upon sin-
■ gle burdens ; an object which is attained by putting the loads of two or three
camels upon one, when about to enter towns where tribute is collected. The
usual burden in long expeditions is from five hundred to eight hundred
pounds, so disposed that half the weight hangs on each side. Yet under
such a heavy load, if care be taken to feed the animal in proportion to the
fatigue to be supported, it is afterward sustained on an inconsiderable quan-
tity of beans, or a few balls of barley-meal daily, thrown on the ground when
it halts. "Whole days, however, may elapse without the animal tasting either
food or water. Travellers frequently speak of having experienced this in long
marches. Laden with eight hundred weight, it can travel forty miles a day.
It often happens that travellers do not give themselves the trouble to dis-
mount at night in order to sleep. When a caravan has reached a fat pas-
ture, the camels disperse themselves this way and that and begin to graze,
while the travellers, astride between their humps, are sleeping as soundly as
if they were in their beds. A single driver will conduct a number of these
camels, tied one to the tail of the other. It is stated that this animal can
not swim, and that it has such a terror of water as to make it sometimes
impossible to get it into a boat ; with a raft there is less difficulty.^' This
animal abounds in northern, central, and eastern Asia. It Avas introduced
by the Grand Duke Leopold into Tuscany, Avhere it continues to breed in the
maremmas of the Pisan territory. Immense numbers of these animals are
bred in the Tell of Algeria, a region of country which includes the table-
lands adjacent to the Mediterranean, and the gentle slopes of the lesser Atlas.
In parts of this region snow falls every year, and lies on the ground several
weeks. In Algeria, the price of a camel of this variety ranges from eighteen
to thirty dollars. In the city of Algiers, the trade in camels is chiefly in the
hands of the Mozabis, a resident tribe.

Arabian Camel. — This variety has only a single hump on its back. It is
of smaller size, less hairy, and still more enduring than the Bactrian camel.
In the rutting season, it is subject to fits of rage and violence, and it is necessary
to muffle it. In the same season, a species of bladder hangs from its mouth, out**
of which issues a quantity of foam. These animals often fight among them-
selves, and their hostility affords great amusement to the Moors and Turks.
The Arabian camel is able to carry, for long journeys, from three to six hundred
pounds. It is supposed the hump serves for its nourishment, as it disappears
in the days of starvation and hunger. It makes about two thousand two
hundred of its double steps in an hour. This double step covers about five
feet and a half of our measure. It will march eight hundred miles in three
hundred and twenty-two hours, which is at the rate of two miles and a half

* This terror of water is occasioned by want of familiarity with it aa a reeiaticg ele-
ment, and under the same circumstances is observable in a horse, which haa no greater
structural ability for s'^rimming than the camel.

THE AMEBICAN CAMEL COMPANY. 739

per hour. It never stumbles or falls. There is no necessity either to beat or
direct it. Its pace is slow, but it makes long strides, and will inarch fifteen
or sixteen hours at a stretch. It carries the women and children of the
Arabs in panniers adjusted on either side. Its pace is very steady, and the
traveller may sleep, eat and drink, read and write, on its back. By spread-
ing his bed-clothes on the saddle, he will be enabled to change his" 'posture.
and to rest himself so as to avoid the direct force of the sun's rays. As the
animal walks with long and regular steps, the rider feels the motion no other-
wise than if he were rocked in a cradle. When travellers on horseback are
weary and faint, from the fatigue of riding and the excessive heat, the rider
of the camel will find himself as little exhausted as if he had ridden all dav
in a chaise. The saddle is always open above, that it may not hurt the
hump of the animal. Denham describes it as swimming rivers, with its
head fastened to a raft. The female is more valuable than the male, as it
contributes more, by its milk, to the sustenance of the tribes. The Arabian
camel has spread from Arabia all over the northern parts of Africa, and has?
long been essential to the commerce of those dry and desert regions.

Dromedary. — This animal is a sub-variety of the Arabian camel, to which
it stands in the same relation that a thorough-bred racer does to a cart-
horse. The hump is without fiit, and very small, and its whole shape exhi-
bits an appearance of strength and spirit. Its habitual pace is a trot, which
it is able to sustain the whole day at about the same speed as the ordinary
trot of a horse ; but over rough or slippery ground the rate of speed is mnch
reduced. The saddle is like a horse's, and covers the hump. The drome-
dary is managed by a bridle, which is usually fastened to a ring fixed in its
nostrils. It is unquestionable that this animal can travel one hundred and
even two hundred miles in twenty-four hours. Like the camel, it kneels to
receive its load or a rider on its back. At a certain signal, it droops its head
and neck, so that one can alight and remount, whenever there is occasion,
without making the animal stop. When once fixed in the saddle, the
rider has only to give way to the motion of the beast, and he soon finds that
it is impossible to be more pleasantly mounted for a long journey ; especially
as no attention is requisite to guide the animal, except in turning it out'of its
straight-forward direction, which very seldom happens in the desert, and in a
caravan. Its pace is light, the opening angle of its long legs, and the flexible
spring of its lean foot, rendering its trot easier than that of any horse, and at
the same time full as swift. The sand is truly its element, for as soon as it
quits it, and touches the mud, it can hardly keep upon its feet, and its re-
peated trips alarm the rider for the safety of himself and baggage. The
young dromedary is born blind, and continues so for about ten days. The
dromedary is found in Arabia, in the great African desert, and in all the Bar-
bary States ; but it is chiefly in the Eastern Sahara that it abounds. Mounted
on his dromedary, dressed out fantastically in various and many-colored har-
ness, with his sword slung on his back, dagger under the left arm and lance
in his right hand, the Touarghce warrior sallies forth to war. A very fine
dromedary is six and a half feet in height. The price of this animal is from
ten to two hundred times that of the ordinary camel.

Military uses. — In Northern India, the English use camels for the trans-
portation of munitions of war. A corps of mounted dromedaries is also em-
ployed. In Algeria, field-pieces are carried by camels ; the batteiy devised
for artillery-service in the desert is a model of its kind ; guns, caissons, and
carriages, are folded up in the most compact form, ready to be fastened on
the backs of these animals. Sick men, in their beds, are carried by camels.

740 MANURE FOR ROSES.

The ambulance used by the French army in Africa, is a most ingenious con-
trivance. This ambulance, called cacolet, is a species of pack-saddle, made
of wood and iron, and adapted for the backs of camels. The cacolet hus on
each side two iron chairs, which fold up within a very small compass ; so
that a camel may depart with a column, carrying boxes of biscuits, barrels
of meat, tloui', and other proNisions, and may bring back sick or wounded
soldiers, to whom these chairs atlbrd a safe and commodious conveyance.
It is necessary ihat the men should be seated so that they may as nearly as
possible countei balance each other's weight. Some of these iron chairs are
made to spread out at suflicient length to enable a sick or wounded soldier
to lie down. Camel-caravans will be unapproachable by mounted Indians,
as the camel, when first seen by horses, inspires uncontrollable terror.

Acclimation. — The natural abode of the camel is in regions abounding
with sand or gravel, where food is scanty, and exposure to long-protracted
privations unavoidable ; and as deserts exist in cold as well as warm cli-
mates, so does the camel. Like man, it adapts itself to every clime, nature
enabling it to endure with equal fortitude the extiemes of heat and cold.
Widely as it is now dispersed over Asia and Northern Africa, there is histo-
rical evidence to show that there was a period when it was a stranger even
in Africa, and when its sphere in Asia w;is comparatively limited. Now, its
geographical diftusion is equal to that of most other domesticated animals ;
it is not, however, found wild, as are other domesticated animals. It has
followed the radiations of war, commerce, and emigration, over a stupen-
dous, segment of the earth's surface, stretching across the whole of Asia,
and extending as far north as Lake Baikal in Siberia, in the sub-polar climate
comprehended betweeu latitudes 56^ and 58°. It is much used in Eastern
Europe. In Africa, it resignedly plods its weary way across its entire breadth,
and from the shores of the Mediterranean to the region of the tropical rains.
These facts demonstrate that the camel is easily acclimated, and that its habitat
is not limited by climate, but by the nature of the soil, which must be suited
to the peculiar configuration of its foot.

.American Camel-Region. — Recent explorations demonstrate that the high
table-lands of Texas, New-Mexico, Utah, Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, and
portions of Central Mexico, are fitted for camel-travel ; for over those lands
the varielies of the cactus abound, and the soil is gravelly and sandy; the
climate being at the same time isothermal with that of the Tell of Algeria.

MANURE FOR ROSES.

