BstablisbeO bp E&war& %. lt)oumans

APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE
MONTHLY

EDITED BY

WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS

VOL. LVI

NOVEMBER, 1 899, TO APRIL, I9OO

NEW YORK

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

'1900

Copyright. 1900,

By d. ai'pleton and coMPA>nr.

GEORGE M. STERNBERG.

APPLETONS' - llO&

POPULAR SCIENCE
MONTHLY.

NOVEMBER, 1899

THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY.

By FEANKLIN SMITH.

ML'CH has been written of late about " tbe real problems of
democracy." According to some " thinkers," they consist
of the invention of ingenious devices to prevent caucus frauds and
the purchase of votes, to check the passage of special laws as well
as too many laws, and to infuse into decent people an ardent de-
sire to participate in the wrangles of politics. According to others,
they consist of the invention of equally ingenious devices to com-
pel corporations to manage their business in accordance with Chris-
tian principles, to transform the so-called natural monopolies into
either State or municipal monopolies, and to effect, by means of the
power of taxation, a more equitable distribution of wealth. Ac-
cording to still others, they consist of the invention of no less in-
genious devices to force people to be temperate, to observe human-
ity toward children and animals, and to read and study what will
make them model citizens. It is innocently and touchingly believed
that with the solution of these problems, by the application of the
authority that society has over the individual, " the social con-
science " will be awakened. But such a belief can not be realized.
It has its origin in a conception of democracy that has no founda-
tion either in history or science. What are supposed to be the
real problems of democracy are only the problems of despotism —
the problems to which every tyrant from time immemorial has
addressed himself, to the moral and industrial ruin of his subjects.
If democracy be conceived not as a form of political government
under the regime of universal suffrage, but as a condition of free-
dom under moral control, permitting every man to do as he likes,
so long as he does not trench upon the equal right of every other

VOL. LVI. — 1

2 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

man, deliverance from the sophistries and absurdities of current
social and political discussion becomes easy and inevitable. Its
real problems cease to be an endless succession of political de-
vices that stimulate cunning and evasion, and countless encroach-
ments upon individual freedom that stir up contention and ill
feeling. Instead of being innumerable and complex, defying the
solvent power of the greatest intellects and the efforts of the most
enthusiastic philanthropists, they become few and simple. While
their proper solution is beset with difficulties, these difficulties are
not as hopeless as the framing of a statute to produce a growth
of virtue in a depraved heart. Indeed, no such task has ever been
accomplished, and every effort in that direction has been worse
than futile. It has encouraged the growth of all the savage traits
that ages of conflict have stamped so profoundly in the nervous
system of the race. But let it be understood that the real prob-
lems of democracy are the problems of self-support and self-con-
trol, the problems that appeared with the appearance of human
life, and that their sole solution is to be found in the application
of precisely the same methods with which Nature disciplines the
meanest of her creatures, then we may expect a measure of suc-
cess from the efforts of social and political reformers; for free-
dom of thought and action, coupled with the punishment that
comes from a failure to comply with the laws of life and the con-
ditions of existence, creates an internal control far more potent
than any law. It impels men to depend upon their own efforts
to gain a livelihood; it inspires them with a respect for the right
of others to do the same.

Simple and commonplace as the traits of self-support and self-
control may seem, they are of transcendent importance. Every
other trait sinks into insignificance. The society whose members
have learned to care for themselves and to control themselves has
no further moral or economic conquests to make. It will be in
the happy condition dreamed of by all poets, philosophers, and
philanthropists. There will be no destitution, for each person,
being able to maintain himself and his family, will have no occa-
sion, except in a case of a sudden and an unforeseen misfortune,
to look to his friends and neighbors for aid. But in thus main-
taining himself — that is, in pursuing the occupation best adapted
to his ability and most congenial to his taste — ^he will contribute
in the largest degree to the happiness of the other members of
the community. While they are pursuing the occupations best
adapted to their ability and most congenial to their tastes, they
will be able to obtain from him, as he will be able to obtain from
them, those things that both need to supplement the products of

THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY. 3

their own industry. Since each will be left in full possession of
all the fruits of his own toil, he will be at liberty to make just
such use of them as will contribute most to His happiness, thus per-
mitting the realization, in the only practicable way, of Bentham's
principle of " the greatest happiness of the greatest number."
Since all of them will be free to make such contracts as they be-
lieve will be most advantageous to them, exchanging what they
are willing to part with for what some one else is willing to give
in return, there will prevail the only equitable distribution of the
returns from labor and capital, ISTo one will receive more and no
one less than he is entitled to. Thus will benefit be in proportion
to merit, and the most scrupulous justice be satisfied.

But this regime of equity in the distribution of property im-
plies, as I have already said, the possession of a high degree of self-
control, i^ot only must all persons have such a keen sense of their
own rights as will never permit them to submit to infringement,
but they must have such a keen sense of the rights of others that
they will not be guilty themselves of infringement. Not only will
they refrain from the commission of those acts of aggression whose
ill effects are immediate and obvious; they will refrain from those
acts whose ill effects are remote and obscure. Although they will
not, for example, deceive or steal or commit personal assaults, they
will not urge the adoption of a policy that will injure the unknown
members of other communities, like the Welsh tin-plate makers
and the Vienna pearl-button makers that the McKinley Bill de-
prived of employment. Realizing the vice of the plea of the op-
ponents of international copyright that cheap literature for a peo-
ple is better than scrupulous honesty, they will not refuse to foreign
authors the same protection to property that they demand. They
will not, finally, allow themselves to take by compulsion or by per-
suasion the property of neighbors to be used to alleviate suffering
or to disseminate knowledge in a way to weaken the moral and
physical strength of their fellows. But the possession of a sense
of justice so scrupulous assumes the possession of a fellow-feeling
so vivid that it will allow no man to refuse all needful aid to the
victims of misfortune. As suffering to others will mean suffering
to himself, he will be as powerfully moved to go to their rescue
as he would to protect himself against the same misfortune. In-
deed, he will be moved, as all others will be moved, to undertake
without compulsion all the benevolent work, be it charitable or
educational, that may be necessary to aid those persons less for-
tunate than himself to obtain the greatest possible satisfaction out
of life.

But the methods of social reform now in greatest vogue do

4 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

not contribute to the realization of any such millennium. Thej
are a flagrant violation of the laws of life and the conditions of ex-
istence. Thej make difficult, if not impossible, the establishment
of the moral government of a democracy that insures every man
and woman not only freedom but also sustentation and protection.
In disregard of the principles of biology, which demand that bene-
fit shall be in proportion to merit, the feeble members of society
are fostered at the expense of the strong. Setting at defiance the
principles of psychology, which insist upon the cultivation of the
clearest perception of the inseparable relation of cause and effect
and the equally inseparable relation of aggression and punishment,
honest people are turned into thieves and murderers, and thieves
and murderers are taught to believe that no retribution awaits the
commission of the foulest crime. Scornful of the principles of
sociology, which teach in the plainest way that the institutions of
feudalism are the products of war and can serve no other pur-
pose than the promotion of aggression, a deliberate effort, born
of the astonishing belief that they can be transformed into the
agencies of progress, is made in time of peace to restore them
to life.

To the American Philistine nothing is more indicative of the
marvelous moral superiority of this age and country than the rapid
increase in the public expenditures for enterprises " to benefit the
people." Particularly enamored is he of the showy statistics of
hospitals, asylums, reformatories, and other so-called charitable
institutions supported by public taxation. " How unselfish we
are ! " he exclaims, swelling with pride as he points to them. " In
what other age or in what other country has so much been done
for the poor and unfortunate? " ISTaught shall ever be said by
me against the desire to help others. The fellow-feeling that
thrives upon the aid rendered to the sick and destitute I believe to
be the most precious gift of civilization. Upon its growth de-
pends the further moral advancement of the race. As I have al-
ready intimated, only as human beings are able to represent to
themselves vividly the sufferings of others will they be moved to
desist from the conduct that contributes to those sufferings. But
the system of public charity that prevails in this country is not
charity at all; it is a system of forcible public largesses, as odious
and demoralizing as the one that contributed so powerfully to the
downfall of Athens and Pome. By it money is extorted from
the taxpayer with as little justification as the crime of the high-
wayman, and expended by politicians with as little love as he of
their fellows. What is the result? Precisely what might be ex-
pected. He is infuriated because of the growing burden of his taxes.

THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY. 5

Instead of being made more humane and sympathetic with every
dollar he gives under compulsion to the poor and suffering, he be-
comes more hard-hearted and bitter toward his fellows. The no-
tion that society, as organized at present, is reducing him to pov-
erty and degradation takes possession of him. He becomes an
agitator for violent reforms that will only render his condition
Avorse. At the same time the people he aids come to regard him
simply as a person under obligations to care for them. They feel
no more gratitude toward him than the wolf toward the victim
of its hunger and ferocity.

Akin to public charity are all those public enterprises under-
taken to ameliorate the condition of the poor — parks, model tene-
ment houses, art galleries, free concerts, free baths, and relief
works of all kinds. To these I must add all those Federal, State,
and municipal enterprises, such as the post office with the pro-
posed savings attachment, a State system of highways and water-
ways, municipal water, gas and electric works, etc., that are sup-
posed to be of inestimable advantage to the same worthy class.
These likewise fill the heart of the American Philistine with im-
mense satisfaction. Although he finds, by his study of pleasing
romances on municipal government in Europe, that we have yet
to take some further steps before we fall as completely as the in-
habitants of Paris and Berlin into the hands of municipal despo-
tism, he is convinced that we have made gratifying headway, and
that the outlook for complete subjection to that despotism is en-
couraging. But it should be remembered that splendid public
libraries and public baths, and extensive and expensive systems of
highways and municipal improvements, built under a modified form
of the old corvee, are no measure of the fellow-feeling and enlight-
enment of a community. On the contrary, they indicate a pitiful
incapacity to appreciate the rights of others, and are, therefore, a
measure rather of the low degree of civilization. It should be
remembered also, especially by the impoverished victims of the de-
lusions of the legislative philanthropist, that there is no expendi-
ture that yields a smaller return in the long run than public ex-
penditure; that however honest the belief that public ofiicials will
do their duty as conscientiously and efiSciently as private indi-
viduals, history has yet to record the fact of any bureaucracy;
that however profound the conviction that the cost of these " pub-
lic blessings " comes out of the pockets of the rich and is on that
account particularly justifiable, it comes largely out of the pockets
of the poor; and that by the amount abstracted from the income
of labor and capital by that amount is the sum divided between
labor and capital reduced.

6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

" But," interposes the optimist, " have the Americans not their
great public-school system, unrivaled in the world, to check and
finally to end the evils that appear thus far to be inseparably con-
nected with popular government? Is there any truth more firmly
established than that it is the bulwark of American institutions,
and that if we maintain it as it should be maintained they will be
able to weather any storm that may threaten?" Precisely the
same argument has been urged time out of mind in behalf of an
ecclesiastical system supported at the expense of the taxpayer.
Good men without number have believed, and have fought to main-
tain their belief, that only by the continuance of this form of ag-
gression could society be saved from corruption and barbarism.
Even in England to-day, where freedom and civilization have made
their most brilliant conquests, this absurd contention is made to
bolster up the rotten and tottering union of Church and state, and
to justify the seizure of the property of taxpayers to support a
particular form of ecclesiastical instruction. But no fact of his-
tory has received demonstrations more numerous and conclusive
than that such instruction, whether Protestant or Catholic, Bud-
dhist or Mohammedan, in the presence of the demoralizing forces
of militant activities, is as impotent as the revolutions of the prayer
wheel of a pious Hindu. To whatever country or people or age we
may turn, we find that the spirit of the warrior tramples the spirit
of the saint in the dust. Despite the lofty teachings of Socrates
and Plato, the Athenians degenerated until the name of the Greek
became synonymous with that of the blackest knave. With the no-
ble examples and precepts of the Stoics in constant view, the Romans
became beastlier than any beast. All through the middle ages and
down to the present century the armies of ecclesiastics, the vast
libraries of theology, and the myriads of homilies and prayers were
impotent to prevent the social degradation that inundated the
world with the outbreak of every great conflict. Take, for ex-
ample, a page from the history of Spain. At the time of Philip II,
who tried to make his people as rigid as monks, that country had
no rival in its fanatical devotion to the Church, or its slavish ob-
servance of the forms of religion. Yet its moral as well as its in-
tellectual and industrial life was sinking to the lowest level. Ofii-
cial corruption was rampant. The most shameless sexual laxity
pervaded all ranks. The name of Spanish women, who had " in
previous times been modest, almost austere and Oriental in
their deportment," became a byword and a reproach throughout
the world. " The ladies are naturally shameless," says Camille
Borghese, the Pope's delegate to Madrid in 1593, " and even in the
streets go up and address men unknown to them, looking upon it

THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY. 7

as a kind of heresy to be properly introduced. They admit all
sorts of men to their conversation, and are not in the least scan-
dalized at the most improper proposals being made to them." To
see how ecclesiastics themselves fall a prey to the ethics of mili-
tant activities, becoming as heartless and debauched as any other
class, take a page from Italian history at the time of Pope Alex-
ander VI. " Crimes grosser than Scythian," says a pious Catholic
who visited Rome, " acts of treachery worse than Carthaginian,
are committed without disguise in the Vatican itself under the
eyes of the Pope. There are rapines, murders, incests, debauch-
eries, cruelties exceeding those of the Neros and Caligulas." Sim-
ilar pages from the history of every other country in Europe given
uj) to war, including Protestant England, might be quoted.

But what is true of ecclesiastical effort in the presence of mili-
tant activities is true of pedagogic effort in the presence of politi-
cal activities. For more than half a century the public-school
system in its existing form has been in full and energetic operation.
The money devoted to it every year now reaches the enormous
total of one hundred and eighty million dollars. Simultaneously
an unprecedented extension of secondary education has occurred.
Since the war, colleges and universities, supported in whole or in
part at the public expense, have been established in more than half
of the States and Territories of the Union. To these must be added
the phenomenal growth of normal schools, high schools, and acad-
emies, and of the equipment of the educational institutions already
in existence. Yet, as a result, are the American people more
moral than they were half a century ago? Have American insti-
tutions— that is, the institutions based upon the freedom of the
individual — been made more secure? I venture to answer both
questions with an emphatic negative. The construction and oper-
ation of the greatest machine of pedagogy recorded in history has
been absolutely impotent to stem the rising tide of political cor-
ruption and social degeneration. If there are skeptics that doubt
the truth of this indictment let them study the criminal history of
the day that records the annual commission of more than six thou-
sand suicides and more than ten thousand homicides, and the embez-
zlement of more than eleven million dollars. Let them study the
lying pleas of the commercial interests of the country that demand
protection against " the pauper labor of Europe," and thus commit a
shameless aggression upon the pauper labor of America. Let them
study the records of the deeds of intolerance and violence committed
upon workingmen that refuse to exchange their personal liberty
for membership of a despotic labor organization. Let them study
the columns of the newspapers, crowded with records of crime,

8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

salacious stories, and ignorant comment on current questions and
events that appeal to a population as unlettered and base as them-
selves. Let them study, finally, the appalling indictment of Ameri-
can political life, in a State where the native blood still runs pure
in the veins of the majority of the inhabitants, that Mr. John
Wanamaker framed in a great speech at the opening of his memo-
rable campaign in Lancaster against the most powerful and most
corrupt despotism that can be found outside of Russia or Turkey.
" In the fourth century of Rome, in the time of Emperor Theo-
dosius, Hellebichus was master of the forces," he said, endeavoring
to describe a condition of affairs that exists in a similar degree in
every State in the Union, " and Csesarius was count of the offices.
In the nineteenth century, M. S. Quay is count of the offices, and
AV. A. Andrews, Prince of Lexow, is master of forces in Pennsyl-
vania, and we have to come through the iron age and the silver age
to the worst of all ages — the degraded, evil age of conscienceless,
debauched politics. . . . Profligacy and extravagance and boss rule
everywhere oppress the people. By the multiplication of indict-
ments your district attorney has multiplied his fees far beyond the
joint salaries of both your judges. The administration of justice
before the magistrates has degenerated into organized raids on the
county treasury. . . '. Voters are corruptly influenced or forcibly
coerced to do the bidding of the bosses, and thus force the fetters
of political vassalage on the freemen of the old guard. School
directors, supervisors, and magistrates, and the whole machinery
of local government, are involved and dominated by this accursed
system."

But Mr. Wanamaker might have added that the whole social
and industrial life of the country is involved and dominated by the
same system. It is a well-established law of social science that
the evil effects of a dominant activity are not confined to the per-
sons engaged in it. Like a contagion, they spread to every part
of the social organization, and poison the life farthest removed
from their origin. Yet the public-school system, so impotent to
save us from social and political degradation and still such an
object of unbounded pride and adulation, is, as Mr. Wanamaker,
all unconscious of the implication of his scathing criticism, points
out in so many words, an integral part of the vast and complex
machinery that political despotism has seized upon to plunder and
enslave the American people. As in the case of every other exten-
sion of the duties of government beyond the limits of the preserva-
tion of order and the enforcement of justice, it is an aggression upon
the rights of the individual, and, as in the case of every other ag-
gression, contributes powerfully to the decay of national character

THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY. 9

and free institutions. It adds thousands upon thousands to the
constantly growing army of tax eaters that are impoverishing the
people still striving against heavy odds to gain an honest liveli-
hood. It places in the hands of the political despots now ruling
the country, without the responsibility that the most odious mon-
arclis have to bear, a revenue and an army of mercenaries that
make more and more difficult emancipation from their shackles.
It is doing more than anything else except the post-office depart-
ment to teach people that there is no connection between merit and
benefit; that they have the right to look to the State rather than
to themselves for maintenance; tliat they are under no obligations
to see that they do not take from others, in the form of salaries
not earned nor intended to be earned, what does not belong to
them. In the face of this wholesale destruction of fellow-feeling
such as occurred in France under the old regime and is occurring
to-day in Italy and Spain, and the inculcation of the ethics of mili-
tant activities, such as may be observed in these countries as well
as elsewhere in Europe, is it any wonder that the mind-stuffing that
goes on in the public schools has no more effect upon the morals
of the American people than the creeds and prayers of the medi-
aeval ecclesiastics that joined in wars and the spoliation of oppressed
populations throughout Europe?

Since the path that all people under popular government as
well as under forms more despotic are pursuing so energetically
and hopefully leads to the certain destruction of the foundations
of civilization, what is the path that social science points out?
What must they do to prevent the extinction of the priceless ac-
quisition of fellow-feeling, now vanishing so rapidly before the
most unselfish efforts to promote it? The supposition is that the
social teachings of the philosophy of evolution have no answer to
these questions. Believing that they inculcate the hideous laissez-
faire doctrine of " each for himself and the devil take the hind-
most," so characteristic of human relations among all classes of peo-
ple in this country, the victims of this supposition have repudiated
them. But I propose to show tliat tliey are the only teachings that
give the slightest promise of social amelioration. Although they
are ignorantly stigmatized as indi^'idualistic, and therefore neces-
sarily selfish and inconsiderate of the welfare of others, they are in
reality socialistic in the best sense of the word — that is, they enjoin
voluntary, not coercive, co-operation, and insure the noblest hu-
manity and the most perfect civilization, moral as well as material,
that can be attained.

Why a society organized upon the individualistic instead of
the socialistic basis will realize ev^ry achievement admits of easv

lo POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

cxplaiuitiou. A inau dependent upon liimself i;? forced by the-
struggle for existence to exercise every faculty lie possesses or can
possibly develop to save himself and his progeny from extinction.
Under such pitiless and irresistible pressure he acquires the highest
physical and intellectual strength. Thus equipped with weapons-
absolutely indispensable in any state of society, whether civilized
or uncivilized, he is prepared for the conquest of the world. He
gains also the physical and moral courage needful to cope with the
difficulties that terrify and paralyze the people that have not been
subjected to the same rigid discipline. Energetic and self-reliant,,
he assails them with no thought of failure. If, however, he meets
with reverses, he renews the attack, and repeats it until success
finally comes to reward his efforts. Such prolonged struggles give
steadiness and solidity to his character that do not permit him to
abandon himself to trifles or to yield easily, if at all, to excitement
and panic. He never falls a victim to Keigns of Terror. The more
trying the times, the more self-possessed, clear-headed, and capable-
of grai)pling with the situation he becomes, and soon rises superior
to it. With every triumph over difficulties there never fails to
come the joy that more tlian balances the pain and suffering en-
dured. But the pain and suffering are as precious as the joy of
triumph. Indelibly registered in tlie nervous system, they enable
their victim to feel as others feel passing through the same ex-
perience, and this fellow-feeling prompts him to render them the
assistance they may need. .In this way be becomes a philanthro-
pist. Possessed, of the abundant means that the success of his
enterprises has placed in his hands, he is in a position to help them
to a degree not within the reach nor the desires of the member
of the society organized upon the socialistic basis.

In the briefest appeal to history may be found the amplest sup-
port for these deductions from the principles of social science.
Wherever the individual has been given the largest freedom to do-
whatever he pleases, as long as he does not trench upon the equal
freedom of others, there we witness all those achievements and dis-
cover all those traits that indicate an advanced state of social prog-
ress. The people are the most energetic, the most resourceful, the
most prosperous, the most considerate and humane, the most anx-
ious, and the most competent to care for their less fortunate fel-
lows. On the other hand, wherever the individual has been most
repressed, deterred by custom or legislation from making the most
of himself in every way, there are to be observed social immobility
or retrogression and all the hateful traits that belong to barbarians.
The people are inert, slavish, cruel, and superstitious. In the
ancient world one type of society is represented by the Egyptians

THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY. u

and Assyrians, and tlie other by the Greeks and Romans. In the
modern world all the Oriental peoples, particularly the Hindus
and Chinese, represent the former, and the Occidental peoples,
particularly the Anglo-Saxons, represent the latter. So superior,
in fact, are the Anglo-Saxons because of their observance of the
sacred and fruitful principle of individual freedom that they con-
trol the most desirable parts of the earth's surface. If not checked
by the practice of a philosoiDhy that has destroyed all the great
peoples of antiquity and paralyzed their competitors in the estab-
lishment of colonies in the l^e^\ as well as the Old World, there is
no reason to doubt that the time will eventually come when, like
the Romans, there will be no other rule than theirs in all the
choicest parts of the globe.

It is the immense material superiority of the Anglo-Saxon
peoples over all other nations that first arrests attention. Xo
people in Europe j^ossess the capital or conduct the enterprises
that the English and Americans do. They have more railroads,
more steamships, more factories, more foundries, more warehouses,
more of everything that requires wealth and energy than their
rivals. Though the fact evokes the sneers of the Ruskins and Car-
lyles, these enterprises are the indispensable agents of civilization.
They have done more for civilization, for the union of distant peo-
ples, and the development of fellow-feeling — for all that makes life
worth living — than all the art, literature, and theology ever pro-
duced. Without industry and commerce, which these devotees of
^' the higher life " never weary of deprecating, how would the in-
habitants of the Italian republics have achieved the intellectual and
artistic conquests that make them the admiration of every histo-
rian? The Stones of Venice could not have been written. The
artists could not have lived that enabled Vassari to hand his name
down to posterity. The new learning would have been a flower
planted in a barren soil, and even before it had come to bud it
would have fallen withered. May we not, therefore, expect that
in like manner the wealth and freedom of the Anglo-Saxon race
will bring forth fruits that shall- not evoke scorn and contempt?
Already their achievements in eA^ery field except painting, sculp-
ture, and architecture eclipse those of their rivals. Not except-
ing the literature of the Greeks, is any so rich, varied, powerful,
and voluminous as theirs? If they have no Caesar or ISTapoleon,
they have a long list of men that have been of infinitely greater
use to civilization than those two products of militant barbarism.
If judged by practical results, they are without rivals in the work
of education. By their inventions and their applications of the
discoveries of science they have distanced all competitors in the

12 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

race for iudustrial and commercial supremacy. In the work of
lihilanthropj no people has done as much as they. The volume
of their personal effort and pecuniary contributions to ameliorate
the condition of the poor and unfortunate are without parallel in
the annals of charity. Yet Professor Ely, echoing the opinion of
Charles Booth and other misguided philanthropists, has the assur-
ance to tell us that " individualism has broken down." It is the
social philosophy that they are trying to thrust upon the world
again that stands hopelessly condemned before the remorseless tri-
bunal of universal experience.

In the light thus x)btained from science and history, the duty
of the American people toward the current social and political
philosophy and all the quack measures it proposes for the amelio-
ration of the condition of the unfortunate becomes clear and ur-
gent. It is to pursue without equivocation or deviation the policy
of larger and larger freedom for the individual that has given the
Anglo-Saxon his superiority and present dominance in the world.
To this end they should oppose w^ith all possible vigor every pro-
posed extension of the duty of the state that does not look to the
preservation of order and the enforcement of justice. Regard-
ing it as an onslaught of the forces of barbarism, they should
make no compromise wdth it; they should fight it until freedom
has triumphed. The next duty is to conquer the freedom they
still lack. Here the battle must be for the suppression of the sys-
tem of protective tariffs, for the transfer to private enterprise and
beneficence, the duties of the post office, the public schools, and all
public charities, for the repeal of all laws in regulation of trade
and industry as well as those in regulation of habits and morals.
As an inspiration it should be remembered that the struggle is not
only for freedom but for honesty. For the truth can not be too
loudly or too often proclaimed that every law taking a dollar from
a man without his consent, or regulating his conduct not in accord-
ance with his own notions, but in accordance with those of his
neighbors, contributes to the education of a people in idleness and
crime. The next duty is to encourage on every hand an appeal
to voluntary effort to accomplish all tasks too great for the strength
of the individual. Whether those tasks be moral, industrial, or
educational, voluntary co-operation alone should assume them and
carry them to a successful issue. The government sliould have
no more to do with them than it has to do with the cultivation of
wheat or the management of Sunday schools or the suppression of
backbiting. The last and final duty should be to cheapen and, as
fast as possible, to establish gratuitous justice. With the great
diminution of crime that would result from the observance of the

THE REAL PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRACY. 13

duties already mentioned there would be much less occasion than
now to appeal to the courts. But, whenever the occasion arises, it
should involve no cost to the person that feels that his rights have
been invaded.

Thus will be solved indirectly all the probleius of democracy
that social and political reformers seek in vain to solve directly.
With the diminution of the duties of the state to the preservation
of order and the enforcement of justice w'ill be effected a reform
as important and far reaching as the suppression of chronic war-
fare. When politicians are deprived of the immense plunder now
involved in political warfare, it will not be necessary to devise
futile plans for caucus reform, or ballot reform, or convention re-
form, or charter reform, or legislative reform. Having no more
incentive to engage in their nefarious business than the smugglers
that the abolition of the infamous tariff laws banished from Eu-
rope, they will disappear among the crowd of honest toilers.
The suppression of the robberies of the tax collectors and tax
eaters, who have become so vast an army in the United States,
will effect also a solution of all labor problems. A society that
permits every toiler to work for whomsoever he pleases and for
whatever he pleases, protecting him in the full enjoyment of all
the fruits of his labor, has done for him everything that can be
done. It has taught him self-support and self-control. In thus
guaranteeing him freedom of contract and putting an end to the
plunder of a bureaucracy and privileged classes of private indi-
viduals, the beneficiaries of special legislation, it has effected the
only equitable distribution of property possible. At the same time
it has accomplished a vastly greater work. As I have shown, the
indispensable condition of success of all movements for moral re-
form is the suppression not only of militant strife, but of political
strife. While they prevail, all ecclesiastical and pedagogic efforts
to better the condition of society must fail. Despite lectures, de-
spite sermons and prayers, despite also literature and art, the
ethics controlling the conduct of men and women will be those of
war. But with the abolition of both forms of militant strife it be-
comes an easy task to teach the ethics of peace, and to establish a
state of society that requires no other government than that of
conscience. All the forces of industrialism contribute to the work
and insure its success.

" This thirst for shooting every rare or unwonted kind of bird," says
the author of an article in the London Saturday Eeview, " is accountable
for the disappearance of many interesting forms of life in the British
Islands."

H

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

^

AX ENGLISH UNIVEESITY.

By IIEKHKKT STOTKSBURY.

MOST milKl^ ill America, as in England, if they think about
the subject at all, impute to the two ancient centers of An-
glo-Saxon learning — Oxford and Cambridge — an unquestionable
supremacy. A halo of greatness surrounds these august institu-
tions, none the less real because to the American mind, at least,
it is vague. Half the books students at other institutions require
in their various courses have the names of eminent Cambridge or
Oxford inon n])on the fly leaf. Michael Foster's Physiology, Sidg-

wick's Methods of Ethics,
and Bryce's American Com-
monwealth are recognized
text-books wherever the sub-
jects of which they treat
are studied; while Sir Gr. G.
Stokes, Jebb, Lord Acton,
Caird, Max Miiller, and Rav
\ I' \ Lankester are as well known

^^ ^ "^^ to students of Leland Stan-

^ Jjl^ Jt^^^k ford or Princeton as they

are to Englishmen. One
can scarcely read a work on
English literature or open
an English novel Avhich does
not make some reference to
one or other of the great
universities or their col-
k'ges, inseparably associated
as they are Avith English
life and history, past and
present. Our oldest college
owes its existence to John
Harvard, of Emmanuel, Cambridge, and the name of the mother
university still clings to her transatlantic ofTsjiring. The English
institutions have become firmly associated in tlu^ vulgar mind with
all that is dignified, venerable, and thorough in learning, but, be-
yond a vague sentiment of admiration, little adequate knoAvledge on
the subject is abroad. .Vniciican or German universities are organi-
zations not very difficult to comjjndiend, and a vague knowledge of
them is perha])s sufficient. The und(M-standing, however, of those
complicated acndcinic coiiNminitics, Oxfoi'd and Cambridge, is a

Michael Foster, K. C. B., M. A., F. U. S.
Trinity. Professor of Physi(jlogy.

AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY

15

matter of intimate experience. They differ widely from their sister
institutions in other coimtries, and in attempting to give some con-
ception of their peculiarities the writer proposes to restrict himself
•chiefly to Cambridge, because there are not very many striking dif-
ferences between the latter
and Oxford, and because
the scientific supremacy of
•Cambridge is sufficiently es-
tablished to render her an
■object of greater intei-est to
the readers of the Science
Monthly.

First of all, it must be
borne in mind that through-
out most of their history
these institutions have been
closely related, not to the
body of the people, but to
the aristocracy. This was
not so much the case at first,
before the university be-
came an aggregate of col-
leges. Then a rather poor
and humble class were en-
abled, through the small ex- rp, „. w „ r . ^r » tt t^

' , " , Tlie Eiglit Hon. Lord Actox, M. A., LL. D.,

pense involved, to acquire Trinity. Professor of Modern History.

the rudiments of an educa-
tion, and even to become proficient in the scholastic dialectic.
But ere long, and with the gradual endowment of different col-
Iges, the expenses of a student became much greater, and, save
where scholarships could be obtained, it required some affluence
before parents could afford to give their sons an academic training.
Hence, the more fortunate or aristocratic classes came in time
to contribute the large majority of the student body. Those whose
intellectual attainments were so unusual as to constitute ways and
means have never been debarred, but impecunious mediocrity had
and still has little place or opportunity. It is well to remember,
in addition, that the Church fostered these universities in their
infancy, that it deserves unqualified credit for having nursed them
through their early months, and that it continues to have some con-
siderable influence over the modern institutions. Finally, the
growth of Cambridge and Oxford has largely been occasioned by
lack of rivals in their own class. In this branch or that, other
institutions have become deservedly famous. Edinburgh has a

n

^^HHBHpS???!^?!-— -^ '

^Hm^^k^^ ''''*'''

^^^^^^^^^^K^BSI^^Fl- "''r""'^y> ■ , ,'•: : ^•'■Tt "j-.

-'C^-^

i6

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

high reputation in moral science; Manchester is renowned for her
physics, clieniistry, and engineering; and London for her medical
schools. But Oxford and Cambridge are strong in many branches.
Financially powerful, they are able to attract the majority of prom-
ising and eminent men, whence has resulted that remarkable cote-
rie of unrivaled intellects through whom the above-named univer-
sities are chiefly known to the outer and foreign world. This char-
acteristic has its opposite illustrated in the United States, where
the tendency is centrifugal, no one or two universities or colleges
having advantages so decided as inevitably to attract most of the
best minds, and where, in consequence, the best minds are found
scattered from California to Harvard and Pennsylvania.

The characteristic peculiar to Cambridge and Oxford, and which
distinguishes them not only from American but also from all other
universities in England and elsewhere, is the college system. Thus
Cambridge is a collection of eighteen colleges which, though nomi-
nally united to form one institution, are really distinct, inasmuch

as each is a separate com-
munity with its own build-
ings and grounds, its own
resident students, its own
lecturers, and Fellows — a
community which is sup-
]iorted by its own moneys
without aid from the univer-
sity exchequer, and which in
most matters legislates for
itself. The system is not
unlike the American Union
on a small scale, with its
cluster of governments and
their relation to a supreme
center. The advantages of
tliis scheme might theoret-
ically be very great. With
each college handsomely en-
dowed and, though manag-
ing its own affairs, entering
freely, in addition, into
those relations of reciproc-
ity wliicli make for the good of the whole, one can readily im-
agine an ideal academic (•oiiiuioiiwcalth. And while the present
condition of the university can scarcely be said to approximate
very closely to such an academic Utopia, it yet derives from its

J. .J. Thomson, M. A., i- . U. S., Trinity.
Professor of Experimental Physics.

AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY

17

constitution numerous obvioiTS advantages which universities other-
wise constituted would and do undoubtedly lack. The chief evils
besetting the university are perhaps more adventitious than inher-
ent; they are largely finan-
cial, and arise from carry-
ing the system of college
individualism too far. A de-
scription of the college and
university organization may
make this apparent. By its
endowment a college must
support a certain number of
Fellows and scholars. The
latter form a temporary
body, while the former are
more or less permanent, and
therefore upon them de-
volves the management of
the college. Business is
usually done by a council
chosen from the Fellows,
and the election of new Fel-
lows to fill vacancies is made
by this select body. The
head of a college is known
as the master; he is elected
by the Fellows save in one

or two cases, where his appointment rests with the crown or with
certain wealthy individuals. He lives in the college lodge espe-
cially built for him, draws a salary large in proportion to the
wealth of his college, and exerts an influence corresponding to his
intelligence.

The Fellows are in most cases chosen from those men who have
achieved the greatest success in an honor course. At Cambridge
College individualism has progressed so far that the Fellows of, say,
Magdalen must be Magdalen men, the students of Queens', St Cath-
erine's, or any other being ineligible save for their own fellowships.
Oxford obtains perhaps better men on the whole by throwing open
the fellowships of each particular college to the graduates of all,
thus producing a wider competition. A fellowship until recently
was tenable for life, but it has been reduced to about six years, the
Fellows as a whole, however, retaining the power to extend the
period of possession. And, further, the holding of a college ofiice
for fifteen years in general qualifies for the holding of a fellow-

G. H. Dakwin, M. a., F. E. S., Trinity.
Plumian Trolessor of Astronomy.

i8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ship for life, and for a pension as lecturer or tutor. Thus a man
is able to devote himself to research with little fear that at the
latter end of his career he will lack the means of suj)port. It is
perhaps not too much to saj that the offices of college dean, tutor,
and lecturer are more perquisites than anything else. They are
meant to keep and attract men of ability and parts. However,
their existence reacts upon the student body by augmenting the
expenses of the latter out of proportion to the benefits to be ob-
tained. For instance, instead of utilizing one set of lecturers for
one class of subjects, which all students could attend for a small
fee, each of the larger colleges, at any rate, pays special lecturers,
drawn from its own Fellows, to speak upon the same subjects each
to a mere handful of men from their own college only. The tutor
is another luxury inherited from the middle ages and therefore
retained, and one for which the students have to pay dearly. The
chief business of the tutor is not to teach, but to " look after " a
certain number of students who are theoretically relegated to his
charge. He looks up their lodgings for them, pays their bills at
the end of the term, gets them out of scrapes, and draws a large
salary. The tutorships seem to the writer to be a good illustra-
tion of how an office necessary to one period persists after that for
which it was instituted has ceased to exist. When the students
of Oxford and Cambridge were many of them thirteen and four-
teen .years of age, as in the fourteenth century, nurses were doubt-
less necessary, but they are still retained when the greater maturity
of the students renders them not only unnecessary but at times
even an impertinence.

The dean is not, as with us, the head of a department; his
functions are not so many, his tasks far less onerous. It is before
a college dean that students are " hauled " for such offenses as
irregularity at chapel, returning to the college after 12 p. m.,
smoking in college precincts, bringing dogs into the college grounds,
and other villainous offenses against regulations. A dean must
also attend chapel. Some colleges require two deans to struggle
through these complicated and laborious duties, though some pos-
sessing only a few dozen students succeed in getting along with one.

The line of demarcation between the university and the col-
leges is very distinct. The legislative influence of the former ex-
tends over a coni|)aratively restricted field. All professorial chairs
and certain lectureships belong to and are paid by the university;
the latter has the arranging of the curricula, the care of the labo-
ratories, the disposition of certain noncollegiate scholarships; but,
broadly speaking, its two functions are the examination of all stu-
dents and the conferring of degrees. The supreme legislative body

AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY.

19

is tlie senate, and it is composed of all masters of arts, doctors, and
bachelors of divinity whose names still remain on the university
books — that is, who continue to pay certain fees into the university
treasury. In addition to the legislative body there is an executive
head or council of nineteen, including the chancellor — at present
the Duke of Devonshire — and the vice-chaiicclldi-. Both these
bodies must govern accord-
ing to the statutes, no al-
teration in which can be ef-
fected without recourse be-
ing had to Parliament. The
senate is a peculiar body,
and on occasions becomes
somewhat unwieldy. It con-
sists at present of some
6,800 members, of whom
only 452 are in residence at
Cambridge. Upon ordinary
occasions only these 452
vote upon questions pro-
posed by the council; but on
occasions of great moment,
as when the question of
granting university degrees
to women came up, some
thousands or more of the
nonresident members, who
in many ' cases have lost
touch with the modern uni-
versity and modern systems of education, swarm to their alma
mater, annihilate the champions of reform, and are hailed by their
brethren as the saviors of their university.

The university's exchequer is supplied partly by its endowment,
but chiefly by an assessment on the college incomes, a capitation
tax on all undergraduates, and the fees attending matriculation,
examinations, and the granting of degrees. The examinations are
numerous. Every student on entering is required to pass, or to
claim exemption from, an entrance examination. In either case
he pays £3 to the university, and upon admission to any lionor
course or "tripos" to qualify for the degree. of Bachelor of Arts
£3 more is exacted. The income of the university from these ex-
amination fees alone amounts to £9,400 per annum, £4,600 of
which goes to pay the examiners. In America this is supposed
to be a part of the professor's or instructor's duty, no additional

K. C. Jebb, Litt. U., M. P., Trinity.
Kesrius Professor of Greek.

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

reimuieratioii is allowed, and lieiicc it does not become necessary
to make an additional tax upon the students' resources. The con-
ferring; of degrees is also made a very profitable affair. Each can-
didate for the degree of B. A. pays out £7 to the voracious 'varsity

chest, and upon proceeding'
to the M. A. a further con-
tribution of £12 is request-
ed. In this way the univer-
sity makes about £12,000 a
year, and, as though this
was not sufiicient, she re-
quires a matriculation fee of
£5 for every student who
becomes a member. By
this means another annual
£5,000 is obtained. It must
be remembered that these
fees are entirely separate
from the college fees.
When the £5 matriculation
for the latter is taken into
consideration and the £8 a
term (at Trinity) for lec-
tures, two thirds of which
the student does not attend,
when it is understood that
all this and more does not
include living expenses, which are by no means slight, and that
there are three terms instead of two, as with us, it will be ob-
vious that Cambridge adheres very closely to the rule that to
them only who have wealth shall her refining influence be given.
That the greatest universities in existence should render it almost
totally impossible for aught but the rich to obtain the advantages
of their unusual educational facilities jars with that idea of democ-
racy of learning which an American training is apt to foster. But,
as we shall point out later, an aristocracy of learning may also
have its uses.

With all the revenues the university collects from colleges and
students, amounting in all to about £65,000, Cambridge still finds
herself poor. Some of the colleges, notably King's and Trinity,
are extremely wealthy, but tlic university remains, if not exactly
impecunious, at least on the ragged edge of financial difilculties.
The various regius and otlier professorships, inadequately endowed
by the munificence of the crown and of individuals, have each to be

Henry Sidiiwick, Lift. D., Trinity.
Knightl)ridj,'e Prufessor of Moral Philosophy.

AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY

augmented from tlie university chest. The continual repairing
of the old laboratories and scientific apparatus, the salaries to lec-
turers, to proctors, bedells, and other ofiicers, cause a continual
drain on the exchequer, which, with the rapidly growing need for
larger laboratories and newer apparatus, has finally resulted in an
appeal to the country for the sum of half a million pounds.

It has been seen that the drains on a student's pocket are very
considerable at Cambridge, owing to the number of perquisites
showered by the colleges on their Fellows, and it may appear that
this state of things is unjust and wrong. At present Oxford and
Cambridge are practically within the reach of only the moneyed
population. According, however, to a plausible and frequently
repeated theory, it is not the function of these universities to meet
the educational needs of the mediocre poor. The writer's critical
attitude toward the financial system in vogue at Cambridge is a
proper one, only on the assumption that a maximum of education
to all classes alike at a minimum of expense is the final cause and
desideratum of a university's existence. But if one assumes that
Oxford and Cambridge exist
for a different purpose, that
the chief end they propose
to themselves is individual
research, and the advance-
ment, not the promulgation,
of learning, it must be ad-
mitted that their system has
little that is reprehensible.
According to this standpoint
the students only exist by
courtesy of the dons (a
name for the Fellows), who
have a perfect right to im-
pose upon the students, in
return for the condescension
which is shown them, what
terms they see fit. And
they argue that this view is
the historic one. The col-
leges were originally en-
dowed solely for the bene-
fit of a certain limited number of Fellows and scholars. The
undergraduate body, as it at present exists, is a later growth, whose
eventual existence and the importance of which to the university
was probably not anticipated by the college founders. Starting

Donald MacAlister, M. A., M. D., St. Johus.
Linacre Lecturer of Physics.

22 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

with tliis^ the defenders of the present regime would point out, in
addition, that there are other English institutions where the poorer
classes may be educated, that Cambridge and Oxford are not only
not bound to take upon themselves this task, but that they actually
subserve a higher purpose and one just as necessary to the develop-
ment of English science and letters and to the education of the
English intellect by specializing in another direction. The good of
a philosopher's lifelong reflections, they would say, is not always
manifest, but the teachers who instruct the nation's youth are
themselves dependent for rational standpoints upon the labor of
the greater teacher, and they act as the instruments of communi-
cation between the most learned and the unlettered. So Oxford
and Cambridge are the sources from whose fountains of wisdom
and culture flow streams supplying all the academic mills of Brit-
ain, which in their turn are enabled to feed the inhabitants. It
would be absurd, they maintain, to insist that the streams and the
mills could equally well fulfill the same functions. Cambridge
and Oxford instruct just so far as so doing is compatible with what
for them is the main end — the furthering of various kinds of re-
search and the offering of all sorts of inducements in order to keep
and attract the interested attention of classical butterflies and sci-
entific worms. How well they succeed in this noble ambition is
known throughout the civilized world.

Mr. G, H, Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin, has recently had
occasion to mention the enormous scientific output of Cambridge
University. After saying that the Koyal Society is the Academy
of Sciences in England, and that in its publications appear accounts
of all the most important scientific discoveries in England and most
of those in Scotland, Ireland, and other parts of Europe, he goes
on to state that he examined the Transactions of this society for
three years and discovered that out of the 5,480 pages published in
that time 2,418 were contributed by Cambridge men and 1,324 by
residents.

In view of these facts, and despite the shortcomings of this uni-
versity as a teaching institution, it is to be hoped that private gen-
erosity will answer her appeal for financial assistance. Her labo-
ratories are a mine of research, and it is in them and in the men
who conduct them that Cambridge is perhaps most to be admired.

The Cavendish Lal)oratory of Physics, where Clerk-Maxwell
and afterward Lord Ivayleigh taught, and which is at present in the
hand of their able successor, J. J. Thoms(»ii, is a building of con-
siderable size and admirably fitted out, but the rajiidly increasing
number of young physicists who are being allured by the working-
facilities of the place, and by the fame of Professor Thomson, is

AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY.

23

rendering even tliis splendidly equipj)C'd hall of science inadequate.
The physiological laboratories are many, they are completely fur-
nished with appliances, and a large number of students are there
trained annually under the supervision of one of England's most
eminent living scientists, Michael Foster, and his scarcely less able
associates — Langley, Hardy, and Gaskell. Chemistry, zoology, bot-
any, anatomy, and geology have each their well-appointed halls
and masterly exponents. The names MacAlister, Liveing, Dewar,
Xewton, Sedgwick, Marshall Ward, and Hughes are not easily
matched in any other one institution. Indeed, it is when one stops
to consider the intellects at
Cambridge that it becomes a
dangerous matter to insti-
tute comparisons, and to say
that this discipline or that
is most rich in eminent in-
terpreters. In science, at
any rate, and in all branches
of science, Cambridge stands
alone. Not even Oxford
can be considered for a mo-
ment as in the same class
with her. And of all the
sciences it is undoubtedly in
mathematics and astronomy
that the supremacy of Cam-
bridge is most pronounced.
The names of Profs. Sir G.
G. Stokes and Sir R. S. Ball
will be familiar to every
reader, while those of Profs.
Forsythe and G. H. Dar-
win and Mr. Baker will be

familiar to all mathematicians. In classics Cambridge, while not
possessing a similar monopoly of almost all the talent, still holds
her own even with Oxford. Professors Jebb, Mayor, and Ridge-
way, and Drs. Yerrall, Jackson, and Frazer constitute a group
of men second to none in the subjects of which they treat. Pro-
fessor Jebb is also one of the university's two representatives
in Parliament. In philosophy Cambridge has two men, Henry
Sidgwick and James Ward, the former of whom is perhaps by
common consent the first living authority on moral science, while
the latter ranks among the first of living psychologists. These
men, while representing very different philosophical standpoints.

