^ ^useum ofjy V <>^ ■'/. %y % %. 1869 THE LIBRARY POINTS OF THE HORSE rimlii lij/j TIh- I )nkc of V\'i'slniiiistci\s ( )i iniindc. Dixon &. Bons. /•/into llll] lai/AlUSNCMfl llAll.ia-, NiOWM.MlKICI'. Mr. C. ('.. Dull's Clwislci. POINTS OF THE HORSE A TREAT I SE ON THE CONFORMATION, MOVEMENTS, BREEDS AND EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE HY M. HORACE /HAYES, F.R.C.V.S., Lale Caplain " 'I 'he Buffs,'' AUTHOR OK " VKTKKINAKY NOTKS lOU IIORSE-OWNKRS," "RiniNO AND H(;ntin(;," " staulk manacucmknt and icxercise," &c. II.I.USTRATKD 1!Y 660 REPRODUCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND DRAWINGS THIRD EDITION Revised and enlarged, and 279 h'eprod/utions of Photographs added T.ONDON: HURST AND JiLACKETT, LIMITED 13, GT. MARLBOROUGH ST., W. 1904 [y-/// rights reserved.'] 5,^-^^*^^^ S^ f ^ PREFACE. Exact ideas on the Conformation of the Horse are not current either in the traditions of our sporting people or in our hterature. The few English authors who have written on it, have treated this important subject in a fragmentary manner, and have contented themselves for the most part with laying down rule-of-thumb maxims for the blind acceptance of their readers. The French, on the contrary, have written on L Extcrieitr du Cheval, several elaborate books upon which they have expended an amount of scientific knowledge that does them infinite credit ; but their works show that their experience has been gained more in the study and dissecting room, than in the stable and in the field, and they have made but little use of photography. As illustrations of horses drawn without the aid of photography, have a bias difficult to be repressed, they render the ideas of the artist more accurately than they portray the realities of nature. About twenty-five years ago, while training, racing and steeple- chasing in India, I began to write a book on the Points of the Horse, which subject I resolved to treat according to the time-honoured methods of my predecessors. Subsequently, I worked at it while study- ing to become a veterinary surgeon, and while living at Newmarket, ,where I went to increase my knowledge of English thorough-breds, for which object I obtained every facility from many kind friends, who were either owners or trainers, and who were always glad to show me their horses, and discuss their various points. When the book was completed in 1884, I despatched the manuscript to my publishers by the hand of a friend, who, by an extraordinary piece of good luck, lost viii PREFACE. it so effectually that I have not seen it since. While suffering from the shock caused by the loss of five years' toil, I happened to read Professor Marey's Machine Animalc, and before I had got half through it, I grasped the fact that I had been working in an entirely wrong groove, and that my careless friend had, most fortunately, saved me from publishing a comparatively worthless book. In 1885, I went abroad on a horse-breaking tour with the growing embryo of a new book in my brain, and finished this literary task after eight years of hard practical work (breaking, training for racing and chasing, and horse dealing) among horses in India, Burma, Ceylon, China, Japan, Egypt, South Africa, England, and elsewhere. The facilities afforded me by such a life and by the kindness of horse-loving friends, enabled me to obtain photographic illustrations and information which could not have been procured under less favourable circumstances. On returning to England, I brought out the first edition of this book, which was so kindly received by the public that it was sold out in six months. Having by that time settled down in Melton Mow- bray, I became aware that the illustrations in the book were far from being complete, and that, to do justice to the subject, it was necessary for me to renew my acquaintance with certain classes of English horses, and especially with hunters. Hence, instead of meeting the demands of the literary market by an immediate reprint, I continued my studies among horses for two years in Leicestershire and one year in Cheshire ; hunting, breaking, training, and practising as a veterinary surgeon. I received such great kindness from horse owners and photographers, that I was able to add 142 reproductiohs of photo- graphs to the second edition, which was published in the beginning of 1897. After the second edition came out, I went to Russia three times with horses for sale, was officially engaged for six months at the Russian remount depots, had a season's hunting in the Midlands, and went twice to South Africa, during the late war, in veterinary charge of remounts. The varied experience thus gained, impressed on me more strongly than ever the necessity of taking a still broader view of horses, by describing and illustrating by photographs the breeds of many countries, and also wild asses, zebras and equine PREFACE. ix hybrids. I could not have done this work without the generous and valuable assistance of the Duchess of Bedford ; Lord Arthur Cecil ; Professor Cossar Ewart, F.R.S. ; Mr. Foster, of Boston ; Mr. Reynolds, M.R.C.V.S., of Bohemia; Mr. Delia Gana, F.R.C.V.S., of Teheran ; Dr. Rutherford, of Canada ; Sir Walter Gilbey ; Major Schoenbeck, of Berlin ; Mr. Grimani-Smith, of Queensland ; Pro- fessor Warington, F.R.S. , Mr. J. W. Harding, of New Zealand ; Mr. Hunter, F.I.C. ; Mr. McConnell, B.Sc. ; Dr. Salmon, of Washing- ton ; Mr. H. T. Barclay ; Dr. McClean, of Constantinople ; Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. ; Mr. Delton, of Paris ; Mr. Forbes, M.R.C.V.S., of Montana ; Mr. P'itzwilliams, of Sumatra ; Mr. Maschmayer, of Sumatra ; Mr. Cecil Gosling, of Paraguay ; Mr. George Ketcham, of Ohio ; Mr. G. A. Ewart ; Mr. Eric Maxwell, of Perak ; Mr. Clarence Hailey, of Newmarket ; Mr. Carl Hagenbeck, of Hamburg ; Mr. Josiah Newman ; Mr. Bell, of Newmarket ; Professor Dunstan ; Mr. Wharam, M.R.C.V.S. ; Mr. Burkill, of Shanghai, and many other kind helpers. I am particularly indebted to Professor Cossar Ewart for the valuable scientific information he gave me on subjects dis- cussed in the following pages, and for correcting the proofs of this edition, which is nearly twice as large as the previous one, and contains 279 new photographic illustrations. 1st December, 1903. Authors' Club, 3 Whitehall Court, S.W. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. PAGK Varieties of Conformation — Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength — Endurance — Soundness . . . . . . . . i-ii CHAPTER n. NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS. Head — Neck — Breast and Chest — Shoulders — ^Withers — -Elbow — Fore Arm — Knee — Shank — Fetlock — Pastern — Hoof — Back — ■ Loins- Ribs— Flank— Belly— Brisket— Croup— Thigh— Gaskin— Hock — Dock — Height of a Horse — Length of the Body of a Horse — ■ Depth of Chest at Withers — Depth of Body — Height at Croup — 1 2-21 CHAPTER HL STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. Bones — Cartilage — Muscles and Tendons — Ligaments — Connective Tissue — The Nervous System ....... 22-34 CHAPTER IV. .SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. Definitions — Bones ■ — Joints and Ligaments — Muscles — Heart and Lungs — Nervous System — Teeth . ' . . • • • 35"49 CHAPTER V. Mechanism of breathing ........ 5°"52 CHAPTER VI. distribution of weight in the horse's body. Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs — Centre of Gravity. . ........ 53"55 xii CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. LEVERS. PAGE Definition — First Order — Second Order — Third Order — Relations between the Power and Weight in Levers — Comparisons between Power and Weight in Muscular Levers — Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively Act . . . . . -56-59 CHAPTER VHI. MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Displacement of the Centre of Gravity — Manner in which Propulsion is Effected by the Limbs — -Direction of Propulsion, and Distance through which the Centre of Gravity of the Body is moved — Com- parative Speed in the Action of the Limbs — Action of the Muscles which extend the Vertebrae — Width between each respective Pair of Legs as affecting Speed — -Effect of Insecurity of Equilibrium on Speed — Fatigue from the various Paces — Action of the Head and Neck in Locomotion — Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint — Mechanism of the Hock Joint ....... 60-74 CHAPTER IX. Mechanism of draught 75-78 CHAPTER X. attitudes of the horse. Standing at Attention — Standing at Ease — Carriage of the Head and Neck ........... 79-92 CHAPTER XI. stationary movements of the horse. Lying Down and Getting Up — Rearing — Kicking .... 93-99 CHAPTER XII equine locomotion. Definitions — The Trot-^-The Amble — The Walk — The Canter — The Gallop — The Rein Back — Turning and Circling — Buck-jumping — Shying — Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces . . 100-140 CHAPTER XIII. leaping. Definition of the Leap — Varieties of the Leap — Difference between the Horse's Leap and the Suspension of his Body during the Canter or Gallop — Manner in which a Horse takes off — Period of Stride at which the Take Off is effected — ^Effect of Pace and Speed on the Leap — -Clearing a Fence — Landing over a Jimip- -Influence of Blood in Jumping. ........ 141-162 CONTENTS. Xlll CHAPTER XIV. PAGE Notation of the paces of the horse 163-166 CHAPTER XV. COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. General Remarks — Relations between Height and Length of Body — ■ Comparative Height at Withers and Croup — Points in Common — ■ Limit of Height — Thickness of Limb — ^Length of Neck — Length of Head — Comparative Weight of Body — -Comparative Length of the Bones of the Limbs — Differences of Conformation between the Two Sexes ......... 167-190 CHAPTER XVL HEAD AND NECK. Size of Head — Leanness of Head — ^Profile of Face — -Front View of Face — Size of Brain — Top of the Head — Ears — Forelock^ — Eyes — Hollows above the Eyes — -Nostrils — Lips — -Lower Jaw — Setting-on of the Head — ^Neck — -Mane — Throat ..... 191-225 CHAPTER XVn. THE TRUNK. General View of the Trunk — Chest and Ribs — -Abdomen — Withers — Breast— Back and Loins — Points of the Hips — Flank — Croup — Anus — Tail .......... 226-261 CHAPTER XVHL THE FORE LIMB. General View of the Fore Limb — Chief Duties of the Fore Limb — Fore Legs in Saddle and Draught — -The Shoulder — Humerus — Elbow — Fore Arm — ^Knee — From Knee to Fetlock — Fetlock — Pastern — - Hoof 262-306 CHAPTER XLX. THE HIND LIMB. General View of the Hind Limb — The Pelvis— Thigh and Stifle — Tibia — Hock — Shank and Fetlock — Pastern and Hoof — Callosities on the Limbs 307-322 CHAPTER XX. SKIN, COLOUR, AND HAIR. General Remarks — Skin — Colour — Hair 323-345 CHAPTER XXL Action, handiness and cleverness 346-353 xiv ' CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXII. PAGE Condition and good looks ....... 354-361 CHAPTER XXIII. Weight-carrying and staying power 362-365 CHAPTER XXIV. Blood, symmetry and compensations 366-370 CHAPTER XXV. special points of various classes. The Race-horse — The Racing Pony — The Hunter and Steeplechaser — The Match Trotter and Pacer — The Heavy Cart-horse- — The Harness-horse — The Hack — The Lady's Horse — The Cavalry Trooper — The Officer's Charger — The Artillery Horse — The Mounted Infantry Horse — The Light Vanner— The Polo Pony 371-395 CHAPTER XXVI. effects of climate and soil on conformation. Temperature — Atmospheric Moisture — Pasture — Retention of Water by Soil — Lime . . . ' 396-410 CHAPTER XXVII. classification of the equid^. General Classification — Differences between Asses and Horses — Differences between Asses and Zebras — Classification of Asses — Classification of Zebras ^ — Classification of Horses . . 411-425 CHAPTER XXVIII. BRITISH AND IRISH HORSES. The Thorough-bred— Half-bred Horses— The Shire Horse— The Suffolk Horse— The Hackney— The Cleveland Bay— The York- shire Coach-horse-^-The Exmoor Pony — -The Dartmoor Pony — The New Forest f ony — Welsh Ponies and Horses — The Clydes- dale— The Athole Garron— The Shedand Pony — Hebridean Ponies — The West Highland Pony — Irish Horses and Ponies . 426-469 CHAPTER XXIX. COLONIAL HORSES. Australasian Horses — Canadian Horses — South African Horses . 470-496 CHAPTER XXX. CONTINENTAL HORSES. French Horses — Spanish and Portuguese Horses— German Horses — Dutch and Belgian Horses — Danish Horses— Austrian Horses CONTENTS. XV PAGE — -Hungarian Horses — Polish Horses — Italian Horses — Russian Horses — Swedish and Norwegian Horses . . . .497-559 CHAPTER XXXI. - AMERICAN HORSES. Cow-ponies and Range Horses — U.S. Draught Horses — ■ U.S. Thorough-breds and Half-breds — U.S. Carriage Horses — -Trotters — Pacers — -South American Horses ..... 560-598 CHAPTER XXXII. ASIATIC AND NORTH AFRICAN HORSES. Mongolian Ponies — -Turkish Horses — -Persian Horses — -Arab Horses — North African Horses — ^East Indian Horses — Burma and Manipuri Ponies— Sumatra Ponies — Corean Ponies — -Japanese Ponies . 599-639 CHAPTER XXXIII. WILD HORSES. Prjevalsky's horse — The Tarpan . . . . . , . 640-650 CHAPTER XXXIV. ASSES, ZEBRAS AND EQUINE HYBRIDS. Geographical Distribution of A\'ild Asses — -Domestic Ass and Nubian Wild Ass — Somaliland AVild Ass — Onager — Syrian Wild Ass — Kiang — Mountain Zebra — Burchell's Zebra — -Chapman's Zebra — - Grant's Zebra — Crawshay's Zebra — Grevy's Zebra — Quagga — Horse and Ass Hybrids — Horse and Zebra Hybrids . . . . 651-673 CHAPTER XXXV. EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. General Remarks - — ■ Hyracotherium — Protorohippus — Orohippus — Epihippus — Mesohippus bairdii — Mesohippus intermedius — Mio- hippus — Protohippus — Pliohippus - — Pleistocene Equidse — Pre- historic horses — Causes of structural changes — Horses of the future . . . . . . . * . . . 674-702 CHAPTER XXXVI. Photographing horses 703-704 CHAPTER XXXVII. Proportions of the horse ....... 705-707 CHAPTER XXXVIII. The painter's horse 70S-717 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Stallion Stroxton Tom FIG. 1. Indian Black Buck 2. Indian Buffalo . 3. Cheetah . 4. Lynx 5. Tiger 6. Indian Trotting Bullock 7. Indian Heavy Draught Bullock 8. Mr. G. F. Fawcett's Fabulous Fortune 9. Mr. Sievier's Sceptre 10. Bulldogs . 11. Messrs. Forshaw and Sons' Shire 12. Breast-bone of pheasant 13. Breast bone of albatross 14. External Parts of Horse 15. Measurements of Horse 16 and 17. The Duke of Portland's 18. Skeleton of Horse 19. Internal Organs of Horse . 20. Position of Centre of Gravity 21. First Order of Lever . 22. Second Order of Lever 23. Third Order of Lever 24. Lever of First Order with directions of Power and Weight oblique to each other ....... 25 to 27. Displacement of Centre of Gravity of Man when walking 28 and 29. Shove-off from Side of Swimming Bath . 30 to 32. Forward Propulsion of Man when Running 33 to 36. Forward Propulsion of Man in Standing Leap . 37 to 41. Running High Leap of Man ..... 42. Angle of Projection of Centre of Gravity .... St. Simon, as a three-year old PAGE 2 2 3 3 3 ■ 5 5 7 . 7 9 9 II IT 13 19 31 37 51 54- 56 56 57 59 61 62 62 62 63 64 XVI u LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 43. Lateral Dis[:)lacement of Body ...... 68 44. Resolution of forces in canter and gallop . 70 45. Mechanism of Fetlock Joint 73 46 to 48. Levers of the Hock, ist, 2nd, and 3rd Order . 74 49. Mechanism of Draught 77 50 and 51. Mr. H T. Barclay's Bendigo .... 81 52. Standing at Attention ...... H S3- Le Placer 85 54. Standing at Attention 85 55. AVell-shaped fore legs 87 56. Turned-in toes 87 57. Turned-out toes 87 58. Turned-in hocks 87 59 Well-shaped hind legs 87 60. Star Pointer in Faber Sulky 89 61. Foal getting up off ground . ..... 94 62. Horse Rearing 95 63. Horse Kicking 97 64 to 67. Ordinary Trot ...... lOI 68 to 72. Flying Trot ....... 103 73 to 92. Phases of a Moderately Fast Trot 105 to 108 93 to 97. Fast or Flying Amble 109 98. Direct Hall, driven by Mr. Geers, and Pacing in a Frazier Sulky 1 10 99 to 109. Phases of the Ordinary Walk of a High Caste Arab 1 1 1 to 112 11010117. Ordinary ^\'alk ....... i'3 118 to 123. Long Striding Walk 114 124 to 130. Short Stepping Walk in Draught .... 115 131 to 137. Canter of Cart-horse without Suspension . 117 1138 to 146. Canter with Suspension (Hand Gallop) . . 118 at id 119 1147 to 155. Phases of the Canter of a High Caste Arab . i 2 [ ai id 122 156 to 171. Phases of the Fast Gallop ; Off Fore Leading . 123 at id 124 172 to 191. Phases of the " Collected " Gallop; Off Fore Leading 125 to 128 192. I'urning at Polo ......... ^Zl 193. Nondescript Bending . 134 194. Game Chicken Bending . . . . 135 195 and 196. Texas Broncho Ikickjumping 137 197. Ordinary Walk ......... 138 198. Long-striding Walk 138 199. Short Trot ......... 138 200. Slow Trot .......... 138 20 r. Fast Trot . . . . . . . . '. 139 202. Slow Amble 139 203. Slfjw Canter ......... 139 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX FIG. 204. Fast Gallop 205 to 211. 212 to 217. 218 to 223. 224 to 228. 229 to 242. 243 Gallop of the Greyhound . Gallop of the Cat . Gallop of the Heavy Dog Phases of the Leap . The Horse's Leap . faking Off tch at Sandown 244. Cloister and Horizon jumping open di 245. New Zealand Horse, Marengo, jumping wire 246. New Zealand Mare, Javlina, jumping wire . 247. Mr. B. White's Australian Hunter, Silver . 248. New Zealand Horse, Marengo, jumping wire 249 to 251. Landing. 252 to 254. Getting away after Landing 255. Australian Horse Jumping . 256. Mr. G. R. Garnier winning 120 Yards Hurdle Race 257 and 258. Run of Man. 259. W'alk of Man .... Slow Trot without Suspension . Ordinary Trot with Suspension . Fast Trot ..... Slow Amble without Suspension . Flying Amble .... Typical Walk .... Ordinary Walk .... Slow Walk in Draught Typical Canter with Suspension . Typical Canter without Suspension Canter with Suspension Fast Gallop .... The Leap ..... Camel ..... Mr. A. B. Freeman-Mitford's Shire Mare, Chance Mr. H. T. Barclay's Lord Arthur Foal ...... His Majesty's Persimmon . H.H. The Maharaja of Kooch Behar's Racing Pony Predominan Colonel Simpson's English Racing Pony, Mike Australian Horse, low at the Withers . China Pony, Teen Kwang .... Norman Conqueror and Good Friday Barra (Hebridean) Pony .... Mr. J. E. Peat's English Polo Pony Mare, Dynamite 2f)0. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273- 274. 275- 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 28^ 'J- 284. PAGE • 139 142 . 142 • 143 144 and 145 146 and 147 148 ark 149 151 153 154 155 156 157 159 161 164 164 164 164 164 164 165 165 165 165 165 165 166 166 166 169 171 173 175 177 179 181 i«3 185 187 187 n 2 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290 Fore Foot drawn up, so as to touch the Elbow Straight Line of Face ..... Concave Line of Face of Thorough-bred Mr. W, Clark's The Victory, winner of the Adela Head of the Arab Horse, Magic ... and 291. Head of High Caste Arab Prominent Forehead . Roman Nose The Emperor of Austria's Black Kladrub Stallion, Sacramuso Mr. Leffevre's Tristan . Broad Forehead . Head of well-bred Horse Head of under-bred Horse Coffin Shape of Head. High Occipital Crest . Grevy's Zebra Ends of the Ears Turned In Usual Position of the Ears when Pricked Forward Lop-eared thorough-bred Mare . Mare in Fig 304 with Ears pricked forward Mare with Forelock, Mane and Tail of Natural Length Roman Nose, Small Eye, Ewe Neck, and Upright Shoulders Mr. J. Gubbins's Ard Patrick Colonel Anderson's Arab Pony, The Brat . Mountain Zebra . . ■. • . Mr. Swan's Gamecock .... Ardenne Stallion ..... Semi-circle. ...... Arc of Circle ...... 315 to 317. Diagrams Showing Expansion of Chest 318, Mr. J. Buchanan's Epsom Lad . Thorough-bred " Weed " .... Duke of AthoU's Highland Garron Shetland Pony Mare in Foal Mr. W. H. Walker's Heavy-weight Hunter, Touchstone Foxhound ..... M. Cottu's Irish Lassie Well-ribbed-up Australian Cavalry Horse Herring-gutted Australian Cavalry Horse Front view of the Boulonnais (French) Cart Stallion, Rejoui 328 and 329. Front view of well-shaped weight-carrying Hunter : 330. Broad-breasted thorough-bred Mare .... 331. Broad-breasted Carriage Horse 292. 293- 294. 295- 296. 297. 298. 299. 300. 301. 302. 3°3- 304- 305- 306. 307- 308. 309- 310. 311- 312. 3'i3- 314- 319- 320. 321. 322. 323- 324- 325- 326. 327- de St. Leg' er, etc. PAGE 189 195 197 197 199 199 and 201 201 203 203 204 205 205 205 206 207 209 211 211 213 213 215 215 217 219 219 221 223 228 228 230 231 231 233 233 235 237 237 239 239 243 244 24s 247 43 -'1" d LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXI FIG. 332. 333- 334- 335- 33^- 337- 338. 339- 340- 341- 342. 343- 344- 345- 346. 347- 348 35°- 351- 352 354- 355- 356. 357- 358. 359- 360. 361. 362. 363- 364- 365- 366 368. 369- 370- 371 376. 377- 378. 379- 380. 381. Front view of well-shaped T.B. . Roach-backed and Goose-rumped Horse Hollow Back from Old Age Rear view of Boulonnais (French) Cart Stallion, Turbot Sections of Loins ..... Mr. W. H. Walker's Water Lily . Mr. Tom Mitchell's Hackney Stallion, Ganymede Onager ....... Mrs. Hayes' Arab pony, Freddie Thorough-bred mare with light fore legs Mr.' W. H. Walker's Specs .... Mr. Barr-Smith's Australian thorough-bred, Mostyn Sloping shoulder ..... Upright shoulder ..... Captain Powell's Midshipmite . Straight-shouldered thorough-bred and 349. Sections through shoulders . Diagram to explain Figs. 348 and 349 Mr. Hayes's Salary ..... and 353. Calf knees ..... Over at the Knees ..... Slightly over at the Knees .... Good fore legs and sloping pasterns of Arab pony Good fore legs of hunter .... Good fore legs of steeple-chase horse . Good fore legs of cart horse Clean fore legs ...... Good fore legs of hunter .... Good fore legs of T.B. Yearling . Slightly over at the knees .... Small development of pisiform bone . Tied-in below the knee .... and 367. Tied-in below the knee and large fetlocks Bones of pastern too slight .... Schleswig cart mare, Hansa (17 hands high) . Heavily topped hunter .... to 375. Diagrams of turned-out toes . Horizontal section through donkey's near hind hoof Rear view of unshod off hind hoof Fore foot of unshod well-bred horse . Hind foot of unshod well-bred horse . Fore foot of unshod cart-horse . Hind foot of unshod cart-horse . PAGE 247 249 249 251 252 253 25s 257 259 265 267' 267 269 269 271 271 172 and 273 275 281 283 283 283 285 285 285 285 287 287 287 287 288 289 289 289 291 293 d 297 298 299 301 301 3°3 3°3 J 96 an xxu LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 382. 383- 384- 385- 386. 387 to 391- 392- 393- 394- 395- 396- 396A. 397- 398. 399- 400. 401. 402. 403- 404. 405- 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. 411. 412. 413- 414. 415- 416. 417. 418. 419. 420. 421. 422. 423- 424. 425- 426. Off fore foot of unshod horse Near hind foot of unshod horse . Rear view of Ormonde Rear view of well-shaped 15 stone hunter Upright shoulders and poor gaskins . 390. Large " bone " below hock Good hocks and broad gaskins of yearling T.B. filly Fairly good " bone " below hock Sickle hocks and light " bone " Sickle hocks Tied-in below hock . Long chestnut on hind leg . Posterior View of Kangaroo's hind leg, from loe to hock Donkey ....... Light dun foal by Norwegian pony Horizontal stripes on the legs of a horse Yellow dun Norwegian pony Face stripes of yellow dun Norwegian pony Nubian wild ass ..... Mr. John Parnelfs Shire mare, Rokeby Fuchsia Captain G. S. Williams's hunter, Joseph . Stripe and snip ...... Captain Woolmer's Indian country-bred, Minden Pinzgauer entire a Russian mare Harold Geldmg by a Japanese stallion out of Trotting ..... Mr. George H. Ketcham's Cresceus Trotting ..... Extravagant action at a slow trot Mr. J. Bell's Prince Charles II. . Mr. H. T. Barclay's Franciscan . Black Orlov-Rost®pchine stallion Lord Belper's Shire Stallion, Rokeby Lidian pony in an Ecka Lord Rosebery's Ladas Baron Rothschild's Hannah Baron Rothschild's Favonius Mr. H. Savile's Cremorne . Baron de Hirsch's La Fleche Mr. H. T. Barclay's Lord Arthur Leicestershire hunter, the property of Major Muir Leicestershire hunter, the property of Major Orr-Ewing Leicestershire hunter, the property of Major de Winton PAGE 304 305 309 309 315 315 317 317 317 317 321 321 325 327 328 329 335 335 337 339 341 343 347 349 351 351 355 357 359 359 373 375 375 377 377 378 379 380 381 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXUl FIG. 427. 428. 429. 43°- 431- 432- 433- 434- 435- 436. 437- 438. 439- 440, 441. 442. 443- 444. 445- 446. 447- 448. 449. 45°- 451- 452- 453- 454- 455- 456. 457- 458. 459- 460. 461. 462. 463- 464. 465- 466. 467. 468. 469. Mr. H. T. Barclay's Leicestershire hunter, Belgrave . Leicestershire hunter ....... Mr. H. T. Barclay's Leicestershire hunter, Cave . Mr. H. T. Barclay's Leicestershire hunter, Aquascutum Mr. Bulteel's Manifesto His Majesty's Ambush II Weight-carrying hunter, the property of .Sir Albert Muntz Irish hunter ........ Weight-carrying hunter, the property of Prince Henry of Pless Miss Burnaby's Butterfly Mr. Frank St. John's Welsh charger .... English pony in South Africa ..... Battak pony, Ruby ....... Persian Arab pony from the Karoon Valley Java pony mare ....... Indian country-bred gelding ..... Off fore foot of donkey ...... Side view of incisors of a 4 year-old horse . Side view of incisors of a 14 year-old horse . Front view of incisors of a 14 year-old horse Tables of incisors of a 14 year-old horse Side view of incisors of a 14 year-old donkey Front view of incisors of a 14 year-old donkey . Tables of incisors of a 14 year-old donkey . Mr. Joseph Wainright's Shire Stallion, Bury Victor Chief Heavy-draught Danish Stallion ..... Mr. Horace Wolton's Suffolk Stallion, Chieftain's Champion The Duke of Hamilton's Suffolk Mare, Queen of Trumps Old-fashioned Roadster ...... Roadster ......... Sir Walter Gilbey's Hackney Stallion, Hedon Squire . Sir Walter Gilbey's Hackney Stallion, Royal Danegelt Sir Walter Gilbey's Hackney Stallion, Danegelt . Sir Walter Gilbey's Hackney Mare, Lady Keyingham . Mare and foal, the property of Sir Walter Gilbey. Mr. H. C. Stephens' Cleveland Stallion, Luck's All Mr. H. C. Stephens' Cleveland mare. Madam . Mr. John White's Yorkshire coach stallion. Captain Sykes Mr. John White's Yorkshire coach mare, Ainsty Queen Yorkshire coach horse ...... Mr. Edward Mucklow, Junr.'s Exmoor pony stallion. Royal Oak. „ „ „ mare, Gladys Dartmoor pony, Goldfinder ..... PAGF- 382 382 383 383 384 385 386 387 339 391 393 395 399 401 403 405 413 415 417 417 419 421 421 423 435 435 437 437 439 439 440 441 442 443 445 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 470. New Forest pony stallion, the property of Lord Arthur Cecil . 455 471. New Forest pony mare and foal . ...... 456 472. Welsh mountain pony . . . . . . . .457 473. Mr. Percy Dugdale's " Improved" Welsh mountain pony . . 458 474. Mr. P. Crawford's Clydesdale stallion, Prince of Carruchan . . 459 475. Mr. R. H. Walker's Clydesdale mare, Zeynab .... 460 476. Lord Londonderry's 4-year-old Clydesdale stallion, Holyrood . 461 477. Mr. John Gilmour's Clydesdale mare, Moss Rose . . . 462 478. Duke of Atholl's Highland Garron mare 463 479. Lord Londonderry's Shetland pony, Laird of Noss . . . 463 480. Barra (Hebridean) pony 464 481. Barra (Hebridean) pony ........ 465 482. Skyepony. .......... 465 483. Lord Arthur Cecil's West Highland pony. Highland Laddie , 466 484. Mare by a Hackney sire, out of an L-ish hunter dam . . . 467 485. Professor Ewart's yellow dun Connemara pony mare and foal . 469 486. Mr. A. A. Apcar's Australian horse, Bravo. . . . -471 487. Mr. Vansittart's Australian gelding, Romance . . . .472 488. Under-bred Australian gelding ....... 473 489. Mr. Hope Murray's Lubra ........ 474 490. Mr. Hope Murray's Lubra jumping 6 ft. ..... 475 491. Mr. Barr Smith's thorough-bred Australian stallion, Neckersgat . 477 492. Mr. B. Allen's The Idler 479 493. Mr. J. Haldridge's thorough-bred Australian stallion, Carlyon . 481 494. Badly ribbed-up Australian gelding ...... 483 495. Grey French Canadian cob ....... 485 496. Brown French Canadian cob ....... 486 497. Indian pony from Reserve on Walpole Island .... 487 498. Canadian horse which was ridden by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, when in Canada in 1901 . . . . . . 489 499. Thick-set Transvaal gelding . . . . . . .491 500. Cape pony, showing Arab blood. . . . . . -492 501. Well-bred Cape pony . ........ 493 502. Ordinary type of Basuto pony ....... 494 503. Well-bred Basuto ])ony ........ 495 504. M. A. de Wazieres' Boulonnais stallion, Rejoui .... 498 505. Boulonnais brood mare, Margot ....... 499 506. Percheron mare, Martha ; winner of many prizes. . . . 501 507. Breton cart stallion, Cadoudal ....... 502 508. Bay Anglo-Norman mare, Nevada ...... 503 509. Brown Anglo-Norman gelding, Juvigny ..... 505 510. A Tarbes mare .......... 506 511. Bay Anglo-Arab mare, Belle dc Jour ...... 507 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXV FIG. 512. 513- 514- 515- 516. 517- 5i8- 519- 520. 52t. 522. 523- 524- 525- 5.26. 527- 528. 529- 53°- 531- 532- 533- 534- 535- 536. 537- 538. 539- 540- 541- 542. 543- 544- 545- 546. 547- 548. 549- 55°- 551- 552. 553- 554- Andalusian stallion .... Well-bred East Prussian mare, Cajenne East Prussian remount gelding . Trakehnen horse, property of Major Schoenbeck Hanover half-bred mare, Narde . Hanover half-bred stallion, Kingaro . Holstein coach stallion, Jiilf Holstein carriage mare, Ordonnanz . Mecklenburg half-bred mare, Flamme Rhenish-Prussian cart mare Oldenburg heavy cart stallion, Lomet . East Friesland cart stallion, Jellachich H. Chestnut champion Belgian cart stallion, Reve d'Or Chestnut Belgian cart mare, Caline H. Yellow dun Iceland mare with hogged mane Iceland pony ...... The Austrian Emperor's Kladrub stallion, Raverusto The Emperor of Austria's Lippizaner stallion, Sardagarta The Emperor of Austria's black Haflinger pony, Marti Bosnian pony .... Hungarian Artillery wheeler Hungarian Horse Artillery leader Hungarian officer's charger Hungarian Cavalrv remount Hungarian farmer's horse . Hungarian remount in South Africa Polish Cavalry remount Polish pony An ordinary Orlov trotter Russian match trotter Russian match trotter Old type of Orlov match trotter .... A troika ........ Well-bred Orlov trotter ..... Bookaretz, a Russian-bred Arab stallion of Streletsk Large type of Finnish pony .... Small type of Finnish pony. .... Viatica ponies ....... Chestnut mare, Drazina ; bred in the steppes of the Don Russian Remount Russian Remount with Arab cross Well-bred Russian Remount Good type of Donsky Remount . PAGE 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 527 528 529 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 545 547 549 549 551 552 553 554 555 556 XXVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 555 556. 557. 558. 559' 560. 561. 562. 563- 564- 565. 566. 567- 568. 569- 570- 571- 572. 573- 574- 575- 576 578. 579- 580. 581. 582. 583- 584- 585. 586. 587- 588. 589- 59°- 591- 592. 593- 594- 595- 596- 597- 598. Circassian horse Mr. Helgesen's Norwegian pony Chestnut cow-pony (broncho) The Hon. W. Anson's Texas polo pony, Rondo Kansas remount in South Africa Texas cob .... Texas cob .... Mexican horse . Mr. W. H. Walker's Montana pony, Montana B Rysdyk's Hambletonian Mr. C. G. K. Billings's Lou Dillon . Mr. George Ketcham's Cresceus Mr. J. Malcolm Forbes's Arion . Mr. J. Malcolm Forbes's Nancy Hanks Maud S Mr. J. Malcolm Forbes's dark brown trotter. Bin i\.merican trotting stallion, Kremlin . Mr. George Ketcham's Cresceus in Faber sulk) Mr. White's Star Pointer . Pacing stallion, John R. Gentry . Mrs. Hayes' Argentine Hunter, Polly . and 577. Argentine remounts in South Africa Mr. Cecil Gosling's CrioUo horse Professor Ewart's Mongolian pony Mr. H. Morriss' Mongolian gelding. Blackberry Mr. Burkill's Mongolian gelding. Loyalty Baghdadi Arab .... Mr. B. Messervey's Turkoman horse Mr. Delia Gana's Turkoman horse Merv horse .... Mr. H. A, Richards's Kurdistan pony Mr. Charters' Shirazi horse Shirazi horse (Gulf Arab) . Karadagh horse . Bokhara pony . A Yamoote Persian Yaboo in native cart The Maharajah of Patiala's Arab pony, P>litz Mr. W. H. Walker's Arab horse, Magic Maharajah of Jodhpur on Arab polo pony Arab horse ..... Mr. Dignum's Arab pony. Magistrate . Low-caste Arab pony gen 59; an PAGE 557 559 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 571 573 575 579 580 581 583 587 589 591 592 593 d 595 597 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 615 617 619 621 623 625 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXVll FIG. 599. Morocco Barb stallion 600. Bay Algerian Barb stallion 601. Kathiawar mare 602. Indian country-bred pony 603. Cabuli gelding . 604. Burma pony gelding . 605. Battak pony, Mohr . 606. Japanese pack pony, with straw sandals on 607. Prjevalsky's horse in summer coat 608 and 609. Professor Ewart's yearling Prjevalsky's coat ....... ts fe hori 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 Professor Ewart's 2\ year-old Prjevalsky's horse i se n win Fore foot of onager Kiang . Prjevalsky's horses in winter coats Outside view of fore hoof of Prjevalsky's horse Ground surface of fore foot of Prjevalsky's horse Nubian wild ass. ..... Somaliland wild ass . Onager ....... 617 and 618. 619 and 620. 621. Burchell's zebra ..... Skin of Burchell's zebra .... Chapman's zebra ..... Grant's zebra ...... Fore foot of Crawshay's zebra Ground surface of fore foot of Crawshay's zebra Grevy's zebra ...... Fore foot of Grevy's zebra .... Skin of Grevy's zebra ..... The Quagga Mule by New Forest donkey out of New Forest pony mare . Hybrid by a Burchell's zebra out of a skewbald Iceland mare Hybrid by a Burchell's zebra out of a Scottish cart mare Off fore leg of horse with second digit .... Near fore leg of horse, below the knee, with second digit . Front view of off fore foot of horse, with pedal and pastern bones split, and a hoof on each half of the pedal bone Case of dichotomy in the fore feet of an ox ... Hipparion gracile ........ Front view of near fore leg of Hipparion gracile, below the knee Front view of near fore leg of horse, below the fore-arm Phenacodus prim^evus ....... Hyracotherium ......... 622. 623. 624. 625. 626. 637. 628. 629. 630. 631. 632. 634- 635- 636. ^31- 638. 639- 640. 641. 642. ter coat in summer PAGE 627 629 630 631 632 635 637 641 643 645 647 648 649 653 654 655 656 and 657 658 and 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 67. 672 68 r 682 683 683 684 684 685 686 687 xxvin LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 643. Evolution of the bones of the legs 644. 3rd lower left premolar of Eqiius asinus atlanticus 645. 3rd lower left premolar of Burchell's zebra 646. Proportions of Horse 647. Louis XV. 648. Horse by Aiken 649. Horse and rider in the Parthenon 650. Meissonier's Napoleon i"^'" . 651. „ "1814". 652. Napoleon's charger, Marengo 653. Ganymede walking . 654. Trotting .... 655. Riding a gallop . 656. A finish at Kempton Park . 657. Horse leaping, by Aiken . 658. Water jump at Sandown Park PAGE 689 694 694 706 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 714 715 715 716 717 POINTS OF THE HORSE. CHAPTER I. FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. Varieties of Conformation — Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength — Endurance — Soundness. Varieties of Conformation. — The chief varieties of conformation, from a useful point of view, are those of speed, strength, endurance, and soundness. Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength. — When we speak of the conformation of a horse, we refer to the adaptabihty of his body for general or special work. We all know, without the aid of science to tell us, that a light-boned thorough-bred would be as unsuitable to carry a fifteen-stone man, as a thick-set cob would be to win a five-furlong race. The " weed " would not fail, necessarily, from deficiency in weight of bone and muscle ; for there are many ponies of thirteen hands or under, which would not weigh more than a slender five-furlong performer, and yet could bear a welter burden through a long da37's journey, with ease to themselves and comfort to their rider. The failure to carry weight in the one case, and the inability to display a high degree of speed in the other, would obviously be due (in the absence of any particular de- fect) to the fact of the conformation of the animal FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. Photo by] [DIXON & SONS. Fig. I.— Indian Black Buck. /'//O/O &«] Fig. 2.— Indian Buffalo. [M. H. H. ANIMALS OF SPEED AND ANIMALS OF STRENGTH. 3 Pholo hii] Fig. 3. — Cheetah. [M. H. H. Photo by] Fig. 4.— Lynx. [M. H. H. Photo by] Fig. 5. —Tiger. [Dixon & Sons. I* 4 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. not being suitable to the kind of work to which he was put. In our study of the " make and shape " of horses, we may profitably begin by taking a comparative view of animals of great speed and those of immense strength, so as to arrive at a knowledge of the principles by which their special characteristics are developed to a high degree of excellence. As the conformation best adapted for the one is different from that for the other, we cannot find both united in the same animal. It is evident that the suitability of horses to the kind of work they are required to perform, depends upon the manner in which their respective proportions of speed and strength are varied. Thus, a dray-horse which can trot a mile in eight minutes with 3,000 lbs. behind him, may be quite as useful, in his own way, as a match-trotter which, with a . sulky and driver weighing together 150 lbs., can do a mile in two minutes twenty seconds. On examining the subject of comparative conforma- tion, we find that mammals (animals which suckle their young) of speed and mammals of strength differ essen- tially in shape from each other, and that individuals of each respective class have a similar kind of conforma- tion. As an example of the gallopers, let us take the Indian black buck (Fig. i), which, for half a mile, could give five hands and a beating to the fastest horse that ever looked through a bridle. Then there is the cheetah (Fig. 3), which can give the antelope 100 yards start and catch him in a furlong. It is true that the spotted cat effects his purpose a good deal by surprise ; but it is equally certain that for a couple of hundred yards he can travel with the velocity of an express train. Also, there is the greyhound (Fig. 8), with whose speed we are all familiar. In comparison with these fleet-footed animals, let us note the " make and shape " of the buffalo (Fig. 2), which is endowed with vast muscular power ; and, as the opposite of the " long-tailed dog," ANIMALS OF SPEED AND ANIMALS OF STRENGTH. I'hutu t„j] Fig. 6. — Indian Trotting Bullock. [M. H. n. riioto by] Fig. 7. — Indian Heavy Draught Bullock [M. H. H. 6 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. let US take the bulldog (Fig. lo). On examining these animals, we shall find that the limbs (especially the hind ones, from which is derived the greater part of the forward propulsion) of the gallopers are much longer in proportion to the animal's height, than those of the representatives of strength. We see this fact best illus- trated when we compare individuals of the same species or family, like the greyhound (Fig. 8) and bulldog (Fig. lo), or the cheetah (Fig. 3) and tiger (Fig. 5), which is the strongest member of the cat tribe. A greyhound (Fig. 8) and a race-horse (Fig. 9) possess many points in common, and the same may be said about a bulldog (Fig. 10) and a heavy-draught horse (Fig. 11). We also obtain good examples among horned cattle, in the Indian trotting bullock (Fig. 6), and the Indian heavy draught bull (Fig. 7), whose sex is indicated by the large size of his hump. Special length of hind limb is well shown in the hare and in the lynx (Fig. 4), both of which are animals of great speed. As it is not the custom to breed men with reference to their physical development, we do not find the difference in question so well marked in them as in the lower animals ; yet we can note among "sprinters" and wrestlers the working of this principle. We should bear in mind that the muscles of the limbs of the horse, ox, buffalo and antelope, unhke those of the dog and cat tribe, are, practically speaking, continued only in the form of tendons, below^ the knees and hocks. From the examples cited of animals of great strength and those of high speed, we may conclude that the former are .distinguished by a long body and short legs ; and the latter, by a short trunk and long extremities. I am here assuming that the length of the body is taken com- paratively with that of the legs, and without reference to the proportions of the body itself. We can also observe from the photographs before us, that the limbs of speedy quadrupeds are proportion- ANIMALS OF SPEED AND ANIMALS OF STRENGTH. Phi'O bi/J [lUUHAUDS, LTVEurooL. Fig. 8. — -Mr. G. F. Favvcett's Fabulous Fortune (winner of the Waterloo Cup, 1896) and his trainer, T. Wright. Photo by] [W. A. ROUGH, IGl, 8TRAND, W.C. Fig 9 — Mr. Sievier's Sceptre. 8 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. ately as slender as the}^ are long, and that those exhibiting great strength are relatively thick and short. Muscles are the active and essential part of the machinery used by animals in locomotion, bones being merely passive agents. In fact, there are myriads of the lower animals which move about with considerable speed by means of their muscles, but which have no bones of any kind. Professor Marey points out in his book, La Machine Animale, that the thickness of a muscle is proportionate, as a rule, to its power, and that its length is proportion- ate to the extent of movement which it is able to produce. He gives, as instances, the long and narrow breast-bones of birds — such as the pheasant (Fig. 12) — which can move their wings through very large angles ; and the short and broad ones of birds — such as the albatross (Fig. 13) — which can move them only through relatively small angles. The former are therefore able to work their wings with great rapidity ; and the latter can overcome the immense resistance of the air upon which the large area of their pinions presses, only with slow, but very powerful strokes. The expanse of the outspread wings of birds of quick-stroke is of far less comparative size than is that of those large-"wdnged birds. The relative speed with which birds can cleave the air does not, of course, affect the question of the form and action of their muscles. Endurance. — From a general point of view, endur- ance (''staying power"), whether in the exhibition of speed or strength, depends on the amount of force (energy) which the system can supply. In a steam locomotive, movement is obtained by a series of ciianges in the force which is contained in the fuel, and which is the chemical affinity (chemical attraction) that the elements of the fuel have for the oxygen of the air. The first change in this series is the conversion of the chemical affinity into heat. For instance, ENDURANCE. I'hoio b'j] [T. Fall, ft, Ijakeu Street, \v. Fig. lo. — Bulldogs. Photo htj] [F. BABBAGE, 46, ALBERT STREET, N.W. Fig. II. — Messrs. Forshaw and Sons' Shire Stallion Stroxton Tom. Champion at the London Shire Horse Shows, 1902 and 1903. lO FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. heptane, which is the chief constituent of paraffin oil, is a combination of 7 atoms of carbon (C) and i6 atoms of hydrogen (H), both of which elements have a strong affinity for oxygen. When the oil is ignited, its carbon and hydrogen unite with the oxygen of the air, as we may see by the following equation : — C, Hie + II Oo = 7 C Oo + 8 Ho O. (Heptane) (Oxygen) (Carbonic acid gas) (Water) This conversion of chemical ai^nity into heat is somewhat similar to that which we see when a heavy stone falls on hard ground from a high cliff, in which case, gravitation (the attraction which all bodies in the universe have for each other) is converted into move- ment ; and movement into heat, as we can feel by placing our hand on the spot that has been struck. Unlike gravitation, chemical attraction can act only when bodies (molecules or atoms) which have this affinity for each other, are very close together. After the latent energy in the fuel of a steam engine has been changed into heat, the heat that has been transmitted into the boiler becomes converted into another form of force (repulsion), which causes the particles of the confined steam to recede from each other, and consequently to exert pressure on the piston ; and finally this pressure becomes changed into movement. As some of the con- stituents of coal are already oxidised, and as it contains a certain proportion of mineral matter, it is not such a potent force-producer as paraffin oil. In horses, as in men, the fuel for the maintenance of heat and movement is obtained from that portion of the food which has been assimilated (taken up by the system), and is distributed in varying proportions throughout the body. There are many kinds of this animal fuel, all of which, in order to be effective, must contain elements that have an affinity for oxygen and that have not yet been oxidised. For instance, glycogen (Cg H.