Thomas Rivers, in his last rose-catalogue, says that for a neat surface-
dressing for autumnal roses, to be applied late in spring, Avood-ashes and
guano have proved most excellent fertilizers, in the proportion of half a peck
of guano to a bushel of wishes, applying two quarts of the mixture to each
tree, in a circle eighteen inches in diameter round the stem, and sufiering it to
remain undisturbed upon the surface. The ashes retain the moisture from
the dew and showers, and the eflfect, in giving a vigorous growth, with an
abundant crop of the flowers in the autumn, has been very apparent. In
our dryer climate, an occasional copious watering, or a thin grass mulching,
placed over this compound, would doubtless be of decided benefit, and during
dry periods would in hci be indispensable.

REMEDY FOR THE CURCULIO. 741

R E M E ]J Y F O R T II E C U R C U L I O.

DivKKSi: ijrescriptioiis are given for the cure of the various diaoase^ of the
liumaii spfco^es, and those for vegetable growths are equally numerous. The
curculio has proved utterly unmanageable in most cases, but we find recently
that many have been successful in getting rid of the pest. Among others,
our excellent and judicious friend, Mr. Bacon, has given us one mode of de-
fense, which has stood the test of experience. We cut the following, which
seems soiTiewbat akin to his method, from an exchange, and regard this form
of obtainiiig security from its ravages tlie same thing in principle, and well
worth the tnal. The writer says :

" I have 3D my yard two plum trees, which have blossomed well every spring
tor more than ten years past, and have been literally loaded with young fruit ;
but one solitary plum escaped the ravages of the curculio long enough to
mature, until last summer, when one of the trees produced a fair crop. These
trees stand about ten rods asunder; and their circumstances, as to soil, expo-
sure, and situation in reference to other trees, are as nearly alike as may be.
During the past ten years I have tried everything — except 'catching the
critter' — ^.vhich I have "seen )-ecommended in agiicultural works for repelling
the curculio, but found nothing effectual until last season. I yarded my pigs
in a small space about them for several weeks, to no good purpose. They
were dusted with lime and ashes every morning for a long time, without suc-
cess. Holes bored into the body of the tree, and filled with sulphur, and
■Stopped with a plug, had no perceptible influence. Many other remedies
proved quite as ineffectual. *

But last spring, early in May, in grading my yard around one^of these
trees, to the depth of ten or twelve inches, coarse unfriable earth from the
highway-side was drawn in with a scraper, and tlie team in travelling over it,
packed it down very firmly. I had resolved, that if I found no fruit this
jear, I would cut them down. The result was, that the tree which had dirt
hauled about it, yielded a fair crop of ripe fruit ; while from the other one,
although Jt was well filled with young fruit, every plum dropped before they
were half grown. I observed when the curculio was committing depreda-
tions, and the fruit was dropping daily, that from the tree around which
dirt had been drawn, but very few plums fell to the ground in consequence
of having been stung.

It would appear from the fact that the curculio itinerates but little, that it
hibernates in the soil, under the branches of the trees on which it ha.^
flourished the preceding summer ; and that paving, or burying it in the soil,
a few inches deeper than it is accustomed to burrow, delays its resurrection
until the young fruit has grown so as not be injured by these little marau-
ders.

I design :o make some experiments this season in repeiUng the curculio ;
and if 1 am successful, I will fui-nish you with details respecting them, and
the result. ^- Edwards Todd."

Lake-Bridge, Tompkins Countii, N. Y.

Similar experiments to the above have come under our own^ observation,
but no covering of the surface of the ground has yet proved entirely effectual
Mr. Manice, of Long-Island, paved the ground under his plum-trees, but did
jaot entirely succeed in keeping out the depredators till he entirely surrounded
them with a high board-fence. Against this the curculios would strike in great
numbers while attomr.tino- to reach the U-^.Qi.— American Agriculturist.

742 VARIETIES OF THE CURRANT.

CULTIVATING STRAWBERRIES.

About n year ago, we found in the Friends' Eevieiv, of Philadelphia, the
following note from a correspondent in Baltimore, (we believe,) who had been
ex«eedingly successful in cultivating the strawberry, giving the mode by which
this success was attained. We have no doubt it is all ho represents it to be.
— Germantown Telegraph.

" Those who know any thing about the magnificent strawberries, and the
immense quantity of them raised in a bed thirty feet by forty, for several
years past, in the garden owned by me in King street, may like to know
the process by which I cultivate them. I applied about once a week, for
three times, commencing when the green leaves first began to start, and
making the last application just before the plants were in full bloom, the
following preparation : Of nitrate of potash, of glauber-salts, and sal soda,
each one pound ; of nitrate of ammonia, one quarter of a pound — dissolving
in thirty gallons of rain or river water. One third was applied at a time, and
when the weather was dry, I applied clean, soft water between the times of
using the preparation, as the growth of the young leaves is so rapid that,
unless well supplied with water, the sun will scorch them. I used a com-
mon watering-pot, and made the application toward evening. Managed in
this way, there is never any necessity of digging over the bed, or netting it
out anew. Beds of ten years old are not only as good, but better, than those-
two or three years old. But you must be sure and keep the weeds out."

VARIETIES OF THE CIURRANT.

Among the smaller fruits, the currant is entitled to preeminence for its
intrinsic usefulness. It will grow on almost any soil, bears without fail every
year, and yields a large crop. It is little subject to casualties, and requires
but little attention in cultivation. It is a palatable and wholesome fruity
which comes at a season when others are comparatively scarce, and continues
a long time. Its value for jellies is known to every housewife. The hlacJc
currant possesses a value for the production of a medicinal wine, which is not
appreciated. A gentleman in this State formerly made considerable quanti-
ties, which were exported to the Southern cities and the West-India islands^
where it was much esteemed for its efficacy in the prevention and cure of
summer complaints.

Viewed in reference to all its good qualities, the currant is not generally so
highly prized as it ought to be. A late number of the Horticulturist con-
tains an article by John Saul, of Washington, D. C, which comprises much
valuable informtition in regard to this fruit, especially relating to the cha-
racteristics of varieties. We copy the following from Mr. Saul's communica-
tion :

1. Champagne. — In foliage, wood, and habit, this belongs to the red class.
Color, delicate rosy-pink, and would appear like a cross between a red and
white, from the color of the fruit ; but wood, foliage, and growth, set it down
at once among the reds. This variety is scarce in England. The bunches
are small, yet it is much in demand, where known, for preserving.

VARIETIES OF THE CURRANT. 74:8

2. Red Dutch. — " Bunches short. This is a sweet, rich, and good cur-
rant." Thus it has been described by Mr. Rivers, in the last edition of his
catalogue. When we consider the many good qualities of the Red Dutch,
it is a free grower, a good bearer, a fair-sized bunch, with large, high-colored,
rich berries ; and above all, for jams and jellies it has no superior, if it has
an equal. It is one of the best red currants.

3. Red Butch., Long-Bunched. — This is a fine, long-bunched, large-berried
variety of the above. It is later, and rather more acid.

4. Red Grape. — A very fine long-bunched variety, with large berries, but
very acid.

5. Knight's Early-Red. — Bunches and berries about medium size, mode-
rately sweet. A very good early currant.

6. Knight's Large-Red. — Bunches long, berries large, medium season. A
fine, large currant, but inclined to be acid.

7. Knight's Siveet-Red. — A really good, sweet, red currant, with long
bunches and large berries.

8. Palmer's Large-Red. — In this we have a very fine, long-bunched, large-
berried currant ; a vigorous grower and an abundant bearer. It is extensively
cultivated in some localities in England.

9. Pitmaston Sweet-Red. — Bunches short, with berries below medium
size. This is the sweetest of all the red currants. Raised by Mr. William?,
of Pitmaston.

10. Victoria, Rahy, or Houghton- Cattle. — The bunches are longer than
any other variety. A free grower and an abundant bearer. Perhaps, on the
whole, the finest red currant known.

11. Red Strijyed-leaved. — A poorly- variegated variety of a bad red currant.
Unworthy of culture, either for its foliage or fruit.

12. Black Bang-u}). — A good variety of black. Bunch and berry nearly
if not quite as large as Black Naples.

13. BlacJc Naples. — Gonsidevad the best of the black currants, and I think
deservedly so. Bunches of fei)- Iwigth, berries large.

14. iVctf Dtvarf-BlacJc. — This variety prom^ises well. It is of more dwarf
habit than the other blacks, and in bunch and berry equal to Black Naples.

15. Oreen-fruited Black. — Wood, foliage, and growth is that of the black,
while the fruit when ripe is green. In flavor it will not approach the other
blacks. It is a most singular variety, but is worthless as a fruit-bearer.