Sir G. G. Stakes, Bart., M. A.. LL. D.. Se. D.,
F. E. S., Pembroke. Lueasiau rmfessor of
Mathematics.

24

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

unite in o})pusition not only to the Hegeliun movement, which,
led by Caird and Bradley of Oxford, Seth and Stirling of Edin-
burgh, threatens the invasion of England, but also to the Spen-
cerian jjhilosophy. The latter system has not many adherents
at either university, but the writer has been told by Professor
Sully that the ascendency of the neo-Hegelian and other systems
is by no means so pronounced elsewhere in England. The Spen-
cerian biology, on the contrary, has been largely defended at Cam-
bridge, while Weisniannism, for the most part, is repudiated there
and at Oxford.

The teaching at Cambridge, as at all universities, is of many
grades. In many subjects the lectures are not meant to give a

student sufficient material
to get him through an ex-
amination, and a " coach "
becomes requisite, or at any
rate is employed. This sys-
tem of coaching has attained
large dimensions; its results
are often good, but it means
an additional expense and
seems an incentive to lazi-
ness, making it unnecessary
for a student to exert his
own mental aggressiveness
or ])owers of application as
he who fights his own bat-
tles must do. The Socratic
form of instruction, produc-
ing a more intimate and un-
restricted relation between
instructor and student, and
which is largely in operation
in the States, is little prac-
ticed in England. In science the methods of instruction at Cam-
l)ri(1gc are ideal. That practical acquaintance with the facts of
Xatui-e which ITuxley and Tyndall taught is the only true means
of kiKiwitig Xatui-e, is the hey according to whii-li nil biological and
physical instruction at these institutions is conducted.

Tn the last half dozen years two radical steps have been taken
by botli Oxford mill ( 'iniilu'idge — steps leading, to many respect-
able minds, in diainetrically opposite directions. The step back-
ward (in the writer's view) occurred when the universities, after
niucli excitement, defeated with slaughter the proposition grant-

.James Ward, Se. D., Trinity.
Professor of Meutal Philosophy and Logic.

THE WONDERFUL CENTURY. 25

ing imiversitj degrees to women. It was simply proposed that the
students of ISTewnham and Girton, who should successfully com-
pete with male students in an honor course, should have an equal
right with the latter to receive the usual degrees from their alma
mater. After industrious inquiry among those who were foremost
in supporting and opposing this movement the writer has unearthed
no objection of weight against the change. " If the women were
granted degrees they would have votes in the senate," and " It never
has been done " — these are the two reasons most persistently urged
in defense of the conservative view; while justice and utility alike
appear to be for once, at any rate, unequivocally on the side of the
women. Prejudice defeated progress, and students celebrated the
auspicious occasion with bonfires. The step forward was taken
when the universities and their colleges decided to throw open their
gates to the graduates of other universities in England, America,
and elsewhere for the purpose of advanced study. But here, as in
other things, Cambridge leads the way, and Oxford follows fal-
teringly. The advanced students at Cambridge are treated like
Cambridge men, they have the status of Bachelors of Arts, and
possess in most respects the advantages, such as they are, of the
latter; while at Oxford the advanced students are a restricted class,
with restricted advantages, and their relation to the university is
not that of the other students. In Cambridge the movement which
has resulted in the present admirable condition of affairs was
largely brought about by the zeal and enterprise of Dr. Donald
MacAlister, of St. John's College, the University Lecturer in
Therapeutics, a man of wide sympathies and ability, and whose
name is closely associated with this university's metamorphosis into
a more modern institution.

THE WONDERFUL CENTURY.*

A REVIEW BY W. K. BROOKS,

PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY IX THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.

EVERY naturalist has in his heart a warm affection for the
author of the Malay Archipelago, and is glad to acknowledge
with gratitude his debt to this great explorer and thinker and
teacher who gave us the law of natural selection independently of
Darwin. When the history of our century is written, the fore-
most place among those who have guided the thought of their gen-
eration and opened new fields for discovery will assuredly be gi^'en
to Wallace and Darwin.

* Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1899.

VOL. LVI. 3

26 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Few of the great men who have helped to make our century
memorable in the history of thought are witnesses of its end, and
all who have profited by the labors of Wallace will rejoice that
he has been permitted to stand on the threshold of a new century,
and, reviewing the past, to give us his impressions of the wonder-
ful century.

AVe men of the nineteenth century, he says, have not been
slow to praise it. The wise and the foolish, the learned and the
unlearned, the poet and the pressman, the rich and the poor, alike
Bwell the chorus of admiration for the marvelous inventions and
discoveries of our own age, and especially for those innumerable
applications of science which now form part of our daily life, and
which remind us every hour of our immense superiority over our
comparatively ignorant forefathers.

Our century, he tells us, has been characterized by a marvelous
and altogether unprecedented progress in the knowledge of the
universe and of its complex forces, and also in the application of
that knowledge to an infinite variety of purposes calculated, if
properly utilized, to supply all the wants of every human being
and to add greatly to the comforts, the enjoyments, and the re-
finements of life. The bounds of human knowledge have been
so far extended that new vistas have opened to us in nearly all
directions where it had been thought that we could never pene-
trate, and the more we learn the more we seem capable of learn-
ing in the ever-widening expanse of the universe. It may, he says,
be truly said of the men of science that they have become as gods
knowing good and evil, since they have been able not only to utilize
the most recondite powers of Nature in their service, but have in
many cases been able to discover the sources of much of the evil
that afflicts humanity, to abolish pain, to lengthen life, and to add
immensely to the intellectual as well as the physical enjoyments
of our race.

In order to get any adequate measure for comparison with the
nineteenth century we must take not any preceding century, but
the whole preceding epoch of human history. We must take into
consideration not only the changes effected in science, in the arts,
in the possibilities of human intercourse, and in the extension of
our knowledge both of the earth and of the whole visible universe,
but the means our century has furnished for future advancement.

Our author, who has borne such a distinguished part in the
intellectual progress of our century, shows clearly that in means
for the discovery of truth, for the extension of our control over
l^ature, and for the alleviation of the ills that beset mankind, the
inheritance of the twentieth centurv from the nineteenth will be

THE WONDERFUL CENTURY. 27

greater than our own inheritance from all the centuries that have
gone before.

Some may regret that, while only one third of Wallace's book
is devoted to the successes of the wonderful century, the author
finds the remaining two thirds none too much for the enumeration
of some of its most notable failures; but it is natural for one who
has borne his own distinguished part in all this marvelous progress
to ask where the century has fallen short of the enthusiastic hopes
of its leaders, what that it might have done it has failed to do, and
what lies ready at the hand of the workers who will begin the new
century with this rich inheritance of new thoughts, new methods,
and new resources.

The more we realize the vast possibilities of human welfare
which science has given us the more, he says, must we recognize
our total failure to make any adequate use of them.

Along with this continuous progress in science, in the arts,
and in wealth-production, which has dazzled our imaginations
to such an extent that we can hardly admit the possibility of any
serious evils having accompanied or been caused by it, there has,
he says, been many serious failures — intellectual, social, and moral.
Some of our great thinkers, he says, have been so impressed by the
terrible nature of these failures that they have doubted whether
the final result of the work of the century has any balance of good
over evil, of happiness over misery, for mankind at large.

Wallace is no pessimist, but one who believes that the first
step in retrieving our failures is to perceive clearly where we have
failed, for he says there can be no doubt of the magnitude of the
evils that have grown up or persisted in the midst of all our tri-
umphs over natural forces and our unprecedented growth in wealth
and luxury, and he holds it not the least important part of his work
to call attention to some of these failures.

With ample knowledge of the sources of health, we allow and
even compel the bulk of our population to live and work under
conditions which greatly shorten life. In our mad race for wealth
we have made gold more sacred than human life; we have made
life so hard for many that suicide and insanity and crime are alike
increasing. The struggle for wealth has been accompanied by a
reckless destruction of the stored-up products of Nature, which is
even more deplorable because irretrievable, l^ot only have forest
growths of many hundred years been cleared away, often with dis-
astrous consequences, but the whole of the mineral treasures of
the earth's surface, the slow productions of long-past eras of time
and geological change, have been and are still being exhausted with
reckless disregard of our duties to posterity and solely in the in-

28 POPULAR SCIEXCE MONTHLY.

terest of landlords and capitalists. With all our labor-saving ma-
chinery and all our command over the forces of I^ature, the strug-
gle for existence has become more tierce than ever before, and
year by year an ever-increasing proportion of our people sink into
paupers' graves.

When the brightness of future ages shall have dimmed the,
glamour of our material progress he says that the judgment of his-
tory will surely be that our ethical standard was low and that we
were unworthy to possess the great and beneficent powers that sci-
ence had placed in our hands, for, instead of devoting the highest
powers of our greatest men to remedy these evils, we see the gov-
ernments of the most advanced nations arming their people to the
teeth and expending most of the wealth and all the resources of
their science in preparation for the destruction of life, of property,
and of happiness.

He reminds us that the first International Exhibition, in 1851,
fostered the hope that men would soon perceive that peace and
commercial intercourse are essential to national well-being. Poets
and statesmen joined in hailing the dawn of an era of peaceful in-
dustry, and exposition following exposition taught the nations how
much they have to learn from each other and how much to give
to each other for the benefit and happiness of all.

Dueling, which had long prevailed, in spite of its absurdity and
harmfulness, as a means of settling disputes, was practically abol-
ished by the general diffusion of a spirit of intolerance of private
war; and as the same public opinion which condemns it should,
if consistent, also condemn war between nations, many thought
they perceived the dawn of a wiser policy between nations.

Yet so far are we from progress toward its" abolition that the
latter half of the century has witnessed not the decay, but a re-
vival of the war spirit, and at its end we find all nations loaded
with the burden of increasing armies and navies.

The armies are continually being equipped with new and more
deadly weapons at a cost which strains the resources of even the
most wealthy nations and im]:)overishes the mass of the people by
increasing burdens of debt and taxation, and all this as a means
of settling disputes which have no sufficient cause and no relation
whatever to the well-being of the communities Avhich engage in
them.

The evils of war do not cease with the awful loss of life and
destruction of property which are their immediate results, since
they form the excuse for inordinate increase of armaments — an in-
crease which has been intensified by the application to war purposes
of those mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries which,

THE WONDERFUL CENTURY. 29

properly used, should bring peace aud plenty to all, but which when
seized upon by the spirit of militarism directly lead to enmity
among nations and to the misery of the people.

The first steps in this military development were the adoption
of a new rifle by the Prussian army in 1840, the application of
steam to ships of war in 1840, and the use of armor for battle ships
in 1859. The remainder of the century has witnessed a mad race
between the nations to increase the death-dealing power of their
weapons and to add to the number and efficiency of their armies,
while all the resources of modern science have been utilized in
order to add to the destructive poAver of cannon and both the de-
fensive and the offensive power of ships. The inability of indus-
trious laboring men to gain any due share of the benefits of our
progress in scientific knowledge is due, beyond everything else, to
the expense of withdrawing great armies of men in the prime of
life from productive labor, joined to the burden of feeding and
clothing them and of keeping weapons and ammunition, ships, and
fortifications in a state of readiness, of continually renewing stores
of all kinds, of pensions, and of all the laboring men who must, be-
sides making good the destruction caused by war, be withdrawn
from productive labor and be supported by others that they may
support the army.

And what a horrible mockery is this wdien view^ed in the light
of either Christianity or advancing civilization! All the nations
armed to the teeth and watching stealthily for some occasion to
use their vast armaments for their own aggrandizement and for
the injury, of their neighbors are Christian nations, but their Chris-
tian governments do not exist for the good of the governed, still
less for the good of humanity or civilization, but for the aggran-
dizement and greed and lust of the ruling classes.

The devastation caused by the tyrants and conquerors of the
middle ages and of antiquity has been reproduced in our times by
the rush to obtain wealth. Even the lust of conquest, in order
to obtain slaves and tribute and great estates, by means of which
the ruling classes could live in boundless luxury, so characteristic
of the earlier civilization, is reproduced in our time.

Witness the recent conduct of the nations of Europe toward
Crete and Greece, upholding the most terrible despotism in the
world because each hopes for a favorable opportunity to obtain
some advantage, leading ultimately to the largest share of the spoil.

Witness the struggles in Africa and Asia, where millions of
foreign people may be enslaved and bled for the benefit of their
new rulers.

The whole w^orld, says Wallace, is but a gambling table. Just

30 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

as gambling deteriorates and demoralizes the individual, so the
greed for dominion demoralizes governments. The welfare of the
people is little cared for, except so far as to make them submissive
taxpayers, enabling the ruling and moneyed classes to extend their
sway over new territories and to create well-paid places and ex-
citing work for their sons and relatives.

Hence, says Wallace, comes the force that ever urges on the
increase of armaments and the extension of empire. Great vested
interests are at stake, and ever-gTowing pressure is brought to bear
upon the too-willing governments in the name of the greatness
of the country, the extension of commerce, or the advance of civili-
zation. This state of things is not progress, but retrogression.
It will be held by the historian of the future to show that we of
the nineteenth century were morally and socially unfit to possess
the enormous powers for good and evil which the rapid advance of
scientific discovery has given us, that our boasted civilization was
in many respects a mere superficial veneer, and that our methods
of government were not in accord with either Christianity or civi-
lization.

Comparing the conduct of these modern nations, who call them-
selves Christian and civilized, with that of the Spanish conquerors
of the West Indies, Mexico, and Peru, and making some allow-
ances for differences of race and public opinion, Wallace says there
is not much to choose between them.

Wealth and territory and native labor were the real objects in
both cases, and if the Spaniards were more cruel by nature and
more reckless in their methods the results were much the same.
In both cases the country was conquered and thereafter occupied
and governed by the conquerors frankly for their own ends, and
with little regard for the feelings or the well-being of the con-
quered. If the Spaniards exterminated the natives of the West
Indies, we, he says, have done the same thing in Tasmania and
about the same in temperate Australia. Their belief that they
were really serving God in converting the heathen, even at the
point of the sword, was a genuine belief, shared by priests and
conquerors alike — not a mere sham as ours is when we defend our
conduct by the plea of " introducing the blessings of civilization."

It is quite possible, says Wallace, that both the conquest of
Mexico and Peru by the Spaniards and our conquest of South Af-
rica may have been real steps in advance, essential to human prog-
ress, and helping on the future reign of true civilization and the
well-being of the human race. But if so, we have been and are
unconscious agents in hastening the " far-off divine event." We
deserve no credit for it. Our aims have been for the most part

SPIDER BITES AND ^^ KISSING BUGSr 31

sordid and selfish, and our rule has often been largely influenced
and often entirely directed by the necessity of finding well-paid
places for young men with influence, and also by the constant de-
mands for fresh markets by the influential class of merchants and
manufacturers.

More general diffusion of the conviction that while all share
the burdens of war, such good as comes from it is appropriated by
the few, will no doubt do much to discourage wars; but we must
ask whether there may not be another incentive to war which Wal-
lace does not give due weight — whether love of fighting may not
have something to do with wars.

As we look backward over history we are forced to ask whether
the greed and selfishness of the wealthy and influential and those
who hope to gain are the only causes of war. We went to war
with Spain because our people in general demanded war. If we
have been carried further than we intended and are now fighting
for objects which we did not foresee and may not approve, this
is no more than history might have led us to expect. War with
Spain was popular with nearly all our people a year ago, and, while
wise counsels might have stemmed this popular tide, there can be
no doubt that it existed, for the evil passions of the human race
are the real cause of wars.

The great problem of the twentieth century, as of all that have
gone before, is the development of the wise and prudent self-re-
straint which represses natural passions and appetites for the sake
of higher and better ends.

SPIDER BITES AND "KISSING BUGS."*

By L. O. HOWARD,

CHIEF OF THE DIVI8I0X OF ENTOMOLOGY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTURE.

ON several occasions during the past ten years, and especially
at the Brooklyn meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1894, the writer has endeavored to
show that most of the newspaper stories of deaths from spider bite
are either grossly exaggerated or based upon misinformation. He
has failed to thoroughly substantiate a single case of death from a
so-called spider bite, and has concluded that there is only one spider
in the United States which is capable of inflicting a serious bite —
viz., Latrodectus mactans, a species belonging to a genus of world-
wide distribution, the other species of which have universally a

* A paper read before Section F of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science at the Columbus meeting in August, 1899.

32

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

bad reputation among the peoples whose country they inhabit.
In spite of these conclusions, the accuracy of which has been tested
with great care, there occur in the newspapers every year stories
of spider bites of great seriousness, often resulting in death or the
amputation of a limb. The details of negative evidence and of
lack of positive evidence need not be entered upon here, except
in so far as to state that in the great majority of these cases the
spider supposed to have inflicted the bite is not even seen, while
in almost no case is the spider seen to inflict the bite; and it is a
well-known fact that there are practically no spiders in our more
northern States which are able to pierce the human skin, except

DiKj-EREKT Staoes OF CoNORiiiNCs SANGUisuGCS. Twicc natural size. (After Marlatt.)

upon a portion of the body where the skin is especially delicate
and which is seldom exposed. There arises, then, the probability
that there are other insects capable of piercing tough skin, the re-
sults of whose bites may be more or less painful, the wounds being
attributed to spiders on account of the universally bad reputation
which these arthropods seem to have.

These sentences formed the introduction to a paper read by
the writer at a meeting of the Entomological Society of Wash-
ington, held June 1st last. I went on to state that some of these
insects are rather well known, as, for example, the blood-sucking
cone-nose (Conorhinus sancjvisugns) and the two-spotted corsairs

SPIDER BITES AND -'KISSING BUGSr 33

{Basatus thoracicus and R. biguitatus), both of which occur, how-
ever, most numerously in the South and West, and then spoke of
Melanotestis picipes, a species which had been especially called to
my attention by Mr. Frank M. Jones, of Wilmington, Del., who
submitted the report of the attending physician in a case of two
punctures by this insect inflicted upon the thumb and forefinger of
a middle-aged man in Delaware. I further reported upon occa-
sional somewhat severe results from the bites * of the old Eeduvius
personatus, now placed in the genus Opsicostes, and stated that a
smaller species, Coriscus suhcoleoptratus, had bitten me rather se-
verely under circumstances similar to some of those which have
given rise in the past to spider-bite stories. In the course of the
discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Mr. Schwarz
stated that twice during the present spring he had been bitten
rather severely by Melanotestis picipes which had entered his room,
probably attracted by light. He described it as the worst biter
among heteropterous insects with which he had had any experi-
ence, and said he thought it was commoner than usual in Wash-
ington during the present year.

No account of this meeting was published, but within a few
weeks thereafter several persons suffering from swollen faces vis-
ited the Emergency Hospital in Washington and complained that
they had been bitten by some insect while asleep; that they did
not see the insect, and could not describe it. This happened dur-
ing one of the temporary periods when newspaper men are most
actively engaged in hunting for items. There was a dearth of
news. These swollen faces offered an opportunity for a good story,
and thus began the " kissing-bug " scare which has grown to such
extraordinary proportions. I have received the following letter
and clipping from Mr. J. F. McElhone, of the Washington Post,
in reply to a request for information regarding the origin of this
curious epidemic:

" Washington, D. C, August I4, 1899.

"Dr. L. 0. Howard, Cosmos Club., Washington, D. C.

"Dear Sir: Attached please find clipping from the Washing-
ton Post of June 20, 1899, being the first story that ever appeared
in print, so far as I can learn, of the depredations of the Melano-
testis picipes, better known now as the kissing bug. In my rounds
as police reporter of the Post, I noticed, for two or three days
before writing this story, that the register of the Emergency Hos-
pital of this city contained unusually frequent notes of ' bug-bite '

* When the word " bite " is used in connection with these bugs, it must be remembered
that it is really a puncture made with the sharp beak or proboscis (see illustration).

34

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

cases. Investigating, on the evening of June 19th I learned from
the hospital physicians that a noticeable number of patients were
applying daily for treatment for very red and extensive swellings,
usually on the lips, and apparently the result of an insect bite.
This led to the writing of the story attached.

" Very truly yours,

"James F. McElhone."

It would be an interesting computation for one to figure
out the amount of newspaper space which was filled in the suc-
ceeding two months by items and articles about the " kissing
.^_________«_____^««,.^_«._ bug." Other Washington

newspapers took the matter
up. The jSTew York, Phila-
delphia, and Baltimore pa-
pers soon followed suit.
The epidemic spread east to
Boston and west to Cali-

Ube Masbtnoton poet.

TUESDAY, JUNE 20, 1899.

BITE OF A STRANGE BUG.

Several Patients Have Appeared at the
HospitHls V«ry liadly f'oisoned.

Lookout for the new bug. It is an in-
sidious insect that bite:^ without causing
pain and escapes unnoticed. But after-
ward the place where it has bitten swells
to ten times its normal size. The Emerg-
ency Hospital has had several victims
of this insect as patients lately and thii
number is increasing. Application for
treatment by other victims are being
made at other hospitals, and the mat-
ter threater.s to become something like
a plagre. None of thoge who have been
bitten saw the msect whose sting proves
so disastrous. One old negro went to
sleep and woke up to find both his eyes
nearly closed by the swelling from his
nose and cheeks, where the insect had
alighted. The lips seems to be the favor-
ite point of attack.

William Smith, a newspaper agent, of
327 Trumbull street, went to the Emerg-
ency last night with his upper lip swol-
len to many times Its natural size. The
symptoms are in every case the same,
and there is indication erf pol.sonlng from
an insect's bite. The matter is begin-
nmg to interest the physicians, and ev-
ery patient who comes in with the now
weL-kiiown marks is closely questioned
as to the description of the Iftsect. No
one has yet been found who has seen it.

fornia. By " epidemic " is
meant the newspaper epi-
demic, for every insect bite
where the biter was not at
once recognized was attrib-
uted to the popular and
somewhat mysterious crea-
ture which had been given
such an attractive name, and
there can be no doubt that
some mosquito, flea, and
bedbug bites which had by
accident resulted in a great-
er than the usual severity
were attributed to the pre-
^■ailing oscillatory insect.
Ill Washington professional
beggars seized the opportu-
nity, and went around from
door to door with bandaged
faces and hands, complaining that they were poor men and
had been thrown out of work by the results of " kissing-bug "
stings! One beggar came' to the writer's door and offered, in sup-
port of his plea, a card supposed to be signed by the head surgeon
of the Emergency Hospital. In a small town in central New York
a man arrested on the charge of swindling entered the plea that

SPIDER BITES AND ''KISSING BUGSr 35

he was temporarily insane owing to the bite of the '' kissing bug."
Entomologists all through the East were also much overworked
answering questions asked them about the mysterious creature.
Men of local entomological reputations were applied to by news-
paper reporters, by their friends, by people who knew them, in
church, on the street, and under all conceivable circumstances.
Editorials were written about it. Even the Scientific American
published a two-column article on the subject; and, while no inter-
national complications have resulted as yet, the kissing bug, in its
own way and in the short space of two months, produced almost
as much of a scare as did the San Jose scale in its five years of
Eastern excitement. Now, however, the newspapers have had their ,
fun, the necessary amount of space has been filled, and the sub-
ject has assumed a castaneous hue, to Latinize the slang of a few
years back.

The experience has been a most interesting one. To the reader
familiar with the old accounts of the hysterical craze of south Eu-
rope, based upon supposed tarantula bites, there can not fail to
come the suggestion that we have had in miniature and in mod-
ernized form, aided largely by the newspapers, a hysterical craze
of much the same character. From the medical and psychological
point of view this aspect is interesting, and deserves investigation
by competent persons.

As an entomologist, however, the writer confines himself to
the actual authors of the bites so far as he has been able to deter-
mine them. It seems undoubtedly true that while there has been
a great cry there has been very little wool. It is undoubtedly
true, also, that there have been a certain number of bites by hete-
ropterous insects, some of which have resulted in considerable swell-
ing. It seems true that Melanotestis picipes and Opsicostes per-
sonatus have been more numerous than usual this year, at least
around Washington. They have been captured in a number of
instances while biting people, and have been brought to the writ-
er's ofiice for determination in such a way that there can be no
doubt about the accuracy of this statement. As the story, went
West, bites by Conorhinus sanguisuga and Basatus thoracicus were
without doubt termed " kissing-bug " bites. With regard to other
cases, the writer has known of an instance where the mosquito bite
upon the lip of a sleeping child produced a very considerable swell-
ing. Therefore he argues that many of these reported cases may
have been nothing more than mosquito bites. With nervous and
excitable individuals the symptoms of any skin puncture become
exaggerated not only in the mind of the individual but in their
actual characteristics, and not only does this refer to cases of skin

36

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

puncture but to certain skin eruptions, and to some of those early
summer skin troubles whicli are known as strawberry rash, etc.
It is in this aspect of the subject that the resemblance to taran-
tulism comes in, and this is the result of the hysterical wave, if it
may be so termed.

Six different heteropterous insects were mentioned in the early
part of this article, and it will be appropriate to give each of them
some little detailed consideration, taking the species of Eastern dis-
tribution first, since the scare had its origin in the East, and has
there perhaps been more fully exploited.

Opsicosies personatus, also known as Beduvius personatus, and
which has been termed the " cannibal bug," is a European species
introduced into this country at some unknown date, but possibly
following close in the wake of the bedbug. In Europe this species
haunts houses for the purpose of preying upon bedbugs. Riley,
in his well-known article on Poisonous Insects, published in Wood's
Reference Handbook of Medical Science, states that if a fly or an-
other insect is offered to the cannibal bug it is first touched with
the antennae, a sudden spring follows, and at the same time the
beak is thrust into the prey. The young specimens are covered

Melanotestis ABDOMINALI9. Female at ri^'lit ;
male at left, with eular^'ed beak at side.
Twice natural size. (Original.)

Head and Proboscis of Coxoriiinub
8AN0UISVGUS. (After Marlatt.)

with a glutinous substance, to which bits of dirt and dust adhere.
They move deliberately, with a long pause between each step, the
step being taken in a jerky manner. The distribution of the spe-
cies, as given by Router in his Monograph of the Genus Beduvius^
is Europe to the middle of Sweden, Caucasia, Asia Minor, Algeria,
Madeira; North America, Canada, New York, Philadelphia, In-
diana; Tasmania, Au.stralia — from whicli it appears that the insect
is already practically ff>sinopolitan, and in fact may almost be

SPIDER BITES AND ''KISSING BUGSr 37

termed a household insect. The collections of the United States
National Museum and of Messrs. Heidemann and Chittenden, of
Washington, D. C, indicate the following localities for this spe-
cies: Locust Hill, Ya.; Washington, D. C; Baltimore, Md. ; Ith-
aca, ]Sr. Y. ; Cleveland, Ohio; Keokuk, Iowa.

The bite of this species is said to be very painful, more so than
that of a bee, and to be followed by numbness (Lintner). One of
the cases brought to the writ-
er's attention this summer
was that of a Swedish serv-
ant girl, in which the insect
was caught, where the sting
was upon the neck, and
was followed by considerable
swelling, Le Conte, in de- /

scribing it under the SVno- Coriscis subcoleoptratis : «, wingless form;
1 rt 1 • ^ b, wincred form ; c, proboscis. All t\vi(je

nymical name Beduvius pun- natural size. (Original.)

gens, gives Georgia as the lo-
cality, and makes the following statement : '' This species is re-
markable for the intense pain caused by its bite. I do not know
whether it ever willingly plunges its rostrum into any person, but
when caught or unskillfully handled it always stings. In this case
the pain is almost equal to that of the bite of a snake, and the
swelling and irritation which result from it will sometimes last for
a week. In very weak and irritable constitutions it may even
prove fatal." *

The second Eastern species is Melanotestis picipes. This and
the closely allied and possibly identical M. ahdominalis are not
rare in the United States, and have been found all along the At-
lantic States, in the West and South, and also in Mexico. They
live underneath stones and logs, and run swiftly. Both sexes of
M. picipes in the adult are fully winged, but the female of M. ah-
dominalis is usually found in the short-winged condition. Prof. P.
R. Uhler writes (in litt.): "Melanotestis ahdominalis is not rare in
this section (Baltimore), but the winged female is a great rarity.
At the present time I have not a specimen of the winged female in
my collection. I have seen specimens from the South, in l^orth
Carolina and Florida, but I do not remember one from ^Maryland.
I am satisfied that M. picipes is distinct from M. ahdominalis. I
have not known the two species to unite sexually, but I have seen
them both united to their proper consorts. Both species are some-
times found under the same flat stone or log, and they both hiber-

*■ Proceedings of the Academy of Nqtiual Sciences of Philadelphia, vol. vii, p. 404,
18.54-'55.

38 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

nate in our valleys beneath stones and rubbish in loamy soils."
Specimens in Washington collections show the following localities
for M. ahdominalis : Baltimore, Md. ; Washington, D. C; Wil-
mington, Del.; New Jersey; Long Island; Fort Bliss, Texas;
Louisiana; and Keokuk, Iowa; and for M. picipes, Washington,
D, C; Roslyn, Va.; Baltimore, Md.; Derby, Conn.; Long Island;
a series labeled ISTew Jersey; Wilmington, Del.; Keokuk, Iowa;
Cleveland and Cincinnati, Ohio; Louisiana; Jackson, Miss.; Bar-
ton County, Mo.; Fort Bliss, Texas; San Antonio, Texas; Cres-
cent City, Fla.; Holland, S. C.

This insect has been mentioned several times in entomological
literature. The first reference to its bite probably was made by
Townend Glover in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of
Agriculture for 1875 (page 130). In Maryland, he states, M.
picipes is found under stones, moss, logs of wood, etc., and is ca-
pable of inflicting a severe wound with its rostrum or piercer. In
1888 Dr. Lintner, in his Fourth Report as State Entomologist of
New York (page 110), quotes from a correspondent in Natchez,
Miss., concerning this insect: " I send a specimen of a fly not known
to us here. A few days ago it punctured the finger of my wife, in-
flicting a painful sting. The swelling was rapid, and for several
days the wound was quite annoying." Until recent years this
insect has not been known to the writer as occurring in houses
with any degree of frequency. A May, 1895, however, I re-
ceived a specimen from an esteemed correspondent — Dr. J. M.
Shaffer, of Keokuk, Iowa — together with a letter written on May
7th, in which the statement was made that four specimens flew
into his window the night before. The insect, therefore, is at-
tracted to light or is becoming attracted to light,- is a night-flier,
and enters houses through open windows. Among the several cases
coming under the writer's observation of bites by this insect, one
has been reported by the well-known entomologist Mr. Charles
Dury, of Cincinnati, Ohio, in which this species (M. picipes) bit a
man on the back of the hand, making a bad sore. In another case,,
where the insect was brought for our determination and proved
to be this species, the bite was upon the cheek, and the swelling
was said to be great, but with little pain. In a third case, occur-
ring at Holland, S. C, the symptoms were more serious. The
patient was bitten upon the end of the middle finger, and stated
that the first paroxysm of pain was about like that resulting from
a hornet or a bee sting, but almost immediately it grew ten times
more painful, with a feeling of weakness followed by vomiting.
The pain was felt to shoot up the arm to the under jaw, and the
sickness lasted for a number of days. A fourth case, at Fort Bliss.

SPIDER BITES AND '' KISSING BUGSr

39

Texas, is interesting as having occurred in bed. The patient was
bitten on the hand, with very painful results and bad swelling.

The third of the Eastern species, Coriscus suhcoleoptratus, is
said by Uhler to have a general distribution in the Northern States,
and is like the species immediately preceding a native insect.
There is no record of any bite by this species, and it is introduced
here for the reason that it attracted the writer's attention crawl-
ing upon the walls of an earth closet in Greene County, ISTew York,
where on one occasion it bit him between the fingers. The pain
was sharp, like the prick of a pin, but only a faint swelling fol-
lowed, and no further inconvenience. The insect is mentioned,

Rasatus biouttatus. Twice natu-
ral size. (Original.)

Eeduvius (Opsicostesi per-
sonatus. Twice natural
size. (Original.)

however, for the reason that, occurring in such situations, it is one
of the forms which are liable to carry pathogenic bacteria.

There remain for consideration the Southern and Western
forms — Basatus thoracicus and R. higuttatus, and Conorliinus san-
guisugus.

The two-spotted corsair, as Rasatus higuttatus is popularly
termed, is said by Riley to be found frequently in houses in the
Southern States, and to prey npon bedbugs. Lintner, referring
to the fact that it preys upon bedbugs, says : " It evidently delights
in human blood, but prefers taking it at second hand." Dr. A.
Davidson, formerly of Los Angeles, Cal., in an important paper
entitled So-called Spider Bites and their Treatment, published in
the Therapeutic Gazette of February 15, 1897, arrives at the con-
clusion that almost all of the so-called spider bites met with in
southern California are produced by no spider at all, but by Rasatus
higuttatus. The symptoms which he describes are as follows:
" Next day the injured part shows a local cellulitis, with a central

40 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

dark spot; around this spot there frequently appears a IjiiUous ves-
icle about the size of a ten-cent piece, and filled with a dark gru-
mous fluid; a small ulcer forms underneath the vesicle, the necrotic
area being generally limited to the central part, while the surround-
ing tissues are more or less swollen and somewhat painful. In a few
days, with rest and proper care, the swelling subsides, and in a week
all traces of the cellulitis are usually gone. In some of the cases
no vesicle forms at the point of injury, the formation probably de-
pending on the constitutional vitality of the individual or the
amount of poison introduced." The explanation of the severity
of the wound suggested by Dr. Davidson, and in which the writer
fully concurs with him, is not that the insect introduces any spe-
cific poison of its own, but that the poison introduced is probably
accidental and contains the ordinary putrefactive germs which may
adhere to its proboscis. Dr. Davidson's treatment was corrosive
sublimate — 1 to 500 or 1 to 1,000 — locally applied to the wound,
keeping the necrotic part bathed in the solution. The results have
in all cases been favorable. Uliler gives the distribution of R.
higuttatus as Arizona, Texas, Panama, Para, Cuba, Louisiana, West
Virginia, and California. After a careful study of the material
in the United States !N^ational Museum, Mr. Heidemann has de-
cided that the specimens of Basatiis from the southeastern part
of the country are in reality Say's R. higuttatus, while those from
the Southwestern States belong to a distinct species answering more
fully, with slight exceptions, to the description of Stal's Rasatus
thoracicus. The writer has recently received a large series of R.
tlioracicus from Mr. H. Brown, of Tucson, Arizona, and had a dis-
agreeable experience wath the same species in April, 1898, at San
Jose de Guaymas, in the State of Sonora, Mexico. He had not
seen the insect alive before, and was sitting at the supper table with
his host — a ranchero of cosmopolitan language. One of the bugs,
attracted by the light, flew in with a buzz and flopped doM'n on
the table. The writer's entomological instinct led him to reach
out for it, and was warned by his host in the remarkable sentence
comprising words derived from three distinct languages: " Guar-
dez, guardez! Zat animalito sting like ze dev! " But it was too
late; the writer had been stung on the forefinger, with painful
results. Fortunately, however, the insect's beak must have been
clean, and no great swelling or long inconvenience ensued.

Perhaps the best known of any of the species mentioned in
our list is the blood-sucking cone-nose (ConorJiinus sanguisugus).
This ferocious insect belongs to a genus which has several repre-
sentatives in the United States, all, however, confined to the South
or West. C. ruhro-fasciatus and C. variegatus, as well as C. san-

SPIDER BITES AND ''KISSING BUGSr 41

guisugus, are given the general geographical distribution of
*' Southern States." C. dimidiaius and C. maculipennis are Mex-
ican forms, while C. gerstaeckeri occurs in the Western States. The
more recently described species, C. protractiLS Uhl., has been
taken at Los Angeles, Cal.; Dragoon, Ariz.; and Salt Lake City,
Utah. All of these insects are blood-suckers, and do not hesitate
to attack animals. Le Conte, in his original description of C. san-
guisugus* adds a most significant paragraph or two which, as it
has not been quoted of late, will be especially appropriate here:
" This insect, equally with the former " (see above), " inflicts a most
painful wound. It is remarkable also for sucking the blood of
mammals, particularly of children. I have known its bite fol-
lowed by very serious consequences, the patient not recovering
from its effects for nearly a year. The many relations which we
have of spider bites frequently proving fatal have no doubt arisen
from the stings of these insects or others of the same genera.
When the disease called spider bite is not an anthrax or carbuncle
it is undoubtedly occasioned by the bite of an insect — by no means
however, of a spider. Among the many species of Araneidce which
we have in the United States I have never seen one capable of
inflicting the slightest wound. Ignorant persons may easily mis-
take a Cimex for a spider. I have known a physician who sent
to me the fragments of a large ant, which he supposed was a spider,
that came out of his grandchild's head." The fact that Le Conte
was himself a physician, having graduated from the College of
Physicians and Surgeons in 1846, thus having been nine years in
practice at the time, renders this statement all the more significant.
The life history and habits of C. sanguisugus have been so well
written up by my assistant, Mr. Marlatt, in Bulletin Xo. 4, I^^ew
Series, of the Division of Entomology, United States Department
of Agriculture, that it is not necessary to enter upon them here.
The point made by Marlatt — that the constant and uniform char-
acter of the symptoms in nearly all cases of bites by this insect
indicate that there is a specific poison connected with the bite — de-
serves consideration, but there can be no doubt that the very seri-
ous results which sometimes follow the bite are due to the intro-
duction of extraneous poison germs. The late Mr. J. B. Lembert,
of Yosemite, Cal., noticed particularly that the species of Conorhi-
nus occurring upon the Pacific coast is attracted by carrion. Pro-
fessor Tourney, of Tucson, Arizona, shows how a woman broke out
all over the body and limbs with red blotches and welts from a
single sting on the shoulders. Specimens of C. sanguisugus re-

* Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, vol. vii, p. 404j
1854-'55.

VOL. LVI. — 4

42 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ceived in July, 1899, from Maversville, Miss., Trere accompanied
by the statement — which is appropriate, in view of the fact that the
newspapers have insisted that the " kissing bug " prefers the lip — •
that a friend of the writer was bitten on the lip, and that the effect
was a burning pain, intense itching, and much swelling, lasting
three or four days. The writer of the letter had been bitten upon
the leg and arm, and his brother was bitten upon both feet and
legs and on the arm, the symptoms being the same in all cases.

More need hardly be said specifically concerning these biting
bugs. The writer's conclusions are that a puncture by any one of
them may be and frequently has been mistaken for a spider bite,
and that nearly all reported spider-bite cases have had in reality
this cause, that the so-called " kissing-bug " scare has been based
upon certain undoubted cases of the bite of one or the other of
them, but that other bites, including mosquitoes, wath hysterical
and nervous symptoms produced by the newspaper accounts, have
aided in the general alarm. The case of Miss Larson, who died in
August, 1898, as the result of a mosquito bite, at Mystic, Conn.,
is an instance which goes to show that no mysterious new insect
need be looked for to explain occasional remarkable cases. One
good result of the " kissing-bug " excitement will prove in the end
to be that it will have relieved spiders from much unnecessary
discredit.

THE MOSQUITO THEORY OF MALARIA.*

By Majoe KONALD EOSS.

I HAVE the honor to address you, on completion of my term
of special duty for the investigation of malaria, on the subject
of the practical results as regard the prevention of the disease
which may be expected to arise from my researches; and I trust
that this letter may be submitted to the Government if the director
general thinks fit.

It has been shown in my reports to you that the parasites of
malaria pass a stage of their existence in certain species of mos-
quitoes, by the bites of which they are inoculated into the blood
of healthy men and birds. These observations have solved the
problem — previously thought insolvable — of the mode of life of
these parasites in external Nature.

My results have been accepted by Dr. Laveran, the discoverer
of the parasites of malaria; by Dr. Manson, who elaborated the

* A report, published in Nature, from Major Ronald Ross to the Secretary to the Director
General, Indian Medical Service, Simla. Dated Calcutta, February 16, 1899.

THE MOSQUITO THEORY OF MALARIA. 43

mosquito theory of malaria; by Dr. ISTuttall, of the Hygienic In-
stitute of Berlin, who has made a special study of the relations
between insects and disease; and, I understand, by M. Metchnikoff,
Director of the Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute in Paris.
Lately, moreover, Dr. C. W. Daniels, of the Malaria Commission,
who has been sent to study with me in Calcutta, has confirmed
my observations in a special report to the Royal Society; while,
lastly. Professor Grassi and Drs. Bignami and Bastianelli, of Rome,
have been able, after receiving specimens and copies of my reports
from me, to repeat my experiments in detail, and to follow two
of the parasites of human malaria through all their stages in a
species of mosquito called the Anopheles claviger.

It may therefqre be finally accepted as a fact that malaria is
communicated by the bites of some species of mosquito; and, to
judge from the general laws governing the development of para-
sitic animals, such as the parasites of malaria, this is very probably
the only way in which infection is acquired, in which opinion sev-
eral distinguished men of science concur with me.

In considering this statement it is necessary to remember that
it does not refer to the mere recurrences of fever to which people
previously infected are often subject as the result of chill, fatigue,
and so on. When I say that malaria is communicated by the bites
of mosquitoes, I allude only to the original infection.

It is also necessary to guard against assertions to the effect that
malaria is prevalent where mosquitoes and gnats do not exist. In
my experience, when the facts come to be inquired into, such asser-
tions are found to be untrue. Scientific research has now yielded
so absolute a proof of the mosquito theory of malaria that hearsay
evidence opposed to it can no longer carry any weight.

Hence it follows that, in order to eliminate malaria wholly or
partly from a given locality, it is necessary only to exterminate
the various species of insect which carry the infection. This will
certainly remove the malaria to a large extent, and will almost
certainly remove it altogether. It remains only to consider whether
such a measure is practicable.

Theoretically the extermination of mosquitoes is a very simple
matter. These insects are always hatched from aquatic larvae or
grubs which can live only in small stagnant collections of water,
such as pots and tubs of water, garden cisterns, wells, ditches and
drains, small ponds, half-dried water courses, and temporary pools
of rain-water. So far as I have yet observed, the larvae are seldom
to be found in larger bodies of water, such as tanks, rice fields,
streams, and rivers and lakes, because in such places they are de-
voured by minnows and other small fish. 'Nov have I ever seen

44 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

any evidence in favor of the popular view tLat tliey breed in damp
grass, dead leaves, and so on.

Hence, in order to get rid of these insects from a locality, it
will suffice to empty out or drain away, or treat with certain chem-
icals, the small collections of water in which their larvae must
pass their existence.

But the practicability of this will depend on circumstances —
especially, I think, on the species of mosquito with which we wish
to deal. In my experience, different species select different habi-
tations for their larvae. Thus the common " brindled mosquitoes "
breed almost entirely in pots and tubs of water; the common " gray
mosquitoes" only in cisterns, ditches, and drains; while the rarer
" spotted-winged mosquitoes " seem to choose only shallow rain-
water puddles and ponds too large to dry up under a week or more,
and too small or too foul and stagnant for minnows.

Hence the larvae of the first two varieties are found in large
numbers round almost all human dwellings in India; and, because
their breeding grounds — namely, vessels of water, drains, and
wells — are so numerous and are so frequently contained in private
tenements, it will be almost impossible to exterminate them on a
large scale.

On the other hand, spotted-winged mosquitoes are generally
much more rare than the other two varieties. They do not appear
to breed in wells, cisterns, and vessels of water, and therefore have
no special connection with human habitations. In fact, it is usually
a matter of some difficulty to obtain their larvae. Small pools of
any permanence — such as they require — are not common in most
parts of India, except during the rains, and then pools of this kind
are generally full of minnows which make short work of any mos-
quito larvae they may find. In other words, the breeding grounds
of the spotted-winged varieties seem to be so isolated and small
that I think it may be possible to exterminate this species under
certain circumstances.

The importance of these observations will be apparent when I
add that hitherto the parasites of human malaria have been found
only in spotted-winged mosquitoes — namely, in two species of them
in India and in one species in Italy. As a result of very numer-
ous experiments I think that the common brindled and gray mos-
quitoes are quite innocuous as regards human malaria — a for-
tunate circumstance for the human race in the tropics; and Pro-
fessor Grassi seems to have come to the same conclusion as the
result of his inquiries in Italy.

But I \vish to be understood as writing with all due caution
on these points. Up to the present our knowledge, both as regards

THE MOSQUITO THEORY OF MALARIA. 45

the habits of the various species of mosquito and as regards the
capacity of each for carrying malaria, is not complete. All I can
now say is that if my anticipations be realized — if it be found that
the malaria-beariug species of mosquito multiply only in small
isolated collections of water which can easily be dissipated — we
shall possess a simple mode of eliminating malaria from certain
localities.

I limit this statement to certain localities only, because it is
obvious that where the breeding pools are very numerous, as in
water-logged country, or where the inhabitants are not sufficiently
advanced to take the necessary precautions, we can scarcely expect
the recent observations to be of much use — at least for some years
to come. And this limitation must, I fear, exclude most of the rural
areas in India.

Where, however, the breeding pools are not very numerous,
and where there is anything approaching a competent sanitary es-
tablishment, we may, I think, hope to reap the benefit of these
discoveries. And this should apply to the most crowded areas, such
as those of cities, towns and cantonments, and also to tea, coffee,
and indigo estates, and perhaps to military camps.

For instance, malaria causes an enormous amount of sickness
among the poor in most Indian cities. Here the common species
of mosquitoes breed in the precincts of almost all the houses, and
can therefore scarcely be exterminated; but pools suitable for the
spotted-winged varieties are comparatively scarce, being found only
on vacant areas, ill-kept gardens, or beside roads in very excep-
tional positions where they can neither dry up quickly nor contain
fish. Thus a single small puddle may supply the dangerous mos-
quitoes to several square miles containing a crowded population:
if this be detected and drained off — which will generally cost only
a very few rupees — we may expect malaria to vanish from that
particular area.

The same considerations will apply to military cantonments
and estates under cultivation. In many such malaria causes the
bulk of the sickness, and may often, I think, originate from two
or three small puddles of a few square yards in size. Thus in a
malarious part of the cantonment of Secunderabad I found the
larvae of spotted-winged mosquitoes only after a long search in a
single little pool which could be filled up with a few cart-loads of
town rubbish.