^ O^), which is un- doubtedly a valuably form of fuel in the animal economy, and which is formed in the liver, contains five parts of water and six parts of carbon. The fuel is conveyed in a dissolved state to the various tissues by the arterial blood, which is pumped to its many destinations by the heart. The lungs obtain oxygen from the breathed-in air and supply it to the blood, which carries it to the tissues along with the fuel. The waste products (carbonic acid, urea, surplus water, etc.) are removed from the system, chiefly by means of the lungs, skin, heart, kidneys, and intestinal organs. From the foregoing considerations^ we can see that the conformation of a stayer must be such as will afford SOUNDNESS. II him ample capacity for digestion and breathing, which is a subject that will be considered in Chapter XVII. Soundness has been discussed in Veterinary Notes for Horse-Owners. The foregoing principles govern the conformation of Photo by] [M. H. H. Fig. 12. — Breast-bone of pheasant. Photo Oi/] U^- 2. H. Fig. 13. — Breast-bone of albatross. horses as closely as they do that of other animals. The physical conditions of the horse will now be briefly described, so that we may draw accurate conclusions as to his " shape and make." 12 CHAPTER II. NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS. Head— Neck— Breast and Chest— Shoulders— Withers— Elbow— Fore-Arm— Knee —Shank — Fetlock — Pastern — Hoof— Back— Loins— Ribs— Flank— Belly- Brisket— Croup— Thigh— Gaskin— Hock— Dock— Height of a Horse— Length of the Body of a Horse— Depth of Chest at Withers— Depth of Body— Height at Croup. As the external parts and regions of the body do not, in many cases, admit of very accurate definition, I crave the indulgence of my readers in this attempt to mark out their positions and boundaries. I have omitted mention of some parts which, being known to every- one, require no explanation. The figures and letters employed in the following hst have reference to those on Fig. 14. Head (i). — Looking at the horse in profile, we may regard the head as being divided from the neck by aline proceeding from the back of the ear, along the rear edge of the lower jaw to its angle. The forehead {A) forms the upper part of the face. It extends down to a line joining the inner angle {canthus) of each eye, and reaches as high as the fore-lock and the base of the ears. The fore-lock is that part of the mane which hangs down over the face. The temples are those portions of the head, on each side of the forehead, which lie between the ear and eye. The nose (JB) is a continuation of the forehead, and HEAD. 13 ends opposite the nostrils at the angle (C) formed by the line of the face and the line of the muzzle. The muzzle is the lower end of the head, and includes the nostrils, upper (D) and lower lip {E), and the bones and teeth covered by them. The bars of the mouth are the bare portions of the gums of the lower jaw which lie on each side, between the back teeth and the tushes, or the place usually occupied by the tushes. Fig. 14. — External Parts of Horse. The chin-groove (F) is just under the bars of the mouth. It is the smooth and rounded under part of the lower jaw, in which the curb-chain should rest when a curb bit is used. The angles of the lower jaw (G) are the bony angles between which the upper end of the wind-pipe lies. The branches of the lower jaw run from the chin-groove to the angles of the lower jaw. The occipital crest is the bony prominence which con- stitutes the top of the head, and which more or less rises 14 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS. between the ears. It is particularly high in the head shown in Fig. 300. The Neck (2) is separated from the shoulders by a line which goes from the dip that is just in front of the withers, to the depression which is made by the union of the neck and breast. The poll (F) is the part which is on the top of the neck and is immediately behind the ears. The crest (T) is the upper part of the neck, extending from the withers to the ears. The jugular groove (U) is the groove which is on each side of the neck, just above the wind-pipe. It is well shown in Fig. 322. Breast and Chest. — The breast is the front por- tion of the chest which is bounded by a line connect- ing the points of both shoulders, and by the humerus (bone between the shoulder joint and the elbow, p. 36) on each side. Among horsemen who are unacquainted with anatomy, the " breast " is frequently called the " chest." At the risk of employing a word contrary to colloquial custom, I would suggest that the term ** chest " be applied exclusively to the cavity which occupies nearly the front third of the trunk, and in which the lungs and heart are situated. It is divided from the belly (abdomen) by the diaphragm (p. 50). Shoulders (3). — The hne of union between the shoulders and the neck is well shown in the majority of harness and draught horses ; there being, in such cases, a distinct depression immediately in front of the shoulder. In well-shaped saddle horses, this dip between shoulder and neck will be more or less difficult to trace. The withers form the upper boundary of the shoulder. The rear border of the shoulder may be taken from behind the " swell " of the muscle which is just below the withers,, to the elbowi SHANK. 15 The point of the shoulder (H) is the prominent bony angle, on each side of the breast, a Uttle below the junction of the neck and shoulder. The Withers (4) are the bony ridge which is the forward continuation of the back. Its posterior limit is, as a rule, ill-defined ; for the curve made by the withers usually runs into that of the back in a gradual manner. Its anterior termination can generally be easily felt by the fingers, as this bony ridge ends abruptly in the crest. The Elbcw, which is a portion of the fore-arm, is the large bony projection at the upper and posterior part of the fore-arm. The point of the elbow (/) is the top of this bony projection. The Fore-Arm (5) is placed between the elbow and knee. Its upper boundary may be taken as a horizontal line drawn across the fore limb, just below the lump of muscle which is at the bottom of the shoulder. The chestnuts (K) are the horny growths which are, respectively, above the knees, and just below the hocks, on the inside of the legs. Knee (6). — The upper boundary of the knee may be regarded as a line drawn at right angles to the direction of the leg, above the knee joint, and just clear of the bony prominence that is on the side of the knee. The lower boundary of the knee may be taken as a line joining the point where the line of the cannon-bone meets that of the knee, with that where the line of the back tendons is terminated by the bone (the pisiform, L) which is at the back of the knee. Shank (7). — The part of the leg which is situated between the knee and fetlock is often called the " cannon," which term is apt to give the impression that onlv the cannon-bone is meant. A convenient 1 6 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS. designation to include all the structures of the part is " shank," as suggested to me by Professor Cossar Ewart. The line dividing the shank from the fetlock is one drawn across the leg immediately above the prominence caused by the fetlock joint. The hack-tendons {hack-sinews, M) are the fibrous cord which runs down the back of the leg between the knee and the fetlock, and which consists of two tendons that he closely together. The suspensory ligament is a fibrous cord which lies between the cannon-bone and the back-tendons, and which can be seen in a well-formed and sound leg that is not unduly covered with hair (Fig. 360). The cannon-hone (/) is the bone which lies between the knee and the fetlock. It has two small bones (outside and inside splint hone) at its back. Fetlock (8). — The fetlock joint is the joint which the cannon-bone^ makes with the pastern. The term fetlock (i.e., foot-lock) signifies the tuft of hair that usually grows behind this joint, and also the joint itself and the enlarge- ment made by the bones which form it. Pastern (9). — This is the short column of two bones which is placed between the fetlock and the hoof. The hollow of the pastern is the hollow at the back and lower part of .the pastern. The coronet is the comparatively soft lower portion of the pastern which is immediately above the hoof. The Hoof (10) is the horny substance which invests and protects the lower part of the limb. The front part of the hoof, near the ground surface, is called the toe ; the side portions, the quarters ; and the rear parts, on the ground surface, the heels. The outer portion of the hoof is termed the wall, which is divided into a hard, fibrous THE LOINS. 17 outer covering called the crust, and a soft inner layer of non-fibrous horn. The designations " wall " and " crust " are often used indiscriminately. The frog is the triangular buffer which is in the middle and rear part of the ground surface of the hoof. The cleft of the frog is the division in the middle line of the frog. In healthy feet, it consists of only a slight depression. The bars of the hoof are the portions of the wall of the hoof which are turned inwards at the heels, and run more or less parallel to the sides of the frog. The sole is that portion of the ground surface of the hoof which is included between the wall, bars, and frog. Back (11). — Anatomically speaking, the back consists of that portion of the spinal column to which the ribs are attached, and it consequently includes the withers ; but not the loins. The term " back " is, in common parlance, an ill-defined region. Some regard it as consisting of the whole of the upper line of the body, from, the front of the withers to the root of the tail. Others would exclude from this the croup. Probably, the majority* of horsemen would say the back of a horse is included between the highest point of the croup and the commencement of the withers. For convenience sake I shall adopt the ana- tomical definition, with the omission of the withers, which have separate functions, and which I shall consider by themselves. I may, therefore, state that the back is the upper part of the trunk which is bounded in front by the withers ; and behind, by the loins. The Loins (12) are placed between the back and croup, with the flanks on each side. They include that portion of the spinal column which is devoid of ribs, and which is in front of the highest point {posterior iliac spine, Fig. 18) of the pelvis. 1 8 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS. The Ribs (13) are bounded by the shoulders in front, by the flanks behind, by the back above, and by the belly and brisket below. The Flank (14) is that part of the side of the horse which is free from bone and which thinly covers the intes- tines. It is placed between the loins above, the ribs to the front, the tliigh and point of the hip to the rear, and the belly below. The holloisj of the flank is the upper portion of the flank, which is bounded above by the loins, and below by a line joining the end of the last rib with the lower edge of the point of the hip. The Belly (15) or abdomen is the large cavity (Fig. 19) which contains the stomach, liver, spleen, intestines, kidneys, bladder, etc. The term " belly " is applied, in common phraseology, to the underneath portion of the body which is not covered by bone. The Brisket (16) is the lower part of the horse's chest. The girth-place is that portion of the chest which is just behind the fore-legs, and underneath which the girths pass when the horse is saddled. The Croup (17) is that portion of the upper part of the body which is situated between the loins in front and the tail behind. , Roughly speaking, it may be said to extend down, on each side, to a line drawn from the lower edge of the point of the hip, to the point of the buttock. The point of the hip (S) is the bony surface, more or less prominent, which is a little to the rear of the last rib. It is the anterior point of the pelvis. The point of the buttock (0) is the bony prominence which is the rearmost point of the pelvis. It is a few inches below the root of the tail. THE HOCK. 19 The Thigh (18) is bordered by the stifle, flank, croup, buttock, and gaskin, from which it is separated by a horizontal hne drawn from the upper end of the Une made by the hamstring (tendo Achillis, P), which proceeds towards the thigh from the point of the hock (Q). This definition is far from being anatomic- aUy correct, but it is one which fairly represents the acceptation of the term among horsemen. Fig. 15. — Measurements of Horse. The Stifle (N) is the joint of the hind leg which is at the lower part of the flank. The Gaskin (19) is situated between the thigh and the hock, from which it is divided b}^ a line drawn forward from the point of the hock, and just clear of the bony prominences of the joint. The Hock (20) is placed between the gaskin and the hind cannon-bone, from which we may separate it by a 20 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS. line drawn across this bone at the point at which its head begins to enlarge in order to form a joint with the lower bones of the hock. The -point of the hock (Q) is the bony projection at the back and top of the hock. The parts of the hind \eg below the hock are similarly named to those of the fore leg below the knee. The Dock (R) is the sohd part of the tail. N.B. — The following definitions have reference to Fig- 15 :— The Height of a Horse (A B) is the vertical distance of the highest point of his withers from the ground, when he is standing with his fore legs nearly vertical and with the points of his hocks in a vertical line with the points of his buttocks. It is well to qualify '' vertical " with " nearly " when referring to the fore legs ; for when the hind legs are placed as in Fig. 15, the weight of the head and neck, which are in front of the fore legs, would cause the animal to stand somewhat " over." This figure was drawn from a photograph of that well-shaped race-horse, Tristan, who was standing, if I may use the expression, " at attention." When a pony is being measured for polo or racing, his legs should be placed in the position I have described. The Length of the Body of a Horse (Z) E) is the horizontal distance from the front of the chest to a line dropped vertically from the point of the buttock. This measurement is a somewhat arbitrary one ; but it is pro- bably the best for the purpose. Colonel Duhousset, in his book, Le Cheval, takes the length of a horse as the distance from the point of the shoulder to the point of the buttock. As this is not a horizontal measurement, the one just given is evidently the better of the two. HEIGHT AT THE CROUP. 21 The Depth of the Chest at the Withers (A C) is the vertical distance from the top of the withers to the bottom of the chest. This measurement, being taken for convenience sake, is an arbitrary one ; for the chest is lower between the fore legs than behind the elbow, which is the spot I have selected. Besides, the actual height of the withers above the roof of the chest has no fixed relation to the depth of the chest. Depth of the Body (F G). — The best and most uniform point to take this is, in all probability, the lowest point of the back. Height at the Croup (H I) is measured from the highest point of the hind-quarters. 22 CHAPTER III. STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. Bones — Cartilage — Muscles and Tendons — Ligaments — Connective Tissue — -The Nervous System. The frame-work of the body consists of the skeleton (Fig. i8), which is composed of a large number of connected bones that are moved by muscles. We should, generally, regard differences of length in the limbs, as those of muscles, rather than of bones ; for the former are the producers of all movements of progression, the latter aiding only in the application of the force exerted. Bones. — The chief duties of hones in the act of pro- gression are — (i) to bear weight ; (2) to resist the effects of concussion ; and (3) to act as levers. Capability for performing (i) and (2) is dependent on conditions of texture (" quality "), size (" substance "), and arrange- ment. Composition, qUality and substance of bone. — Bone is composed of about one-third of animal matter, and two- thirds of earthy matter, more than 98 per cent, of which consists of salts of lime, and principally of phosphate of lime. ''The animal and earthy constituents of bone are so intimately blended and incorporated the one with the other that it is only by severe measures, as for instance by a white heat in one case and by the action of con- centrated acids in another, that they can be separated. Their close union is further shown by the fact that when BONES. 23 by acids the earthy part is dissolved out, or on the other hand when the animal part is burnt out, the shape of the bone is ahke preserved" {Kirkes). The function of the mineral matter is to give rigidity and hardness to the bone ; and that of the animal tissue, to bind the earthy particles together, so that the bone may be able to resist a considerable amount of strain and concussion. This action on the part of the animal tissue of bone is well shown by the fact that when a bone has been deprived of its animal matter by intense heat, it becomes extremely brittle. Also, certain constitutional changes which in- juriously affect the muscular and fibrous structures of the body, render the bones more or less brittle, which is the case with advancing age, and when an animal has been deprived of exercise for a comparatively long time. Many persons think that as mankind and animals grow older, the proportion of earthy matter in their bones becomes greater ; but Fremy has shown by analysis that age has very httle influence in this case. Rutherford explains that the probable cause of bone becoming brittle with age, is a molecular change in its fibrous tissue. The foregoing observations show that the good quality of the bones of an animal is more or less similar to that of the other tissues of the body, and especially to the muscles which move the bones and to which the bones are attached. Whether a horse be intended to carry heavy burdens, or to gallop over hard ground, it is always a matter of the greatest importance that his bones, especially those below his knees and hocks, should be strong. It has been customary to state, in a vague way, that the bones of Arab horses and English thorough-breds are denser than those of other breeds. It would, however, be more exact to say that the drier the soil on which a horse has been bred and brought up, and the '' harder " the food upon which he has been fed, the better will be the quality of his bone ; for we find that in dry, hot 24 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. climates in the East, native ponies which have httle or no admixture of Arab blood, have legs as clean and hard as anv that are to be met with in the Desert. The nature of a horse's hoofs, which can always be determined by inspection, or by using the " drawing knife," will generally afford us a safe guide by which to judge of the quality of his bone. Thus we find that animals which have been reared amid damp surroundings and on succulent food, will, as a rule, be prone to bony enlargements, and will have flat feet of soft horn. We cannot fail to notice this, if we compare the horses of the English fen counties with those bred on high, dry land ; or animals raised in the arid plains of the Punjab and Deccan, with those of swampy Lower Bengal. Hence, if, when judging an animal about the histor}^ of which we know nothing, and which does not appear to have undergone enough work to test the soundness of his legs, we find that he has weak, flat hoofs, we shall not err, in the large majority of cases, by concluding that his bone is of inferior quality. Although dryness of climate is always a favourable condition for horses, excessive heat diminishes the size of the bone of the indigenous animals : a circumstance which may, to a great extent, account for the fact that horses bred in tropical climates, however hardy and wiry they may be, are very rarely of a weight-carrying type. The popular term " bone " refers to the circumference of the legs below the knees and hocks, as compared to the weight they have to carry. As the limbs of the domestic horse, especially when used at fast paces and when jumping, have far more strain put upon them, than if the animal were in a wild state, the judicious breeder will try to obtain as much " bone " as possible, by taking ad- vantage of the all-important principles of variation and heredity. This necessity is inculcated by the proverbial saying that " a horse is as old as his legs." The bones of the limbs, like tendons and ligaments, may BONES. 25 be looked upon as adjuncts to, or component parts of, their muscles, which are the active organs of move- ment. All these structures are dependent for their development on the blood supply, which is increased by exercise. Thus, continued idleness causes the bones, tendons and ligaments of the legs to become abnor- mally liable to injury. Also, in cases of paralysis of a limb, the bones, as well as the muscles, waste. Hence, when judging of a horse's capacity for standing work, we must not confine our attention to his " bone," without also considering the condition of his muscles, tendons and ligaments. In making practical observations on horses, we may often be greatly assisted in our in- vestigations by j udging of the muscles by the bones ; and vice versa. Thus, if we see an animal in poor condition which has been brought on by hardship or want of food, we may, by the appearance of his " bone," form a good idea of what his muscles will be when he '' fills out." Even when a horse is "fit and well," a display of large, well- shaped bone (of the body as well as of the limbs) should prompt us to consider that his muscles are more powerful than they appear at first glance. I w^as much struck by this fact when I had the pleasure of closely inspecting the celebrated St. Gatien, whom Mr. John Hammond very kindly showed me in his box, some time before he ran his dead-heat with Harvester for the Derby of 1884 ; for I was greatly '' taken " with the sight of the large, symmetrically formed bones of his legs, his long back ribs, and his well-developed pelvis, the inner angle of which was so prominent as to make a distinct " rise " in the outline of his croup ; not to mention his long, sloping shoulders and immense gaskins. St. Gatien would pro- bably have been the greatest race-horse of all time, had he not suffered from a severe attack of influenza after he won the Cesarewitch as a three-year-old, with 8 St. 10 lbs up. On the other hand, if we observe that an animal which is in " dealers' condition " is 26 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. light of bone, we may, as a rule, conclude that there is not much muscle in the load of meat which he carries. Among sound, good horses, '' Mr. Morton's " Dalmeny was one of the lightest below the knee I have ever seen ; but no exception could have been taken to him on that account, for his legs had no superfluous weight to carry, and his muscles were of the long, slender type, which is generally characteristic of the possession of speed. The bones and muscles of the limbs are not always in keeping with those of the body ; for we daily see instances of animals that are too heavily " topped " for their legs. Men of experience know that a horse should have plenty of "bone" in order to be able to carry weight with ease to himself for long distances and at comparatively fast paces — as, for example, when hunting. If we take two horses that can perform about equally well in a long run with a similar welter weight up, one having the " pull " in speed, the other in bone and muscle, we shall usually find that the latter will not feel the effects of the work so much as the former. This fact can be explained by the reasonable supposition that the weight-bearing muscles of the hghter-built horse, not being so strong as those of the " heavier " animal, will naturally become more fatigued. The objection sometimes advanced against thorough-breds for hunting, that they cannot " come out again " as quickly as half-bred animals, is valid, especially when the former are lighter built than the latter. Also, blood horses, as a rule, are bred for speed and not for endurance (pp. 426 to 434). Large muscles, as we have seen, require large bones. It is also evident that bones which are exposed to the effects of concussion, should be dense and strong. Consequently, we may conclude that the lighter an animal's body is, in comparison to the strength of its component parts and the amount of its muscular force, the greater will be its powers of MUSCLES AND TENDONS. 27 rapid progression. Hence we find that the race-horse, like all quadrupeds of which speed is the chief character- istic, has comparatively slender bones of extremely dense texture, and that his muscles are particularly strong for their thickness. Owing to the law of compensation, which governs the conditions of animal life, it is almost impossible to obtain bone of great volume, and, at the same time, of the finest quality. On this account, as weight is indispensable in the cart-horse, we endeavour, with him, to obtain large bone of sufficient strength to meet his requirements. In the intermediate classes of horses, the relations between volume and quality should be judged according to the nature of the work in view. Arrangement of bones. — The relative position which bones occupy with respect to each other, affect their leverage, weight-carrying, and concussion-resisting powers — conditions which will be treated in detail when the various points which they affect are considered. Cartilage. — Cartilage or gristle is a strong, flexible, bluish-white substance which is found in connection with bone, and of which there are various kinds. Articular cartilage covers the ends of bones that form movable joints. Temporary cartilage is bone in a tran- sition form. The ribs are connected to the breast-bone by cartilages which form elastic prolongations. Cartilages also are interposed between the bones of various joints in order to connect or protect them. The cartilage of prolongation forms an elastic continuation of the top of the shoulder-blade. Muscles and Tendons. — The animal's moving power is derived from muscles^ which form the lean of meat, and which, as a rule, are attached to bones. Muscles act by virtue of the property they possess of being able to shorten themselves on being stimulated by the nervous system. Thus, if we wish to raise, say, our right 28 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. hand to the shoulder, our brain telegraphs, so to speak, the order, by means of the nerves, to the biceps muscle, which is attached at one end to the shoulder-blade, close to the shoulder-joint, and, at the other, to the bones of the fore-arm, a little below the elbow. Hence this muscle, on contracting, draws the hand up in the required direction. As muscles are built up of contractile fibres, their strength, other conditions being equal, is proportionate to their thickness. In order to economise space, muscles are generally attached to bones by means of tendons (sinews), which are hard, fibrous cords of great toughness. In these cases, the tendon at one extremity is united to the end of the muscle ; and, at the other, to the bone. Tendon is a changed form of muscle. "It is very difficult to determine how the muscle and tendon are joined, or by what means the union is brought about, for the parts become insensibly blended " (Bland-Sutton). We find from experiment that a muscle can contract to about two-thirds of its ordinary length, which is, there- fore, proportionate to the extent of movement it is capable of producing. If the muscles which move the hmbs be comparatively short, the stride will also be short and the horse will be slower than he would otherwise be, no matter how thick and powerful are his muscles. We may, therefore, conclude that speed is associated with length of musclp, as has been stated in Chapter I. As length of muscle is necessarily accompanied by length of bone, we may judge of the former by the latter, which can usually be readily estimated. The " give and take " principle, which applies more or less to all created things, holds good with muscles. Hence, in the race-horse, for which the possession of speed is the chief essential of success, we should seek the greatest possible length of muscle, with just sufficient strength to meet his requirements for carrying weight MUSCLES AND TENDONS. 29 and for sustaining the exertion he may be called upon to undergo. In the cart-horse, on the contrary, thickness of muscle is the greatest desideratum, always supposing that he has sufficient activity to walk well, and occasion- ally to trot at a moderately brisk rate. As a thin muscle will contract at least as quickly as a thick one of the same length, it follows that an increase in the thickness of muscles is useful only in making the work more easy, and that it does not otherwise add to the speed. Massive muscles, compared to slight ones, have two disadvantages, namely — they increase the weight which is carried, both in muscle and bone ; and they necessitate the possession of large joints, which, from increased friction, are not so easily bent and extended as smaller ones ; besides, it has been proved that they do not respond as quickly to nervous stimulus. Although it is impossible to lay down any exact rules on this subject, we may say, speaking generally, that the thickness of muscle which would be commendable in a weight-carrying hunter, would be quite out of place in a race-horse, as we may see by com- paring Fig. 385 with Fig. 384. We may often observe that race-horses which were very smart as two-year-olds, lose their " form " after that age without any assignable reason, except that as they "thickened," they got slow. It is instructive to note that those speedy animals, the cheetah, greyhound, and antelope, like the race-horse, are comparatively narrow behind, and that the hind-quarters of the cart-horse are wide (Fig. 335). The muscular development to be sought for in the race-horse, in order to enable him to carry weight (within racing limits) and to stay, should be obtained with a minimum increase to the burden the animal has got to move ; and is to be looked for chiefly in the loins, gaskins, and fore-arms, with great rotundity and comparative length of the back ribs, and comparative thickness of bone just below the hocks. In this respect, Ormonde (Frontispiece), St. Gatien, Bendigo (Fig. 50), Isonom}^, Barcaldine, and 30 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. Carbine (the New Zealand son of Musket), for example, were all muscular horses. St. Simon (Figs. i6 and 17) was a notable example of a horse of the highest class being of remarkably light build. He had, however, marvellously good shoulders and loins. We know from experiment that muscles of the same thickness are stronger in animals of one species than the}" are in those of another kind ; and we may reasonably infer that even among individual horses the same rule holds good. In fact, we may take for granted that the *' quality " of muscle, tendon and ligament, as well as of bone, is better in some horses than in others ; the great factors in producing strong tissue appearing to be : here- dity ; residence in a dry, temperate climate ; food obtained from a limestone soil (p. 404 et seq.) ] and exercise. Ligaments. — The ends of the bones that form joints are held together by white ligaments^ which are similar in structure to tendons ; but, unlike them, they serve to connect bones with bones, and, in a few cases, bones with tendons. They have no direct connection with muscles. There are, also, yellow ligaments^ which are elastic. Several of the ligaments aid in supporting bodily weight without fatigue to the animal. Dr. Bland-Sutton {Ligaments, Their Nature and Morphology) points out, that hgaments, like tendons, may arise from a degenerative change in muscles, and, also, from degeneration of bone and cartilage. Connective Tissue. — The skm, which covers and protects the body, is largely composed of a strong, fibrous structure called connective tissue, which, proceeding in- wards from the skin in the form of, more or less, thick layers and bands, furnishes a supporting network for the component parts of the other tissues. Thus, if we compare a slice from the under-cut of a sirloin of beef with one from a round of beef, we shall see that the relative coarse- CONNECTIVE TISSUE. 31 Fig. 16. — The Duke of Portland's St. Simon, as a three-year old. Fig. 17. — The Duke of Portland's St. Simon, as a three-year old. STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. ness of grain of the latter is due to the thickness of the layers of connective tissue which run through it. As connective tissue has only the passive action of support, it is evident that the coarser in grain a muscle is, the less powerful will it be ; although it will be better able to resist the effects of external violence than one of finer grain. The protective duty of connective tissue, as regards muscles, may be readily inferred from the fact that the less exposed muscles are to injury from with- out, by reason of their position, the less connective tissue do they contain. This tissue, also, forms ligaments and tendons, and ensheathes bones, cartilages, nerves, etc. There is always a large amount of it immediately under- neath the skin, in the form of loose fibrous sheets, as we may see in the dead animal. The presence of a great quantity of it in this position naturally causes the underlying parts to be ih-delined, a fact which is especially noticeable about the tendons and hgaments below the knees and hocks, owing to the absence of muscle about these parts. We may, therefore, draw the foUowing deductions : (i) That, as the thickness of the skin is a measure of the amount of connective tissue it contains, the thicker the hide, other things being equal, the more connective tissue will there be in and about the muscles. (2) That, as its action is only passive, the more of it a muscle contains, the slower will be the movements of the muscle. Hence, we may reasonably conclude that the fact of a horse having a thick skin, and, for instance, ill-defined suspensory hgaments, owing to natural " fleshiness," would warrant us in supposing that he was deficient in speed. With age, the amount of connective tissue in the body greatly increases. As Guerin states : " In the old man, the tendon seems to invade the muscle, so that the portion of the calf of the leg which remains is placed very high, and is much reduced in length. The muscles of the loins and back present the same character. In old age they are poorer in red fibre, but richer in tendon." THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 33 The component parts of the body which, respectively, have the same structure, are called tissues. Thus we have bony tissue, consisting of bone ; muscular tissue, of muscle ; nervous tissue, of nerve substance ; con- nective tissue, of white librous material ; and so on. The Nervous System. — While considering the form of the horse from a mechanical point of view, we must not lose sight of the marked differences which exist in the nervous system of various animals, and which greatly heighten, or may altogether nulhfy, advantages obtained from good conformation. We are aware, speaking within reasonable limits, that the amount of contraction — i.e., force — exhibited by a muscle is proportionate to the degree of stimulation given by its nerves. As the nervous system of some animals acts far more energetically than that of others, it follows that the former, other things being equal, will be stronger than the latter ; although no difference in conformation, or in development of muscle, may be perceptible. Not only does the amount of nervous force differ much among animals of the same kind ; but some individuals of the same species can stimulate their muscles by means of their nerves quicker than their fellows. We see this well exemplified in adepts at fencing, cricket, boxing, and other kindred sports ; at which, so-called quickness of eye is all essential. The brilliant batsman or accomplished mattre d'armes, apart from the possession of the necessary amount of knowledge, judgment, and physique, excels because he has the gift of moving his muscles, in response to the stimulus received by the nerves of his eyes, quicker, as weh as in more accurately regulated style, than ordinary men. This assertion is in no way based on mere theory ; for we find that among men whose duty it is to record (as in observatories) the exact moment at which they see certain phenomena occur, it is necessary, in order to avoid error, to allow for the difference in time these men, respectively, take ; although it may 3 34 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. be only a fraction of a second. To do this, it is requisite to obtain, for each man, his " personal equation." We can, therefore, conclude that speed and strength are as dependent on the nature and quality of the nervous system as they are on conformation and muscular develop- ment. We all know that a horse may possess every physical excellence, and yet be worthless on account of having a " soft heart," or bad temper. Special nervous co-ordination is an important factor in movement. Thus we find that some horses and men who are extremely fast walkers, are poor '^sprinters." Also, the trotting ability of American *' standard-bred" cham- pions, like Lou Dillon and Cresceus, is evidently much more dependent on nervous peculiarity, than on con- formation. The strong influence of heredity in this case, justifies the American idea that the '^ trotting faculty" is a ''gift." At the same time, we must bear in mind that the speed in question could not be obtained by any special nervous adaptation, unless the conformation was suitable to its application. I am strongly of opinion that " cleverness" in jumping greatly depends on special nervous co-ordination. 35 CHAPTER IV. SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. Definitions — Bones — Joints and Ligaments — Muscles — Heart and Lungs — Nervous System — Teeth. Definitions. — When one bone unites with another bone, or with a piece of cartilage, to form a joint, it is said to articulate with it. The term articulation is used as a synonym for joint. A hall and socket joint is formed by the head of one bone resting in a cavity of another bone. The more shallow the cavity, the more ex- tensive will be the power of movement. The horse's shoulder joint and hip joint are good examples of this kind of articulation. A hinge joint is one which works only by extension and flexion, like the horse's knee. " A limb," as Professor Huxley states, " is flexed when it is bent ; extended, when it is straightened out." We may adopt this definition, with the exception that the fetlock joint becomes bent when it is extended, and straightened out when it is partly flexed. If a muscle is attached, by one end, to a bone which it can move, and, by the other end, to one which is fixed, the former is called the insertion of the muscle ; the latter, the origin. Thus, the origin of the biceps in man (p. 28) is near the shoulder joint ; and its insertion is on the bone of the fore-arm. When a muscle, on contracting, can move the bones at both its ends, the points of connection are called attachments ; an expression which is also applied collectively to the origin and insertion. Muscles are not invariably attached to bones, but may, on the con- trary, be connected to cartilages, ligaments, fibrous covering of muscles, or even to the skin. Bones. — The skeleton is composed of the limbs, head, spinal column, and its accessory bones (Fig. 18). A vertebra is one of the short bones which form the spinal column that extends from the head to the end of the tail. There are, as a rule, seven vertebrae of the neck, eighteen of the back, six of the loins, five of the croup (sacrum), and from thirteen to twenty of the tail. All the vertebrae, except those 36 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. behind the fourth or fifth vertebra of the tail, have a canal in which the spinal cord lies. Their joints have more or less power of movement, except those of the croup, which, in the grown-up horse, form a solid bony mass. The withers are the long spines of the seven or eight dorsal vertebrae which come after the first. The spine of the fifth dorsal vertebra forms the summit of the withers. On each side there are eighteen ribs (eight true and ten false) at- tached to the dorsal vertebrae. Both kinds have pieces of cartilage attached to their lower ends. The true ribs are connected by their respective cartilages with the breast-bone ; but the false ones are only indirectly connected to it, the cartilage of the first false rib resting on that of the last true one ; that of the second false rib, on the first false one ; and so on. The fore limb, according to Chauveau and other veterinary anato- mists, consists of the shoulder-blade, humerus, bones of the fore-arm, knee, cannon-bone, splint bones, long pastern bone, short pastern bone, pedal (coffin) bone, two small bones at the back of the fetlock (sesamoid bones), and the navicular bone, which lies at the back of the joint formed by the short pastern bone and pedal bone. Enghsh comparative anatomists consider that it is incorrect to include the shoulder-blade among the bones of the fore-leg ; but, in discussing conformation, it is well to do so, on account of the very important part which it plays in the movements of that limb. The shoulder-blade {scapula) is a broad, thin bone, which is flat on its inside surface and has a narrow ridge of bone (the spine of the scapula) on its outer surface. This spine serves as a partition to divide the muscles which extend the shoulder joint from those that flex it. The humerits is the bone which lies between the shoulder joint and the elbow joint. There are two bones of the fore-arm, namely, the radius, which makes a joint with the humerus and with the bones of the knee ; and the ulna, which is lyiited to the back and upper part of the radius, above which it projects. The upper part of the ulna is called the olecranon, the top of which is termed the point of the elbow. There are two rows of bones of the knee, at the back of which a bone (the pisiform) is placed. It is curved inwards so as to form a groove for the passage of the back-tendons of the fore-leg. The two splint bones are placed at the back of the cannon-bone, one on the outside, the other on the inside. They form a groove in which lies the upper portion of the suspensory ligament. There is a joint between the cannon-bone and the long pastern bone, between the two pastern ]-)ones, and between the short pastern bone and the pedal {coffin) bone. The navicular bone articulates with both BONES. 37 the short pastern bone and the pedal bone. It and the two bones behind the fetlock (the sesamoid bones) serve as pulleys for one of the back tendons. The pelvis, which rests on, and is firmly attached to, the sacrum, appears as a single bone in the adult animal, although it really consists of two halves, each of which is composed of three bones {ilium, pubis, and ischium). The ilium is the analogue of the scapula in the fore- hand. Each half furnishes a socket for the head of its respective thigh bone. The poini of the hip, on either side, is the front and outer corner of the pelvis. The two inner corners of the pelvis Atlfts Joint of jaw- Ligament cf neck ,Vcrl pig 2.30 ,, horse 2.2/ „ ox 2.18 Teeth. — As horses' teeth have been described and illustrated in Veterinary Notes for Horse-Owners, allusion will be made to them, here, only with the object of explaining certain references to this subject in the chapter on " The Evolution of the Horse." A horse's teeth are usually divided into front-teeth {incisors), tushes {canine teeth), and back -teeth. At first there is a milk dentition, generally, of 3 incisors and 3 back-teeth on each side of each jaw ; making a total of 24 milk-teeth. Between the ages of 10 months and 5 years, the milk incisors and milk back -teeth become replaced by permanent teeth, tushes spring up in male horses, and 3 more back- teeth make their appearance behind the first 3 back-teeth on each side of each jaw ; the total being 40. The first 3 back-teeth are called premolars, and the second 3, which are not preceded by milk teeth, are termed molars. Occasionally in the upper jaw, but very seldom in the lower jaw, there are 4 premolars, in which case the ist premolar is very small, and is usually called a "wolf's tooth." It is always present in the young foetus. As the early ancestors of the horse had 4 premolars, this premolar is evidently a vestigial tooth. In the mare, the tushes are absent, or only in a rudimentary form. The teeth are numbered from the front backwards. The body of a tooth is composed of an ivory-like substance {dentine), which is covered by a layer of very hard material {enamel), by means of which the animal cuts and masticates his food. On the cutting surface of the incisors, the enamel forms a depression (becomes •' cupped "), and thus gives rise to the "mark." The cupped condition of the enamel greatly increases the cutting power of the teeth. There are two depressions in each of the back teeth. The enamel is covered by a layer of cement, which is nearly similar in structure to bone. The cutting surface of a tooth is called the table ; and the portion of the tooth outside the gum, the crown. Taking one side of both jaws and allowing for the appearance of a 1st premolar, the horse's dental formula is : — Incisors Canines \ Premolars 'tl , Molars (44) 40. CHAPTER V. MECHANISM OF BREATHING. The body of the horse (Fig. 19), viewed apart from his head, neck, limbs, and tail, may be divided into chest and abdomen (belly), the former containing the lungs and heart ; the latter, the stomach, in- testines, liver, bladder, and other vital organs. This division is effected by a broad and somewhat bell-shaped muscle (the diaphragm or midriff), which is attached, round its margin, to the ends of the last twelve ribs, to the rearmost extremity of the breast-bone, and to the spine under the loins ; while its apex or centre projects forward. When it contracts, it tends to become flat, and thus enlarges the capacity of the chest by pushing back the contents of the abdomen. Its action, especially during forced breathing, is aided by that of another muscle, which is attached by one end to the last four neck vertebrse, and bj^ the other to the first rib, which it pulls forward on contracting, and in this manner helps to increase the size of the chest. Air is taken into, and expelled from, the lungs by means of the alternate increase and diminution of the capacity of the chest. When the former act occurs, the air contained in the lungs becomes rarefied, and consequently the external air rushes in through the animal's nostrils to restore the balance of pressure. When the latter takes place, a portion of the air which is already in the lungs is forced out. It is evident, therefore, that the power of taking a large volume of air into the lungs at each breath, is more dependent on the difference between the respective capacities of the chest when expanded, and contracted, than on the actual size of the chest itself; The act of breathing is called respiration ; that of expelling air from the lungs, expiration ; and that of drawing it in, inspiration. The capacity of the chest is enlarged by the diaphragm, as we have seen ; and also by muscles which pull the middle pieces of the ribs forward, so as to make the cavity wider from side to side, and consequently to increase its size. The ribs are drawn forward by muscles which cover them, and by others which are situated MECHANISM OF BREATHING. 