16. Variegated-leaved Black. — Here again we have a badly- variegated
foliage, and a poor fruit. Not worth cultivating,

17. Okl White. — This variety now is seldom met with, the larger varieties
having taken its place. The bunches are short ; berries small, amber-colored,
or nearly so, and of higher flavor than any of the other whites. This should
be borne in mind by the raisers of new varieties.

18. White Dutch. — Bunches of fair length; berries large, deep in color,
and of high flavor. This is a very fine variety ; every point considered, per-
haps the finest of the white currants.

19. White Grape. — Bunches long; berries large, pale, not quite as high-
flavored as the White Dutch. As a general rule, the closer a white currant
approaches in color to amber, the sweeter and richer in flavor it ''s, like a
finely-ripened Muscat grape.

Some of the finest currants I have ever seen grown were in the Isle of Wight.
In Guernsey and Jersey they grow equally fine, more particularly the reds
and whites. The soil was a strong, adhesive loam, resting on clay, but a
well-drained bottom. The climate is very genial, and the fruit is net only

744 MK. s^js^som's inquiry.

large and well-colored, but finely ripened. In the market-gardens about
London they arc excellently grown, and managed somowliat in this way.
They are planted in lilies, at given distances apart — say twenty or thirty feet
row from rou-, and three or four feet apart in the rows. The ground, which
is naturally good, is highly manured, and cropped between the vegetables.
The plants, after the first year or two — when they commence bearing — are
pruned very hard. Perhaps it will be better understood what I mean by
hard, when I say the greater part of the young wood is thinned out, and
what is allowed to remain is shortened back to two or three inches. By
this means the trees are always kept short, never attaining a greater height
than tv.'O or three feet. The bushes being low, with well-thinned-out and
shortened branches, they shade little or none of the ground, and are cropped
up to the bush. These strong-manured and well-pruned trees produce mag-
nificent fruit, and in great abundance, well remunerating the market-gardener
for his trouble.

What v^iU the advocates of no-pruning say to this i Yet the currant,
like the foreign grape, must be pruned, and pruned severely, if fine fruit is
wanted. The black currant will not submit to this treatment, bearing as
it does on the young wood. The latter must be thinned out, and when over-
long, moderately shortened. The pruning must be varied to suit the age
and vigor ot' the tree.

There are many soils in which the white currant will not grow — ground to
all appearance of the best description, and in which the other currants grow
finely; yet in these soils white currants will scarcely live — grow they will not ;
shoAving there is something wanting in the soil necessary for the well-being
of the plant. Perhaps chemistry could step in to our aid, and tell us what
this essential is. Again we meet with soils where the whites vie in vigor with
the reds — ground which may be to appearance no better than the other. In
a general way, it is more particular to soil than either reds or blacks, which
will grow in almost any.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND TUB AKVIL.

3III. SANSOM'S IKQUIllY: G R A I N-D li ILLS.

Messrs. Editors : Your Texas correspondent, Mr. Sansem, wishes to know
something in relation to cultivating wheat, and the best implement for drill-
ing it in. There are several modes of cultivation, and several difierent kiuds
of grain- ilrills, and the most of them answer a very good purpose, if the
ground is in the right condition to use them. In this region of country,
where we have a weedy, soddy, and tough piece of ground, wo usually sum-
mer-fallow it, ploughing it three times during the season, and thus we fit it
for the drill. The seeds decay, the soil becomes mellow and lively, and in a
word, is put in the right state to receive the seed. Mr. Sansom's account of
the prairie-soil in Texas, would indicate that the prairies are all swarded
over, etc. Very well ; plough deep, and see to it that your soil is thoroughly
nulverized, and there is not the least reason to doubt that grain-drills can bs
most eftectualiy worked in your country. There being no stones, no roots.
or other obstructions to bother you, you can use our York-State drills profit
ably an:] beneficially. Wc have used the drill for some time past, not only

ROTATION OF CROPS: OAT HUSBANDRY. 74:1

in sowing wheat, but in sowing oats, barley, etc. In all cases it works most
admirably. I don't know as it would be worth while to go into a lengthy
account of the advantages of the grain-drill, but it is sufficient to state that if
you have much grain to sow, get a grain-drill. There are those which can
be procured that will do good service. We use the nine-iooth drill, manufac-
tured at Palmyra, Wayne County, N. Y., by Foster, Jessup & Co. One drill
cost us, delivered on the spot, ready for use, $70. It is a good, durable in-
strument, and can be shipped to almost any part of the United States at a
trifling expense. Lemone's drill is said to be good, but I never have used it.
I know that the Jessup dnll does good work, and by changing your horses,
using one team in the forenoon and a fresh one in the afternoon, you can
drill in fifteen acres in a day, and do your work well.

By using the grain-drill, you firzt save seed ; second, your grain is put into
the ground at an equal depth, and hence does not fail to germinate ; third.
the sun's rays are admitted between the rows where your grain is drilled in,
north and south ; fourth, your grain grows uniformly of one height, the heads
all being about of one size and one appearance; ?a\([ fifth, the drill answers
the purpose of a drag or harroAv, working the soil over to better advantage
than even the drar,'. One man can use the drill, but the help of two men is
better, on account of expediting the work and keeping the instrument regu-
larly adjusted.

As people become acquainted with the grain-drill, more and more, they
seem to fall in with it, because it combines so many advantages superior to
those gained by sowing grain broad-cast. Wheat sown with a good drill, is
not near as liable to heave out as that sown broad-cast. It becomes deepl}'
rooted, and therefore remains firmly in the ground. I should advise Mr.
Sansom by all means to get a grain-drill to use on the prairie-lands of Texas.
and in my opinion he will never regret it.

Very respectfully, W. Tappan.

BaJdioinsville, N. Y.

FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.

ROTATION OF CROPS: O A T - H U S B A Iv D R Y .

Messp.s. Editoks : Permit me to renew my communication, by ofl'eriug
something on our rotation of crops and oat-husbandry. Changing our lands
has only within a few years attracted our attention.

In establishing this system, it is generally admitted that the product grov/n
should be as dissimilar as possible from its predecessor. Cotton is entirely
distinct from any thing we produce, so that we have no difficulty in having
it succeed either corn, oats, or potatoes. Neither is theve any hindrance in
realizing a good yield on our fallow-land.

If we omit growing oats, there is no obstacle to carrying it out. Tlien wt-
have as a rotation, corn, pasture, cotton. Part of the land that has been occu-
pied by cotton the preceding year, can that year be planted in the same, a;-
cotton appears to exhaust or tier land much less than any of the above.

When we grow a full oat-crop, the difficulty becomes greater and very
embarrassing. From the similarity between oats and corn, they do not do so
well to succeed each other, especially corn after oats. One great objection is.
or\r stand of corn may be materially injured by the ravages of a small worm,

746 FRUITS — APPROVED LIST.

that preys on it when small, in the root. The objections to oats following-
corn are, our land becomes too close and wax}-, from stock being permitted
to run on it during a portion of the winter, especially if wet. It also may be
foul ; if so, it breaks up badly. Both belonging to the family of cereals, the
similarity certainly does no good. But I believe it is the best we can do.
Cotton answers as a predecessor most admirably. Corn being with us the
most important crop, claims precedence here.

I have been trying a course, but the result, I apprehend, will not be satis-
factory, of com, fallow, oats, cotton. Potatoes do best after cotton, where
this crop is admissible. Oats, to precede potatoes, will answer well, if we do
not, after gathering, feed too close. About the latter part of June put in a
crop of peas, and, in addition, after the peas are consumed, we can have a
good oat-pasture, if we will take off our hogs by the 1st of October.

Our oat-crop is annually becoming more important, especially if we wish
to be sure of our meat. The principal oat grown by us is the Egyptian. It
is our heaviest. After cutting and pasturing, if the stock is taken off in Sep-
tember, they spring up, affording excellent winter-grazing for sheep. They
are not easily injured by the cold. Our average yield is about 25 bushels
per acre; they frequently weigh 35 lbs. to the bushel. They should be
ploughed in between the 1st of December and middle of January. After
this time, in sowing, they are not so good ; if earlier, they are very apt to
interfere much more with our other crops, as they will require cutting by the
latter part of May. We sow about a bushel to the acre. More interferes
with their full development, causing them to prove light and dwarfish.
Many good planters sow them when they last plough or sweep their cotton.
My own experience is not satisfactory. I think they are more vulnerable to
the cold, and it interferes with my corn-crop.