In making these suggestions I do not wish to excite hopes which
may ultimately prove to have been unfounded. We do not yet
know all the dangerous species- of mosquito, nor do we even pos-
sess an exhaustive knowledge of the haunts and habits of any one

46 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

variety. I wisli merely to indicate what, so far as I can see at
present, may become a very simple means of eradicating malaria.

One thing may be said for certain. "Where previously we have
been unable to point out the exact origin of the malaria in a local-
ity, and have thought that it rises from the soil generally, we
now hope for much more precise knowledge regarding its source;
and it will be contrary to experience if human ingenuity does not
finally succeed in turning such information to practical account.

More than this, if the distinguishing characteristics of the ma-
laria-bearing mosquitoes are sufficiently marked (if, for instance,
they all have spotted wings), people forced to live or travel in
malarious districts will ultimately come to recognize them and to
take precautions against being bitten by them.

Before practical results can be reasonably looked for, however,
we must find precisely —

(a) What species of Indian mosquitoes do and do not carry
human malaria.

(h) What are the habits of the dangerous varieties.

I hope, therefore, that I may be permitted to urge the desira-
bility of carrying out this research. It will no longer present any
scientific difficulties, as only the methods already successfully
adopted will be required. The results obtained will be quite un-
equivocal and definite.

But the inquiry should be exhaustive. It will not suffice to
distinguish merely one or two malaria-bearing species of mosquito
in one or two localities; we should learn to know all of them in all
parts of the country.

The investigation will be abbreviated if the dangerous species
be found to belong only to one class of mosquito, as I think is
likely; and the researches which are now being energetically en-
tered upon in Germany, Italy, America, and Africa will a'ssist any
which may be undertaken in India, though there is reason for
thinking that the malaria-bearing species differ in various coun-
tries-

As each species is detected it will be possible to attempt meas-
ures at once for its extermination in given localities as an ex-
periment.

I regret that, owing to my work connected with 'kala-azar, I
have not been able to advance this branch of knowledge as much
during my term of special duty as I had hoped to do; but I think
that the solution of the malaria problem which has been obtained
during this period will ultimately yield results of practical im-
portance.

FOOD POISONING. 47

FOOD POISONmO.

By victor C. VACGHAN,
professor of hygiene in the university of michigan.

"TTTITHIN the past fifteen or twenty years cases of poisoning
V V with foods of various kinds have apparently become quite
numerous. This increase in the number of instances of this kind
has been both apparent and real. In the first place, it is only
within recent years that it has been recognized that foods ordi-
narily harmless may become most powerful poisons. In the sec-
ond place, the more extensive use of preserved foods of various
kinds has led to an actual increase in the number of outbreaks of
food poisoning.

The harmful effects of foods may be due to any of the follow-
ing causes:

1. Certain poisonous fungi may infect grains. This is the
cause of epidemics of poisoning with ergotized bread, which for-
merly prevailed during certain seasons throughout the greater part
of continental Europe, but which are now practically limited to
southern Russia and Spain. In this country ergotism is practi-
cally unknown, except as a result of the criminal use of the drug
ergot. However, a few herds of cattle in Kansas and Nebraska
have been quite extensively affected with this disease.

2. Plants and animals may feed upon substances that are not
harmful to them, but which may seriously affect man on account
of his greater susceptibility. It is a well-known fact that hogs
may eat large quantities of arsenic or antimony without harm to
themselves, and thus render their flesh unfit for food for man. It
is believed that birds that feed upon the mountain laurel furnish
a food poisonous to man.

3. During periods of the physiological activity of certain
glands in some of the lower animals the flesh becomes harmful
to man. Some species of flsh are poisonous during the spawning
season.

4. Both animal and vegetable foods may become infected with
the specific germs of disease and serve as the carriers of the infec-
tion to man. Instances of the distribution of typhoid fever by the
milkman are illustrations of this.

5. Animals may be infected with specific diseases, which may
be transmitted to man in the meat or milk. This is one of the
means by which tuberculosis is spread.

6. Certain nonspecific, poison-producing germs may find their
way into foods of various kinds, and may by their growth produce

48 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

chcniical poisons either before or after the food has been eaten.
This is the most common form of food poisoning known in this
country.

We will briefly discuss some foods most likely to prove harm-
ful to man.

Mussel Poisoning. — It has long been known that this bivalve
is occasionally poisonous. Three forms of mussel poisoning are
recognized. The first, known as Mytilotoxismus gastricus, is ac-
companied by symptoms practically identical with those of cholera
morbus. At first there is nausea, followed by vomiting, which may
continue for hours. In severe cases the walls of the stomach are so
seriously altered that the vomited matter contains considerable
quantities of blood. Vomiting is usually accompanied by severe
and painful purging. The heart may be markedly affected, and
death may result from failure of this organ. Examination after
death from this cause shows the stomach and small intestines to be
highly inflamed.

The second form of mussel poisoning is knoAvn as Mytilotoxis-
rtius exanthematicus on account of visible changes in the skin. At
first there is a sensation of heat, usually beginning in the eyelids,
then spreading to the face, and finally extending over the whole
body. This sensation is followed by an eruption, which is accom-
panied by intolerable itching. In severe cases the breathing be-
comes labored, the face grows livid, consciousness is lost, and death
may result within two or three days.

The most frequently observed form of mussel poisoning is
that designated as Mytilotoxismus paralyticus. As early as 1827
Combe reported his observations upon thirty persons who had suf-
fered from this kind of mussel poisoning. The first symptoms, as
a rule, appeared within two hours after eating the poisonous food.
Some suffered from nausea and vomiting, but those were not con-
stant or lasting symptoms. All complained of a prickly feeling
in the hands, heat and constriction of the throat, difficulty of swal-
lowing and speaking, numbness about the mouth, gradually extend-
ing over the face and to the arms, with great debility of the limbs.
Most of the sufferers were unable to stand; the action of the heart
was feeble, and the face grew pale and expressed much anxiety.
Two of the thirty cases terminated fatally. Post-mortem examina-
tion showed no abnormality.

Many opinions have been expressed concerning the nature of
harmful mussels. Until quite recently it was a common belief that
certain species are constantly toxic. Virchow has attempted to
describe the dangerous variety of mussels, stating that it has a
brighter shell, sweeter, more penetrating, bouillonlike odor than

FOOD POISONING. 49

the edible kind, and that the flesh of the poisonous mussel is yellow;
the water in which they are boiled becomes bluish.

However, this belief in a poisonous species is now admitted to
l)e erroneous. At one time it was suggested that mussels became
hurtful by absorbing the copper from the bottoms of vessels, but
Christison made an analysis of the mussels that poisoned the men
mentioned by Combe, with negative results, and also pointed out
the fact that the symptoms were not those of poisoning with cop-
per. Some have held that the ill effects were due wholly to
idiosyncrasies in the consumers, but cats and dogs are affected
in the same way as men are. It has also been believed that
all mussels are poisonous during the period of reproduction. This
theory is the basis of the popular superstition that shellfish
should not be eaten during the months in the name of which
the letter " r " does not occur. At one time this popular idea
took the form of a legal enactment in France forbidding the sale
of shellfish from May 1st to September 1st. This widespread
idea has a grain of truth in it, inasmuch as decomposition is
more likely to alter food injuriously during the summer months.
How^ever, poisoning with mussels may occur at any time of
the year.

It has been pretty well demonstrated that the first two forms
of mussel poisoning mentioned above are due to putrefactive pro-
cesses, while the paralytic manifestations seen in other cases are
due to a poison isolated a few years ago by Brieger, and named
by him mytilotoxin. Any mussel may acquire this poison when it
lives in filthy water. Indeed, it has been shown experimentally
that edible mussels may become harmful when left for fourteen
days or longer in filthy water; while, on the other hand, poisonous
mussels may become harmless if kept four weeks or longer in clear
water. This is true not only of mussels, but of oysters as well.
Some years ago, many cases of poisoning from oysters were re-
ported at Havre. The oysters had been taken from a bed near
the outlet of a (Irain from a public water closet. Both oysters and
mussels may harbor the typhoid bacillus, and may act as carriers
of this germ to man.

There should be most stringent police regulations against the
sale of all kinds of mollusks, and all fish as well, taken from filthy
waters. Certainly one should avoid shellfish from impure waters,
and it is not too much to insist that those offered for food should
be washed in clean water. All forms of clam and oyster broth
should be avoided when it has stood even for a few hours at sum-
mer heat. These preparations very quickly become infected with
bacteria, which develop most potent poisons.

50 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Fish Poisoxixg. — Some fisli are supplied with poisonous glands,
by means of which thej secure their prey and protect themselves
from their enemies. The " dragon weaver," or " sea weaver "
(Trachinus draco), is one of the best known of these iish. There
are numerous varieties widely distributed in salt waters. The poi-
sonous spine is attached partly to the maxilla and partly to the gill
cover at its base. This spine is connected with a poisonous gland;
the spine itself is grooved and covered with a thin membrane, which
converts the grooves into canals. When the point enters another
animal its membrane is stripped back and the poison enters the
wound. ]\Ien sometimes wound their feet with the barbs of this
fish while bathing. It also occasionally happens that a fisherman
pricks his fingers with one of these barbs. The most poisonous
variety of this fish known is found in the Mediterranean Sea.
Wounds produced by these animals sometimes cause death. In
Synanceia hrachio there are in the dorsal fin thirteen barbs, each
connected with two poison reservoirs. The secretion from these
glands is clear, bluish in color, and acid in reaction, and when in-
troduced beneath the skin causes local gangrene and, if in sufiicient
quantity, general paralysis. In Plotosus lineatus there is a pow^er-
f ul barb in front of the ventral fin, and the poison is not discharged
unless the end of the barb is broken. The most poisonous variety
of this fish is found only in tropical waters. In Scorpcena scrofa
and other species of this family there are poison glands connected
with the barbs in the dorsal and in some varieties in the caudal fin.

A disease known as hakke was a few years ago quite prevalent
in Japan and other countries along the eastern coast of Asia.
With the opening up of Japan to the civilized world the study of
this disease by scientific methods was undertaken by the observant
and intelligent natives who acquired their medical training in Eu-
rope and America. In Tokio the disease generally appears in
May, reaches its greatest prevalence in August, and gradually dis-
appears in September and October. The researches of Miura and
others have fairly well demonstrated that this disease is due to the
eating of fish belonging to the family of Scomhridce. There are
other kinds of fish in Japanese waters that undoubtedly are poison-
ous. This is true of the teirodon, of which, according to Remey,
there are twelve species whose ovaries are poisonous. Dogs fed
upon these organs soon suffered from salivation, vomiting, and
convulsive muscular contractions. When some of the fluid ob-
tained by rubbing the ovaries in a mortar was injected subcutane-
ously in dogs the symptoms were much more severe, and death
resulted. Tahara states that he has isolated from the roe of the
tetrodon two poisons, one of which is a crystalline base, while the

FOOD POISONING. 51

other is a -vvliite, waxy body. From 1885 to 1892 inclusive, 933
cases of poisoning witli this fish were reported in Tokio, with a mor-
tality of seventy-two per cent.

Fish poisoning is quite frequently observed in the "West Indies,
where the complex of symptoms is designated by the Spanish term
siguatera. It is believed by the natives that the poisonous prop-
erties of the fish are due to the fact that they feed upon decom-
posing medusae and corals. In certain localities it is stated that
all fish caught off certain coral reefs are unfit for food. How-
ever, all statements concerning the origin and nature of the poi-
son in these fish are mere assumptions, since no scientific work has
been done. Whatever the source of the poison may be, it is quite
powerful, and death not infrequently results. The symptoms are
those of gastro-intestinal irritation followed by collapse.

In Russia fish poisoning sometimes causes severe and widespread
epidemics. The Government has offered a large reward for any
one who will positively determine the cause of the fish being poi-
sonous and suggest successful means of preventing these outbreaks.
Schmidt, after studying several of these epidemics, states the fol-
lowing conclusions:

(a) The harmful effects are not due to putrefactive processes.
(b) Fish poisoning in Russia is always due to the eating of some
member of the sturgeon tribe, (c) The ill effects are not due to
the method of catching the fish, the use of salt, or to imperfections
in the methods of preservation, {d) The deleterious substance is
not uniformly distributed through the fish, but is confined to cer-
tain parts, (e) The poisonous portions are not distinguishable from
the nonpoisonous, either macroscopically or microscopically. (/)
When the fish is cooked it may be eaten without harm, (g) The
poison is an animal alkaloid produced most probably by bacteria
that cause an infectious disease in the fish during life.

The conclusion reached by Schmidt is confirmed by the re-
searches of Madame Sieber, who found a poisonous bacillus in fish
which had caused an epidemic.

In the United States fish poisoning is most frequently due to
decomposition in canned fish. The most prominent symptoms are
nausea, vomiting, and purging. Sometimes there is a scarlatinous
rash, which may cover the whole body. The writer has studied
two outbreaks of this kind of fish poisoning. In both instances
canned salmon was the cause of the trouble. Although a discus-
sion of the treatment of food poisoning is foreign to this paper, the
writer must call attention to the danger in the administration of
opiates in cases of poisoning with canned fish. Vomiting and purg-
ing are efforts on the part of ISTature to remove the poison, and

52 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

should be assisted bj the stomach tube and by irrigation of the
colon. In one of the cases seen by the writer large doses of mor-
phine had been administered in order to check the vomiting and
purging and to relieve the pain; in this case death resulted. The
danger of arresting the elimination of the poison in all cases of
food poisoning can not be too emphatically condemned.

Meat Poisoning. — The diseases most frequently transmitted
from the lower animals to man by the consumption of the flesh or
milk of the former by the latter are tuberculosis, anthrax, symp-
tomatic anthrax, pleuro-pneumonia, trichinosis, mucous diarrhcea,
and actinomycosis. It hardly comes within the scope of this article
to discuss in detail the transmission of these diseases from the
lower animals to man. However, the writer must be allowed to
offer a few opinions concerning some mooted questions pertaining
to the consumption of the flesh of tuberculous animals. Some
hold that it is sufficient to condemn the diseased part of the tuber-
culous cow, and that the remainder may be eaten with perfect
safety. Others teach that " total seizure " and destruction of
the entire carcass by the health authorities are desirable. Ex-
periments consisting of the inoculation of guinea pigs with the
meat and meat juices of tuberculous animals have given differ-
ent results to several investigators. To one who has seen tuber-
culous animals slaughtered, these differences in opinion and in
experimental results are easily explainable. The tuberculous in-
vasion may be confined to a single gland, and this may occur
in a portion of the carcass not ordinarily eaten; while, on the
other hand, the invasion may be much more extensive and the
muscles may be involved. The tuberculous portion may con-
sist of hard nodules that do not break down and contaminate
other tissues in the process of removal, but the writer has seen a
tuberculous abscess in the liver holding nearly a pint of broken-
down infected matter ruptured or cut in removing this organ, and
its contents spread over the greater part of the carcass. This ex-
plains why one investigator succeeds in inducing tuberculosis in
guinea pigs by introducing small bits of meat from a tuberculous
cow into the abdominal cavity, while another equally skillful bac-
teriologist follows the same details and fails to get positive results.
N^o one desires to eat any portion of a tuberculous animal, and the
only safety lies in " total seizure " and destruction. That the milk
from tuberculous cows, even when the udder is not involved, may
contain the specific bacillus has been demonstrated experimentally.
The writer has suggested that every one selling milk should be
licensed, and the granting of a license should be dependent upon
the application of the tuberculin test to every cow from which

FOOD POISONING.

53

milk is sold. The frequency with which tuberculosis is trans-
mitted to children through milk should justify this action.

That a profuse diarrhoea may render the flesh of an animal
unfit food for man was demonstrated by the cases studied by Gart-
ner. In this instance the cow was observed to have a profuse
diarrhoea for two days before she was slaughtered. Both the raw
and cooked meat from this animal poisoned the persons who ate it.
Medical literature contains the records of many cases of meat poi-
soning due to the eating of the flesh of cows slaughtered while suf-
fering from puerperal fever. It has been found that the flesh of
animals dead of symptomatic anthrax may retain its infection after
having been preserved in a dry state for ten years.

One of the most frequently observed forms of meat poisoning is
that due to the eating of decomposed sausage. Sausage poison-
ing, known as botulismus, is most common in parts of Germany.
Germans who have brought to the United States their methods of
preparing sausage occasionally sufter from this form of poisoning.
The writer had occasion two years ago to investigate six cases of
this kind, two of which proved fatal. The sausage meat had been
placed in uncooked sections of the intestines and alternately frozen
and thawed and then eaten raw. In this instance the meat was in-
fected with a highly virulent bacillus, which resembled very closely
the Bacterium coli.

In England, Ballard has reported numerous epidemics of meat
poisoning, in most of which the meat had become infected with
some nonspecific, poison-producing germ. In 1894 the writer was
called upon to investigate cases of poisoning due to the eating of
pressed chicken. The chickens were killed Tuesday afternoon and
left hanging in a market room at ordinary temperature until
Wednesday forenoon, when they were drawn and carried to a res-
taurant and here left in a warm room until Thursday, when they
were cooked (not thoroughly), pressed, and served at a banquet
in which nearly two hundred men participated. All ate of the
chicken, and were more or less seriously poisoned. The meat con-
tained a slender bacillus, which was fatal to white rats, guinea
pigs, dogs, and rabbits.

Ermengem states that since. 1867 there have been reported 112
epidemics of meat poisoning, in which 6,000 persons have been
affected. In 103 of these outbreaks the meat came from diseased
animals, while in only five was there any evidence that putrefactive
changes in the meat had taken place. My experience convinces
me that in this country meat poisoning frequently results from
putrefactive changes.

Instances of poisoning from the eating of canned meats have

54 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

become quite common. Altliough it may be possible that in some
instances the ill effects result from metallic poisoning, in a great
majority of cases the poisonous substances are formed by putre-
factive changes. In many cases it is probable that decomposition
begins after the can has been opened by the consumer; in others
the canning is imperfectly done, and putrefaction is far advanced
before the food reaches the consumer. In still other instances
the meat may have been taken from diseased animals, or it may
have undergone putrefactive changes before the canning. It
should alvi^ays be remembered that canned meat is especially liable
to putrefactive changes after the can has been opened, and when the
contents of the open can are not consumed at once the remainder
should be kept in a cold place or should be thrown away. People
are especially careless on this point. While every one knows that
fresh meat should be kept in a cold place during the summer, an
open can of meat is often allowed to stand at summer temperature
and its contents eaten hours after the can has been opened. This
is not safe, and has caused several outbreaks of meat poisoning
that have come under the observation of the writer.

Milk Poisoning. — In discussing this form of food poisoning we
will exclude any consideration of the distribution of the specific
infectious diseases through milk as the carrier of the infection,
and will confine ourselves to that form of milk poisoning which
is due to infection with nonspecific, poison-producing germs. In-
fants are highly susceptible to the action of the galactotoxicons
(milk poisons). There can no longer be any doubt that these poi-
sons are largely responsible for much of the infantile mortality
which is alarmingly high in all parts of the world. It has been
positively shown that the summer diarrhcea of infancy is due to
milk poisoning. The diarrhoeas prevalent among infants during
the summer months are not due to a specific germ, but there are
many bacteria that grow rapidly in milk and form poisons which
induce vomiting and purging, and may cause death. These dis-
eases occur almost exclusively among children artificially fed. It
is true that there are differences in chemical composition between
the milk of woman and that of the cow, but these variations in
percentage of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates are of less impor-
tance than the infection of milk with harmful bacteria. The child
that takes its food exclusively from the breast of a healthy mother
obtains a food that is free from poisonous bacteria, while the bottle-
fed child may take into its body with its food a great number and
variety of germs, some of which may be quite deadly in their
effects. The diarrhoeas of infancy are practically confined to the
hot months, because a high temperature is essential to the growth

FOOD POISONING. 55

and wide distribution of the poison-producing bacteria. Further-
more, during the summer time these bacteria grow abundantly in
all kinds of filth. Witliin recent years the medical profession has
so urgently called attention to the danger of infected milk that
there has been a great improvement in the care of this article of
diet, but that there is yet room for more scientific and thorough
work in this direction must be granted. The sterilization and Pas-
teurization of milk have doubtlessly saved the lives of many chil-
dren, but every intelligent physician knows that even the most
careful mother or nurse often fails to secure a milk that is alto-
gether safe.

It is true that milk often contains germs the spores of which
are not destroyed by the ordinary methods of sterilization and Pas-
teurization. However, these germs are not the most dangerous
ones found in milk. Moreover, every mother and nurse should
remember that in the preparation of sterilized milk for the child
it is not only necessary to heat the milk, but, after it has been
heated to a temperature sufficiently high and sufficiently prolonged,
the milk must subsequently be kept at a low temperature until the
child is ready to take it, when it may be warmed. It should be
borne in mind that the subsequent cooling of the milk and keeping
it at a low temperature is a necessary feature in the preparation
of it as a food for the infant.

Cheese Poisoning. — Under this heading we shall include the
ill effects that may follow the eating of not only cheese but other
milk products, such as ice cream, cream custard, cream puffs, etc.
Any poison formed in milk may exist in the various milk products,
and it is impossible to draw any sharp line of distinction between
milk poisoning and cheese poisoning. However, the distinction is
greater than is at first apparent. Under the head of milk poison-
ing we have called especial attention to those substances formed in
milk to which children are particularly susceptible, while in cheese
and other milk products there are formed poisonous substances
against which age does not give immunity. Since milk is prac-
tically the sole food during the first year or eighteen months of life,
the effect of its poisons upon infants is of the greatest importance ;
on the other hand, milk products are seldom taken by the infant,
but are frequent articles of diet in after life.

In 1884 the writer succeeded in isolating from poisonous cheese
a highly active basic substance, to which he gave the name tyro-
toxicon. The symptoms produced by this poison are quite marked,
but differ in degree according to the amount of the poison taken.
At first there is dryness of the mouth, followed by constriction of
the fauces, then nausea, vomiting, -and purging. The first vomited

56 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

matter consists of food, then it becomes "svatery and is frequently
stained with Llood. The stools are at first semisolid, and then
are watery and serous. The heart is depressed, the pulse be-
comes weak and irregular, and in severe cases the face appears
cyanotic. There may be dilatation of the pupil, but this is not
seen in all. The most dangerous cases are those in which the vom-
iting is slight and soon ceases altogether, and the bowels are con-
stipated from the beginning. Such cases as these require prompt
and energetic treatment. The stomach and bowels should be thor-
oughly irrigated in order to remove the poison, and the action of
the heart must be sustained.

At one time the writer believed that tyrotoxicon was the ac-
tive agent in all samples of poisonous cheese, but more extended
experimentation has convinced him that this is not tlie case. In-
deed, this poison is rarely found, w4iile the number of poisons in
harmful cheese is no doubt considerable. There are numerous
poisonous albumins found in cheese and other milk products.
"While all of these are gastro-intestinal irritants, they differ con-
siderably in other respects.

Tn 1895 the writer and Perkins made a prolonged study of a
bacillus found in cheese which had poisoned fifty people. Chem-
ically the poison produced by this germ is distinguished from tyro-
toxicon by the fact that it is not removed from alkaline solution
w^ith ether. Physiologically the new poison has a more pro-
nounced effect on the heart, in w'hicli it resembles muscarin or
neurin more closely than it does tyrotoxicon. Pathologically, the
two poisons are unlike, inasmuch as the new poison induces marked
congestion of the tissues about the point of injection w^hen used
upon animals hypodermically. Furthermore, the intestinal con-
strictions w'hich are so uniformly observed in animals poisoned by
tyrotoxicon was not once seen in our work with this new poison,
although it was carefully looked for in all our experiments.

In 1898 the writer, with McClymonds, examined samples of
cheese from more than sixty manufacturers in this country and in
Europe. In all samples of ordinary American green cheese poi-
sonous germs were found in greater or less abundance. These
germs resemble very closely the colon bacillus, and most likely their
presence in the milk is to be accounted for by contamination with
bits of fecal matter from the cow. It is more than probable that
the manufacture of cheese is yet in its infancy, and we need some
one to do for this industry what Pasteur did for the manufacture
of beer. At present the flavor of a given cheese depends upon the
bacteria and molds which accidentally get into it. The time will
probably come when all milk used for the manufacture of cheese

FOOD POISONING. 57

will be sterilized, and then selected molds and bacteria will be sown
in it. In this way the flavor and value of a cheese will be deter-
mined with scientific accuracy, and will not be left to accident.

Canned Foods. — As has been stated, the increased consumption
of preserved foods is accountable for a great proportion of the
cases of food poisoning. The preparation of canned foods involves
the application of scientific principles, and since this work is done
by men wholly ignorant of science it is quite remarkable that
harmful effects do not manifest themselves more frequently than
they do. Every can of food which is not thoroughly sterilized
may become a source of danger to health and even to life. It
may be of interest for us to study briefly the methods ordinarily
resorted to in the preparation of canned foods. With most sub-
stances the food is cooked before being put into the can. This
is especially true of meats of various kinds. Thorough cooking
necessarily leads to the complete sterilization of the food; but after
this, it must be transferred to the can, and the can must be prop-
erly closed. With the handling necessary in canning the food,
germs are likely to be introduced. Moreover, it is possible that
the preliminary cooking is not thoroughly done and complete ster-
ilization is not reached. The empty can should be sterilized. If
one wishes to understand the modus operandi of canning foods,
let him take up a round can of any fruit, vegetable, or meat and
examine the bottom of the can, which is in reality the top during
the process of canning and until the label is put on. The food
is introduced through the circular opening in this end, now closed
by a piece which can be seen to be soldered on. After the food
has been introduced through this opening the can and contents
are heated either in a water bath or by means of steam. The open-
ing through which the food was introduced is now closed by a cir-
cular cap of suitable size, which is soldered in position.

This cap has near its center a "' prick-hole " through which the
steam continues to escape. This " prick-hole " is then closed with
solder, and the closed can again heated in the water bath or with
steam. If the can " blows " (if the ends of the can become con-
vex) during this last heating the " prick-hole " is again punctured
and the heated air allowed to escape, after which the " prick-hole "
is again closed. Cans thus prepared should be allowed to stand
in a warm chamber for four or five days. If the contents have
not been thoroughly sterilized gases will be evolved during this
time, or the can will " blow " and the contents should be discarded.
Unscrupulous manufacturers take cans which have " blown," prick
them to allow the escape of the contained gases, and then resteril-
ize the cans with their contents, 'close them again, and put them

VOL. LVI. — 5

58 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

on the market. These " blowholes " may be made in either end
of the can, or they may be made in the sides of the can, where
they are subsequently covered Avitli tlie label. Of course, it does
not necessarily follow that if a can has " blown " and been subse-
quently resterilized its contents will prove poisonous, but it is not
safe to eat the contents of such cans, lieputable maiiufacturers
discard all "blown " cans.

Nearly all canned jellies sold in this country are nuide from
apples. The apples are boiled with a preparation sold under the
trade name " tartarine." This consists of either dilute hydro-
chloric or sulphuric acid. Samples examined by the writer have
invariably been found to consist of dilute hydrochloric acid. The
jelly thus formed by the action of the dilute acid upon the apple
is converted into quince, pear, pineapple, or any other fruit that
the pleasure of the manufacturer may choose by the addition of
artificial flavoring agents. There is no reason for believing that
the jellies thus prepared are harmful to health.

Canned fruits occasionally contain salicylic acid in some form.
There has been considerable discussion among sanitarians as to
whether or not the use of this preservative is admissible. Serious
poisoning with canned fruits is very rare. However, there can
be but little doubt that many minor digestive disturbances are
caused by acids formed in these foods. There has been much
apprehension concerning the possibility of poisoning resulting from
the soluble salts of tin formed by the action of fruit acids upon
the can. The writer believes that anxiety on this point is un-
necessary, and he has failed to find any positive evidence of poison-
ing resulting from this cause.

There are two kinds of condensed milk sold in cans. These
are known as condensed milk " with " and " without " sugar. In
the preparation of the first-mentioned kind a large amount of cane
sugar is added to condensed milk, and this acting as a preservative
renders the preparation and successful handling of this article of
food comparatively easy. On the other hand, condensed milk to
which sugar has not been added is very liable to decomposition,
and great care must be used in its preparation. The writer has
seen several cases of severe poisoning that have resulted from de-
composed canned milk. Any of the galactotoxicons (milk poisons)
may be formed in this milk. In these instances the cans were
" blown," both ends being convex.

One of the most important sanitary questions in which we are
concerned to-day is that pertaining to the subject of canned meats.
It is undoubtedly true that unscrupulous manufacturers are put-
ting upon the market articles of this kind of food which no decent

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 59

man knowingly would eat, and wliicli are undoubtedly harmful
to all.

The knowledge gained by investigations in chemical and bac-
teriological science have enabled the unscrupulous to take putrid
liver and other disgusting substances and present them in such a
form that the most fastidious palate would not recognize their
origin. In this way the flesh from diseased animals and that which
has undergone putrefactive changes may be doctored up and sold
as reputable articles of diet. The writer does not believe that
this practice is largely resorted to in this country, but that ques-
tionable preservatives have been used to some extent has been
amply demonstrated by the testimony of the manufacturers of
these articles themselves, given before the Senate committee now
investigating the question of food and food adulterations. It is
certainly true that most of the adulterations used in our foods are
not injurious to health, but are fraudulent in a pecuniary sense;
but when the flesh of diseased animals and substances which have
undergone putrefactive decomposition can be doctored up and pre-
served by the addition of such agents as formaldehyde, it is time
that the public should demand some restrictive measures.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

By Prof. JOHN TROWBRIDGE,

DIRECTOK OF JEFFEBSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

I NEVER visit the historical collection of physical apparatus in
the physical laboratory of Harvard University without a sense
of wonderment at the marvelous use that has been made of old
and antiquated pieces of apparatus which were once considered
electrical toys. There can be seen the first batteries, the model
of dynamo machines, and the electric motor. Such a collection is
in a way a Westminster Abbey — dead mechanisms born to new
uses and a great future.

There is one simple piece of apparatus in the collection, with-
out which telephony and wireless telegraphy would be impossible.
To my mind it is the most interesting skeleton there, and if physi-
cists marked the resting places of their apparatus laid to apparent
rest and desuetude, this merits the highest sounding and most sug-
gestive inscription. It is called a transformer, and consists merely
of two coils of w^ire placed near each other. One coil is adapted
to receive an electric current; the other coil, entirely independent
of the first, responds by sympathy, or what is called induction,

6o

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

across the space which separates the coils. Doubtless if man knew
all the capabilities of this simple apparatus he might talk to China,
or receive messages from the antipodes. He now, bj means of it,
analyzes the light of distant suns, and produces the singular X

Flo. 1. — Disposition nf batteries and coils at the sending station, showing the arrangement of
the vertical wire and the spark gap.

rays w^hich enable him to see through the human body. By means
of it he already communicates his thoughts between stations thou-
sands of miles apart, and by means of its manifestations I hope to
make this article on W'ireless telegraphy intelligible. My essay can
be considered a panegyric of this buried form-^a history of its
new life and of its unbounded possibilities.

For convenience, one of the coils of the transformer is placed
inside the other, and the combination is called a Ruhnikorf coil.
It is represented in the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), with
batteries attached to the inner coil, while the outer coil is con-
nected to two balls, between which an electric spark jumps when-
ever the battery circuit is broken. In fact, any disturbance in the
battery circuit — a weakening, a strengthening, or a break — pro-
vided that the changes are sudden, produces a corresponding
change in the neighboring circuit. One coil thus responds to the
other, in some mysterious way, across the interval of air which
separates them. Usually the coils are placed very near to each
other — in fact, one embraces the other, as shown in the photo-
graph.

The coils, however, if placed several miles apart, will still re-

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

61

spond to each other if they are made sufficiently large, if they
are properly placed, and if a powerful current is used to excite
one coil. Thus, by simply varying tlie distance between the coils
of wire we can send messages through the air between stations
which are not connected with a wire. This method, however,
does not constitute the system of wireless telegraphy of Mar-
coni, which it is the object of this paper to describe. Marconi has
succeeded in transmitting messages over forty miles between points
not connected by wires, and he has accomplished this feat by merely
slightly modifying the disposition of the coils, thus revealing a
new possibility of the wondrous transformer. If the reader will
compare the following diagram (Fig. 2) with the photograph (Fig.
1), he will see how simple the sending apparatus of Marconi is.

S is a gap between the ends of one coil, across which an elec-
tric spark is produced whenever the current from the batteries
B flowing through the coil C is broken by an arrangement at D.
This break produces an electrical pulsation in the coil C, which
travels up and dow^n the wire W, which is elevated to a consid-
erable height above the ground. This pulsation can not be seen
by the eye. The wire does not move; it appears perfectly qui-

w

Fig. 2. — Diagram of the arranorement of wires and batteries at tlie receiving station.

escent and dead, and seems oul}^ a wire and nothing more. At
night, under favorable circumstances, one could see a luminosity
on the wire, especially at the end, when messages are being trans-
mitted, by a powerful battery B.

It is very easy to detect the electric lines which radiate from

62

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

w

S

W^^

B

thev

tu

every part of sucli a wire when a spark jumps between the ter-
minals S of the coiL All that is necessary to do is to pass the wire
through a sensitive film and to develop the film. The accompany-
ing photograph (Fig. 3) was taken at the top of such a wire, by
means of a very powerful apparatus at my command. When the
photograph is examined with a microscope the arborescent
electric lines radiating from the wire, like the rays of light
from a star, exhibit a beautiful fernlike structure. These
lines, however, are not chiefly instrumental in transmitting
the electric pulse across space.

There are other lines, called magnetic lines of force,
wdiich emanate from every ])ortion of the vertical w'ire W
just as ripples spread out on the surface of placid water when
it is disturl:)ed by the fall of a stone. These magnetic rip-
ples travel in the ether of space, and when
they embrace a neighboring wire or coil
produce similar ripples, which whirl
about the distant wire and produce
in some strange way an electrical
current in the wire. These mag-
netic pulsations can travel great
distances.

In the photographs of these
magnetic Avhirls, Fig. 4 is the
whirl produced in the circuit C by
the battery B (Fig. 2), while Fig.
5 is that produced by electrical
sympathy, or as it is called induc-
tion, in a neighboring wire. These
photographs were obtained by pass-
ing the circuits through the sensi-
tive films, perpendicularly to the
latter, and then sprinkling very
fine iron filings on these surfaces
and exposing them to the light.
In order to obtain these photo-
graphs a very powerful electrical
current excited the coil C (Fig. 2), and the neighboring circuit W
(Fig. 5) was placed very near the circuit W.

When the receiving wire is at the distance of several miles
from the sending wire it is impossible to detect by the above
method the magnetic ripples or whirls. We can, however, detect
the electrical currents which these magnetic lines of force cause
in the receiving wire; and this leads me to speak of the discovery

ti B

i;. -In represeiUB :i in;)je coinpictu elec-
trical arrangement of the receiver cir-
cuit. The vertical wire, W, is con-
nected to one wire of the coherer, L.
The other wire of the coherer is led to
the ground, G. The wires in the co-
herer, L, are separated by fine metallic
jiarticles. B represents a battery. Yl,
an eiectro-magnet which attracts a
piece of iron, A (armature), and closes
a local battery, B, causing a click of
the sounder (electro-magnet), S. The
magnetic waves (Fig. 5) embracing
the wire, W, cause a pulsation in this
wire which produces an electrical dis-
turbance in the coherer analogous to
tiiat shown in Fig. 3, by means of
which an electrical cuiTent is enabled
to pass through the electro-magnet, K.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

63

of a remarkable phenomenon which has made Marconi's system
of wireless telegraphy possible. In order that an electrical current
may flow through a mass of particles of a metal, a mass, for in-
stance, of iron filings, it is necessary either to compress them or to
cause a minute spark or electrical discharge between the particles.
]^ow, it is supposed that the magnetic whirls, in embracing the dis-
tant receiving circuit, cause these minute sparks, and thus enable
the electric current from the battery B to work a telegraphic
pounder or boll ]\f. The metallic filings are inclosed in a fflass tube

Fio. 3. — I'hotograph ot the electric lines which einauale frcnu the eud of the wire at the send-
ing station, and which are probably reproduced among the metallic filings of the coherer
at the receiving station.

between wires which lead to the battery, and the arrangement is
called a coherer. It can be made small and light. Fig. 6 is a
representation in full size of one that has been found to be very
sensitive. It consists of two silver wires with a few iron filings
contained in a glass tube between the ends of the wires. It
is necessary that this little tube should be constantly shaken up
.in order that after the electrical circuit is made the iron filings
should return to their non-conducting condition, or should cease
to cohere together, and should thus be ready to respond to the
following signal. My colleague. Professor Sabine, has employed
a very small electric motor to cause the glass tube to revolve, and
thus to keep the filings in motion Avliile signals are being received.
Fig. 7 shoW'S the arrangement of the receiving apparatus.

The coherer and the motor are shown betw^een two batteries,
one of which drives the motor while the other serves to work the

64

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

bell or sounder when the electric wire excites the iron filings. In
Fig. 2 this receiving apparatus is shown diagrammatically. B is the
battery which sends a current throus'h the sounder M and the

>^^-'"

i-ii.. 4. — .M;i:;iR-uc \viiiri> aiHUii uie

coherer IST when the magnetic whirls coming from the sending wire
W embrace the receiving wire W.

The term wireless telegraphy is a misnomer, for without wires
the method would not be possible. The phenomenon is merely
an enlargement of one that we are fully conscious of in the case
of telegraph and telephone circuits, which is termed electro-mag-
netic induction. Whenever an electric current suddenly flows or
suddenly ceases to flow along a wire, electrical currents are caused
by induction in neighboring wires. The receiver employed by Mar-
coni is a delicate spark caused by this induction, which forms a
bridge so that an electric current from the relay battery can pass
and influence magnetic instruments.

Many investigators had succeeded before Marconi in sending
telegraphic messages several miles through the air or ether be-
tween two points not directly connected by wires. Marconi has
extended the distance by employing a much higlier electro-motive
force at the sending station and using the feeble inductive effect
at a distance to set in action a local batterv.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 65

It is evident that wires are needed at the sending station from
every point of which magnetic and electric waves are sent out, and
wires at the receiving station which embrace, so to speak, these
waves in the manner shown bv our photographs. These waves
produce minute sparks in the receiving instrument, which act like
a suddenly drawn flood gate in allowing the current from a local
battery to flow through the circuit in which the spark occurs, and
thus produce a click on a telegraphic instrument.

"We have said that messages had been sent by what is called
wireless telegraphy before Marconi made his experiments. These
messages had also been sent by induction, signals on one wire be-
ing received by a parallel and distant wire. To Marconi is due
the credit of greatly extending the method by using a vertical
wire. The method of using the coherer to detect electric pulses
is not due, however, to Marconi. It is usually attributed to Branly;

Fi(i. 5. — Magnetic whirls about the receiving wire.

it had been employed, however, by previous observers, among
whom is Hughes, the inventor of the microphone, an instrument
analogous in its action to that of the coherer. In the case of the
microphone, the waves from the human voice shake up the par-
ticles of carbon in the microphone transmitter, and thus cause an
electrical current to flow more easily through the minute contacts
of the carbon particles.

66 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

The action of the telephone transmitter, whieli also consists of
minute conducting particles in which a battery terminals are im-
mersed, and the analogous coherer is microscopic, and there are
many theories to account for their changes of resistance to electri-
cal currents. We can not, I believe, be far wrong in thinking
that the electric force breaks down the insulating effect of the
infinitely thin layers of air between the particles, and thus allows
an electric current to flow. This action is doubtless of the nature
of an electric spark. An electric spark, in the case of wireless
telegraphy, produces magnetic and electric lines of force in space,
these reach out and embrace the circuit containing the coherer,
and produce in turn minute sparks. Similia sitniUhus — one action
perfectly corresponds to the other.

The Marconi system, therefore, of wdiat is called wireless te-
legraphy is not new in principle, but only new in practical appli-
cation. It had been used to show the phenomena of electric waves
in lecture rooms. Marconi extended it from distances of sixty to
one hundred feet to fifty or sixty miles. lie did this by lifting the
sending-wire spark on a lofty pole and improving the sensitiveness
of the metallic filings in the glass tube at the receiving station.

Fia. 6. — The coherer employed to receive the electric waves. (One aud a third actual size.)

He adopted a mechanical arrangement for continually tapping the
coherer in order to break up the minute bridges formed by the
cohering action, and thus to prepare the filings for the next mag-
netic i^ulse. The system of wireless telegraphy is emphatically a
spark system strangely analogous to flash-light signaling, a system
in which the human eye with its rods and cones in the retina acts
as the coherer, and the nerve system, the local battery, making
a signal or sensation in the brain.

Let us examine the sending spark a little further. An elec-
tric spark is perhaps the most interesting ])hcnomenon in elec--
tricity. What causes it — how does the air behave toward it —
what is it that apparently flows through the air, sending out light
and heat waves as well as magnetic and electric waves? If we
could answer all these questions, we sh<nil<l know what elec-
tricity is. A critical study of the electric spark has not only its
scientific but its practical side. We see the latter side evidenced
by its employment in wireless telegraphy ;ni(l in the X rays; for
in the latter case we have an electric discharge in a tube from
which the air is removed — a special case of an electric spark. In

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 6j

order to understand the capabilities of wireless telegraphy we must
turn to the scientific study of the electric spark; for its practical
employment resides largely in its strength, in its frequency in its
position, and in its power to make the air a conductor for elec-
tricity. All these points are involved in wireless telegraphy. How,
then, shall we study the electric spark? The eye sees only an in-
stantaneous flash following a devious path. It can not tell in what
direction a spark flies (a flash of lightning, for instance), or indeed
whether it has a direction. There is probably no commoner fallacy
mankind entertains than the belief that the direction of lightning,
or any electric spark, can be ascertained by the eye — that is, the
direction from the skv to the earth or from the earth to the skv.

Ml

i

Fig. 7. — Arruugemcut of battuiies of motor i to disturb tlie culicrer) uimX tiie flounder by which

the messages are received.

I have repeatedly tested numbers of students in regard to this
question, employing sparks four to six feet in length, taking pre-
cautions in regard to the concealment of the directions in which
I charged the poles of the charging batteries, and I have never
found a consensus of opinion in regard to directions. The ordinary
photograph, too, reveals no more than the eye can see — a brilliant,
devious line or a flaming discharge.

A large storage battery forms the best means of studying elec-
tric sparks, for with it one can run the entire gamut of this phe-
nomenon— from the flaming discharge which we see in the arc light
on the street to the crackling spark we employ in wireless telegra-
phy, and the more powerful discharges of six or more feet in length
which closely resemble lightning discharges. A critical study of this
gamut throws considerable light on the problem of the possibility

68 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of secret wireless telegraphy — a problem which it is most important
to solve if the S3'stem is to be made practical; for at present the
message spreads out from the sending spark in great circular rip-
ples in all directions, and may be received by any one.

Several methods enable us to transform electrical energy so as
to obtain suitable quick and intense blows on the surrounding me-
dium. Is it possible that there is some mysterious vibration in the
spark which is instrumental in the effective transmission of elec-
trical energy across space? If the spark should vibrate or oscillate
to and fro faster than sixteen times a second the human eye could
not detect such oscillations; for an impression remains on the eye
one sixteenth of a second, and subsequent ones separated by inter-
vals shorter than a sixteenth would mingle together and could not
be separated. The only way to ascertain whether the spark is oscil-
latory, or whether it is not one spark, as it appears to the eye,
but a number of to-and-fro impulses, is to photograph it by a rapidly
revolving mirror. The principle is similar to that of the biograph
or the vitoscope, in which the quick to-and-fro motions of the spark
are received on a sensitive film, which is in rapid motion. One
terminal of the spark gap, the positive terminal so called, is always
brighter than the other. Hence, if the sensitive film is moved at
right angles to the path of the discharge, we shall get a row of
dots which are the images of the brighter terminal, and these dots
occur alternately first on one terminal and then on the other, show-
ing that the discharge oscillates — that is, leaps in one discharge

Flo. 8. — I'hotograph of electrical pulses. The interval between tlie pulses is one uiilliouth

of a second.

(which seems but one to the eye) many times in a hundred thou-
sandth of a second. In practice it is found better to make an im-
age of the spark move across the sensitive film instead of moving
the film. This is accomplished by the same method that a boy uses
in flashing sunlight by means of a mirror. The faster the mirror

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 69

moves the faster moves the image of the light. In this way a speed
of a millionth of a second can be attained. In this case the dis-
tance between the dots on the film may be one tenth of an inch,
sufficient to separate them to the eye. The photograph of elec-
tric sparks (rig. 8) was taken in this manner. The distance be-
tween any two bright spots in the trail of the photographic im-
ages represents the time of the electric oscillation or the time of

Fig. 9.— Photograph of a pilot spark, which is the principal factor in the method of wireless

telegraphy.

the magnetic pulse or w^ave which is sent out from the spark, and
which will cause a distant circuit to respond by a similar oscil-
lation.

At present the shortest time that can, so to speak, be photo-
graphed in this manner is about one two-millionth of a second.
This is the time of propagation of a magnetic wave over four hun-
dred feet long. The waves used in wireless telegraphy are not
more than four feet in length — about one hundredth the length
of those we can photograph. The photographic method thus re-
veals a mechanism of the spark which is entirely hidden from the
eye and will always be concealed from human sight. It reveals,
however, a greater mystery which it seems incompetent to solve —
the mystery of Avhat is called the pilot spark, the first discharge
which we see on our photograph (Fig. 9) stretching intact from
terminal to terminal, having the prodigious velocity of one hun-
dred and eighty thousand miles a second. None of our experi-
mental devices suffice to penetrate the mystery of this discharge.
It is this pilot spark which is chiefly instrumental in sending out
the magnetic pulses or waves which are powerful enough to reach
forty or fifty miles. The preponderating influence of this pilot
spark — so called since it finds a way for the subsequent surgings

70 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

or oscillations — is a bar to the efforts to make -wireless telegraphy
secret. We can see from the photograj)!! how much greater its
strength is than that of the subsequent discharges shown by the
mere brightening of the terminals. A delicate coherer will imme-
diately respond to the influence of this pilot spark, and the subse-
quent oscillations of this discharge will have little effect. How,
then, can we eff'ectively time a receiving circuit so that it will
respond to only one sending station? We can not d(>pend upon the
oscillatory nature of the spark, or adopt, in other words, its rate of
vibration and form a coherer with the same rate.