51 between the successive pairs of ribs. The lower ends of some of the ribs are also drawn up during the act of inspiration. On page 40, I have remarked on the power the ribs have of pivotting on their ends. When the air which is within the chest, becomes rarefied at the commencement of the act of inspiration, the lungs passively dilate, and thus allow the incoming air to gain ready access to the bronchial tubes and air-cells. When the animal is at rest, the elastic recoil of the ribs and lungs is sufficient to expel the tidal air, as the amount changed at each breath is called. The volume of air which remains in the lungs Laryncc Gullet ,-Vret^'S .Reciiinv Bladder -Urelhra, Fig. 19. — Internal Organs of Horse. after expiration, greatly exceeds — perhaps five or six times — that of the tidal air. In forced breathing, as during active movement, several muscles which are not employed for tranquil respiration are called into play, particularly those used in forced expiration, as we may see by the heaving flanks of an animal which is "blown." The muscles which cover the ribs and belly, aid in forced expiration by compressing these parts, and thereby causing the walls of the chest to "fall in," and the contents of the abdomen to project fonvard into that cavity. Quick work naturally developes the muscles of forced respiration. The muscles of the flank (known to anatomists as the great and 4* 52 MECHANISM OF BREATHING. small oblique, and the transverse) aid in respiration. Consequently, when they are well developed, the flank is not so hollow as it would be if they were wanting in size. No hard and last line can be drawn between tranquil and forced breathing ; although the broad differences between them are clearly marked. In order that the horse may have his breathing power fully de- veloped, it is necessary that the capacity of the chest at the end of an act of expiration, should differ as much as possible from what it will be at the termination of the act of inspiration. For this reason the chest should be deep, the ribs well arched, and, at the same time, they should have a good inclination to the rear. The back ribs should be long, so as to augment the size of the chest ; and the muscles which move the ribs, as well as the muscles of the belly, should be largely developed. Further allusion will be made, in Chapter XVII., to the shape of the chest and ribs. CHAPTER VI. DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORSE's BODY. Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs— Centre of Gravity. Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs.— General Morris, of the French Army, appears to have been the first to make experiments as to the distribution of weight between the fore and hind hmbs of the horse. He found that, taking one animal with another, it is as five is to four ; and that the fact of the neck being long, as in the thorough-bred, causes more weight to be thrown on the fore-hand, than when that part is short and massive, as in the heavy cart-horse. The proportion which he obtained from an average of eleven horses that had light heads and necks — the latter being presumably long — was as four is to three. Colin puts the average at fully three to two. Goubaux and Barrier have proved by a number of careful trials, that the lower the withers are, as compared to the croup, the greater is the proportion of weight supported by the fore limbs ; and vice versa. As the hind half of the trunk is, in all classes, heavier than the fore half, it follows that the extra weight in front is mainly due to the fact of the head and neck being in advance of the fore legs. The longer the body, and the heavier the belly, the more will this distribution of weight be equalised. Centre of Gravity. — The centre of gravity of a body is an im- aginary point in that body, so placed that if the body be supported immediately underneath the centre of gravity, it will be in equilibrium (rest). Consequently, if a body be balanced at a point on its surface, a vertical line drawn from that point will pass through the centre of gravity ; and the intersection of two or more such lines will determine the position of the centre of gravity. If the body be of uniform density, the position of the centre of gravity will be the same as that of the centre of the figure ; but if it be heavier at one side than at the other, the centre of gravity will be nearer the former than the latter. For instance, in ships, with the view of obtaining increased security from an upset, 54 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORSE'S BODY. the centre of gravity is placed below the centre of the hull. If, for ex- ample, we want to ascertain the position of the centre of gravity of a loaded club, we may take one line through its axis, and another across it, at the point where it balances, when placed horizontally. The lower the centre of gravity of a body, the more stable will be its equilibrium, as we may see by experimenting with a loaded stick of uniform thick- ness ; firstly, balanced on its light end, and, secondly, on its heavy extremity. In the living animal, the position of the centre of gravity is constantly Fig. 20. — rosition of Centre of Gravity. (From Goubaux and Barrier's V Extdrieiir du Cheval.) changing, on account of the manner in which the respective positions of the various parts alter, especially during movements of the head and neck. Colin, the well-known author of Physiologic Comparee des Animaux Domestiques, remarks that " the centre of gravity, the exact position of which has never been determined, nearly corresponds, in the horse, to the intersection of two lines — one, vertical, falhng behind the xiphoid appendage [cartilage at rearmost point of the breast bone] of the sternum ; the other, horizontal, dividing the middle third from the lower third of the body." Fig. 20 is drawn in conformity with Colin's remarks. The point of intersection of the two dotted Hues in this figure, shows the position of the supposed centre of gravity. CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 55 We may readily see that the less deep is a horse's body, compared to his length of leg— in other words, the more " daylight " he has under him — the higher and more unstable will be his centre of gravity ; and vice versa. Taking the foregoing remarks with those on the effect which instability of equilibrium has on speed (p. 69), we may conclude that the faster the horse, other things being equal, the greater will be the pro- portion of weight on his fore-hand. 56 CHAPTER VII. LEVERS. Definition— First Order— Second Order— Third Order— Relations between the Power and Weight in Levers— Comparisons between Power and Weight in Muscular Levers — Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively Act. The movements of the limbs are due to the working of various levers, formed by bones and acted upon by muscles. Definition. — A lever is a bar which has a fulcrum, or fixed point, so arranged that movement can be communicated to a weight at another point on it, by a power acting on a third point on the bar. Agreeably to the relative positions of the fulcrum (F), weight (W), and power (P), we have the three following orders of levers. IV P o w p Fig. 2 1 . — First Order of Lever. First Order. — P.F.W. (Fig. 21), as when two persons make a see-saw by sitting on the opposite ends of a plank which rests on some convenient fulcrum. We have this order of lever in the bones from the point of the hock, to the foot, when a horse kicks out with a hind leg (Fig. 46). / ^ w Fig. 22. — .Second Order of Lever. Second Order.— P.W.F. (Fig. 22). A wheel-barrow, when lifted in the usual manner, furnishes us with an instance of this lever ; THE POWER AND WEIGHT IN LEVERS. 57 the ground on which the wheel rests being the fulcrum ; the barrow, the weight ; and the arms of the person who lifts the handles, the force. We have another example in an oar employed to row a boat ; the water being the unstable fulcrum, and the rowlock being the point through which the weight (the boat) is pushed forward. The bones and muscles which have been taken to illustrate the first order of lever will serve our purpose here, if we imagine the power to be exerted in propelling the body to the front, through the tibia (the bone that is situated between the hock and stifle), while the toe rests on the fulcrum formed by the ground (Fig. 47). w u J, F W Fig. 23. — Third Order of Lever. Third Order. — W.P.F. (Fig. 23). This form of lever occurs in a fishing rod, with which a man tries to lift a heavy trout out of the water. The weight is at the point of the rod ; the fulcrum, at the butt, is formed by one hand ; and the power is supplied by the other hand, a little above the butt. We have this lever in the bones below the hock, when the horse bends that joint by hfting his foot off the ground (Fig. 48). Here, the power is derived from the muscle which is placed in front of the tibia ; the weight is that of the hmb below the hock ; and the fulcrum is formed by the tibia. The 05 calcis does not come into this lever, except in counterbalancing, to a very slight extent, the weight of the leg below the hock. Relations between the Power and "Weight in Levers. — The farther the power is from the fulcrum, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which it wih act ; and vice versa. Thus, if one arm of a see-saw is longer than the other, a comparatively hght weight at the end of the former will counterbalance a heavy one at the extremity of the latter. Also, the longer an oar is " in-board," as in an outrigger, the greater will be the power which a rower will have. If we apply this principle to the horse, we shall see that the longer is the OS calcis (Figs. 46 and 47), the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the muscles of the gaskin will act in kicking or in propehing the body forward. As length of os calcis gives increased leverage in the hind limb, so does length of pisiform afford it in the fore leg. 58 LEVERS. If we wisli to express these relations mathematically, we have the following i)roi)ortions tor tlic three orders of levers:— P wY r : \V : : lu F : /> F, or — ^--: W ^F Here, 5x; F is 11k' distance of tlic point of ai)p]ication of the weight from the fiilcrinu ; and /) F, the distance of llic power from the fulcrum. Comparisons between Power and Weight in Muscular Levers. W'c may ofjserve tliat tlie i)ower always acts at a mechanical disadvantage in levers of the third order. As the majority of the levers which are used in animal locomotion, act at a mechanical disadvantage ; I shall now investigate the cause of this apparent anomaly, and may first remark thai tlu- measure of work done by a force is found by multiplying the weight by the distance through which il has been moved. Thus, suppose two men are engaged in raising weights, one having a single ])l()ck pulley to lift a weight of 25 lbs., while the other, to raise too Ihs., uses a multiplying block which increases the jiower liHulold ; tile lornier will raise liis 25 lbs. 4 ft. off the ground in the same time and with the same expenditure of force as the latter will lilt his 100 tbs. to a height of I ft. In fact, what is gained in power is lost ill distance. This law holds equally good with levers, as we may see Iroin the fact, for instance, that a small amount of contraction of tlie miis( le w liicji heuds the hock, causes the hind foot to move through a considerable space. Were the hock bent, for example, by a muscle that had its two points of attachment at the stifle and fetlock (instead, as is actually the case, at the stifle and a little bek)w the hock), such muscle would act at far greater mechanical advantage than the jiresent Ik'xor ol the hock ; but it could not bend that joint to anything like the same extent, because muscles cannot eontiacl to more than about two-thirds of their noinial length. Besides, such an arrangement would be extreinel\- ineoiu cnieiit lor every-day work, and would increase the liability ol the liml) to injury. Although there is, therefore, a very large expenditmi' ol muscular force in the action of tlu^ levers of the limbs ; there is an e([ually large gain in llexion ami extension, and consequently in speed. Their arrangement, also, enal)les the body to be made of a compact form, and to be suited to its surroundings. Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively Act. In the theoretical levers which have been given (Figs. 21, 22, and 23), 1 have assumed that the power and weight act at right angles to the lever, and that they are consequently parallel to each other. DIRECTIONS IN WHICH THE POWER AND WEIGHT ACT. 59 In the actual levers (those ol the hock) which have been taken into consideration, we can see that this is not the case. Also, the nearer a force is to being at right angles with its lever, the greater is the mechanical advantage at which it will work. If, in a lever of the first order, for instance, we have the power and weight, as in Fig. 24, acting in directions which are not parallel to each other, such forces (if the lever be in equilibrium) will then be inversely proportionate to the length of the perpendiculars drawn, from the fulcrum, to their respective directions. Thus in Fig. 24 we have P : W : : F c/ : F c. We therefore see that W, which is nearly at right angles to a b, acts much more advantageously than P, which is in a much more oblique direction to it. This would be equally true in the other two kinds of levers. f/ -/ u w p Fig. 24. — Lever of First Order with directions of J'ower and Weight ohlique to eacii other. The foregoing well-known mechanical law need not here be proved ; as its solution can be found in any book on elementary statics. Acting on the principle just enunciated, the cart-horse, with the view of obtaining the utmost mechanical advantage, when trying to draw a heavy load, will naturally endeavour to move the levers of his limbs (when straightening them out) with the ])Ower, as nearly as possible, at right angles to each respective lever. Hence he will obtain his best results by only slight bending of the joints, and consequently his steps will be short. This action of the levers of the hind limbs is well shown by the manner in which he will crouch down behind, when he makes a strong effort with his hind legs while exerting the fore legs but httle, as may occur when the roadway is slippery. The galloper, on the contrary, will require the power of straightening out his limbs to their utmost extent (p. 66), and will thus obtain speed at a lavish expenditure of muscular effort. This is especially well shown in the action of the fetlock joint (Fig. 45) ; for if the pastern be long and sloping, the mechanical disadvantage will be great, but the gain in speed will be equally large. If the pastern be upright, the fetlock will work advantageously as far as the weight to be moved is concerned ; but it will contribute httle to the attainment of speed. 6o CHAPTER VIII. MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Displacement of the Centre of Gravity — Manner in which Propulsion is Effected by the Limbs — Direction of Propulsion, and Distance through which the Centre of Gravity of the Body is moved — Comparative Speed in the Action of the Limbs — Action of the Muscles which extend the Vertebra; — Width between each respective Pair of Legs as affecting Speed — Effect of Insecurity of Equili- brium on Speed — Fatigue from the various Paces — Action of the Head and Neck in Locomotion — Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint — Mechanism of the Hock Joint. The remarks made under this heading should be taken in connection with those in the following five chapters. Some observations which are given here, are necessary for an explanation of the movements of the horse in his various paces ; but others, in order that the\^ may be understood, have been kept back, until the nature of the paces and the mechanism of draught have been discussed. Displacement of the Centre of Gravity. — Locomotion is effected by the advancement of a limb in order to bring a new base of support under the centre of gravity. Let us suppose that the man represented, in Fig. 25 is standing with one foot advanced more than the other. His base of support {a b) will then be the area bounded by his feet and the lines joining them at each side. As long as the perpendicular (p) dropped from the centre of gravity falls within the base of support, the equilibrium of the body will be maintained. If the man, in this example, brings the centre of gravity of his body forward by straightening his left ankle joint, so that the perpendicular from the centre of gravity shall fall beyond the base of support (Fig. 26) ; it is evident that in order to prevent the body from falling, he will have to bring the rear leg (which in this case is the left one) beyond the perpendicular dropped from the centre of gravity (Fig. 27). Precisely the same actions take PROPULSION EFFECTED BY THE LIMBS. 6i place when the horse starts from the halt into the walk ; for by the straightening of one or both hind legs, he brings the centre of gravity of his body beyond the toe of the most advanced fore foot, with the result that the other fore leg has to be carried forward in order to restore the equilibrium. In doing this, the first foot to quit the ground will usually be a fore one. A succession of these displacements and re- coveries by a man will constitute the walk, run, or other pace. Similar movements occur when leaping, except when the spring is made vertically upwards from a state of rest, in which case the centre of gravity is not displaced beyond the base of support. Manner in which Propulsion is Effected by the Limbs. — Displacement of the centre of gravity, in the propulsion of the body, is accomplished by the straightening out of the limb or limbs, P Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Displacement of Centre of Gravity of Man when Walking. as the case may be. We can readily see how this gives the required impetus, if we consider tne manner in which the shove-off is done by an expert swimmer in a bath, when he comes to the end of it, and wishes to touch, turn, and strike off without loss of time. He, as we all know, will, as much as possible, draw up the leg with which he is going to give the shove off, and having applied it to the side of the bath (Fig. 28), will suddenly straighten it out, with the result that his body will be shot forward (Fig. 29). Here the drawn-up leg, which acts as a spring, is placed between two objects : one (the body) movable, the other (the side of the bath) immovable. When the leg is extended, the movable object is naturally the one to be displaced. Identically the same action occurs in the various progressive movements of the horse. We may see it, also, in the run of the pedestrian, which is depicted in Figs. 30, 62 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 31 and 32 ; for the right leg, which is a good deal bent in Fig. 30, is nearly straight in Fig. 31. The straightening of the limb or limbs, in effecting the forward propulsion of the body, is even better shown in Figs. 33, 34, 35 and 36, which depict the standing leap. Fig. 28. Fig. 29 Shove-off from Side of Swimming Bath. Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Forward Propulsion of Man when Running Fig. 32. Fig. 33- Fig. 34- Fig. 35. Forward Propulsion of Man in Standing Leap. Fig. 36. A horse's fore limb is raised from the ground and brought to the front in the following manner : The shoulder-blade {scapula. Fig. 18) is rotated, chiefly by its upper end being pulled downwards by the posterior portion of the serratus magnus (p. 42), and by its lower end being drawn upwards by the levator humeri (p. 43), which also PROPULSION EFFECTED BY THE LIMBS. 63 draws the entire limb to the front ; the flexor muscles of the fore-arm bend the knee, and the joints of the fetlock and pastern, so as to enable the foot to clear the ground ; and the flexor brachii (p. 43) assists in straightening the shoulder joint, and raises the knee ; and the extensor muscles of the fore-arm finally straighten the knee and all the joints below it. When full extension of the fore hmb takes place, all the bones of the leg (from the shoulder-blade to the pedal- bone) are straightened as far as possible. It is evident that Fig- 3S. Fig- 39- Fig. 40. Running High Leap of Man. Fig. 41. the less upright (more sloping) the shoulder-blade is, the more can the foot and knee be advanced, and raised. Propulsion by the hind limb of the horse takes place through the hip joint and pelvis. The impetus from the fore leg at the various paces may be regarded as through the elbow joint and humerus. 64 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Direction of Propulsion, and Distance through which the Centre of Gravity of the Body is Moved. — The direction of the propulsion given by a limb is necessarily through its column of bones. If we examine the illustrations of the progressive movements of the horse, in Chapters XII. and XIII., we shall see that in every case, just before a limb leaves the ground, it is directed backward and downward, as, for instance, the off hind in Fig. 80, and the off fore in Fig. 188. Hence the direction of propulsion in these cases must be forward and upward. The speed at which the body is moving will greatly influence the direction of the propulsion. Thus in Fig. 38, which is one of the series (Fig. 37 to Fig. 41) that shows the running high leap of a man, the impetus from the right leg is given vertically ; yet the centre of gravity is projected forward at an angle of about 45° to the ground. The reason for this is, that in this case there are two forces of projection, namely, that derived from the extension of the right leg, and that due to the speed at which the pedestrian ran up to the a u Fig. 42. — Angle of Projection of Centre of Gravity. jump before he " took off." We have here the operation of " the parallelogram of forces." Thus, if the line ah m. Fig. 42 represents the horizontal force (derived from the speed) and a c the vertical one (obtained from the right leg), and if we draw c d parallel to a b, and bd parallel to a c, we shall have the resultant force represented by the line a d, and the angle of projection equal to the angle dab. The upward motiqn given by the limb to the body is necessary to keep up the centre of gravity, which, if we wish the labour to be accom- plished with a minimum amount of muscular effort, should be maintained as nearly as possible at one uniform height from the ground ; for the distance through which the centre of gravity is moved, will be a measure of the work done. Let us suppose at each step of a yard long by a horse, that the centre of gravity falls 4 inches, and that the animal has to go a distance of 1,000 yards on a horizontal plane. It is evident that, in this case, the muscles of the horse's limbs would not only have to carry the weight of the body 1,000 yards, but would also have to raise it 333^ feet (1000 X ^), which would be approximately equivalent to going over a hill that was 333 J feet high and had a base 1,000 yards broad. COMPARATIVE SPEED IN THE ACTION OF THE LIMBS. 6^ It is evident that the less the fall and rise at each step, the lower this supposititious hill would be, and consequently, the easier it would be to walk over. Although the duty of forward propulsion is chiefly performed by the hind limbs ; the greater part of the work of adjusting the position of the centre of gravity during ordinary locomotion, falls on the fore legs. When a horse, for instance, performs the high-school feat of cantering to the rear, the respective roles would obviously be reversed. The question of the adjustment of the centre of gravity of the body, so that the muscles of locomotion may act to the best possible advantage, will be considered further on. Comparative Speed in the Action of the Limbs. — The speed with which the body is projected forward, is directly proportionate to the speed with which the limb or limbs are straightened out, and has nothing to do with the strength of the muscles that move the parts. Hence, any excess of muscular development beyond that required for the due working of the limbs, will tend to diminish the speed by unnecessarily adding to the weight to be carried. For this reason, we never see great race-horses of the weight-carrying hunter build. Some of the best (St. Simon and Tim Whiffler, for instance) have been slight horses. In fact, the son of Galopin and St. Angela (Figs. i6 and 17) had singularly light hind-quarters. Even Ormonde, who was very muscular for a race-horse, was anything but broad when viewed from behind (Fig. 384). The question of the speed of muscular contraction is an abstruse one which still remains unsettled. We know that if a muscle be stimulated by a shock of electricity, it will contract throughout its entire length at (practically) the same moment. Hence, under this condition, a long muscle would contract very nearly in the same time as a short one. When, however, a muscle is stimulated by nerves which act in obedience to the will, the contraction of its various parts does not take place simultaneously, though at such a brief interval that we may regard the delay as inappreciable. Hence, in two limbs which resemble each other in every particular, except that one is short and the other long, the respective extension of both will be accomplished in very nearly the same time, and consequently the speed of the propulsion derived from the long leg will exceed that from the short one, in nearly the proportion which their lengths bear to each other. This conclusion is in accordance with the statement that muscles of speed are long muscles. Besides, physiology teaches us that the thicker muscles are, the slower, other things being equal, do they contract on becoming stimulated. We should content ourselves with taking a broad view of this subject ; for conditions vary so much in individual cases, that it is not safe to dogmatise on it. 5 66 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. We have seen that the greater the abihty to straighten the leg, the higher will be the speed of propulsion ; and vice versa. Hence, if a horse is, for instance, unable from peculiarity of conformation to straighten his hocks (a condition called " sickle-hocks," p. 314), he will not be so fast as he would have been, had he greater freedom in these joints. We may test the truth of this principle in our own selves ; for if, when swimming in a bath (p. 61), we wanted to touch and turn, but were unable to straighten our knee on account of an injury or from some other cause, we would be capable of giving only a comparatively poor shove-off. The great beauty of a " straight-dropped hind leg " in the horse, as a conformation favourable to speed, will again be alluded to on p. 314. The action of the fore limb in raising the fore-hand, which is essential for the regulation of the position of the centre of gravity in locomotion, is also dependent on its difference of length when bent and when straightened out. It is manifest that this difference is due to the action of the shoulder joint, elbow joint, fetlock, and pastern joints. Hence, obHque shoulders and sloping pasterns are " points " of speed and of leaping power. If the shoulder-blade and pastern be upright, the limb will be capable of but slight extension. Here, the knee does not come into play, because it is kept straight, when the fore foot is put on the ground. In heavy draught, full straightening out of the limbs is not desirable ; for the last part of this action is accomplished at a great mechanical disadvantage, to which I have alluded on page 59. At present it is sufficient to compare the action of the limbs to that of the oars of a boat, in which the practically useful work is finished after the oars have passed the line at right angles to the length of the boat ; the remainder of the propulsive effect being obtained by a wasteful expenditure of force. Consequently, an increase of speed is procured by an amount of work which is greatly out of proportion to the result. Thus, to double the speed during a certain period of time, it may be necessary for the horse to do five or six times the amount of muscular exertion. For instance, it may be more fatiguing for a horse to go twenty miles in one hour, than fifty miles in five hours. The cart-horse, when in heavy draught, moves his load with his hind limbs in a more or less bent condition (Fig. 126), which gives his hind-quarters the crouching appearance which must be famiUar to us all. Sloping pasterns from a load-pulling point of view are objectionable in the cart-horse ; for the more oblique they are, the greater is the mechanical disadvantages at which they work (p. y^,). Action of the Muscles which Extend the Vertebrae. — When a horse prepares to kick, he, as a general rule, lowers his head and arches his loins (" puts his back up "), by doing which he relieves ACTION OF THE MUSCLES. 67 his hind-quarters of weight and puts it on his fore-hand. When, on the contrary, he prepares to rear, he raises his head and neck and more or less hollows his loins, so as to lighten his fore-hand and put more weight on his hind-quarters. If we examine Figs, 147 and 148 of the canter, Figs. 172 to 175 of the gallop, and Figs. 224 to 228 of the leap, we shall see that the muscles which enable a horse to rear, greatly aid the forward reach of the fore legs in these movements. Also, the heavier the fore- hand, the greater difficulty will they have to raise it. In the leap, they assist the leading fore leg in raising the fore-hand. If the horse carries a rider, these muscles will have an increased amount of work to do on account of extra weight being put in front, and will tire at a proportion- ately rapid rate. On examining the illustrations of horses in Chapter XII. at the various paces, we shall see that the faster the movement, the more will these muscles be taxed, on account of the greater distance of the centre of gravity from the hind feet, during the period one or both of the hind limbs support and propel forward the weight of the body. Hence we find that to gallop fast or to jump " big," a horse must have good " rearing muscles " which consist principally of those that straighten the hock, draw back the thigh, and extend the vertebrae of the loins. These muscles also help to " lighten " the fore-hand in the flying trot and fast " pacing," in both of which there is a period of suspension, which will vary in length according to the weight that is on the fore- hand. From these considerations, we may lay down the law that the faster the speed required, the stronger should the " rearing muscles " be. The pair of them (one on each side) that is most readily noticed, is the loin muscles, which in the ox constitute the upper cut of a sirloin,; and which, in the horse, we may see just behind the cantle of the saddle. It is evident that the heavier the shoulder, the sooner will these muscles become tired ; the shorter will be the stride ; and the slower will be the speed. Consequently, horses for fast work ought to have light shoulders. Carrying out the same train of reasoning, we may see that the longer a horse's body, the greater will be the mechanical disadvantage at which these muscles will work ; hence, a short body is a desirable point in the race-horse and jumper. The combined working of oblique shoulders, well -sloped pasterns and strong rearing muscles, by preventing the fore-hand going down at each stride, aids in obtaining the much admired " level " action in the race- horse. An animal which has a long body, heavy shoulders, upright pasterns and weak loins (showing deficiency in the points just advocated), will, if he be put to a gallop, go in an up-and-down style ; because his rearing muscles will be over-taxed by the weight of the fore-hand at the end of the long lever made by his body, and because his fetlock joints will have deficient " play." Although the loin muscles appear to be almost quiescent during 5* 68 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. easy walking and gentle trotting, they may be observed to act energeti- cally in flexing and extending the loins when the animal is leaping and galloping, and when his powers are taxed in drawing a heavy load. Any one who has ridden races or gallops on speedy thorough -breds, will know from experience the immense power behind the saddle pos- sessed by animals of this class ; for the rider cannot fail to feel the vigorous " lift " given by the loins at each stride. I cu *' i Fig. 43. — Lateral Displacement of Body. It is a popular fallacy to imagine that the muscles over the loins are propellers. They have no propelling power at all ; for they are not connected either with the thigh bone, or with any of the bones of the limb below it ; their office in locomotion being merely to regulate the weight on the fore-hand. The muscles under the loins (those which constitute the under-cut in a saddle of mutton, or in a sirloin of beef), draw the thigh forward. Width between each respective Pair of Legs as affecting Speed. — Let us suppose that the rectangle a d e b (Fig. 43) diagrammatically represents the body of the horse ; that the fore limbs are placed at fhe angles a and h ; that the hind limbs are at d and e ; and that the centre of gravity is at c. Were both fore legs and both hind legs to act respectively at the same moment, we would have the centre of gravity moved in a straight line, and in the direction in which the animal's body was placed. In the amble (p. 104), the pro- pulsion is given through a and d, and through h and e alternatel}^ with the result, in the former case, that the centre of gravity is displaced to the right ; and in the latter, to the left. In the trot (p. loi), the alternate strokes are through a and e, and b and d. If these respective propulsions, in the trot, were equal to each other, and if the centre of gravity were midwa}^ between the fore and hind legs, there would be no displacement EFFECT OF INSTABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM ON SPEED. 69 of it from side to side. As, however, the impetus derived from the hind limb is greater than that from the fore leg, and as the centre of gravity is nearer the latter than the former, there is a certain tendency to lateral displacement, which has to be corrected by muscular effort. This tendency to a rocking movement from side to side is naturally greater in the amble than it is in the trot. In the gallop there is a strong tendency to lateral displacement ; for at this pace, each leg gives its own separate stroke (Figs. 156 to 191). When either of the near ones act, the centre of gravity is canted to the right ; when the off ones make their re- spective effort, it is thrown to the left. The retention of the centre of gravity in a more or less straight line, entails a certain expenditure of muscular work, and consequent fatigue. It is evident that the nearer (Fig. 43) a is to b, and d to e, the less will be the lateral displacement of the centre of gravity, and the smaller the loss of speed from this cause. Hence we find that in animals of great speed, like the cheetah, antelope, greyhound, and race-horse, both the fore and hind legs are respectively placed much closer together than in animals of comparatively greater strength, but of slower move- ment. The faster the speed (p. 140), the more do the footprints of the horse tend to come into the line of the direction in which movement is taking place. This principle is well exemplified in man ; for all fast walkers, runners and skaters try to place the feet, at each step, as nearly as possible, in the same straight line. As I have already said, the tendency to lateral displacement of weight is corrected to a certain extent, in his various paces, by the horse, who has, however, to do it by a muscular effort which is a lost force, as regards propulsion. Effect of Instability of Equilibrium on Speed. — The more unstable, in a forward direction, is the equilibrium of a horse's body during each step at any particular pace, the greater will be the speed which can be developed at that pace ; because the more un- stable the equilibrium, the more easily can the centre of gravity be brought forward. This fact needs no mathematical investigation, for we all know that if a person is bending forward, it is much easier to push him to the front, than if he was leaning back. As the area of the base of support depends to a great extent on the number of feet on the ground, it follows that when there is a reduction in the number of these feet, at each step, the instability of equilibrium, and conse- quently the speed, will be increased, as a rule. Thus, in the walk of the horse (p. 108) there are never less than two feet on the ground ; three as often as two ; and sometimes even four. In the canter (p. 116), we have respectively in three steps, a support of one foot, of two (or of three) feet, and of one foot. In the trot and amble, two feet 70 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. touch the ground during each step. From this we may conclude that the canter is a faster pace, naturally, than the trot or amble. I am aware that this is not the case with many horses which have been specially trained for match-trotting and match-pacing ; but that fact does not bear on the subject in question. Of all paces, the gallop is the one in which the equilibrium is most unstable : for during each stride of it, the centre of gravity is carried farther beyond the base of support (Fig. 167) than at any other pace. Besides, at each step in it, there are fewer feet on the ground, at the same time, than at any other pace. During continued movement, any addition to speed obtained by increased instability of equilibrium, necessitates increased muscular effort in maintaining the centre of gravity of the body at a suitable C B A E Fig. 44. — Resolution of forces in canter and gallop. height. In this case, the work falls chiefly on the muscles which straighten the fore legs (extensors of the shoulder and elbow joints, and flexors of the fetlock and pastern joints) of the horse, and varies according to the angles they make, at their respective moments of action, with a vertical line drawn through their points of support on the ground. Owing to the extreme complexity of the animal machine, no exact calculation can be made on this subject ; although the following rough statement will help to illustrate the principle under consideration. For 'the sake of simplicity, only the action of the leading fore leg, which is the chief factor in this question, will be taken into account. Let BAG (Fig. 44) represent this angle at the canter in Fig. 153 ; D A C, this angle at the gallop in Fig. 167 ; and let C B D be a line drawn parallel to the ground (A E). According to the "resolution of forces," the proportion between the work at the canter and the work at the gallop, in these cases, will be equal to the proportion between the respective lengths of the lines A B and A D ; the latter being longer than the former. Also, the more the limb is straightened out, the greater is the mechanical disadvantage at which its bony levers act. And, as the extent to which the fore leg can be straightened out, is EFFECT OF INSTABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM ON SPEED, ji not sufficient to raise the centre of gravity to the required height at fast paces ; extra work is required for the upward projection of the fore-hand, from the muscles which straighten the fore leg. Hence, the faster the pace, the greater will be the muscular expendi- ture of the fore limbs, as compared to the speed. Consequently, when a horse gallops fast, the muscles of his fore-hand tire much more quickly than those of his hind limbs. Agreeably to this fact, we find that when pedestrians and skaters respectively compete in short distance races, they bend their bodies much more forward, than when going a long journey. Also, when a horse begins to tire in a long distance race, like the Cesarewitch, his ordinary "level" style of "going" generally becomes changed more or less into an up-and- . down motion, which is caused by the muscles of his fore-hand being too fatigued to work in unison with those of his hind quarters. A reasonable deduction from the foregoing remarks, is that a saddle- horse, to be a stayer, should be light in front, especially as the presence of his rider causes a disproportionate amount of weight to be placed on his fore legs. It is evident that the chief advantage which is gained from the " crouching jockey's seat," as regards speed, is due to the fact that the forward position of the rider increases the instability of the equilibrium of the horse. As this seat puts extra work on the muscles of the fore-hand, it is not suitable for a long distance journey, or for jumping. The fact of a horse " puUing," naturally brings the weight forward, by means of the reins, and thus increases the instability of equilibrium. In the case of a saddle-horse travelling at a fast pace, the resist- ance of the rider's body to the wind decreases, to some extent, the instability of his animal's equilibrium. Hence, in this respect, speed is favoured by the crouching position, and is diminished by an erect one. As a somewhat parallel case, we find that a well-marked accelera- tion of speed on American trotting tracks has been obtained by dis- carding high sulkies for low ones (Fig. 60), and increasing the short- ness of the " hitch." In modern sulkies, the weight is brought forward and the resistance to the air is reduced as much as possible. In heavy draught, the stability of the horse's equilibrium is greatly increased, as a rule, by the resistance which the collar offers to forward movement, and consequently the muscles of his hind limbs usually become much more quickly tired, than those of his fore legs. As it is imperative that the body of an animal intended for speed should be as light as possible, provided he has sufficient bone and muscle to meet his requirements ; the preponderance of weight on the fore hand should be obtained by conformation, and not by any approach to " heaviness " in that part. 72 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Fatigue from the various Paces. — In comparing the fatigue undergone during certain paces, we must be guided by the consideration of the respective distances through which the centre of gravity of the body has to be moved. Let us first of all consider its vertical, and afterwards its horizontal, displacement out of the straight line of the direction in which it has to travel. In the walk and at all other paces in which there is no period of suspension (p. lOo), it is carried nearly parallel to the ground, with only a slight fall when each fore leg is taken up. At paces in which there is a period of suspension, the centre of gravity will have to be raised just as much as it will fall during that time. This fact is best marked in jumping ; for in making even a long leap, the centre of gravity will have to be raised a considerable height. Thus, when Howard, of Bradford, the famous jumper and sprinter, leaped over a full-sized billiard-table lengthwise, he was computed to have cleared a height of five feet four inches. Hence, animals like the antelope and cheetah, which adopt, when going at full speed, a leaping style of gallop (p. 142), can keep it up only for a short time. This fact is par- ticularly well marked in the case of the kangaroo. For the same reason, a horse can go a distance with more ease to himself at a slow trot (which has no period of suspension), than at the flying trot (p. 102) or gallop (p. 120), in both of which there is a period of suspension. Not only does the consideration of the comparative rise and fall of the centre of gravity give us an idea of the relative fatigue undergone during the various paces ; but it also furnishes us with a guide to judge the comparative ease with which different horses move at the same pace. Consequently, we may conclude that the more " level " a horse goes, whether at the fast trot, gallop, or other pace, the less will he fatigue himself : a fact which proves how thoroughly reasonable is the admir- ation every good judge has for a " level " style of movement — that is, one in which there is the least possible rise and fall of the fore-hand at each stride. I have purposely used the word " fore-hand " here. When noting whether the action of a horse is level or not, we are usually guided by the presence or absence of up-and-down motion of the fore- hand ; for the special' prominence of the head and neck will more or less rivet the attention of our eyes. Besides, the centre of gravity of a horse's body is nearer his fore legs than his hind ones. As soon as fast antelopes, like the Indian Black Buck and South African Springbok, get tired in their bounding gallop, they " settle down " to one resembhng that of the horse (Figs. 172 to igi). When the cheetah — which, as far as I have seen, galloj^s like the cat (Figs. 212 to 217), in a succession of leaps — becomes tired of that pace, he drops into a walk or trot. On pages 68 and 69, allusion has been made to the effects of lateral displacement of the centre of gravity in causing fatigue. MECHANISM OF THE FETLOCK JOINT. 73 Action of the Head and Neck in Locomotion. — During movement, the head and neck act as a balancing pole in changing the position of the centre of gravity from one side to the other, and in raising or depressing it. Certain muscles of the neck draw the fore limb forward and upward ; other muscles of the neck straighten out the head and neck, and a third group bend them. Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint. — As Lecoq explains, " the weight of the body, transmitted by the cannon-bone upon the upper articulating surface of the long pastern bone, is the resistance to be overcome. The fulcrum is the ground at the toe of the foot, and the power acts upon the sesamoid bones, which are at the back of the pastern ; the shortening of the flexor muscles being the cause of the straightening F ""^ w Fig. 45. — Mechanism of Fetlock Joint. of the angle formed by their tendons." The diagram given in Fig. 45 will show how this lever (one of the second order) acts. In it we see that the distance between the power and weight remains constant ; but their respective distances from the fulcrum vary according to the slope of the pastern and hoof, and according to the length from the fetlock to the toe. Hence (pp. 56 to 58), the shorter is the distance of the toe from the direction of the cannon-bone, or from that of the back-tendons, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the back-tendons will act ; and vice versa. On the other hand, we may see that the more is the mechanical gain, the worse will the fetlock act as a spring, which function is all important in saving the hmb (especially the fore one) from the injurious effects of concussion. It is evident that the distance of the weight (or power) from the fulcrum (F) is influenced by the length and slope of the pastern ; it being greatest when the pastern is long and obhque, and least when that part is short and upright. Also, increased growth of hoof, either at the toe or heel, will affect the slope in question, and the thickness of horn at the toe will, of course, influ- ence the length from the fetlock to the toe. As a practical point, we 74 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. should bear in mind that the toe (except in the treatment of some forms of disease) should always be kept low, and that shoes should be no thicker at the toes than what would be sufficient to enable them to stand " wear." Special allusion to this subject has been made in Veterinary Notes for Horse-Owners. Mechanism of the Hock Joint. — Figs. 46, 47, and 48 show the three actions of this joint as a lever. Fig. 46. —1st Order Fig. 48. — 3rd Order. Fig. 47. — 2nd Order. Levers ov the Hock. Besides flexion and extension, this joint has an outward motion, due to the outward and forward direction of the pulley formed by the astragalus. We find, contrary to what we might have expected from an inspection of this bone, that this oblique play of the hock joint does not affect the direction in which the hind foot is carried ; its object being, as explained by H. Bouley, to allow the stifle to clear the abdomen, when the hind foot is brought forward. 75 CHAPTER IX. MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT. Draught in the collar or breast -harness is, as explained by Colin, an act of pushing, and not of pulling. The only kind of draught I have ever heard of, which could be put under the latter heading, is that of making a horse draw by attaching the weight to his tail, like what farmers in some countries used to do long ago, when they wanted to plough ! Propulsion in draught, like in other forms of locomotion, is effected by placing a series of levers, bent on one another, between a fixed point and a movable one. In the locomotion of the body, the series of levers are those only of the limbs. The movable point, in the hind limb, is the portion of the pelvis against which the head of the thigh bone rests ; and in the fore extremity, the lower end of the humerus. In harness, on the contrary, the series of levers is that between the spot against which the foot rests and the centre of pressure on the inner surface of the collar, which, in this case, is the movable point. In Fig. 49, the line A B represents the direction of the propelhng force given by the hind leg which is on the ground ; and E B, that by the fore limb ; B being the assumed centre of pressure. The resultant of these two forces must pass somewhere between the points A and E, and through the point B. It is, however, impossible to fix its exact direction ; as we cannot determine the respective amounts of these two forces, and as the proportion they bear to each other continually varies. If two hind feet, as in Fig. 127, were engaged in pushing against the collar at the same time, the direction of their resultant would naturally pass between them and between the two points occupied by the respective centres of pressure on each side of the collar. From a practical point of view, we may assume that this centre of pressure, on each side, is on a level with that portion of the harness to which each respective trace is attached. This would place it somewhere between the middle and lower third of the bearing surface of the collar. The force applied to the collar by the animal, is obtained in two 7^ MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT. different ways : first, by the weight of the animal, and second, by the force of propulsion to which I have just alluded. The weight of the animal acts on the collar by reason of the centre of gravity being placed in front of the base of support (p. 60), the anterior limit of which is marked by the position of the toe of the fore foot that is on the ground. It is evident that the farther a perpendicular dropped from the centre of gravity falls in front of the base of support, the more effectively will the weight of the body act in propulsion. This forward translation of the centre of gravity with reference to the position of the base of support, is influenced, first, by the degree of slope which the fore leg makes with the ground immediately before it quits it, and before the other fore leg is brought down ; and second, by the lowering of the head and neck. It is manifest that horses with toe-pieces to their fore-shoes can, while retaining their foothold, bring the centre of gravity farther beyond the base of support, by the slope of the fore leg which rests on the ground, than they could do with flat shoes ; supposing, of course, that the surface of the ground was not abnormally smooth and hard, like wood or asphalte. From the foregoing considerations, and from argu- ments which will be submitted further on, we may draw the following deductions with respect to cart-horses that are required to exert their strength to the utmost. I. Bodily weight, especially in the fore-hand, is an advantage in draught ; for the greater it is, the more effective will be the push against the collar caused by the centre of gravity falling beyond the base of support. Agreeably to this fact, the experienced driver of a heavily- laden two-wheeled cart will endeavour to place a fair share of the burden on the animal's back, so that the horse may pull to the best advantage. The experiment of a man winning a single-handed " tug of war," against a stronger man than himself, by carrying another man on his back, is also an instance of this principle. The gain in power from increased weight on the fore-hand is well illustrated by the practice, which I have seen, of the driver of a one-horse cart mounting his animal and getting well forward on its back, when he finds that it is unable to pull its load up a hill. Bodily weight is of special use in draught on shppery roads, such as those of wood pavement and asphalte ; because, in such a case, the security of the foothold of a heavy horse would not be so much en- dangered as that of a lighter, though equally strong, animal. Also, the employment of bodily weight on a smooth and level road, would entail less strain and fatigue, than that of muscular propulsion. Hence, improvements in roads have been accompanied by increase in the weight of cart-horses. The question as to the relative proportions of the weight and strength of these animals cannot be decided with accuracy owing to the infinite variety of conditions which would have to be con- MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT. 77 sidered. We may, however, take for granted that the comparative weight which would be an advantage to a heavy draught-horse in a city Hke London, would be a decided drawback to the efficiency of a cart-horse that had to do his work on arable land, especially if it was rough, like on "ridge and furrow" ; because the raising of his weight at each step, would entail far greater muscular exertion, than if his labour was on a smooth road. Sanson {Traitc de Zootechnie) considers that about iioo Its. is the best weight for a horse of light draught, and that the heavy cart-horse should not weigh more than 1,760 lbs. {800 kilogr.) and not less than 1,540 lbs. (700 kilogr.). 2. The cart-horse ought to have a heavy neck as well as massive Fig. 49. — Mechanism of Draught. (From Colin's PJiysiologic Coinparcc.) shoulders. As a natural corollary to this proposition, which' infers the lowering of the head and neck, we must condemn the constant use of bearing reins with the class of horse which we are now considering. 3. The shoes of the horse should have toe-pieces when the ground is favourable to their employment. 4. The fore-hand should be light and the head carried high, when the horse, on account of the slippery nature of the ground, is unable to use his fore legs, except to a very slight degree, as propellers. Thus, the weight has to be kept almost entirely off the shafts of London hansom cab-horses, which would be rendered very liable to fall down on the greasy wood pavement and glass-Hke asphalte, if a fair proportion of the load were to be put on their backs. Not only is weight kept off their backs. 78 MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT. but as a rule it is so distributed as to cause the back-band to exert on the " girth-place " an upward pressure, which, naturally, will more or less aid in " lightening " the fore -hand. 5. The force of propulsion given by a hind limb is dependent on a series of levers which extend from the toe of the hind foot, along the bones of the hind leg, pelvis, spinal column, up to the centre of pressure on the inner side of the collar. It is manifest that the flatter this irregular line of levers is with reference to the line of propulsion from the toe of the hind foot to the collar, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the hind limb will act. Consequently, we may infer that the cart-horse should be long in the body, as compared to his height ; that he should be lower over the croup than he is at the withers ; and that he should not have a horizontal croup. We should not, how- ever, desire his hind-quarters to be so dropping as to cause him to be actually " goose-rumped " (Fig. 333). 6. It is a well-known mathematical fact that the most advantageous direction for a purely mechanical pull, such as that of a rope which is attached to a traction engine in movement, is one which makes an angle with the ground equal to the angle of friction. I may explain that if, for instance, 10° was the greatest slope of ground upon which a body could rest without sliding down, its angle of friction would be equal to 10°. From this law of mechanical traction, one is apt to wrongly infer that the best direction of the traces would be at an angle to the ground equal to the angle of friction. As Major Dwyer {Seats and Saddles) justly points out, a more useful effect "may be attained with traces which are so disposed as to enable the horse to exert his entire strength under a theoretically less favourable angle of traction than when the ease of the animal is sacrificed to a correct, but, in such a case, inapplicable mathematical principle. In a word, our contention is, that the angle of traction must be regulated with reference to the horse, and not to the carriage exclusively." Major Griffiths {The Artillerist's Mayiual, published many years ago) remarked that the best disposition of the traces in draught is when they are perpendicular to the collar, which very useful suggestion Major Dwyer greatly improved by saying that they should be perpendicular to the horse's shoulder blade. By accepting this thoroughly sound statement, and by bearing in mind the mechanical law of traction to which I have referred, we arrive at the important conclusion that the greater the angle of friction of the ground, the more sloping should the shoulders of cart-horses be. Hence, for work on arable land, we require a horse with more sloping shoulders than on smooth roads. 79 CHAPTER X. ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. Standing at Attention — Standing at Ease — Carriage of the Head and Neck. Standing at Attention. — When a well-shaped and sound horse stands at attention, if I may use the term^ he has his head and neck raised, ears pricked forward, the profile of the face at an angle of about 60° (Fig. 52) to the ground, and at about a right angle to the upper line of the neck (the crest) ; and the weight distributed in due proportion on all four limbs. If the hind feet be equally advanced, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock will, on the respective sides, about touch the point of the hock (Fig. 50). If one hind foot be placed in front of the other hind foot, the vertical line will, more or less, divide the interval between the points of the two hocks (Fig. 52). As the weight of a horse's head and neck is beyond the base of support formed on the ground by his feet ; he would stand more or less ''over" on his fore legs — that is, their direction would be downward and backward — if they were equally advanced, and if each of his hind legs were fairly '' well under him." When one fore leg is advanced more than its fellow, and when it is vertical, the animal will of course be somewhat '' over '"' on the other fore leg. French writers consider that when a horse stands with the weight properly distributed on all his limbs, a line dropped from each point of his buttock will coincide with the posterior edge of his hind leg, from the point of the hock to the fetlock ; and that the direction of the 8o ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. front legs will be vertical, as in Fig. 53. I have never seen a horse adopt this attitude (Fr. le placer). Fig. 54 is the nearest approach to it in a well-bred horse that I have been able to get in a photograph, of which this illustration is an exact copy. Many persons maintain that a well-shaped horse, no matter what his class may be, will, when he stands, have his hind legs " well under him," as in Fig. 50 ; such a position being regarded by them as a point of conformation, and not as an attitude. We can see the fallacy of this idea if we compare Fig. 50 with Fig. 51, both of which photographs were taken within five minutes of each other. In the former, Bendigo's* hind legs are well under him, but in the latter they are a little behind him. In judging the way a horse stands, we should consider the position of the fore legs, as well as that of the hind ones. Thus, in Fig. 50, the fore legs ''stand over"; and in Fig. 51, they are more or less vertical, owing to the fact that the hind feet are farther away from the fore ones than in the former case. Also, the position of the head and neck should be taken into account ; for the higher they are raised, the greater tendency will the horse have to bring his hind legs under him, so as to support the increased weight thrown on them. The zebra appears to have a larger proportion of weight ''behind," than any other member of the horse family, and consequently his hind legs are very well under him (pp. 310 and 311). The thorough-bred, on the contrary, has a relatively small proportion of weight behind (p. 53), and for that reason we cannot expect him to stand with his hind legs so well under him, as a cart-horse would do. * Bendigo (by Ben Baltle^Hasty Girl) was one of the best race-horses of the last century. As a 3 year-old, he won the Cambridgeshire (^^1,672), carrying 6 st. 10 lb. ; as a 5 year-old, the Lincolnshire Handicap (^1,724), 8 st. 5 lb., and the Hardwicke Stakes (;i^2,727), 9 St. 12 lb. ; as a 6 year-old, the Eclipse Stakes (/'io,ooo), 9 st. 7 lb. ; and as a 7 year-old, the Jubilee Stakes (^2,850), 9 st. 7 lb., and the Champion Stakes (^1,131), 9 St. STANDING AT ATTENTION. 8i iinWMiiKitiiMnni 'I II 1 1 ■ jflfaii P/wlo by] [Arthur Moore, Leicester. Fig. 50. — Mr. H. T. Barclay's Bendigo. Phoro ty] [Arthur Mooue, Leicester. Fig- 51- — Mr- H. T. Barclay's Bendigo. 82 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. In the front view of a horse which is standing in an unconstrained position, with his feet equally advanced and a little distance apart, the fore-arms will slightly converge, and the cannon-bones will be about parallel to each other (Fig. 55). A vertical and longitudinal plane passing through the centre of the knee and fetlock of each leg will cut the centre of the toe. In Fig. 56, the toes are turned in, and in Fig. 57 they are turned out. For further remarks on this subject see pages 295 to 297. The rear view of the horse in Fig. 58 illustrates the condition known as " cow-hocks," in which the points of the hocks are more or less turned in. Figs. 59 and 385 show symmetrically shaped hind legs, viewed from behind. Although I have devoted much careful study to this subject, I can apply no geometrical rules to determine, as some writers have tried to do, the correct shape of the legs from this aspect. I venture to think that it can be judged only by the trained eye of the observer, in de- ciding whether the hocks are correctly placed, or whether they are turned in, or turned out. Standing at Ease. — A sound horse will, almost always, when standing at ease, have both fore feet equally advanced, and with his weight chiefly on them ; for he can obtain this support in front, without muscular effort on his part (to which fact I shall presently again refer), and consequently without fatigue. His head will be lowered, and will be supported by the suspensory ligament of the neck, the action of which can also be utilised without fatigue (p. 39). As the hind hmbs are unprovided with an apparatus by which they can bear weight without fatigue ; their muscles have to obey the law which requires, for the health of muscular tissue, alternate periods of rest and work. Hence, one hind limb is usually rested by its joints being bent and its heel raised, while its fellow supports the weight of the hind-quarters. STANDING AT EASE. 83 When the working hind hmb becomes tired, the other one takes its turn of work ; and so on. When a couple of long -tailed horses are in the open at hberty, they will sometimes elect to stand head and tail together, so that each one by the action of its tail can keep flies off its own hind-quarters, and off the head, neck, and shoulders of its fellow. If, while standing still, horses are exposed to mclement Photo bij2 Fig. 52. — Standing at Attention. [M. H. H. weather, they will generally try to turn their hind-quarters towards the direction from which the rain or wind proceeds (p. 416). The fore limbs of a horse are furnished with special fibrous bands (ligaments), which, during rest, take the weight off the muscles that straighten the various joints. These ligaments are composed of hard, inelastic, fibrous tissue, and act simply as strong cords in connecting the 6* 84 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. parts together. The work they perform being entirely of a passive nature ; they do not get tired, hke muscles, the work of which is of an active form, and cannot be continued without suitable intervals of rest. As an instance of this " bracing " function of ligaments, we find that the fetlock is passively supported during rest (taken in a standing position) by an inelastic fibrous cord^ which goes behind the fetlock joint, and is attached by one end to the head of the cannon-bone, and by the other to the base of the pedal bone. Not only are the fore legs provided with these special ligaments, to prevent the limbs from " doubling up " ; but most of the muscles which straighten the legs during work, are composed of a large amount of ligamentous fibres. Such muscles, therefore, during their periods of rest, can assume to some extent the functions of ligaments. In fact, one powerful muscle in the fore leg of the dog is represented in the horse by a ligament (the suspensory). Besides, the muscles which straighten the fore limb are not single, but multiple muscles, one of which can take its turn at work, while its fellows rest. This mechanism enables the horse to sleep standing without extraneous support, and is clearly and exhaustively described in Colin' s Physiologie Compar^e. Carriage of the Head and Neck. — The attitude which the head and neck assume is determined by the following considerations : (i) For the horse to he able to see in the required direction. If we regard a horse that is standing at attention (Fig. 52), and is looking straight in front of him, we shall see, as a rule, that his neck is held in an easy position, being neither stretched out nor drawn back, and his head is placed so that the line of his face will make an angle of about 60° to the ground. We may, therefore, consider that the axis of each eye is at about that angle to the line of the face. In man, the angle is about 90°, the difference between the two being chiefly CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD AND NECK:, 85 one of brain capacity. In the horse, the occipital crest, which is the highest point of the animal's head, may be regarded as a continuation of his forehead. In man, owing to the bulging-out condition of the brain, it is the bony prominence just above the back of the neck. -A Fig. 53.— Le Placer. {After Gouhaiix and Barrier.) Fig. 54. — Standing at attention. When a horse wishes to take a good view of the ground in front of him, he will, by the adjustment of his neck, adopt a lofty carriage of the head, while keeping the line of the face at an angle of about 60° to the ground. If he requires to see an object which is on the ground and which is only a few yards in front of his 86 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. feet, he will bring the line of his face perpendicular, or nearly so, to the ground. Of course, the axes of the eyes can be altered to a greater or less extent, without the head being moved ; but the horse possesses such great mobility of head and neck that, when he is free, he will adjust his line of vision principally by the movement of these parts. It is therefore evident that if we want a horse, when riding or driving him, to have a good look at the ground over which he is about to go, we should allow him, or endeavour to induce him, to carry his head at an angle of about 60° to it. A more perpendicular carriage of the head would be permissible only for riding-school work, or for evolutions in which freedom of movement has, to some extent, to be sacrificed for obtaining thorough power of control. If the angle which the face makes with the ground be much less than 60°, the animal will not be able to see where he is going, as accurately as if his head was in its normal position. (2) To permit of free movement of the fore limbs. — My readers will remember that the shoulder-blade of the horse, on each side, is connected to the body by muscles which allow it to work backward and forward on the chest. As the shoulder-blade and humerus (Fig. 18) are drawn forward and upward by muscles of the neck ; it follows that the direction of this pull will be regulated, to a great extent, by the direction in which the horse carries his head. Hence, if we require " lofty " shoulder action, we must get him to carry his head comparatively high. If he carries it low, only a slight upward lift can be given to the shoulders. In such a case, to make up for want of shoulder action, the horse will probably increase his knee action, which is obtained by muscles that have no power to move the shoulders. Thus, we may see a horse which has free shoulder action and gallops with a straight knee, when he carries his head fairly high, go in a " round " and cramped style, if he be permitted or induced to CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD AND NECK. 87 Fig. 55. — Well-shaped fore legs. Fig. 56. — Turned-in toes. ■f"iS- 57- — Turaed-out toes. Fig. 58. — Turned-in hocks. Fig. 59- — Well-shaped hind legs. 8-8 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. carry his head low down. We may see by reference to the figures in Chapter XII., that in all paces, and especially in fast ones, in order to obtain good forward reach, it is requisite that the fore limb should be drawn upwards as well as forwards. The defect, as regards want of safety, in the fore feet not being lifted sufficiently off the ground by the play of the shoulder, may be compensated for by increased knee action, which, however, will have no effect in lengthening the stride ; but will, in causing loss of time in putting down the fore feet, tend to diminish the speed. The use of the curb bit has so often been found to injuriously affect the action of race-horses by, as a rule, making them carry their heads low down, and consequently to gallop " round," that it is very seldom used with these animals. Trainers of match-trotters and match-pacers employ an '' over-draw check-rein " (bearing-rein. Fig. 60) to improve the action of horses which do not carry their heads high enough, and which, on that account, have too low action. The bearing-rein is, in many cases, necessary for the attainment of that " ex- travagant " action which is greatly sought for among fashionable carriage horses : a fact which accounts for its retention in the stables of the rich, despite the adverse criticism that is being constantly directed against its use. As a rough guide to the direction of the neck (supposing it to be straight or only slightly bent), when the line of the face is at an angle of about 60° to the ground, I may say that, at ordinary paces, the upper part of the nostril should not be lower, or only slightly so, than the top of the withers. In the fast gallop, the horse will carry his head lower down than this, so as to bring his weight forward, and thus to increase his speed (p. 69). This difference in the carriage of the head will be evident, if we compare Figs. 138 to 146 with Figs. 156 to 171. A fairly high carriage of the head, with the face at the angle just mentioned, is a most desirable point CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD AND NECK. «9 in the cross-country horse, which requires to obtain a good view of the ground and obstacles in front of him, and to have free shoulder action ; in other words, to be " light in front," which implies that his hind legs are " well under him." If, on the contrary, we want a horse to rein-back (p. 129), we should make him lower his head and bring it perpendicular, or nearly so, to the ground, in order to put weight on his fore legs and hghten his hind ones. Those Fig. 60. — Star Pointer in Faber Sulky. of my readers who have studied high-school riding, will remember that, according to the teaching of Baucher, who introduced many valuable improvements in military equitation, the normal position of the head of the school horse was perpendicular to the ground ; and that the head was carried comparatively low. That admirable exponent of la haute ecole, James Fillis {Principes de Dressage), having wisely rejected, even in the most elaborate airs de manege, this artificial style, teaches that 90 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. the school-horse should carry his head high and the muzzle well advanced out of the perpendicular. If the head be carried too high ; forward reach will be proportionately sacrificed to upward shoulder action, with consequent loss of speed. Hence, hunters, animals that require to be clever over bad ground, such as pig-stickers and Colonial stock horses, and those in which showy action is sought, such as chargers, school-horses, and park-hacks, should carry their heads higher than animals in which speed is the chief consideration. The more the fore legs are lifted by the play of the shoulders, and not by the mere raising of the knees ; the safer, more brilliant, less fatiguing, and faster will the action be in every class of horse. The chief muscle which draws the fore limb (of each side) forward and upward, is attached by one end to the humerus and by the other to the top of the head. Other muscles that draw the shoulder-blade forward and upward, are attached to it and to the ligament of the neck, which stretches from the withers to the top of the head (p. 39). As muscles act best when their points of attachment are wide apart ; the horse, during rapid movement, regulates, under normal conditions, the amount of the extension of his neck, according to the speed at which he is going. In this case, the head and neck are the fixed point ; the fore limb, the movable one. As long, therefore, as the speed of any particular pace remains uniform, the length of the neck (measured roughly from withers to top of head; should continue unchanged. Consequently, when riding or driving, if we desire the horse to maintain a uniform rate of speed, we should keep a uniform tension on the reins (note, for instance, the fixed position of the hands of a capable lad from a racing stable, when he is riding a steady training-gallop), and should not " giv^e and take " with them. If the speed be increased, the hands, supposing their hold on the reins remains unaltered, should be advanced, as may be required ; if it be de- CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD AND NECK. gi creased, they should be drawn back. Thus, any alteration by the rider, of tension on the reins which might impede the legitimate movements of the neck, is avoided. As the joint which the head makes with the atlas (first vertebra of the neck) is situated some distance below the top of the head, it follows that if the muzzle be unduly stretched out, the occipital crest (top of the head) will be brought back, and the tension of the ligament of the neck lessened, with consequent decrease of power in the muscles which are attached to this ligament. The muscle which is at- tached to the humerus and top of the head, also would work to disadvantage, if the muzzle were stretched out to a greater extent than would bring the line of the face at a right angle with the direction of this muscle, which forms the upper border of the jugular groove. (3) To regulate the position of the Centre of Gravity. — The more the head is advanced to the front, the more unstable will be the equilibrium, and the greater will be the speed during progression (p. 69). Hence, the race- horse, when galloping at full speed, will bring his head forward as much as the other conditions which affect its carriage will allow him to do. The cart-horse, if he has good foot-hold and no bearing-rein, will also, when pulling a heavy load, lower his head and stretch it out, so as to bring the centre of gravity forward as much as possible. Here I assume that the ground is soft enough to allow him to " dig his toes " into it, or, if it be rough, that he is provided with toe-pieces on his front shoes. H, on the contrary, the roadway is slippery, like the London streets which are covered with asphalte or wood, the cart-horse in heavy draught, being afraid of falling down if he throws his weight into the collar, will try to keep the centre of gravity back by holding his head high, while trusting almost entirely to his hind legs to push the body forward. When a horse rears, halts suddenly, or reins-back in heavy draught (p. 130), he will raise his head and neck, so as to bring the centre of gravity back. Any one who has 92 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. ridden much " over a country/' will know the great use a horse makes of his head and neck for regulating the position of the centre of gravity when jumping, and especially when he makes a " mistake." (4) To enable the Mouth-piece of the Snaffle to act efficiently on the " bars " of the Mouth. — The " bars " of the mouth are those parts of the gums of the lower jaw which are bare of teeth, and which are situated between the back-teeth and the tushes of the horse or gelding, or the spots which they would occupy, were these canine teeth developed in the mare. As the " bars " are much more sensitive to pressure than the corners of the mouth ; we should, when using the snaffle, endeavour to make the horse carry his head so that he will not shift the mouth-piece off the former and on to the latter. The mouth-piece will, naturally, act best when the head is carried perpendicularly to the ground ; but it can also act efficiently if the hue of the face is not at a less angle to the ground than about 45°. The apparent anomaly of the mouth-piece of the snaffle not shpping off the '' bars " and on to the corners of the mouth in this case, may be explained by the fact that the well-broken horse, when being ridden or driven, keeps the joints of his lower jaw in a more or less relaxed condition, so that the " bars," as a rule, will make a greater angle with the ground than the hue of the face will do. When a horse which is ridden in a snaffle, is made to carry his head in a more or less perpendicular manner, he may, as a " defence," relax his jaw, with the object of letting the mouth-piece slip down in his mouth as much as possible, in order that a certain amount of the pull of the reins may be transferred from it to his poll, over which the crown-piece of the bridle passes. Any '' defence " which a horse makes by opening his mouth, may be counteracted by the use of a properly applied nose-band. 93 CHAPTER XL STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. Lying Down and Getting Up— -Rearing — Kicking. Lying Dowrn and Getting Up. — ^When a horse pre- pares to lie down, he wih bring all his feet well under his body, while resting his weight chiefly on his hind legs. After making a few tentative movements with his fore limbs, he will gently lower his fore-hand until his knees lightly touch the ground. He will then give his body a twist, and will roll over, and rest, partly on his side and partly on his breast-bone. Colin describes as follows the position of the horse when lying down. As a rule, if he is on his right side, for instance, the right fore leg will be under the chest, with its foot facing the inside of the left elbow. The other fore, equally bent, but clear of the body, will have its foot close to its own elbow, and there will be a space of about twelve inches between the two knees. The hind limbs will be bent up under the body, with the feet carried to the front. The near hind will be far removed from the side ; its hock will be on a line with the hip joint ; and its hoof, with the point of the hock. The neck will be raised, and the head will be inclined to the left side. Sometimes the animal rests his lower jaw on the ground. He may even, at certain moments, support his head on the flank or hock, which is a favourite position with cattle, buffalo and deer, when they have stopped ruminating, 94 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. and appear to want to go to sleep. They cannot, how- ever, long maintain this position. As the suspensory Ugament of the neck can support the weight of the head and neck without giving rise to the sensation of fatigue ; a horse can sleep comfortably on his side and breast-bone, and with his head turned to the opposite side. When a horse is very tired, or even when he feels secure from disturbance, he may sleep entirely on his side, with his cheek resting on the ground. On rare r *fT'^r ^k: *-'g. Photo by] [M. H. il. Fig. 6i. — Foal getting up off ground. occasions, a horse will repose lying down on his breast- bone, with his knees advanced and his heels more or less close to the points of his elbows. This position in shod horses is apt to give rise to " capped elbow," on ac- count of the heels of the shoe of the doubled-up fore leg pressing on the point of the elbow. It is not an easy position for a horse ; because the sharp keel of his breast- bone will be liable to be hurt by contact with the ground. It is, however, the natural sleeping position of horned cattle, which can rest at ease in this manner, because the keel of their breast-bone is broad and flat. In getting up, the horse straightens his fore-legs out to REARING. 95 the front (Fig. 6i), and with a strong effort places his fore feet on the ground and raises his fore-hand, so as to sit up hke a dog. With another effort he raises his hind- quarters and stands on all four feet. [J. Deltox, Paius. Fig. 62. — Horse Rearing. Rearing. — When a horse prepares to rear, he will get his hind feet well under him and will raise his head, so as to " lighten " his fore-hand, which he will lift off the ground by the straightening out of one or both fore legs, and by the action of his '' rearing muscles " (p. 67). He will then keep his fore legs bent at the knees and his head high (Fig. 62). . In guarding against rearing, the rider 96 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. should, therefore, lean well forward. If he wishes, by in- flicting punishment, to stop the horse from rearing, he had best hit the animal on one of the hind legs, so as to prevent him from fixing them on the ground, in order to " get up " ; but he should on no account strike him on the shoulders ; for doing so would tend to make him raise his fore-hand. We may break a horse of rearing by teaching him to rein-back in a " collected " manner (p. 129, et seq.). By doing this, we " lighten " the hind-quarters and accustom him to lift them and move them freely. In rearing, the horse usually keeps one hind foot advanced more than the other, and his hind feet more or less apart, so as to widen the base of support. Rearing is a particularly insecure and fatiguing attitude for a horse to maintain ; as the column of bones formed by the body and the hind legs has to be kept in position, at its joints (angles), by the exercise of muscular force. In a biped, like man, this column of bones can be brought into a nearly vertical position, so that its component parts can rest on each other, with but little muscular exertion to maintain them in that position. Owing to the large amount and continued nature of this muscular effort in rearing, there will be an appreciable backward and forward sway (caused by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the opposing muscles) at the various joints. This, added to the narrowness of the base of support (formed by the hind feet and the respective lines which join their toes and heels), will render the rearing position so insecure that, to support it, the horse will have to keep frequently changing it. The danger of faUing backwards which the animal incurs, if he gets too erect, will naturally help to deter him from trying to assume a comparatively vertical position. Hence, he has to keep the joints of his hind limbs more bent than he would have to do, if he was not exposed to this risk of falling backwards. The hocks are particularly liable to injury from KICKING. 97 rearing, owing to the great strain thrown on them when the animal assumes an upright position. Curbs, spavins and other enlargements are of frequent occurrence among circus horses which are trained to walk on their hind legs. Kicking. — The term " kick " is usually restricted to a blow given by one or both hind legs (Fig. 63). A horse Photo hy} [J. Deltox, Paris. Fig. 63. — Horse Kicking. is said to " strike out," when he makes a forward blow with one or both fore legs. We may regard both these movements as kicks. A horse can kick in three ways : (i) To the rear with one or both hind legs ; (2) to the front with a hind leg ; and (3) to the front with one or both fore legs. Unlike horned cattle, a horse is unable, without moving the body, to kick to one side, except to a slight extent, owing to the presence of a ligament (j)uhio-jemoral) which 7 98 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. connects the thigh bone to the pelvis, and which greatly restricts the side action of the limb. If a horse, there- fore, wants to kick a man who is standing a little awa}/ from its side, he will have to tnrn round to do so. For this reason, if a person wishes to stand in safety by the side of a horse's hind-quarters, as for instance when examining its hocks, he should get an assistant to stand on the same side, and to draw the head round to it a little, so that the animal will not be able to turn round to kick, if so inclined. If the horse be a vicious kicker, the advisability of getting the fore leg of the side at which one is standing, held or tied up, will be self-suggestive to any one who has had experience with horses. The forward kick with a hind leg (called a " cow kick ") has a good deal of range ; in fact a horse can, in this manner, hit a man who is standing at its shoulder. When striking out in front, the horse will generally do so, onlv with one foot : for the blow can be delivered with greater speed when the other fore foot is on the ground, than if both were off it. If he strikes out with both fore feet, he will do so with a quick, short effort ; or he will make a greater or less attempt at rearing, so as to bring his feet or legs on the top of the offending person or animal with the view of knocking it down. The governing idea, more or less developed, of thus overthrowing his enemy is, evidently, to kneel on him and to bite him. This mode of attack is seldom seen in its complete form, except in the case of entires, which are more prone to bite and strike out with both fore feet than are mares and geldings. Mules usually kick out behind with greater freedom than horses, but are not so much inchned to bite or to strike out in front. Mares, from sexual causes, are more inclined to kick with their hind legs, than are the male mem- bers of their species. Horses sometimes kick with a hind foot in a good- tempered way ; not for the purpose of inflicting pain, KICKING. 99 but merely to push the object of their attention out of the way, as we may occasionally see a mare do to her foal. Horses often kick in play without any vicious design. I am convinced that many apparently vicious kicks which miss their marks, are delivered, not with the desire of sending the blow ^Miome," but to warn the intruder against nearer approach. When a horse kicks out behind, he will put extra weight on his fore-hand, and, as a rule, will lower his head. When he cow-kicks or strikes out in front, he will raise his head and bring his weight back. In almost all cases, just before a horse kicks, he will draw back his ears, and more or less show " the white of his eyes." If the suspicious object be behind him, he will bring his head slightly round so as to see it, and will prepare for his attack by bending the fetlock and raising off the ground the heel of the hind leg of that side. A horse cannot kick with the hind leg upon which he is resting his weight ; for he has to transfer the weight to its fellow before he brings it into play. My readers will observe that I have used the word " slightly " with reference to the extent the animal turns his head when he gets ready to " lash out " ; for if he brings it round a good deal, he will be obliged to put more weight on the hind leg of the side to which he is looking, than on its fellow, and would consequentl}^ have a difficulty in using it. 7* lOO CHAPTER XII. EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Definitions — The Trot — The Amble — The Walk — The Canter — The Gallop — The Rein Back — Turning and Circling — Buck-jumping — Shying — Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces. There is no such thing as absolute uniformity in the paces of the horse. Definitions. — To simphfy explanation, we may, when speaking of the limbs, call the near (left) fore and near hind, the left pair ; the off (right) fore and off hind, the right pair ; the off fore and near hind, the right diagonals ; and the near fore and off hind, the lejt diagonals. The meaning of both fore and both hind is evident. We may use the word support to signify the fact that the weight of the body is borne by one or more limbs, as, for instance, left support, when only the left pair are on the ground ; and right diagonal support, when the right diagonals alone prevent the horse from falling. A stride is the distance from the foot-print of any one leg to the foot-print of the same leg, when it next comes to the ground ; or it is the action of the limbs while that distance is being covered. A step is the forward or backward movement of one foot ; or it is the distance one foot is removed from its fore or hind fellow. The term, period of suspension, will serve to designate THE TROT. lOI the time during which the animal is completely off the ground at any particular pace, or when jumping. Natural paces are those which the horse adopts of his own accord, without any teaching of man ; artificial paces, those which he performs only after special training. Time (as apphed to the rhythm of a pace) is the number of separate steps in each stride of that pace. Thus, the amble, in which the right pair and left pair move alter- ;"^!^r^ Fig. 64. — Beginning of left diagonal. Fig, 65. — -End of left diagonil. '^^^ Fig. 66. — Beginning of right diagonal. Fig. 67.