This oat has a peculiarity, I believe, not found with any other. Us natural
germinating period is about the 1st of October. It may be ploughed in, in
the summer, but it will hardly show itself before this time. It will, further,
remain in the ground, and if the circumstances do not suit, it will not show
itself for a year or two, and then will vegetate.

In my next, I shall show how we are engaged in preparing for a crop.
Yours, etc., H. W. Stackuousk.

Line Store, Hind Cov,iity, Miss.

FRUITB — APPROVED LIST.

The following list of fruits was adopted by the iVmericaii Pomological
Society, as worthy of general cultivation :

Apples. — American Summer Pearmain, Baldwin, Bullock's Pippin, Dan
vei-s' Winter Sweet, Early Harvest, Early Strawberry, Fall Pippin, Fameuse,
GravGnstein,Hubbardstou Nonesuch, large Yellow Boiigh, Lady Apple, Porter,
Red Astracban, Rhode-Island Grreeniug, Roxbury Russet, Summer Rose,
Swaar, Vandervere, White Seek-no-Furthor, Wine Apple, or Hays ; Winesap.
For particular localities: Canada Red, Esopus Spitzenburg, Ne w to wii Pippin,
Northern Spy, Yellow Belle Fleur.

Fears. — Ananas d'Ete, Andrews, Belle Lucrative, or Fondante d'Automne ,
Beurre d'Anjou, Beurred'iVremberg. Beurro Bosc, Bloodgood, Buffum, Dear-
born's Seedling, Doyenne d'Ete, Flemish Beauty, Fulton, Golden Beurre of
Bilbos, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Madeleine, Paradise d'Automne, Rostiezer,

REMEDY FOR BITE OF A MAD DOG. 747

Seckel, Tyson, Urbaniste, Uvedale's St. Germain, for baking ; Vicar of Wink-
field, Williams' Boncretien, or Bartlett; Winter Nelis. For particular
localities : Grey Doyenne, White Doyenne.

Apricots. — Breda, Large Early, Moorpark.

Nectarines, — Downton, Early Violet, Elruge.

Pmc^es.— Bergen's Yellow, Cooledge's Favorite, Crawford's Late, Early
York, serrated ; Early York, large ; George the Fourth, Grosse Mignonne.
Morris White, Old Mixon Free. For particular localities : Heath Cling.

Plums. — Bleecker's Gage, Coe's Golden Drop, Frost Gage, Green Gage,
Jefferson, Lawrence's Favorite, Purple Gage, Purple Favorite, Washington.
For particular localities : Imperial Gatje.

Cherries. — Belle Magnifique, Black Eagle, Black Tartarian, Downer's Late,
Downton, Elton, Early Richmond, for cooking ; Graffion, or Bigarreau ;
Knight's Early Black, May Duke.

Grapes. — Under glass : Black Hamburg, Black Prince, Black Frontignac,
"Ghasselas de Fontainebleau, Grizzly Frontignan, White Frontignan, White
Muscat of Alexandria. Open culture : Catawba, Isabella.

Raspberries. — Fastolf, Franconia, Red Antwerp, Yellow Antwerp.

Strawberries.— ^o%ion Pine, Hovey's Seedling, Jenney's Seedling, Large
Early Scarlet.

Currants. — Black Naples, May's Victoria, Red Dutch, White Dutch,
White Grape.

Gooseberries. — Crown Bob, Early Sulphur, Green Gage, Laurel, Red
•Champagne, Green Walnut, Houghton's Seedling, Ironmonger, Warrington,
Woodward's White Smith.

NEW VARIETIES WHICH I'ROMISE WELL,

Apples. — Autumn Bough, Melon, Hawley, Mother, Northern Spy, Smoke-
house.

Pears. — Brandywine, Brande's St. Germain, Beurre Giffard, Chancellor,
Doyenne Boussock, Doyenne Goubault, Duchesse d'Orleans, Duchesse de Berri,
Diller, Jalousie de Fontenny Vendee, Kirtland, Limon, Manning's Elizabeth,
Nouveau Poiteau, Onondaga, Ott, Pratt, Paradise d'Automne, St. Michael
Archange, Stevens' Genesee, Striped Madeleine, Van Assene.

Plums. — M'Laughlin, Prince's Yellow Gage, River's Favorite, St. Martin's
Quetshe.

Cherries. — Bigarreau Monstreuse de Bavay, Early Purple Gulgne, Reine
Horlense,

Gropes. — Diana.

Raspberries. — Knevett's Giant.

Strawberries. — Burr's New Pine.

Remedy you iUE Bite of a Mad Dog. — A Saxon forester named Gastell
now of the venerable age of eigbty-two, unwilling to take to the grave with
him a secret of such import, has made public in the Leipsic Journal, the
means which he has used for fifty yearg, and Avherewith, he affirms, he has
rescued many human beings and cattle from the fearful death of hydrophobia.
Take immediately v/arm vinegar or tepid water, wash the v.'ound clean
therewith, and fheu dry it; then pour upon the wound a few drops of mu-
riatic acid, because mineral acids destroy the poison or saliva, by which means
the evil effect^" of the latter are neutralized.

748

PREMIUM PATENT AGRICULTURAL FORKS.

IMPROVED PREMIUM PATENT AGRICULTURAL FORIC-

This improvement is aj^plicable to and embraces all kinds of tiaed forks
and metallic rakes. The accoiTipanying engraving is an illustration of an

improvement in manvire, uay, and

, other forks, for agricultural and

' n ( mechanical purposes, patented by

Benjamin 11. Franklin, of Worces-
ter,'Mass., Dec. 20. 1853. The
principal iigure is a rear or back
view of one of his manure-forks,
and figures 2 and 3 are fan«verso
sections of the tines.

His improved mode of manufac-
\ ture embraces any desirable shaped
tine, when made independent and
inserted in a head as by him de-
scribed. ]^>ut the valuo of this in-
vention consists more particularly
in original shaped tines, v/bich art-
triangular, and so arraiiged in the
head that one of the flat iides shall
be uppermost, the other two con-
sequently receding from the open-
ino- in such a manner thai any
thing passing between the tines
will "slip through, and thus the fork
will not be so easily choked. The
bead or sockets, A. may be made of malleable or wrought metal; and provided
^Yith a socket. B, or ferrule, fitting on the handle C. The tines, E, are trian-
gular, as seen in their section at" fig. 2 ; or the top may bo flat, ^vA the un-
der sides concave. ^ • i

The steel for these forks is imported in a iriangular shape, uc ught size tu
go into the threc-side.i holes in the head, and only drawn by machinery to a
proper taper; thev are then ground, spring-tempered, and forced int>. thear
sockets, slightly riveted, so that they may be replaced if broken.

The advantages of a three-sided tine over one of tour or more sides, or a
round one. are iiianv, and among them may be enumerated that the depth
or strength of the metal is precisely whore it shoidd be, where the tnost strain
comes upon it, namelv, perpendicularly and horizontally ; they present a flat
surface for the material to rest upon. 'iVside, any thing passing between the
tines can not bind or choke ; as the space below is wider than on the top,
the tnaterial will moie easily slip or slide off when thrown from the fork ;
and there is less metal, and consequently h'>s weight, while the same degree
of strength is preserved. Thtre are but thrt-e sides to finish ir.sroad of more,
the tines being three-sided, and also the hole into which it is riveted. ^

This fork is free from the quivering, vibratory motion of the light forks of

parallel tines. . i •

It is said by good judges that the triangular-lmed tork is Jestmed to
supersede all others. The inventor had per.severed in his improvements near

wo years, anc

1 nov,- instead of selling it for lliirty thousand <lol!ars \w. has

PROGRESS OF MECHANICS. 749

bought a factory-village, ia Holden, Mass., five miles from tlie city of Wor-
cester, in the same county, Avhere he is about to commence the fork manu-
facture on an extensive scale, in company with Henry F. Holmes, a gentle-
man of much enterprise, well known in the flojir trade. He has also made
arrangements with a powerful company at Millbury, in the same county, for
their "extensive manufacture, at the head of which is T. H. Witherby, the
well-known chisel and drawing-knife manufacturer. Under such circum-
stances, we prophesy better tools in the hands of the agriculturist, and money
in the pockets of all concerned.

For further information address the inventor, at Worcester or Holden,
Mass.

PROGRESS OF MECHANICS.— Na IIL

Wk resume the illusta-ation of this subject, which was eommenced in our
March and continued in our April number.