It seems as if it would be necessary to invent some method of
sending pilot sparks at a high and definite rate of vibration, and
of employing coherers whicli will only respond to definite power-
ful rates of magnetic pulsation. Various attempts have been made
to produce by mechanical means powerful electric surgings, but
they have been unsuccessful. Both high electro-motive force and
strength of current are needed. These can be obtained by the
employment of a great number of storage cells. The discharge
from a large number of these cells, however, is not suitable for
the purpose of wireless telegraphy, although it may possess the
([ualifications of both high electrical pressure and strength of
current.

The only a])])aratus we have at command to produce quick blows
on the ether is the Euhmkorf coil. This coil, I have said, has
been in all our physical cabinets for fifty years. It contained within
itself the germ of the telephone transmitter and the method of wire-
less telegraphy, unrecognized until the present. In its elements
it consists, as we have seen, of two electrical circuits, placed near
each other, entirely unconnected, A battery is connected with
one of these circuits, and any change in the strength of the elec-
trical current gives a blow to the ether or medium between the
two circuits. A quick stopping of the electrical current gives the
strongest impulse to the ether, which is taken up by the neighbor-
ing circuit. For the past fifty years very little advance has been
made in the method of giving strong electrical impulses to the
medium of space. It is accomplished simply by a mechanical break-
ing of the connection to the battery, either by a revolving wheel
with suitable projections, or by a vibrating point. All the various
forms of mechanical breaks are inefficient. They do not give quick
and uniform breaks. Latterly, hopes have been excited by the
discovery of a chemical break, called the Weynelt interrupter,
shown in Fig. 1. The electrical current in passing through a vessel
of diluted sulphuric acid from a point of ])latinum to a disk of lead
causes bubbles of gas which form a harrier to its passage whicli is

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 71

suddenly broken down, and this action goes on at a high rate of
speed, causing a torrent of sparks in the neighboring circuit. The
medium between the two circuits is thereby submitted to rapid and
comparatively powerful impulses. The discovery of this and simi-
lar chemical or molecular interruptions marks an era in the his-
tory of the electrical transformer, and the hopes of further prog-
ress by means of them is far greater than in the direction of me-
chanical interruptions.

We are still, however, unable to generate sufficiently power-
ful and sufficiently well-timed electrical impulses to make wire-
less telegraphy of great and extended use. Can we not hope to
strengthen the present feeble impulses in wireless telegraphy by
some method of relaying or repeating? In the analogous subject
of telephony many efforts have also been made to render the serv-
ice secret, and to extend it to great distances by means of relays.
These efforts have not been successful up to the present. "We still
have our neighbors' call bells, and we could listen to their messages
if we were gossips. The telephone service has been extended to
great distances — for instance, from Boston to Omaha — not by
relays, but by strengthening the blows upon the medium between
the transmitting circuit and the receiving one, just as we desire
to do in what is called wireless telegraphy, the apparatus of which
is almost identical in principle to that employed in telephony. The
individual call in telephony is not a success for nearly the same
reasons that exist in the case of wireless telegraphy. Perfectly
definite and powerful rates of vibration can not be sent from point
to point over wires to which only certain definite apparatus "wdll
respond. There are so many ways in which the energy of the
electric current can be dissipated in passing over wires and through
calling bells that the form of the waves and their strength becomes
attenuated. The form of the electrical waves is better preserved
in free space, where there are no wires or where there is no mag-
netic matter. The difficulty in obtaining individual calls in wire-
less telegraphy resides in the present impossibility of obtaining
sufficiently rapid and powerful electrical impulses, and a receiver
which will properly respond to a definite number of such impulses.

The question of a relay seems as impossible of solution as it
does in telephony. The character of speech depends upon num-
berless delicate inflections and harmonies. The form, for instance,
of the wave transmitting the vowel a must be preserved in order
that the sound may be recognized. A relay in telephony acts
very much like one's neighbor in the game called gossip, in which
a sentence repeated more or less indistinctly, after passing from
one person to another, becomes -distorted and meaningless. No

72 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

telephone relay has been invented which preserves the form of the
first utterance, the vowel a loses its delicate characteristics, and
becomes simply a meaningless noise. It is maintained by some
authorities that such a relay can not be invented, that it is impos-
sible to preserve the delicate inflections of the human voice in
passing from one circuit to another, even through an infinitesimal
air gap or ether space. It is well, however, to reflect upon Hosea
Bigelow's sapient advice " not to prophesy unless you know." It
was maintained in the early days of the telephone that speech
would lose so many characteristics in the process of transmission
over wires and through magnetic apparatus that it would not be
intelligible. It is certain that at present long-distance transmis-
sion of speech can only be accomplished by using more powerful
transmitters, and by making the line of copper better fitted for
the transmission — just as quick transportation from place to place
has not been accomplished by quitting the earth and by flying
through space, but by obtaining more powerful engines and by
improving the roadbeds.

The hopes of obtaining a relay for wireless telegraphy seem
as small as they do in telephony. The present method is prac-
tically limited to distances of fifty or sixty miles — distances not
much exceeding those which can be reached by a search-light in
fair weather. Indeed, there is a close parallelism between the
search-light and the spark used in Marconi's experiments: both send
out waves which differ only in length. The waves of the search-
light are about one forty-thousandth of an inch long, while the
magnetic waves of the spark, invisible to the eye, are three to four
feet — more than a million times longer than the light waves. These
very long waves have this advantage over the short light waves;
they are able to penetrate fog, and even sand hills and masonry.
One can send messages into a building from a point outside. A
prisoner could communicate with the outer world, a beleaguered
garrison could send for help, a disabled light-ship could summon
assistance, and possibly one steamer could inform another in a fog
of its course.

Wireless telegraphy is the nearest approach to telepathy that
has been vouchsafed to our intelligence, and it serves to stimulate
our imagination and to make us think that things greatly hoped
for can be always reached, although not exactly in the way ex-
pected. The nerves of the whole Avorld are, so to speak, being
bound together, so that a touch in one (N)untrv is transmitted in-
stantly to a far-distant one. Why should we not in time speak
through the earth to the antipodes? If the magnetic waves can
pass through brick and stone walls and sand hills, why should we

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 73

not direct, so to speak, our trumpet to tlie earth, instead of letting
its utterances skim over the horizon? In regard to this suggestion,
we know certainly one fact from our laboratory experiences: that
these magnetic waves, meeting layers of electrically conducting
matter, like layers of iron ore, would be reflected back, and would
not penetrate. Thus a means may be discovered through the in-
strumentality of such waves of exploring the mysteries of the earth
before success is attained in completely penetrating its mass.

EMIGEANT DIAMONDS IN AMEEICA.

Bt Prof. WILLIAM HERBERT IIOBBS.

TO discover the origin of the diamond in Nature we must seek
it in its ancestral home, where the rocky matrix gave it birth
in the form characteristic of its species. In prosecuting our search
we should very soon discover that, in common with other gem min-
erals, the diamond has been a great w^anderer, for it is usually
found far from its original home. The disintegrating forces of the
atmosphere, by acting upon the rocky material in which the stones
were imbedded, have loosed them from their natural setting, to be
caught up by the streams, sorted from their disintegrated matrix,
and transported far from the parent rock, to be at last set down
upon some gravelly bed over which the force of the current is weak-
ened. The mines of Brazil and the Urals, of India, Borneo, and
the " river diggings " of South Africa either have been or are now
in deposits of this character.

The " dry diggings " of the Kimberley district, in South Africa,
afl'ord the unique locality in which the diamond has thus far been
found in its original home, and all our knowledge of the genesis of
the mineral has been derived from study of this locality. The
mines are located in " pans," in which is found the " blue ground ''
now recognized as the disintegrated matrix of the diamond. These
" pans " are known to be the " pipes," or " necks," of former vol-
canoes, now deeply dissected by the forces of the atmosphere — in
fact, worn down if not to their roots, at least to their stumps. These
remnants of the " pipes," through which the lava reached the sur-
face, are surrounded in part by a black shale containing a large
percentage of carbon, and this is believed to be the material out
of which the diamonds have been formed. What appear to be
modified fragments of the black shale inclosed within the " pipes "
afford evidence that portions of the shale have been broken from
the parent beds by the force of the ascending current of lava — a

VOL. LVI. — 6

GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION.

t • ^ :' / .' i J >

XJVi.ll'Ve.sa Arxas

rt«

D I- 1 £ t

Diamoiid Localities ° CE^e^*^ O.Oi-eftoii.

K Kol\lsvi.\U O.Dowigiac M. Milford. P.Tli^^it Ci-V.. B JB^.- i-linftt on..

AVe are iiKlel>te.l to tlie University of Cliicatro Press for the above illustrMtion.

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.

75

common enougli a('co]ii]);iiiiiiiciit to Nolcauic action — and have been
profoundly altered by the liiuh temperature and the extreme hydro-
static pressure under which the mass must have been held. The
most important feature of this alteration has been the recrystalli-
zation of the carbon of the shale into diamond.

This apparent explanation of the genesis of the diamond finds
strong support in the experiments of Moissan, who obtained arti-
ficial diamond by dissolving carbon in molten iron and immersing
the mass in cold water until a firm surface crust had formed. The

Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.

Five Views of the Eagle Diamond (sixteen carats) ; enlarged about three diameters.
(Owned by Tiffany and Company.)
We are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz, of Tiffany and Company, for tlie illus-
trations of the Oregon and Eagle diamonds.

'' chilled " mass was then removed, to allow its still molten core to
solidify slowly. This it does with the development of enormous
pressures, because the natural expansion of the iron on passing into
the solid condition is resisted by the strong shell of " chilled ''
metal. The isolation of the diamond was then accomplished by
dissolving the iron in acid.

The prevailing forin of the South African diamonds is that of
a rounded crystal, with eight large and a nuiuber of minute faces —
a form called by crystallographers a modified octahedron. Their

76 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

shapes would be roughly simulated by the Pyramids of Egypt if
they could be seen, combined with their reflected images, in a placid
lake, or, better to meet the conditions of the country, in a desert
mirage. It is a peculiar property of diamond crystals to have con-
vexly rounded faces, so that the edges which separate the faces are
not straight, but gently curving. Less frequently in the African
mines, but commonly in some other regions, diamonds are bounded
by four, twelve, twenty-four, or even forty-eight faces. These
must not, of course, be confused with the faces of cut stones, which
are the product of the lapidary's art.

Geological conditions remarkably like those observed at the
Kimberley mines have recently been discovered in Kentucky, with
the difference that here the shales contain a much smaller percent-
age of carbon, which may be the reason that diamonds have not re-
warded the diligent search that has been made for them.

Though now found in the greatest abundance in South Africa
and in Brazil, diamonds were formerly obtained from India, Bor-

Copyright, l^y.t, by iieorge F. Kunz.

Four Views of the Oregon Diamond ; enlarfred about three diameters.
(Owned by Tiflany and Company. )

neo, and from the Ural Mountains of Russia. The great stones of
history have, with hardly an exception, come from India, though
in recent years a number of diamond monsters have been found in
South Africa. One of these, the " Excelsior," weighed nine hun-
dred and seventy carats, which is in excess even of the supposed
weight of the " Great Mogul."

Occasionally diamonds have come to light in other regions than
those specified. The Piedmont plateau, at the southeastern base
of the Appalachians, has produced, in the region between southern
Virginia and Georgia, some ten or twelve diamonds, which have
varied in weight from those of two or three carats to the " Dewey "
diamond, which when found weighed over twenty-three carats.

It is, however, in the territory about the Great Lakes that the
greatest interest now centers, for in this region a very interesting
problem of origin is being worked out. No less than seven dia-
monds, ranging in size from less than four to more than twenty-
one carats, not to mention a number of smaller stones, have been

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 77

recently found in the clays and gravels of this region, where their
distribution was such as to indicate with a degree of approximation
the location of their distant ancestral home.

In order clearly to set forth the nature of this problem and
the method of its solution it will be necessary, first, to plot upon
a map of the lake region the locality at which each of the stones
has been found, and, further, to enter upon the same map the
data which geologists have gleaned regarding the work of the great
ice cap of the Glacial period. During this period, not remote as
geological time is reckoned, an ice mantle covered the entire north-
eastern portion of our continent, and on more than one occasion
it invaded for considerable distances the territory of the United
States. Such a map as has been described discloses an important
fact which holds the clew for the detection of the ancestral home
of these diamonds. Each year is bringing with it new evidence,
and we may look forward hopefully to a full solution of the
problem.

In 1883 the " Eagle Stone " was brought to Milwaukee and sold
for the nominal sum of one dollar. When it was submitted to
competent examination the public learned that it was a diamond
of sixteen carats' weight, and that it had been discovered seven
years earlier in earth removed from a well-opening. Two events
which were calculated to arouse local interest follow^ed directly
upon the discovery of the real nature of this gem, after which it
passed out of the public notice. The woman who had parted with
the gem for so inadequate a compensation brought suit against the
jeweler to whom she had sold it, in order to recover its value.
This curious litigation, which naturally aroused a great deal of
interest, was finally carried to the Supreme Court of the State of
Wisconsin, from which a decision was handed down in favor of
the defendant, on the ground that he, no less than the plaintiff,
had been ignorant of the value of the gem at the time of purchas-
ing it. The other event was the " boom " of the town of Eagle
as a diamond center, which, after the finding of two other diamonds
with unmistakable marks of African origin upon them, ended as
suddenly as it had begun, with the effect of temporarily discredit-
ing, in the minds of geologists, the genuineness of the original
" find."

Ten years later a white diamond of a little less than four carats'
weight came to light in a collection of pebbles found in Oregon,
Wisconsin, and brought to the writer for examination. The stones
had been found by a farmer's lad while playing in a clay bank near
his home. The investigation of the subject which was thereupon
made brought out the fact that a third diamond, and this the largest

78 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of all, had been discovered at Kolil-ville, in the same State, in
1883, and was still in the possession of the family on whose prop-
erty it had been found.

As these stones were found in the deposits of " drift '' which
were left by the ice of the Glacial period, it was clear that they
had been brought to their resting places by the ice itself. The

Three View.s ok the Saukvillp; Diamond (six carats); enlarfred about three diameters.

(Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)
We are indebted to the courtesy of Bunde and Upmeyer, of Milwaukee, for the illustra-
tions showing the Burlington and Saukville diamonds.

map reveals the additional fact, and one of the greatest signifi-
cance, that all these diamonds were found in the so-called " kettle
moraine." This moraine or ridge was the dumping ground of
the ice for its burden of bowlders, gravel, and clay at the time of
its later invasion, and hence indicates the boundaries of the ter-
ritory over which the ice mass was then extended. In view of
the fact that two of the three stones found had remained in the
hands of the farming population, without coming to the knowledge
of the world, for periods of eleven and seven years respectively, it
seems most probable that others have been found, though not
identified as diamonds, and for this reason are doubtless still to be
found in many cases in association with other local " curios '' on
the clock shelves of country farmhouses in the vicinity of the
''kettle moraine.-' The writer felt warranted in predicting, in
1894, that other diamonds would occasionally be brought to light
in the " kettle moraine," though the great extent of this moraine
left little room for hope that more than one or two would be
found at any one point of it.

In the time that has since elapsed diamonds have been found
at the rate of about one a year, tliough not, so far as I iiiii nwavo, in
any case as the result of seardi. in AVisconsin lia\c been found the
Saukville diamond, a beautiful wliitc stone of six carats' weight, and
also the Burlington stone, having a weight of a little over two
carats. The former had been for more than sixteen years in the
possession of the findci' lict'ovc he learned of its value. Tn Michi-

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.

79

gan has been found the Dowagiac stone, of about eleven carats'
weight, and only very recently a diamond weighing six carats and
of exceptionally fine " water " has come to light at Milford, near
Cincinnati. This augmentation of the number of localities, and
the nearness of all to the " kettle moraines," leaves little room for
doubt that the diamonds were conveyed by the ice at the time of
its later invasion of the country.

Having, then, arrived at a satisfactory conclusion regarding not
only the agent which conveyed the stones, but also respecting the
period during which they were transported, it is pertinent to in-
quire by what paths they were brought to their adopted homes,
and whether, if these may be definitely charted, it may not be pos-
sible to follow them in a direction the reverse of that taken by the
diamonds themselves until we arrive at the point from which each
diamond started upon its journey. If we succeed in this we shall
learn whether they have a common home, or whether they were
formed in regions more or less widely separated. From the great
rarity of diamonds in Mature it would seem that the hypothesis of
a common home is the more probable, and this view finds confirma-
tion in the fact that certain marks of " consanguinity " have been
observed upon the stones already found.

Not only did the ice mantle register its advance in the great
ridge of morainic material which we know as the " kettle moraine,"
but it has engraved upon the ledges of rock over which it has rid-
den, in a simple language of lines and grooves, the direction of its

Four Views of the Burlington Diamond (a little over two carats) ; enlarged about three
diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)

movement, after first having planed away the disintegrated por-
tions of the rock to secure a smooth and lasting surface. As the
same ledges have been overridden more than once, and at inter-
vals widely separated, they are often found, palimpsestlike, with
recent characters superimposed upon earlier, partly effaced, and
nearly illegible ones. Many of the scattered leaves of this record
have, however, been copied by geologists, and the autobiography
of the ice is now read from maps which give the direction of its
flow, and allow the motion of the ice as a whole, as well as that

8o POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of each of its parts, to be satisfactorily studied. Recent studies
by Canadian geologists have shown that one of the highest sum-
mits of the ice cap must have been located some distance west of
Hudson Bay, and that another, the one which glaciated the lake
region, was in Labrador, to the east of the same body of water.
From these points the ice moved in spreading fans both northward
toward the Arctic Ocean and southward toward the States, and al-
ways approached the margins at the moraines in a direction at right
angles to their extent. Thus the rock material transported by the
ice was spread out in a great fan, which constantly extended its
boundaries as it advanced.

The evidence from the Oregon, Eagle, and Kohlsville stones,
which were located on the moraine of the Green Bay glacier, is
that their home, in case they had a common one, is between the
northeastern corner of the State of Wisconsin and the eastern sum-
mit of the ice mantle — a narrow strip of country of great extent,

Three Views of a Lead Cast of the Milford Stone (six carats) ; enlarged about three

diameters.

We are indebted to the courtesy of Prof. T. II. Norton, of the University of Cincinnati,

for the above illustrations.

but yet a first approximation of the greatest value. If we as-
sume, further, that the Saukville, Burlington, and Dowagiac stones^
which were found on the moraine of the Lake Michigan glacier,
have the same derivation, their common home may confidently be
placed as far to the northeast as the wilderness beyond the Great
Lakes, since the Green Bay and Lake Michigan glaciers coalesced
in that region. The small stones found at Plum Creek, Wisconsin,
and the Cincinnati stone, if the locations of their discovery be
taken into consideration, still further circumscribe the diamond's
home territory, since the lobes of the ice mass which transported
them made a complete junction with the Green Bay and Lake
Michigan lobes or glaciers considerably farther to the northward
than the point of union of the latter glaciers themselves.

If, therefore, it is assumed that all the stones which have been
found have a common origin, the conclusion is inevitable that the
ancestral home must be in the wilderness of Canada between the

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.

81

points wliere the several tracks marking their migrations eon-
verge upon one another, and the former summit of the ice sheet.
The broader the " fan " of their distribution, the nearer to the
latter must the point be located.

It is by no means improbable that when the barren territory
about Hudson Bay is thoroughly explored a region for profitable

CouMOK Forms of Quartz
Crystals.

CoiiMON Forms of Diamonds. The African stones
most resemV>le the figure above at the left (octa-
hedron). The Wisconsin stones most resemble
the figure above at the right (dodecahedron).

diamond mining may be revealed, but in the meantime we may
be sure that individual stones will occasionally be found in the
new American homes into which they were imported long before
the days of tariffs and ports of entry. Mother Nature, not con-
tent with lavishing upon our favored nation the boundless treas-
ures locked up in her mountains, has robbed the territory of our
Canadian cousins of the rich soils which she has unloaded upon our
lake States, and of the diamonds with which she has sowed them.

The range of the present distribution of the diamonds, while
perhaps not limited exclusively to the " kettle moraine," will, as
the events have indicated, be in the main confined to it. This
moraine, with its numerous subordinate ranges marking halting
places in the final retreat of the ice, has now been located with
sufficient accuracy by the geologists of the United States Geo-
logical Survey and others, approximately as entered upon the ac-
companying map. "Within the territory of the United States the
large number of observations of the rock scorings makes it clear
that the ice of each lobe or glacier moved from the central portion
toward the marginal moraines, which are here indicated by dotted
bands. In the wilderness of Canada the observations have been
rare, but the few data which have been gleaned are there repre-
sented by arrows pointed in the direction of ice movement.

There is every encouragement for persons who reside in or
near the marginal moraines to search in them for the scattered
jewels, which may be easily identifi.ed and which have a large com-
mercial as well as scientific .value.

VOL. LVI. 1

82 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

The "Wisconsin Geological and aSTatural History Suryej is now
interesting itself in the problem of the diamonds, and has under-
taken the task of disseminating information bearing on the sub-
ject to the people who reside near the " kettle moraine." "With
the co-operation of a number of mineralogists who reside near this
*' diamond belt," it offers to make examination of the supposed
gem stones which may be collected.

The success of this undertaking will depend upon securing the
co-operation of the people of the morainal belt. Wherever gravel
ridges have there been opened in cuts it would be advisable to
look for diamonds. Children in particular, because of their keen
eyes and abundant leisure, should be encouraged to search for the
clear stones.

The serious defect in this plan is that it trusts to inexperienced
persons to discover the buried diamonds which in the " rough " are
probably unlike anything that they have ever seen. The first re-
sult of the search has been the collection of large numbers of quartz
pebbles, which are everywhere present but which are entirely
valueless. There are, however, some simple ways of distinguish-
ing diamonds from quartz.

Diamonds never appear in thoroughly rounded forms like ordi-
nary pebbles, for they are too hard to be in the least degree worn
by contact with their neighbors in the gravel bed. Diamonds al-
ways show, moreover, distinct forms of crystals, and these gener-
ally bear some resemblance to one of the forms figured. They are
never in the least degree like crystals of quartz, which are, how-
ever, the ones most frequently confounded with them. Most of
the Wisconsin diamonds have either twelve or forty-eight faces.
Crystals of most minerals are bounded by plane surfaces — that is to
say, their faces are flat — the diamond, however, is inclosed by
distinctly curving surfaces.

The one property of the diamond, however, which makes it easy
of determination is its extraordinary hardness — greater than that
of any other mineral. Put in simple language, the hardness of
a substance may be described as its power to scratch other sub-
stances when drawn across them under pressure. To compare the
hardness of two substances we should draw a sharp point of one
across a surface of the other under a pressure of the fingers, and
note whether a permanent scratch is left. The harder substances
will always scratch the softer, and if both have the same hardness
they may be made to mutually scratch each other. Since dia-
mond, sapphire, and ruby are the only minerals which are harder
than emery they are the only ones which, when drawn across a
rough emery surface, will not receive a scratch. Any stone which

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 83

will not take a scratch from emery is a gem stone and of sufficient
interest to be referred to a competent mineralogist.

The dissemination of information regarding the lake diamonds
through the region of the moraine should serve the twofold pur-
pose of encouraging search for the buried stones and of discovering
diamonds in the little collections of " lucky stones " and local curios
which accumulate on the clock shelves of country farmhouses.
When it is considered that three of the largest diamonds thus far
found in the region remained for periods of seven, eight, and six-
teen years respectively in the hands of the farming population, it
can hardly be doubted that many other diamonds have been found
and preserved as local curiosities without their real nature being
discovered.

If diamonds should be discovered in the moraines of eastern
Ohio, of western Pennsylvania, or of western l^ew York, con-
siderable light would thereby be thrown upon the problem of locat-
ing the ancestral home. More important than this, however, is
the mapping of the Canadian wilderness to the southeastward and
eastward of James Bay, in order to determine the direction of ice
movement Vvithin the region, so that the tracking of the stones
already found may be carried nearer their home. The Director
of the Geological Survey of Canada is giving attention to this
matter, and has also suggested that a study be made of the mate-
rial found in association with the diamonds in the moraine, so that
if possible its source may be discovered.

With the discovery of new localities of these emigrant stones
and the collection of data regarding the movement of the ice over
Canadian territory, it will perhaps be possible the more accurately
and definitely to circumscribe their home country, and as its bound-
aries are drawn closer and closer to pay this popular jewel a visit
in its ancestral home, there to learn what we so much desire to
know regarding its genesis and its life history.

William Pengklly related, in one of his letters to his wife from the
British Association, Oxford meeting, 1860, of Sedgwick's presidency of the
Geological Section, that his opening address was " most characteristic, full
of clever fun, most imperative that papers should be as brief as possible
— about ten minutes, he thought — he himself amplifying marvelously."
The next day Pengelly himself was about to read his paper, when " dear old
Sedgwick wished it compressed. I replied that I would do what I could
to please him, but did not know which to follow, his precept or example.
The roar of laughter was deafening. Old Sedgwick took it capitally, and
behaved much better in consequence." On the third day Pengelly went
to committee, where, he says, " I found Sedgwick very cordial, took my ad-
dress, and talks of paying me a visit."

84 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

NEEDED IMPKOYEMENTS IN THEATER
SANITATION.

Bt WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C. E.,

OON8ULTIKO ENGINEER FOB SANITARY WORKS.

BUILDINGS for the representation of theatrical plays must
fulfill three conditions: they must be (1) comfortable, (2)
safe, and (3) healthful. The last requirement, of healthfulness, em-
braces the following conditions: plenty of pure air, freedom from
draughts, moderate warming in winter, suitable cooling in summer,
freedom at all times from dust, bad odors, and disease germs. In
addition to the requirements for the theater audience, due regard
should be paid to the comfort, healthfulness, and safety of the
performers, stage hands, and mechanics, who are required to spend
more hours in the stage part of the building than the playgoers.

It is no exaggeration to state that in the majority of theater
buildings disgracefully unsanitary conditions prevail. In the older
existing buildings especially sanitation and ventilation are sadly
neglected. The air of many theaters during a performance be-
comes overheated and stuffy, pre-eminently so in the case of thea-
ters where illumination is effected by means of gaslights. At the
end of a long performance the air is often almost unbearably foul,
causing headache, nausea, and dizziness.

In ill-ventilated theaters a chilly air often blows into the audi-
torium from the stage w^hen the curtain is raised. This air move-
ment is the cause of colds to many persons in the audience, and
it is otherwise objectionable, for it carries with it noxious odors
from tlie stage or under stage, and in gas-lighted theaters this
air is laden with products of combustion from the footlights and
other means of stage illumination.

Attempts at ventilation are made by utilizing the heat due to
the numerous flames of the central chandelier over the auditorium,
to create an ascending draught, and thereby cause a removal of the
contaminated air, but seldom is provision made for the introduction
of fresh air from outdoors, hence the scheme of ventilation re-
sults in failure. In other buildings, openings for the introduction
of pure air are provided under the seats or in the floor, but are
often found stuffed up with paper because the audience suffered
from draughts. The fear of draughts in a theater also leads to
the closing of the few possibly available outside windows and doors.
The plan of a theater building renders it almost impossible to
provide outside windows, therefore " air flushing " during the day
can not be practiced. In the case of the older theaters, which are

IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION. 85

located in the midst or rear of other buildings, the nature of the
site precludes a good arrangement of the main fresh-air ducts for
the auditorium.

Absence of fresh air is not the only sanitary defect of theater
buildings; there are many other defects and sources of air pollu-
tion. In the parts devoted to the audience, the carpeted floors
become saturated with dirt and dust carried in by the playgoers,
and with expectorations from careless or untidy persons which in a
mixed theater audience are ever present. The dust likewise ad-
lieres to furniture, plush seats, hangings, and decorations, and in-
termingled with it are numerous minute floating organisms, and
doubtless some germs of disease.

Behind the curtain a general lack of cleanliness exists — untidy
actors' toilet rooms, ill-drained cellars, defective sewerage, leaky
drains, foul water closets, and overcrowded and poorly located
dressing rooms into which no fresh air ever enters. The stage floor
is covered with dust; this is stirred up by the frequent scene shift-
ing or by the dancing of performers, and much of it is absorbed
and retained by the canvas scenery.

Under such conditions the state of health of both theater goers
and performers is bound to suffer. Many persons can testify from
personal experience to the ill effects incurred by spending a few
hours in a crowded and unventilated theater; yet the very fact
that the stay in such buildings is a brief one seems to render most
people indifferent, and complaints are seldom uttered. It really
rests with the theater-going public to enforce the much-needed im-
jDrovements. As long as they will flock to a theater on account
of some attractive play or " star actor," disregarding entirely the
unsanitary condition of the building, so long will the present no-
toriously bad conditions remain. When the public does not call
for reforms, theater managers and owners of playhouses will not,
as a rule, trouble themselves about the matter. We have a
right to demand theater buildings with less outward and inside
gorgeousness, but in which the paramount subjects of comfort,
safety, and health are diligently studied and generously provided
for. Let the general public but once show a determined preference
for sanitary conditions and surroundings in theaters and abandon
visits to ill-kept theaters, and I venture to predict that the necessary
reforms in sanitation will soon be introduced, at least in the better
class of playhouses. In the cheaper theaters, concert and amuse-
ment halls, houses with " continuous " shows, variety theaters, etc.,
sanitation is even more urgently required, and may be readily en-
forced by a few visits and peremptory orders from the Health
Board.

86 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

When, a year ago, the wi-iter, in a paper on Theater Sanitation'
presented at the annual meeting of the American Public Health
Association, stated that " chemical analyses show the air in the
dress circle and gallery of many a theater to be in the evening
more foul than the air of street sewers," the statement was re-
ceived by some of his critics with incredulity. Yet the fact is true
of many theaters. Taking the amount of carbonic acid in the air
as an indication of its contamination, and assuming that the or-
ganic vapors are in proportion to the amount of carbonic acid (not
including the CO2 due to the products of illumination), we know
that normal outdoor air contains from 0.03 to 0.04 parts of CO2
per 100 parts of air, while a few chemical analyses of the air in
English theaters, quoted below, suffice to prove how large the con-
tamination sometimes is:

Strand Theater, 10 p. m., gallery 0. 101 parts COj per 100.

Surrey Theater, 10 p. M., boxes 0.111 " " "

Surrey Theater, 12 p. M., boxes 0.218 " " "

Olympia Theater, 11.30 p M., boxes 0.082 " " "

Olympla Theater, 11.55 P.M., boxes 0.101 " " "

Victoria Theater, 10 P.M., boxes 0.126 " " "

Haymarket Theater, 11. .30 p. M., dress circle 0.076 " " "

City of London Theater, 11.15 P.M., pit 0.252 " " "

Standard Theater, 11 p. M., pit 0.320 " " "

Theater Royal, Manchester, pit 0.2734 " " "

Grand Theater, Leeds, pit 0.150 " " "

Grand Theater, Leeds, upper circle 0.143 " " "

Grand Theater, balcony 0.142 " " "

Prince's Theater, Manchester 0.11-0.17 " " "

(Analyses made by Drs. Smith, Bernays, and De Chaumont.)

Compare with these figures some analyses of the air of sewers.
Dr. Russell, of Glasgow, found the air of a well-ventilated and
flushed sewer to cont.iin 0.051 vols, of COg. The late Prof. "W.
Ripley ^Nichols conducted many careful experiments on the
amount of carbonic acid in the Boston sewers, and found the fol-
lowing averages, viz., 0.087, 0.082, 0.115, 0.107, 0,08, or much
less than the above analyses of theater air showed. He states:
" It appears from these examinations that the air even in a tide-
locked sewer does not differ from the standard as much as many
no doubt suppose."

A comparison of the number of bacteria found in a cubic foot
of air inside of a theater and in the street air would form a more
convincing statement, but I have been unable to find published
records of any such bacteriological tests. Nevertheless, we know
that while the atmosphere contains some bacteria, the indoor air
of crowded assembly halls, laden with floating dust, is particularly

IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION. 87

ricli in living micro-organisms. This lias been proved by Tjndall,
Miquel, Frankland, and other scientists; and in this connection
should be mentioned one point of much importance, ascertained
quite recently, namely, that the air of sewers, contrary to expec-
tation, is remarkably free from germs. An analysis of the air in
the sewers under the Houses of Parliament, London, showed that
the number of micro-organisms was much less than that in the
atmosphere outside of the building.

In recent years marked improvements in theater planning and
equipment have been effected, and corresponding steps in advance
have been made in matters relating to theater hygiene. It should
therefore be understood that my remarks are intended to apply
to the average theater, and in particular to the older buildings of
this class. There are in large cities a few well-ventilated and hy-
gienically improved theaters and opera houses, in which the re-
quirements of sanitation are observed. Later on, when speaking
more in detail of theater ventilation, instances of well-ventilated
theaters will be mentioned. ISTevertheless, the need of urgent and
radical measures for comfort and health in the majority of theaters
is obvious. Much is being done in our enlightened age to improve
the sanitary condition of school buildings, jails and prisons, hos-
pitals and dwelling houses. Why, I ask, should not our theaters
receive some consideration?

The efficient ventilation of a theater building is conceded to
be an unusually difficult problem. In order to ventilate a theater
properly, the causes of noxious odors arising from bad plumbing
or defective drainage should be removed; outside fumes or vapors
must not be permitted to enter the building either through doors
or windows, or through the fresh-air duct of the heating apparatus.
The substitution of electric lights in place of gas is a great help
toward securing pure air. This being accomplished, a standard of
purity of the air should be maintained by proper ventilation. This
includes both the removal of the vitiated air and the introduction
of pure air froni outdoors and the consequent entire change of the
air of a hall three or four times per hour. The fresh air brought
into the building must be ample in volume; it should be free from
contamination, dust and germs (particularly pathogenic microbes),
and with this in view must in cities be first purified by filtering,
spraying, or washing. It should be warmed in cold weather by pass-
ing over hot-water or steam-pipe stacks, and cooled in warm weather
by means of ice or the brine of mechanical refrigerating machines.
The air should be of a proper degree of humidity, and, what is
most important of all, it should be admitted into the various parts
of the theater imperceptibly, so as not to cause the sensation of

88 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

draught; in other words, its velocity at the inlets must be very
slight. The fresh air should enter the audience hall at numerous
points so well and evenly distributed that the air will be equally
diifused throughout the entire horizontal cross-section of the hall.
The air indoors should have as nearly as possible the composition
of air outdoors, an increase of the CO2 from 0.3 to 0.6 being the
permissible limit. The vitiated air should be continuously removed
by mechanical means, taking care, however, not to remove a larger
volume of air than is introduced from outdoors.

Regarding the amount of fresh outdoor air to be supplied to
keep the inside atmosphere at anything like standard purity, au-
thorities differ somewhat. The theoretical amount, 3,000 cubic feet
per person per hour (50 cubic feet per minute), is made a require-
ment in the Boston theater law. In Austria, the law calls for 1,050
cubic feet. The regulations of the Prussian Minister of Public
Works call for 700 cubic feet, Professor von Pettenkofer suggests
an air supply per person of from 1,410 to 1,675 cubic feet per hour
(23 to 28 cubic feet per minute). General Morin calls for 1,200
to 1,500 cubic feet, and Dr. Billings, an American authority, re-
quires 30 cubic feet per minute, or 1,800 cubic feet per hour.
In the Vienna Opera House, which is described as one of the
best-ventilated theaters in the world, the air supply is 15 cubic
feet per person per minute. The Madison Square Theater, in
New York, is stated to have an air supply of 25 cubic feet jjer
person.

In a moderately large theater, seating twelve hundred persons,
the total hourly quantity of air to be supplied would, accordingly,
amount to from 1,440,000 to 2,160,000 cubic feet. It is not an
easy matter to arrange the fresh-air conduits of a size sufficient to
furnish this volume of air; it is obviously costly to warm such a
large quantity of air, and it is a still more difficult problem to
introduce it without creating objectionable currents of air; and,
finally, inasmuch as this air can not enter the auditorium unless a
like amoaint of vitiated air is removed, the problem includes pro-
viding artificial means for the removal of large air volumes.

Where gas illumination is used, each gas flame requires an ad-
ditional air supply — from 140 to 280 cubic feet, according to Gen-
eral Morin.

A slight consideration of the volumes of air which must be
moved and removed in a theater to secure a complete change of
air three or four times an hour, demonstrates the impossibility of
securing satisfactory results by the so-called natural method of
ventilation — i. e., the removal of air by means of flues with currents
due either to the aspirating force of the wind or due to artificially

IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION. 89

increased temperature in the flues. It becomes necessary to adopt
mechanical means of ventilation by using either exhaust fans or
pressure blowers or both, these being driven either by steam en-
gines or by electric motors. In the older theaters, which were
lighted by gas, the heat of the flames could be utilized to a certain
extent in creating ascending currents in outlet shafts, and this
accomplished some air renewal. But nowadays the central chan-
delier is almost entirely dispensed with; glowing carbon lamps, fed
by electric currents, replace the gas flames; hence mechanical
ventilation seems all the more indicated.

Two principal methods of theater ventilation may be arranged :
in one the fresh air enters at or near the floor and rises upward to
the ceiling, to be removed by suitable outlet flues; in this method
the incoming air follows the naturally existing air currents; in the
other method pure air enters at the top through perforated cor-
nices or holes in the ceiling, and gradually descends, to be removed
by outlets located at or near the floor line. The two systems are
known as the "upward" and the "downward" systems; each of
them has been successfully tried, each offers some advantages, and
each has its advocates. In both systems separate means for sup-
plying fresh air to the boxes, balconies, and galleries are required.
Owing to the different opinions held by architects and engineers,
the two systems have often been made the subject of inquiry by
scientific and government commissions in France, England, Ger-
many, and the United States.

A French scientist, Darcet, was the first to suggest a scientific
system of theater ventilation. He made use of the heat from the
central chandelier for removing the foul air, and admitted the air
through numerous openings in the floor and through inlets in the
front of the boxes.

Dr. Reid, an English specialist in ventilation, is generally re-
garded as the originator of the upward method in ventilation. He
applied the same with some success to the ventilation of the Houses
of Parliament in London. Here fresh air is drawn in from high
towers, and is conducted to the basement, where it is sprayed and
moistened. A part of the air is warmed by hot-water coils in a
sub-basement, while part remains cold. The warm and the cold
air are mixed in special mixing chambers. From here the tem-
pered air goes to a chamber located directly under the floor of
the auditorium, and passes into the hall at the floor level through
numerous small holes in the floor. The air enters with low velocity,
and to prevent unpleasant draughts the floor is covered in one
hall with hair carpet and in the other with coarse hemp matting,
both of which are cleaned every ^ay. The removal of the foul

VOL. LTI. — 8

90 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

air takes place at tlie ceiling, and is assisted by the heat from the
gas flames.

The French engineer Peclet, an authority on heating and ven-
tilation, suggested a similar system of upward ventilation, but
instead of allowing the foul air to pass out through the roof, he
conducted it downward into an underground channel which had ex-
haust draught. Trelat, another French engineer, followed practi-
cally the same method.

A large number of theaters are ventilated on the upward sys-
tem. I will mention first the large Vienna Opera House, the
ventilation of which was planned by Dr. Boehm. The auditorium
holds about three thousand persons, and a fresh-air supply of about
fifteen cubic feet per minute, or from nine hundred to one thou-
sand cubic feet per hour, per person is provided. The fresh air is
taken in from the gardens surrounding the theater and is eon-
ducted into the cellar, where it passes through a water spray, which
removes the dust and cools the air in summer. A suction fan ten
feet in diameter is provided, which blows the air through a con-
duit forty-five square feet in area into a series of three chambers
located vertically over each other under the auditorium. The low-
est of these chambers is the cold-air chamber; the middle one is
the heating chamber and contains steam-heating stacks; the highest
chamber is the mixing chamber. The air goes partly to the heat-
ing and partly to the mixing chamber; from this it enters the
auditorium at the rate of one foot per second velocity through
openings in the risers of the seats in the parquet, and also through
vertical wall channels to the boxes and upper galleries. The total
area of the fresh-air openings is 750 square feet. The foul air
ascends, assisted by the heat of the central chandelier, and is col-
lected into a large exhaust tube. The foul air from the gallery
passes out through separate channels. In the roof over the audi-
torium there is a fan which expels the entire foul air. Tele-
graphic thermometers are placed in all parts of the house and
communicate with the inspection room, where the engineer in
charge of the ventilation controls and regulates the temperature.

The Vienna Hofburg Theater was ventilated on the same
system.

The new Frankfort Opera House has a ventilation system mod-
eled upon that of the Vienna Opera House, but with improve-
ments in some details. The house has a capacity of two thousand
people, and for each person fourteen hundred cubic feet of fresh
air per hour are supplied. A fan about ten feet in diameter and
making ninety to one hundred revolutions per minute brings in the
fresh air from outdoors and drives it into chambers under the

IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION. 91

auditorium arranged very much like those at Vienna. The total
quantity of fresh air supplied per hour is 2,800,000 cubic feet. The
air enters the auditorium through gratings fixed above the floor
level in the risers. The foul air is removed by outlets in the ceil-
ings, which unite into a large vertical shaft below the cupola. An
exhaust fan of ten feet diameter is placed in the cupola shaft, and
is used for summer ventilation only. Every single box and stall
is ventilated separately. The cost of the entire system was about
one hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars; it requires a staff of
two engineers, six assistant engineers, and a number of stokers.

Among well-ventilated American theaters is the Madison
Square Theater (now Hoyt's), in jSTew York. Here the fresh air
is taken down through a large vertical shaft on the side of the
stage. There is a seven-foot suction fan in the basement which
drives the air into a number of boxes with steam-heating stacks,
from which smaller pipes lead to openings under each row of seats.
The foul air escapes through openings in the ceiling and under
the galleries. A fresh-air supply of 1,500 cubic feet per hour, or
25 cubic feet per minute, per person is provided.

The Metropolitan Opera House is ventilated on the plenum
system, and has an upward movement of air, the total air supply
being 70,000 cubic feet per hour.

In the Academy of Music, Baltimore, the fresh air is admitted
mainly from the stage and the exits of foul air are in the ceiling
at the auditorium.

Other theaters ventilated by the upward method are the Dres-
den Royal Theater, the Lessing Theater in Berlin, the Opera
House in Buda-Pesth, the new theater in Prague, the new Munici-
pal Theater at Halle, and the Criterion Theatre in London.

The French engineer General Arthur Morin is known as the
principal advocate of the downward method of ventilation. This
was at that time a radical departure from existing methods because
it apparently conflicted with the well-known fact that heated air
naturally rises. Much the same system was advocated by Dr.
Tripier in a pamphlet published in 1864.* The earlier practical
applications of this system to several French theaters did not prove
as much of a success as anticipated, the failure being due probably
to the gas illumination, the central chandelier, and the absence of
mechanical means for inducing a downward movement of the air.

In 1861 a French commission, of which General Morin was a
member, proposed the reversing of the currents of air by admit-
ting fresh air at both sides of the stage opening high up in the
auditorium, and also through hollow floor channels for the balconies

* Dr. A. Tripier. Assainissement des Theatres, Yentilation, ificlairage et Chauffage.

92 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and boxes; in the gallery the openings for fresh air were located
in the risers of the steppings. The air was exhausted by numerous
openings under the seats in the parquet. This ventilating system
was carried out at the Theatre Lyrique, the Theatre du Cirque,
and the Theatre de la Gaiete.

Dr. Tripier ventilated a theater in 1858 with good success
on a similar plan, but he introduced the air partly at the rear of
the stage and partly in the tympanum in the auditorium. He
removed the foul air at the floor level and separately in the rear
of the boxes. He also exhausted the foul air from the upper gal-
leries by special flues heated by the gas chandelier.

The Grand Amphitheater of the Conservatory of Arts and In-
dustries, in Paris, was ventilated by General Morin on the down-
ward system. The openings in the ceiling for the admission of
fresh air aggTegated 120 square feet, and the air entered with a
velocity of only eighteen inches per second; the total air supply
per hour was 630,000 cubic feet. The foul air was exhausted by
openings in steps around the vertical walls, and the velocity of the
outgoing air was about two and a half feet per second.

The introduction of the electric light in place of gas gave a
fresh impetus to the downward method of ventilation, and me-
chanical means also helped to dispel the former difficulties in
securing a positive downward movement.

The Chicago Auditorium is ventilated on this system, a part of
the air entering from the rear of the stage, the other from the
ceiling of the auditorium downward. This plan coincides with the
proposition made in 1846 by Morrill Wyman, though he admits
that it can not be considered the most desirable method.

A good example of the downward method is given by the ISTew
York Music Hall, which has a seating capacity of three thou-
sand persons and standing room for one thousand more. Fresh
air at any temperature desired is made to enter through perfo-
rations in or near the ceilings, the outlets being concealed by the
decorations, and passes out through exhaust registers near the floor
line, under the seats, through perforated risers in the terraced
steps. About 10,000,000 cubic feet of air are supplied per hour,
and the velocity of influx and efflux is one foot per second. The
air supplied per person per hour is figured at 2,700 cubic feet, and
the entire volume is changed from four and a half to five times per
hour. The fresh air is taken in at roof level through a shaft of
seventy square feet area. The air is heated by steam coils, and
cooled in summer by ice. The mechanical plant comprises four
blowers and three exhaust fans of six and seven feet in diameter.

The downward method of ventilation was suggested in 1884

IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION. 93

for the improvement of the ventilation of the Senate chamber and
the chamber of the House of Representatives in the Capitol at
Washington, but the system was not adopted by the Board of Engi-
neers appointed to inquire into the methods.

The downward method is also used in the Hall of the Troca-
dero, Paris; in the old and also the new buildings for the Ger-
man Parliament, Berlin; in the Chamber of Deputies, Paris; and
others.