^End of right diagonal. Ordinary Trot, nately, is a pace of two time ; and the walk, in which each limb moves separately, is a pace of four time. To prevent any chance of confusion, I shall limit, in this chapter, the meaning of the word pace to particular and distinct methods of progression, and shall not use it as a synonym for the word speed, or for the word amble, as Americans do. i The Trot. — We may select the trot to begin with, as it is the simplest of all ordinary paces. Although it is essentially a natural pace, some horses which have been I02 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. trained to amble, require a good deal of teaching to give up the amble, and to trot in true style. It consists of the alternate action, in progression, of the two diagonals, in each one of which the fore leg and hind leg move in the same manner. Thus, in Figs. 64 and 66, we have the left diagonal support and right diagonal support shown as the diagonal pairs of feet come alternately to the ground. Figs. 65 and 67 depict the position the hmbs occupy, just before the feet quit the ground. It is evident that the trot is a pace of two time. We may divide the trot into three kinds : (i) The short or slow trot, in which the prints of each respective hind foot do not reach as far forward as those of the fore foot of the same side ; and there is no period of sus- pension. (2) The ordinary trot (Figs. 64 to 67), in which the hind feet more or less cover the prints of the fore feet, or even go slightly beyond them, in which case there will be a brief period of suspension. (3) The flying or fast trot, in which there is a well-marked period of suspension between each stroke of the diagonals (Figs. 68 to 72) ; the movements represented being those of alighting, support, quitting, suspension, and alighting on the opposite diagonals. The trot is the least fatiguing pace to the horse, by which he can go a long distance continuously at a fair rate of speed ; because both fore and hind limbs, respectively, have the same amount of work to do ; the body can be more easily maintained in a state of equilibrium by a diagonal support than by a side support, as in the amble ; there is but little loss of power in keeping the centre of gravity (p. 53) level; and the pace is a tolerably fast one. It is more suitable for draught, than for saddle, because, in the first place, it is very fatiguing to the rider, especially if he bumps up and down a la militaire. Consequently, we find that men who are accustomed to go long distances on horse-back, as in the Colonies, almost always combine the canter and walk instead of adopting ^the trot. Al- THE TROT. 103 though rising in the stirrups will make this pace much more easy for the rider, it will not benefit the animal to the extent one might imagine ; for, strange to say, almost every horseman, when rising at the trot, invariably comes Fig. 68. — Beginning of right diagonal. Fig. 69. — Right diagonal. Fig. 70. — Right diagonal. Fig. 71.— Suspension. Fig. 72.— Left diagonal. Flying Trot. down on one particular pair of diagonals. Thus, some will put their weight only on the right diagonals ; others only on the left. When a rider rises in the stirrups, his weight is borne by only one pair of diagonals. As each pair has to do its own allotted work, it is nearly I04 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. as well to have both tired, as one fresh and the other fatigued. The chief advantage which rising in the stirrups has to the horse, is that the man who adopts it, conforms better to the movements of the animal than one who bumps up and down. Men who ride, might with advantage learn how to change their time of rising in the trot, so that, after having made one pair of diagonals bear their weight for a time, they might be able to change it on to the other pair. Ladies whose stirrup is on the near side, and who rise in the trot, almost always do so during the left diagonal support, and come down during the right diagonal support. As the weight at the trot is distributed between one hind and one fore leg, the trot (or, possibly, the amble) should be used, when prac- ticable, for going over hard ground, in preference to the canter, and still more so to the gallop. Figs. 73 to 92 show phases, from photographs, of the trot, from the left to the right diagonal support. The Amble, which is known in America as ^'pacing" (Fig. 98), is very seldom a natural gait among horses. Goubaux and Barrier tell us that some foals begin at the amble, and that they do not learn to trot until later, when they have acquired age and strength. Many American match trotters take to ambling, after they have become foot-sore from hard work at trotting. I learn from Pro- fessor Ewart that owing to the popularity of ambling in Iceland and consequent selection in breeding, the large ma- jority of Iceland ponies and many half-bred Iceland ponies are amblers from their birth, and that they do not trot. The amble is a pace of two time, and consists of the alternate movement, in progression, of the right and left (or left and right) pair of legs. In the " flying amble," which is depicted in Figs. 93 to 97, there is a period of suspension between each stroke ; but there is little or no period of suspension in the ordinary amble. The amble is a very easy pace for the rider, but is unpopular PHASES OF THE TROT. 105 Fig. 73.^ — Beginning of Left Diagonal. Fig. 74. — Left Diagonal. Fig. 75- — Left Diagonal. Fig. 76. — Left Diagonal. Fig- 77- — Left Diagonal. P^ig. 78. — Left Diagonal. Phases of a Moderately Fast Trot. P/wlograplis by] [Ottomar ANSCHtJTZ, BERLIN. io6 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Fig. 79. — Lefl Diagonal. Fig. 80 -End of Left Diagonal. Fig. 81. — Suspension. Fig. 82. — Beginning of KigiU Diagonal. Fig. 83. — Right Diagonal. Fig. 84. — Right Diagonal. I'irASKS OI- A MODKRATEI.Y FaST TrOT {(OlltilUlcd). Photoyraiihshij] [OTTOMAH ANSCniJTZ, liKIU.IN. PHASES OF THE TROT. 107 Fig. 85.— Right Diagonal. Fig. 86. — Right Diagonal. Fig. 87.— Right Diagon.al. Fig. 88. -Right Diagonal. Fig. 89.— Right Diagonal. Fig. 90.— End of Right Diagonal. Phases of a Moderately Fast Trot {contimced). Photographs hy'\ [OTTOMAR ANSCHiJTZ, BERLIN. io8 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. (why, I cannot tell) in England. The slow amble (the " tripple ") is the favourite pace among the Dutch farmers of South Africa. Baron de Curnieu (Lecons d'Hygime Hippique GcHi^rale) tells us that Napoleon I. was ac- customed to ride amblers during his campaigns, when he had to go long distances in a short time. If a horse takes readily to the amble, his rider will find it a comfortable method of travelling. The remarks I have made on page 102, et seq., with reference to the merits of trotting, apply equally well to ambling, with the exception that Fig. 91.— Suspension. Fig. 92.— Suspension. Phases of a Moderately Fast Trot (continued). Photographs hy'] [Ottojiah ANSCHtJTZ, BERLIN. the equilibrium of the animal's body is not maintained as easily in it as in the trot, which, consequently, is the less fatiguing pace to the horse. The amble is the natural pace of the camel. ^ The amble is a slightly faster pace than the trot ; the apparent cause being that in the former, the imprints of the fore and hind foot of each side are, more or less, in a line parallel to or coincident with the line of progression ; and consequently there is less lateral deviation than in the latter. For further remarks on this subject, see page 590. The Walk. — This is a movement of four time, THE WALK. 109 and is a pace in which all the limbs move, respectively, one after the other. If, for instance, the near fore leads, the sequence is : i. near fore (Fig. T02), 2. off hind (Vig. 104), 3. off fore (Fig. 106), 4. near hind (Fig. 109). If the near hind begins, it will be : i. near hind, 2. near fore, 3. off hind, 4. off fore. Each foot comes after the one which precedes it, at an interval of about half the time occupied in taking one step. The result of this is that we Fig. 93. — Beginning of Right Support. Fig. 94.— Middle of Right Support. F'g- 95- — End of Right Support. Fig. 96. — Suspension. Fig. 97. — Left Support. Fast or Flying Amble. have the following order of supports : i. right pair (Fig. loi), 2. right diagonals (Fig. 104), 3. left pair (Fig. 106), no EQUINE EOCOMOTION. 4. left diagonals (Fig. 109). As a rule, a horse begins the walk with a fore leg. We may divide this pace into : (i) The short stepping walk, in which the prints of the hind feet do not come as far forward as those of the fore feet of their respective sides. (2) The ordinary walk, in which they more or less cover them. (3) The long striding walk, in which they go clear in front of them. (4) The high stepping walk Photo by] ["TliK Uouskman," .368, DKAunOTlN St., CHICAGO. Fig. 98. — Direct Hall, diivcii by Mr. Goers, and pacing in a Frazier sulky. which is generally an artificial pace, and in which the feet are raised off the ground higher than usual. (5) The walk in heavy draught, which is a short stepping walk, and which has pecuharitics that I shall presently consider. Figs, no to 117 give an example of the ordinary walk ; for the hind feet cover, as nearly as possible, the prints of the fore feet of their respective sides, and there is no exaggerated knee action. The long striding walk is shown m Figs. 118 to 123. THE WALK. Ill Fig. 99. Fig. 100. ■V ^^SII9Hi 1 ^^m '^ m ^^^^^E...= Fit:. loi. P^ig. 102. Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Phases ok thk Ordinary Walk ok a IIic.ii Caste Arab. Photographs hy] [M. H. H. 112 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Fig. 105. Fig. 106. Fig. 107. Fig. 108. Fig. 109. Phases ok the Ordinary Walk of a High Caste Arab {continuea). Photogra-ph$ by] [M. H. H THE WALK, 113 Fig. no. — Left Support. Fig. III. — ^End of Left Support. Fig. 112. — Left Diagonal. Fig. 113. — End of Left Diagonal. — i\ Fig. 114. — Right Support. Fig. 115.— Right Support. Fig. 116. — End of Right Support Ordinary Walk. Fig. 117. — Right Diagonal. 8 114 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. As an example of the high stepping walk, we may take the action of Napoleon's horse in Meissonier's great picture, " 1814 " (Fig. 651). In the various forms of the walk— except in heavy draught on the level or up an ascent, or when going up Fig. 118. Fit 119. Fig. 120. Fig. 121. Fig. 122. Long Striding Walk. Fig. 123. an incline even without having to pull a heavy weight — the healthy horse brings the heel of the foot first on the ground, or the flat of the foot. When the heel precedes the toe in touching the ground, the interval is usually so THE WALK. 115 Fig. 126. Fig. 127. Fig. 128. Fig. 129. Fig. 130. Short Stepping Walk in Draught. ;* ii6 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. short that it is all but imperceptible. In horses suffering from certain diseases, especially laminitis (fever of the feet), this interval is so well marked as to be character- istic of the ailment. In heavy draught which taxes the pulling powers of the horse (Figs. 124 to 130), and particularly when going up a steep hill, the toe will be first brought down, as in Fig. 125. In Fig. 124, the right diagonals bear the weight of the horse. In Fig. 125 the near fore comes to their aid. There is a brief left support (Fig. 126). As the off fore is quitting the ground (Fig. 126), the off hind comes down, and continues its assistance while the weight becomes shifted on to the left diagonals (Fig. 128). After that, the weight falls on the right pair of limbs (Fig. 129), and again on the right diagonals (Fig. 130). In heavy draught, we see that during the side supports there are never less than three feet on the ground, and sometimes even four. In the diagonal support, however, the two limbs may be alone on the ground for a brief period, or only very slightly assisted by the other legs. From this we may conclude that, in slow work, a fore and a hind limb work better together when they are diagonals, than when they are on the same side. In the representations of the walk, as shown in Figs. 124 to 130, and in Figs. 118 to 123, dotted lines are used to mark the position of the toe of one of the fore feet (off fore), so as to compare it with that taken up by the toe of the hind foot of the same side. We accordingly see that in the long striding walk, the hind foot oversteps the print of the fore one, nearly as much as it fails to reach it in the walk during heavy draught. Figs. 99 to 109 give a series of the normal walk from photographs. The movements of the off (or near) limbs, in Figs. 99 to 103 correspond more or less accurately with those of the near (or off) limbs in, respectively. Figs. 104 to 108. The Canter. — The canter is, practically, a pace of THE CANTER. 1x7 i^i^. Fig. 131. Support on Off Hind (ist Time) Fig. 132. Fig. 133- Right Diagonal (2nd Time). Fig. 134 Fig- 135- Support on Near Fore (3rd Time). Fig. 136. Fig- 137- —Support on Off Hind (ist Time). Canter of Cart-horse without Suspension. ii8 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Fig. 138. Fig- 139- Fig. 140. Fig. 141. Fig. 142. Fig- 143- Fig. 144. Fig. 145- Canter with Suspension (Hand Gallop). THE CANTER. ^g three time, in which the footfalls are, for instance : (i) off hind (Figs. 131 and 138^ ; (2) off fore and near hind (Fig. 133), or off fore followed after a very short interval by the near hind (Fig. 139) ; and (3) near fore (Figs. 134 and 140), which may or may not be followed by a period of suspension before the horse again brings down his off hind (Figs. 136 and 146). The fore leg of the diagonal support may come down a httle before its hind fellow, as in Fig, 139. In the canter of the cart-horse shown in Figs. 131 to 137, there is no period of suspension. As an exceptional case, we sometimes find that the Fig. 146. Canter with Suspension (Hand Gallop) {coniinmd). canter of the riding school, when very short and greatly collected, is a pace of four time. In the canter, the fore leg which does not belong to the diagonal support is called the leading fore leg. If, as in Figs. 131 to 146, it be the near fore, the movement is said to be a canter to the left ; if the off fore, as in Figs. 147 to 155, a canter to the right; the reason being that at this pace, or at the gallop, the horse should lead with the leg of the side to which he is being turned or circled. If when leading with the off fore, for instance, he be turned to the left, he will be liable to cross his legs and fall. In the gallop or canter, a horse can cross a fore leg only with the leading leg. We may observe that the hind leg which, in due succession, alone supports the weight of the body, is on the side opposite to the leading 120 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. foro 1(\(^. Tn the cantor shown in Figs. 13T to ^ \y \\lii( li Willi or willioiil a period ol suspension, is usually ic- garck'cl as llic typiial canter (lie sn])ports arc tlic same as (he loollails. In (he one ])ortrayc(l in Figs. I3 canlcr shown in I'igs. i.j/ (o 155, which is a series, Iroiii plioto^ra|)lis, of an easy canter of a hif;h caste Arab, in which the near hind is on tlu' ground when the left diagonals come down (^iMg. J4()), and I hey are su[)])ortiug the body when the off 'fore rcacdies the ground (I'ig. 151). We see, in the canter, that (he leading lore has more work (o do (hail (he 11011 leailing lore leg. Jlence, if (his pace he long coulinned, (he horse will oflcn change the leading fore leg. The Gallop. This is a pace of four time, in which the feet follow one another in succession, with an interval of suspension hetween the coming down of the leading THE CANTER. 121 Fig. 147. Fig. 148. '-'^ ^ B^^K*-^!^^^^ t ' ■^' 1 ^\ :1BH|~^ ^ Al'ltr. I t;- 149- Fig. 150. Fig. 151. Fig. 152. Phases ov the Cantkk oi- a Ihcii ( 'asik Akah ; i)\v Iokk Leading. l'huloilitiph.s hij] [M. IT. H. 122 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. fore foot and that of the opposite hind foot (Figs. 163 to 171). If we compare that series with Figs. 131 to 137, and with Figs. 138 to 146, we shall see that, in the canter, the fore leg of the diagonal support comes to the ground at the same moment (Fig. 132) as, or slightly before (Fig. tig- 153- Fig- 154- Fig. 155- Phases of the Canter of a High Caste Arab; Off Fore Leading {con/iiiucd^. Plwtogruphs by] [M. U. H. 139), its hind fellow ; but, in the gallop, it comes after it (Figs. 158 to 160). We may note that this interval, in which consists the difference between the canter and gallop, is dependent on the extent of the forward reach of the non-leading fore leg. Hence we see that the canter merges imperceptibly into the gallop, and that the difference in these paces, in the same animal, is simply one of for- THE GALLOP. 123 Fig. 156. Fig. 157- Fig- 159- Fig. 160. Fig. 161. Fig. 162. Fig. 163. Phases of the Fast Gallop; Off Fore Leading. 124 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. s^^J>^\ Fig. 164. Fig. 165. Fig. 167. Fig. 168. Fig. 169. Fig. 170. Fig. 171. Phases ok jiie Fast Gallop ; Ori' Fore Leading (coiitiuned). THE COLLECTED GALLOP. 125 Fig. 172. Fig. 173- Fig. 174. Fig. 175- Fig. 176. Fig. 177. Phases of the " Collected" Gallop; Off Fore Leading. Photogi-aphs by'\ [Ottomar ANSCHtiTZ, BERLIN. 126 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Fig. 178. Fig. 179. Fig. 180. Fig. 181. Fig. 182. !*■'«• 1^3- Phases of the "Collected" Gam.oi' ; Off Fore Leading (continued). Photoijniphs hy'] [OrrOMAB AJfSCHttTZ, BERLIN, THE COLLECTED GALLOP. 127 Fig. 184. Fig. 185. Fig. 186. Fig. 187. Fig. 188. Fig. 189. Phases ov thk "Collected" Gallop; Ovv Fore Leading {contimied). Photographs hy] [OTTOMAR ANSCHUTZ, BERLIN. 128 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. ward reach of fore leg — that is, of speed. We may note that the intervals of time between each of these positions represented by Figs. 156 to 171 are all equal. We can see, starting with Fig. 156, that the near hind, off hind, near fore, and off fore (the leading fore leg) remain for nearly the same time on the ground. The leading fore, however, has to perform a longer period of support than any of the other three. It is also more extended when it touches the ground than is the non-leading fore leg, Fig. 190. t'ig- 191- Phases of the "Collected" Gallop; Off Fore Leading {continued). Photographs 6»] [OTTOMAR ANSCHUTZ, BERLIN-. as we shall note if we compare Fig. 163 with Fig. 160. Hence it is more hable than the other hmb to suffer from sprains of the suspensory hgament and check hgament {inferior carpal), both of which structures aid in sup- porting the fetlock joint. As regards the injurious effect of concussion, it would appear that the non-leading fore leg (Figs. 159 and 160), by reason of its coming to the ground at a moment when it is- wholly unsupported by the other fore hmb, would suffer more from concussion than the leading fore. Consequently, I venture to submit that, when the hgaments of the leading fore leg get sprained during the fast gallop, the cause is over-extension, and not the usually assigned one of concussion, or even of THE REIN-BACK. ' 129 sudden jerk. We may also see from Figs. 184 to 189, and from Figs. 152 to 154, how it happens that the back- tendons (especially the flexor perforans) of the leading fore, during a gallop or canter in " heavy " ground, are far more apt to become sprained than those of the non- leading fore leg ; for, immediately before the period of suspension, they have (on the contraction of their muscles) not only to help in raising the fore-hand by the straight- ening of the fetlock (Fig. 187), but have also to overcome the resistance which the soil offers to the withdrawal of the foot from its surface. The "collected" gallop is shown in Figs. 172 to 191. In the fast gallop, the horse has seldom more than two feet on the ground, and then only for a very brief period. In it, suspension is obtained more by "doubling up " the legs, than by raising the body off the ground. A horse galloping at speed often brings the toe of the advanced fore foot slightly in front of the end of the muzzle, even at a "collected" gallop (Fig. 180). The Rein-Back. — This movement to the rear may be executed at the walk or trot, and is performed in a reversed, though exactly similar, manner to the " short stepping walk," or short trot to the front. The so-called galap en arriere of the high school is not a canter. It is merely a series of short jumps to the rear. I wish to draw my readers' particular attention to the two different methods of backward propulsion adopted by the horse, when he makes this movement to the rear. (i) When he is at hberty, or when he reins back " col- lectedly " with a capable rider in the saddle, he lowers his head so as to put weight on the fore-hand, and pushes himself back by the alternate straightening out of his fore legs ; while the hind legs, being comparatively free of weight, are raised higher and with greater freedom than the front ones. It is evident that this high and light action of the hind limbs is as conducive to the safety 9 130 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. of the rein-back, as would be the same style of movement of the fore legs in paces of forward progression. (2) When a horse in harness tries to push a heavy weight to the rear, or when he " plants " his hind legs on the ground owing to unwillingness to rein-back or to unskilful handling by his rider or driver, he will make his effort or his ^' defence," as the case may be, by throwing the weight on his hind-quarters. In the event of the centre of gravity of the horse (and of the rider) falling to the rear of the base of support (p. 60) formed by his four feet, he will, if in saddle, have to make a hurried and consequently a low step to the rear with one hind foot, which may be followed by the other feet in a more or less disorganised and in- secure manner. If the hind feet fail to come quickly enough to the support of the centre of gravity, a fall will be the inevitable result. Besides the danger of this rein, or rather run, back, the fact of the hind limbs (which are far less suited to bearing weight than the fore ones) being surcharged with weight, will render them liable to become injured, and will make this movement to the rear far more fatiguing to the animal, than if it were executed in the manner first described. It behoves us, therefore, if we wish to rein-back a horse which we are riding, to adopt the safer and less tiring method. With this object in view, when we want to make a horse which we are riding, rein-back, we should keep our hands '' down," so as to allow him, or, if needed, to induce him, to lower his head and put weight on his fore-hand. We should avoid the practice, taught in Enghsh riding schools, of taking an equal pull on both reins ; for, if we do so, we shall adopt the best means to induce the animal to throw his centre of gravity to the rear, and to adopt the second method of the rein-back, which is objectionable in all cases, except in heavy draught. Instead of this " even feeling " on both reins, we may effect our purpose by, for instance, taking a stronger pull on the near rein, so as to bend the horse's head and neck more or less to the left, draw THE REIN-BACK. i^i back the right leg, and touch him with it on the side. The weight then, on account of the head being turned to the left, will be placed more on the near limbs than on the off ones. Consequently, when the off flank is touched by the drawn-back right foot, the animal will, as a rule, readily lift up the off hind foot from the ground, and, feeling the backward pull of the near rein, his natural impulse will be to take a step to the rear with his off hind, and, in order to preserve the previous distribution of weight, he will follow it with his near fore. When the rider has obtained this diagonal step (with the near fore and off hind) to' the rear, he can get the other diagonal step (with the off fore and near hind) by slackening the near rein, taking a pull with the off rein, drawing back the left foot, and touching the horse's left side with it ; and so on. As each step is obtained, the drawn-back leg of the rider should be brought forward. A straight direction to the rear is maintained by the pressure of the drawn-back leg^ whichever it may be at the time. We may see that the tendency of the well-broken horse, when reined back in this way, will be to adopt the diagonal movement (or trot) to the rear. Of all unhorsemanlike proceedings, the practice of " chucking " the animal in the mouth with the reins, to obtain the rein-back, is one of the worst ; for it will tend to make him, in his endeavour to escape the painful pressure of the bit (curb or snaffle), throw his weight to the rear and '' run back," according to the second method, which is dangerous from a riding point of view. Although the well ''collected" rein-back may be done at the walk or trot, the rein-back by the second method is never executed diagonally; for the weight is too unequaUy distributed to admit of the simultaneous action of an off fore and a near hind, and of a near fore and an off hind. The rein-back in light harness can of course be made in a similar manner to the rein-back in saddle. When the object of the rein-back is to push a great weight 132 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. to the rear, as in heavy draught, the horse will have to exert his powers in bringing his centre of gravity as far back as possible. Consequently, he ought to have his head well raised, and ought to get his hind feet under him as far as he can without slipping. In this he will be greatly assisted by having calkins on his hind shoes. Turning and Circling. — Circling is a uniform change of direction executed on a circle in a more or less continued manner. As the movements are nearly similar in both the turn and circle, there is no need to consider them separately. The horse's fore legs bear more weight than the hind ones, especially during movement and w^hen he is mounted; and are consequently the chief pivots upon which the turn is made. Also, the faster the turn, the greater is the proportion of weight which falls on the inside (near, if the turn is made to the left ; and off, if to the right) fore and inside hind leg ; because the horse has to lean inwards (Fig. 192), so as to counteract the displacing action of the centrifugal force. When mounted, the horse will have more difficulty in doing this, because the presence of the rider on his back, adds to the weight he has to carry, and raises its centre of gravity. Hence, the rider when turning, especially at the canter and gallop, should lean inwards, so as to help the horse in adjusting his centre of gravity. As the muscle^ which draws the fore limb forward, on each respective side, is attached at one end to the humerus, and at the other end to the top of the head and the first four neck vertebrse ; it follows that the position of the head regulates the direction in which the fore leg is drawn forward. The head and neck also play an important part as a balancing pole, in adjusting the position of the centre of gravity. In turning at the walk or trot (say, to the left), the first step to the left had best be taken with the left TURNING AND CIRCLING. 133 foot, SO as to increase the base of support, and to avoid the inconvenience of crossing the legs. As the leading fore leg, at the canter and gallop, has to sup- port the entire weight of the body for a compara- tively long period during each stride, and as it becomes much more extended to the front than the non-leading fore leg; the horse, in order to turn comfortably and safely at these paces, should lead with the inward Fig. 192. — Turning at Polo. fore leg. Thus, we see that the pony which is turning to the left in Fig. 193, is leading with his near fore; and the one which is turning to the right in Fig. 194, is leading with his off fore. If a horse leads with the out- ward leg when turning at the canter or gallop, he is very apt to cross his legs and fall. In order that the leading fore leg may have full forward reach when turning at these paces, the rider should avoid bringing the horse's head round to the inward side ; because, if he does this, 134 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. he will shorten the distance between the points of attach- ment of the muscle which draws the leading fore leg forward, and will thus curtail its action. As the indica- tion to turn, has, as a rule, to be given with the inward rein, it is always well for the rider to try to check any inward bending of the head or neck, by pressing the outward rein against the outward side of the neck^ as in Fig. 193. The chief value of the running martingale I'it"! I' "//J Fig. 193, — Nondescript Bending. [.iu>lAll :>K\\ ;\1A.S. consists in the fact that it prevents the outward rein, when employed in this manner, from going too high up on the neck of the horse. Buck-jumping is evidently an instinct which the wild ancestors of our present horses acquired, in order to rid themselves of the carnivorous enemies that pounced on their backs. Naturally, the longer a breed of horses BUCK-JUMPING. JD has been under the influence of domestication, the less inchned are its members to buck. I have ridden many bad buck- jumpers among horses which were bred .ASI^ Flivio by] Fig, 194. — Game Chicken Bending. [JuSlAH NEWilAN. in a more or less wild state in Australia, New Zealand, North and South America, South Africa and the Russian steppes ; but I have never known English, Irish, East 136 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. Indian or Arab horses buck. I remember that almost every ^' green" AustraHan horse which was imported into India forty years ago, was a buck-jumxper; but this vice has now become much rarer among Australasian horses, owing to their being reared under more civilised con- ditions. In describing this vice, I cannot do better than repeat what I have said about it in Riding and Hunting. The buck- jumper with the quickness of thought, throws his head between his fore legs (Fig. 195). At the same moment he arches his back, bounds in the air with his head and shoulders down, his fore legs thrust straight out to the front, and his hind legs gathered under him (Fig. 196). The difficulty in sitting him consists chiefly in the fact that the suddenness of the downward move- ment of his head is very apt to cause the rider to be pulled forward on to his neck, by means of the reins, and that the shock of the impact of the fore legs with the ground and the violent cant of the loins will, in such a case, generally complete the disconnection. The regular buck-jumper will buck forwards, to one side, or even backwards, until he dislodges his rider. Or, not content with this, he may go on until he breaks the girths, gets through the saddle, or tires himself out. When he succeeds in breaking the girths, he usually does so by getting the saddle on to his neck during his convulsive movements, and then, when he throws up his head, some- thing must go. No matter how strong a seat a man may have, he will be almost certain to part company with his mount, if in the first instance he makes the mistake of '^hanging" on to the reins. I can say from experience that when a horse bucks, the rider suddenly becomes aware that there is nothing in front of the pommel of the saddle except a sheer precipice, and feels himself jerked forward without having anything to hold on to. In the Colonies, a horse is said to ''pig-jump," when he bucks only forward ; but if he supplements that movement by the still more disconcerting action of bucking to one side or BUCK-JUMPING. U7 I' is- 195- — Texas Broncho Jiuck -jumping. I J^ Fig. X96. — Texas Broncho Bucl-:-juniping. 138 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. backwards, he can fairly claim the distinction of being able to buck-jump. The majority of buck-jumpers buck as soon as they are mounted ; but others do so, only when they are startled in some peculiar manner. For instance, f!) n 0 a Fig. 197. Ordinary Walk. m 0 0 (X ! I ^ Fig. 198. Long-striding Walk 0 h o n o 0 D n Fig. 199. Short Trot. n Fig. 200. Slow Trot. an Australian steeplechase mare which I owned and rode in India, invariably bucked, if, at any time, she heard the rustling of a letter or other piece of paper I happened to FOOTPRINTS OF THE HORSE DURING VARIOUS PACES. 139 take out of my pocket when on her back; but she never "played up" on other occasions. 0. 6 0 n fi- Fig. 201. Fast Trot. 0. 0 fl 0 n i-ft 0 0 n 0 Fig. 202. Slow Amble. A 0 n n o /D A 0 Fig. 203. Slow Canter. a A Fig. 204. Fast Gallop. Shying of the ordinary kind is an instinct common to many species of animals ; but some horses shy, by making a sudden bound to one side, the moment they see their cause of alarm, which, in a horse I owned, was any white I40 EQUINE LOCOMOTION. object. This very rare form of shying is probably inherited from wild ancestors. Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces. — In the study of the foot-prints of the horse we are struck with two notable facts : (i) The faster the pace^ the greater tendency has the hind foot to be placed beyond the fore foot of the same side. Here we have the influence of instability of equilibrium in increasing the speed (p. 69). (2) The faster the pace^ the nearer do the foot-prints of all four feet tend to come into the line of direction in which locomotion takes place. As Lenoble du Teil ex- presses it, the foot-prints of the race-horse at full speed resemble the marks that would be made by the spokes of a wheel which had no felloes. In this case, the line of the foot-prints will be more or less in the line of progression, and consequently the loss of propulsion from lateral devia- tion will be reduced to a minimum. This fact proves the undesirability, from a speed point of view, of any undue width between either the fore or hind legs (p. 68). In Figs. 197 to 204, for which I am indebted to Barrier and Lenoble du Teil, the left-hand dotted line of each diagram shows the direction of the prints of the near feet ; and the right one, those of the off feet. In Figs. 197 and 200 the prints of both fore feet are covered by those of the hind feet. In Fig. 203 the prints of the near fore foot are covered by those of the near hind foot. In these figures, only the succession of the foot-prints has been noted, but the lateral distances between the respective lines of direction of the near and off feet have not been marked. The length of stride in the canter is about 12 feet ; that of the full-speed gallop of the race-horse, about 24 feet. The stride of Dan Patch, the famous American pacer, when pacing at full speed, was found to measure 21 feet. 141 CHAPTER XIII. LEAPING. Definition of the Leap — Varieties of the Leap — Difference between the Horse's Leap and the Suspension of his Body during the Canter or Gallop — Manner in which a Horse takes off"— Period of Stride at which the Take Off is effected — Effect of Pace and Speed on the Leap — Clearing a Fence — Landing over a Jump — Influence of Blood in Jumping. Definition of the Leap. — The ordinary leap or jump is the projection of the body off the ground by means of the straightening of the hind hmbs, after the fore-hand has been raised. Varieties of the Leap. — We may divide the leap into the running jump and the standing jump ; and each of them into the high leap and long leap, which are differences merely of degree. Difference betiveen a Horse's Leap and the Suspension of his Body during the Canter or Gallop. — In the leap, the period of suspension takes place when the hind legs quit the ground ; in the canter or gallop, when the leading fore leg is raised (compare Figs. 224 to 228 and Figs. 234 to 237 with Figs. 153 to 155, and with Figs. 187 to 191). It is instructive to note that a definition founded on this difference is not of general application to other animals. In the gallop of the grey- hound, there is a period of suspension (Fig. 209) similar 142 LEAPING. to that of the horse's leap, as well as one (Fig. 206) like that in the horse's gallop. It seems that the former is longer than the latter in the full-speed gallop of the greyhound. I It appears that if this dog begins Fig. 205. Fig. 206. Fig. 207. Fig. 20S. Fig. 209. Fig. 210. Fig. 211. Gallop of the Greyhound, showing Two Periods of Suspension. 1 ^^ ^^■w.-.'?^ Fig. 212. ^"■ 5 ^: />;;«*> Fig. 213. Fig. 214. «Sw _..-r' — ~^>-». ,.j ,.,»- 4 ^ - w ,.^-*^ Fig. 215. Fig. 216. Fig. 217. Gallop of the Cat, showing One Period of Suspension. his stride on one fore leg, the right for instance (Fig. 205), he^will after his two periods of suspension (Figs. 206 and 209) " take off " from the opposite fore leg, the left (Fig. 211) in this case. If this be true, his stride (counting it MANNER IN WHICH A HORSE TAKES OFF. 143 as the interval between the supports of the same leading fore leg) will include four periods of suspension. In the gallop of the cat (Figs. 212 to 217), and also in that of the tiger, panther, and cheetah, the leaping form of suspen- sion appears to be the only one present. Unfortunately I have not had an opportunity of observing the paces of other large felines. The Indian black buck and the South African springbok, which are two remarkably fast kinds of antelope, generally begin their gallop by a series Fig. 218. Fig. 219. Ficr. 220. Ficr. 221. Fig. 222. Gallop of the Heavy Dog. of leaps, when suddenly startled. The gallop of the mastiff (which is a comparatively slow dog), depicted by Figs. 218 to 223, resembles that of the horse. We may note that the longer the period of suspension, the faster and more fatiguing, as a rule, will be the gallop. Figs. 224 to 228 show photographs of the leap from taking off to landing. Manner in wrhich a Horse takes off. — In the canter or gallop, the animal makes his preparation when he supports his body on his leading fore leg (Fig. 229), by straightening which (and especially its fetlock joint) he raises his fore-hand. At the same time, he brings one hind leg down (generally that on the same 144 LEAPING. Fig. 224. Fig. 225. Fig. 226. Phases ok the Leat. Photoffrapfis by] [M. H. H. MANNER IN WHICH A HORSE TAKES OFF. 145 side as the leading fore), followed by the other hind (Figs. 230 and 231), and, by straightening them out (Fig. 234), projects the body upward and forward (Fig. 235). There is, practically, no period of suspension (Figs. 230 and 231) Fig. 227. Fig. 228. Phases of the Leap [continued). Photographs byl [M. H. H. between the removal from the ground of the fore leg that supported the weight, and the putting down of the hind leg which first comes on the ground. In Figs. 243, 244 and 245, we see how a horse ''takes off," by straightening the joints of his hind legs. 10 146 LEAPING. Fig. 229. Fig. 230. Fig. 231. Fig. 232. I'ig- 233- Fig. 234. Fig- 235. TllR HOKSK'S Leai'. Fig. 236. MANNER IN WHICH A HORSE TAKES OFF. 147 From the halt, the horse prepares to leap by making a rear (p. 95), and projects himself forwards and up- wards when he has raised his fore-hand sufficiently high. Fig- 237 • Fig. 238. _--. .-r.. Fig. 239. Fig. 240. Fig. 241. TiiF, Horse's Leai- (ro/i/i/ti/cd). Fig. 242. From the walk, trot, or amble, he takes off from either fore leg, and brings the hind legs under the body as may be required. Period of Stride at which the Take Off is Effected. — In the running leap from the canter or 10 * 148 LEAPING. gallop, we may regard the putting down of the leading fore leg (Fig. 229) as the commencement of the take off ; for, at that instant, the character of the pace is changed, and the " take off " by the hind legs is made close to the foot-print of that leg. We therefore see that during the stride of, say, from four to seven yards in length, I'hutu hij] , Fig. 243.— Taking Off. [K. E. Han, Czakski selo. there is only one moment at which the " take off " can be executed. Hence, if a horse does not regulate the length of his stride when coming up to a fence, he may easily make a mistake. Let us suppose that, while taking a stride of five yards, he brings down his leading fore leg three yards short of the proper spot at which he ought to take off ; he will then have to jump three yards " bigger," or chance an accident by taking off two yards EFFECT OF PACE AND SPEED ON THE LEAP. 149 too near. The longer the stride, the greater wiU be the tendency to this error. Consequently, other things being equal, a short-striding horse will be safer over a " cramped " country than a long-striding one. Also, we may say that no horse merits the title of " a safe conveyance/' unless, when coming up to a jump, he accurately regulates the Photo by] .... C^- ^- ^• Fig. 244. — Cloister and Horizon jumping open ditch at Sandown Parlv. length of his stride, and " puts a short stride in," when required. In the trot or amble, the putting down of the fore foot which is the last to quit the ground, may be looked upon as the beginning of the take off. Effect of Pace and Speed on the Leap. — The running jump is usually executed at the canter or gallop. ISO LEAPING. A few horses can leap (especially height) cleverly from the trot, which is a useful accomplishment in a hunter ; for it may ^enable him, when in a difficult position (as when jumping out of a lane), to utilise a "run " which would be too short for the longer stride of the canter or gallop. Besides, at these paces there is only one period of the stride at which the animal can take off (pp. 148 and 149) ; but in the trot there are two such periods, namely, when the respective diagonals come to the ground. A horse, however, cannot jump so freely and " big " from the trot as from the canter or gallop, in each stride of which, the hind legs are brought nearly together under the horse's body (Figs. 153 and 187), ready, if need be, to change the pace into the leap (Fig. 229). In the trot, each hind limb moves harmoniously with its diagonal fore leg ; but in the opposite direction to its hind fellow. In examining the various kinds of the leap of the horse, we must remember that he has a long distance (that from his hocks or buttocks to his muzzle) of body to carry over a fence, independently of raising it to a sufficient height ; hence his high jump partakes much more of the long jump than the high jump of a man, whose body is carried more vertically than horizontally. For this reason, it is more essential for a horse than for a man to " get up " a fair amount of speed, in order to jump height well. The speed at which a horse goes at a jump (supposing that it does not prevent him from " collecting " himself properly), influences 'the width he can clear ; because (as we have seen on p. 64) the force by which he is projected forward into the air is equal to the force of propulsion derived from his limbs, plus the impetus due to the speed at whichjhe is going. The greater this impetus, the smaller will be the " angle of projection " at which the centre of gravity of the body is propelled forward. We may, with approximate accuracy, deline the " angle of projection," as the angle which a line passing EFFECT OF PACE AND SPEED ON THE LEAP. 151 through the centre of gravity and a point midway between the prints of the two hind feet, makes with the horizontal plane, at the moment when the body leaves the ground. Looking at the subject from a hasty point of view, persons who have not had practical experience, might come to the conclusion that a horse would jump height as well when going fast as when going slow, and that the Photo by] [C. H. Harris, Waipukurau, N.Z. Fig. 245. — New Zealand Horse, Marengo, jumping wire, and ridden by Mr. J. W. Harding. only difference is, in the former case, that the animal would be obliged to take off further from the fence than in the latter. This supposition, however, does not hold good ; for the faster the pace, the more weight is thrown on the fore hand, and the greater difficulty will the leading fore leg have in raising the fore-hand off the ground. Hence, even without the valuable experience 152 LEAPING. of the hunting field and steeplechase course, we may accept the truth of the old saying that we should ride slow at " timber." Also, I am inclined to think that a horse will not clear as great a width when taking a water jump, if he is sent at his topmost speed at it, as he would do, were his rate of going slightly moderated, so as to enable him to raise his fore - hand sufficiently off the ground, in order to obtain the angle of projection which will enable him to cover the maximum distance. Clearing a Fence. — It is evident that the more a horse, in the leap, brings his hind feet forward as com- pared to the position of the prints of the fore feet, the greater will be the angle at which he can, at the speed he is going, project his body upward. Also, the more he raises his head, the more will he, by bringing back the centre of gravity, increase its angle of projection. Besides, as the forward and upward movements of the fore limbs depend on the action of the muscles of the neck, the direction in which the fore legs will be raised, will naturally depend on that of the neck. A horse, therefore, when approaching a fence which will tax his powers to clear, should regulate his speed, so that the impetus obtained from it may be in due proportion to the propulsion derived from the limbs ; should bring his hind feet well under his body ; and should hold his head high. I am here supposing that the animal takes off at the correct distance from the obstacle. These actions constitute, as regards the horse, what is popularly and somewhat vaguely called " collecting " himself. We may note that although, when preparing to leap, the hind legs are brought down on the ground in a straightened-out position (Fig. 231), and leave it in the same attitude (Fig. 234) ; they are somewhat bent at the hocks and stifles (Fig. 233) at a time intermediate to these two moments. Hence, we see from these drawings that the propulsion from the hind legs in the leap CLEARING A FENCE. 