Among the more noticeable improvements in the arts, we may add those
connected with the manufacture of fire-arms. The invention of gunpowder
was a death-blow, comparatively, to the manufacture of armor, for no coat of
mail could withstand tlie force of a bullet at a moderate distance, nor furnish
any defense against cannen-balls. Indeed, we wonder that those iron gar-
ments could be worn at all. As we have looked upon the coats of mail now
in the Crystal Palace, sent from the Tower of London — the same that were
actually worn in the time of the Henrys — we wonder that they could be en-
dured ; and it seems to us that a Yankee in an ordinary dress, could knock
down and trample upon a half dozen of men, encumbered with such de-
fenses.

The first cannons were bars of iron, hooped together, but ere long, guns
were cast. They were, however, of enormous size. In Turkey, at this day,
they may be seen suited to carry a stone-ball of 600 lbs. weight. At one time,
gun-barrels were covered with iron wire, the coils being furnished with a
smooth surface, and soldered together. The rifle, probably a German inven-
tion, is the most effective of " small-arms," and was brought into use as early
as the year 1500.

We can not speak in detail of the revolvers and breech-loading guns and
pistols of modern times. These are chiefly the invention of the present gene-
ration, and the most important are the inventions of our own comntrymen.
To illustrate them would require numerous engravings, which are not now at
our command. We shall be glad of an opportunity to present them here-
after.

The stamping of coins and other metallic plates was formerly done exclu-
sively by hand. We have referred to this fact in a former number. The
invention of machinery, or perhaps, more strictly, the adaptation of machinery
to this purpose, has added greatly to the economy, and also to the perfection
of these manufactures.

The use of iron, as a substitute for wood and other materials, is a step of
very great importance in the progress of the arts. We can not do justice to
this topic, in its broadest extent, and must only allude to facts which way re-
ceive more extended notice hereafter. We will attempt a little classifica-
tion, as follows :

YOL. VI. — PART II. 24

750 PROGRESS OF MECHATvriCS.

1. Iron for Marble. — No visitor at the Crystal Palace, or at the exhibi-
tions at Castle-Garden, or at the Mechanic-Fairs in Boston, can have failed to
notice the fire-frames, and other architectural forms, composed of iron and
made to resemble marble. The resemblance is perfect. A close observation,
without handling, would often fail to discover the real material.

There are two processes by which this effect is produced. One by a simple
coat of some varnish-like material, and the other by the application of some
matter more granular, so to speak ; that is, something more resembling a thin
coat of plaster. It is, in fact, a composition applied to the surface of the iron,
and reduced to a smooth surface and then polished. As usual, both are urged
as the best, and most durable, but we are not sufficiently experienced in the
actual use of either to give their relative value. The former, however, is said
to stand heat better than the other.

2. Iron for Wood. — Iron ships and steamers at once loom np in the
mind at the sight of this phrase. The experiment has been tried ; and we have
sufficient experience to prove that whether this substitution may or may not
eventually be found useful for all kinds of vessels, at least it is the best for some.
How many lives, sacrificed by fire in our streams the last year, might have
been saved had iron formed the substance of which those steamers were
built ! Those beautiful life-boats in the Crystal Palace, will for ever silence all
disputatious minds, as to the utility of such applications of this most useful
metal.

Iron Furniture is already in market, and these manufactures will no
doubt increase. Iron chairs are somewhat objectionable in this climate, but
no doubt some expedient may be devised for surmounting this difficulty.
Iron bedsteads are of unquestionable convenience, — easily managed, easily
cleaned, seldom infested with animated dust, and never, we suppose, if painted
with verdigris ; they can not fail to come into extensive use. Iron frames for
sofas, couches, tete-d-tetes, etc., etc., and wherever there is opportunity for a
liberal use of curled hair, the use of iron must become much more common.
As material for book-shelves, it is incomparable.

Iron Bridges are already familiarly known. That of Southwark, at Lon-
don, crosses the Thames by an arched frame-work of iron that has stood more
than half a century. Its largest span is 240 feet. Iron suspension-bridges,
of which the most renowned is, perhaps, that below Niagara Falls, are an
invention of very great importance. The possible application of iron to this
kind of architecture is almost unlimited. The tubular bridge at the Straits
of Menai, recently erected, shows beyond dispute, that skill «nd machinery
are adequate to any thing in this department that money will pay for.

Iron Cables have almost entirely superseded the use of those of hemp.
Cast-iron for light-houses must eventually supersede all other materials for
such structures, and also for the roofs of ordinary dwellings. The immense
supply of the native ore, and the constantly-increasing facilities for working
it, insure an immense increase in the demand for iron, for these and a score
of other uses, in which it is now scarcely thought of. But these suggestions
are eminently in place, in this connection, for our mechanics and artisans are
already quite adequate to the production of these and other articles, so soon
as the condition of the markets shall encourage their manufacture.

Working in Wood. — Wood ean not be manufactured into articles of
ornament, or of utility, except in the more simj^le forms, save in an ad-
vanced condition of civilization. This may seem contrary to the fact, at the
first thought, because it is so readily worked, and by simple tools. But the
reason is obvious. To make graceful forms of wood, requires refined tastes,

IRON MANUFACTURES.

751

in the design, and nicely-cutting tools for the execution. Compare the
wooden images of barbarous tribes with those of more educated tastes. The
Swiss wood-cuttings in the Crystal Palace excel any thing to be found in
the uncivilized world, and can not be exceeded in any country. We love, as
we look upon them, to reverse the terms of the proposition, and to assure
ourself that a people that can exhibit such chaste designs, so beautifully exe-
cuted, can neither be degraded nor ignorant. Those " works" commend the
Swiss to our especial regard.

NEW CENTRE-TABLE AND DESK.

Amono the most convenient and desirable contrivances of the day, is a
Combination Table, Writing-Desk, and Chair, recently patented, and manu-
factured by Messrs. Walling & Hedges,
No. 252 Ninth avenue. The accom-
panying cuts represent this new and
convenient article of furniture in the
form of a simple table, and in that of
a writing-desk with its chair, combined.
After the occupant is seated, the chair
is hooked to the desk part, and thus a
very easy arm-chair is formed. Un-
derneath the desk is a drawer. The
whole is on castors, enabling the per-
son occupying it to move about the
room without rising. When it is in
the form of a table, there is considerable space to store articles of clothing or

books. It is a most desirable article
of furniture, well adapted to offices,
sitting-rooms, parlors, and schools.
Made in a cheap and durable form,
we think they would be an acquisi-
tion to schools.

Messrs. W. & H. have found their
desk and table to meet with a de-
mand beyond their ability to supply.
Orders have been already received
from distant parts of the country.

IRON MANUFACTURES.

We have long been surprised at the supineness of our capitalists in regard to
this vast and important branch of domestic industry. No single State in the
Union presents greater facilities for the manufacture of iron than Kentucky.
Immediately contiguous to the many immense coal-fields now being opened in
various portions of the State, are inexhaustible bodies of rich iron ore. In
many of these localities, all the other materials requisite for the manufacture of
iron are within convenient reach. Nothing is wanting but the erection of fur-

752 IRON" MANUFACTURES.

naces and the application of labor to produce an article for which the demand
has already increased to an almost incredible extent, and is still increasing
daily. A few years ago it was considered difficult, without the aid of a pro-
tective tariff, for the iron manufactures of this country to compete with the
furnaces of England. It was not because iron could not be produced as
cheaply here, even at that time, as in England, for here all the materials for
its production, except labor, could be procured more cheaply than anywhere
else ; but the demand then was limited, and it was in the power of the Eng-
lish manufacturers to supply all that was needed, while their immense capital
enabled them not only to raise and depress prices as circumstances required,
to break down competition, but also to sell upon such terms as to offer in-
ducements to railroads that could not be afforded by the smaller operators in
this country.

Now, however, the times are changed. The demand for manufactured
iron has become so vast that foreign competition need no longer deter our
capitalists from engaging in this very profitable pursuit. During the last
few years, the uses of iron have been greatly multiplied. In building ocean
steamers, houses, machinery, and all the various articles of domestic use in
which iron has lately been introduced, when we calculate the grand aggre-
gate of its application throughout the whole extent of our great and grow-
ing country, it seems marvellous indeed. Taking into consideration the
single item of railroad iron, the present and prospective demand is far, very
far, beyond the capacity of all the furnaces in England, Norway, and the
United States, to supply in many years.