Professor Fischer, a modern German authority on heating and
ventilation, in a discussion of the relative advantages of the two
methods, reaches the conclusion that both are practical and can
be made to work successfully. For audience halls lighted by gas-
lights he considers the upward method as preferable.

In arranging for the removal of foul air it is necessary, par-
ticularly in the downward system, to provide separate exhaust flues
for the galleries and balconies. Unless this is provided for, the
exhaled air of the occupants of the higher tiers would mingle
with the descending current of pure air supplied to the occupants
of the main auditorium floor.

]\Iention should also be made of a proposition originating in
Berlin to construct the roof of auditoriums domelike, by dividing
it in the middle so that it can be partly opened by means of elec-
tric or hydraulic machinery; such a system would permit of keep-
ing the ceiling open in summer time, thereby rendering the theater
not only airy, but also free from the danger of smoke. A system
based on similar principles is in actual use at the Madison Square
Garden, in New York, where part of the roof consists of sliding
skylights which in summer time can be made to open or close dur-
ing the performance.

From the point of view of safety in case of fire, which usually
in a theater breaks out on the stage, it is without doubt best to
have the air currents travel in a direction from the auditorium
toward the stage roof. This has been successfully arranged in
some of the later Vienna theaters, but from the point of view of
good acoustics, it is better to have the air currents travel from the
stage toward the auditorium. Obviously, it is a somewhat diflicult
matter to reconcile the conflicting requirements of safety from
smoke and fire gases, good acoustics and perfect ventilation.

The stage of a theater requires to be well ventilated, for often
it becomes filled with smoke or gases due to firing of guns, colored
lights, torches, representations of battles, etc. There should be in
the roof over the stage large outlet flues, or sliding skylights, con-
trolled from the stage for the removal of the smoke. These, in
case of an outbreak of fire on the stage, become of vital impor-

94 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

tance in preventing the smoke and fire gases from being drawn
into the auditorium and suffocating the persons in the gallery
seats.

Wliere the stage is lit with gaslights it is important to provide
a separate downward ventilation for the footlights. This, I be-
lieve, was first successfully tried at the large Scala Theater, of
Milan, Italy.

The actors' and supers' dressing rooms, which are often over-
crowded, require efiicient ventilation, and other parts of the build-
ing, like the foyers and the toilet, retiring and smoking rooms,
must not be overlooked.

The entrance halls, vestibules, lobbies, staircases, and corridors
do not need so much ventilation, but should be kept warm to
prevent annoying draughts. They are usually heated by abun-
dantly large direct steam or hot-water radiators, whereas the audi-
torium and foyers, and often the stage, are heated by indirect
radiation. Owing to the fact that during a performance the tem-
perature in the auditorium is quickly raised by contact of the warm
fresh air with the bodies of persons (and by the numerous lights,
when gas is used), the temperature of the incoming air should be
only moderate. In the best modern theater-heating plants it is
usual to gradually reduce the temperature of the air as it issues
from the mixing chambers toward the end of the performance.
Both the temperature and the hygrometric conditions of the air
should be controlled by an efiicient staff of intelligent heating
engineers.

But little need be said regarding theater lighting. Twice dur-
ing the present century have the system and methods been changed.
In the early part of the present century theaters were still lighted
with tallow candles or with oil lamps. I^ext came what was at the
time considered a wonderful improvement, namely, the introduction
of gaslighting. The generation who can remember witnessing a
theater performance by candle or lamp lights, and who experienced
the excitement created when the first theater was lit up by gas,
will soon have passed away. Scarcely twenty years ago the elec-
tric light was introduced, and there are to-day very few theaters
which do not make use of this improved ilium inant. It generates
much less heat than gaslight, and vastly simplifies the problem of
ventilation. The noxious products of combustion, incident to all
other methods of illumination, are eliminated: no carbonic-acid gas
is generated to render the air of audience halls irrespirable, and no
oxygen is drawn to support combustion from the air introduced
for breathing.

It beine: now an established fact that the electric liffht in-

IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION. 95

creases the safety of human life in theaters and other places of
amusement, its use is in many city or building ordinances made
imperative — at least on the stage and in the main body of the
auditorium. Stairs, corridors, entrances, etc., may, as a matter of
precaution, be lighted by a different system, by means of either
gas or auxiliary vegetable oil or candle lamps, protected by glass
inclosures against smoke or draught, and provided with special inlet
and outlet flues for air.

Passing to other desirable internal improvements of theaters,
I would mention first the floors of the auditorium. The cover-
ing of the floor by carpets is objectionable — in theaters more
so even than in dwelling houses. Night after night the carpet
comes in contact with thousands of feet, which necessarily bring
in a good deal of street dirt and dust. The latter falls on the
carpets and attaches to them, and as it is not feasible to take the
carpets up except during the summer closing, a vast accumulation
of dirt and organic matter results, some of the dirt falling through
the crevices between the floor boards. Many theater-goers are not
tidy in their habits regarding expectoration, and as there must
be in every large audience some persons afflicted with tuberculosis,
the danger is ever present of the germs of the disease drying on
the carpet, and becoming again detached to float in the air which
we are obliged to breathe in a theater.

As a remedy I would propose abolishing carpets entirely, and
using instead a floor covering of linoleum, or thin polished par-
quetry oak floors, varnished floors of hard wood, painted and
stained floors, interlocked rubber-tile floors, or, at least for the
aisles, encaustic or mosaic tiling. Between the rows of seats, as
well as in the aisles, long rugs or mattings may be laid down loose,
for these can be taken up without much trouble. They should be
frequently shaken, beaten, and cleaned.

Regarding the walls, ceilings, and cornices, the surfaces should
be of a material which can be readily cleaned and which is non-
absorbent. Stucco finish is unobjectionable, but should be kept flat,
so as not to offer dust-catching projections. Oil painting of walls is
preferable to a covering with rough wall papers, which hold large
quantities of dust. The so-called " sanitary " or varnished wall
papers have a smooth, non-absorbent, easily cleaned surface, and
are therefore unobjectionable. All heavy decorations, draperies,
and hangings in the boxes, and plush covers for railings, are to
be avoided.

The theater furniture should be of a material which does not
catch or hold dust. Upholstered plush-covered chairs and seats
retain a large amount of.it, and are not readily cleaned. Leather-

96 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

covered or otlier sanitary furniture, or rattan seats, Tvould be a
great improvement.

In the stage building we often find four or five actors placed
in one small, overheated, unventilated dressing room, located in
the basement of the building, without outside windows, and fitted
with three or four gas jets, for actors require a good light in
" making up." More attention should be paid to the comfort and
health of the players, more space and a better location should be
given to their rooms. Every dressing room should have a window
to the outer air, also a special ventilating flue. Properly trapped
wash basins should be fitted up in each room. In the dressing rooms
and in the corridors and stairs leading from them to the stage all
draughts must be avoided, as the performers often become over-
heated from the excitement of the acting, and dancers in particular
leave the heated stage bathed in perspiration. Sanitation, venti-
lation, and cleanliness are quite as necessary for this part of the
stage building as for the auditorium and foyers.

It will suffice to mention that defects in the drainage and sew-
erage of a theater building must be avoided. The well-known
requirements of house drainage should be observed in theaters
as much as in other public buildings.*

The removal of ashes, litter, sweepings, oily waste, and other
refuse should be attended to with promptness and regularity. It
is only by constant attention to properly carried out cleaning
methods that such a building for the public can be kept in a proper
sanitary condition. Floating air impurities, like dust and dirt, can
not be removed or rendered innocuous by the most perfect ven-
tilating scheme. Mingled with the dust floating in the auditorium
or lodging in the stage scenery are numbers of bacteria or germs.
Among the pathogenic germs will be those of tuberculosis, con-
tained in the sputum discharged in coughing or expectorating.
When this dries on the carpeted floor, the germs become readily
detached, are inhaled by the playgoers, and thus become a pro-
lific source of danger. It is for this reason principally that the
processes of cleaning, sweeping, and dusting should in a theater be
under intelligent management.

To guard against the ever-present danger of infection by germs,
the sanitary floor coverings recommended should be wiped every
day with a moist rag or cloth. Carpeted floors should be covered
with moist tea leaves or sawdust before sweeping to prevent the
usual dust-raising. The common use of the feather duster is to

* The reader will find the subject discussed and illustrated in the author's work, Sani-
tary Engineering of Buildings, vol. i, 1899.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THEATER SANITATION. gj

be deprecated, for it only raises and scatters the dust, but it does
not remove it. Dusting of the furniture should be done with a
dampened dust cloth. The cleaning should include the hot-air
registers, where a large amount of dust collects, which can only
be removed by occasionally opening up the register faces and wiping
out the pipe surfaces; also the baseboards and all cornice projec-
tions on which dust constantly settles. While dusting and sweep-
ing, the windows should be opened ; an occasional admission of sun-
light, where practicable, would likewise be of the greatest benefit.

The writer believes that a sanitary inspection of theater build-
ings should be instituted once a year when they are closed up in
summer. He would also suggest that the granting of the annual
license should be made dependent not only, as at present, upon the
condition of safety of the building against fire and panic, but also
upon its sanitary condition. In connection with the sanitary in-
spection, a thorough disinfection by sulphur, or better wath for-
maldehyde gas, should be carried out by the health authorities.
If necessary, the disinfection of the building should be repeated
several times a year, particularly during general epidemics of in-
fluenza or pneumonia.

Safety measures against outbreaks of fire, dangers from panic,
accidents, etc., are in a certain sense also sanitary improvements,
but can not be discussed here.*

In order to anticipate captious criticisms, the writer would state
that in this paper he has not attempted to set forth new theories,
nor to advocate any special system of theater ventilation. His
aim was to describe existing defects and to point out well-known
remedies. The question of efiicient theater sanitation belongs quite
as much to the province of the sanitary engineer as to that of the
architect. It is one of paramount importance — certainly more so
than the purely architectural features of exterior and interior
decoration.

In presenting to the British Association the final report on the north-
western tribes of Canada, Professor Tylor observed that, while the work of
the committee has materially advanced our knowledge of the tribes of
British Columbia, the field of investigation is by no means exhavxsted. The
languages are still known only in outlines. IMore detailed information on
physical types may clear up several points that have remained obscure, and
a fuller knowledge of the ethnology of the northern tribes seems desirable.
Ethnological evidence has been collected bearing upon the history of the
development of the area under consideration, but no archaeological inves-
tigations, which would help materially in solving these problems, have
been carried on.

* See the author's work, Theater Fires and Panics, 1895.

98 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

THE IS^EW FIELD BOTAXY.

By BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc. D.,

OF EUTGERS COLLEGE.

THERE is something novel every day; were it not so tliis earth
would grow monotonous to all, even as it does now to many,
and chiefly because such do not have the opportunity or the de-
sire to learn some new thing. Eacts unknown before are con-
stantly coming to the light, and principles are being deduced that
serve as a stepping stone to other and broader fields of knowledge.
So accustomed are we to this that even a new branch of science
may dawn upon the horizon without causing a wonder in our minds.
In this day of ologies the birth of a new one comes without the
formal two-line notice in the daily press, just as old ones pass from
view without tear or epitaph.

Pliytoecology as a word is not long as scientific -terms go, and
the Greek that lies back of it barely suggests the meaning of the
term, a fact not at all peculiar to the present instance. Of course,
it has to do with plants, and is therefore a branch of botany.

In one sense that which it stands for is not new, and, as usual,
the word has come in the wake of the facts and principles it repre-
sents, and therefore becomes a convenient term for a branch of
knowledge — a handle, so to say — by which that group of ideas may
be held up for study and further growth. The word ecology was
first employed by Haeckel, a leading ligLt in zoology in our day,
to designate the environmental side of animal life.

We will not concern ourselves with definitions, but discuss the
field that the term is coined to cover, and leave the reader to for-
mulate a short concise statement of its meaning.

Within the last year a new botanical guide book for teachers
has been published, of considerable originality and merit, in which
the subject-matter is thrown into four groups, and one of these is
Ecology. Another text-book for secondary schools is now before
us in which ecology is the heading of one of the three parts
into which the treatise is divided. The large output of the edu-
cational press at the present time along the line in hand suggests
that the magazine press should sound the dejDths of the new branch
of science that is pushing its way to the front, or being so pushed
by its adherents, and echo the merits of it along the line.

Botany in its stages of growth is interesting historically. It
fascinated for a time one of the greatest minds in the modern
school, and as a result we have the rich and fruitful history of
the science as seen through eyes as great as Julius Sachs's, the mas-

THE NEW FIELD BOTANY. 99

ter of botany during tlie last half century. Prom tliis work it can
be gathered that early in the centuries since the Christian era
botany was little more than herborizing — the collecting of speci-
mens, and learning their gross parts, as size of stem and leaf and
blossom.

This branch of botany has been cultivated to the present day,
and the result is the systematist, with all the refinements of spe-
cies making and readjustment of genera and orders with the nicety
of detail in specific descriptions that only a systematist can fully
appreciate.

Later on the study of function was begun, and along with it
that of structure; for anatomy and physiology, by whatever terms
they may be known, advance hand in hand, because inseparable.
One worker may look more to the activities than another who toils
with the structural relations and finds these problems enough for
a lifetime.

This botany of the dissecting table in contrast with that of
the collector and his dried specimens grew apace, taking new leases
of life at the uprising of new hypotheses, and long advances with
the improvement of implements for work. It was natural that the
cell and all that is made from it should invite the inspector to a
field of intense interest, somewhat at the expense of the functions
of the parts. In short, the field was open, the race was on, and it
was a matter of self-restraint that a man did not enter and strive
long and well for some anatomical prize. This branch of botany
is still alive, and never more so than to-day, when cytology offers
many attractive problems for the cytologist. What with his micro-
tome that cuts his imbedded tissue into slices so thin that twenty-
five hundred or more are needed to measure an inch in thickness,
with his fixing solutions that kill instantly and hold each particle
as if frozen in a cake of ice, and his stains and double stains that
pick out the specks as the magnet draws iron filling from a bin of
bran — with all these and a hundred more aids to the refinement of
the art there is no wonder that the cell becomes a center of attrac-
tion, beyond the periphery of which the student can scarcely live.
In our closing days of the century it may be known whether the
blephroblasts arise antipodally, and whether they are a variation of
the centrosomes or should be classed by themselves!

One of the general views of phytoecology is that the forms of
plants are modified to adapt them to the conditions under which
they exist. Thus the size of a plant is greatly modified by the
environment. Two grains of corn indistinguishable in themselves
and borne by the same cob may be so situated that one grows into
a stately stalk with the ear higher than a horse's head, while the

loo POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

other is a dwarf and unproductive. Below ground tlie conditions
are many, and all subject to infinite variation. Thus, the soil may
be deep or shallow, the particles small or large, the moisture abun-
dant or scant, and the food elements close at hand or far to seek —
all of which will have a marked influence upon the root system, its
size, and form.

Coming to the aerial portion, there are all the factors of
weather and climate to work singly or in union to affect the above-
ground structure of the plant. Temperature varies through wide
ranges of heat and cold, scorching and freezing; while humidity or
aridity, sunsliine or cloudiness, prevailing winds or sudden tornadoes
all have an influence in shaping the structure, developing the part,
and fashioning the details of form of the aerial portions. Phyto-
ecology deals with all these, and includes the consideration of that
struggle for life that plants are constantly waging, for environ-
ment determines that the forms best suited to a given set of condi-
tions will survive. This struggle has been going on since the
vegetable life of the earth began, and as a result certain prevail-
ing conditions have brought about groups of plants found as a rule
only where these conditions prevail. As water is a leading factor
in plant growth, a classification is made upon this basis into the
plants of the arid regions called xerophytes. The opposite to
desert vegetation is that of the fresh ponds and lakes, called hydro-
phytes. A third group, the halophytes, includes the vegetation of
sea or land where there is an excess of various saline substances,
the common salt being the leading one. The last group is the
mesophytes, which include plants growing in conditions without
the extremes accorded to the other three groups.

This somewhat general classification of the conditions of the
environment lends much of interest to that form of field botany
now under consideration. As the grouping is made chiefly upon
the aqueous conditions, it is fair to assume that plants are espe-
cially modified to accommodate themselves to this compound.
Plants, for example, unless they are aquatics, need to use large
quantities of water to carry on the vital functions. Thus the salts
from the soil need to rise dissolved in the crude sap to the leaves,
and in order that a sufficient current be kept up there is transpira-
tion going on from all thin or soft exposed parts. The leaves are
the chief organs where aqueous vapor is being given off, sometimes
to the extent of tons of water upon an acre of area in a single day.
This evaporation being largely surface action, it is possible for the
plant to check this by reducing the surface, and the leaf is coiled
or folded. Other plants have through the ages become adapted
to the destructive actions of drought and a dry, hot atmosphere, and

THE NEW FIELD BOTANY. loi

have only needle-shaped leaves or even no true ones at all, as many
of the cacti in the desert lands of the Western plains.

Again, the surface of the plant may become covered with a felt
of fine hairs to prevent rapid evaporation, while other plants with
ordinary foliage have the acquired power of moving the leaves so
that they will expose their surfaces broadside to the sun, or con-
trariwise the edges only, as heat and light intensity determine.

Phytoecology deals with all those adaptations of structure, and
from which permit the plants to take advantage of the habits and
wants of animals. If we are studying the vegetation of a bog, and
note the adaptation of the hydrophytic plants, the chances are that
attention will soon be called to colorations and structures that in-
dicate a more complete and far-reaching adjustment than simply
to the conditions of the wet, spongy bog. A plant may be met
with having the leaves in the form of flasks or pitchers, and more
or less filled with water. These strange leaves are conspicuously
purplish, and this adds to their attractiveness. The upper por-
tion may be variegated, resembling a flower and for the same pur-
pose— namely, to attract insects that find within the pitchers a
food which is sought at the risk of life. Many of the entrapped
creatures never escape, and yield up their life for the support of
that of the captor. Again, the mossy bog may glisten in the sun,
and thousands of sundew plants with their pink leaves are growing
upon the surface. Each leaf is covered with adhesive stalked
glands, and insects lured to and caught by them are devoured by
this insectivorous vegetation.

In the pools in the same lowland there may be an abundance
of the bladderwort, a floating plant with flowers upon long stalks
that raise them into the air and sunshine. With the leaves reduced
to a mere framework that bears innumerable bladders, water ani-
mals of small size are captured in vast numbers and provide a large
part of the nourishment required by the highly specialized hydro-
phyte.

These are but everyday instances of adaptation between plants
and animals for- the purpose of nutrition, the adjustment of form
being more particularly upon the Vegetative side. Zoologists may
be able to show, however, that certain species of animals are
adapted to and quite dependent upon the carnivorous plants.

An ecological problem has been worked out along the above
line to a larger extent than generally supposed. If we should take
the case of ants only in their relation to structural adaptations
for them in plants, it would be seen that fully three thousand spe-
cies of the latter make use of ants for purposes of protection. The
large fighting ants of the tropics, when provided with nectar, food,

102 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and shelter, will inhabit plants to the partial exclusion of destruc-
tive insects and larger foraging animals. Interesting as all this
is, it is not the time and place to go into the details of how the
ant-fostering plants have their nectar glands upon stems or leaf,
rich soft hairs in tufts for food, and homes provided in hollows
and chambers. There is still a more intimate association of ter-
mites with some of the toadstool-like plants, where the ants foster
the fungi and seem to understand some of the essentials of veri-
table gardening in miniature form.

The most familiar branch of phytoecologj, as it concerns adapta-
tions for insect visitations, is that which relates to the production
of seed. Floral structures, so wonderfully varied in form and
color and withal attractive to every lover of the beautiful, are
familiar to all, and it only needs to be said in passing that these
infinite forms are for the same end — namely, the union of the
seed germs, if they may be so styled, of different and often widely
separated blossoms.

Sweetness and beauty are not the invariable rule with insect-
visited blossoms, for in the long ages that have elapsed during
which these adaptations have come about some plants have estab-
lished an unwritten agreement between beetles and bugs with un-
savory tastes. Thus there are the " carrion flow^ers," so called
because of their fetid odor, designed for the sense organs of car-
rion insects. The " stink-horn " fungi have their offensive spores
distributed by a similar set of carrion carriers.

Water and wind claim a share of the species, but here adapta-
tion to the method of fertilization is as fully realized as when
insects participate, and the uselessness of showy petals and fan-
tastic forms is emphasized by their absence.

Coming now to the fruits of plants, it is again seen that plants
have adapted their offspring, the seed, to the surrounding condi-
tions, not forgetting the wind, the waves, and the tastes and the
exterior of passing animals. The breezes carry up and hurl along
the light wing-possessed seeds, and the river and ocean bear these
and many others onward to a distant land, while by grappling hooks
many kinds cling to the hair of animals, or, provided with a pleas-
ing pulp, are carried willingly by birds and other creatures. In
short, the devices for seed dispersion are multitudinous, and they
provide a large chapter in that branch of botany now styled phyto-
ecology.

How different is the old field botany from the new! Then
there was the collector of plants and classifier of his finds, and an
arranger of all he could get by exchange or otherwise. His suc-
cess was measured by the size of his herbarium and his stock in

THE NEW FIELD BOTANY. 103

trade as so many duplicates all taken in bloom, but the time of year,
locality, and the various conditions of growth were all unknown.

His implements for work were, first, a can or basket, a plant
press, and a manual; and, secondly, a lot of paper, a paste pot, and
some way of holding the mounts in packets or pigeonholes.

The eyes grew keen as the hunter scoured the forest and field
for some kind of plant he had not already possessed. There was
a keen relish in discoveries, and it heightened into ecstasy when
the specimen needed to be sent away for a name and was returned
with his own Latinized and appended to that of the genus.

This was all well and good so far as it went, but looked at
from the present vantage ground there was not so much in it.
However, his was an essential step to other things, as much so as
that of the census taker.

"We need to know the species of plants our fair land possesses,
and have them described and named. But when the nine hundred
and ninety-nine are known, it is a waste of time to be continually
hunting for the thousandth. Look for it, but let it be secondary
to that of an actual study of the great majority already known.
The older botany was a study of the dried plants in all those de-
tails that are laid down in the manuals. It lacked something of
the true vitality that is inherent in a biological science, for often
the life had gone out before the subject came up for study. To
the phytoecologist it was somewhat as the shell without the meat,
or the bird's nest of a previous year.

Since those days of our forefathers there has come the minute
anatomy of plants, followed closely by physiology; and now with
the working knowledge of these two modern branches of botany
the student has again taken to the field. He is making the wood-
lot his laboratory, and the garden, so to say, his lecture room.
He has a fair knowledge of systematic botany, but finds himself
rearranging the families and genera to fit the facts determined by
his ecological study. If two species of the same genus are widely
separated in habitat, he is determining the factors that led to the
separation. Why did one smart weed become a climber, another
an upright herb, and a third a prostrate creeper, are questions that
may not have entered the mind of the plant collector; but now the
phytoecologist finds much interest in considering questions of this
type. What are the differences between a species inhabiting the
water and another of the same genus upon dry land, or what has led
one group of the morning-glory family to become parasites and
exist as the dodders upon other living plants?

The older botanist held his subject under the best mental illu-
mination of his time, but his physical light, that of a pine knot

104 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

or a tallow dip, also contrasts strongly with that of the present
gas jet and electric arc.

The wonder should be that he saw so well, and all who follow
him can not but feel grateful for the path he blazed through the
dense forests of ignorance and the bridges he made over the streams
of doubt in specific distinctions. It was a noble work, but it is
nearly past in the older parts of our country; and while some of
that school should linger to readjust their genera, make new com-
binations of species, and attempt to satisfy the claims of priority,
the rank and file will largely leave systematic botany and the
herborizing it embraces, and betake themselves to the open fields
of phytoecology. It may be along the line of structural adapta-
tions when we will have morphological phytoecology, or the ad-
justment of function to the environment when there will be phys-
iological phytoecology. These two branches when combined to
elucidate problems of relationship between the plant and its sur-
roundings as involved in accommodation in its comprehensive sense
there will be phytoecology with climate, geology, geography, or
fossils as the leading feature, as the case may be.

In the older botany the plant alone in itself was the subject of
study. The newer botany takes the plant in its siirroundings and
all that its relationships to other plants may suggest as the subject
for analysis. In the one case the plant was all and its place of
growth accidental, a dried specimen from any unknown habitat was
enough; but now the environment and the numerous lines of rela-
tionship that reach out from the living plant in situ are the major
subjects for study. The former was field botany because the field
contained the plant, the latter is field botany in that the plant em-
braces in its study all else in the field in which it. lives. The one
had as its leading question, What is your name and where do you
belong in my herbarium? while the other raises an endless list of
queries, of which How came you here and when? Why these
curious glands and this strange movement or mimicry? are but
average samples. Every spot of color, bend of leaf, and shape of
fruit raises a question.

The collector of fifty years ago pulled up or cut off a portion
of his plant for a specimen, and rarely measured, weighed, and
counted anything about it. The phytoecologist to-day watches his
subject as it grows, and if removed it is for the purpose of testing
its vital functions under varying circumstances of moisture, heat,
or sunlight, and exact recording instruments are a part of the
equipment for the investigation.

The underlying thought in the seashore school and the tropical
laboratory in botany is this of getting nearer to the haunts of the

DO ANIMALS REASON? 105

living plant. Forestry schools that have for their class room the
wooded mountains and the botanical gardens with their living her-
baria are welcome steps toward the same end of phytoecology.

In view of the above facts, and many more that might be men-
tioned did space permit, the writer has felt that the present in-
complete and faulty presentation of the subject of the newer bot-
any should be placed before the great reading public through the
medium of a journal that has as its watchword Progress in Edu-
cation.

DO ANIMALS EEASON?

By the Rev. EGERTON R. YOUNG.

THIS interesting subject has been ably handled from the nega-
tive side by Edward Thorndike, Ph. D., in the August num-
ber of the Popular Science Monthly. Dr. Thorndike, with all his
skill in treating this very interesting subject, seems to have for-
gotten one very important point. His expectation has not only
been higher than any fair claim of an animal's reasoning power,
but he has overlooked the fact that there are different ways of rea-
soning. Men of different races and those of little intelligence can
be placed in new environments and be asked to perform things
which, while utterly impossible to them, are simple and crude to
those of higher intelligence and who have all their days been ac-
customed to high mental exercise. If such difference exists be-
tween the highest and most intelligent of the human race and the
degraded and uncultured, vastly greater is the gulf that separates
the lowest stratum of humanity from the most intelligent of the
brute creation. The fair way to test the intelligence of the so-
called lower orders of men is to go to their native lands and study
them in their own environments and in possession of the equip-
ments of life to which they have been accustomed. The same is
true of the brute creation. Only the highest results can be ex-
pected from congenial environments. To pass final judgment upon
the animal kingdom, having for data only the results of the doc-
tor's experiments, seems to us manifestly unfair. He takes a few
cats and dogs and submits them to environments which are alto-
gether foreign to them, and then expects feats of mind from them
which would be far greater than the mastering of the reason why
two and two make four is to the stupidest child of man. As the
doctor has been permitted to tell the results of his experiments,
may I claim a similar privilege? While I did not use dogs merely
to test their intelligence^my business demanding of myself and

TOL LVI - 9

io6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

them the fullest use of all our energies and all the intelligence,
be it more or less, that was possessed by man or beast — I had the
privilege of seeing in my dogs actions that were, at least to me,
convincing that they possessed the rudiments of reasoning powers,
and, in the more intelligent, that which will be utterly inexplicable
if it is not the product of reasoning faculties.

For a number of years I was a resident missionary in the Hud-
son Bay Territories, where, in the prosecution of my work, I kept
a large number of dogs of various breeds. With these dogs I trav-
eled several thousands of miles every winter over an area larger
than the State of JSTew York. In summer I used them to plow
my garden and fields. They dragged home our fish from the dis-
tant fisheries, and the wood from the forests for our numerous
fires. They cuddled around me on the edges of my heavy fur
robes in wintry camps, where we often slept out in a hole dug in
the snow, the temperature ranging from 30° to 60° below zero.
AVhen blizzard storms raged so terribly that even the most expe-
rienced Indian guides were bewildered, and knew not north from
south or east from w'est, our sole reliance was on our dogs, and
with an intelligence and an endurance that ever won our admira-
tion they succeeded in bringing us to our desired destination.

It is conceded at the outset that these dogs of whom I write
were the result of careful selection. There are dogs and dogs, as
there are men and men. They were not picked up in the street
at random. I would no more keep in my personal service a mere
average mongrel dog than I would the second time hire for one
of my long trips a sulky Indian. As there are some people, good
in many ways, who can not master a foreign tongue, so there are
many dogs that never rise above the one gift of animal instinct.
With such I too have struggled, and long and patiently labored,
and if of them only I were writing I would unhesitatingly say that
of them I never saw any act which ever seemed to show reasoning
powers. But there are other dogs than these, and of them I here
would write and give my reason why I firmly believe that in a
marked degree some of them possessed the powers of reasoning.

Two of my favorite dogs I called Jack and Cuffy. Jack was
a great black St. Bernard, weighing nearly tw^o hundred pounds.
Cuffy was a pure Newfoundland, with very black curly hair.
These two dogs were the gift of the late Senator Sanford. With
other fine dogs of the same breeds, they soon supplanted the
l^skimo and mongrels that had been previously used for years
about the place.

I had so much work to do in my very extensive field that I re-
quired to have at least four trains always fit for service. This

DO ANIMALS REASON?

107

meant that, counting puppies and all, there would be about the
premises from twenty to thirty dogs. However, as the lakes and
rivers there swarmed with fish, which was their only food, we
kept the pack up to a state of efficiency at but little expense.
Jack and Cuffy were the only two dogs that were allowed the full

Jack and his Master.

liberty of the house. They were welcome in every room. Our
doors were furnished with the ordinary thumb latches. These
latches at first bothered both dogs. All that was needed on our part
was to show them how they worked, and from that day on for years
they both entered the rooms as they desired without any trouble,

io8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

if the doors opened from them. There Avas a decided difference,
however, in opening a door if it opened toward them. Cufty was
never able to do it. With Jack it was about as easily done as it
was by the Indian servant girl. Quickly and deftly would he
shove up the exposed latch and the curved part of the thumb piece
and draw it toward him. If the door did not easily open, the
claws in the other fore paw speedily and cleverly did the work.
The favorite resting place of these two magnificent dogs was on
some fur rugs on my study floor. Several times have we wit-
nessed the following action in Cuffy, who w'as of a much more
restless temperament than Jack: When she wanted to leave the
study she would invariably first go to the door and try it. If it
were in the slightest degree ajar she could easily draw it toward
her and thus open it. If, on the contrary, it were latched, she
would at once march over to Jack, and, taking him by an ear with
her teeth, would lead him over to the door, which he at once opened
for her. If reason is that power by wdiich w^e " are enabled to
combine means for the attainment of particular ends," I fail to
understand the meaning of w^ords if it were not displayed in these
instances.

Both Jack and Cuffy were, as is characteristic of such dogs,
very fond of the water, and in our short, brilliant summers would
frequently disport themselves in the beautiful little lake, the shores
of which were close to our home. Cuffy, as a Newfoundland dog,
generally preferred to continue her sports in the waves some time
after Jack had finished his bath. As they were inseparable com-
panions. Jack was too loyal to retire to the house until Cuffy was
i-eady to accompany him. As she was sometimes whimsical and
dilatory, she seemed frequently to try his patience. It was, how-
ever, always interesting to observe his deference to her. To un-
derstand thoroughly what we are going to relate in proof of our
argument it is necessary to state that the rocky shore in front of
our home was at this particular place like a wedge, the thickest
part in front, rising up about a dozen feet or so abruptly from the
water. Then to the east the shore gradually sloped down into a
little sandy cove. When Jack had finished his bath ho always
swam to this sandy beach, and at once, as he shook his groat body,
came gamboling along the rocks, joyously barking to his companion
still in the waters. When Cuffy had finished her watery sports,
if Jack were still on the rocks, instead of swimming to the sandy
cove and there landing she would start directly for the place where
Jack was awaiting her. If it wore at a spot where she could not
alone struggle up, Jack, firmly bracing himself, would roach down to
hor and then, catching hold of the l)ack of her neck, would help her

DO ANIMALS REASON? 109

up the slippery rocks. If it were at a spot where lie could uot pos-
sibly reach her, he would, after several attempts, all the time furi-
ously barking as though expressing his anxiety and solicitude, rush
off to a spot where some old oars, paddles, and sticks of various
kinds were piled. There he searched until he secured one that
suited his purpose. "With this in his mouth, he hurried back to
the spot where Cuff'y was still in the water at the base of the steep
rocks. Here he would work the stick around until he was able
to let one end down within reach of his exacting companion in the
water. Seizing it in her teeth and with the powerful Jack pulling
at the other end she was soon able to work her way up the rough
but almost perpendicular rocks. This prompt action, often re-
peated on the part of Jack, looked very much like " the specious
appearance of reasoning." It was a remarkable coincidence that
if Jack were called away, Cuffy at once swam to the sandy beach
and there came ashore.

Jack never had any special love for the Indians, although we
were then living among them. He was, however, too well in-
structed ever to injure or even growl at any of them. The chang-
ing of Indian servant girls in the kitchen was alwaj^s a matter of
perplexity to him. He was suspicious of these strange Indians
coming in and so familiarly handling the various utensils of their
work. ]^ot daring to injure them, it was amusing to watch him
in his various schemes to tease them. If one of them seemed
especially anxious to keep the doors shut. Jack took the greatest
delight in frequently opening them. This he took care only to do
when no member of the family was around. These tricks he would
continue to do until formal complaints were lodged against him.
One good scolding was sufficient to deter him from thus teasing that
girl, but he would soon begin to try it with others.

One summer we had a fat, good-natured servant girl whom we
called Mary. Soon after she was installed in her place Jack began,
as usual, to try to annoy her, but found it to be a more difficult
job than it had been with some of her predecessors. She treated
him with complete indifference, and was not in the least afraid of
him, big as he w^as. This seemed to very much humiliate him, as
most of the other girls had so stood in awe of the gigantic fellow
that they had about given way to him in everything. Mary, how-
ever, did nothing of the kind. She would shout, " Get out of my
way ! " as quickly to " his mightiness " as she would to the smallest
dog on the place. This very much offended Jack, but he had been
so well trained, even regarding the servants, that he dare not
retaliate even with a growl. Mary, however, had one weakness,
and after a time Jack found it out. Her mistress observing that

no POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

this girl, who had been transferred from a floorless wigwam into
a civilized kitchen, was at first careless about keeping the floor
as clean as it should be, had, by the promise of some desired gift
in addition to her wages, so fired her zeal that it seemed as though
every hour that could be saved from her other necessary duties was
spent in scrubbing that kitchen floor. Mary was never difficult
to find, as was often the case with other Indian girls; if missed
from other duties, she was always found scrubbing her kitchen.

In some way or other — how we do not profess to know — Jack
discovered this, which had become to us a source of amusement,
and here he succeeded in annoying her, where in many other ways
which he had tried he had only been humiliated and disgraced. He
would, when the floor had just been scrubbed, march in and walk
over it with his feet made as dirty as tramping in the worst places
outside could make them. At other times he would plunge into
the lake, and instead of, as usual, thoroughly shaking himself dry
on the rocks, would wait until he had marched in upon Mary's
spotless floor. At other times, when Jack noticed that Mary was
about to begin scrubbing her floor he would deliberately stretch
himself out in a prominent place on it, and doggedly resist, yet
without any growling or biting, any attempt on her part to get
him to move. In vain would she coax or scold or threaten. Once
or twice, by some clever stratagem, such as pretending to feed the
other dogs outside or getting them excited and furiously barking,
as though a bear or some other animal were being attacked, did
she succeed in getting him out. But soon he found her out, and
then he paid not the slightest attention to any of these things.
Once when she had him outside she securely fastened the door to
keep him out until her scrubbing would be done; Furiously did
Jack rattle at the latch, but the door was otherwise so secured
that he could not open it. Getting discouraged in his efforts to
open the door in the usual way, he went to the woodpile and seizing
a large billet in his mouth he came and so pounded the door with
it that Mary, seeing that there was great danger of the panel being-
broken in, was obliged to open the door and let in the dog. Jack
proudly marched in to the kitchen with the stick of wood in his
mouth. This he carried to the wood box, and, when he had placed
it there, he coolly stretched himself out on the floor where he would
be the biggest nuisance.

Seeing Jack under such circumstances on her kitchen floor,
poor ]\[ary could stand it no longer, and so she came marching in
to my study, and in vigorous picturesque language in her native
Cree described Jack's various tricks and schemes to annoy her and
thus hinder her in her work. She ended up by the declaration

DO ANIMALS REASON? iii

that she was sure the meechee munedoo (the devil) was in that dog.
While not fnlly accepting the last statement, we felt that the
time had come to interfere, and that Jack must be reproved and
stopped. In doing this we utilized Jack's love for our little ones,
especially for Eddie, the little four-year-old boy. His obedience
as well as loyalty to that child was marvelous and beautiful. The
slightest wish of the lad was law to Jack.

As soon as Mary had finished her emphatic complaints, I turned
to Eddie, who with his little sister had been busily playing with
some blocks on the floor, and said:

'' Eddie, go and tell that naughty J ack that he must stop teas-
ing Mary. Tell him his place is not in the kitchen, and that he
must keep out of it."

Eddie had listened to Mary's story, and, although he generally
sturdily defended Jack's various actions, yet here he saw^ that the
dog was in the wrong, and so he gallantly came to her rescue. Away
with Mary he went, while the rest of us, now much interested,
followed in the rear to see how the thing would turn out. As
I]ddie and Mary passed through the dining room we remained in
that room, while they went on into the adjoining kitchen, leaving
the door open, so that it was possible for us to distinctly hear
every word that was uttered. Eddie at once strode up to the spot
where Jack was stretched upon the floor. Seizing him by one of his
ears, and addressing him as with the authority of a despot, the little
lad said:

" I am ashamed of you, Jack. You naughty dog, teasing Mary
like this! So you won't let her wash her kitchen. Get up and
come with me, you naughty dog! " saying which the child tugged
away at the ear of the dog. Jack promptly obeyed, and as they
came marching through the dining room on their way to the study
it was indeed wonderful to see that little child, whose beautiful
curly head was not much higher than that of the great, powerful
dog, yet so completely the master. Jack was led into the study
and over to the great wolf-robe mat where he generally slept.
As he promptly obeyed the child's command to lie down upon it, he
received from him his final orders:

" j^ow. Jack, you keep out of the kitchen " ; and to a remark-
able degree from that time on that order was obeyed.

AYe have referred to the fact that Jack placed the billet of
wood in the wood box when it had served his purpose in compelling
Mary to open the door. Carrying in wood was one of his accom-
plishments. Living in that cold land, where we depended entirely
on wood for our fuel, we required a large quantity of it. It was
cut in the forests, sometimes several miles from the house. Dur-

112 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ing tlie winters it was dragged home bj the dogs. Here it was
cut into the proper lengths for the stoves and piled up in the yard.
AVhen required, it was carried into the kitchen and piled up in a
large wood box. This work was generally done by Indian men.
When none w^ere at hand the Indian girls had to do the work, but
it was far from being enjoyed by them, especially in the bitter cold
weather. It was suggested one day that Jack could be utilized
for this work. With but little instruction and trouble he was in-
duced to accept of the situation, and so after that the cry, " Jack,
the wood box is empty! " would set him industriously to work at
refilling it.

To us, among many other instances of dog reasoning that came
under our notice as the years rolled on, was one on the part of
a large, powerful dog we called Cajsar. It occurred in tlic spring
of the year, when the snow had melted on the land, and so, with the
first rains, was swelling the rivers and creeks very considerably.
On the lake before us the ice was still a great solid mass, several
feet in thickness. Near our home was a now rapid stream that,
rushing down into the lake, had cut a delta of open water in the
ice at its mouth. In this open place Papanekis, one of my Indians,
had placed a gill net for the purpose of catching fish. Li^dng, as
he did, all winter principally upon the fish caught the previous
October or November and kept frozen for several months hung
up in the open air, we w^ere naturally pleased to get the fresh
ones out of the water in the spring. Papanekis had so arranged
his net, by fastening a couple of ropes about sixty feet long, one
at each end, that when it was securely fastened at each side of the
stream it was carried out into this open deltalike space by the force
of the current, and there hung like the capital letter U. Its upper
side was kept in position by light-wooded floats, while medium-sized
stones, as sinkers, steadied it below.

Every morning Papanekis would take a basket and, being fol-
lowed by all the dogs of the kennels, would visit his net. Placed
as we have described, he required no canoe or boat in order to
overhaul it and take from it the fish there caught. All he had to
do was to seize hold of the rope at the end fastened on the shore
and draw it toward him. As he ke])t pulling it in, the deep bend in
it gradually straightened out until the net was reached. His work
was now to secure the fish as he gradually drew in the net and
coiled it at his feet. The width of the opening in the water being
about sixty feet, the result was that when he had in this way over-
hauled his net he had about reached the end of the rope attached
to the other side. When all the fish in the net Avere secured, all
Papanekis had to do to reset tlie net was to throw some of it out

DO ANIMALS REASON? 113

in the right position in the stream. Here the force of the run-
ning waters acting upon it soon carried the whole net do\vTi into
the open place as far as the two ropes fastened on the shores would
admit. Paj)anekis, after placing the best fish in his basket for
consumption in the mission house and for his own family, divided
what was left among the eager dogs that had accompanied him.
This work went on for several days, and the supply of fish con-
tinued to increase, much to our satisfaction.

One day Papanekis came into my study in a state of great per-
turbation. He was generally such a quiet, stoical sort of an In-
dian that I was at once attracted by his mental disquietude. On
asking the reason why he was so troubled, he at once blurted out,
"Master, there is some strange animal visiting our net! "

In answer to my request for particulars, he replied that for some
mornings past when he went to visit it he found, entangled in the
meshes, several heads of whitefish. Yet the net was always in
its right position in the water. On my suggesting that perhaps
otters, fishers, minks, or other fish-eating animals might have done
the work, he most emphatically declared that he knew the habits
of all these and all other animals living on fish, and it was utterly
impossible for any of them to have thus done this work. The
mystery continuing for several following mornings, Papanekis
became frightened and asked me to get some other fisherman in
his place, as he was afraid longer to visit the net. He had talked
the matter over with some other Indians, and they had come to the
conclusion that either a ivindegoo was at the bottom of it or the
meechee munedoo (the devil). I laughed at his fears, and told him
I would help him to try and find out who or what it was that was
giving us this trouble. I went with him to the place, where we
carefully examined both sides of the stream for evidences of the
clever thief. There was nothing suspicious, and the only tracks
visible were those of his own and of the many dogs that followed
him to be fed each morning. About two or three hundred yards
north of the spot where he overhauled the net there rose a small
abru}:)t hill, densely covered with spruce and balsam trees. On
visiting it we found that a person there securely hid from obser-
vation could with care easily overlook the Avliole locality.

At my suggestion, Papanekis with his axe there arranged a
sort of a nest or lookout spot. Orders were then given that he
and another Indian man should, before daybreak on the next morn-
ing, make a long detour and cautiously reach that spot from the
rear, and there carefully conceal themselves. This they succeeded
in doing, and there, in perfect stillness, they waited for the morn-
ing. As soon as it was possible to see anything they were on
TOL. Lvi — 10

114 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the alert. For some time they watelicd in vain. They eagerly
scanned every point of vision, and for a time could observe noth-
ing iinnsnal.

" Ilnsh! " said one; "see that dog! "

It was Csesar, cautiously skulking along the trail. He would
frequently stop and sniff the air. Fortunately for the Indian
watchers, the wind was blowing toward them, and so the dog did
not catch their scent. On he came, in a quiet yet swift gait, until
he reached the spot where Papanekis stood when he pulled in the
net. He gave one searching glance in every direction, and then he
set to work. Seizing the rope in his teeth, Caesar strongly pulled
upon it, while he rapidly backed up some distance on the trail.
Then, walking on the rope to the water's edge as it lay on the
ground, to keep the pressure of the current from dragging it in,
he again took a fresh grip upon it and repeated the process. This
he did until the sixty feet of rope were hauled in, and the end of
the net was reached to which it was attached. The net he now
hauled in little by little, keeping his feet firmly on it to securely
hold it down. As he drew it up, several varieties of inferior fish,
such as suckers or mullets, pike or jackfish, were at first observed.
To them Caesar paid no attention. He was after the delicious
whitefish, which dogs as well as human beings prefer to those of
other kinds. When he had perhaps hauled twenty feet of the net,
his cleverness was rewarded by the sight of a fine whitefish. Still
holding the net with its struggling captives securely down with his
feet, he began to devour this whitefish, which was so much more
dainty than the coarser fish generally thrown to him. Papanekis
and his comrade had seen enough. The mysterious culprit was de-
tected in the act, and so with a " Whoop! " they rushed down upon
him. Caught in the very act, Cassar had to submit to a thrashing
that ever after deterred him from again trying that cunning trick.
Who can read this story, which I give exactly as it occurred,
Avithout having to admit that here Cajsar " combined means for
the attainment of particular ends "? On the previous visits which
he made to the net the rapid current of the stream, working against
the greater part of it in the water, soon carried it back again into its
place ere Papanekis arrived later in the morning. The result was
that Caesar's cleverness was undetected for some time, even by these
most observant Indians.

Many other equally clever instances convince me, and those
who with me witnessed them, of the possession, in of course a lim-
ited degree, of reasoning powers. Scores of my dogs never seemed
to reveal them, perhaps because no special opportunities were pre-
sented for their exhibition. They were just ordinary dogs, trained

DO ANIMALS REASON? 115

to the work of hauling their loads. AVhen night came, if their
feet were sore they had dog sense enough to come to their master
and, throwing themselves on their backs, would stick up their
feet and whine and howl until the warm duffle shoes were put
on. Some of the skulking ones had wit enough, when they did
not want to he caught, in the gloom of the early morning,
while the stars were still shining, if they were white, to cuddle
down, still and quiet, in the beautiful snow; while the darker ones
would slink away into the gloom of the dense balsams, where they
seemed to know that it would be difficult for them to be seen.
Some of them had wit enough when traveling up steep places with
heavy loads, where their progress was slow, to seize hold of small
firm bushes in their teeth to help them up or to keep them from
slipping back. Some of them knew how to shirk their work.
Caesar, of whom we have already spoken, at times was one of this
class. They could pretend, by their panting and tugging at their
collars, that they Avere dragging more than any other dogs in the
train, while at the same time they were not pulling a pound !