153 is due to their being suddenly straightened out, in which action, the fetlock joint also plays an important part. As the ability to clear height depends greatly on the power of raising the fore-hand ; the rider should refrain from leaning forward when the horse is rising at an obstacle. He should, on the contrary, lean more or less I'lioto by] [C. H. Harris, Waipukukau, N.Z. Fig. 246. — New Zealand Mare, Javlina, jumping wire, and ridden by Mr. A. M. Harmer. back at this moment (Fig. 224), so as not to put any avoid- able weight on the fore-hand. In almost all cases of the well-executed high jump, the fore legs are bent up together and the hind ones fully straightened out at the moment of taking off (Fig. 243"). The fore legs will be kept more or less in this position till the fence is cleared. If the obstacle is " stiff " and the horse hits it with his knee or fore-arm, he will probably fall ; but if any part of the leg below the knee strikes it, he will generally get over all right, or with 154 LEAPING. a " peck " at most. Hence^ a clever horse will try to avoid an accident by raising his knees well out of harm's way. Another danger consists in the horse catching the fence with his hind legs, which he will best avoid by bending them as much as possible at the stifles and hocks (Fig. 246). Consequently, a clever jumper, as soon as his hind legs quit the ground when taking off, will tuck them under him as if they were on springs Photo hij] [The Gkesham studio, adelaimk, s. au^thaeia. Fig. 247. — Mr. B. White's Australian hunter, Silver. suddenly let go, after having been drawn out. A slovenly fencer, on the contrary, is liable to drag his hind legs after him, at the imminent risk of catching them in the fence and falling. In a high jump, the animal should keep his hind legs well bent until he is clear of the obstacle (Fig. 248), so that, if need be, as might occur in the case of an unexpected wide drain being met with at the landing side, he may be able LANDING OVER A JUMP. 155 to strike the landing side of the fence with his hind feet^ and thus give himself a fresh forward impulse. When a horse is suspended in the air during a leap, he may move his limbs or retain them in one position, according to what he feels to be most conducive to his safety. Phvto l»j] [C. H. Harris, Waipokurau, N.Z. Fig. 248. — New Zealand Horse, Marengo, jumping wire, and ridden by Mr. J. W. Harding. Landing over a Jump. — The prettiest style, and safest manner, of landing in the leap, is for the two fore legs to be kept straightened out and com- paratively close together until they are near the ground, when one of them comes down, and is followed by the other (Figs. 249, 250 and 251), which is placed a little distance in front of it. This method of landing may give the impression to the observer that the horse comes down on both fore feet at the same time. The plan of landing with the second fore leg considerably 156 LEAPING. bent, is not so safe as that of keeping it straight ; for in the event of any falter being made by the supporting fore leg, the other fore leg will be better prepared to save the horse from a fall, if at that moment it be straightened out, and not bent. It is evident that, for safety, the knee of the leg upon which the animal lands, should be as straight as possible ; Fig. 249. Fig. 250. "• TjiJgTJIWf^v, ■''' ^^'^^KMjJgJaKyp^.Ttf Fig. 251. Landing. for if the knee " gives," the horse will almost certainly fall. Hence, we should regard the condition of being ** over at the knees " (p. 280) as a grave defect in the jumper, especially if he be required to go fast. As a rule, when landing over a jump, the hind foot which first comes down, has been made way for by the fore foot of the same side, somewhat beyond the print LANDING OVER A JUMP. 157 of which it is placed. The other hind foot and the other fore foot act in a similar manner. We may see from Figs. 238 to 242, that a horse " gets quickly away from a jump " by raising the fore-hand, which is phshed by the straightening out of the fore hmbs accom- The \/, Fig. 252. Fig. 253. Fig. 254. Getting away after Landing. Photogruphs hyl [M. H. H. rider should, therefore, avoid throwing any undue weight on the fore hand at this moment. It sometimes happens that a horse " over-reaches " (strikes a fore leg with a hind foot) when landing over a jump, on account of the rider being jerked on to the animal's neck ; the injured fore leg having been prevented from getting out of the way 158 LEAPING. of its hind fellow by the surcharge of the fore-hand. The heavier the fore-hand, other things being equal, the farther forward, when landing over a jump, will the hind feet be carried as compared to the fore feet ; and vice versa. Hence, the faster the pace, the greater will be the tendency to over-reach. This is especially the case in jumping water, at which, not only is the speed as a rule high, but the ground on landing is often soft and " holding " from the infiltration of moisture. It is evident that the " deeper " is the ground, the more difficult it will be for a horse to extricate his fore feet out of it, in time to make way for his hind feet. Hence the advisability, in such cases, of leaning well back in the saddle. Figs. 252, 253, and 254 show consecutive movements of the horse after landing over a jump. A horse should not land with his head and neck bent, as might be caused by the action of a severe bit which he is afraid to " face " ; for when the neck is bent, the muscles which draw the fore legs forward and enable them to reach well to the front (p. 43), will be more or less thrown out of action. Therefore, the rider ought to give the horse plenty of rein on landing, and should try to avoid bringing his weight forward. As an interesting point in the action of a severe bit in leaping, I may mention that if we observe a horse that is being ridden up to a high jump in a bit which he is afraid to " face," he will land, in the event of his clearing the obstacle, more or less on all four legs at the same time, in his endeavour to save his mouth from any sudden " job," by keeping the weight as much as he can off his fore-hand. He may act in the same way, even with a snaffle, if a short running martingale be used. The two " defences " which a horse generally uses against a severe bit, are to poke his nose up in the air, and to draw his chin in towards his chest, and thereby arch his neck. Many persons, against the evidence of photography, assert that a clever jumper will generally land first on his LANDING OVER A JUMP. 159 hind legs, and will then (so they say) be in the best position to " get away " quickly. They quite forget (or perhaps do not know) that the hind limbs of a horse are unfitted to stand the violent shock which would be transmitted through them, if they had to bear the weight of the body on landing. These limbs are such poor weight-bearers, that a horse, as a rule, has Photo Vy] [THE GRESHAM STODIO, AUELAIDK, S. AUSTRALIA. Fig. 255. — Australian horse jumping. great difficulty in walking even a few yards on his hind legs. Almost all circus horses which have to perform this trick, throw out, after a short time, curbs, spavins and thoroughpins of amazing size. What a state the hocks of a hunter or chaser would be in, if he had always to land first on his hind legs ! The fore limbs, on the contrary, being attached to the body only by muscles, are singularly weU adapted to support shock, hke that of landing over a fence. Besides, if a horse, which, like all other animals, is obliged to " take off " i6o LEAPING. from his hind legs, were, also, to land on them, he would lose all the advantage which the forward reach of his fore legs gives him. As we have already seen, a horse in the gallop, after the period of suspension, lands on a hind leg ; but in the leap, he lands on a fore leg. When a horse lands on both fore feet nearly at the same time (Fig. 255), he will jump more or less ''sticky," which many animals are prompted to do, by having to draw in their heads on landing, so as to save their lower jaw from the painful pressure of the curb. In a well-executed leap, the fact of the horse landing on one fore leg and then on the other, lengthens the base of support, and thus increases the stability. The hind legs coming down in the same manner enables the horse to at once take up the gaUop, which is in four periods, without loss of time (Fig. 242). The safest way for a man, on the contrary, to alight is on both feet kept together, with the knees somewhat flexed (Fig. 41), in order to break the shock of concussion ; for his body is placed vertically, and not horizontally, as is the case with the horse. In drawing any comparison of this kind, we must remember that our legs are attached to the trunk by bony union, at our hip joints, and not, as in the fore legs of the horse, by muscles which act as springs in nullifying any injurious effect from impact with the ground. Again, in the horse, although the knees must be kept straight, on landing, in order to insure stabihty ; the fetlock, elbow and shoulder joints act as springs. As 'man is a plantigrade animal (one that walks on his hocks ; p. 38), he must utilise the " play " of the knee joints, with which to break the force of con- cussion, when he lands on the ground with any great force. If, in such a case, the knees be kept straight, the shock will fall in its entirety on the pelvis, at the hip joints, and may be transmitted with very serious effect to the spinal cord. Men who practise hurdle-racing on foot (Fig. 256), ahght on one foot, and then bound off LANDING OVER A JUMP. i6i on to the other ; as their great object is to lose no time in getting away from their fences, which, being compara- tively low, do not greatly affect the athlete's stability. We may see from the foregoing considerations, that for safety and quickness in " getting away " after a leap, it is essential for the fore legs to be removed out of the way of the hind feet, and for the fore-hand, which was previously depressed by the weight of the body falling on it (as in Fig. 238), to be raised by the straightening of the fore legs (Figs. 239 to 242). These two actions Fig. 256.— Mr. G. R. Gamier winning 120 yards hurdle race. have of course to be performed with speed and precision. Hence, it is necessary for the horse to see where he is going to place his feet on landing ; so that he may be prepared for the required movements of the Hmbs. If he be prevented from knowing when his feet will come down on the ground, there will be loss of time in calling the muscles of the limbs into action, and the probabihty of an accident will be greatly increased. A common way some inexpert riders have of making a horse, when II i62 LEAPING. jumping, fall or over-reach in this manner, is to '^ throw up their hands," and thus cause the animal to unduly raise and extend his head, which he does with the object of " saving " his mouth ; the result being that the horse cannot accurately see where he is going to put his feet. The rider, on the contrary, should keep his hands low and should give his mount plenty of rein, so as not to interfere with the animal's movements when landing. Influence of Blood in Jumping. — Seeing the manner in which the rate of speed influences the extent of the long jump, we may reasonably conclude that a fast galloper, other things being equal, would jump a greater width than a slow horse. The possession of great galloping speed, however, would not, of itself, materially assist the high jumper. I regret to say that I have no exact data to go on ; but my own experience leads me to conclude that the majority of big water-jumpers will be found among well-bred horses. As the height or distance over which the body is propelled by the limbs, depends on the speed at which they are straightened out ; we shall find that a horse which is quick in his movements, other things being equal, will jump higher and broader than another which is slower. For this reason, the thorough-bred, properly selected and trained, will make the best of all jumpers, over height as well as over length. i63 CHAPTER XIV. NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. That distinguished French savant, M. Marey, pubHshed in 1878 his researches on the paces of the horse. He carried them out by means of a registering apparatus somewhat similar to the one, the sphygmo- graph, used by doctors for recording the movements of the pulse. The machine consisted of a cylinder which was made to revolve by clock- work. Attached to it were four pointed levers that were arranged so as, when pressed upon, to trace lines on a sheet of blackened paper. Each of these levers was provided with an india-rubber tube, which communicated with a rubber ball filled with air and fixed on the ground surface of one of the animal's feet. These levers and their connections were made so that, when the horse during movement put a foot on the ground, the rubber ball attached to that particular foot would be compressed, and the air rushing into the tube would raise the lever and bring its point against the sheet of blackened paper. When the animal lifted its foot from the ground, the air would go back into the ball, and allow the point of the lever to be taken off the surface of the paper. As, while this was being done, the cyHnder revolved at a uniform rate of speed, it follows that the line traced by each lever point would be a record of the duration of the contact of the foot with the ground, and that the intervals between two such contacts would be a measure of the time the foot was suspended in the air. By this means, Marey investigated the nature of the paces of the horse. He also devised the following very ingenious method of representing them on paper. If we wish to express on paper the running pace of a man, we may do so by making a scale with rectangles, which, for the sake of conveni- ence, we may use instead of Marey's lines. Thus, if the time of contact be about equal to that of suspension, Fig. 257 will express the nature of the pace. To render this figure more graphic, plain rectangles have been used to mark the supports of the left foot ; and shaded ones, those of the right foot. If we desire to represent the ordinary walk of a man in the same manner, we shall be confronted with the difficulty that, 1 1* i64 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. Fig. 257.— Run of Man (Figs. 30, 31 and 32). Fig. 258.— Run of Man (Figs. 30, 31 and 32). Fig. 259. — Walls, of Man (Figs. 25, 26 and 27). Fig. 260. — Slow Trot without Suspension. Fig. 261. — Ordinary Trot with Suspension (Figs. 64 and 67). Fig. 262.— Fast Trot (Figs. 68 to 72). Fig. 263. — Slow Anil lie without Suspension. NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 165 Fig. 264. — Flying Amble (Figs. 93 to 97) Fig. 265. — Typical Walk. Fig. 266. — Ordinary Walk (Figs, no to 117). Fig. 267. — Slow Walk in Draught (Figs. 124 to 130). Fig. 268. — Typical Canter with Suspension. Fig. 269. — Typical Canter without Suspension (Figs. 131 to 137).' 1 66 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. as both feet are on the ground at certain periods of this pace, the rect- angles would naturally have to overlap each other. We may, how- ever, get over it by placing the diagrammatic prints of, say, the left foot on a line above those of the right foot. In this manner, in order to represent the run, we would place these footprints as they are shown in Fig. 258 ; not as in Fig. 257. We may indicate the walk by Fig. 259, in which I have assumed that both feet are on the ground for one-sixth of the period of support of each foot. We must remember that these scales or notations give us only the order of succession of the feet, and their respective and proportionate periods of support and suspension ; but they do not furnish us with ]'"ig. 270. — Canter wilh Suspension (Figs. 138 to 146). Fig. 271.— Fast Gallop (Figs. 156 to 171; Fig. 272. -The Leap (Figs. 229 to 242). a clue to the speed of any particular pace, except that, when there is a period of suspension,, the longer it is, the greater, as a rule, wih be the speed. To construct the respective notations of the various paces of the horse, we may employ the rectangles of Fig. 257 for the fore legs, and may use similar ones, placed underneath them, for the hind legs. Thus, Fig. 261 will give us the scale of the trot as shown by Figs. 64 to 67. My readers will notice that the dotted lines on Fig. 262 mark the respective moments at which the horse assumed the positions depicted in Figs. 68 to 72. In the remaining notations in this chapter I have similarly marked the connections between these scales and the corre- sponding figures in Chapters XII. and XIII. 1 67 CHAiaER XV. COMPARATIVE SHAPE Ol HORSES. General Remarks— Relations between Height and Length of Body— Comparative Heigiit at Withers and Croup—Points in Common— Liniit of Height— Thick- ness of LimJj— Li-ngth of N<-ck— Length of Head— Comparative Weight of Body— Comparative Length of the Bones of the Limbs— Uifferences of Con- formation between the Two Sexes. General Remark h. In <>\'\<\ \<> sirri]*lify rompnrison i\\\<\ \() )>revciil leclujiis ij harness horses. Thus, we have lh<- speedy saddle horse in lh< //ut-racer ; the speedy har- ness horse m Hie malck-troUer ; Ihc liong saddle horse ill Ihe weif^ht-carryin^ hunter anfl trooper ; and Hi' hong draught lioi ,' )i) ih<- Shire or Ctydcsdate. I sl);tll tli«ie- fore contrast, m tin, ijiy best to att<)id h< Iween }l;it i;i««- horses :iiid cross-country horses. In geneiai teinih, the oiii research will be a more or less successlul mvf'stigatiojj jjito the "points" oi the race-horse; huntej, tiooper, or riding hack ; match trotter ; light harness horse ; lojd heavy cart hor,e. Later on, an attempt will h<' mad*-- to show that all iidiiig Imeks ;ijj<1 cav.'ihy horses should possess the 1 68 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. jumping points of the hunter. It is evident that the steeplechase horse should be a judicious combination of the hunter and the race-horse. The fast horse, whether racer or American match trotter, can no more dispense with a certain amount of strength, than can the heavy draught horse attain excellence without a certain amount of speed, even at a walk. The light vanner belongs to a class intermediate between the light harness horse and the heavy draught horse. The method of working from the whole to a part, should be followed as rigorously in judging a horse, as in painting or land surveying. If we desire to obtain correctness in these arts, we must, as a rule, first get our general outline, and then fill in the details. If, in our preliminary examination, we allow our eyes to be caught by some isolated beauty or defect, we would be — to use an oft applied simile — like a painter who begins a full- length portrait of a person by drawing the nose, and then hangs the remainder of the body to it. We should bear in mind that the degree of adaptability of an animal for any special kind of useful work, depends more on his general shape, than on the possession or absence of any particular " point." In making comparisons, we should not be disconcerted by the fact that some of the proportions of a horse may vary a little according to the position in which he stands and the nature of his bodily condition. Some allowance has to be made for the fact, that the majority of the fast horses and jumpers in the illustrations of this book, were taken when they were in hard training ; and most of the heavier horses, when they were in a " lusty " state. It would be more satisfactory, if they had been photographed at a time when they were all in " hard " condition ; but that, obviously, was impossible to get done. The method I shall indicate will, however, give results sufficiently uniform for our purpose. We must also remember that the respective proportions of animals of the same class RELATIONS BETWEEN HEIGHT AND LENGTH OF BODY. 169 and of equal merit are not always the same ; for a defect in one point may be compensated by increased excellence in another point. Relations between Height and Length of Body. —We have seen in Chapter I. that the fundamental difference between animals of speed and those of strength is that the former have comparatively long legs, and that the latter have comparatively short ones. We have in the camel a well-marked ^ exception to this rule. The Ship of the Fig. 273. — Camel. Desert, as we may see in Fig. 273, has very long legs in comparison to his length of body, and yet he is extremely slow for his size. The cause of his lack of speed is chiefly owing to the weakness of his " rearing muscles " (p. 67), and to the straightness of the column of bones of his fore limbs. Hence, when he tries to go quickly, he is unable to raise his fore-hand to a sufficient height, in order to obtain a well-regulated period of suspension, like that of the horse (Figs. 71, 154, and 189). His gallop, which he attempts only on rare occasions, has so much up-and-down motion I70 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. in it, that he can continue it but for a very short time. His usual fast pace is a kind of amble which has no period of suspension. The muscles of his limbs, as compared to the weight of his body, are very poorly developed. Many "weedy" horses (p. 368) which have long legs, are deficient in speed from causes similar to those that render the camel slow. The law as to length of limb can be amply verified, other things being equal, in the case of the horse, by the hard logic of statistics. I accordingly give the following table of measurements in inches, taking Ormonde (Frontispiece) and St. Simon (Figs. 16 and 17) as examples of the fleet of foot, and the Shire horse, Cheadle Jumbo, and the Shire mare. Chance (Fig. 274), as illustrations of strength. Ormonde. Height at withers (without shoes) Length of body Depth from withers to brisket . . Distance of " girth place " from ground Length of head 64I 6i| 29 35i 24I St. Simon. Cheadle Jumbo. 63i 67 59i 76 27i 354 36i 314 24 29 Chance. 67 76 34 33 28 I took the measurements of Ormonde on the 20th July, 1887, when he was a four-year-old ; and those of St. Simon in September, 1884, when he was a three-year old. The photographs of Ormonde and St. Simon are particularly valuable, as these animals were probably the two best race-horses that have ever lived, and as their photographs were taken when they were in racing con- dition. The outlines of Fig. 17 have been taken from a photograph which was too much " fogged " to bear reproduction. [The shadows, however, have RELATIONS BETWEEN HEIGHT AND LENGTH OF BODY. 171 been added by a very skilful artist, the late Mr. Oswald Brown. We see from the foregoing table, that some three and four year-old race-horses of the best class are 3 or 4 inches higher at the withers (and at the croup) than they are long in the body ; and that the Shire horse, which is the most powerful of all horses, is about 9 inches longer than he is ^ Photo by'\ [DixoN & Sons. Fig. 274.— Mr. A. B. Freeman-Mitford's Shire Mare, Chance. high. The difference between the two types with respect to their length of leg, as compared to their depth of chest, is equally well marked. The intermediate classes, m this respect, partake, as a rule, of the characteristics of the respective types to which they are most nearly allied Thus if we take Ormonde (Frontispiece) as the highest type 'of the race-horse, we shall find that the distance from the top of his withers to his brisket, if apphed down his fore leg, will reach from his brisket only to the bottom 1/2 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. of his fetlock. In a high-class Leicestershire hunter (Fig. 275), it will come down to the middle of the pastern ; in the heavy-weight hunter, to the coronet ; in the Artillery " wheeler " or light cart-horse, to the ground ; and in a Cheadle Jumbo, it will be four inches more in length. Hence we may conclude that the term, " short on the leg," is one to denote the possession of strength, rather than of speed. The reckless manner in which it is used with respect to race-horses is as incorrect as it is ridiculous. With age, good feeding and want of exercise, a horse usually lengthens, deepens, and thickens somewhat as regards his height. Mr. W. F. Shaw, F.R.C.V.S., who has charge of the horses belonging to the London Street Tramways Company, tells me that he has frequently observed that comparatively light, well-bred horses, when put to tramway work at about five years of age, thicken and get coarse after a few months, to a far greater extent than if they had been used at fast paces. We all know that labour between the rails is slow ; and the feeding (eighteen pounds of corn and twelve pounds of hay) is ample for these not very large animals. We may accept the fact that both muscles and bones more or less accommodate themselves in time to the nature of the work to which they are put ; the difference being one of thickness, and not of length. I have often noticed among thorough-breds that, to a cer- tain extent, they became coarse and lost their appear- ance of blood if kept under rough conditions and used for ordinary hack wotk. St. Gatien (p. 25), the celebrated son of The Rover and St. Editha, was a very deep-chested horse, as his depth from his withers to his brisket (just behind the elbow) was an inch more than from his brisket to the bottom of his fetlock. He was thus an inch deeper than Ormonde, who was one and three-quarter inches deeper than St. Simon. St. Gatien was particularly dis- tinguished by his ability to stay a distance. RELATIONS BETWEEN HEIGHT AND LENGTH OF BODY. 173 The fact of foals (Fig. 276) being extremely " long on the leg " accounts for their great speed as compared to their strength. Without this peculiarity of conforma- tion, there is no doubt that the horse, prior to the time at which he became domesticated, would not have survived in the struggle for existence. Comparative Height at Withers and Croup. — " Comparative length of fore and hind limbs " would be a Photo byl Fig. 275.— Mr. H. T. Barchiy's Lord Arthur. [M. H. H. more correct heading for this paragraph than the present one, which has been adopted solely for the sake of conveni- ence. It goes almost without saying that it is much easier to compare the respective heights of a horse at the withers and croup, when he is standing in the ordinary position in which we get him placed for inspection, than to judge of the comparative lengths of his fore and hind legs. 174 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. clothed as they are with skin and muscle. In adopting the more convenient method of the two, due allowance should be made for the attitude in which the horse places himself. The conditions under which the limbs play their part in locomotion, are so complex and varied, that rules can be laid down on this subject, only in very general terms. We must also bear in mind that there is a certain limit of height (largely influenced by breed) which a horse should not exceed, and which will be discussed on page 1 80, et seq. The present question may be put as follows : at any given height, is it an advantage for a horse to be higher at the withers than he is over the top of the croup, or vice versa, when he is intended for galloping, jumping, hght harness, or heavy draught ; and to what extent may such difference, if any, amount to ? It is evident that the longer the hind legs, the greater — other things being equal — will be the speed of propulsion. Excess of height at the croup will, however, be accom- panied by three serious drawbacks : (i) by putting increased work, durmg fast paces, on the fore hmbs and on the muscles of the back and loins (p. 67) in raising the fore-hand at each stride, it will diminish the animal's stajdng power ; (2) by surcharging the fore legs (p. 53), it will naturally tend to render these limbs more hable to the injurious effects of work than they would be, were the weight more equally distributed between the fore and hind extremities ; and (3) by overloading the fore- hand, it will tend to prevent the cross-country horse rising easily at his fences and getting away safely from them on landing. Those speedy animals, the cheetah, the Indian black buck, and the greyhound, are a little longer in the hind limb than they are in front. As a rule, race- horses of the highest class are about the same height at withers and croup. This difference between the racer and the other gallopers may be accounted for by the fact that the proportion of weight which the fore limbs of the COMPARATIVE HEIGHT AT WITHERS AND CROUP. 175 race-horse have to carry, is still more increased by the presence of a jockey on his back. Among the fleet of foot, I purposely omitted mentioning the hare, whose fine speed can be maintained, as we might have inferred, only for a short distance on level ground ; though it is particu- larly hard to catch up a hill, the difficulty of ascending which is directly lessened by the fact of the fore limbs being shorter than the hind ones. Any disadvantage, in progression, arising from undue shortness of fore legs P/wto b!j] Fig. 276. — Foal. [M. H. H. is, more or less, compensated for, in the hare, by great development of the muscles of the loins (" rearing muscles," p. 67). The lynx (Fig. 4), which is very high behind, has an extraordinary turn of speed ; but only for a short distance. Its gallop, like that of other cats, is a series of leaps (p. 142). From practical observations, I do not think that it is an advantage for a race-horse to be higher over the croup than at the withers. With 176 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. regard to this point, we may study Ormonde (Frontis- piece) and Persimmon (Fig. 277). Could a horse be reserved for races up-hill, like on the old Cambridgeshire course, which finished at " the top of the town," in- creased height at the croup would be an advantage ; but such a policy would hardly be practicable. We may conclude from the foregoing remarks, that if a race-horse be higher over the croup than at the withers, he will require, all the more, to have sloping shoulders, oblique pasterns and powerful loins, and to be light in his head, neck and shoulders. We have now to consider the very practical question — which, no doubt, every man who goes in for pony racing has asked himself — is it an advantage for a pony which has to pass the standard at a certain height, to be considerably higher over the croup than at the withers ? The results of my experience make me reply " no " to this query. The statement, which has often been put forward, that a pony which measures, say 14.3 over the croup, and which can pass the standard at fourteen hands, must have a " pull " over others of its own class which are as high at their withers as over their croup, is not borne out in practice. The best racing ponies I have seen, had no great difference between these two measurements — cer- tainly not more than two inches. In this list we have the English ponies Predominant (Fig. 278), Lord Clyde, Maythorne, Mike (Fig. 279), Water-lily (Fig. 337), St. Helena, Selena, and Sylvia ; the New Zealanders, Little Wonder and Parekaretu ; the Aus- tralians, Mayflower, Achievement, Chester, Bob, and Jeannette ; the Arabs, Caliph, Little Hercules, Blitz (Fig. 593), and vSweet William ; the Barb, Kangaroo ; the Indian country-breds, Kuby, Bonnie Doo, and Daphne ; and the South African, Coachman. Skittles, which belonged to Captain Mowbray of the Black Watch, and which was a very good fourteen hand pony, showed, I think, the maximum of comparative height behind. COMPARATIVE HEIGHT AT WITHERS AND CROUP. 177 Her excess of height at the croup (about 2 inches) was compensated for by the possession of remarkably long and sloping shoulders. The large majority of racing ponies I have known which were much lower at the withers than at the croup, stood work badly, owing to their fore legs being unusually liable to become infirm. We may fully accept the statement that instability of equilibrium (p. 69), which is increased according as the weight on the fore legs exceeds that on the hind ones, Photo hy] [W. A. Ilouun, Stiiand. Fig. 277.— His Majesty's Persimmon. should be obtained, in the galloper, more by the body being short and the legs and neck long, than by the difference of height between the withers and the croup. I cannot too strongly direct the attention of my readers to the necessity of the hunter (p. 378) being " light in front," and consequently, being higher at the withers than over the croup. The lower a horse is in front, other things being equal, 12 178 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. the rougher will be his paces ; and consequently an animal of this kind of conformation will not, as a rule, make a pleasant hack. I had a good proof of this in the horse which is shown in Fig. 280, and which I owned when I lived in India. He was a line weight- carrier, fast trotter, and a grand galloper up a hill ; but he was very rough when cantering or galloping on level ground, and especially down an incline. Owing to this objection he was put to harness, where he did much better than in saddle, because the roughness of his gait was no detriment to his utility between the shafts. The position of the rider of a saddle horse increases the instability of the equilibrium of the animal ; but that of a trap and its occupant diminishes it. Hence, horses will, as a rule, trot faster under saddle than in harness. Also, we find that in match trotting, the ten- dency is to get the weight of the driver as far forward as possible. In the olden days of high wheels and the "long-hitch" sulky, the American match trotter was lower at the withers, as compared to his height at the croup, than the race-horse ; but improvements in sulkies have greatly lessened or entirely removed this difference. We must here bear in mind that, with a modern sulky (Fig. 60), the body of the driver offers far less resistance to the air than that of a jockey. When the height at the withers is less than at the croup, the proportion of weight on the fore-hand is increased by conformation, and not necessarily by undue development of the muscles of the shoulders and neck. The heavy cart-horse, viewed from a draught point of view, ought to be higher in front than behind (p. 78). Points in Common. — We may advance a step further in our search after the true principles of horse confor- mation ; for if we compare the proportions of the body of the racer with those of the heavy draught animal, we shall find that they are essentially the same, and POINTS IN COMMON. 179 that the only real difference which exists between these two classes, is in the relative length and thickness of their legs. Were those of the speedy Ormonde (Frontispiece), cut down nine or ten inches and proportionately thickened, and were he swelled out by " bulky " food, he would pass fairly well as a cart-horse ! The statement just made concerning the comparative proportions of the two Photo by] [II. EIdTZ, Si.MLA. Fig. 278. — H.H. The Maharaja of Kooch Bohar's Racing Pony, Predominant, by Balfe, out of Dominanle. extreme types of horses, may not appear so outrageous as it might do at first glance, if we consider that the difference of work between them is one of limbs and not of body. The galloper needs the highest possible develop- ment of speed with a sufficiency of strength ; the cart- horse, a maximum of strength with a very moderate amount of speed ; both the strength and speed being derived from the muscles of the limbs. The two classes, however, are in their work equally dependent on the 12 # i8o COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. organs (those of breathing, circulation, digestion, secre- tion, etc.) which are contained in the body. The lungs of a draught animal, when facing a steep hill with a heavy load behind him, have to be in as good order as those of a racer which is finishing in front of the Grand Stand at Epsom or Newmarket. His stomach, bowels, Uver, spleen, kidneys, etc., will also require to be as healthy as those of the other. Hence we need not expect to find, nor shall we meet with, any material difference in the proportions of the respective bodies of these two animals. If we take from the table given on page 170, the depths, from withers to brisket, of the four representa- tive horses, and divide them respectively into the lengths of these animals, we shall find the ratio for Ormonde, St. Simon and Cheadle Jumbo to be i to 2.1, and for Chance, I to 2.2. Also, the proportion between the depth of the body at the lowest point of the back, and the length of the body, is about the same in all classes of horses, namely, I to 2^ (nearly). This is sufficient to prove the close similarity of the proportions of the body in racers and heavy cart-horses, and, a fortiori, in those of the inter- mediate classes, such as hunters, troopers, and light harness horses. It may be objected to the foregoing remarks that, in the heavy draught animal, the shoulders are thicker, and the breast broader in proportion to the length of the body, than in the case of the galloper. This difference, however, is due, not to the shape of the body, but to the size of muscles which are attached to the body (p. 244), and which assist in movement. Consequently, they partake of the character of the muscles of the legs. Limit of Height. — In all species of animals there appears to be a limit of height which the respective members cannot, as a rule, exceed, and at the same time retain strength, activity and symmetry of form. We see this law well exemplified in dogs, which can rarely sur- LIMIT OF HEIGHT, i»i pass, say, thirty-four inches in height, without becoming weak in the loins and clumsy in their movements. For cart-horses, this limit may be put at, say, seventeen hands two inches ; and for race-horses at, say, sixteen hands three inches. Besides this maximum, there is a certain height which it is no benefit for a horse, from a useful point of view, to exceed. Although, to employ an old saying, '' a good big one will beat a good little one ; " A iiiiii ■ III 1 ^^^^sr^ IP- Ejyd^l MV \ J. s ;■_ MB I ■ . # J ■, ■ -^ ■- - — . . , ^^^ 1 Photo bii'\ [M. H. H. Fig. 279. — Colonel Simpson's English Racing Pony, Mike. it is no advantage for a racer, chaser, hunter, hack or light trapper to be more than fifteen hands three inches, or a heavy cart-horse to be higher than sixteen hands three inches. It is an interesting fact that this standard of useful height varies considerably in different breeds. It can be put approximately as follows : — European, North American, Australian, and New Zealand thorough- bred and half-bred horses, fifteen hands three inches ; 1 82 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. ordinary South African horses, fifteen hands ; Arabs, fourteen hands two inches ; East Indians (country bred, without admixture of Enghsh blood) and Basuto ponies, fourteen hands ; Mongohan, Yarkundi, Spiti and Bhootiah ponies, thirteen hands two inches ; Baluchi, Herati and Cabuli horses, fourteen hands two inches ; Burma and Deli (Sumatra) ponies, thirteen hands ; Manipuri ponies, twelve hands. On Indian race-courses it has been proved, times out of number, that an Arab of fourteen hands two inches is as good as any other Son of the Desert, no matter how much he may exceed that height. In fact, there have not been many Arabs which have gone to India, that were better than the gallant little Chieftain, who was only fourteen hands high, and who was the best of his time. The records of the Shanghai and Hongkong races prove that a good Mongolian of thirteen hands two inches, like Teen Kwang (Fig. 281), who was the Eclipse of the Celestial Empire, can hold his own with any of his class, even at level weights. In China an allowance of only three pounds for an inch in height is given, and yet the best ones are found at about thirteen hands two inches. In India, on the contrary, an allowance of twelve pounds an inch is given ; yet, with very rare exceptions, a thirteen hands one inch or a thirteen hands two inch English, Australian, Arab or " country-bred " has no chance with a fourteen- hander of its own class. These striking differences in the standard of useful heights are no doubt chiefly due to the effects of climate and soil (p. 396 et seq.). Careful selection in breeding, good feeding, and healthy conditions of life have a great influence in tending to increase the size, not only of individuals, but also of breeds, in which case the standard of useful height will naturally become raised. Thus, the average English horse is, at the present day, probably six inches taller than he was 200 years ago. From my own observation, I am inclined to think that horses in England have LIMIT OF HEIGHT. 183 increased about two inches in height during the last fifty years. We should remember that when we refer to certain breeds of ponies, we allude to horses that have for generations been kept small by privation, inclemency of climate, or other influences which have retarded their growth. Were they placed under conditions favourable to their development, their descendants would soon be- come full-sized horses, even in the case of Shetland Phutv Oil] Fig. 280. — Australian Horse, low at the Withers. [M. H. H. (Fig. 282), Hebridean (Fig. 283) or Corean ponies. Selec- tion, as in the case of toy-terriers, would of itself, if carried out strictly, enable us to maintain a breed of dwarf horses ; but when with small size we also require physical excel- lence, this application of selection woyld certainly prove too costly for practical requirements. Hence, in tem- perate climates like those of Australasia, and the low- lying lands of England, horse-breeders very seldom under- take the task of maintaining a breed of ponies which are 1 84 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. well fed and well cared for. Extremely good polo ponies^ like Dynamite (Fig. 284), and racing ponies, like Predominant (Fig. 278), are more or less flukes in breeding. At the same time, we must not ignore the following three facts in this connection : — (i) That the respective offspring of certain sires and certain mares are abnormally small ; (2) first foals are often smaller than subsequent ones ; and (3) the produce of very old sires are frequently lacking in height. Thickness of Limb. — Continuing the argument begun in Chapter I., we find that the muscles of the limbs of gallopers are comparatively long and slender. Hence, the bones, being dependent on the muscles for their shape, must partake of the same character. Also, it is advan- tageous that they should be slight ; because, were the bones of the legs of the galloper massive, the friction in the working of their joints would be proportionately in- creased, with consequent loss of speed, which would be of little importance in a heavy draught animal, in which the opposite kind of conformation should be sought for. Length of Neck. — As the muscles which draw the fore leg forward (namely, those of the neck) are muscles of locomotion, they should be proportionate in length to those of the fore limb. Hence, if a horse has long fore legs, like the race-horse, he ought to have a long neck ; and vice versa. Length of Head. — As the respective functions of the head and body are not affected by the nature of the work (as regards speed and strength) ; the length of the head, as a rule, is proportionate to that of the body (trunk) ; but it bears no fixed ratio to the length of the limbs, which varies according to the kind of work to which the par- ticular horse is best suited. Thus, we find that although the length of the head has nearly the same proportion (about I to 2|) to the length of the body in both the racer LENGTH OF HEAD. 185 Fig. 2S1.— China Pony, Teen Kwang, ^''^'° *2'] [f. Tadman, Stansted. Fig- 282. — Sir Walter Gilbey's Shire Horse, Norman Conqueror, and Shetland Pony, Good Friday. 1 86 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. and cart-horse (p. 170), the comparison does not hold good with regard to the height, which is naturahy influenced by the length of the fore legs. In calculating the proportion between the length of head and length of body, in the case of Cheadle Jumbo and Chance (p. 170), we must bear in mind that these animals were in obese show condition at the time the measurements were taken. Comparative Weight of Body. — The body of all saddle horses should be as light as is compatible with the due performance of their work ; for any extra weight will be carried at the expense of the soundness of their legs. It is different with the harness horse, which has, comparatively, no weight on his back. The heavy cart- horse requires a deep, massive body for the attachment of his powerful muscles, and, also, to give him the neces- sary weight to throw into the collar. This subject has been discussed on pages 76 and 77. Comparative Length of the Bones of the Limbs. — If we " pick up " in succession the fore feet of a number of differently shaped horses, and bend the limbs at the knees as far as they will " go," we shall find that in almost all cases, the heel will touch the elbow (Fig. 285) at about the same place. This statement is supported by the following measure- ments which Professor Ewart took of the bones of the fore legs of Hermit, Eclipse, and a Shetland pony. . Radius (Bone of the fore-arm). Cannon bone. Phalanges (Bones of the pastern and foot). Hermit (15! hands) Eclipse (15I hands) Shetland pony (94 hands) 37.5 cm. 37-6 „ 25 „ 25-5 25.S 17 19.5 12.8 The above measurements are in centimetres, each of which is equal to .3937 inch. COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF THE BONES OF THE LIMBS. 187 Phofo hy] Fig. 283. — Barra (Hebiidcan) Pony. [G. A. EWART. Photo III] Fig. 284. — Mr. J. E. Peat's English Polo Pony Mare, Dynamite. i88 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. li, to facilitate comparison, we take the radius of Eclipse and that of the Shetland pony as equal in length to that of Hermit, we shall have the follomng propor- tions : Radius. Cannon bone. Phalanges. Cannon bone and Phalanges. Hermit Eclipse Shetland pony 37-5 37-5 37-5 25-5 25.72 25-5 19-5 1S.95 19.2 45 44.68 44-7 We thus find that there is very little difference between the respective proportions of the radius, cannon bone, and phalanges of these animals, and that the fore legs of the Shetland pony, in this respect, more closely resemble those of Hermit, than do those of Eclipse ; the cannon bone being comparatively shorter in the ''Sheltie" and in the Derby winner, than in the famous old-time race-horse. A comparatively short cannon bone is greatly admired in hunters by experienced horsemen, but it is not a " point " which is usually noticed in race-horses. Although I have not tested this relative shortness of the cannon bone by actual measurements, I am strongly inclined to accept its existence, on account of its wide recognition and because variation plays a large part in all animal structures, as we may see by referring to Bateson's Materials for the Study of Variation. Bearing in mind that the proportion between the length of the fore-arm and that of the bones below the knee is fairly constant, we must admit that if the cannon bone is shorter than usual, as compared to its fore-arm, the bones below the fetlock will be com- paratively long. Lecoq remarks : " The length of the fore-arm varies inversely as that of the cannon-bone." This principle may be extended somewhat further, by COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF THE BONES OF THE LIMBS. 