There are now in operation in this country 13,000 miles of railroad. It
has been estimated that by January, 18G0, we will have completed of roads
already constructed and projected, 30,000 miles, making 17,000 miles to be
furnished with iron in less than six years. The rails for these roads will con-
sume at least 100 tons of iron per mile, giving 1,700,000 tons of rails required
to be furnished by January, 1860. This amount, at $75 per ton, the present
price of railroad iron, will cost 1127,000,000, to which should be added at
least $10,000,000 for repairs and renewals on account of wear and tear, and
probably $40,000,000 for locomotives and other necessaiies for railroads
which re(]uire the use of iron — making an aggregate of $180,000,000 manu-
factured iron required for railroad purposes in this country in the next six
years.

These railroads must and will be built. The advantages of railroads in
promoting the agricultural, manuf;icturing, and all other industrial interests,
have become so apparent that railroads are demanded in every direction.
The cost of their construction is amply and many-fold repaid in the increased
value of adjacent lands and their products. The means to build them will
be forthcoming at the proper time, and the materials for their construction
must be procured. For years past we have been paying tribute to foreign
iron manufacturers. Since the introduction of the railroad system in the
United States, we have doubtless contributed to foreign producers not less than
$100,000,000 for railroad iron alone. It is time that we should cease to
depend upon England for this commodity, and expend among our own
operatives this immense bonus thus paid to foreign labor.

It has been suggested that a certain number of railroad companies should
form a combination, and proceed to manufacture their own iron. We have
no doubt that this arrangement, if actively engaged in, would enable the
parties to procure all their iron in a shorter time, and at far less expense, than
by any other method. It would be the means of building up in our midst

editors' jottings, etc. 753

an iron manufacture whicli would render us altogether independent of foreign
aid and exempt from foreign extortions. We hope to see this done. We
are satisfied that no section of the country can present greater advantages for
the location of such a work than many parts of Kentucky ; and we believe
that if capitalists would turn their attention to iron manufactures in this State
with the same eagerness that has been evinced in the improvement of our
coai-fields, a source of profit would thus be opened to them greatly surpass-
ing any other investment. In a national point of view, every possible
effort should be made to retain among our own laborers and mechanics the
vast sum to be expended for manufactured iron. — Louisville Journal.

EDITORS' JOTTINGS AND MECHANICAL RECORD.

General Agenct. — The publisher of The Ploug\ the Loom, and the Anvil,
believing it in his power to be of essential service to the readers of that journal
in the purchase or sale of various articles, and the transaction of various kinds
of business, would announce to them that he is ready to execute any such com-
mission which he may receive, including the purchase of books of any descrip-
tion, implements connected with agricultural, manufacturing, or mechanical
operations; artificial manures; farm and garden-seeds, etc., etc. One of the
gentlemen connected with the journal is a proficient in music, and experienced
in the selection of piano-fortes, flutes, etc., and will execute orders in that depart-
ment. He will also act as agent in the purchase and sale of Real Estate.

1^" Particular attention to business connected with the Patent Ofiice.

Letters of inquiry on these matters will be promptly attended to.

Collectors "Wanted, in all the States south and west of Ohio and Pennsyl-
vania. Those of experience preferred, and unquestionable references requii'ed.
Address, post-paid, or in person, at this Office.

Properties of Iron. — In the concluding lecture of Professor Smith, at the
Smithsonian Institution, the lecturer dwelt upon the tendency of iron to undergo
a change from a fibrous to a granular condition — thus causing the abstraction of
an indefinite amount of its tenacity and strength. Fibrous iron, by being for a
considerable time subjected to concussion, will become granular and therefore
weak. A knowledge of this principle has induced the French government to
disallow the use of iron axles on their public diligences beyond a certain time ;
they must then be removed. Iron cannon, originally very strong, become weaker
and weaker by use, from the loosening of the texture of their substance.

The New Process of Making- Bread. — A baker at Lyons has made a dis-
covery in the art of making bread, which must be very useful in these days of
high-priced breadstuff's. From a bag of flour weighing 314 pounds, the Paris
bakers make about 400 pounds of bread ; by the newly-discovered method, the
baker of Lyons makes 440 pounds of bread. Several gentlemen of the Academy
of Science have examined the process, which is thought to promise very favor-
ably, though we do not see how the nutritive qualities of a certain bulk of wheat
are to be increased by increasing the weight.

This is from the Maine Fa/rmer. In speaking of this subject, the Puritan
Recorder says :

" The bread made ia every way as good as that made by the old process.
The addition comes from the use of some fermentative material which causes
more water to combine with the flour. Yet this would not bhow that there is
not a gain of solid and nutritive materials. The case, may be illustrated by the
slacking of lime ; which adds many times the bulk and weight of the original
body, through the water passing from a fluid to a solid form in the new com-

754 editors' jottings, etc.

bination. We see no impossibility, therefore, on the face of the thing. If it
proves to be all that the late experiments seem to show it to be, and thus to
add fifty per cent to the amount of bread from a given amount of flour, it will
be found to be no unimportant discovery."

_ It seems from this paragraph that some of our editors, or one, at least, be-
lieves in a new system of chemistry, by which new substances are formed out
of notliing; or he takes on faith, what can not fail to be an arrant humbug, or
something worse. More than one expedient is in common use already, for
making Iread weigh; and if respectable journals are disposed to give to such
efforts the reputation of honesty, all we can say is, God help the poor ! They get
quite too little now, from many bakers, but their prospects will become still
darker. Let every honest man expose this new machinery for swindling, as " no
unimportant discovery," but in a sense entirely the opposite of that intended by
the writer of the above paragraph. The italics are ours, and were not in the
original."

The illustration of water added to lime, is in point, but goes against the doc-
trine of the editor. The quantity of lime is not increased. It is the same in
the case of flour. It may be made to absorb more water, but no nutriment is
thereby added, and the result will be that the people have to pay for the water
at the same rate as for bread.

Coal in Califoenia. — Coal mines of great importance have lately been dis-
corered in portions of Oregon Territory and Puget Sound. To work one of
these, a company has been formed in San Francisco, whose capital is ^200,000.
Already some one hundred tons have been sent to market, and is proved to be
of superior quality. The company have contracted to deliver 5500 tons within
four months. This, at ^25 per ton, (less than the ruling rates, which are $27
to $33,) will yield them a handsome profit upon all labor expended up to the
tina© of delivery.

_ GuAKO Deposits. — The Peruvian Government has employed a French En-
gineer, with several assistants and cliemists, to measure the guano deposits on
the Chincha Islands. The result has just been made known. It appears that
the total deposits on the Chincha Islands amount to 16,501,466 tons (gross,)
Beside these, Peru owns several other deposits of considerable extent which
are now being surveyed. From this, it is evident that the fears which many
have entertained, that the supply of guano would be exhausted, are ground-
Ies»,r

Centeal MiLiTAET Teact Raileoad OF ILLINOIS. — This road extends from
Aurora, its northern terminus, to Galesburgh, on the Peoria and Oquawka road,
its isouthern terminus, and when completed will open a really direct route from
Chicago to the Mississippi River at Quincy. The country through which it
passes is among the best in the State. In fact, the Military Tract is acknow-
ledged to be the Paradise of Illinois. Among the numerous roads proposed and
constructing in Illinois, this one has heretofore made but little stir in the mar-
ket. But from what we can gather, its progress is steadily onward.

New Patent foe Making- Nails. — There has recently been invented and
pat into operation in this city a new machine for making cut-nails, the great
peculiarity of which is, that it is self-feeding, and will manufacture in a given
time nearly, if not quite, as many again nails as any other known process, and
that any man, (as it is claimed) with the assistance of a boy, will operate ten
machines. There is also a great saving in iron, there being only a waste of
about a quarter of an inch in ten feet, which is the length of the piece of iron
placed in the machine at a time. It has been shown that one machine will
manufacture from three hundred to three hundred and fifty nails per minute. —
Troy Whig.

"Watee Woees at "Watertown. — Messrs. J. Ball & Co., of this City, have
be€B constructing water-works at Watertown, N. Y., under a great head.

editors' jottings, etc. 755

"We are informed that the water is forced from the Black River through then-
pipes into a reservoir some 7000 feet from the river, and elevated about 190
feet above the pump welh The Democratic Union speaks of the trial as fel-
lows :

"The trial of the water-works was in the highest degree gratifying to all the
friends of that noble enterprise. Several hydrants were tried, and all worked
to admiration. We witnessed the one near the Arcide entrance, which threw
water in a perpendicular direction to the distance of 40 feet above the
buildings. The fountain threw a jet of water to the height of 80 feet. It is
well to remark that the triumph of the water-works at this trial was effected
without letting on the full head of water. It is estimated that under a fall head,
the fountain will throw its jet to the height of 110 feet. The reservoir is sita-
ated about one mile from the centre of the village, at an elevation of 190 feet
above the fountain. It will contain 3,500,000 gallons. The pump by which
the water is forced from the Bhick River to the reservoir, was constructed by
Hoard and Bradford. There are sixty-five hydrants, situated at different points
in the corporation. The one at the Railroad depot is said to be over 200 feet
below the reservoir. We reckon there will be some spouting if that hydrant
should ever be uncapped under a full head of water. Eight of these hydrants
can be brought to bear, at the same time, on any of the principal buildings.
Mr. Ball, the enterprising and reliable contractor for the construction of the
pipes, has finally triumphed nobly, in spite of the cavillings of croakers and faalt-
finders. The trial was a pretty good indorsement of his bonds. All credit is
due to those of our citizens who have projected, encouraged, and sustained this
great enterprise."