Of cats I do not write. I am no lover of them, and therefore
am incompetent to write about them. This lack of love for them
is, I presume, from the fact that when a boy I was the proud owner
of some very beautiful rabbits, upon which the cats of the neigh-
borhood used to make disastrous raids. So great was my boyish
indignation then that the dislike to them created has in a measure
continued to this day, and I have not as yet begun to cultivate
their intimate acquaintance.

But of dogs I have ever been a lover and a friend. I never
saw one, not mad, of which I was afraid, and I never saw one with
w^hich I could not speedily make friends. Love was the constrain-
ing motive principally used in breaking my dogs in to their work
in the trains. ISTo whip was ever used upon Jack or Cuffy while
they were learning their tasks. Some dogs had to be punished
more or less. Some stubborn dogs at once surrendered and gave
no more trouble when a favorite female dog was harnessed up in
a train and sent on ahead. This affection in the dog for his mate
was a powerful lever in the hands of his master, and, using it as an
incentive, we have seen things performed as remarkable as any we
have here recorded.

From what I have written it will be seen that I have had un-
usual facilities for studying the habits and possibilities of dogs.
I was not under the necessity of gathering up a lot of mongrels
at random in the streets, and then, in order to see instances of their
sagacity and the exercise of their highest reasoning powers, to
keep them until they were " practically utterly hungry," and then

ii6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

imprison them in a box a good deal less tlian four feet square, and
then say to them, " Now, you poor, frightened, half-starved crea-
tures, show us what reasoning powers you possess." About as
well throw some benighted Africans into a slave ship and order
them to make a telephone or a phonograpli ! My comparison is
not too strong, considering the immense distance there is between
the human race and the brute creation. And so it must be, in the
bringing to light of the powers of memory and the clear exhibi-
tion of the reasoning powers, few though they be, that the tests are
not conclusive unless made under the most favorable environment,
upon dogs of the highest intelligence, and in the most congenial and
sympathetic manner.

Testing this most interesting question in this manner, my de-
cided convictions are that animals do reason.

SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERXBERG.

NO man among Americans has studied the micro-organisms
with more profit or has contributed more to our knowledge
of the nature of infection, particularly of that of yellow fever, than
Dr. George M. Steris'berg, of the United States Army. His
merits are freely recognized abroad, and he ranks there, as well
as at home, among the leading bacteriologists of the age. He was
born at Hartwick Seminary, an institution of the Evangelical Lu-
theran Church in America (General Synod), Otsego, N. Y., June
8, 1838. His father, the Rev. Levi Sternberg, D. D., a graduate
of Union College, a Lutheran minister, and for many years prin-
cipal of the seminary and a director of it, was descended from Ger-
man ancestors who came to this country in 1703 and settled in
Schoharie County, New York. The younger Sternberg received
his academical training at the seminary, after which, intending
to study medicine, he undertook a school at New Germantown,
N. J., as a means of earning a part of the money required to de-
fray the cost of his instruction in that science. The record of his
school was one of quiet sessions, thoroughness, and popularity of
the teacher, and his departure was an occasion of regret among
his patrons.

"When nineteen years old, young Sternberg began his medical
studies with Dr. Horace Lathrop, in Cooperstown, N. Y. After-
ward he attended the courses of the College of Physicians and Sur-
geons, New York, and was graduated thence in the class of 1860.
Before he had fairly settled in practice the civil war began, and the

SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERNBERG. 117

attention of all young Americans "vvas directed toward the mili-
tary service. Among these was young Dr. Sternberg, who, having
passed the examination, was appointed assistant surgeon May 28,
1861, and was attached to the command of General Sykes, Army
of the Potomac. He was engaged in the battle of Bull Run, where,
voluntarily remaining on the field with the wounded, he was taken
prisoner, but was paroled to continue his humane work. On the
expiration of his parole he made his way through the lines and re-
ported at Washington for duty July 30, 1861 — " weary, footsore,
and worn." Of his conduct in later campaigns of the Army of the
Potomac, General Sykes, in his official reports of the battles of
Gaines Mill, Turkey Ridge, and Malvern Hill, said that " Dr. Stern-
berg added largely to the reputation already acquired on the dis-
astrous field of Bull Run," He remained with General Sykes's
command till August, 1862; was then assigned to hospital duty at
Portsmouth Grove, R. I., till Xovember, 1862; w^as afterward at-
tached to General Banks's expedition as assistant to the medical
director in the Department of the Gulf till January, 1864; was in
the office of the medical director, Columbus, Ohio, and in charge
of the United States General Hospital at Cleveland, Ohio, till
July, 1865. Since the civil w^ar he has been assigned successively
to Jefi^erson Barracks, Mo.; Fort Harker and Fort Riley, Kansas;
in the field in the Indian campaign, 1868 to 1870; Forts Columbus
and Hamilton, New York Harbor; Fort "Warren, Boston Harbor;
Department of the Gulf and Xew Orleans; Fort Barrancas, Fla. ;
Department of the Columbia; Department Headquarters; Fort
Walla Walla, Washington Territory; California; and Eastern sta-
tions. He was promoted to be captain and assistant surgeon in
1866, major and surgeon in 1875, lieutenant colonel and deputy
surgeon general in 1891, and brigadier general and surgeon general
in 1893. He has also received the brevets of captain and major in
the United States Army " for faithful and meritorious services
during the Avar, and of lieutenant colonel " for gallant service in
performance of his professional duty under fire in action against In-
dians at Clearwater, Idaho, July 12, 1877." In the discharge of
his duties at his various posts Dr. Sternberg had to deal with a
cholera epidemic in Kansas in 1867, with a "yellow-fever epi-
demic " in New York Harbor in 1871, and with epidemics of yel-
low fever at Fort Barrancas, Fla., in 1873 and 1875. He served
under special detail as member and secretary of the Havana Yel-
low-Fever Commission of the National Board of Health, 1879
to 1881; as a delegate from the United States under special in-
structions of the Secretary of State to the International Sani-
tary Conference at Rome in 1885; as a commissioner, under

n8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the act of Congress of March 3, 1887, to make investigations in
Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba relating to the etiology and preven-
tion of yellow fever; by special request of the health officer of
the port of Xew York and the advisory committee of the New
York Chamber of Commerce as consulting bacteriologist to the
health officer of the port of New York in 1892; and he was
a delegate to the International Medical Congress in Moscow in
1897.

Dr. Sternberg has contributed largely to the literature of sci-
entific medicine from the results of his observations and experi-
ments which he has made in these various spheres of duty.

His most fruitful researches have been made in the field of
bacteriology and infectious diseases. He has enjoyed the rare
advantage in pursuing these studies of having the material for
his experiments close at hand in the course of his regular work,
and of watching, we might say habitually, the progress of such
diseases as yellow fever as it normally went on in the course of
Nature. Of the quality of his bacteriological work, the writer
of a biography in Eed Cross Notes, reprinted in the North American
Medical Review, goes so far as to say that " when the overzeal of
enthusiasts shall have passed away, and the story of bacteriology
in the nineteenth century is written up, it will probably be found
that the chief who brought light out of darkness was George M.
Sternberg. He was noted not so much for his brilliant discoveries,
but rather for his exact methods of investigation, for his clear
statements of the results of experimental data, for his enormous
labors toward the perfection and simplification of technique, and
finally for his services in the practical application of the truths
taught by the science. His early labors in bacteriology were made
with apparatus and under conditions that were crude enough."
His work in this department is certainly among the most important
that has been done. Its value has been freely acknowledged every-
where, it has given him a world-wide fame, and it has added to the
credit of American science. The reviewer in Nature (June 22,
1893) of his Manual of Bacteriology, which was published in 1892,
while a little disposed to criticise the fullness and large size of the
book, describes it as " the latest, the largest, and, let us add, the
most complete manual of bacteriology which has yet appeared in the
English language. The volume combines in itself not only an ac-
count of such facts as are already established in the science from a
morphological, chemical, and pathological point of view, discus-
sions on such abstruse subjects as susceptibility and immunity, and
also full details of the means by which these results have been ob-
tained, and practical directions for the carrying on of laboratory

SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERNBERG. 119

work." This was not the first of Dr. Sternberg's works in bac-
teriological research. It was preceded by a work on Bacteria, of
498 pages, inclnding 152 pages translated from the work of Dr.
Antoine Magnin (1884); Malaria and Malarial Diseases, and Pho-
tomicrographs and How to make Them. The manual is at once a
book for reference, a text-book for students, and a handbook for
the laboratory. Its four parts include brief notices of the history
of the subject, classification, morphology, and an account of meth-
ods and practical laboratory work — "all clear and concise"; the
biology and chemistry of bacteria, disinfection, and antiseptics; a
detailed account of pathogenic bacteria, their modes of action, the
way they may gain access to the system, susceptibility and immu-
nity, to which Dr. Sternberg's own contributions have been not
the least important; and saprophytic bacteria in water, in the soil,
in or on the human body, and in food, the whole number of sapro-
phytes described being three hundred and thirty-one. " The merit
of a work of this kind," Nature says, " depends not less on the
number of species described than on the clearness and accuracy of
the descriptions, and Dr. Sternberg has spared no pains to make
these as complete as possible." The bibliography in this work
fills more than a hundred pages, and contains 2,582 references.
A later book on a kindred subject is Immunity, Protective Inocu-
lations, and Serum Therapy (1895). Dr. Sternberg has also pub-
lished a Text-Book of Bacteriology.

Bearing upon yellow fever are the Report upon the Preven-
tion of Yellow Fever by Inoculation, submitted in March, 1888;
Report upon the Prevention of Yellow Fever, illustrated by photo-
micrographs and cuts, 1890; and Examination of the Blood in Yel-
low Fever (experiments upon animals, etc.), in the Preliminary
Report of the Havana Yellow-Fever Commission, 1879. Other
publications in the list of one hundred and thirty-one titles of Dr.
Sternberg's works, and mostly consisting of shorter articles, relate
to Disinfectants and their Value, the Etiology of Malarial Fevers,
Septicaemia, the Germicide Value of Therapeutic Agents, the Eti-
ology of Croupous Pneumonia, the Bacillus of Typhoid Fever, the
Thermal Death Point of Pathogenic Organisms, the Practical Re-
sults of Bacteriological Researches, the Cholera Spirillum, Disin-
fection at Quarantine Stations, the Infectious Agent of Smallpox,
official reports as Surgeon General of the United States Army, ad-
dresses and reports at the meetings of the American Public Health
Association, and an address to the members of the Pan-American
Congress. One paper is recorded quite outside of the domain of
microbes and fevers, to show what the author might have done if
he had allowed his attention to be diverted from his special absorb-

120 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

iiig field of work. It is upon the Iiidiau Burial Mounds and Shell
Heaps near Pensacola, Fla.

The medical and scientific societies of -which Dr. Sternberg is
a member include the American Public Health Association, of
which he is also an ex-president (1886); the American Association
of Physicians; the American Physiological Society; the American
Microscopical Society, of which he is a vice-president; the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science, of which he is a
Fellow; the Xew York Academy of Medicine (a Fellow); and the
Association of Military Surgeons of the United States (president
in 1896). He is a Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society of
London; an honorary member of the Fpidemiological Society of
London, of the Royal xicademy of Medicine of Rome, of the Acad-
emy of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro, of the American Academy of
Medicine, of the French Society of Hygiene, etc. ; was President of
the Section on Military Medicine and Surgery of the Pan-American
Congress; was a Fellow by courtesy in Johns Hopkins University,
1885 to 1890; was President of the Biological Society of "Wash-
ington in 1896, and of the American Medical Association in 1S97;
and has been designated Honorary President of the Thirteenth In-
ternational Medical Congress, which is to meet in Paris in 1900.
He received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Michigan
in 1894, and from Brown University in 1897.

Dr. Sternberg's view of the right professional standard of the
physician is well expressed in the sentiment, "To maintain our stand-
ing in the estimation of- the educated classes we must not rely upon
our diplomas or upon our membership in medical societies. Work
and worth are what count." He does not appear to be attached
to any particular school, but, as his Red Cross ^N^otes biographer
says, " has placed himself in the crowd ' who have been moving
forward upon the substantial basis of scientific research, and who,
if characterized by any distinctive name, should be called the New
School of Scientific Medicine.'' He holds that if our practice was
in accordance with our knowledge many diseases would disappear;
he sees no room for creeds or patents in medicine. He is willing
to acknowledge the right to prescribe cither a bread pill or a leaden
bullet. But if a patient dies from diphtheria because of a failure
to administer a proper remedy, or if infection follows from dirty
fingers or instruments, if a practitioner carelessly or ignorantly
transfers infection, he believes he is not fit to practice medicine.
. . . He rejects every theory or dictum that has not been clearly
demonstrated to him as an absolute truth."

AVhile he is described as without assumption, Dr. Sternberg is
represented as being evidently in his headquarters as surgeon gen-

SKETCH OF GEORGE M. STERNBERG. 121

. eral in every sense tlie head of the service, the chief whose will
governs all. Modest and unassuming, he is described as being most
exacting, a man of command, of thorough execution, a general
whose eyes comprehend every detail, and who has studied the per-
sonality of every member of his corps. He is always busy, but
seemingly never in a hurry; systematic, accepting no man's dictum,
and taking nothing as an established fact till he has personal experi-
mental evidence of its truth. He looks into every detail, and takes
equal care of the health of the general in chief and of the private.
His addresses are carefully prepared, based on facts he has
himself determined, made in language so plain that they will not
be misunderstood, free from sentiment, and delivered in an easy
conversational style, and his writings are " pen pictures of his re-
sults in the laboratory and clinic room."

The thirty-first year of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology
and Ethnolog'y was signalized by the transfer of its property to the corpo-
ration of Harvard College, whereby simplicity and greater permanence
have been given to its management. The four courses of instruction in
the museum were attended by sixteen students, and these, with others, make
twenty-one persons, besides the curator, who are engaged in study or special
research in subjects included under the term anthropology. Special atten-
tion is given by explorers in the service of the museum to the investigation
of the antiquities of Yucatan and Central America, of which its publications
on Copan, the caves of Loltun, and Labna, have been noticed in the Monthly.
These explorations have been continued when and where circumstances
made it feasible. Among the gifts acknowledged in the report of the
museum are two hundred facsimile copies of the Aztec Codex Vaticanus,
from the Duke of Loubat, an original Mexican manuscript of 1531, on
agave paper, from the Mary Hemenway estate ; the extensive private
archaeological collection of Mr. George W. Hammond ; articles from
Georgia mounds, from Clarence B. Moore, and other gifts of perhaps less mag-
nitude but equal interest. Mr. Andrew Gibb, of Edinburgh, has given five
pieces of rudely made pottery from the Hebrides, which were made several
years ago by a woman who is thought to have been the last one to make pot-
tery according to the ancient method of shaping the clay with the hands, and
without the use of any form of potter's wheel. Miss Maria Whitney, sister
of the late Prof. J. D. Whitney, has presented the " Calaveras skull " and
the articles found with it, and all the original documents relating to its
discovery and history. Miss Phebe Ferris, of Madisonville, Ohio, has
bequeathed to the museum about twenty-five acres of land, on which is
situated the ancient mound where Dr. Metz and Curator Putnam have
investigated for several years, and whence a considerable collection has
been obtained. Miss Ferris expressed the desire that the museum continue
the explorations, and after completing convert the tract into a public park.
Mr. W. B. Nicker has explored some virgin mounds near Galena, 111., and
a rock shelter and stone grave near Portage, 111. The library of the museum
now contains 1,838 volumes and 2,^79 pamphlets on anthropology.

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

CC^orvcspouclciice.

DO ANIMALS REASON?

Editor Popular Science Monthly :

Dear Sir: In connection with the
discussion of the interesting subject Do
Animals Reason? permit me to relate
the following incident in support of the
affirmative side of the question:

Some j-ears ago. before the establish-
ment of the National Zoological Park in
this city, Dr. Frank Baker, the curator,
kept a small nucleus of animals in the
rear of the National Museum; among
this collection were several monkeys.
On a hot summer day, as I was passing
the monkey cage I handed to one of the
monkeys a large piece of fresh molasses
taffy. The animal at once carried it to
his mouth and commenced to bite it.
The candy was somewhat soft, and stuck
to the monkey's paws. He looked at his
paws, licked them with his tongue, and
then turned his head from side to side

looking about the cage. Then, taking
the candy in his mouth, he sprang to
the fartlier end of the cage and picked
up a wad of brown paper. This ball of
paper he carefully unfolded, and, lay-
ing it down on the floor of the cage,
carefully smoothed out the folds of the
paper with both paws. After he had
smoothed it out to his satisfaction, he
took the piece of taffy from his mouth
and laid it in the center of the piece
of paper and folded the paper over the
candy, leaving a part of it exposed. He
then sat back on his haunches and ate
the candy, first wiping one paw and
then the other on his hip, just as any
boy or man might do.

If that monkey did not show reason,
what would you call it?

Yours etc., H. O. Hall,
Library Snrgeon General's Office, United
l^iitates Army.
Washington, D. C, October 2, 1809.

Editor's ^^mt.

HOME BURDENS.

THE doctrine has gone abroad,
suggested by the most popular
poet of the day, that "white men"
have the duty laid upon them of
scouring the dark places of the earth
for burdens to take up. Through a
large part of this nation the idea
has run like wildfire, infecting not a
few who themselves are in no small
degree burdens to the community
that shelters them. The rowdier
element of the population every-
where is strongly in favor of the
new doctrine, which to their minds
is chiefly illustrated by the shoot-
ing of Filipinos. We do not say
that thousands of very respectable
citizens are not in favor of it also;
we only note that they are strongly
supported by a class whose adhesion
adds no strength to their cause.
It is almost needless to remark

that a very few years ago we were
not in the way of thinking that the
civilized nations of the earth, which
had sliced up Asia and Africa in the
interest of their trade, had done
so in the performance of a solemn
duty. The formula " the white
man's burden " had not been in-
vented then, and some of us used
to think that there was more of the
filibustering spirit than of a high
humanitarianism in these raids
upon barbarous races. Possibly we
did less than justice to some of the
countries concerned, notably Great
Britain, which, having a teeming
population in very narrow confines,
and being of old accustomed to ad-
ventures by sea, had naturally been
led to extend her influence and cre-
ate outlets for her trade in distant
parts of the earth. Be this as it
may, we seemed to have our own

EDITOR'S TABLE.

123

work cut out for us at home. TTe
had the breadth of a continent un-
der our feet, rich in the products
of every latitude ; we had unlimited
room for expansion and develop-
ment; we had unlimited confidence
in the destinies that awaited us as
a nation, if only we applied our-
selves earnestly to the improvement
of the heritage which, in the order
of Providence, had become ours.
We thanked Heaven that we were
not as other nations, which, insuf-
ficiently provided with home bless-
ings, were tempted to put forth
their hands and — steal, or something
like it, in heathen lands.

Well, we have changed all that :
we give our sympathy to the nations
of the Old World in their forays on
the heathen, and are vigorously
tackling " the white man's burden "
according to the revised version.
It is unfortunate and quite unpleas-
ant that this should involve shoot-
ing down people who are only ask-
ing what our ancestors asked and
obtained — the right of self-govern-
ment in the land they occupy.
Still, we must do it if we want to
keep up with the procession we have
joined. Smoking tobacco is not
pleasant to the youth of fifteen or
sixteen who has determined to line
up with his elders in that manly
accomplishment. He has many a
sick stomach, many a flutter of the
heart, before he breaks himself into
it; but, of course, he perseveres —
has he not taken up the white boy's
burden ? So we. • Who, outside of
that rowdy element to which we
have referred, has not been, whether
he has confessed it or not, sick at
heart at the thought of the innocent
blood we have shed and of the blood
of our kindred that we have shed in
order to shed that blood? Still,
spite of all misgivings and qualms,
we hold our course, Kipling leading
on, and the colonel of the Rough
Eiders assuring us that it is all
right.

Revised versions are not always
the best versions; and for our own
part we prefer to think that the true
" white man's burden " is that which
lies at his own door, and not that
which he has to compass land and
sea to come in sight of. We have
in this land the burden of a not
inconsiderable tramp and hoodlum
population. This is a burden of
which we can never very long lose
sight; it is more or less before us
every day. It is a burden in a ma-
terial sense, and it is a burden in
what we may call a spiritual sense.
It impairs the satisfaction we de-
rive from our own citizenship, and
it lies like a weight on the social
conscience. It is the opprobrium
alike of our educational system and
of our administration of the law.
How far would the national treasure
and individual energy which we have
expended in failing to subdue the
Filipino " rebels " have gone — if
wisely applied — in subduing the
rebel elements in our own popula-
tion, and rescuing from degrada-
tion those whom our public schools
have failed to civilize? Shall the
reply be that we can not interfere
with individual liberty? It would
be a strange reply to come from
people who send soldiers ten thou-
sand miles away for the express pur-
pose of interfering with liberty as
the American nation has always
hitherto understood that term; but,
in point of fact, there is no ques-
tion of interfering with any liberty
that ought to be respected. It is
a question of the protection of pub-
lic morals, of public decency, and
of the rights of property. It is a
question of the rescue of human
beings — our fellow-citizens — from
ignorance, vice, and wretchedness.
It is a question of making us as a
nation right with ourselves, and
making citizenship under our flag
something to be prized by every one
entitled to claim it.

It is not in the cities only that

124

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

undesirable elements cluster. The
editor of a lively little periodical,
in which many true things are said
with great force — The Philistine —
has lately declared that his own vil-
lage, despite the refining influences
radiated from the " Roycroft Shop,"
could furnish a band of hoodlum
youths that could give points in
every form of vile behavior to any
equal number gathered from a great
city. He hints that New England
villages may be a trifle better, but
that the farther Western States are
decidedly worse. It is precisely in
Kew England, however, that a bitter
cry on this very subject of hoodlum-
ism has lately been raised. What
are we to do about it?

Manifestly the hoodlum or in-
cipient tramp is one of two things:
either he is a person whom a suit-
able education might have turned
into some decent and honest way of
earning a living, or he is a person
upon whom, owing to congenital
defect, all educational effort would
have been thrown away. In either
case social duty seems plain. If
education would have done the
work, society — seeing that it has
taken the business of public educa-
tion in hand — should have supplied
the education required for the pur-
pose, even though the amount of
money available for waging war in
the Philippines had been slightly re-
duced. If the case is one in which
no educational effort is of avail,
then, as the "old Roman formula ran,
" Let the magistrates see that the
republic takes no harm." Before,
therefore, our minds can be easy
on this hoodlum question, we must
satisfy ourselves thoroughly that
our modes of education are not,
positively or negatively, adapted to
making the hoodlum variety of char-
acter. The hoodlum, it is safe to
say, is an individual in whom no
intellectual interest has ever been
awakened, in whom no special ca-
pacity has ever been created. Ilis

moral nature has never been taught
to respond to any high or even re-
spectable principle of conduct. If
there is any glory in earth or heav-
en, any beauty or harmony in the
operations of natural law, any po-
etry or pathos or dignity in human
life, anything to stir the soul in the
records of human achievement, to all
such things he is wholly insensible.
Ought this to be so in the case of any
human being, not absolutely abnor-
mal, whom the state has undertaken
to educate? If, as a community,
we put our hands to the educational
plow, and so far not only relieve
parents of a large portion of their
sense of responsibility, but actually
suppress the voluntary agencies that
would otherwise undertake educa-
tional work, surely we should see to
it that our education educates. Di-
rect moral instruction in the schools
is not likely to be of any great
avail unless, by other and indirect
means, the mind is prepared to re-
ceive it. What is needed is to
awaken a sense of capacity and
power, to give to each individual
some trained faculty and some di-
rect and, as far as it goes, scientific
cognizance of things. Does any one
suppose that a youth who had gone
through a judicious course of man-
ual training, or one who had be-
come interested in any such subject
as botany, chemistry, or agriculture,
or who even had an intelligent in-
sight into the elementary laws of
mechanics, could develop into a
hoodlum ? On the other hand, there
is no difficulty in imagining that
such a development might take
place in a youth who had simply
been plied with spelling-book, gram-
mar, and arithmetic. Even what
seem the most interesting reading
lessons fall dead upon minds that
have no hold upon the reality of
things, and no sense of the distinc-
tions which the most elementary
study of Nature forces on the at-
tention.

EDITOR'S TABLE.

125

But, as we have admitted, there
may be cases where the nature of
the individual is such as to repel
all effort for its improvement. Here
the law must step in, and secure
the community against the dangers
to which the existence of such in-
dividuals exposes it. There is a
certain element in the population
which wishes to live, and is deter-
mined to live, on a level altogether
below anything that can be called
civilization. Those who compose it
are nomadic and predatory in their
habits, and occasionally give way to
acts of fearful criminality. It is
foolish not to recognize the fact,
and take the measures that may be
necessary for the isolation of this
element. To devise and execute
such measures is a burden a thou-
sand times better worth taking up
than the burden of imposing our
yoke upon the Philippine Islands
and crushing out a movement to-
ward liberty quite as respectable, to
all outward appearance, as that to
which we have reared monuments at
Bunker Hill and elsewhere. The
fact is, the work before us at home
is immense; and it is work which
we might attack, not only without
qualms of conscience, but with the
conviction that every unit of labor
devoted to it was being directed to-
ward the highest interests not of
the present generation only, but of
generations yet unborn. The "white
man," we trust, will some day see
it; but meanwhile valuable time is
being lost, and the national con-
science is being lowered by the as-
sumption of burdens that are not
ours, whatever Mr. Kipling may have
said or sung, or whatever Governor
Roosevelt may assert on his word as
a soldier.

8PECIALIZA TION.

That division of labor is as ne-
cessary in the pursuit of science as
in the world of industiy no one

would think of disputing; but that,
like division of labor elsewhere, it
has its drawbacks and dangers is
equally obvious. When the latter
truth is insisted on by those who are
not recognized as experts, the ex-
perts are apt to be somewhat con-
temptuous in resenting such inter-
ference, as they consider it. An ex-
pert himself has, however, taken up
the parable, and his words merit at-
tention. We refer to an address
delivered by Prof. J. Arthur Thomp-
son, at the University of Aberdeen,
upon entering on his duties as Re-
gius Professor of Natural History,
a post to which he was lately ap-
pointed. " We need to be remind-
ed," he said, " amid the undoubted
and surely legitimate fascinations
of dissection and osteology, of sec-
tion cutting and histology, of physi-
ological chemistry and physiological
physics, of embryology and fossil
hunting, and the like, that the chief
end of our study is a better under-
standing of living creatures in their
natural surroundings." He could
see no reason, he went on to say, for
adding aimlessly to the overwhelm-
ing mass of detail already accumu-
lated in these and other fields of re-
search. The aim of our efforts should
rather be to grasp the chief laws of
growth and structure, and to rise to
a true conception of the meaning of
organization.

The tendency to over-speciali-
zation is manifest everywhere; it
may be traced in physics and chem-
istry, in mathematics, in archaeol-
ogy, and in philology, as well as in
biology. We can not help thinking
that there is a certain narcotic in-
fluence arising from the steady ac-
cumulation of minute facts, so that
what was in the first place, and in
its early stages, an invigorating pur-
suit becomes not only an absorbing,
but more or less a benumbing pas-
sion. We are accustomed to pro-
fess great admiration for Brown-
ing's Grammarian, who —

126

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

" Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic De
Dead from the waist down,"

but really we don't feel quite sure
that the cause for which the old gen-
tleman struggled was quite worthy
of such desperate heroism. The
world could have got along fairly
well for a while with an imperfect
knowledge of the subtle ways of the
" enclitic De," and indeed a large
portion of the world has neither
concerned itself with the subject
nor felt the worse for not having
done so.

What we fear is that some people
are " dead from the waist down," or
even from higher up, without being
aware of it, and all on account of a

furiotis passion for " enclitic de's "
or their equivalent in other lines of
study. Gentlemen, it is not worth
while ! You can not all hope to be
buried on mountain tops like the
grammarian, for there are not peaks
enough for all of you, and any way
what good would it do you? There
is need of specialization, of course;
we began by saying that the drift
of our remarks is simply this, that
he who would go into minute spe-
cializing should be careful to lay in
at the outset a good stock of com-
mon sense, a liberal dose (if he can
get it) of humor, and quantum suff.
of humanity. Thus provided he can
go ahead.

Scientific %iXtxnXnxz.

SPECIAL BOOKS.

The comparison between the United States in 1790 and Australia
in 1891, with which Mr. A. F. Weher opens his essay on The Growth of
Cities in the Nineteenth Century* well illustrates how the tendency of
population toward agglomeration in cities is one of the most striking
social phenomena of the present age. Both countries were in nearly a
corresponding state of development at the time of bringing them into
the comparison. The population of the United States in 1790 was
3,929,214; that of Australia in 1891 was 3,809,895; while 3.14 per cent
of the people of the United States were then living in cities of ten thou-
sand or more inhabitants, 33.20 per cent of the Australians are now
living in such cities. Similar conditions or the tendency toward them
are evident in nearly every country of the world. What are the forces
that have produced the shifting of population thus indicated; what the
economic, moral, political, and social consequences of it; and what is
to be the attitude of the publicist, the statesman, and the teacher toward
the movement, are questions which Mr. Weber undertakes to discuss.
The subject is a very complicated and intricate one, with no end of puz-
zles in it for the careless student, and requiring to be viewed in innu-
merable shifting lights, showing the case in changing aspects; for in the
discussion lessons are drawn by the author from every country in the
family of nations. Natural causes — variations in climate, soil, earth
formation, political institutions, etc. — partly explain the distribution of
population, but only partly. It sometimes contradicts what would be
deduced from them. Increase and improvement in facilities for com-
munication help the expansion of commercial and industrial centers,

* The Growth of Cities in the Ninettenth Century. A Study in Statistics. By Adna Ferrin
Weber. (Cf.lnmbia Univernity Studies in History, Economics, and Public L:iw.) New York: Pub-
llflhed for Columbia University by the Macmillan Company. Pp. 495. Price, $3.50.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 127

but also contribute to the scattering of population over wider areas.
The most potent factors in attracting people to the cities were, in former
times, the commercial facilities they afforded, with opportunities to ob-
tain employment in trade, and are now the opportunities for employment
in trade and in manufacturing industries. The cities, however, do not
grow merely by accretions from the outside, but they also enjoy a new
element of natural growth within themselves in the greater certainty
of living and longer duration of life brought about by improved manage-
ment and ease of living in them, especially by improved sanitation, and
it is only in the nineteenth century that any considerable number of
cities have had a regular surplus of births over deaths. Migration city-
ward is not an economic phenomenon peculiar to the nineteenth cen-
tury, but is shown by the study of the social statistics and the bills of
mortality of the past to have been always a factor important enough
to be a subject of special remark. It is, however, a very lively one now,
and " in the immediate future we may expect to see a continuation of
the centralizing movement ; while many manufacturers are locating their
factories in the small cities and towns, there are other industries that
prosper most in the great cities. Commerce, moreover, emphatically
favors the great centers rather than the small or intermediate centers."
In examining the structure of city populations, a preponderance of the
female sex appears, and is explained by the accentuated liability of men
over women in cities to death from dangers of occupation, vice, crime,
and excesses of all kinds. There are also present in the urban popula-
tion a relatively larger number of persons in the active period of life,
whence an easier and more animated career, more energy and enterijrise,
more radicalism and less conservatism, and more vice, crime, and im-
pulsiveness generally may be expected. Of foreign immigrants, the least
desirable class are most prone to remain in the great cities; and with
the decline of railway building and the complete occupation of the public
lands the author expects that immigrants in the future will disperse
less readily than in the past, but in the never-tiring energy of Ameri-
can enterprise this may not prove to be the case. As to occupation,
the growth of cities is found to favor the development of a body of
artisans and factory workmen, as against the undertaker and employer,
and " that the class of day laborers is relatively small in the cities is
reason for rejoicing." It is found " emphatically true that the growth
of cities not only increases a nation's economic power and energy, but
quickens the national pulse. ... A progressive and dynamic civiliza-
tion implies the good and bad alike. The cities, as the foci of progress,
inevitably contain both." The development of suburban life, stimulated
by the railroad and the trolley, and the transference of manufacturing
industries to the suburbs, are regarded as factors of great promise for
the amelioration of the recognized evils of city life and for the solu-
tion of some of the difficulties it offers and the promotion of its best
results.

Dr. James K. Crooh, author of The Mineral Waters of the United
States and their Therapeutic Uses* accepts it as proved by centuries
of experience that in certain disorders the intelligent use of mineral

* Mineral Waters of the United States and tlieir Tlierapeutic Uses, with an Account of the Various
Mineral Spring Localities, their Advantages as Health Resorts, Means of Access, etc.; to which is
aided an Appendix on Potable Waters. By James' K. Crook. New York and Philadelphia: Lea
Brothers & Co. Pp. 588. Price, $3.50. -

128

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

waters is a more potent curative agency than drugs. He believes that
Americans have within their own borders the close counterparts of the
best foreign springs, and that in charms of scenery and surroundings,
salubrity of climate and facilities for comfort, many of our spas will
compare as resorts with the most highly developed ones of Europe. The
purpose of the present volume is to set forth the qualities and attrac-
tions of American springs, of which we have a large number and va-
riety, and the author has aimed to present the most complete and ad-
vanced work on the subject yet prepared. To make it so, he has care-
fully examined all the available literature on the subject, has addressed
letters of inquiry to propi-ietors and other persons cognizant of spring
resorts and commercial springs, and has made personal visits. While
a considerable number of the 2,822 springs enumerated by Dr. A. C. Peale
in his report to the United States Geological Survey have dropped out
tlirough non-use or non-development, more than two hundred mineral-
spring localities are here described for the first time in a book of this
kind. Every known variety of mineral water is represented. The sub-
ject is introduced by chapters on what might be called the science of
mineral waters and their therapeutic uses, including the definition, the
origin of mineral waters, and the sources whence they are mineralized;
the classification, the discussion of their value, and mode of action;
their solid and gaseous components; their therapeutics or applications
to different disorders; and baths and douches and their medicinal uses.
The springs are then described severally by States. The treatise on
potable waters in the appendix is brief, but contains much.

GENERAL NOTICES.

In Every-Bay Butterflies * Mr. Seud-
der relates the story of the very com-
monest butterflies — " those which every
rambler at all observant sees about him
at one time or another, inciting his curi-
osity or pleasing his eye." The sequence
of the stories is mainly the order of ap-
pearance of the different subjects treated
— which the author compares to the
flowers in that each kind has its own
season for appearing in perfect bloom,
both together variegating the landscape
in the open season of the year. This
order of description is modified occasion-
ally by the substituti<m of a later ap-
pearance for the first, when the butterfly
is double or triple brooded. An illustra-
tions are furnished of each butterfly dis-
cussed, it is not necessary that the de-
scriptions should be long and minute,
hence they are given in brief and general
terms. But it must be remembered that
the describer is a thorough master of his
subject, and also a master in writing the

• Every-Day Bntterfliee. A Group of Biogra-
phies. By Samuel ITubbard Sciidder. Bopton and
New York: Houghton, Mlfhin & Co. Pp. S8C.
Price, $2.

English language, so that nothing will
be found lacking in his descriptions.
They are literature as well as butterfly
history. Of the illustrations, all of which
are good, a considerable number are in
colors.

Dr. M. E. Gello's VAudition et ses
Oryancs * (The Hearing and its Organs)
is a full, not over-elaborate treatise on
the subject, in which prominence is given
to the pliysiological side. The first part
treats of the excitant of the sense of
hearing — sonorous vibrations — including
the vibrations themselves, the length of
the vibratory phenomena, the intensity
of sound, range of audition, tone, and
timbre of sounds. The .second chapter
relates to the organs of hearing, both
the peripheric organs and the acoustic
centers, the anatomy of which is de-
scribed in detail, with excellent and am-
ple illustrations. The third chapter is
devoted to the sensation of hearing
under its various aspects — the time

* L'Andition et ses Orcanes. By Dr. M. E.
Gell6. PariB: F61i.^ Alcan (Bihliotheque Scien-
tiflque). Pp. 32C. Price, six francs.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

129

required for perception, " hearing in
school," the iufluenee of habit and atten-
tion, orientation of the sound, bilateral
sensations, effects on the nervous cen-
ters, etc., hearing of musical sounds, os-
cillations and aberrations of hearing,
auditive memory, obsessions, hallucina-
tions of the ear, and colored audition.

Prof. Andrew C. McLavfjhlin's His-
tory of the American Nation * has many-
features to recommend it. It aims to
trace the main outlines of national de-
velopment, and to show how the Ameri-
can people came to be what they are.
These outlines involve the struggle of
European powers for supremacy in the
New World, the victory of England, the
growth of the English colonies and
their steady progress in strength and
self-reliance till they achieved their in-
dependence, the development of the
American idea of government, its ex-
tension across the continent and its in-
fluence abroad — all achieved in the
midst of stirring events, social, political,
and moral, at the cost sometimes of
wars, and accompanied by marvelous
growth in material prosperity and politi-
cal power. All this the author sets
forth, trying to preserve the balance of
the factors, in a pleasing, easy style.
Especial attention is paid to political
facts, to the rise of parties, to the de-
velopment of governmental machinery,
and to questions of government and ad-
ministration. In industrial history those
events have been selected for mention
which seem to have had the most
marked effect on the progress and make-
up of the nation. It is to be desired
that more attention had been given to
social aspects and changes in which the
development has not been less marked
and stirring than in the other depart-
ments of our history. Indeed, the field
for research and exposition here is ex-
tremely wide and almost infinitely va-
ried, and it has hardly yet begun to
be worked, and with any fullness only
for special regions. "When he comes to
recent events, Professor McLaughlin
naturally speaks with caution and in
rather general terms. It seems to us,
however, that in the matter of the war
with Spain, without violating any of the

* A History of the American Nation. By An-
drew C. McLaughlin. Ne\Y York: D. Appleton
and Company. Pp. E87. Price, §1.40.

VOL. LYI. 11

proprieties, he might have given more
emphasis to the anxious efforts of that
country to comply with the demands of
the administration for the institution of
reforms in Cuba; and, in the interest of
historical truth, he ought not to have
left unmentioned the very important
fact that the Spanish Government of-
fered to refer the questions growing out
of the blowing up of the Maine to arbi-
tration and abide by the result, and
our Government made no answer to the
proposition.

Mr. W. W. CampbeU's Elements of
Practical Astronomy * is an evolution.
It grew out of the lessons of his experi-
ence in teaching rather large classes in
astronomy in the University of Michi-
gan, by which he was led to the conclu-
sion that the extensive treatises on the
subject could not be used satisfactorily
except in special cases. Brief lecture
notes were employed in preference. These
were written out and printed for use in
the author's classes. The first edition of
the book made from them was used in
several colleges and universities having
astronomical departments of high char-
acter. The work now appears, slightly
enlarged, in a second edition. In the
present greatly extended field of prac-
tical astronomy numerous special prob-
lems arise, which require prolonged ef-
forts on the part of professional astrono-
mers. While for the discussion of the
methods employed in solving such prob-
lems the reader is referred to special
treatises and journals, these methods are
all developed from the elements of as-
tronomy and the related sciences, of
which it is intended that this book shall
contain the elements of practical astron-
omy, with numerous references to the
problems first requiring solution. The
author believes that the methods of ob-
serving employed are illustrations of the
best modern practice.

In The Characters of Crystals f Prof.
Alfred J. Moses has attempted to de-
scribe, simply and concisely, the meth-

* The Elements of Practical Astronomy. By
W. W. Campbell. Second edition, revised and en-
larged. New York : The Macmillan Company.
Pp. 264. Price, $2.

+ The Characters of Crystals. An Introduc-
tion to Physical Crystallography. By Alfred J.
Moses. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.
Pp 211. Price, $2.

130

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

oJs and apparatus used in studying the
l)hysical characters of crystals, and to
record and explain the observed phenom-
ena without complex mathematical dis-
cussions. The first part of the book re-
lates to the geometrical characteristics
of crystals, or the relations and deter-
mination of their forms, including the
spherical projection, the thirty- two
classes of forms, the measurement of
crystal angles, and crystal projection or
drawing. The optical characters and
their determination are the subject of
the second part. In the third part the
thermal, magnetic, and electrical char-
acters and the characters dependent
upon electricity (elastic and permanent
deformations) are treated of. A sug-
gested outline of a course in physical
crystallography is added, which includes
preliminary experiments with the sys-
tematic examination of the crystals of
any substance, and corresponds with the
graduate course in physical crystallog-
raphy given in Columbia University.
'J'he book is intended to be useful to oi'-
ganic chemists, geologists, mineralogists,
and others interested in the study of
crystals. The treatment is necessarily
technical.

A book describing the Practical MetJi-
ods of identifying Minerals in Rock Sec-
tions irith the Microscope * has been pre-
pared by Mr. L. McI. Luquer to ease the
path of the student inexperienced in op-
tical mineralogy by putting before him
only those facts which are absolutely
necessary for the proper recognition and
identification of the minerals in thin sec-
tions. The microscopic and optical char-
acters of the minerals are recorded in the
order in which they would be observed
with a petrographical microscope; when
the sections are opaque, attention is
called to the fact, and the characters are
recorded as seen with incident light.
The order of Roscnbuseh, which is based
on the symmetry of the crystalline form,
is followed, with a few exceptions made
for convenience. In an introductory
chapter a practical elementary knowl-
edge of optics as applied to optical min-

* Minerals In Rock Sections ; tho Practical
Method of identifying Minerals in Rock Sections
with the Microscope. Especially arranged for
Students in Scientific Schools. By Lea Mcllvaine
Luqner. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.
Pp. 117.

eralogy is attempted to be given, with-
out going into an elaborate discussion of
the subject. The petrographical micro-
scope is described in detail. The appli-
cation of it to the investigation of min-
eral characteristics is set forth in gen-
eral and as to particular minerals. The
preparation of sections and practical op-
erations are described, and an optical
scheme is appended, with the minerals
grouped according to their common op-
tical characters.

Mr. Herbert C. Whitaker's Elements
of Trigonometry * is conci.se and of very
convenient size for use. The introduc-
tion and the first five of the seven chap-
ters have been prepared for the use of
beginners. The other two chapters con-
cern the properties of triangles and
spherical triangles; an appendix pre-
sents the theory of logarithms; and a
second appendix, treating of goniometry,
complex quantities, and complex func-
tions, has been added for students in-
tending to take up work in higher de-
partments of mathematics. For assist-
ing a clearer understanding of the sev-
eral processes, the author has sought to
associate closely with every equation
a definite meaning with reference to a
diagram. Other characteristics of the
book are the practical applications to
mechanics, surveying, and other every-
day problems ; its many references to as-
tronomical problems, and the constant
use of geometry as a starting point and
standard.

A model in suggestions for elemen-
tary teaching is olTered in Califoi'nia
I'lunts in their Ho)nes,'<f by Alice Mcrritt
Dfiridson, formerly of the State Normal
School, California. The book consists of
two parts, a botanical reader for children
and a supplement for the u.se of teachers,
both divisions being also published in
separate volumes. It is well illustrated,
provided with an index and an outline
of lessons adapted to difl'erent grades.
The treatment of each theme is fre.sh,
and the grouping novel, as is indicated
by the chapter headings: Some Plants
that lead Easy Lives, Plants that know

• Elements of Trigonometry, with Tables. By
Herbert C. Whitaker. Philadelphia : Eldredge &
Brother. Pp. 200.

+ California Plants in their Ilomes. By Alice
Merritt DaTidson. Los Angeles, Cal. : B. R. Bauni-
gardt & Co. Pp. 215-133.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE,

131

how to meet Hard Times, Plants that
do not make their own Living, Plants
with Mechanical Genius. Although spe-
cially designed for the study of the flora
of southern California, embodying the
results of ten years' observation by the
author, it may be recommended to sci-
ence teachers in any locality as an ex-
cellent guide. The pupil in this vicinity
will have to forego personal inspection
of the shooting-star and mariposa lily,
while he finds the century plant, yuccas,
and cacti domiciled in the greenhouse.
In addition to these, however, attention
is directed to a sufficient number of
familiar flowers, trees, ferns, and fungi
for profitable study, and the young nov-
ice in botany can scarcely make a bet-
ter beginning than in company with this
skillful instructor.

Prof. John M. Coulter's Plant Rela-
tions * is one of two parts of a system
of teaching botany proposed by the au-
thor. Each of the two books is to rep-
resent the work of half a year, but each
is to be independent of the other, and
they may be used in either order. The
two books relate respectively, as a
whole, to ecology, or the life relations
of surroundings of plants, and to their
morphology. The present volume con-
cerns the ecology. While it may be to
the disadvantage of presenting ecology
first, that it conveys no knowledge of
plant structures and plant groups, this
disadvantage is compensated for, in the
author's view, by the facts that the
study of the most evident life relations
gives a proper conception of the place
of plants in Nature; that it offers a
view of the plant kingdom of the most
permanent value to those who can give
but a half year to botany ; and that it de-
mands little or no use of the compound
microscope, an instrument ill adapted to
first contacts with Nature. The book
is intended to present a connected, read-
able account of some of the fundamental
facts of botany, and also to serve as
a supplement to the three far more im-
portant factors of the teacher, who must
amplify and suggest at every point; the
laboratory, which must bring the pupil
face to face with plants and their struc-

* Plant Relations. A First Book of Botany.
By John M. Coulter. New York: D. Appleton and
Company. (Twentieth Century Text Books.) Pp.
2&4. Price, gl.lO.

ture; and field work, which must relate
the facts observed in the laboratory to
their actual place in Nature, and must
bring new facts to notice which can
be ob.served nowhere else. Taking the
results obtained from these three fac-
tors, the book seeks to organize them,
and to suggest explanations, through a
clear, untechnical, compact text and ap-
propriate and excellent illustrations.