189 stating the following inverse proportions : — Shoulder-blade, long; humerus (from point of shoulder to elbow joint), short ; fore-arm, long ; cannon-bone, short ; pastern, long. In other words, a long shoulder-blade is accompanied by a long fore-arm and long pastern, and by a short humerus and a short cannon-bone. The converse of this holds equally good. Taking the shoulder-blade as the base to start from, we may infer that the difference between these alternate proportions should be best marked in animals, like the hunter or steeplechaser, which specially require Photo hii] [M. 11. H. Fig. 285. — Fore Foot drawn up, seas to touch the Elbow. to have this bone of considerable length (p. 274). It may be objected that the greyhound (Fig. 8), which is possessed of extraordinary speed and marvellous jumping power, has, comparatively speaking, a short shoulder-blade and long humerus. Although the length of the latter, which is detached from the body, gives him great forward *' reach ; " the shortness of the former makes him too bad a weight-carrier (p. 274) for him to be accepted as a model for our purpose. We are probably justified in assuming that a similar series of inverse proportions should exist in the hind limb. Thus : pelvis, long ; thigh, short ; iQO COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. tibia (from stifle to hock), long ; cannon-bone, short ; pastern, long. As the muscles which give length to the tibia are far more concerned in the extension of the hind limb of the jumper and galloper than in the cart-horse ; we should look for greater length from stifle to hock, in the first two, than in the last-named. We might also expect in them a shorter thigh and a shorter cannon- bone. This opinion is confirmed by the practical ex- perience of Mr. Tom Jennings, the well-known Newmarket trainer, who once remarked to me that he always regarded as a good point in a race-horse, the fact of its stifle being set high up in its flank — i.e., its having a short thigh bone, and consequently being long from its stifle to its hock. In the remainder of the body of the race-horse we might, possibly, also find a series of inverse proportions as follows : — Head, short ; neck, long ; back and loins, short ; croup, long ; bones of the tail, short. Although I am well aware that the proportions of the skeleton do not rigidly follow any strict mathematical rule ; still I am strongly of opinion, from close study of the horse, that in the large majority of cases the fore- going deductions will be found to be correct. Differences of Conformation betiveen the Twro Sexes. — As a rule, the mare, as compared to the horse, has a lighter neck, a broader pelvis, is higher behind and slacker in the loins than he is. The fact of the spines of her withers being I'ower than those of the horse (p. 241), is no doubt the cause of her being relatively liigher over the croup than he is. IQI CHAPTER XVI. HEAD AND NECK. Size of Head— Leanness of Head— Profile of Face— Front View of Face— Size of Brain— Top of the Head— Ears— Forelock— Eyes— Hollows above the Eyes- Nostrils— Lips— Lower Jaw— Setting-on of the Head— Neck— Mane— Throat. Size of Head.— We have seen on page 184 that the length of the head, in different varieties of horses, corre- sponds, as a rule, to the length of the body, but not to that of the limbs. Agreeably to the axiom that " the function makes the organ," we generally find, that a horse's breathing capacity is proportionate to the size of his air-passages, of which the cavities that lead from the nostrils towards the wind-pipe and lungs cannot be large, unless the bones which form them are of fair size. Be- sides, as the tube (larynx) through which air enters the lungs from the nasal cavities, lies between the two branches of the lower jaw, it follows, speaking generally, that the broader and more open the nostrils are, the greater wih be the calibre of this tube, and the more perfect the breathing power. We must also remember that the length of the head is mainly dependent on the length of the jaws, the size of which is naturally dependent on the amount of food which the animal has to masticate for the requirements of his digestive organs. Although it is impossible to make any hard and fast rule on this subject, we may infer that a comparatively small head is not a desirable '' point " in horses whose success depends on their powers of breathmg and digestion. I venture to think that men of experience will agree with me in saying that unusually neat and trim 192 HEAD AND NECK. heads are far more common among " the five furlong division," than among genuine stayers. Again, the head ' should be of sufficient size to afford a broad surface for the attachment of the muscles of mastication, for those which extend, flex, rotate and move the head from one side to the other, and for muscles which draw the fore limbs forward, and which are, consequently, important agents of movement. The connection between the size of the head and the amount of intelligence possessed by an animal is, as in man, too ill-defined to admit of any practical deductions being made from it. As the usefulness of a horse is generally limited by the amount of work his legs will stand, the possession of a heavy head by an animal which is " light of bone " in his extremities, is a serious defect ; for it shows that his frame is wanting in symmetry, and also tends to indicate that the bones of his body, and, probably, the muscles and other tissues, are too heavy for his legs. If, however, he shows great substance and good quality of bone, tendon and ligament, we might very well " put up " with some " plainness " about his head. Any use- less weight of that part, acting at the end of the lever formed by the neck, will naturally be objectionable. Agreeably to the facts mentioned on pages 184 and 186, we may judge the length of the head by that of the body, the usual proportion being about i to 2^. Or we may compare the length of the head with the depth of the body at the lowest point of the back. In a well-shaped horse which is not in gross condition, these two measurements are very nearly equal ; although the head, from its isolated position, looks much less long, at first glance, than the body is deep. Besides, the fact of the body being round, while the side of the horse's head, as seen in profile, is flat, will cause the depth of the former to appear to measure more than the length of the latter. We may prove the approximate correctness of the ratio of i to 2\, by reference to the table given on p. 170. From it we see that in Ormonde the proportion SIZE OF HEAD. 193 is I to 2.5 ; in St. Simon, i to 2.48 ; in Cheadle Jumbo, I to 2.6; and in Chance, i to 2.7. Here, possibly to our surprise, we perceive that the cart-horses have compara- tively smaller heads than the racers — a difference which, no doubt, is due to their grosser " condition " ; as the fat on their chests and quarters must add slightly to their length of body. Bourgelat, followed by all, or nearly all, the French writers on equine conformation, adopted the length of a horse's head as a measurement of the animal's height, in the proportion of i to 2J. This eminent Frenchman based his calculations on a type of horse (such as the ordinary saddle nag) which was about as high at the withers as it was long in the body, and did not take into consideration the great dif- ferences between the respective heights and lengths of animals of various classes, ranging from the racer to the Shire horse. The fact that the size of the head of a horse is proportionate to his length of body, and not to his height at the withers, accounts for cart-horses appearing to have a comparatively larger head than thorough-breds. Leanness of Head. — In the lighter classes of horses, the head should present a general appearance of " lean- ness," that is to say, the skin which covers it should be fine ; its bony prominences sharply marked ; and the muscles, blood-vessels, and nerves which are immediately under the skin, more or less clearly defined. The absence, thus indicated, of an excess of loose underlying tissue will suggest the possession of strength of muscle and bone (p. 32). When the head is large and " fleshy," we may generally assume that the animal is " soft " and wanting in " blood." The presence on the head of well-developed muscles, of which those of mastica- tion are the most powerful, will naturally suggest to the observer that the horse has a good constitution. As pointed out by Goubaux and Barrier, we must not mis- 13 194 HEAD AND NECK. take for " leanness/' an emaciated or wasted appearance of the muscles, due to old age or debility. The Bombay Arab dealers (such as that fine judge, Ali bin Abdullah, and that prince of Bedouins, the late Shaikh Esa bin Curtas) regard thinness of the lower jaw at its angles as a sure sign of pure Desert blood. Profile of Face. — The line of the forehead and nose, when viewed in profile, will, as a rule, be straight (Fig. 286), concave (Fig. 287) or convex (Fig. 288). The first two forms of contour are more or less characteristic of the thorough-bred and Arab. Although many horses of aristocratic English blood have Roman noses, especially those bred in the Colonies (Fig. 288), I have never seen a high caste Arab (Figs. 289, 290 and 291) have such a conformation. The true concave face is obtained, not by a prominent forehead, as in Fig. 292 ; but by a dip in the nose between the eyes and nostrils (Fig. 287). Ormonde's face (Frontispiece) tends to concavity. A Roman nose (Fig. 293) might be objected to on account of its supposed liability to render the air passages of the head curved, instead of straight, in which case there might be some shght interference with the ready ingress and egress of respired air. I have, however, never met with a case in which a Roman nose was the cause of impaired breathing power ; although I have known a horse become a roarer from alteration in the shape of the nasal cavities, from a disease of the bones called osteo porosis (" big head"). Many heavy cart-hOrses have a Roman nose, which is a characteristic feature of the Austrian Imperial Kladrub carriage-horse (Fig. 294). Colonel John Anderson, late Inspecting Veterinary Surgeon, Bombay Army (than whom no better judge of a horse exists), remarked to me many years ago, that a prominent forehead (Fig. 292), or a rise between the eyes, is an indication of a bad, or at least of a wayward, temper in a horse, which is a theory I have seen verified in FRONT VIEW OF FACE. 195 many instances. The original of Fig. 292 was a rascal of the deepest dye. Tristan (Fig. 295) had this fatal bump between his eyes, and he was a " thief," as well as a bit of a " savage." His name will recall to many old race-goers the memorable struggle for the Cambridge- shire of 1881, when, ridden by poor George Fordham, he finished third to Foxhall and Lucy Ghtters. It is but just to the chestnut son of Hermit and Thrift to say that '<^ Photo by] Fig. 286. — Straight Line of Face. [Dixox & Soxs. his trainer, Mr. Tom Jennings, told me that Tristan's temper had been spoiled by bad usage when he was a yearling. Front View of Face. — Good width of forehead between the eyes (Fig. 296) indicates, as a rule, free breathing power and strong muscles of mastication ; for the bones of that part (frontal bones') form a portion of the roof of the chambers through which air passes on its way to the lungs, and gives attachment 13* 196 HEAD AND NECK. to a powerful muscle which aids in closing the jaws, and which is fixed in the large depression that is just above the eyes. Good width between the eyes is generally regarded as a sign of intelligence and of a generous disposition ; and it may indicate large capacity of brain, by reason of the frontal bone forming a portion of the covering of that organ. I shall refer, under the next heading, to the subject of the desirabihty, or other- wise, of a large brain in the horse. As seen from the front, the bones at each side of the head, from the outside corner of the eyes to the hollow above the eyes, should run nearly parallel to the long axis of the head, and should then narrow inwards, in saddle horses and light harness horses. This desirable shape is well shown in Fig. 297. If the reader will compare this photograph with Fig. 298 he will see my meaning ; for in the latter, the line from the out- side corner of the eye to the base of the ear is nearly straight. This pecuharity and a certain fulness of nose (which is very different to the fine modelling of the nose in Fig. 297) gives a coffin shape (Fig. 299) to the head in Fig. 298, which is sHghtly fore-shortened, and con- sequently does not appear as narrow as it ought to be. I am of course aware that the stable term, " coffin- shaped," as apphed to a horse's head, has reference to its appearance in profile, and not to its front view. Experience tells us that the forehead should be prominent immediately below the brow-band, and should be marked on eafch side by a well-developed lump of muscle which is shown fairly well in Fig. 297. I am inclined to think that this conformation is usually accompanied by the possession of pluck and " clever- ness " ; but can give no reason. Its good or poor development is, I regret to say, as difficult to clearly explain in words as it is to show in a photograph ; although its recognition in actual practice is an easy matter. It is regarded as a beauty for the eyes to be " set high FRONT VIEW OF FACE, 197 Photo hij] P'ig. 2S7. — Concave Line of Face of Thorough- bred. [M. H. H. Photo by] [THE Gresham Studio, Adklaide, .sodi 11 Austivalia. Fig. 2S8. — Mr. W. Clark's The Victory, winner of the Adelaide St. Leger, etc. 198 HEAD AND NECK. up " in the head. As far as I can see, their position varies but Uttle in the horse. In the mountain zebra (Fig. 310) they are set rather low down. The bones on the sides of the nose are prominent in youth, but gradually " fall in " with age, on account of the roots of the back teeth, which are lodged in them, descending lower and lower as the animal grows older. This change in the form of the nose will serve to indi- cate, to some extent, the age of the horse. Size of Brain. — Without entering into any physio- logical argument, we may assume that, as a rule, size of brain is an indication of brain power. According to the classic idea entertained by writers on equine conformation, a large development of brain is a desirable " point " in the horse. Thus we read in Achat du Cheval, by Gayot, that : " The more voluminous is the brain, the larger is the spinal cord, proportionate to the size of which are the nerves that issue from it. It is thus that a large forehead, denoting a high degree of intelligence, is the index of a good nervous system — ^that is to say, of high mental and physical qualities." As regards this, I would suggest a doubt respecting the connection claimed between " high mental and physical qualities." It did not exist among the ancient gladiators, nor does it in our modern prize-fighters and pedestrians. Although the bull-dog and greyhound are respectively stronger and faster for their size than the poodle and collie, they are certainly not more intelligent. A long acquaintance with horses — especially that acquired during m}^ horse-breaking tours — convinces me that a comparatively high degree of mental (^i.e. reasoning) power is not desirable in a horse ; because it is apt to make him impatient of control by man. A jibber in harness, or a refuser in the hunting field, when the vice has not been induced by pain or infirmity, such as galled shoulders or weak hocks, usually " balks " because " he knows too much." or at least SIZE OF BRAIN. 199 ^/loto III] [Dixon & Sons. Fig. 289. — Head of the Arab Horse, Magic. Photo by] [M. H. H. Fig. 290. — Head of High Caste Arab. 200 HEAD AND NECK. he knows more than the animal that will pull at the traces or follow the hounds till he drops. So far from a horse taking dehght, as he is supposed by novelists to do, in obeying the wishes of man, he very seldom yields to his would-be master without a struggle. If this takes place in the hoped-for manner, when the horse is quite young, the victory on the part of the man is generally easy, and a few repetitions of it quickly confirm the habit of obedience. If, however, the attempted subjugation be delayed till the animal is " aged " — when he will be able to think for himself without the promptings and influence of man — it will be found that his breaking will be ten, if not a hundred, times more difficult than if it had been undertaken in his early youth. This theory of the un- desirability of a horse knowing too much, which I have applied to refractory animals, appears to hold equally good in greyhounds that run " cunning." In these remarks on the intelligence of horses, it must be clearly understood that I refer to reasoning power and not to power of memory, which is independent of the capacity to draw conclusions from given premises. It is evident, without the necessity of writing a treatise on the subject, that the useful (to man) intelligence of the horse lies in his power of memory and in the quickness with which his muscles act in response to the impressions received by his senses. In other words, his useful intelligence depends on the high development of his instinct, and not of his reason. We demand of the horse ready obedience ; but not obedience fnatured by reflection, like what the shepherd would expect his dog to display when getting his flock home on a stormy night, or when driving them through a crowded thoroughfare. We do not ask him to take the initiative from the deep affection which he does not bestow on us, nor to reason out problems ; we only want him to remember that if he does certain things, we shall " make much of him " ; that if he does other things, we shall punish him. SIZE OF BRAIN. 20 1 F/ioto bij] [M. H. H. Fig. 291. — Head of High Caste Arab. Pholo 6(/] [M. H. H. Fig. 292. — Prominent Forehead. 202 HEAD AND NECK. We know that reflex action, prompted by stimuli from outside the body, acts best when it has but Uttle connection with the brain. In fact, the smaller the comparative size of the brain, the quicker and more accurately are instinctive movements performed. Thus we see animals with, comparatively, a very small brain, or with none at all, get out of danger, or seize their prey, with an amount of speed and precision which it would be hopeless for any man to attempt to rival ; simply because the action of his instinct is impeded by the influence of a large brain. We find this demonstrated in ourselves, in the case of movements which, like those in fencing, boxing and dancing, for instance, can be executed only slowly and clumsily at first, when they need the exercise of thought, become capable of being performed with the speed and correctness of a machine, as soon as practice has made them almost automatic. Sir James Crichton Browne has shown that wild ducks are far more intefligent than tame ones, which, since their domestication, are " sinking into imbecility." In com- paring twentv wild ducks with twenty tame ones, he found that in the former, the proportion between the brain weight and the body weight was i to 338.318 ; and in the latter, i to 179.669. Hence the relative weight of the brain of wild ducks is nearly twice as great as that of tame ones. This is evidently a case of cessation of selec- tion for many hundreds of years, and is similar to that of the domestic horse, which is far less intelligent than liis wild relations (Chapter XXXIII.). The prominent forehead (Fig. 292), to which I have alluded on p. 194, indicates a large size of the intellectual portion (cerebrum, p. 48) of the brain, which, on the forehead is covered by only a thin plate of bone. With- out wishing to import any of the jargon of phrenology into a discussion on this subject, I may hazard the suggestion that the portion of the brain which is con- secrated to the functions of memory and perceptive power, SIZE OF BRAIN. 203 Photo b>i] [M. H.H. Fig. 293. — Roman Nose. Fig. 294. -The Emperor of Austria's Black KladrubStallion, Sacramuso (17.3). 204 HEAD AND NECK. lies underneath the upper part of the forehead, where prominence and convexity of the part is a marked beauty (p. 196). For the foregoing reasons, we should not look upon the possession of a large brain as a desirable " point " in a horse. Hence, apart from the practical experience I have had, I do not like, as I have said, a bulging-out con- Fig. 295. — Mr. Lefevre's Tristan. (Drawn /ro/// a photo<:;rapli.) dition of the lower part of the forehead, nor a long dis- tance between the ey6s and the top of the head, both of which peculiarities of conformation point to large brain capacity. Top of the Head. — The bone (the occipital crest) at the top of the head should be prominent and well deve- loped, as it affords attachment for the powerful suspensory ligament of the head and neck (p. 39), and for several important muscles. TOP OF THE HEAD. 205 Photo h'j] [M. H. H. Fig. 296. — Broad Forehead. Photo hi] [M. H.H. Fig. 297. — Head of well-bred Horse. riutohy] [II. H.H. Fig. 29S.— Head of under-bred Horse. 2o6 HEAD AND NECK. Ears. — The organs of hearing, on each side of the head, are divided into the external ear ; the middle ear (tympanum) ; and the internal ear (labyrinth). " The external and middle ears are conducting ; the internal ear is conducting and receptive. In the external ear the vibrations travel through air ; in the middle ear through solid structures — membranes and bones ; and in the internal ear through fluid" (Kirkes). The vibra- Fig. 299. — Coffin Shape of Head. tions of sound are transmitted far more readily through solid structures than through air, as we may easily prove by applying our ear to the end of a long plank of wood, and getting another person to scratch lightly with the nail of a finger or other hard object on the other end, in which case we shall hear the sound of the scratching much more plainly than if it were transmitted through the air. We have a similar case by applying our ear to a road, in order to hear the foot-falls of horses wliich are moving on that road, at a long distance from us. Moles have no external ears, because they use their organs of hearing chiefly for finding the position of neighbouring earth-worms (their natural food), which they do by EARS. 207 applying their ears to the sides of their burrows, and hstening for the sound of the worms. As the external ear of an animal is less sohd than the middle ear, the presence of external ears in moles would diminish their abihty to hear sounds transmitted through the soil which they inhabit. The more the external ear of an animal approaches an ear-trumpet, in its large size and funnel - shape, the better will it convey sounds that are trans- Fhoto b>j] [M. H. H. Fig. 300. — High Occipital Crest. mitted through the atmosphere. Consequently we fmd comparatively large and funnel-shaped external ears in animals which, like wild asses, zebras, deer and antelope, require weh-developed power of hearing, in the struggle for existence. In the following remarks, the term '' ears" will, for shortness' sake, be used only with reference to the external ears. In the horse tribe, the largest ears are possessed by the Mountain Zebra (Fig. 310) and Grevy's Zebra (Fig. 301) ; the former being an inhabitant of 2o8 HEAD AND NECK. mountainous districts; the latter, of more or less high plateaux. The ability to find out the direction from which dis- tant sounds come, is largely dependent on the power of rotating the ears to the front, externally, and to the rear. As the higher animals have an ear on each side of the head, there is no need for them to be able to rotate their ears inwards. During the course of evolu- tion, mankind has almost entirely lost the power of rotating the ears, and censequently we are not able to tell the direction of distant sounds with anything like the same accuracy as horses, which have great ear-play. As flight (running away) is the horse's chief natural means of self-protection, he has great ability in turning his ears to the rear, and also in looking to the rear, with- out altering the forward position of his head. In a pitched battle with carnivorous enemies, wild horses employ their eyes and ears, as a rule, in a backward direction, while using their hind feet as weapons of assault. And even when making a forward rush at an enemy, they almost always ''put back" their ears. The fact of a horse looking backwards is at once made mani- fest by his ''showing the white of his eyes." These actions of ears and eyes are so closely connected, in the horse, with fear and anger, that he often performs them, without any direct incentive, when influenced by these feelings. Hence all experienced horsemen regard an un- provoked putting-back of the ears and showing the white of the eyes, as a rehable warning to "look out." In common, probably, with most observers, I have remarked that animals which move their ears in a quick, decisive manner, evidently with the same intent as they use their eyes to see what kind of ground they are going over, are, generally, of the " clever " sort which do not know how " to put a foot wrong," and have always a "spare leg." Their method of employing their ears is quite different to the restless, " listening " (if I may use EARS. 209- the word) style adopted by horses that have defective sight. The former have their attention chiefly directed to the ground in front of them ; the latter distribute it on all sides. It looks well for the skin and hair which covers the ears to be fine, and for the ears to be thin and lean. Whether in horse or man, I dislike to see ears set up high on the head, and think that the part of the skull which is between them should be fairly broad, as in Fig. 296. Pho/v ii/} Fig. 301. — Grevy's Zebra. [JI. H. H. At the same time, I must say that I have seen many clever horses, especially among those bred in India, that had their ears close together and set up high on the head, as in Fig. 302. This photograph gives us an idea of the peculiar manner in which the points of the ears of some Asiatic breeds (Kathiawars, Wuzeerees, and Baluchees, for instance) are directed inwards when the ears are pricked forward. The usual form of this position is illustrated by T 'I 2IO HEAD AND NECK. Fig. 303. To show what diverse opinions exist as to the ears of the horse, I give from different works on conforma- tion the two following extracts, which are far from being in accord with each other. "There can be no greater orna- ment than long, fine, active-looking, upright, tolerably close-set ears, with the points a little inclined towards each other. I never saw a soft constitutioned horse with ears of this description" (Carson). Goubaux and Barrier state : " It is a fact worthy of notice that horses which have short ears are always energetic and plucky. There seems to be a certain relation between their length and the timidity of their bearers. At least, this is the conclusion we may draw from a comparison made among different kinds of animals, of which the most timid and inoffensive have them greatly developed. Carnivorous animals, on the contrary, have them small. Short ears render the head lighter, and the expression of the face brighter, more expressive and more pleasing to the eye. In this respect the Arab horse greatly excels English and Continental animals. It is considered a beauty for a horse to have his ears well directed to the front, at an angle of about 45° with the axis of the head. Quick and energetic animals carry their ears in this manner. To sum up, the ear is beautiful when it is short, directed to the front, well placed, lean, fine, and covered with thin skin, which should be adherent, and comparatively free from hair in the interior of the ear." With respect to the ears being " well directed to the front at an angle of about 45° with the axis of the head," it is evident that such a carriage of the ears, being produced by voluntary muscular effort, can be sustained for only a comparatively brief space of time. Almost all horses have the ability to direct their ears forward in the manner mentioned, unless they are prevented by disease, malformation, or injury ; but they do so only when their attention is attracted to some- thing in front of them. The same may be said of donkeys, mules and zebras (Fig. 310). It is true that EARS. 21 I some horses " prick their ears " more frequently than others ; but, for all that, such carriage of the ears can be regarded as but a temporary lighting-up of the face, and not as a permanent beauty. If a horse habitually carries his ears more or less directed behind him, we might sus- pect him to be wanting in courage and good temper. This is by no means an invariable rule, for I have met some notable exceptions. Richard remarks that deaf horses carry their ears J'hoto hij] [M. H. H. Fig. 302. — Ends of the Ears Turned In. I'hot., /.«] [M. H. H. Fig. 303. — Usual Position of the Ears when Pricked Forward. steadily pointed in the direction they are looking, with- out side '' play." Such animals are generally docile and attentive to the indications received from rein and leg. A horse is said to have lop ears (Fig. 304) when they are usually carried in a loose and somewhat pendulous manner, and they therefore lack the frequent forward, backward and lateral play of those of the ordinary horse. 14* 212 HEAD AND NECK. Although increased size naturally directs attention to this peculiarity ; lop ears are not necessarily large ears. A lop-eared horse is quite as capable of pricking his ears forward (Fig. 305) as any other horse ; but, having done so, he generally allows them to fall back into their accustomed pendulous position. Lop-eared horses are generally supposed to be more placid in disposition, if not more sluggish, than their fellows. The forelock is the front continuation of the mane. It grows between the ears, and for a short distance down the forehead. When allowed to maintain its natural length (Fig. 306), it is a very useful means of protection for a horse's eyes, against the attacks of flies, and against the rays of the sun, as we may see by the relief, especially during hot weather, which eye-fringes give horses that have been more or less deprived of their forelocks. In fact these natural eye-fringes act better than artificial ones. The great mobility of its hairs prevents it from being an obstruction to the animal's line of sight. Eyes. — The eye should be clear and free from tears,, the pupil black, and the eyelids thin and comparatively free from wrinkles. A small eye (Fig. 307) in the horse is called a " pig-eye," and is generally considered to denote a disposition that is either sulky or wanting in courage. In this photograph, the straight shoulder, ewe neck, Roman nose and pig-eye point to the plebeian origin of the animal whose portrait it is. The prominent " buck-eye " is gene- rally regarded as an unfailing sign of short sight, which is, however, a very rare defect in horses. Horses which show a good deal of white in their eyes, as the term is, are usually suspected of being vicious ; and kickers, as a rule, uncover a portion of the white of the eye (on the side to which the head is turned) when they look back ready to " let fly." This suspicion is naturally heightened,, if, at the same time that the danger signal in the eye is EYES. 213 Photo bii] [M. H. H. Fig. 304. — Lop-eared thorough-bred Mare. Photo hy'\ ^%^§m \Fig. 305. — Mare in Fig. 304 \viih ears pricked forward. [JI. H. H. 214 HEAD AND NECK. displayed, the ears are pressed back close on the neck, the front teeth are exposed by the drawing back of the lips, and a hind foot is kept raised off the ground. I have, however, known horses of most placid temper whose eyes showed a great deal of white all round the iris (the coloured portion of the eye), on account of the iris being abnormally small. Under ordinary conditions, the human eye always exhibits a good deal of white, but the horse's eye, as a rule, does not do so, except when its glance is directed to the rear or inwards. Some game, honest horses (like St. Gatien, for instance) show, without looking in a backward direction, a certain amount of white of the eye, which, when it is of a constant red- dish tinge, is thought by some to indicate hardiness of constitution and staying power. On page 208, I have alluded to the tendency which horses have to show the white of their eyes, when under the influence of fear or anger. Holloivs above the Eyes. — The existence of deep hollows above the eyes is objectionable, for it denotes that the animal is old and more or less worn out, or that either its sire or dam was well advanced in years when it was bred, and, consequently, that it is somewhat wanting in vigour. Nostrils. — The nostrils should be thin, flexible and of ample capacity, so as to suggest the possession of large air- passages. During rest, they should be more or less closed. If they are kept constantly dilated when the breathing ought to be tranquil, we may infer that the animal has something wrong with his " wind." Lips. — The lips should be lean and comparatively thin ; should possess considerable power of movement ; and, as a rule, should be kept closed, for the sake of appearance. We may generally consider that a pendant condition of LIPS. 21 ; 1- ig. 3uO. — Marc wUh I'orclock, Mane and lail ul Aalural Length. Photo hy'\ [M. H. H. Fig. 307. — Roman Nose, Small Eye, Ewe Neck, and Upright .Shoulders. 2i6 HEAD AND NECK. the lower lip indicates want of vigour ; for it is much more frequently observed among old horses than among young ones. Richard considers that it is often inherited. " We have/' says he, " ridden horses full of energy, which had a pendant lower lip. Delphine, formerly a brood mare at the stud at Pin, daughter of Massoud and of a Selim mare, dam of Eylau, had a drooping lower lip, and all her foals took after her in this respect. She, however, possessed energy and blood which have left their mark." Some horses have great length of upper lip, which un- doubtedly looks ugly. Both this conformation and the possession of a thick tuft of hair or moustache on the upper lip, are indicative of coarse blood. Lower Jaw. — The branches of the lower jaw should be broad, as viewed from the side, and should be wide apart at their angles, so as to give plenty of room for the tube (the larynx) which lies between them, and which opens into the wind-pipe. The space between the jaws should not only be broad, but should also be hollowed out, a condition which will show that the parts are of firm texture and free from excess of loose connective issue (p. 30). The old practical rule of finding whether a horse is wide enough between the jaws, is to try if the clenched fist can be placed within the hollow. I venture to think that few horses could successfully pass this test, if it were applied with an ordinary-sized man's hand. When this space is broad and well hollowed out, the horse will natur- ally be able to bend his head more freely than when it is narrow, and he will, consequently, be pleasanter to ride and drive. Setting-on of the Head. — The part where the head is set on to the neck should be lean and muscular, and should show a slight depression behind the ears and lower jaw, and also above the wind-pipe. This will indicate absence of an excess of loose connective tissue, and ability SETTING-ON OF THE HEAD. 217 on the part of the horse to bend his head freely. The beautiful manner in which the neck " runs into " the head of some horses, is due to the arrangement of the bones of the neck and to the lean and well-developed condition of the muscles. The profile of this junction will, then, form a curve which will be a fitting commence- ment of the graceful, undulating line that sweeps over the neck, shghtly dips in front of the withers, over which '•ma^^ Pholij bv'\ [Clarence hailey, Newmarket. Fig. 308.— Mr. J. Gubbins's Ard Patrick, it curves, and rising a httle along the back, swells boldly over the loins and quarters, dips again at the root of the dock, and, finally, ends in the flowing lines of the tail. The setting-on of the head and the curves alluded to were beau- tifully exemphfied in St. Simon, whose photograph (Fig. 16) is not nearly so good as I would have wished. These points also come out well in Ard Patrick (Fig. 308), Favonius (Fig. 420), Predominant (Fig. 278), and 2i8 HEAD AND NECK. Romance (Fig. 487). In the Arab pony, The Brat (Fig. 309), the curved hne is perfect from the head to the croup ; but, on account of the way he is standing, it descends too abruptly from the top of the croup to the tail. In Ormonde (Frontispiece) the head is set on to the neck in a coarse, stiff manner. The ideal contour which I have described, is evidently an affair of beauty rather than of usefulness. Neck. — As the length of the neck indicates the length of the muscle which draws the fore limb forward (p. 43) ; the more we seek for speed and ability to jump cleverly in an animal, the longer should be his neck ; its thickness being limited by the amount of strength the muscles have to put forth. The race-horse, hunter, and fast trotter, therefore, should have a long and comparatively thin neck, and the other classes should have their necks pro- portionately shorter and thicker according as they recede from the racing and cross-country type and approach that of the heavy draught animal. The operation of this rule should be restricted only so far as to allow sufficient length of neck for grazing purposes. Some heavy cart- horses have such short necks that they cannot feed off level ground with comfort to themselves. When the art of breeding is pushed to such an extreme as this, I cannot help thinking that there must be some defect in its prac- tical working. It is evident that the combination of a large head and a thin neck is not only unpleasing to the eye, but is almost always a sign of general weakness. The all-essential power which men possess to guide and regulate the movements of a horse, largely depends on the flexibility of the animal's neck. Were we unable to make him bend it, and to oblige him to turn his head to one side or the other in obedience to the " feeling " of the hands on the reins, he would be all but useless to us in the saddle and for ordinary harness work. I once undertook to saddle and get ridden an old entire zebra NECK. 219 Photo hy'\ Fig. 309.— Colonel Anderson's Arab Pony, The Brat. [M. H. H. Photo by] [M. H. H. Fig. 310. — Mountain Zebra [Eqiiiis zebra) 220 HEAD AND NECK. (Equus zebra, Fig. 310), whose feet were becoming gradu- ally deformed, on account of the animal not permitting them to be pared down. In less than an hour after I had turned it into the ring of Frank Fillis's circus, which was then in Calcutta, I had its feet rasped down to a proper level, and had it saddled and bridled for the first time in its life. It was then ridden by Steve Margaret (a brilliant Australian rough-rider) and by my wife. This was certainly the first occasion a lady ever rode this variety of zebra, which has the reputation all over the world of being unrideable. Although I was able to quickly teach it to carry its unwonted burden quietly, I made far less progress in giving it a " mouth " during the two days I had it in hand, than I would have done in half an hour with any wild Colonial horse caught for the first time on a " run ; " the reason being that the zebra's neck was so stiff and strong, that I was unable to bend it in any direction. I soon taught it to do what I wanted in the circus ; but when I rode it outside, it took me where- ever it liked. In fact, I had not the slightest power to either stop or guide it. Some horses, like this striped ass, though not to the same extent, are very stiff in the neck, a fact which may be owing to an obstinate temper, bad breaking in, or to a thick and rigid condition of the muscles and joints of the part. This natural want of flexibility may be overcome to a great extent by judicious " bending." As it militates against the ready turning and easy regulation of the paces of an animal, it should be regarded as a grave defect of conformation in the saddle-horse and light trapper. It may, however, be overlooked in the heavy cart-horse, whose normal pace being a walk, will not require to be as " supple " (to use a riding school term) as an animal that has to go at a faster pace, and whose line of progression, instead of being along a more or less straight road, may be across an intricate country, or in conformance with the word of command in a riding school or on parade. Besides, NECK. 221 to have the necessary power in his fore hmbs, the heavy draught animal will need massive neck muscles (p. 43) to draw them forward. When " cleverness " is essential to a horse, he should have a flexible neck, and should be able to bend and extend it with the utmost facility, so as to use his head and neck as a balancing pole for pre- serving the equilibrium of his body. Some extra weight in the neck, apart from that re- quired for the due development of the neck muscles, is I'hoto by] [Clarence Hailey, Newmarket. Fig. 311. — Mr. Swan's Gamecock. no detriment to the usefulness of a cart-horse ; for it will aid him in " throwing weight into the collar." In the saddle horse, on the contrary, it is a great dis- advantage ; because it makes him heavy on his fore- hand, and would consequently render him liable to prematurely wear out his fore legs. In this connection, it is instructive to note that entires, which, as a rule, have much heavier necks than geldings, do not, when 222 HEAD AND NECK. they are employed at fast paces, stand as much work, retain their " form " as long, or get into galloping condition as quickly as those which have been " added to the hst." We see this rule well proved in steeple chasing and racing, as witness the long careers of those geldings, Liberator, Regal, Gamecock (Fig. 311), Rein- deer, and others. For races in the early part of the season in England, geldings as a rule can be got much fitter than entires ; as they need less work. As maturity of horseflesh is required far more at steeple- chasing than at flat racing ; the superiority of the gelding over the entire is particularly observable " between the flags." Owners and trainers who recognise the advan- tage of castrating those colts of theirs which do not give promise of value for stud purposes, are often deterred from putting the operation into practice, on account of geldings being ineligible for many flat events. This prohibition extends on the Continent to a few steeple- chases. I think I may safely say that the large majority of colts which are not worth keeping entire for future stud purposes, should be cut not later than the end of their two-year-old racing career. The records of hunting amply prove the benefits of the operation. Mr. H. T. Barclay's Freeman, who carried his master most brilliantly for fourteen trying seasons over Leicestershire, is no solitary instance of the ability of the gelding to stand work, especially when it is of a nature, like that of jump- ing, to severely tax the soundness of the fore legs. The necessity of the hunter to be light in front, is a subject upon which I need not dwell here. Many experienced trainers with whom I have discussed this subject, hold the same opinions as I do on the practical utility of cas- tration. I think that the majority of trainers will agree with me in saying that geldings not only stand fast work better than entires ; but also recover more quickly from injuries of the fore legs. The lesson to be learned, from a conformation point of view, from the foregoing remarks, NECK. 223 is that the racer, chaser, and hunter should be light in the head, neck and shoulders. The neck, with respect to its contour, is designated high-crested (or convex, Fig. 312), straight (Figs. 275 and 277), or ewe-necked (concave. Fig. 307), as the case may be. The contour varies a good deal ac- cording to the manner the animal holds his head, and should be judged by the form it assumes when the horse stands in an ordinary manner at attention (p. 79), Plmto hij] Fig. 312. — Ardenne Stallion. [J. Delton, Paris. with the line of its face at an angle of about 60° to the ground. Some horses, especially coarse bred entires, have a very high and thick crest (Fig. 312), from an excessive amount of fat having been deposited above the suspensory Hgament of the head and neck. Such a formation, from overloading the fore - hand, is a marked defect in any kind of saddle-horse. A shght convexity of crest in a lean though fairly muscular neck, as in Fig. 309, is a beauty. 224 HEAD AND NECK. The fact of a horse being ewe-necked seems to be of no detriment to his speed. It might, however, affect his handiness, on account of depriving, to some extent, his rider or driver, as the case may be, of command over him ; and b}^ causing his head to be brought into a direction which might prevent him seeing clearly where he is going. On page 84, et seq., I have discussed at some length the subject of the carriage of a horse's head and neck. In saddle-horses, the place where the neck comes out of the chest should be marked ; above, by a slight depression in front of the withers ; below, by another depression at the point where the jugular groove meets the chest ; and at each side, it should be nearly flat with neck and shoulder. In cart-horses, the large muscles of the shoulder stand out in prominent relief from the neck, and the dip in front of the withers is either absent or but faintly indicated. Owing to the comparative lightness of the neck in mares and geldings, the union of the neck with the head and trunk is better marked in them, than in entires. Mane. — When the mane is in a natural condition (Fig. 306), it falls on both sides of the neck in a more or less evenly distributed manner, and serves as a very efti- cient protection to the neck against the attacks of flies. In this case, the hairs of the mane form a whisk which is set in motion by the horse shaking his head and neck. This instinctive movement is utilised by circus men who train horses to answer a question in the negative, by shaking their heads. At first, they take a pin between their fingers, and stick it into the neck of their equine pupil, who, thereupon, instinctively shakes his head. After several repetitions of this annoying lesson, the horse will shake his head, in anticipation of the pin-prick, as soon as the man's hand approaches his neck. To obtain an affirmative answer by the horse bowing his head, all the man has to do, is to use the pin in a similar manner on THROAT. 