Hindoo Mkohaotcs. — The Hindoos do their work in such a different maaaer
from the American and Englishman, that he almost appears to be a person
belonging to a different order of beings. Our blacksmith stands at work, ihe
Hindoo squats with his knees nearly on a level with his chin; it is the same
with their carpenters and masons; their posture is suggestive of indolence and
offominacy. They appear to be defective in the muscular power of their limbs,
and tlie blacksmith hammers away, squatted like a kangaroo, on his haunches.
Tliey go barefoot, and if they do not use their feet to stand upon while they
work, they make more use of their toes than the Anglo-Saxons. Tiie Hindoo
blacksmith, when he has a piece of iron to file, places it between the jaws of a
small pair of tongs, and grasping them firmly between his great toes, tiles away
with great force. He also sometimes uses his toes to reach forth and grasp a
tool, the same as wc our fingers, and so accustomed are they to use tlieir toes,
that they sometimes adorn them with gold rings, they being as worthy of soch
honors as our fingers.

Time does not seem to be valued by the Oriental; his tools and method of
working appear to be contrived for the very purpose of consuming as mach
time as possible. The mason works with a trowel about the size of one of onr
table-spoons and a small hammer about half a pound weight.

Ho squats before his work, and has two women attendants to bring hira his
brick and mortar. These attend, the one with a brick in each hand, the other
with a truncheon of mortar about the size of a breakfast-plate. One Amerioan
mason, with one hod-carrier, will lay as much brick as twelve Hindoos, with
their twenty-four rundees^ or brick-and-mortar attendants.

Barnes' Patent Extension- Bits. — Such has been the success of this artide,
in giving satisfaction to those who have been able to get them, and such the eon-
tinued demand for them from all quarters, that Mr. Barnes has been obliged to
enlarge his manufactory, and will hereafter hope to supply all demands. The
bit is so constructed, that three collectively make a compjlete set, that will bore
any diameter, from \ to 2^ inches — equal to 31 ordinary bits, beside cuttiag
numerous sizes between. Indeed, it seems to be just what all workers of waod
must have to make their kit of tools complete, and almost as essential as a jaek-
plane or hand-saw.

756 editors' jottings, etc. /^

'Rew Motive Power. — A correspondent of the Syracuse Standard, writing
from Rochester, speaks of the discovery of a new motive power which is to
subvert the present mode of steam propulsion, and a great improvement upon
all former discoveries. But we must confess that to us it looka like a very
doubtful case. What is the " Bi Sulphate of Carbon?" He says :

" It consists in the use of Bi Sulphate of Carbon as a motive power. An
engine has been constructed which works like a charm. The expansive force
of this material, as every chemist knows, is many times greater than that of
steam, while at the same time it requires a much less degree of heat to vap-
orize it.

I will give you the result of an experiment with a miniature steam-engine.
It required the constant use of eight spirit-lamps to generate steam enough from
water to cause it to make one hundred and fifty revolutions per minute. With-
draw two of the lamps and all motion would cease. Withdraw all of them and
keep them away twenty minutes, then apply the Bi Sulphate of Carbon and
there was heat enough remaining to propel the engine at the rate of one thou-
sand times a minute. And this will apply on a large scale just as well. This
substance being so easily evaporated, heat from 20 to 160 degrees is found suf-
ficient for all purposes. Hence there is no danger of explosions as with steam.
It is confidently believed that this new motive power is destined to supersede
the use of steam. The inventor has applied for letters patent.

To sum up the whole matter, the inventor claims that a locomotive on this
principle can be built at a less expense than a steam locomotive; that the boiler
need be only one tenth as large ; the engine can be managed with less hands ;
a greater speed can be obtained ; no danger from explosions ; and a saving of
fuel at the rate of eighty per cent. An instance of the value of this invention, if
these things are all true, the New- York and Erie Railroad would save annually
$300,000 by adopting the invention."

Raileoad to the Pacific. — For the encouragement of the extreme south-
ern route, "not north of the town of Fulton in the State of Arkansas," to a
suitable point at or near the town of El Paso, on the Rio Grande, the Legis-
lature of Texas has granted a right of way across the public lands of the State,
not exceeding 300 feet in width, along the entire length of said road, with all the
timber, stone, etc., needed in its construction and support, found in the public
lands, with 20 sections of land of 640 acres to the section, for every mile of said
road that goes into operation, if constructed in a substantial and workmanlike
manner, and according to the provisions of the act. The Governor is to adver-
tise for bids and proposals for the construction of the road, and to make the
necessary conveyances to the party or parties judged most worthy. The cap-
ital stock of the company is to be ^20,000,000, with a right of increase. The
act is quite long, all the minutiro are provided for, and the matter seems ^taken
hold of in earnest.

Crystal Palace. — The following passage occurs in a very sensible article
upon the reopening of this superb exhibition.

" The public most certainly have the utmost confidence in Barnum, and
justly. He is industrious, fertile^in resources, subtle in conception, skillful in
planning, bold in execution, honest, temperate, and benevolent; and under his
management we can hope that the Crystal Palace will be made vigorously to
serve the legitimate purpose of developing art and industry," etc.

A New and Important Invention. — Capt. B. W. Perkins, of Worcester,
has taken out a patent for a pistol-lock, a model of which has been shown to us.
The simplicity of the thing renders it surprising that for so long a time the in-
tricate and expensive arrangement of existing locks should have been used. It
is constructed with only three pieces, including a small spiral spring; is extremely
simple, less liable to disarrangement than those now in vogue, and can be con-
structed at one third of the expense. It ought to, and we hope will, make the
fortune of the inventor.

A New Sapett-Guaed for Railroads. — A Frenchman by the name of Verite
has invented an electric clock, for the purpose of guarding against accidents to

LIST OF PATENTS.

757

railroad trains. The railroad on which they are used is divided into regular sta-
tions of eight or ten miles in length, which stations are in their turn subdivided
into sections of a mile or less. At the end of every station are placed two dials,
facing in opposite directions, the circumference of each being divided into as
many spaces as there are sections in the stations behind it. A large iron needle
or pointer is attached to the dial. This pointer is connected with a toothed
wheel, which in its turn is connected with certain wires of a galvanic battery,
passing along the track. When the engine enters upon section number 1, a tem-
porary connection of the wires is produced, making a completion of the circuit,
and causing the index on the dial to move to space number 1. As the engine
passes to the second section, the index is moved to the corresponding space on
the dial, and so on throughout the station. Thus a conductor, before starting
for a depot, can always tell whether any train is on the station before him ; and
accidents by collision will be rendered almost impossible, except by the most cul-
pable negligence.

List of Patents Issued,

VKOK ATBTL 11 TO HAT 2.

8t«pliMa Ustick, of Phfladelptia, Pa., ftr im-
provemenl in brick-machines. Ante-dated Not. IB,
1853.

Stephen Waterman, of Williamsburgfc, N. Y.,
f«r improred circular sawing-machine.

Moses T. Rowlands, of Pittstown, Pa., for im-
proTement in taUorg'-measure&

J. A. Roth and Joseph Lea, of the county of Phi-
ladelphia, Pa., for improTement in machines for
bleaching flax.

Matthias P. Coons, of BrooUyn, N. Y., for im-
proTement in iron-fences.

Thomas P. Forsyth, of Dalton, Ind.,for improve-
ment in machines for winding and folding cloth.

Garret Meldnwa, of Weat-Philadelpkia, Pa., for
improved turning-lathe.

JovTler M. Ray, of New- York, for improvement
la spiral-Bpring* for raUroad-cars.

John D. Seagrave, of Milford, Mass., for improve-
ment in machines for paring apples.

George C. Dixwell, of Boston, Mass., and J. A.
Dorr, of New- York, for improvement in gas-regu-
lators.

George Aulick, of Winchester, Va., for improve-
ment in car-couplings.