The title of The Wilderness of
Worlds * was suggested to the author
by the contemplation of a wilderness of
trees, in which those near him are very
large, while in the distance they seem
successively smaller, and gradually fade
away till the limit of vision is reached.
So of the wilderness of worlds in space,
with its innumerable stars of gradu-
ally diminishing degrees of visibility —
worlds " of all ages like the trees, and
the great deep of space is covered with
their dust, and pulsating with the po-
tency of new births." The body of the
book is a review of the history of the uni-
verse and all that is of it, in the light of
the theory of evolution, beginning with
the entities of space, time, matter, force,
and motion, and the processes of develop-
ment from the nebulae as they are indi-
cated by the most recent and best veri-
fied researches, and terminating with the
ultimate extinction of life and the end
of the planet. In the chapter entitled A
Vision of Peace the author confronts re-
ligion and science. He regards the whole
subject from tlie freethinker's point of
view, with a denial of all agency of the
supernatural.

In a volume entitled The Living Or-
ganisni'^ 'Mr. Alfred Earl has endeavored
to make a philosophical introduction to
the study of biology. The closing para-
graph of his preface is of interest as
showing his views regarding vitalism:
" The object of the book will be attained
if it succeeds, although it may be chiefly
by negative criticism, in directing atten-
tion to the important truth that, though
chemical and physical changes enter

* The Wilderness of Worlds. A Popular
Sketch of the Evolution of Matter from Nebula to
Man and Return. The Life-Orbit of a Star. By
George W. Morehouse. New York : Peter Eck-
ler. Pp. 346. Price, gl.

't The Living Organism. By Alfred Earl, M. A.
New York : The Macmillan Company. Pp. 271.
Pi ice, $1.75.

132

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

largely into the composition of vital ac-
tivity, there is much in the living organ-
ism that is outside the range of these
operations." The first three chapters dis-
cuss general conceptions, and are chiefly
psychologj'. A discussion of the struc-
tures accessory to alimentation in man
and the higher animals occupies Chapters
IV and V. The Object of Classification,
Certain General Statements concerning
Organisms, A Description of the Organ-
ism as related to its Surroundings, The
Material JJasis of Life, The Organism as
a Chemical Aggregate and as a Center
for the Transformation of Energy, Cer-
tain Aspects of Form and Development,
The Meaning of Sensation, and, finally.
Some of the Problems presented by the
Organism, are the remaining chapter
headings. The volume contains many
interesting suggestions, and might per-
haps most appropriately be described as
a Theoretical Biology.

" Stars and Telescopes" * Professor
Todd says, " is intended to meet an
American demand for a plain, unrhetor-
ical statement of the astronomy of to-
day." We might state the purpose to be
to bring astronomy and all that pertains
to it up to date. It is hard to do this,
for the author has been obliged to put
what was then the latest discovery,
made while the book was going through
the press, in a footnote at the end of the
preface. The information embodied in
the volume is comprehensive, and is con-
veyed in a very intelligible style. The
treatise begins with a running commen-
tary or histoiical outline of astronomical
discovery, with a rigid exclusion of all
detail. The account of the earth and
moon is followed by chapters on the Cal-
endar and the Astronomical Relations of
Light. The other members of the solar
system are described and their relations
reviewed, and then the comets and the
stars. Closely associated with these sub-
jects are the men who have contributed
to knowledge respecting them, and con-
sequently the names of the great discov-
erers and others who have helped in the
advancement of astronomy are intro-
duced in immediate connection with
their work, in brief sketches and often
with their portraits. Much importance

* stirs and Teloscopes A riandhonk of Popu-
lar Astronom v. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. Pp.
419. Price, §2.

is attributed by Professor Todd to the
instruments with which astronomical
discovery is carried on, and the book
may be said to culminate in an account
of the famous instruments, their con-
struction, mounting, and use. The de-
visers of these instruments are entitled
to more credit than the unthinking are
always inclined to give them, for the
value of an observation depends on the
accuracy of the instrument as well as
on the skill of the observer, and the skill
which makes the instrument accurate is
not to be underrated. So the makers
of the instruments are given their place.
Then the recent and improved processes
have to be considered, and, altogether.
Professor Todd has found material for a
full and somewhat novel book, and has
used it to good advantage.

Some Ohscrcations on the Fundamen-
tal Principles of Natnre is the title of
an essay by Henry Witt, which, though
very brief, takes the world of matter,
mind, and society within its scope. One
of the features of the treatment is that
instead of the present theory of an order
of things resulting from the condensa-
tion of more rarefied matter, one of the
organization of converging waves of in-
tinitesimal atoms lilling all space is sub-
stituted. With this point prominently
in view, the various factors and prop-
erties of the material universe — biology,
psychology, sociology, ethics, and the fu-
ture— are treated of.

Among the later monographs pub-
lished by the Field Columbian Museum,
Chicago, is a paper in the Geological Se-
ries (No. 3) on The Ores of Colomhia,
from Mines in Operation in 1S92, by
H. W. Nichols. It describes the collec-
tion prepared for the Columbian Exposi-
tion by F. Pereira Gamba and after-
ward given to the museum — a collection
which merits attention for the light it
throws upon the nature and mode of oc-
currence of the ores of one of the most
important gold-producing countries of
the world, and also because it approaches
more nearly than is usual the ideal of
what a collection in economic geology
should be. Other publications in the
museum's Geological Scries are The My-
huiavlidir, an E.rtinet Family of Seiiiro-
morph Rodents (No. 4), by E. S. Riggs,
describing some aquirrcl-like animals
from the Deep lliver beds, near White

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

133

Sulphiu' Springs, Montana; A Fossil
Egg from South Dakota (No. 5), by 0.

C. Fnrringto7i, relative to the egg of an
anatine bird from the early Miocene;
and Contributions to the Paleontology of
the Upper Cretaceous Series (No, 6), by
IF. A". Logan, in which seven species of
Scaphites, Ostrea, Gasteropoda, and cor-
als are described. In the Zoological Se-
ries, Prcliniinary Descriptions of New
Rodents from the Olympic Mountains (of
Washington) (No. 11), by D. G. Elliot,
relates to six species; Notes on a Col-
lection of Cold-blooded Vertebrates from
the Olympic Mountains (No. 12), by S.
E. Meek, to six trout and three other
fish, four amphibia, and three reptiles;
and a Catalogue of Mammals from the
Olympic Mountains, Washington, with
descriptions of new species (No, 13), by

D. G. Elliot, includes a number of spe-
cies of rodents, lynx, bear, and deer.

Some Notes on Chemical Jurispru-
dence is the title given by Harwood
Huntington (260 West Broadway, New
York; 25 cents) to a brief digest of pat-
ent-law cases involving chemistry. The
notes are designed to be of use to chem-
ists intending to take out patents by
presenting some of the difficulties at-
tendant upon drawing up a patent strong
enough to stand a lawsuit, and by ex-
plaining some points of law bearing on
the subject. In most, if not all, cases
where the chemist has devised a new
method or application it is best, the au-
thor holds, to take out a patent for self-
protection, else the inventor may find
his device stplen from him and patented
against him,

A cave or fissure in the Cambrian
limestone of Port Kennedy, Montgomery
County, Pa., exposed by quarrymen the
year before, was brought to the knowl-
edge of geologists by Mr, Charles M,.
Wheatley in 1871, when the fossils ob-
tained from it were determined by Prof.

E. D. Cope as of thirty-four species. At-
tention was again called to the paleon-
tological interest of the locality by Pres-
ident Dixon, of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, in 1894. The
fissure was examined again by Dr. Dixon
and others, and was more thoroughly
explored by Mr. Henry C. Mercer. Mr.
Mercer published a preliminary account
of the work, which was followed by the
successive studies of the material by

Professor Cope preliminary to a com-
plete and illustrated report to be made
after a full investigation of all accessible
material. Professor Cope did not live to
publish this full report, which was his
last work, prepared during the sufl'ering
of his final illness. It is now published,
just as the author left it, as Yertebrate
Remains from the Port Kennedy Deposit,
from the Journal of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Four
plates of illustrations, photographed
from the remains, accompany the text.

The machinery of Mr, Fred A. Lu-
cas's story of The Hermit Naturalist re-
minds us of that of the old classical
French romances, like TOlemaque, and
the somewhat artificial, formal diction is
not dissimilar. An accident brings the
author into acquaintance and eventual
intimacy with an old Sicilian naturalist,
who, migrating to this country, has es-
tablished a home, away from the world's
life, on an island in the Delaware River,
The two find a congenial subject of con-
versation in themes of natural history,
and the bulk of the book is in effect a
running discourse by the old Sicilian on
snakes and their habits — a valuable and
interesting lesson. The hermit has a ro-
mance, involving the loss of his mother-
less daughter, stolen by brigands and
brought to America, his long search for
her and resignation of hope, and her ul-
timate discovery and restoration to him.
The book is of easy reading, both as to
its natural history and the romance.

We have two papers before us on the
question of expansion. One is an ad-
dress delivered by John Barrett, late
United States Minister to Siam, before
the Shanghai General Chamber of Com-
merce, and previous to the beginning of
the attempt to subjugate the islands, on
The Philippine Islands and American
Interests in the Far East. This address
has, we believe, been since followed by
others, and in all Mr. Barrett favors the
acquisition of the Philippine Islands on
the grounds, among others, of commer-
cial interests and the capacity of the
Filipinos for development in further civi-
lization and self-goA'ernment ; but his
arguments, in the present aspect of the
Philippine question, seem to us to bear
quite as decidedly in the opposite direc-
tion. He gives the following picture
of Aguinaldo and the Filipino govern-

•34

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ment: "He (Aguinaldo) captured all
Spanish garrisons on the island of Luzon
outside of ilanila, so that when the
Americans were ready to proceed against
the city they were not delayed and trou-
bled with a country campaign. More-
over, he has organized a government
which has practically been administer-
ing the affairs of the great island since
the American occupation of Manila, and
which is certainly better than the for-
mer administration; he has a properly
formed Cabinet and Congress, the mem-
bers of which, in appearance and man-
ners, would compare favorably with
Japanese statesmen. He has among his
advisers men of ability as international
lawyers, while his supporters include
most of the prominent educated and
wealthy natives, all of which prove pos-
sibilities of self-government that we
must consider." This pamphlet is pub-
lished at Hong Kong. The other paper
is an address delivered before the New
York State Bar Association, by Charles
A. Gardiner, on Our Right to acquire
and hold Forcion Territory, and is pub-
lished by G. P. Putnam's Sons in the
Questions of the Day Series. Mr. Gar-
diner holds and expresses the broadest
views of the constitutional power of our
Government to commit the acts named,
and to exercise all the attributes inci-

dental to the possession of acquired ter-
ritory, but he thinks that we need a
great deal of legal advice in the matter.

A pamphlet, Anti-Imperialism, by
Morrison L. 8icift, published by the
Public Ownership Review, Los Angeles,
Cal., covers the subject of English and
American aggression in three chapters —
Imperialism to bless the Conquered, Im-
perialism for the Sake of Mankind, and
Our Crime in the Philippines. Mr. Swift
is very earnest in respect to some of the
subjects touched upon in his essays, and
some persons may object that he is more
forcible — even to excess — than polite in
his denunciations. To such he may per-
haps reply that there are things which
language does not afford words too
strong to characterize fitly.

Among the papers read at the Fourth
International Catholic Scientifie Con-
gress, held at Fribourg, Switzerland, in
August, 1897, was one by William J. D.
Croke on Architecture, Painting, and
Printing at Subiaco as represented in
the Abbey at Subiaco. The author re-
gards the features of the three arts rep-
resented in this place as evidence that
the record of the activity of the founda-
tion constitutes a real chapter in the his-
tory of progress in general and of cul-
ture in particular.

PUBLICATIONS EECEIVED.

Benson, E. F. Mammon & Co. New
York: I). Applcton aud Company. Pp.
300. .$1.50.

Bufkley, James A. Extemporaneous
Oratory. For Professional and Amateur
Speakers. New York: Eaton & Mains.
Pp. 480. .$1.50.

Canada, Dominion of, Experimental
Farms: Reports for 1S97. Pp. 449; Re-
ports for 1808. I'p. 4ii9.

Conn, H. \V. The Story of Germ Life.
(Library of TJseful Stories.) New York:
I>. Appleton and Company. I'p. 199. 40
cents.

Dana, Edward S. First Appendix to
the Sixth Edition of Dana's Miueralogy.
New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pp.
75. §1.

Franklin Institute, The, Drawing
School, also School of Eloincutary Mathe-
matlos: Annoimccnicnts. Pp. 4 each.

Ganone, Willinm F. The TonfhInK Rot-
nnist. New York: The Macmiilan Com-
pany. I'p. 270. $1.10.

Octman, F. IT. The Elements of Blow-
pipe Analysis. New York: The Macmiilan
Company." I'p. 77. CO cents.

TTallldny, IL >L An Essay on the Com-
mon OriL'in of Lljiht, Heat, and Elec-
tricity. ^Vashingtou, D. C. Pp. 4G.

Hardin, Wlllett L. The Rise and De-
velopment of the Liquefaction of Gases.
New York: The Macmiilan Company. Pp.
250. ?1.10.

HilleRas, Howard C. Oom Paul's Peo-
ple. A Narrative of the British-Boer
Troubles in South Africa, with a History
of the Boers, the Country, and its Insti-
tutions. New York: I). Appleton and Com-
pany. Pp. 308. $L50.

Ireland, Alleyne. Tropical Coloniza-
tion. An Introduction to the Study of the
Subject. New York: The Macmiilan Com-
pany. $2.

Klnssley, J. S. Text-Book of Elemen-
t.irv Zoolocv. New York: Henry Holt &
Co." Pp. 439.

Knerr, E. B. Relativity in Science.
Sillco-B.'ulte Nodules from near Sallna.
Concretions. (Transactions of the Kan-
sas Academy of Science.) Pp. 24.

Kromskop Color Photojii-aphy. Phila-
delphia: Ives Kroraskop. I'p. 24.

I,i(iuld-.\ir Power and Automobile Com-
pany. Prospectus. Pp. 1(>.

Macliiide. Tliomas A. The North Ameri-
can Slime Molds. Beinj; a List of Species
of Myxomycetes hlllierto described from
Noitli America, inc-luiilu;: Central Amer-
ica. New York: Tlie Maruiillau Company.
Pp. 231, with 18 plates. $2.25.

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

13;

Meyer, A. R. The Distribution of the
Negritos in the I'hillppine Islands and
Elsewhere. Dresden (Saxony): Stengel &
Co. Pp. 92.

Nicholson, H. H., and Avery, Samuel.
Laboratory Exercises with Outlines for
the Study of Chemistry, to accompany any
Elementary Text. New York: Henry Holt
& Co. Pp. 134. 60 cents.

Scharff, R. F. The History of the Eu-
ropean Fauna. New York: Imported by
Charles Scribner's Sons. Pp. 3.54. .$1.50.

Schleicher, Charles, and Schull, Duren.
Rhenish Prussia. Samples of Special Fil-
tering Papers. New York: Eimer &
Amend, agents.

Sharpe, Benjamin F. An Advance in
Measuring and Photographing Sounds.
United States Weather Bureau. Pp. 18,
with plates.

Shinn, Milicent W. Notes on the De-
velopment of a Child. Parts HI and IV.
(University of California Studies.) Pp.
224.

Shoemaker, M. M. Quaint Corners of
Ancient Empires, Southern India, Burmah,
and Manila. New York: G. P. Putnam's
Sons. Pp. 212.

Smith, Orlando J. A Short View of
Great Questions. New York: The Bran-
dur Company, 220 Broadway. Pp. ">.

Smith, Walter. Methods of Knowledge.
An Essav in Epistemologv. New York:
The Macmillan Company. Pp. 340. $1.25.

Southern, The, Magazine. Monthly.
Vol. I, No. 1. August, 1899. Pp. 203. 10
cents. $1 a year.

Suter, William N. Handbook of Optics.
New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp.
209. $1.

Tarde, G. Social Laws. An Outline of
Sociology. With a Preface by James Mark
Baldwin. New York: The Macmillan Com-
pany. Pp. 213. .$1.25.

Uline, Edwin B. Higinbothamia. A
New Genus, and other New Dioscoreaceje,
New Amaranthaceso. (Field Columbian
Museum, Chicago Botanical Series.) Pp. 12.

Underwood, Lucien M. Molds, Mil-
dews, and Mushrooms. New York: Henry
Holt & Co. Pp. 227, with 9 plates. $1.50.

United States Civil-Service Commis-
sion. Fifteenth Report, July 1, 1897, to
June 30, 1898. Pp. 736. Washington.

^raflmcttts of Science.

The Dover Meeting of the Brit-
ish Association. — While the attend-
ance on the meeting of the British As-
sociation at Dover was not large — the
whole number of members being 1,403,
of whom 127 were ladies — the occasion
was in other respects eventful and one
of marked interest. The papers read
were, as a rule, of excellent quality,
and the interchange of visits with the
French Association was a novel feature
that might bear many I'epetitions. The
president, Sir Michael Foster, presented,
in his inaugural address, a picture of
the state of science one hundred years
ago, illustrating it by portraying the
conditions to which a body like the as-
sociation meeting then at Dover would
have found itself su"bjeet, and suggest-
ing the topics it would have discussed.
The period referred to was, however,
that of the beginning of the present
progress, and, after remarking on what
had been accomplished in the interval,
the speaker drew a very hopeful fore-
view for the future. Besides the intel-
lectual triumphs of science, its strength-
ening discipline, its relation to politics,
and the " international brotherhood of
science " were brought under notice in
the address. In his address as presi-
dent of the Physical Section, Prof. J. H.

Poynting showed how physicists are
tending toward a general agreement as
to the nature of the laws in which they
embody their discoveries, of the expla-
nations they give, and of the hypotheses
they make, . and, having considered what
the form and terms of this agreement
should be, passed to a discussion of the
limitations of physical science. The
subject of Dr. Horace T. Brown's Chem-
ical Section address was The Assimila-
tion of Carbon by the Higher Plants.
Sir William H. White, president of the
Section of Mechanical Science, spoke
on Steam Navigation at High Speeds.
President Adam Sedgwick addressed the
Zo()logical Section on Variation and
some Phenomena connected with Re-
production and Sex; Sir John Murray,
the Geographical Section on The Ocean
Floor ; and Mr. J. N. Langley, the Physi-
ological Section on the general relations
of the motor nerves to the several tis-
sues of the body, especially of those
which run to tissues over which we
have little or no control. The president
of the Anthropological Section, Mr. C.
H. Read, of the British Museum, spoke
of the preservation and proper explora-
tion of the prehistoric antiquities of the
country, and offered a plan for increas-
ing the amount of work done in an-

136

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

tliropolopical investigation by the use
of Government aid. A peculiar distinc-
tion attaches to this meeting through
its reception and entertainment of tlie
French Association, and the subsequent
return of the courtesy by the hitter
body at Boulogne. About three hun-
dred of the French Associationists,
among whom vi'ere many ladies, came
over, on the Saturday of the meeting,
under the lead of their president, M.
Brouardel, and accompanied by a num-
ber of men of science from Belgium.
They were met at the pier by the offi-
cers of the British Association, and were
escorted to the place of meeting and
to the sectional meetings toward which
their several tastes directed them. The
geological address of Sir Arcliibald
Geikie on Geological Time had been ap-
pointed for this day out of courtesy to
the French geologists, and in order that
they might have an opportunity of
hearing one of the great lights of Brit-
ish science. Among the listeners who
sat upon the platform were M. Gosse-
let, president of the French Geological
Society; M. Kemna, president of the
Belgian Geological Society; and M. Re-
nard, of Ghent. Public evening lec-
tures were delivered on the Centenary
of the Electric Current, by Prof. J. A.
Fleming, and (in French) on Nerv'ous
Vibration, by Prof. Charles Richet. Sir
William Turner was appointed presi-
dent for the Bradford meeting of the
association (1900). The visit of the
French Association was returned on
September 22d, when the president, ofii-
cers, and about three hundred members
went to Boulogne. They were wel-
comed by the mayor of the city, the
prefect of the department, and a repre-
sentative of the French Government;
were feasted by the municipality of
Boulogne; were entertained by the
members of the French Association;
and special commemorative medals were
presented by the French Association to
the two presidents. The British visitors
also witnessed the inauguration of a
tablet in memory of Dr. Duchesne, and
of a plaque commemorative of Thomas
Campbell, the poet, who died in Bou-
logne.

Artificial India Rubber. — A recent
issue of the Kew Gardens Bulletin con-
tains an interesting article on Dr. Til-

den's artificial production of India rub-
ber. India rubber, or caoutchouc, is
chemically a hydrocarbon, but its mo-
lecular constitution is unknown. When
decomposed by heat it is broken up into
simpler hydrocarbons, among which is
a substance called isoprene, a volatile
liquid boiling at about 36° C. Its mo-
lecular formula is Collg. Dr. Tilden ob-
tained this same substance (isoprene)
from oil of turpentine and other ter-
penes by the action of moderate heat,
and then by treating the isoprene with
strong acids succeeded, by means of a
very slow reaction, in converting a
small portion of it into a tough elastic
solid, which seems to be identical in
properties with true India rubber. This
artificial rubber, like the natural, seems
to consist of two substances, one of
which is more soluble in benzene and
carbon bisulphide than the other. It
unites with sulphur in the same way as
ordinary rubber, forming a tough, elastic
compound. In a recent letter Professor
Tilden says: "As you may imagine, I
have tried everj'thing I can think of as
likely to promote this change, but with-
out success. The polymerization pro-
ceeds very slowly, occupying, according
to my experience, several years, and all
attempts to hurry it result in the pro-
duction not of rubber, but of ' colo-
phene,' a thick, sticky oil quite useless
for all purposes to which rubber is ap-
plied."

Dangers of High Altitudes for
Elderly People. — " The public, and
sometimes the inexperienced physician —
inexperienced not in general therapeu-
tics but in the physiological effects of
altitude on a weak heart," says Dr.
Findlater Zangger in the Lancet, " make
light of a danger they can not under-
stand. But if an altitude of from four
thousand to five thousand feet above the
sea level puts a certain amount of strain
on a normal heart and by a rise of the
blood-pressure indirectly also on the
small peripheral arteries, must not this
action be multiplied in the case of a
heart suffering from even an early stage
of myocarditis or in the case of arteries
with thickened or even calcified walls?
It is especially the rapidity of the
change from one altitude to another,
with differences of from throe thousand
to four thousand feet, which must be

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

137

considered. There is a call made on the
contractibility of the small arteries on
the one hand, and on the amount of
muscular force of the heart on the
other hand, and if the structures in
question can not respond to this call,
rupture of an artery or dilatation of the
heart may ensue. In the case of a nor-
mal condition of the circulatory organs
little harm is done beyond some tran-
sient discomfort, such as dizziness, buzz-
ing in the ears, palpitation, general ma-
laise, and this often only in the case of
people totally unaccustomed to high al-
titudes. For such it is desirable to take
the high altitude by degrees in two or
three stages, say first stage 1,500 feet,
second stage from 2,500 to 3,000 feet,
and third stage from 4,000 to 6,000 feet,
with a stay of one or two days at the
intermediate places. The stay at the
health resort will be shortened, it is
true, but the patient will derive more
benefit. On the return journey one short
stay at one intermediate place will suf-
fice. Even a fairly strong heart will not
stand an overstrain in the first days
spent at a high altitude. A Dutch lady,
about forty jears of age, who had spent
a lifetime in the lowlands, came directly
up to Adelboden (altitude, 4,600 feet).
After two days she went on an excur-
sion with a party up to an Alp 7,000
feet high, making the ascent quite slow-
ly in four hours. Sudden heart syncope
ensued, which lasted the best part of an
hour, though I chanced to be near and
could give assistance, which was urgent-
ly needed. The patient recovered, but
derived no benefit from a fortnight's
stay, and had to return to the low
ground the worse for her trip and her
inconsiderate enterprise. Rapid ascents
to a high altitude are very injurious to
patients with arterio-sclerosis, and the
mountain railways up to seven thousand
and ten thousand feet are positively dan-
gerous to an unsuspecting public, for
many persons between the ages of fifty-
five and seventy years consider them-
selves to be hale and healthy, and are
quite unconscious of ha\ing advanced
arterio-sclerosis and perchance contract-
ed kidney. An American gentleman,
aged fifty-eight years, was under my
care for slight symptoms of angina pec-
toris, pointing to sclerosis of the coi'O-
nary arteries. A two-months' course of
treatment at Zurich with massage, baths,

and proper exercise and diet did away
with all the symptoms. I saw him by
chance some months later. ' My son is
going to St. Moritz (six thousand feet)
for the summer,' said he ; ' may I go
with him?' 'Most certainly not,' was
my answer. The patient then consulted
a professor, who allowed him to go. Cir-
cumstances, however, took him for the
summer to Sachseln, which is situated
at an altitude of only two thousand feet,
and he spent a good summer. But he
must needs go up the Pilatus by rail
(seven thousand feet), relying on the
professor's permission, and the result was
disastrous, tor he almost died from a vio-
lent attack of angina pectoris on the
night of his return from the Pilatus,
and vowed on his return to Zurich to
keep under three thousand feet in fu-
ture. I may here mention that bad re-
sults in the shape of heart collapse, an-
gina pectoris, cardiac asthma, and last,
not least, apoplexy, often occur only on
the return to the lowlands."

The Parliamentary Amenities
Committee. — ^Under the above rather
misleading title there was formed last
year, in the English Parliament, a com-
mittee for the purpose of promoting con-
certed action in the preservation and
protection of landmarks of general pub-
lic interest, historic buildings, famous
battlefields, and portions of landscape of
unusual scenic beauty or geological con-
formation, and also for the protection
from entire extinction of the various
animals and even plants which the
spread of civilization is gradually push-
ing to the wall. In reality, it is an of-
ficial society for the preservation of
those things among the works of past
man and Nature which, owing to their
lack of direct money value, are in dan-
ger of destruction in this intensely com-
7nercial age. Despite the comparative
newness of the American civilization,
there are already many relics belonging
to the history of our republic whose
preservation is very desirable, as well
as very doubtful, if some such public-
spirited committee does not take the
matter in hand; and, as regards the re-
mains of the original Americans, in
which the country abounds, the neces-
sity is still more immediate. The of-
ficial care of Nature's own curiosities is
equally needed, as witness the way in

138

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

which the Hudson River palisades are
being mutihited, and tlie constant raids
upon our city parks for speedways,
parade grounds, etc. The great value
of a parliamentary or congressional com-
mittee of this sort lies in the fact that
its opinions are not only based upon ex-
pert knowledge, but that they can be
to an extent enforced; whereas such a
body of men with no olTicial position
may go on making suggestions and pro-
testing, as have numerous such bodies
for years, without producing any prac-
tical results. Tlie matter is, with us
perhaps, one of more importance to fu-
ture generations; but as all Nature
seems ordered primarily with reference
to the future welfare of the race, rather
than for the comfort of its present mem-
bers, the necessity for such an official
body, whose specific business shoidd be
to look after the preservation of objects
of historical interest to the succeeding
centuries, ought to be inculcated in us
as a part of the general evolutionary
scheme.

Physical Measurements of Asy-
lum Children. — Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has
published an account of anthropological
investigations and measurements which
he has made upon one thousand white
and colored children in the New York
Juvenile Asylum and one hundred col-
ored children in the Colored Orphan Asy-
lum, for information about the physical
state of the children who are admitted
and kept in juvenile asylums, and par-
ticularly to learn whether there is any-
thing physically abnormal about them.
Some abnormality in the social or moral
condition of such children being as-
sumed, if they are also physically in-
ferior to other children, they would have
to be considered generally handicapped
in the struggle for life; but if tliey do
not differ greatly in strength and con-
stitution from the average ordinary chil-
dren, then their state would be much
more hopeful. Among general facts con-
cerning the condition of the children
in the Juvenile Asylum, Dr. Hrdlicka
learned that when admitted to the insti-
tution they are almost always in some
way morally and physically inferior to
healthy children from good social classes
at large— ^the result, usually, of neglect
or improper nutrition or both. Within a
month, or even a week, decided changes

for the better are observed, and after
their admission the individuals of the
same sex and age seem gradually, while
preserving the fundamental differences
of their nature, to show less of their
former diversity and grow more alike.
In learning, the newcomers are more or
less retarded when put into the school,
but in a great majority of cases they
begin to acquire rapidly, and the child
usually reaches the average standing of
the class. Inveterate backwardness in
learning is rare. Phjsically, about one
seventh of all the inmates of the asylum
were without a blemish on their bodies —
a proportion which will not seem small
to persons well versed in analyses of the
kind. The differences in the physical
standing of the boys and the girls were
not so great or so general as to permit
building a hypothesis upon them, though
the girls came out a little the better.
The colored boys seemed to be physically
somewhat inferior to the white ones, but
the number of them waa not large
enough to justify a conclusion. Of the
children not found perfect, two hundred
presented only a single abnormality, and
this usually so small as hardly to jus-
tify excluding them from the class of
perfect. Regarding as decidedly abnor-
mal only those in whom one half the
parts of the body showed defects, the
number was eighty-seven. " Should we,
for the sake of illustration, express the
physical condition of the children by
such terms as fine, medium, and bad,
the fine and bad would emlirace in all
192 individuals, while 808 would remain
as medium." All the classes of abnor-
malities— congenital, pathological, and
acquired — seemed more numerous in the
boys than in the girls. The colored chil-
dren showed fewer inborn abnormalities
than the white, but more pathological
and acquired. No child was found who
could be termed a thorough physical de-
generate, and the author concludes that
the majority of the class of children
dealt with are physically fairly average
individuals.

Busy Birds. — A close observation of
a day's work of busy activity, of a day's
work of the chipping sparrow hunting
and catching insects to feed its yoimg,
is recorded by Clarence M. Weed in a
Bulletin of the New Hampshire College
Agricultural Experiment Station. Mr.

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

139

Weed began his watch before full day-
light in the morning, ten minutes before
the bird got off from its nest, and con-
tinued it till after dark. During the
busy day Mr. Weed says, in his sum-
mary, the parent birds made almost two
hundred visits to the nest, bringing food
nearly every time, though some of the
trips seem to have been made to furnish
grit for the grinding of the food. There
was no long interval when they were not
at work, the longest period between vis-
its being twenty-seven minutes. Soft-
bodied caterpillars were the most abun-
dant elements of the food, but crickets
and crane flies were also seen, and doubt-
less a great variety of insects were taken,
but precise determination of the quality
of most of the food brought was of course
impossible. The observations were un-
dertaken especially to learn the regular-
ity of the feeding habits of the adult
birds. The chipping sparrow is one of
the most abundant and familiar of our
birds. It seeks its nesting site in the
vicinity of houses, and spends most of its
time searching for insects in grass lands
or cultivated fields and gardens. In New
England two broods are usually reared
each season. That the j'oung keep the
parents busy catching insects and re-
lated creatures for their food is shown
by the minute record which the author
publishes in his paper. The bird de-
serves all the protection and encourage-
ment that can be given it.

Park-making among the Sand
Dunes. — For the creation of Golden
Gate Park the park-makers of San Fran-
cisco had a series of sand hills, " hills on
hills, all of sand-dune formation." The
city obtained a strip of land lying be-
tween the bay and the ocean, yet close
enough to the center of population to be
cheaply and easily reached from all parts
of the town. Work was begun in 1SG9,
and has been prosecuted steadily since,
with increasing appropriations, and the
results are a credit to the city. Golden
Gate Park, Mr. Frank H. Lamb says in
his account of it in The Forester, having
a charm that distinguishes it from other
city parks. It has a present area of 1,040
acres, of which 300 acres have been suffi-
ciently reclaimed to be planted with co-
niferous trees. " It is this portion of the
park which the visitor sees as one of the
sights of the Golden Gate." As he rides

through the park out toward the Cliff
House and Sutro Heights by the Sea, " he
sees still great stretches of sand, some
loose, some still held in place by the long
stems and rhizomes of the sand grass
(Arundo arenaria). This is the prepara-
tory stage in park-making. The method
in brief is as follows: The shifting sand
is seeded with Arundo arenaria, and
this is allowed to grow two years, when
the ground is sufficiently held in place
to begin the second stage of reclama-
tion, which consists in planting arboreal
species, generally the Monterey pine
{Pimts insiffnis) and the Monterey cy-
press {CupiTSSus macrocarpus) ; with
these are also planted the smaller Lepto-
spermvm Iwvigatum and Acacia lati-
folia. These species in two or more years
complete the reclamation, and then at-
tention is directed to making up all losses
of plants and encouraging growth as
much as possible." The entire cost of
reclamation by these methods is repre-
sented not to average more than fifty dol-
lars per acre.

A Fossiliferous Formation below
the Cambrian. — ]\Ir. George F. Mat-
thew said, in a communication to the
New York Academy of Sciences, that he
had been aware for several years of the
existence of fauna in the rocks below
those containing Paradoridcs and Pro-
tolenus in New Brunswick, eastern Can-
ada, but that the remains of the higher
types of organisms found in those rocks
were so poorly preserved and fragmen-
tary that they gave a very imperfect
knowledge of their nature. Only the
casts of HyoUthidw, the mold of an obe-
lus, a ribbed shell, and parts of what ap-
peared to be the arms and bodies of cri-
noids were known, to assure us that
there had been living forms in the seas
of that early time other than Protozoa
and burrowing worms. These objects
were found in the upper division of a
series of rocks immediately subjacent to
the Cambrian strata containing Proto-
lenns. etc. As a decided physical break
was discovered between the strata con-
taining them and those having Proto-
Icnus, the underlying series was thought
worthy of a distinctive name, and was
called Etchemenian, after a tribe of abo-
rigines that once inhabited the region.
In most countries the basement of the
Paleozoic sediments seems almost de-

140

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

void of organic remains. Only unsatis-
factory results have followed the search
for them in Europe, and America did
not seem to promise a much better re-
turn. Nevertheless, the indications of a
fauna obtained in the maritime prov-
inces of Canada seemed to afford a hope
that somewhere " these basement beds of
the Paleozoic might yield remains in a
better state of preservation. The au-
thor, therefore, in the summer of 1898,
made a visit to a part of Newfoundland
where a clear section of sediments had
been found below the horizons of Para-
(lo.rkles and Afirnulos strenuus. These
formations were examined at Manuel's
Brook and Smith's Sound. In the beds
defined as Etchemenian no trilobites
were found, though other classes of ani-
mals, such as gastropods, brachiopods,
and lamellibranchs, occur, with which
trilobites elsewhere are usually associ-
ated in the Cambrian and later geological
systems. The absence, or possibly the
rarity of the trilobites appears to have
special significance in view of their
prominence among Cambrian fossils. The
uniformity of conditions attending the
depositions of the Etchemenian terrane
throughout the Atlantic coast province
of the Cambrian is spoken of as surpris-
ing and as pointing to a quiescent pe-
riod of long continuance, during which
the Ui/nUtJiidm and Capidid(V developed
so as to become the dominant types of
the animal world, while the brachio-
pods, the lamellibranchs, and the other
gastropods still were puny and insig-
nificant." ^Ir. Matthew last year exam-
ined the red shales at Braintree, Mass.,
and was informed by Prof. W. O. Crosby
that they included many of the types
specified as characteristic of the Etche-
menian fauna, and that no trilobites
had with certainty been obtained from
them. The conditions of their deposition
closely resemble those of the Etcheme-
nian of Newfoundland.

The Paris Exposition, 1900, and
Congresses. — The grounds of the Paris
Exposition of 1900 extend from the
southwest angle of the Place de la Con-
corde along both banks of the Seine,
nearly a mile and a half, to the Avenue
de Suffren, which forms the western
boundary of the Champ de Mars. The
principal exhibition spaces are the Park
of the Art palaces and the Esplanade

des Tnvalides at the east, and the Champ
de Mars and the Trocadero at the west.
Many entrances and exits will be pro-
vided, but the principal and most impos-
ing one will be erected at the Place de
la Concorde, in the form of a triumpluil
arch. Pailways will be provided to
bring visitors from the city to the
grounds, and another railway will make
their entire circuit. The total surface
occupied by the exposition grounds is
three hundred and thirty-six acres, while
that of the exposition of 1889 was two
hundred and forty acres. Another area
has been secured in the Park of Vin-
cennes for the exhibition of athletic
games, sports, etc. The displays will be
installed for the most part by groups in-
stead of nations. The International Con-
gress of Prehistoric Anthropology and
Archaeology will be held in connection
with the exposition, August 20th to
August 25th. The arrangements for it
are under the charge of a committee
that includes the masters and leading
representatives of the science in France,
of which ]\I. le Dr. Verneau, 148 Rue
Broca, Paris, is seci-etary general. A
congress of persons interested in aerial
navigation will be held in the Observa-
tory of Meudon, the director of which,
M. Janssen, is president of the Organ-
izing Committee. Correspondence re-
specting this congress should be ad-
dressed to the secretary general, M. Tri-
boulet. Director de Journal I'Aeronaute,
10 Rue de la Pepiniere, Paris.

English Plant Names. — Common
Englisli and American names of plants
are treated byBritton and Brown, in their
Illustrated Flora of the Northern United
States, Canada, and the British posses-
sions, as full of interest from their origin,
history, and significance. As observed in
Britton and Holland's Dictionary, " they
are derived from a variety of languages,
often carrying us back to the early days
of our country's history and to the va-
rious peoples who, as conquerors or col-
onists, have landed on our shores and left
an impress on our language. Many of
these Old-World words are full of poet-
ical association, speaking to us of the
thoughts and feelings of the Old-World
people who invented them; others tell of
the ancient mythology of our ancestors,
of strange old mediaeval usages, and of
superstitions now almost forgotten."

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

141

Most of these names, Biitton and Brown
continue in the preface to the third vol-
ume of their •work, sugf,fest their own ex-
planation. " The greater number are
either derived from the supposed uses,
qualities, or properties of the plants;
many refer to their habitat, appearance,
or resemblance, real or fancied, to other
things; others come from poetical sug-
gestion, affection, or association with
saints or persons. Many are very graph-
ic, as the Western name prairie fire (Cas-
tillea coccinca) ; many are quaint or hu-
morous, as cling rascal {Galium sparine)
or wait-a-bit (Smilax rotundifolia) ; and
in some the corruptions are amusing, as
Aunt Jerichos (New England) for An-
gelica. The words horse, ox, dog, bull,
snake, toad, are often used to denote size,
coarseness, worthlessness, or aversion.
Devil or devil's is used as a prefix for up-
ward of forty of our plants, mostly ex-
pressive of dislike or of some traditional
resemblance or association. A number of
names have been contributed by the In-
dians, such as chinquapin, wicopy, pip-
sissewa, wankapin, etc., while the term
Indian, evidently a favorite, is applied as
a descriptive prefix to upward of eighty
different plants." There should be no
antagonism in the use of scientific and
popular names, since their purposes are
quite different. The scientific names are
necessary to students for accuracy, " but
the vernacular names are a part of the
development of the language of each peo-
ple. Though these names are sometimes
indicative of specific characters and
hence scientifically valuable, they are
for the most part not at all scientific,
but utilitarian, emotional, or pictur-
esque. As such they are invaluable not
for science, but for the common intelli-
gence and the appreciation and enjoy-
ment of the plant world,"

Educated Colored Labor.- — In a
paper published in connection with the
Proceedings of the Trustees of the John
F. Slater "Fund, I\Ir. Booker T. Wash-
ington describes his efi'orts, made at the
suggestion of the trustees, to bring the
work done at the Tuskegee school to
the knowledge of the white people of
the South, and their success. Mr.
Carver, instructor in agriculture, went
before the Alabama Legislature and
gave an exhibition of his methods and
results before the Committee on Agri-

culture. The displays of butter and
other farm products proved so interest-
ing that many members of the Legisla-
ture and other citizens inspected the
exhibit, and all expressed their gratifi-
cation. A full description of the work
in agriculture was published in the
Southern papers: "The result is that
the white people are constantly apply-
ing to us for persons to take charge of
farms, dairies, etc., and in many ways
showing that their interest in our work
is growing in proportion as they see the
value of it." A visit made by the Presi-
dent of the United States gave an oppor-
tunity of assembling within the institu-
tion five members of the Cabinet with
their families, the Governor of Alabama,
both branches of the Alabama Legisla-
ture, and thousands of white and col-
ored people from all parts of the South.
" The occasion was most helpful in
bringing together the two sections of
our country and the two races. No
people in any part of the world could
have acted more generously and shown
a deeper interest in this school than did
the white people of Tuskegee and Ma-
con County during the visit of the Presi-
dent."

Geology of Columbus, Ohio. — In

his paper, read at the meeting of the
American Association, on the geology of
Ohio, Dr. Orton spoke of the construc-
tion of glacial drifts as found in central
Ohio and the source of the material of
the drift, showing that the bowlder clay
is largely derived from the comminution
of black slake, the remnants of which
appear in North Columbus. He spoke
also of the bowlders scattered over the
surface of the region about Columbus,
the parent rocks of which may be traced
to the shores of the northern lakes, and
of Jasper's conglomerate, picturesque
fragments of which may be found
throughout central Ohio. Some of these
bowlders are known to have come from
Lake Ontario. Bowlders of native cop-
per also occur, one of which M'as found
eight feet below the surface in excava-
tions carried on for the foundations of
the asylum west of the Scioto.

Civilized and Savag'e. — Professor
Semon, in his book In the Australian
Bush, characterizes the treatment of the
natives by the settlers as constituting,

142

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

on the whole, one of the darkest chapters
in the colonization of Australia. " Every-
Avhcre and always we find the same
process: the whites arrive and settle in
the hunting grounds of the blacks, who
have frequented them since the remotest
time. They raise paddocks, which the
blacks are forbidden to enter. They
breed cattle, which the blacks are not
allowed to approach. Then it happens
that these stupid savages do not know
how to distinguish between a marsupial
and a placental animal, and spear a calf
or a cow instead of a kangaroo, and tlie
Avhite man takes revenge for this mis-
deed by systematically killing all the
blacks that come before his gun. This,
again, the natives take amiss, and thi'ow

a spear into his back wlien he rides
through the bush, or invade his house
when he is absent, killing his family and
servants. Then arrive the ' native po-
lice,' a troop of blacks from another
district, headed by a white officer. They
know the tricks of their race, and take
a special pleasure in hunting down their
own countrymen, and they avenge the
farmer dead by killing all the blacks in
the neighborhood, sometimes also their
women and children. This is the al-
most tj'pical progress of colonization,
and even though such things are abol-
ished in the southeastern colonies and
in southeast and central Queensland,
they are by no means unheard of in the
north and west."

MINOK PARAGEAPHS.

In a brood of five nestling sparrow-
hawks, which he had the opportunity of
stvidying alive and dead, Dr. R. W. Shu-
feldt remarked that the largest and
therefore oldest bird was nearly double
the size of the youngest or smallest one,
while the three others were graduated
down from the largest to the smallest in
almost exact proportions. " It was evi-
dent, then, that the female had laid the
eggs at regular intervals, and very likely
three or four days apart, and that incu-
bation commenced immediately after the
first egg was deposited. What is more
worthy of note, however, is the fact that
the sexes of these nestlings alternated,
the oldest bird being a male, tlie next a
female, followed by another male, and so
on, the last or youngest one of all five
being a male. This last had a plumage
of pure white down, with the pin feath-
ers of the primaries and secondaries of
the wings, as Avell as the rectrices of the
tail, just beginning to open at their ex-
tremities. From this stage gradual de-
velopment of the plumage is exhibited
throughout the series, the entire plum- '
age of the males and females being very
dilferent and distinctive." If it be true,
as is possibly indicated, that the sexes
alternate in broods of young sparrow-
hawks as a regular thing, the author has
no explanation for tlie fact, and has
ne\er heard of any being olTercd.

AUCIIITKCTURE AND BUIT.DING givCS

the following interesting facts regard-
ing the building trades in Chicago: " Re-

ports from Chicago are that labor in
building lines is scarce. The scarcity
of men is giving the building trades
council trouble to meet the require-
ments of contractors. It is said that
half a dozen jobs that are ready to go
ahead are at a standstill because men
can not be had, particularly iron work-
ers and laborers — the employees first to
be employed in the construction of the
modern building. . It is also said that
wages have never been better in the
building line. The following is the
schedule of wages, based on an eight-
hour day: Carpenters, $3.40; electri-
cians, .$3.7.5; bridge and structural iron
workers, .$3.00; tin and sheet-iron work-
ers, $3.20; plumbers, $4; steam fitters,
$3.75; elevator constructors, $3; hoist-
ing engineers, $4; derrick men, $2; gas-
fitters, $3.75; plasterers, $4; marble cut-
ters, $3.50; gravel roofers, $2.80; boiler-
makers, $2.40; stone sawyers and rub-
bers, $3; marble enamel glassworkers'
helpers, $2.25; slate and tile roofers,
$3.80; marble setters' helpers, $2; steam-
fitters' helpers, $2; stone cutters, $4;
stone carvers, $5; bricklayers, .$4; paint-
ers, $3; hod carriers and building labor-
ers, $2; plasterers' hod carriers, $2.40;
mosaic and encaustic tile layers, $4;
helpers, $2.40."

Ix presenting the fourth part of his
memoir on The Tertiary Fauna of Flor-
ida (Transactions of the Wagner Free
Institute of Science, Philadelphia), Mr.
William Healey Dall observes that the

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

143

interest aroused in the explorations of
Florida by the Wagner Institute and its
friends and by the United States Geo-
logical Survey has resulted in bringing
in a constantly increasing mass of ma-
terial. The existence of Upper Oligo-
cene beds in western Florida containing
hundreds of species, many of which were
new, added two populous faunas to the
Tertiary series. It having been found
that a number of the species belonging
to these beds had been described from
the Antillean tertiaries, it became neces-
sary, in order to put the work on a
sound foundation, besides the review of
the species known to occur in the United
States, to extend the revision to the ter-
tiaries of the West Indies. It is believed
that the results will be beneficial in
clearing the way for subsequent students
and putting the nomenclature on a more
permanent and reliable basis.