225 the animal's breast, which the horse has to protect from the irritation of flies by his muzzle, because his breast is not provided with a hairy whisk or a twitching muscle (p. 42). When a horse which has thus been trained, is brought before an audience in the circus, he will signify ''yes " or "no," with unconscious humour, as answers to the funny questions of his trainer, who obtains the desired replies by a simple wave of the hand towards the animal's breast or neck, as the case may be. As the neck of a horse is particularly sensitive to the attacks of flies, all horses which are kept in the open, should be allowed to have long manes. Throat. — The wind-pipe should be large and well detached from the neck ; as it will then indicate good breathing power. Roaring often accompanies a wasted appearance of the tissues which cover the larynx, and is caused by paralysis of one or both of the muscles which open the larynx. The size of these muscles is too small to account for this peculiarly emaciated condition. 226 CHAPTER XVII. THE TRUNK. General View of the Trunk — Chest and Ribs — Abdomen — Withers — Breast — Back and Loins — Points of the Hips — Flank— Croup — Anus — Tail. General View of the Trunk. — We have seen on p. i8o, that as the work which the organs contained in the trunk (heart, lungs, hver, spleen, stomach, intestines, kidneys, etc.) have to do, is the same, whatever m.ay be the kind of horse ; the shape of the trunk will not, generally, be affected by class distinctions. Hence, the conformation of trunk which is, for instance, most suit- able for a Derby winner, will be that which is best for a cart-horse. In laying down this general rule, I must make an exception of the withers (p. 238), which are concerned in mechanical work, and not in the perform- ance of any vital function. Although the shape of the horse's body remains constant — without, of course, taking mto consideration individual peculiarities — the bones which make up the entire structure should agree as to thickness with those of the legs ; for several of the muscles which are attached to them, are also attached to the limbs. It has already been remarked that the strength of a muscle more or less regulates the thickness of the bone to which it is fixed. When referring to race-horses in this connection, I am taking into consideration only those of high class, namely, horses which can gallop, stay and carry weight, like Ormonde (Frontispiece), Isonomy, Robert the Devil, Bendigo (Fig. 50) and St. Gatien. When only speed GENERA!. VJI.W Oh 'I III: IRUNK. 227 has to be regardorl, onrhiranre and wpight-carryinf^ power have I0 1)(* pro])oiiiona1cly sacrificcfl, in which case, the animal is worthless from a useful j)oiii1 of view, esjjeci- ally, as its one j^ood quality can, as a rule, b(; transmitted to its descendants, only in company witli its bad ones. In all cases, the body should be as short as possible compar(;d I0 its depth ; or, in otiicr words, as deep as possible, compared to its ](;ngth. Tlie longcT it is, the farther removed will tlu; fore and hind limits be from each other, and the less afjle will tin; animal be to carry weight. On j>. 67 we fiave seen that a short f)ody is a desiraf)le y)oint in the race-horse ;ind jumper. Also in draught, any undue lenglli (^1 body is a disadvantage; for the farther the fore and hind legs are apart, the less rigid will b(; the connection between them, and the less effi- ciently will they work together. When sjK'akirjg ol ihe depth of a horse's body, I refer to its dejAh at the ]ow(;st point of its back fFig. 15). If an animal shows a good measurement at this part, fu; is almost certain io jjossess fair substance of body. The measurement from the withers to the brisket is very fallacious ; for it is affected by the actual height of the withers, and it affords hardly any indirntir)n oi tlie nature of the " centre-piece " of the bofly. Many horses which are very short in thfir back ribs have good dejjth from withers \(> brisket, as in Figs. 318 and 326. I'jidurance (p. 8; chiefly depends on the amount of energy which can be sujjplied to th(; animal machine. Hence, the conformation of the structures which enclose th(; lungs and abdominal organs ^stomach, liver, intestines, etc.;, should be as favourable as jxjssible for promoting their working capacity, wliich suljject will be discussed on pages 232 to 236. Chest and Ribs. Although the heart, as well as the lungs, is contained in the c li(;st, I shall not consider it here ; for I can offer no clue as to its action from a 228 THE TRUNK. consideration of the conformation of the chest, which is influenced chiefly by the shape, size and setting-on of the ribs. The points which we should seek for in the ribs of a horse, in order to obtain the best possible breathing power, are : — 1. Convexity (roundness) of ribs (" barrel ") behind the shoulders. 2. Good length of ribs. 3. Ribs well inclined to the rear. The convexity of a curve may be measured by the proportion which its height (c d, Fig. 313 or Fig. 314) bears to the length of its chord a b. Thus, if c ^ is equal to ^ a b in Fig. 313, and equal to ^ a b in Fig. 314, the curve a c b will be three times as convex in the former as in the latter. Among the higher animals, we find that chest capacity c' c— ci Fig. 313. —Semi-circle. Fig. 314.— Arc of Circle. is obtained either by convexity or by length. Hence, animals which have short chests have round ones, and those that have long ones have them flat-sided, the capacity being increased by roundness of the ribs and decreased by flatness of these bones. We have already seen that undue length of body is detrimental to speed, weight- carrying power, and strength in draught. Consequently, we should seek for 'roundness of chest in order to obtain good breathing power Youatt, in his book on The Horse, appears to have originated a fallacy concerning the con- formation of the ribs which has been repeated by many English writers. He says that " the circular chest could not expand, but every change of form would be a diminu- tion of capacity." This statement seems to be based on the supposition that the chest expands and contracts by the ribs opening and closing in a direction at right CHEST AND RTBS. 229 angles to the length of the body. Instead of this being the case, the difference in capacity of the chest is due to the fact of the ribs, which are inclined to the rear, turning round towards the front on their upper and lower ends, as on pivots, when air is drawn into the lungs, and then revolving back again when the air is expelled from them. We may here note that the (tidal) air is expelled from the lungs by the elastic recoil of the ribs, which takes place the moment the muscles which drew the ribs forward become relaxed. Youatt's statement is altogether incorrect ; for the rounder the ribs are, other things being equal, the greater will be the difference between the chest capacity when the lungs are full, and its capacity when they are comparatively empty. We may prove the foregoing remarks as follows : Let the shaded oval in Figs. 315, 316 and 317 diagrammatically represent the space respectively enclosed between three pairs of ribs of different degrees of convexity, but of the same depth, viewed from behind, at the end of an expiration. Let a b { = a b^ ) be the distance of the centre of each rib from its vertical axis, h a c the angle at which the ribs in all three figures are inclined to the rear, and ¥ a b the angle through which they respectively turn during an inspiration. We shall then see that the difference of capacity — shown by the difference of area between the shaded oval and the one which circumscribes it — is greatly in favour of the round barrel. If it were possible to have a chest perfectly circular (as in Fig. 317) at the end of an expiration, the transverse axis of the chest when the lungs were fully inflated, would exceed in length the vertical axis. The second desirable condition — namely, good length of ribs — should, as we have seen, be obtained rather by rotundity than by the distance which the respective ends of the ribs are from each other. If the ribs are sufficiently round, we need not trouble ourselves much as to their length, except as regards the farthest back ones, which should be as long and directed as much outwards as possible, so as to afford a broad attachment to the diaphragm (p. 50). It would be easy to prove that the more inclined the ribs are to the rear, the greater will be the difference 230 THE TRUNK. in capacity of the chest, when empty, to what it would be when full of air, and consequently, the better the breathing power ; but I do not think that it is possible to estimate this inclination with sufficient accuracy to make it a practical guide. Experience leads me to conclude that all useful purposes in this respect will be served, by satis- fying ourselves whether or not the horse under examination is " well ribbed up." If the last rib be short, flat, and but little inclined to the rear, the animal will be " slack i^' J c Fig- 315- Fig- 316. Fig. 317. Diagrams Showing Different Degrees of Expansion of Chest. in the loins," and certainly will not have as good breath- ing power as he w^ould have had, if that rib was long, " springing " w'ell out from the side, and inclined so much to the rear, that there would be space only for the ends of two or three fingers between it and the point of the hip. Such a desirable shape would give the utmost width of base to the diaphragm, which is a very important muscle of breathing. Although, in this connection, I mention only the last rib, I take for granted that its neigh- bouring ribs would conform, more or less, to its length, shape and inclination to the rear. As a rule, the shorter CHEST AND RIBS. 231 Fig. 31S. — Mr. J. Buchanan's Epsom Lad. Plwto bi/] Fig. 319. — Thorough-bred "Weed." [M. H. H. 232 THE TRUNK. the last rib, the greater is the successive diminution of the length of the false ribs from front to rear. Hence, when the last rib is relatively short, the angle which the lower line of the chest makes with the ground, will almost always be greater (Figs. 318 and 319), than when the horse is well ribbed up, like Ormonde (Frontispiece). Here, the animal's '' condition" should of course be taken into account. When a horse is in hard condition (Figs. 275, 324, and 427), the rear end of this line curves more or less upwards; but in fat horses (Figs. 11 and 320) and in mares in foal (Fig. 321), the abdomen, at a point midway between the elbow and stifle, is often nearer the ground than the "girth place." In the weight- carrying hunter, the front half of this hue should be nearly parallel to the ground (Fig. 322). In this con- nection, it is interesting to compare the conformation of the greyhound (Fig. 8) with that of the foxhound (Fig. 323), the former being noted for his speed ; the latter, for his endurance. The photograph of Irish Lassie (Fig. 324) was taken immediately after she had accom- plished her remarkable feat of carrying her young French owner, M. Cottu, from Vienna to Paris, a distance of 785 miles, in 12 days and 14 hours. The fatigue she went through gave no undue upward slope to the lower line of her chest, although she was very light in condition, as we may see by the way her ribs appear in the photograph. We may be quite certain that she would not have returned " fit and well," had she been of the " herring-gutted " type, supposing that she had not died on the way. The subject in question is well illustrated by Figs. 325 and 326, the photographs of which I took in South Africa in 1901. During the war, the horse in Fig. 325 went through a great deal of hardship without losing condition ; but the one in Fig. 326, though well bred and fast at first, proved useless from lack of endurance. Horses of the foxhound type, like those in Figs. 322, 324 and 325, can carry plenty of animal fuel, and consequently fulfil the con- CHEST AND RIBS. %»»* 233 PliOtj bii] Kig. 320. — Duke of Atholl's Highland Garron. [M. H. H. r/ioto ill] Fi". 321.— Shetland Pony Mare in Foal. [M. H. n. 234 THE TRUNK. ditions of endurance which have been discussed on pages 8 to II. It is instructive to note that the steeplechase horses, Midshipmite (Fig. 346) and Specs (Fig. 342), which were both " hght" in the back ribs, were poor stayers, although they were fast and good jumpers. The popularity of ''show condition" among horse exhibitors is chiefly due to the fact that obesity is the best means for concealing the defect of short back ribs. From the foregoing considerations, we should regard roundness of barrel behind the girths ; depth of body (as compared to length of body) in the centre of the back ; and being well ribbed up, as the great signs, in conformation, of a horse having good breathing power. As the middle false ribs are those which have the greatest power of being drawn forwards and outwards (p. 41), they, in comparison to the length of the body should be as long, as well as convex, as possible. On account of their lower ends being difficult to trace in the living animal, we may conveniently judge of their approximate lengths, by the depth of the body at the centre of the back, and by the slope of the lower line of the chest ; making due allowance for the " condition " of the animal. The shape of the body should of course be judged by the body itself, and without reference to the length or substance of the legs. The fact, as often occurs, of the body being too heavy for the legs, in no way affects the proportion which its length, depth and thickness bear to eaCh other. The popular term, "slack in the loins," which has been used, is often applied to the objectionable condition of the last rib being short and at a considerable distance from the point of the hip. This expression is not alto- gether inappropriate, because the ribs are united by joints to the vertebrae, and consequently their length, as a rule, is proportionate to the size of these vertebrae, which is proportionate to the strength of the muscles CHEST AND RIBS. 235 that are attached to these bones. Hence the longer the ribs, the stronger will the muscles of the back and loins generally be. Some persons think that it is an advantage for a horse, as regards speed, to be a bit " slack in the loins ; " because (so they say) such a shape allows the animal more freedom in bringing his hind legs forward, than if he were well ribbed up. It is evident that the form of a horse's back ribs cannot in any way affect Photo by} [^^- ^- ^• Fig. 322.— Mr. W. H. Walker's Heavy-weight Hunter, Touclistone. the action of his hind legs. This absurd reason was, no doubt, invented by some person who supposed that the hip joints were at the points of the hips ! Although a '* herring-gutted " conformation mihtates greatly against endurance and weight-carrying capacity, it is favourable to speed (as in the greyhound), because the comparative lightness of the body behind the shoulders increases the instability of the equihbrium (p. 69) at fast paces. Owing to sexual causes, mares, as a rule, are not so well ribbed 236 THE TRUNK. up as horses. Hence, a little slackness in the hollow of the flank is not such a grave fault in them as in entires and geldings. The fact, however, remains, that for all purposes of work, a horse or mare cannot be too well ribbed up. Merche remarks that : " Among common horses, the last rib is less arched and less carried back than among blood horses ; and the flank consequently appears longer." St. Simon, among many other great race-horses, was an instance of a fine stayer who possessed singularly little depth at the withers, but had great roundness of chest behind the girth, and also fair depth of body at the lowest point of his back. It is essential for the race-horse to obtain good breathing power by roundness of ribs, so that his body may have its powers of breathing fully developed without its length and weight being unduly increased. The great advantage of depth in the front portion of the chest is to allow of good length of shoulder-blade, which is indispensable to the weight-carrier and jumper. Abdomen. — We have seen on p. 50 that the trunk is divided by the diaphragm into two portions, the chest and abdomen ; the former containing the lungs and heart ; the latter, the stomach, liver, intestines, bladder and other organs. The ribs form the walls of the chest. The contents of the belly (consisting mostly of the in- testines) are kept in their place chiefly by powerful liga- ments, the principal one of which is the abdominal tunic (p. 40), and by muscles. These structures are respectively attached to the margin of the front part of the pelvis, to the rear part of the breast-bone, rearmost edge of the ribs, and to the sides of the loin vertebrae, thus bridging over the vacant space. We may, then, fairly assume that the lines of the abdomen should form a continuation of the general contour of the chest. As the straight muscle of the abdomen which covers the lower portion of this cavity, is the chief muscle that bends the back ; the horse cannot be thoroughly " fit " for work, if this muscle is ABDOMEN. 237 unduly pressed down by the intestines, and is conse- quently prevented from contracting to its full extent. m. Fig . 323. — Foxhound. %■'■ Photo by] Fig. 324. — M. Cottu's Irish Lassie. [J. DELTOx, Paris. This straight muscle and the other muscles of the abdomen aid in the process of breathing, which will be more or less 238 THE TRUNK. interfered with, if these muscles have to constantly strive against undue pressure from the contents of the cavity they cover. Besides, if the intestinal mass is greater than it ought to be, it will hamper the action of the lungs by forcing the diaphragm too far into the chest ; it will add to the weight to be carried ; and will mihtate against speed by tending to bring the centre of gravity to the rear, and by thus increasing the stabihty of the equilibrium (p. 69). Although the subject of feeding is not within the province of this book, it may not be out of place if I point out that the practice of giving horses large quantities of soft food (boiled turnips, for instance), which they can quickly consume, exerts, among other evils, an injurious effect on the muscles of the stomach, intestines and abdomen ; for, being deprived of the rest which is necessary to their repair and development, by the continued pressure re- sulting from the presence of the bulky food, these muscles soon become ill-fitted to perform their work. On the other hand, we should guard against a " tucked up " condition of belly, which will indicate illness, over-work, too excitable a temperament, or improper management of some kind. If we consider that these abdominal muscles act by tending to become straight between their points of attachment, and that, when in a passive state, they are longer than when they contract, we shall see that, when in a condition of rest, they should be gently rounded, and should be neither drawn straight nor bulged out. On pages 355 and 356, the special development of these muscles will be considered. Withers.— The chief object which the withers fulfil, is to afford attachment for the suspensory ligament of the head and neck ; for muscles which extend the head and neck ; for muscles that draw the shoulder-blade forward ; for the powerful muscle that runs along the top of the back and extends the vertebrae ; and for a muscle which aids inspiration by bringing the ribs forward. WITHERS. 239 ;» vsSWi*v*>vj*^»£!s ^'seE»»«f,.iSSK£«b*y^'S»- ■. Photo bii] Fig. 325. — Well-ribbed-up Australian Cavalry Horse. [M. H. H. Photo bij] ■ [M- H. H. P'ig. 326. — Herring-gutted Australian Cavalry Horse. 240 THE TRUNK. If we look at the skeleton (Fig. i8), we shall readily see that the fact of the withers rising, as they do, above the line of the back, greatly assists the action of the elastic hga- ment that supports the head and neck, and of the muscles which extend these parts. It also increases the power of the muscle which extends the back and loins. Besides, it tends to give length to the muscle which is attached to the withers and which helps to draw the shoulder for- ward, and by affording increased space for the top of the shoulder-blade, it favours length of this important bone. The farther back the withers extend, the more do they, by giving a broad surface for attachment, indicate large development of the muscle which extends the back and loins, and the more room do they afford for the backward slope of the shoulder-blade. Hence, withers which are high and which extend far back, are generally associated with a good carriage of the head and neck ; free movement of the shoulders ; long and sloping shoulder-blades ; and strength in the back and loins. Such a conformation is desirable in every kind of horse, and especially in the race- horse, hunter, and steeplechaser. Low withers, on the con- trary, are usually accompanied by heavy, short and upright shoulders. Lecoq observes that " in the mule, and es- pecially in the ass, the withers are always low ; a con- formation which is in accordance with the small develop- ment of the paces of these animals." Dealers and others, when " showing off " a horse which has high withers, not unfrequently endeavour to direct attention to this fact, as a proof of the' length and obliquity of the shoulders. I need hardly point out, even to inexperienced horse- men, that any particular part should be judged, if possible,, on its own merits, and not by those of another part, however much excellence in the latter may indicate its possession by the former. The Height of the withers is, strictly speaking, that of the spines of the vertebrae of the part and the soft tissues, which cover their summits. Their apparent height is the WITHERS. 241 distance they project above the top of the shoulder-blades ; although it is often difficult to teU how high they are in horses which have very thick withers. Animals that are comparatively high over the croup, appear to have lower withers than those which are high in front, even when we make aUowance for any difference that may exist in the length of the spines themselves. The reason for this seems to be, that, as elevation of the croup causes the weight of the body to be shifted forward ; such a con- formation tends to depress the body between the shoulder- blades, and consequently reduces the distance between them and the top of the withers. " Age and sex have an equal influence on the leanness of withers, which, badly defined in the colt, come well out only towards five or six years old, at the time when the bones have attained their full length, and the body its definite size. The withers are less high in the mare than in the gelding or entire. As a set off, the last men- tioned, whose fore-hand acquires a considerable develop- ment, has this part thicker, especially in the case of a heavy draught animal " {Gouhaux and Barrier). As the withers afford attachment to the suspensory hgament of the head and neck (ligamentum nuchce), the bony development of the withers will usually be pro- portionate to the thickness (strength) of this ligament; its thickness being proportionate to the weight which it has to support. As the weight of the head and neck of an entire is relatively greater than that of a mare, the spines of his withers (p. 36) wih be higher than hers, supposing that, in other respects, the two animals are of similar conformation. Although early castration pre- vents, to a considerable extent, any marked difference occurring between the muscular and fatty development of the neck of the gelding and that of the mare ; it does not appear to check the bony development of the withers. Therefore, the neck of an ordinary gelding resembles that of a mare ; and the height of his withers, that of an entire. 16 24^ THE TRUNK. Regarding the bones of the head, neck and withers as a lever, which in this case is of an extremely complicated nature, we find that the longer the neck, the greater is the strain which the weight of the head places on the ligamentum nuchce. Consequently, the spines of the withers are more largely developed in horses which, like thorough- breds, have long necks as compared to the size of their bodies. Writing on The Rate of Growth in the Horse, Professor Ewart points out that in the male wapiti, the spines of the withers are long ; but in the female wapiti, they are practically absent, because her head is not adorned with horns, which, in her consort, are very heavy. We have already seen (p. 184) that the length of the neck corresponds to the length of the fore legs, and not to the dimensions of the body. The Width of the Withers — constituting " thick withers " or " thin (lean) withers," as the case may be — depends on their apparent height ; actual thickness of the spines and their cartilages ; size of the muscles of the part ; and the amount of loose tissue about it. Although we cannot expect leanness of withers in the cart-horse, the presence of whose massive muscles that lie between the trunk and shoulder-blades, separates the ends of the latter widely asunder ; still it is a very desirable point in the saddle- horse, as it indicates absence of an excess of connective tissue (p. 30), lightness of fore-hand, and height of the withers themselves. In this class of animal, very thin, high withers are objectionable ; for they are liable to become hurt by a saddle. We are all aware that when the part is of this shape, it is difficult to keep the " gullet-plate " of the saddle from touching it, however high this iron arch may be ; the probable reason being, that such a con- dition is usually associated, as might be expected, with emaciation of the neighbouring muscles ; as for instance, that which gives rise to the prominence (" saddle muscle," see p. 270) behind the shoulder-blade, and behind which the " points " of the tree of the saddle should rest. BREAST. 243 When the part is thus unduly flat, the saddle is naturally liable to slip forward. Also, with horses which have thick withers, it is often difficult to keep the saddle in its place ; for the presence of large shoulder muscles and abundance of connective tissue conceal the outline of the Photo by] [J. Delton, Paris. Fig. 327. — Front view of the Boulonnais (French) Cart Stallion, R^joui (Fig. 504). Phofo by] [M. H. H. Fig- 328. — Front view of well -shaped weight- carrying Hunter (Fig. 322). shoulder-blades and render the part, upon which the points of the tree rest, smooth and flat. As the comparative leanness or thickness of withers greatly depends on the size of the muscles of the shoulders, I shall defer any further remarks on this subject until discussing the form and functions of the shoulders (p. 266, et seq.). Breast. — The conformation of the breast has refer- 16* 244 THE TRUNK. ence almost solely to the comparative width between the fore legs, which " is generahy looked upon as a measure of the size of the chest, or, rather, of its rotundity. This is an error which we have cleared away by more than fifty observations made on the living animal, and after- wards completed on the dead subject. We have never been able to ascertain, with respect to this point, any practical difference among animals of the same height, whatever might have been their width of breast ; for the simple reason that it is not in its front part that the chest varies much, but rather in its middle and back portions. To what cause, then, other than bulging out of the anterior ribs, is width between the fore legs due ? We must attribute it to the greater or less thickness of the pectoral muscles which form its base. We may see the truth of this from the fact that this part may become narrow in animals which have broad breasts. It is merely necessary to place them under bad sanitary conditions as regards work and feeding, to convince one that their state of emaciation brings on the loss of width of which we speak " (Goubaux and Barrier). If we compare the width between the fore legs of badly- shaped cart-horses which happen to be " flat-sided " and wanting in girth, with that of thorough-breds having large capacity of chest, we shall note that the width in question bears no relation to the size of the chest. Again, it is no rare occurrence to see horses that have been once broad-chested, become narrow in front when they are old and Worn out. The pectoral muscles, to which the eminent French professors allude in the fore- going extract, lie between the humerus and chest. As there is considerable lateral play between the elbows and chest of the horse ; the width between the fore legs varies a good deal when the animal is standing, according as the fore feet are close together or wide apart. The fact that horses which are broad between the fore legs are very rarely good stayers at a gallop, has been used BREAST. 245 as an argument that roundness of rib is inconsistent with good breathing power. We may account for it more correctly by saying that the failure in " staying " is owing to the undue weight of the fore-hand consequent on the large muscular development of the part, and to the tendency to lateral displacement of the centre of gravity (p. 68). It is well to remember that the muscles which, by their large development, give increased width m- fi i i n m '"liimj^ '■M ' jd^, ,^1 ^ ^ 1 \ n*. ' h Photo by] [M. H. H. Fig. 329. — Front view of well-shaped weight-carrying Hunter. P/iotu bj] [M. H. H. Fig. 330. — Broad-breasted thorough- bred mare (Fig. 305). between the fore legs, might with propriety be con- sidered in conjunction with those of the shoulders (p. 266), to the bones (shoulder-blade and humerus) of which they are attached at one end. The '' thick- ness of the shoulders " is directly influenced by their development, which is naturally more or less in agreement with that of the other muscles of the shoulder. Thus we rarely see a horse wide in front which is not at the same 246 THE TRUNK. time thick just below the withers (p. 270). As these facts are perhaps not very generally known, it is advis- able, for simplicity's sake, to discuss the subject of width between the fore legs and that of shoulders separately. For further remarks on " thickness of shoulders," see page 270. Mr. H. Wilton points out to me that horses vary very little — comparatively to their depth of body, from top of withers to brisket — in their respective " width through the heart," which is the term applied by saddlers to the horizontal and transverse measurement through the chest, at the spots touched by the ends of the points of the tree (supposing that they are both of full length) of a properly-made and well-fitting side-saddle, when it is placed in correct position on the animal's back. The point at which the measurement is taken is indicated by the letter ^?, in Fig. 350. The expression ^ 'width through the heart" is not quite correct; because the heart is situated lower down, and more to the front, than the line in question. The term is, however, well understood, and serves its pur- pose. Mr. Wilton gives me the following average measure- ments " through the heart," which he has obtained during a long experience in the fitting of side-saddles : — 19I inches, for a very heavy-weight hunter (maximum). 18 ,, ,, 15 or i6-stone hunter. lyi ,, ,, 13-stone hunter. 17 J ,, ,, hght-weight hunter, or thorough-bred. 16J ,, ,, Arab, 14. i or 14.2 high. These figures certainly prove that comparative width of breast, or width between the fore legs, is not dependent, or only to a very slight extent, on width of chest. As this measurement of " width through the heart " is taken behind the shoulders, their condition can in no way affect it. In considering the list of measurements given by Mr. Wilton, we must bear in mind that the more weight a hunter can carry, the '^ deeper " will his chest be, as a rule, and that light-weight hunters and thorough -breds are BREAST. 247 deeper in the chest than Arabs, which are comparatively small horses. Hence, we may regard the respective proportions between width and depth of chest in this list, as fairly uniform. When a horse is narrow between the fore legs by reason of the emaciated condition of his pectoral muscles, " the keel of his breast-bone becomes prominent, the points of the shoulder are pushed forward to the front, and allow Photo by] Fig. [M. H. H. Photo hii] [M. H. H. 331. — Broad-breasted Carriage Horse. Fig. 332. -Front view of well -shaped T.B. to be seen, between them and the breast, two deep de- pressions in which the jugular grooves terminate below " (Goubaux and Barrier). These writers point to the fact that narrowness in front may therefore be either natural or acquired. In a cart-horse, a broad breast (Fig. 327) is a desirable point ; for he requires to have massive muscles. Close observation of tho rough -breds convinces me that a race-horse cannot be too " narrow in front ; " provided 248 THE TRUNK. that his fore legs are properly shaped and properly '' put on/' and that the action in front is consequently " true." Undue narrowness of the chest may arise from the elbow being turned in and the toes turned out, as in Fig. 57, which represents a defective conformation of the part. The increase of width between the fore legs in proportion to weight-carrying power, is but slight in the well-shaped hunter, as we may see in Fig. 328, which is the front view of a particularly strong and active iifteen-stone hunter (Fig. 322). Fig. 329 is the front view of another powerful fifteen-stone hunter that could gallop, jump and stay with the best. We see in Fig. 330 the same view of a thorough- bred (Fig. 305) that was particularly thick, for a clean-bred horse, in the shoulders, and far too wide in front for gallop- ing. The muscles of the fore-arm in this figure contrasts, as regards development, unfavourably with those of Fig. 328. Those of my readers who have followed me up to the present point, will of course understand that in the saddle-horse, the proportionate development of the muscles which give width between the fore legs (those of the shoulders), should never exceed that of the muscles of the fore legs. Fig. 331 gives a front view of a carriage horse which was too broad between the fore legs for saddle work. Fig. 332 is a front view of a well-shaped race-horse which is of ordinary width between the fore legs. Sections of the chests of the horses shown in Figs. 329 and 331 are given in Fig. 349. Back and Loins. — The upper line of these parts should, for beauty, run in a straight line, or with the slightest possible rise, to the croup (Figs. 16, 338, 416,433 and 486). When the animal has a " roach-back " (Fig. 333) — that is to say, when this line is decidedly convex — the muscle which runs along the top of the back, and which has a powerful action on all the paces of the horse, wall be wanting in development, and the chest will, as a rule, be flat-sided. This condition of back, from the fact of its BACK AND LOINS. 249 J'/lOtO I'll] Fig. ^2;^. — Roach-backed and Goose-rumped Horse. [M. H. H. Pholo &»/] Fig. 334. — Hollow Back from Old Age. [M. H. H. 250 THE TRUNK. assuming, to some extent, the form of an arch, is generally supposed to be advantageous for carrying heavy burdens, as in the case of pack animals, although there does not appear to be any actual proof that such is the case. A " hollow-backed " or " saddle-backed " horse, on the contrary, is one which has this line concave, on account of the arrangement of the vertebrae of the part. It is frequently the result of relaxation of the ligaments which bind the vertebrae together, owing to the effects of hard work and debility. Thus, we may often see a horse, which in his youth had a straight back, become hollow-backed in his old age (Fig. 334). From the different position assumed by man when moving, the opposite to this occurs in ourselves. An appearance of hollow-back (Fig. 305) may be given by unusually large development of that part {posterior iliac spine, Fig. 18) of the pelvis which forms the highest point of the croup. I have also observed — especially among Arab ponies — the same kind of con- formation arise from the pelvis being set up particularly high in animals which were low^ in front. No fault can be found with an apparently hollow back produced by the large development of the pelvis. Without any exception, the loins and back, at the region of the cantle of the saddle, should be as flat and broad as possible ; for this condition indicates the presence of powerful rearing muscles (p. 67), and rotundity of the back ribs. In many draught animals, the upper muscles of the loins and back stand out as distinct ridges of muscle on each side of the backbone (Fig. 335). This beauty in the coarser breeds is not confined to them, but may sometimes be seen in well-bred horses, as was the case with Mr. Kelly Maitland's Kingcraft, w^hich was one of the best race-horses that has ever been in India. This Australian was a singularly muscular, short-backed animal, to whom distance and weight made, comparatively, but little difference. This " double-backed " condition may come on or disappear according to the amount of "flesh" BACK AND LOINS. 251 which the animal carries. A false appearance of flat- ness and strength of back and loins, and of roundness of barrel, may be temporarily given by " show condition " (excessive fat). In default of a generally accepted expression, it might be well to use the term, " wedge-shaped loins " Photo by] [J. DELTON, PARIS. Fig. 335. — Rear view of Boulonnais (French) Cart Stallion, Turbot (16-2^). (namely, loins which slope downwards on each side from the middle line of the back), in contradistinction to " flat loins " (Fig. 336). We must take into consideration that a wedge-shaped appearance of the loins may be caused by undue length of the spines of the vertebrae of the part, and not by deficiency of muscle, in which case the loms will be more or less '^roached." 252 THE TRUNK. Shortness of Loins and Back. — The appearance of com- parative shortness or comparative length which the back and loins (or back, if we include the loins in this term, see p. 17) may present, is due, I would submit, chiefly to the following causes : — I. The manner in which the croup runs into the loins. For instance, the back and loins will appear short and the croup (or " quarters ") long, if the pelvis be more or less horizontal ; the contour of the croup free from angularity ; the muscles over the loins largely developed ; and the flanks well ribbed up. We may here compare Fig. 337 with Fig. 338, and Ormonde (Frontispiece). Fig. 336. — Sections of loins. Tlie sliiiilefl portion of tliis figure represents the upper part of a transverse section of the loins, just bcliinil the cantle of tl)e suddle, of a liorse with " weflge-shajied " loins; and the whole figure (shaded portion and that outside it), that of a horse with fairly Hat loins. 2. The distance to which the withers run back. We may observe that the extreme lowness of the withers in the onager (Fig. 339) and Nubian wild ass (Fig. 402), gives the backs of these ^.nimals a false appearance of undue length. The angularity of the contour of Mike's croup (Fig. 279) might lead one to form the wrong opinion that he was long in the back and loins, if his withers did not extend so far to the rear, as to counteract that impression. 3. The degree of slope of the shoulder and pelvis. It is evident that the greater the angle formed by the respective directions of the shoulder-blade and pelvis produced (the more oblique the shoulder and the more horizontal the BACK AND LOINS. 253 croup), the shorter will the back and loins appear to be ; and vice versa. 4. Length of neck. It is evident that a long neck (or a " long rein," if we include the withers) will give an air of shortness to the back and loins ; and vice versa. 5. Depth of back ribs. Compare Ormonde and Cloister (Frontispiece) with Figs. 9 and 318. Without indulging in any tedious repetition, I think we J'holo b)j'\ [Di.xo.v & Sons, I'^ig- 337-— Mr. W. H. Walker's Walcr Lily. may safely assume that, in all cases, a horse's back and loins should have the appearance of being as short as possible. Points of the Hips. — When these parts are very prominent, the horse is said to have " ragged hips." Such a condition gives the animal an angular appearance, and is consequently displeasing to the eye. A horse thus formed is more likely to hurt his hips by knocking them 2 54 THE TRUNK. against door-posts, or by lying on a hard surface when he is not suppHed with a sufficiency of bedding, than one of different conformation. The fact of the hips of a horse being flat or ragged does not appear to influence his use- fulness in any way. Among thorough-breds, certain strains of blood have them prominent. Although it might be more correct, from a conformation point of view, to con- sider the points of the hips along with the hind limb ; I have placed them, for convenience' sake, under the present heading. We should bear in mind that the state of a horse's condition has a good deal to say to the shape of his hips ; for we may often see that an animal which had ragged hips when he was thin, has them rounded when fat. Flank. — The only thing to remark about this part is that the " hollow of the flank," which is included between the loins, point of the hip and end of the last back rib, should be well filled up and should be as small as possible. If it is hollowed out, it will indicate that the animal is in bad health, out of condition, or of weak constitution. If the extent of the hollow of the flank be small, the animal will be well ribbed-up, a form of conformation which has been discussed on p. 229, et seq. Croup. — The upper line of the croup, from the loins to the root of the tail, should remain convex, even when a fairly heavy weight is carried. This convexity, more or less regular, is caused by the prominence of the inner angle of the pelvis ; by the action of the muscles which flex the back ; and by the strength of the ligaments which preserve the stability of this arch. We may note how relaxation of these muscles will affect this state of con- vexity if we pinch the loins of a horse, so as to make him crouch, which he does by the contraction of the muscles that lie on the top of the loins. When he crouches in this manner, the upper line of the croup will tend to become CROUP. 255 Straight. Hence we may accept the conclusion, which is fully borne out in practice, that undue straightness of the upper hne of the croup indicates weakness of the part. Also, when a horse is affected by paralysis of the muscles of the loins, the croup will usually assume an abnormally flat appearance, especially when weight is put on the back, which, in this disease, can badly support it. The ritolu /'!/] |-jl_ H. H. Fig- 338-— Mr. Tom Mitchell's Hackney Slallion, Ganymede. slope of the croup (whether it is " goose rumped " or horizontal) will be considered on pp. 308 to 311. Anus. — The anus should be prominent, and the tissues around it should be well filled out. It should be firm in appearance and closed when at rest. A hollow, flabby and open condition of the part indicates illness or general debility. 256 THE TRUNK. Tail. — As the subject of the horse's tail has been dis- cussed in Veterinary Notes for Horse-Owners, many of the following remarks on it have been taken from that book. The chief function which the normal equine tail fulfils, is to drive away flies and other irritating objects which happen to alight on the hind legs, flanks, genital organs, and lower part of the abdomen. We have seen that the normal mane (p. 224) performs similar good service for the neck ; the normal forelock (p. 212), for the head ; and the muzzle, for the breast. The croup is mechanic- ally protected from these causes of irritation, by a thick layer of fibrous tissue which lies under the skin of that part (p. 415). The skin of the shoulders and portions of the trunk which are not guarded in any of the ways just described, is lined with a thin and very broad muscle (p. 42), which has great power of twitching, and, consequently, of driving off flies and other causes of annoyance. In this work, these means of protection are called into play, far more in the open than in the stable, and particularly during hot weather. At grass in summer time, we may often see a long-tailed mare whisking in- sects off the fore-hand of her foal which stands alongside her. She intelligently places her hind quarters near his head, so that he may get the benefit of her tail, because his caudal appendage is unprovided with long hairs. Also, when a foal is lying down during the day-time, in the open, his long-tailed dam may sometimes be seen standing close to him, and whisking away with her tail any flies that are hovering about him. Such maternal acts of kindness are prevented by the cruel operation of docking ; although often a miserable docked mare will, under the influence of instinct, try to carry them out. All of us who have lived among horses in the open, and especially in hot climates, know that the tails, manes and fore-locks of unmutilated horses at grass, save them from an immense amount of discomfort, like what we TAIL. 257 would suffer, if we were placed under similar conditions, and had our hands tied behind our backs. Some persons consider that a horse's tail materially helps to balance him when he is turning ; but this action on the part of the tail is so sHght, that it need not be taken into account for practical purposes. Docking (amputation of a portion of a horse's dock) is a rehc of the barbarous past, and is practised only by '«Ct-«.^g5J4|^- Photo by] Fig. 339.— Onager. [M. H. H. persons who are entirely subservient to fashion. The idea that it improves a horse's appearance is an absurdity, because mutilation, especially of a very apparent kind, cannot be an aid to beauty. Faddists of the eighteenth century held a similar view about cropping horses' ears. Thorough-breds (whether they are race-horses, chasers or hunters), remounts, brougham horses, and funeral horses are not docked, as a rule. I am glad to say that some 17 258 ■//// //^'I'NK. ol oiii iii()',t |)i niiiiiHii I liiiiiliiiM iiKii III I -cirfstcrsliin^ ]\kr llicii liiiiihi . to li;i\c IniiM l.'iils, ;iiifl (li;il llnic .'ire iii;iiiV loiciMJi (oiiiiliK' III vvlii' li (|o( kin;^' is iinl |)r;ir( iscd. 'I lie '.iiKcriiiff iii(li( led (liiiiii;', lliis opci .'il ion is (iillin;; ns ( (»iii)i;ii((| l(» llic misciy ;i (|(m kcd lioisc lias lo cikIiik' hi llic (»|)cii dm in;; liol \V'';i ( licf. In llijs rosjx-cf, hiood inarcs vvIik li li.iv hcf'ii d('. pitied, ;ind iiicii vvlio d(»( I. Iillic, oi i^c\ llicni dor kcd, nu'ril llic ((tiilc lolci.dcd in ;iny civilised coniiliy. As llic li.'iif .'il llic