Ari Davis, of Washington, for improvement in
box-machine.

Sam'l T. Field, of Worcester, Mass., for improved
apparatus for painting window-blinds, etc.

James L. Cathcart, of Washington, for improve-
ment in attaching propellers to thedrlving-shaft.

G. M. Conner, of Charlton, N. T., for improved
water-wheel.

Geo. W. LaBaw, of Jersey City, N. J., for machine
for cleaning blinds, etc.

Wm. Boggett and Geo. B. Petti t, of Westminster,
Xngland, for method of heating, warming, and
Booking by gas. Patented in England, Oct. 22,
1851.

Chas. De Saxe, of New- York, assignor to Thos.
H. Bate, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for improved landing-
net for anglers.

Chas. De Saxe, of New- York, assignor to Thos.
H. Bate, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for improvement in
fiBhing-rods and floats.

24*

J. H. Fairchild and Sylvanus Eichardson, of
Jericho, Vt., for improvement in potato-washing
machines.

Thomas Armitage, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
proved portable-ladder or fire-escape.

Philos Blake, of New-Haven, Conn., for improved
oyster-knife. "

James Ballard, of Ashtabula, Ohio, far improved
splitting-guages.

Richard M. Bouton, of West-Troy, N. Y., for im-
proved faucet.

David and Samuel K. Flanders, of Parishville,
N. Y., for improved fly-trap.

Martin Hallenbeck, of Albany, N.T., for improve-
ment in grass-harvesters.

Julius C. Hurd, of Medway, Mass., for improve-
ment in cleaning cotton and other fibrous sub-
stances.

David A. Hopkins, of Elmira, Mass., for improved
ticket-box for railroad cars.

Abram 0. Johnson, of Meadville, P»., for im-
provement in operating dumping-cars.

Lawson P. Keach, of Baltimore, Md., for improve-
ment in cooking oysters, etc.

Geo. W. Keller, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improved
fire- •scapes.

Anthony John, of Monroville, O., for improved
machine for filling match-frames.

Wm. H. Towers, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
proved machine for opening oysters.

Wm. Lapham, executor of Seneca Lapham, de-
ceased, late of Salem, Ohio, for unprovement in
maize-harvesters.

Josiah Ells, of Pittsburgh, Pa., for improvement
in revolving fire-arms.

James R. Stafford, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for im-
provement in distilling and condensipg appara-
tus.

Arthur Harvie and Charles Guild, of Cincinnati,
Ohio, for improvement in vinous-fermenting in
close vessels.

Joseph C. Tiffany, of Coxsackie, N. Y., for im-
proved ditching-plough.

758

LIST OF PATENTS.

George W. Glass, of Allechany City, Pa., for Im-
provemeut in cast-irom car-wheels.

Fred. Field, of Adrian, Rlich., for improrement
in travelliDg-bridges.

Wra. E. Milligan, of New- York, for improvement
in railrotid car-seats.

JohQ P. Avery, of Stonington, Ct., for improTed
mode of securing stones in foundations.

Thos. W. Brown, of Boston, Mass., for improved
file or bill-holders.

Chsa. Buss, of Marlborough, N. T., for iMprove-
ment in fire-arms.

Reuben Burdine, of Washington, D. C, for im-
proved rotary-pump.

Stephen and .Tames A. Bazin, of Canton, Mass.,
for improvemiiBt in machinery for layins rope.

Henry Clark, of New-Orleans, La., for improve-
mant in machines f«r feeding sheets of paper to
printing-presses.

George H. Cotton, of Hampstead Rosd, England,
for improvement in portable folding-chair bed-
steads. Patented in England, Oct. 5, 1862.

Geo. C. Jones, of Alna, Me., and Peter King, of
Whitefield, Me., for improved wedging-machiue.

Geo. Little, of TJtica, N. Y., for improved mode of
operating the faeding-table of printing-presses.

W. Kuhlenschmidt and W. Ilanff, of Kew-York,
for improvement in apparatus f»r feeding paper to
printing-machines.

Daniel R. Prindle, of East-Bethany, ,N. Y., for
improved field-fence.

Fred. Shaum, of Baltimore, Md., for improvement
in glass-furnaces.

John C. F. Salomon, of Washington, D. C, for
improvement in brick-making.

Albert Spencer, of New-York, and August Lnesch-
ner, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for improvement in form-
■ ing and hardening hat^bodios.

W. Q. Stirling, of Bridgeport, Conn., for improve-
ment in forming roofs.

\Vm. Mt. Storm, of New- York, for improved
, bullet-moulds.

Varanes Snell, of Norlh-Bridgewater, Ma's.. for
improvement in machines for cutting and skiving
boot-counters.

Do Witt C. Smiley, of New- York, for improve-
ment in oilers for machinery.

Wm. B. Thomas and Samuel Ilickok, of Buffalo,
N. Y., fvir improvement in railroad oar-soats.

Simon Towle, of Pembroke, N. Y., for improved
syringe eye-bath.

Isaac True, of Rochester, Ind., for improved re-
action wat«r-wheel.

C. D. Van Ali»n, of New-York, for improvement
■in invalid-bedstead.

William Mt. Storm, of New- York, for improve-
ment in charges for fire-arms.

Mahlon T.oomis, of Cambridgeport, Mass., for
improvement in plates for artificial teeth.

Uervin T. Landfeur, of Manchester, Conn., for
improvement in reed-boxes for musical instru-

meuts.

Halvor Ilalvorson, of Boston, Mass., assignor to
himself and John T. Heard, of sumo place, for iaa-
pruvement in process of distilling rosin-oil.

Halvor Ilalvorson, of Boston, Mass., assignor to
himself and John T. Heard, of same place, for im-
provement in distilling-apparatus.

John W. Adams, of Thompsonville, Conn., for
improvement in spinning cotton.

William E. Arnold, of Rochester, N. Y., for im-
provement in the couplings of endless chain horse-
powers.

John Allender, of New-London, Ct., for improve-
ment in operating catches in tool-holders.

Wra. Ballard, of New-York, for improvement in
making ships'-knees.

Vi'm. H. Churchman, of Philadelphia, Pa., for im-
provement in hydraulic-heaters.

John Crabtree, of Philadelphia, Pa., for improve-
ment in adjusting the packing of pistons in steam-
engines.

Henry W.Farley, of East-Boston, Mass., for im-
proved means of adjusting th* valves of locomotive
engines.

John Gallagher, of New-York, for improved cut-
ter for metallic bars and rods.

Curlis Goddard, of Edinburgh, 0., for improved
machine for machine bed-pins.

Robert Ilodgin, of Barnesville, 0., for improre-
ment in straw-cutters.

Archibald C. Ketchum, of New-York, for im-
provement in car-trucks witlj adjustable azle«.

Cnnrod Liebrick, of Philadelphia, Pa., for Im-
provement in trunk-lock hasps.

Washington F. Pagett, of Stone-Bridge, Ya., for
improvement in harrows.

G. M. Patten, of Bath, Me., for improved arrange-
ment of spring-dies in machines for making clinch-
rings.

Wm. B. and Geo. M. Eamsey, of South Strab»nt,
Pa., for improvement in flexible harrows.

William Robinson, Jr., of Warsaw, N. Y., for im-
provemsnl in machinery for making rope.

Sewall Short, of N9W-Lond«n, Ct., for imtjiove"
ment iu violins.

Pliilander Shaw, of East Abinfton, Mms., for im-
prov«ment in air-engines.

I.e Grand C. St. John, of Buffalo, N. Y., for im-
pruTcd hydrodynamic-engine.

„r T. -rr . ^ ,- . ' Joliu M. WcarB, of Saybrook, N. H., for milkers'

W m. F. Ketchum, of Buffalo, N. Y., assignor to | projector.
Rufus L. Howard, of game place, for improvement '

in guard-fingers of hMvest»rs.

Isaac M. Singt-'r, of New-York, for iraprovttufl it
in lewing-machinea.

Amos Ydunff, of Georgetown, I). C, for irapr.jTod
meihod of discharging' cargo from canal-boaf.

Nicholas G. Noreross, of. "Lowell, Mass., for ira-
provement ia certjiiu device for constructiug strap
iron-railing;

Klbridgo Webber, of Gardiner, Me., for improved
rotary planing- knife.

Asa Weeks, of South-Boston, Mass., forimproved _
expansire-bit

Parley Williams, 2d, of Barre, Mass., for im-
proved slottiug-machine.

Bath WhaJen, of West-Milton, N.Y., for iraprovo-
ment in hay-knives.

■■•'V;-i.r).'i