The numerical system of the natives
of Murray Island, Torres Strait, is de-
scribed by the Eev. A. E. Hunt, in the
Journal of the Anthropological Society,
as based on two numbers — netat, one,
and neis, two. The numbers above two
are expressed by composition — neis-ne-
tat, three; neis i neis, or two and two,
four. Numbers above four are associ-
ated with parts of the body, beginning
with the little and other fingers of the
left hand, and going on to the wrist,
elbow, armpit, shoulder, etc., on the left
side and going down on the right side,
to 21 ; and the toes give ten numbers
more, to 31. Larger numbers are simply
" many."

President William Ortox, of the
American Association, in his address at
the welcoming meeting, showed, in the
light of the facts recorded in Alfred R.
Wallace's book on The Wonderful Cen-
tury, that the scientific achievements of
the present century exceed all those of
the past combined. He then turned to
the purpose of the American Associa-
tion to labor for the discovery of new
truth, and said: "It is possible that we
could make ourselves more interesting to
the general public if we occasionally
foreswore our loyalty to our name and
spent a portion of our time in restating
established truths. Our contributions
to the advancement of science are often
fragmentary and devoid of special inter-
est to the outside world. But every

one of them has a place in the great
temple of knowledge, and the wise mas-
ter builders, some of whom appear in
every generation, will find them all and
use them all at last, and then only will
their true value come to light."

NOTES.

The number of broods of seventeen-
year and thirteen-year locusts has be-
come embarrassing to those who seek to
distinguish tliem, and the trouble is com-
plicated by the various designations dif-
ferent authors have given them. The
usual method is to give the brood a num-
ber in a series, written with a Roman
numeral. Mr. C. L. Marlatt proposes a
regular and uniform nomenclature, giv-
ing the first seventeen numbers to the
seventeen-year broods, beginning with
that of 1893 as number I, and the next
thirteen numbers (XVIII to XXX) to
the thirteen-year broods, beginning with
the brood of 1842 and 1855 as number
XVIII.

Experimenting on the adaptability
of carbonic acid to the inflation of pneu-
matic tires, M. d'Arsonval, of Paris, has
found that the gas acts upon India rub-
ber, and, swelling its volume out enor-
mously, reduces it to a condition like
that following maceration in petroleum.
On exposure to the air the carbonic acid
passes away and the India rubber re-
turns to its normal condition. Carbonic
acid, therefore, does not seem well adapt-
ed to use in infiation. Oxygen is like-
wise not adapted, because it permeates
the India rubber and oxidizes it, but
nitrogen is quite inert and answers the
purpose admirably.

Mr. Gifford Pinciiot, Forester of
the Department of Agriculture, has an-
nounced that a few well-qualified per-
sons ■will be received in the Division of
Forestry as student-assistants. They
will be assigned to practical field work,
and will be allowed their expenses and
three hundred dollars a year. They are
expected to possess, when they come, a
certain degree of knowledge, which is
defined in Mr. Pinchot's announcement,
of botany, geology, and other sciences,
with good general attainments.

In a communication made to the gen-
eral meeting of the French Automobile
Club, in ]\Iay, the Baron de Zeylen enu-
merates 600 manufacturers in France
who have produced 5,250 motor-carriages
and about 10,000 motoi'-cycles ; 110 mak-
ers in England, 80 in Germany, 60 in
'the United States, 55 in Belgium, 25 in
Switzerland, and about 30 in the other

144

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

states of Europe. The manufacture out-
side of France does not appear to be
on a large scale, for only tlncc hundred
carriages are credited to other countries,
and half of these to Belgium. The United
States, however, promises to give a good
account of itself next time.

Mine No. 8 of the Sunday Creek
Coal Company, to which the American
Association made its Saturday excur-
sion from Columbus, Ohio, has recently
been equipped with electric power, which
is obtained by utilizing the waste gas
from the oil wells in the vicinity. This,
the Ohio State Journal says, is ihe first
mine in the State to make use of this
natural power.

In a bulletin relating to a " dilution
cream separator " which is now mar-
keted among farmers, the Purdue Uni-
versity Agricultural Experiment Station
refers to the results of experiments made
several years ago as showing that an in-
creased loss of fat occurs in skim milk
when dilution is practiced, that the loss
is greater with cold than with warm
water, and that the value of the skim
milk for feeding is impaired when it is
diluted. Similar results have been ob-
tained at other experiment stations. The
results claimed to be realized with the
separators can be obtained by diluting
the milk in a comparatively inexpensive
round can.

To our death list of men known in
science we have to add the names of
John Cordreaux, an English ornitholo-
gist, who was eminent as a student, for
thirty-six years, of bird migrations, and
Avas secretary of the British Associa-
tion's committee on that subject, at
Great Cotes House, Lincolnshire, Eng-
land, August 1st, in his sixty-ninth
year; he was author of a book on the
Birds of the Ilumber District, and of
numerous contributions to The Zoolo-
gist and The Ibis; Gaston Tissandier,
founder, and editor for more than twen-
tj' years, of the French scientific journal
La Nature, at Paris, August SOth, in
his fifty-seventh year; besides his devo-
tion to his journal, he was greatly in-
terested in aerial navigation, to which
he devoted much time and means in ex-
periments, and was a versatile author
of popular books touching various de-
j)artments of science; Judge Charles P.
Daly, of New York, who, as president
for thirty-six years of the American
Geographical Society, contributed very
largely to the encouragement and prog-
ress of geographical study in the Ihiited
States, Sei)tembcr 19th, in his eighty-
fourth year; he was an honorary mem-
ber of the Royal Geographical Society

of London, of the Berlin Geographical
Society, and of the Imperial Geograph-
ical Society of Russia; he was a judge
of the Court of Common Pleas of New
York from 1844 to 1858, and after that
chief justice of the same court continu-
ously for twenty-seven years, and was
besides, a publicist of high reputation,
whose opinion and advice were sought
by men charged with responsibility con-
cerning them on many important State
and national questions; Henri Levegne
de Vilmorin, lirst vice-president of the
Paris School of Horticulture; 0. G.
Jones, Physics Master of the City of
London School, from an accident on
the Dent Blanche, Alps, August 30th;
Ambrose A. P. Stewart, formerly in-
structor in chemistry in the Lawrence
Scientific School, and afterward Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the Pennsylvania
State College and in the University of
Illinois, at Lincoln, Neb., September
13th ; Dr. Charles Fayette Taylor, found-
er of the New Y^ork Orthopedic Dis-
pensary, and author of articles in the
Popular Science Monthly on Bodily
Conditions as related to Mental States
(vol. xv), Gofio, Food, and Physique
(vol. xxxi), and Climate and Health
(vol. xlvii), and of books relating to
his special vocation, died in Los An-
geles, CaL, January 25th, in his seventy-
second year.

Efforts are making for the forma-
tion of a Soppitt Memorial Library of
jNIycological Literature, to be presented
to the Yorkshire (England) Naturalists'
Union as a memorial of the services ren-
dered to mycological science and to
Y'orkshire natural history generally, by
the late Mr. H. T. Soppitt.

The United States Department of
Agriculture has published, for general
information and in order to develop a
wider interest in the subject, the His-
tory and Present Status of Instruction
in Cooking in the Public Schools of New
Y^ork ('ity, by Mrs. Louise E. Hogan, to
which an introduction is furnished by
A. C. True, Ph. D.

The United States Weather Bureau
publishes a paper On Lightning and
Electricity in the Air, by Alexander G.
McAdic, representing the present knowl-
edge on the subject, and, as supplemen-
tary to it or forming a second part. Loss
of Life and Property by Electricity, by
Alfred J. Henry.

A GIFT of one thousand dollars has
been made to the research fund of the
American Association for the Ailvance-
ment of Science l)y ]\Ir. Emerson McMil-
lin, of New Y'^ork.

FREDERICK C. SEL0U8.

APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE

MONTHLY.

DECEMBER, 1899.

EXACT METHODS IX SOCIOLOGY.

By franklin' H. GIDDINGS, Ph. D.,
peofessob of sociology in columbia university.

THOSE who do pioneer work in science encounter not only
tlie inherent difficulties of research and interpretation, but
also the misapprehension of certain educated men whose distinc-
tive gift is a fatal genius for applying false standards of measure-
ment to the progress of thought. Seizing upon some branch of
knowledge that is in a state of vigorous development, when its
newer results are out of harmony with its earlier hypotheses, such
critics love to point out these contradictions, and try to prove that
the branch in question is no science at all, and that its teachers
are hardly worthy of respectful consideration.

The history of science contains many interesting chapters per-
taining to this kind of criticism and the fate that has invariably
overtaken it. "When Copernicus and Galileo showed the absurd-
ity of the Ptolemaic astronomy, the theologians enjoyed themselves
for a time, as they demonstrated — to their own entire satisfaction — ■
the folly of all rationalistic attempts to explain what revelation
only could make clear. When Darwin explained the origin of
species through variation and natural selection, the pretensions of
biology were completely exploded by its lay and clerical critics
(they thought and said so) by the extremely simple device of the
" deadly parallel column," Was not Cuvier a great anatomist,
and had he ever taught this nonsense about the mutability of spe-
cies? Was not Agassiz the most learned naturalist alive, and what
had he to say about Darwinian vagaries? Had he not proved,
over and over again, that the very concept of the species was the

TOL. LTI. — 12

146 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

notion of a group of characteristics that could not possibly change
or be changed from generation to generation? In more recent
years we have again seen the same method of reducing science
to a variety show for the entertainment of the tired general reader
applied to both biology and psychology. Weismann has tried to
prove that acquired characteristics are not transmitted in heredity,
and that the germ plasm is distinct from the somatic cells. The
neo-Lamarckians, Spencer, Cope, and some of the botanists have
contended for the older interpretation. Is biology, then, a sci-
ence? Forbid the thought! Heaven preserve our minds from
such confusion!

If the sociologists have hoped that they alone might not be
overtaken by easy annihilation, they deserve to be humiliated.
But it is safe to say that they have cherished no such illusions.
If the men who have devoted much time to the scientific explana-
tion of society have had no other qualification for their task, they
have at least shown some acquaintance with the history of thought.
And so it is not likely that they have suffered deeply from disen-
chantment when they have been confronted with the regulation
exposure of " the present position " of their science.

There is no need of wasting space to prove that the kind of
criticism here referred to is without scientific value. The present
position of any science can not be determined by arraying its con-
tradictions and inconsistencies, irrespective of a serious attempt to
ascertain which of its concepts and hypotheses have inherent vital-
ity. It is precisely when a science is at its best, surely advancing
year by year and full of promise for the future, that contradic-
tions most abound in its monographs and text-books.

A true scientific criticism, then, must proceed by a different
method. The present position of a science can be ascertained only
by instituting three specific inquiries, namely: First, among the
more or less contradictory conceptions and hypotheses which con-
stitute its groundwork, what ones are surely displacing all others
and gaining the wider acceptance among active students? Second,
what progress is being made in the application of exact methods
to research? Third, is there a practical or working harmony be-
tween the concepts that are gaining ground and the more exact
methods of research that are being perfected? Do the concepts
and hypotheses lend themselves to exact methods, and do they, on
the whole, help to perfect methods? Do improving methods, on
the whole, confirm or strengthen the concepts that are gaining
wider acceptance?

If these inquiries are applied in the domain of sociology they
bring to light immistakable evidence of a steady and gratifying

EXACT METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY. 147

progress toward scientific consistency and rigor of method. Muck
babble about social ills and possible reforms still masquerades as
social science. A great deal of loose thinking and slipshod inves-
tigation is paraded as expert opinion on questions of social wel-
fare. But no one who has seriously followed the efforts of scien-
tifically trained minds to discover the natural laws of social evo-
lution is in any danger of confounding the results thus far
obtained with the chatter over every passing fad. In the more
serious work itself there is found a vigorous and hopeful disagree-
ment of opinion upon all unsettled questions. But the fact of real
significance is that the disputation has become intensive. The
debate no longer ranges over a wide field. A selective process
has eliminated one after another the more loose and vague con-
ceptions of the science, the irrelevant issues, and the superficial
analogies. There has been a progressive concentration of atten-
tion upon a group of closely related and fundamental problems.

The sociology of August Comte was little more than a highly
intelligent and quickening talk about social order and progress.
It convinced thoughtful men that there is a social order to be
studied in a scientific spirit and by scientific methods, and that
social progress conforms to laws that may be discovered. Mr.
Spencer narrowed the field of sociological inquiry and gave pre-
cision of statement to all social problems by bringing them within
the formulas of universal evolution. He still further narrowed
the field by demonstrating the close relationship of social phe-
nomena to the phenomena of organic evolution and by seizing upon
certain psychological facts as chief factors in social causation. All
fruitful later work in social interpretation has been a further con-
centration of investigation upon the psychic factors. While ad-
mitting that social as well as mental phenomena are subsumed
under biological phenomena, and that the parallelism of social
organization to biotic organization is real, the younger students
of sociology have developed the science as an offshoot of psychol-
ogy, and have dropped the biological analogy as unfruitful for
purposes of research. The pioneer in this movement was Dr.
Lester F. Ward, whose masterly analysis of the psychic factors of
social phenomena gave the right direction for all time to socio-
logical inquiry, and whose emphasis of the importance of reason
and volition in the social process, although it has not yet received
the attention that it merits, is destined to be fruitful in coming
years.

To the further study of the psychological foundations of so-
ciety practically all the valuable work on fundamental social
problems has been given during the past ten years. Tarde has

148 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

given us profound studies of imitation and invention; Gumplo-
wicz and Lc Bon, of the psychology of races and culture groups;
]S^ovico^v, of the psychology of conflict and toleration; Le Bon
and Durkheim, of the psychology of crowds, of co-operation, and
of the division of labor; Baldwin, of the psychology of the social
unit — the socius.

Thus it appears that w^hile sharp disagreements of opinion still
exist relative to the priority or the generality of one or another of
these psychic factors in the social process, discussion has focused
about the psychological phenomena themselves. There has been
a progressive limitation of the field and an increasing definiteness
of conception and hypothesis.

My own effort, if now I may be pardoned for referring to it,
has been to restrict the field yet further, and to make the prob-
lems of sociology yet more specific. I have contended that these
psychological phenomena which have been seized upon for pur-
poses of sociological interpretation are still too vaguely conceived.
They are often disclosed to the inquirer in purely individual as
well as in social aspects. The lines of inquiry between the study
of mind in general, of mind as individual, and of mind as mani-
festing itself socially in the concert or co-operation of a number
of individual minds, have not been drawn with sufficient precision.
I have tried to show that the psychological phenomena that Ward,
Tarde, Gumplowicz, ISTovicow, Le Bon, Durkheim, Baldwin, and
others have so admirably analyzed as psychic factors of society are
social when, and only when, they have certain coefficients, name-
ly: (1) The coefficient of resemblance — that is, a fundamental
similarity of individuals to one another underlying and, on the
whole, dominating their innumerable differences; (2) the coeffi-
cient of awareness or consciousness of resemblance — that is to say,
certain feelings, perceptions, or thoughts of resemblance, which
give rise to varied prejudices and preferences that facilitate or
prevent effective co-operation. Whether this contention of mine
will prevail, wliether tliere will ultimately be a general agreement
among sociologists that these coefficients of resemblance and con-
sciousness of kind are the true differentia of social phenomena,
time and further research must determine.

The second inquiry through which w^e may learn somewhat of
the present position of sociology relates to the development of
method. Exact method in social research is statistical. Wher-
ever w^e can obtain numerical data within the domain of social
phenomena, there we arrive at exact or quantitative knowledge.
The development and application of statistical methods to social
problems has been one of the most striking scientific achievements

EXACT METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY. 149

of tlie present century. When Quetelet, in 1835, publislied liis
great work, Sur VHomme et le Developpement de ses Facultes, he
laid the foundation for a thorough statistical investigation of psy-
chological and sociological no less than of anatomical phenomena.
And after the publication, in 1846, of his work, Sur la Theorie des
Prohahilites appliquees aux Sciences morales et politiques, followed,
in 1848, by Du Systeme social et des Lois qui le regissent, there
was a rapid development of statistical methods in precision, and of
attempts to extend the statistical method to groups of facts which
had until then been studied only from a purely qualitative or, at
best, a vaguely comparative point of view. At the present time
every subdivision of descriptive sociology draws data from rich
collections of statistical materials, and employs statistical methods
for the further extension of knowledge.

Thus, in the study of the social population, statistical methods
are employed not only to give the total number of inhabitants
dwelling within a given territory and the degree of density of
population per square mile, but also to show to what extent popu-
lation increases by births in excess of deaths, to what extent by
immigration in excess of emigration, and to what extent the com-
position of the population is rendered complex by the intermin-
gling of many nationalities. The character of a population, also,
and its social capacities are in a large measure statistically investi-
gated. General intelligence is studied by means of statistics of liter-
acy and illiteracy; industrial preferences by statistics of occupation;
habits of industry by statistics of the number in every thousand
of the total population who regularly follow gainful occupations;
frugality by statistics of savings, insurance, and home ownership;
and the amount of communication, whereby assimilation and co-
operation are rendered possible, by statistics of travel, mail, and
telegraphic service.

Passing to that study of concerted feeling, thought, and pur-
pose which may be called a study of the social mind, and which
constitutes the second great division of descriptive sociology, we
find that it can be carried on, and that to a great extent it is prose-
cuted, by means of statistical research. 'We have statistics incom-
plete, but admitting of perfection, of those impulsive, emotional
disturbances of masses of men which take the form of strikes, insur-
rections, lynchings, and revivals. The report of the United States
Department of Labor on strikes, published in 1894, and a recently
published monograph by Dr. Frederick S. Hall on Sympathetic
Strikes, show the possibilities of this method whenever it shall be
exhaustively applied. It could be successfully applied to the other
phenomena mentioned. By painstaking effort and a sufficient ex-

150 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

penditiire of money the data could be obtained. Lombroso and
Laschi, in their work, Le Crime polUique et les Revolutions, liave
made a beginning toward the collection of statistics of insurrec-
tions and revolutions. More exact, at present, are our statistics
of the rational working of the minds of large numbers of men in
communication and co-operation. These we have in the familiar
form of election returns, which show ns the decisions that com-
munities make on questions of public policy and administration.
This information could be increased by the application of statis-
tical analyses to the vast body of statute law and judicial decisions.
A beginning of such work has been made in the valuable Bulletin
of State Legislation, published by the New York State Library.

In the third division of descriptive sociology — that, namely,
which treats of social organization — the application of statistical
method is proceeding with great rapidity. We have not only sta-
tistics (yearly improving in quality) of marriage and divorce, of
the organization of all governmental departments, military and
civil, of chartered corporations, of religious and educational socie-
ties, but also of the thousands of associations formed for the pro-
motion of special interests, recreation, scientific research, art and
literature, and philanthropy. Every year the statistical informa-
tion on these matters, included in such compilations as The World
Almanac, becomes not only more extensive but more precise.

Yet more abundant are the statistical accumulations pertain-
ing to that fourth and last division of descriptive sociology which
treats of the social welfare — of the functioning of society, of the
ends for which it exists. We have statistics of prosperity, of the
accumulation and distribution of wealth, of the expansion and con-
traction of credit, and of business failures. We have statistics of
longevity. We ascertain improving sanitary conditions by changes
in the death rate. We learn by statistical methods of the increase
or decrease of accident and death due to public disorder or mal-
administration. We ascertain through educational statistics the
decrease of illiteracy and superstition. And by the same means
we ascertain the dimensions of pauperism and of crime. ISTot only
so, but, by a certain refinement of statistical method, applied by
competent men like Sir Francis Galton, we ascertain the increase
or decrease and the distribution of the higher manifestations of
intellectual ability and moral character.

Thus the whole field of descriptive sociology is being more and
more exhaustively studied by statistical methods that are yearly
improving in precision. So far, then, as may be judged from the
development of its methods, no science at the present time is mak-
ing surer and better progress than sociology, and none is offering

EXACT METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY. 151

to the general public conclusions based upon more exact methods
of induction.

Let us now look at the relations which the development of
statistical method bears to that development of fundamental
conceptions, which has already been described. Do we here dis-
cover increasing harmony, a tendency toward co-ordination, or
have analyses of concepts, on the one hand, and developments
of statistical method, on the other hand, followed diverging
lines ?

There can be no possible doubt of the answer that must be
made to these questions. Conceptions and methods are in as per-
fect accord as can be discovered in any branch of science. The
merest glance over the field of social statistics shows that, for the
most part, they record and classify phenomena that are essentially
psychological. In working from the general theory of evolution
through the biological parallelism down to psychological premises,
analytical sociology has been doing in one way precisely what sta-
tistics have been doing in another. The moment we pass from
statistics of density and distribution of population we find our-
selves dealing next with groups of facts that are biological (the
facts, namely, of distribution according to sex and age periods),
through facts that are partly biological and partly psychological
in character (the facts, namely, of nationality), and then, leaving
these behind, we deal henceforth entirely with facts that belong-
to the mental and moral categories. To name them would be
only to repeat the categories already enumerated: the statistics
of intelligence, industry, and moral character, of emotional or
rational social action, of various forms of organization for the
achievement of as many different purposes, and of the develop-
ment of the conscious personality of man as a result of his social
relations and activities.

]^ot only is this true, but the further interesting fact may be
discovered that social statistics of every category employed or
known are based upon a frank recognition of that coefiicient of
resemblance, physical or mental, which I have contended is a mark
of social phenomena. The first step in statistical tabulation is
classification, and classification invariably starts from an assump-
tion of real or supposed resemblance, l^ot to dwell on such fun-
damental distinctions as those of color, race, and nationality, we
encounter the more special resemblances of agreement in religious
belief, agreement in industrial preference, agreement in political
conviction (as shown in election returns), similar susceptibility to
emotionalism, similar capacities for rational comprehension, simi-
lar imperfections of nature, which result in lives of crime or pau-

152 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

perism. Remove from social statistics tliis postulate tliat blood
kinship or mental resemblance between one social unit and an-
other is the basis of social phenomena, and the statistics them-
selves would cease to exist.

Statistics reveal also the consciousness which men have of their
resemblances and their differences. It is statistically known that
the geographical distribution of nationalities is not accidental or
capricious. Immigrant Italians, Germans, and Scandinavians find
their way to those parts of the country where men of their own
blood and speech are already established. Intermarriages of men
and women of different nationalities are statistically known to
be frequent where no differences of religion exist, and infrequent
where different nationalities profess different faiths. The statis-
tics of political elections are quite as much statistics of the con-
sciousness of kind as of differences of mental type itself.

The most significant fact of all, however, has still to be named.
It is this: From the first known beginnings of statistical research
to the present time every extension of statistical inquiry has been
in a large measure due to the consciousness of kind. The first
statistical surveys of communities of which we have any record
were such tribal enumerations as those recorded in the book of
ISTumbers, the avowed object of which was to ascertain the strength
and resources of the various tribes by clans, lesser gentile groups,
and households, not more for utilitarian reasons than for the grati-
fication of gentile and tribal pride. The census taken in Greece
in 594 B. c. was for the purpose of dividing the people into four
classes and levying taxes according to wealth. The constitution
of Servius Tullius, 550 b. c, distinguished six property classes, and
the attempt to determine these statistically was one of the earliest
experiments in census-making at Rome. The Domesday Book of
William I (1086) is the first great statistical document in Eng-
lish history, and its origin was due to a desire to know not only
the military and fiscal strength of the nation, but also its class dis-
tinctions and feudal relationships. The great stimulus given to
statistical investigation by the Trench Revolution was an obvious
product of class feeling. Most of the refinements of statistical
inquiry in later years have had a like origin. Such, for example,
was the cause of the discrimination in our own census of the for-
eign born from the native born, and of the native born of foreign
parents from both native and foreign born. Such has been the
cause of the attempt to get more exact statistics of religious de-
nominations, of labor organizations, and of the distribution of
wealth. Had there been no reason for including these costly in-
quiries in statistical investigations, except that of their general

EXACT METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY. 153

utilitj and scientific interest, tlie appropriation for tliem would
have been denied in Congress without an instant's hesitation.
They have been included because of the political deference given
to class feeling and to various forms of religious and educational
prejudice.

Thus there is seen to be a remarkable interdependence of sta-
tistical method and psychological analysis in the development of
sociological research. Analysis and method have converged upon
the same postulates, and it is apparently by the development of
methods frankly founded upon these postulates that our socio-
logical knowledge is to be further increased.

It would be a great mistake, however, to assume that socio-
logical knowledge is to be increased only by the further collec-
tion and interpretation of numerical data. Careful monographic
description and historical research must continue to be important
sources of both information and hypothesis. The great defects of
monographic work, both descriptive and historical, are, first, a cer-
tain lack of pre'cision, attributable to the large part played in
investigation by the individual judgment of the student (the lack
of objective tests by which his subjective impressions may be crit-
ically examined); second, a certain incompleteness, attributable
to a failure to separate each inquiry into all its scientific sub-
divisions and to attempt to obtain desired data under each subdi-
vision, as is done in statistical investigation where, in every table,
as many topics as there are scientific subdivisions of the general
subject are represented by columns, and an entry of some kind is
made in every column.

I wish now to point out the possibility of giving greater pre-
cision to monographic work in sociology by the introduction of
quasi-statistical methods — methods that are essentially quantita-
tive in an algebraic sense, though they are not numerical.

Social phenomena have the interesting characteristic that small
forces, while never lost in that composition of forces which deter-
mines the ultimate equilibrium of the social system, often count
for absolutely nothing in the practical affairs of a given genera-
tion. If, for example, Mr. Bryan and a Democratic Congress had
been elected in 1896, the practical consequences for the United
States would have been much the same whether the Democratic
plurality had been one hundred thousand, half a million, or two
or three millions. This is but one example of a large class of
facts. Social phenomena are more often than not determined by
a mere matter of more or less, rather than by the exact amount
or degree of more or less. The determination is algebraic rather
than arithmetical. Is the element under investigation a positive

154 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

or a negative quantity? Is its sign plus or minus? That is usu-
ally tlie important question for the sociological student.

Now it happens that a great many investigations in descriptive
sociology do not as yet admit of the introduction of exact statis-
tical— that is, arithmetical — inquiries V7hich, nevertheless, do ad-
mit the use of algebraically quantitative methods. In the mono-
graphic description of a community many questions arise which
can not be answered by the entry of figures in a column, but which
could be answered by entering in a column a symbol indicat-
ing that a certain trait, habit, or choice could be predicated of a
large majority, or of a small majority, or of only a large minority,
or of only a small minority of the entire population. That is to
say, it often happens that an observer who can not take a perfect
census (getting answers to all his questions from every individual
in the community), and who therefore can not fill out his columns
with arithmetical values, can, by such interviewing as is possible
to him and by such an examination of the objective products of
social activity as are open to the inspection of any one who chooses
to observe them critically, determine with absolute certainty
whether certain things are true of majorities or only of minorities.

Suppose, for example, that a traveler is studying an out-of-the-
way settlement, or a tribe, which presents many points of interest
that are comparatively novel. All who are familiar with the nar-
ratives of travel and exploration which Mr. Spencer has used as
data for his Descriptive Sociology are aware that they are almost
totally devoid of system. The reader is told that such marriage
customs, such clan relationships, such political institutions, such
industrial operations, have been observed. The all-important co-
efficient is left out. What the student of sociology would most
of all like to know is how many individuals in the community mani-
fest such or such a trait; how many have such or such a habit;
how many profess such or such a belief; how many adhere to this
organization, how many to that. But since this exact arithmet-
ical knowledge usually can not be obtained within the limited time
and under the circumstances of a traveler's researches, he should
try to get at least partially quantitative results by noting in every
instance whether the phenomenon observed is true of a majority
or only of a minority of the people under investigation.

This simple method admits of a high degree of refinement by
the obvious device of subdividing the total human mass under ob-
servation into enumeration units. If, for example, we are study-
ing the social character and activities of the people of the United
States, we may take the fifty Commonwealths and Territories as
enumeration units. Making out a tabular form, we may enter

EXACT METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY. 155

in the left-hand column the names of the several States and Ter-
ritories. At the top of successive columns, counting from left to
right, we may enter words designating the social phenomena to
be observed. Then, taking the States and Territories in order, we
may enter opposite the name of each a symbol indicating that a
majority large or small, or a minority large or small, of the in-
habitants of the State or Territory in question manifests the trait
or follows the activity, or belongs to the social organization desig-
nated at the top of the column. The symbols that I have found
most convenient in use are these: For a large majority, a double
plus sign thus, -H-; for a small majority, a single plus sign thus, +;
for a large minority, a double plus sign in a circle thus, © ; for
a small minority, a single plus sign in a circle thus, © .

The great possibilities in this method of giving precision to
observations and records of the facts of social psychology and ac-
tivity become daily more obvious to students w^ho practice it with
reasonable care. Almost any desired degree of accuracy can be
attained by taking smaller and smaller enumeration units. Thus,
if I wish to form and to record my judgment as to whether the
people of the United States as a whole manifest a high, a medium,
or a low degree of general intelligence, I seem to be raising a ques-
tion that admits of little better answer than a statement of vague
impressions. But let me take a concrete measure of high general
intelligence — for example, the general intelligence of a town noted
for its large proportion of scientific and professional men, its
graded schools, its satisfactory school attendance, and its low per-
centage of illiteracy. Let me then subdivide the United States
into fifty parts — namely, the Commonwealths and Territories — ■
and let me enter in a column opposite the name of each a symbol
indicating that, as compared wdth the general intelligence of the
town which I have taken as a standard, a large majority or a small
majority, or a large minority or only a small minority, of the
people in that Commonwealth are of the high general intelligence ;
that a large majority or a small majority, or a large minority or
only a small minority, are of medium intelligence; and that a large
majority or a small majority, or a large minority or a small minor-
ity, are of low intelligence. Obviously, when I have completed this
process I have subjected my vague general impression that the peo-
ple of the United States as a whole are of high, medium, or low gen-
eral intelligence to a certain correction and measure. I count up
the entries in my columns. I discover that I have made, let us
say, nine entries indicating that a large majority of the people in
each of nine States are of high intelligence. I find that I have
made, let us say, eighteen entries indicating that in each of eight-

156 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

een States a small majority of tlie people are of low general in-
telligence; and this mere counting of the entries may show me
that, when taking the States one by one, I have made a somewhat
different estimate of the general intelligence of the people of the
entire country from that which I made when looking at all the
people of the country as an undivided mass.

If still unsatisfied with my judgment, I may proceed to sub-
divide each State into its counties, and take the counties as enu-
meration units. I may go through the process of recording my
judgments by entering symbols in the several columns of my table,
and at the end I may again count up my totals of high, medium,
and low intelligence. Obviously, I can do this work only if I am
able to travel through every county in the United States, and, by in-
terviews with people, by forming general impressions and by vis-
iting schools, get a fairly definite idea of the relative intelligence
of each civil division; or if, being unable to make this personal
inquiry, I resort to printed information — namely, educational re-
ports, miscellaneous public documents, historical records, newspa-
pers, and other objective data throwing light upon the intellectual
status of these various divisions. This, I find, is an enormous
labor; but if I conscientiously perform it I correct my subjective
impressions, and there is a fair presumption that my final result
is a judgTuent vastly nearer the truth than was my first general
impression of the intelligence of the whole undivided mass of the
American population.

Thus the conscientious use of the method which I have sug-
gested insures, in the interest of precision, two important modi-
fications of ordinary sociological description: First, it subjects the
purely subjective processes of judgment to a certain correction and
measurement; secondly, it leads the observer step by step, and
almost unconsciously, to resort more and more to definite objec-
tive data in place of first impressions.

Essentially the same method, by slight modifications of detail,
may be extended to historical inquiries. How often do we en-
counter in historical monographs the statement that, since a cer-
tain date, there has been a marked increase of this or that activity,
or that such a trait or such a habit, occasionally observed half a
century ago, is now characteristic of whole sections or popula-
tions! To the credit of the historians, it must be said that careful
men seldom make such statements without offering in substantia-
tion of them a certain amount of objective evidence. But the
method is loose, and it has the radical defect of permitting such
terms as " increase " and " decrease," " great increase " and " great
decrease " to stand for different quantities when applied to differ-

EXACT METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY. 157

ent phenomena under examination in the same treatise. There
is no uniformity of measurement. !Now, it is easy to introduce
uniformity, even where arithmetical values are not kno\vn. It is
possible to know that we are applying the same method of meas-
urement when we say that, since 1850, there has been a " great "
multiplication of lynchings in the United States that we apply when
we say that there has been a " great " increase of population, al-
though, in the case of the lynchings, we have not arithmetical
values, while in the case of the increase of population we have.

This can be done in the following way: Distinguish and des-
ignate degrees of increase or decrease by symbols thus: Ko change,
= 0; absolute increase but relative decrease, = + 1; absolute in-
crease with no relative decrease, = + 2 ; great absolute increase
without relative decrease, = + 3; absolute and relative increase,
= + 4; absolute decrease but relative increase, =^—1; absolute
decrease without relative increase, = — 2 ; great absolute decrease
without relative increase, = — 3; absolute and relative decrease,
= -4.

ISTow let the historian who wishes to pass in review the quanti-
tative changes that have occurred since a given time — for exam-
ple, 1850 — before he puts on paper his impressions, based upon
such evidence as he has been able to collate, put down all these
s;yTnbols against the name of each of the social phenomena which
he is studying. He will instantly see that he is trying to apply
to each of the phenomena whose changes he wishes to record a
certain scale of measurement, and he at once asks himself: What
do I really mean by such a term as " relative " increase or decrease
when contrasted with " absolute " increase or decrease; and what
do I mean by such a term as " great " increase or decrease when
contrasted with such a term as " increase " or " decrease " without
a modifying word? The moment he puts these questions before
his mind he will feel a sinking of heart as he reviews the pages
in which he has confidently told his readers that such " absolute "
and " relative " changes have from time to time occurred, and re-
flects that he has seldom been consistent in his use of these terms.

How, then, shall he attain consistency and precision? To be
consistent and precise in the use of the word " relative " it is
necessary to make at the outset an arbitrary choice of a term of
comparison, just as in making comparative judgments of such a
phenomenon as general intelligence it is necessary to take as a
standard the phenomenon as observed in a particular community.
The most suitable term of comparison for all judgments of increase
or decrease in social phenomena is the increase or decrease of popu-
lation per square mile within the 'area and during the period stud-

158 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

icd. The increase of population is aritlimetically measured, and
it stands in relations of direct causation to every social change.
The historian, therefore, in forming his judgments of relative in-
crease or decrease should always take the increase or decrease of
population per square mile as his term of comparison.

What meaning, finally, shall be attached to the word " great "
■when the historian wishes to distinguish " great " increase or
" great " decrease from " increase " or " decrease " in general, and
absolute statistics are not available? There is one, and, as far as
I can see, only one, perfectly satisfactory procedure.

Let the investigator subdivide the community which he is study-
ing into enumeration units according to the method suggested
above for the descriptive monograph. Let him then make as
many tables as there are ten-year periods in the general historical
period that he is investigating. That is to say, let him make a
table for 1850, for 18G0, for 1870, for 1880, and for 1890. Let
him then proceed according to the method laid down for the descrip-
tive monograph, entering opposite each Commonwealth the symbol
for majority or minority, thus showing by States, for each of the
ten-year periods, the prevalence of the trait or activity under in-
vestigation. Suppose, for example, that the phenomenon studied
is the growth of popular interest in prize fighting since 1850. The
historian shoiild begin by asking. In what States, if any, in 1850
were large majorities of the people interested in prize fights to
the extent of countenancing them and eagerly following their
progress? In what States w-ere only small majorities so inter-
ested, in what States only large minorities, and in what ones
only small minorities? The best answers that the historian can
make to these questions, after examining all the evidence that he
can command, he should record by entering the proper symbol
against each State, after which he should repeat the procedure
for the date 1860, for the date 1870, and so on. When his tables
are thus completed, he should count up the number of entries of
each symbol in each table. If then he finds that in less than half
of his enumeration units — i. e., in less than half of all the States
and Territories — small minorities have become large minorities,
large minorities have become small majorities, or small majorities
have become large, he will be justified in concluding that there
has been an increase, but not a "great" increase, in popular in-
terest in prize fighting. If, how^ever, he discovers that these
changes have occurred in more than half of his enumeration units,
he can say with reason that the increase of interoBt in prize fight-
ing has been " great."

Cases may arise in which a correction of the judgment thus

EXACT METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY. 159

formed maj be necessary. It might be erroneous to say that
there had been no great increase of interest in prize fighting if it
were discovered that the increase had occurred in two or three
Commonwealths only, but that in them it had been phenomenal.
The method itself, however, reveals the necessity for correction
in such eases and measures the error; for, obviously, a phenomenal
increase or decrease in any one enumeration unit would be dis-
closed by a dropping of the intermediate symbols between © and
-ff-. That is to say, small minorities would become majorities, or
great majorities would become small minorities, within an inter-
val during which lesser changes were occurring elsewhere.

Thus, by taking a little trouble, the historian can apply one
constant measure to his judgments of increase and decrease, as he
reviews social changes. He must subdivide his community into
enumeration units, and against each unit, at each convenient date,
he must enter a record of his judgment that the trait, activity,
interest, or relation imder investigation can be predicated of a large
or of only a small majority, of a large or of only a small minority,
of the individuals composing the enumeration unit. He must
then count up the changes from minority to greater minority or
to majority, or from majority to minority. Conscientiously fol-
lowing this method, the historian ;nay often make comparisons of
great precision, when otherwise his comparisons, made without ref-
erence to a common measure, would be little more than suppo-
sitions.

Following such methods as these, the writers of descriptive and
historical monographs can increase our approximately exact socio-
logical knowledge. Constructing and filling out such tables as
have been described, they can bring to light serious gaps in our
numerical statistics, and they can thereby suggest and stimulate
new statistical inquiries. Thus co-operating, the descriptive writ-
ers, the historians, and the statisticians can in time perfect our
descriptive sociology, and, co-operating with those students who are
completing the analysis of fundamental concepts, they can gradu-
ally give precision to our formulations of sociological law.

Bishop Creighton, o£ London, has characterized the present English
idea of education as embodying the supposition that " all the child had to do
was to sit still like a pitcher under a pump while an expert hand poured
in the proper amount of material for it to hold." His own view was that
the only education anybody really obtained was that which he gave him-
self. " The idea prevailing at the beginning of the century was that men
should read a good book, master its contents, and pursue for themselves the
lines of thought it suggested, and talk it over and make its ideas the sub-
ject of discussion among themselves. tNo system could surelj' be better."

i6o

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

VINLAIST) AKD ITS PwUIXS.

SOME OF THE EVIDENCES THAT NORTHMEN WERE IN
MASSACHUSETTS IN PRE-COLUMBIAN DAYS.*

By CORNELIA HOKSFOED.

TTTE evidences tliat aSTorthmen were in Massachusetts in pre-
Columbian days are drawn from two sources, geography and
archaeology. The archaeological evidence is found by comparing
certain ruins in Massachusetts with ruins of the Saga-time in Ice-
land, and also with the native and early European ruins on the
coast of I^orth America. The geographical evidence is found by

'm.4im,mAiQ^^fiai:iL-^i^'<: ^y. ftt

,w<

rV ,. "'■ --» ,>

Vvilr-l-O'-.'ff ",^7,^

rrrrww^ww'-

■^»..H.'-..-;,,i.-. -«. -■■">;..■ ■•■..,.-\-"---v--.. -

Plan of the House of Eric the Red in Iceland.

comparing the descriptions of the country called Yinland in Ice-
landic literature with the coast of ISTorth America.

The geographical data for this paper are taken from each and
all of the three oldest manuscript versions of the story of Vinland,
because they complement each other where the descriptions vary
in detail. These are called the Flat Island Book, Eric the Ked's
Saga, and Thorfinn Karlsefni's Saga.

If the coast of ISTorth America should repeat the same geo-
graphical features, it would obviously be impossible to determine
the site of Yinland by geography alone. Let us see if this is so.
It is stated in Eric the Red's Saga that Karlsefni's party, which

* A paper read before the Viking Club of London on December 16, 1898 ; also before
the Section of Anthropology of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
at the Boston meeting, August, 1898.

V INLAND AND ITS RUINS. 161

consisted of one hundred and sixty men and their live stock in
three vessels, after sailing southwest from Greenland for a number
of days and seeing two new countries, came to a certain cape.
" They cruised along the land and the land lay on the starboard. . . .
There were there an open, harborless coast and long strands and

An Indian Fireplace in Massachusetts!.

sand banks. And they went in boats to the land and found there
the keel of a ship, and they named it Keel Cape. And they gave
a name to the strands and called them Wonder Strands, because
they were long to sail by. Then the land became scored with bays,
and they steered the ships to the bays." * They remained here for
some time, but they had not yet seen the Vinland which Leif Erik-
son had found a few years before.

Thorhall started to seek for it " northward round Wonder-
strand and westward off Keel Cape." Therefore we must first
look for a cape, the trend of whose shore is north and south, with
open water west of it, and beyond that again land. This cape must
have a long, sandy, harborless coast, with sand banks on the east,
and it must be broken up into bays farther to the south, and one
of these bays must be large enough and deep enough for three
vessels, one of which could carry at least fifty men across the
Atlantic. The icelandic word " oroefi " which is used in this text
means " harborless," and is the descriptive local name of the con-
vex, sandy, unsheltered coast of southern Iceland (Oroefa), the
present Skaptafells district, from Stokksnes to Dyrholaey, This
gives a clear idea of wdiat we ought to look for along the coast
of Xorth America.

The eastern coast of Xorth America f shows us that, south of
rock-bound Labrador, the only places north of New York where

* The translations are from the Icelandic texts in The Finding of Wineland the Good
by Arthur Middleton Reeves. Henry Frowde, London.

t Chart of North Atlantic, No. 98. -Norie & Wilson, London.
VOL LVI. — 13

i62 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

capes are to be found jutting northward from the land are north-
ern Newfoundland, Cape Breton Island, the southern shores of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Cape Ann, and Cape Cod.

There is no stretch of open, harborless, sandy coast from
Cape Bauld to Cape Spear, with its steep, sterile, rocky shores.*
There are two or three stretches of unbroken coast from three

Icelandic Fireplace in supposed Norse Euin in MAPSAciirsETTsf.

to five miles long, north and south of Canada Bay, northwest of
Conception Bay, and northeast of Bonavista Bay, but these are
not the shores of capes jutting to the north, with long strands and
sand banks.

If we begin with Cape Breton and follow the coast northward
we find no extensive stretch of harborless coast until we reach
Island Point. From this point to Cape Smoke there is a compara-
tively unbroken coast about thirty miles in extent whose " head-
lands are composed of primary and metamorphic rocks, princi-
pally granite, with clay slate in nearly vertical strata, while sand-
stone, conglomerate, shale, limestone, and occasionally beds of
gypsum and red and yellow marl occur on the intervening shores." f
Here, then, there are not long strands and sand banks. Cape North
is a headland of slate one thousand feet high.ij: Dr. Gustav Storm,
of the University of Christiania, in his well-known book, Studier
over Yinlandsreiserne, etc., page 42, points out a resemblance be-
tween Cape Breton and Keel Cape, and states that the eastern
shores of Cape Breton Island are " specially described as low-lying
and sandy." According to the United States Hydrographic Office
Report, No. 99, page 289, the southeast coast of Cape Breton
Island from Michaux Point to Cape Gabarus "is low and has a
barren and rocky appearance, and the shore is broken into numer-
ous lakes and ponds, protected from the sea by beaches of gravel
and some small rocky islands and ledges. . . . Prom Cape Ga-
barus to Cape Breton, a distance of fifteen miles, the land is of
moderate height and the shore broken into coves and small har-
bors." Between Louisburg and Cape Breton, eight miles be-

* Belle Isle to Boston, No. lO'l. Noiie iV Wilson, London.

t United States Ilydrograpliic Office Report, No. 99, 1897, p. ^15. \ Und., p. 814.

V INLAND AND ITS RUINS.

163

yond, '' there are three small harbors, too intricate and rocky in
their entrances to admit vessels of any burden," and Cape Breton
itself is " low and rocky and covered with grassy moors." This is
unlike the open, harborless coast with long strands and sand banks
of the Sagas. Within the Gulf of St. Lawrence the capes which
jut to the north are Cape St. George,* with rocky, precipitous
cliffs six hundred feet above the sea; North Point,f on Prince Ed-
ward Island, which is broken about five miles down the coast by
Tignish River, and beyond that by the red sandstone cliff of Cape
Kildare; Escuminiac Point,:]: at the entrance to Miramichi Bay,
a broken coast with low sandstone cliffs; and Birch Point,* on
Miscou Island, with a steep cliff of sandstone ten feet high.

Campobello is a rocky island, and Cape Ann is rocky and has
no long, harborless coast.

Cape Cod || juts to the north with open water west of it, and
beyond that again land. It has also a long, harborless coast on
the east, with strands and sand banks, and is scored with bays
toward the south.

Cape Cod, then, is the only cape north of Sandy Hook which
corresponds to the description in the Saga, and near here we should
look for Vinland, leaving the southern shores until later.

Vinland, which was discovered by Leif Erikson, is only de-
scribed as Vinland in the Flat Island Book. This account states

10 Meters

Plan of supposed Norse Ruin in Massachusetts.

that Leif Erikson's party " came to a certain island which lay north
of the land." That Leif Erikson should have thought that Cape
Cod was an island is obvious, because it is impossible from the cape
to see the southern shore of Massachusetts Bay twenty miles away.

* United States Hydrographic Office Report, No. 100, 1897, p. 70.

f Ibid., pp. 130, 152, X Ibid.; p. 157. * Ibid., p. 173.

II United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, General Chart of the Coast, No. VII.

164

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

There is no need to explain why lie also believed it to lie north of
the land, as no one and final answer can be given, although sev-
eral can be easily suggested; that water and land again lay to the
west is clearly stated in all three accounts.

Afterward " they sailed into that sound which lay between the
island and the promontory which jutted northward from the land;
they steered in westward past the promontory. There was much

EIast Wall of a supposed Noksf, Rrix ix Massaciu'sett.s, showinu Laveks ok Tiuf

I'.KTWEEN THE StOXES.

shallow water at ebb tide, and then their ship stood up and then
it was far to look to the sea from their ship." Across the water
which lies between Cape Cod and the mainland is Rocky Point,
a high and therefore noticeable promontory jutting northward
from the land. Past this one can only continue westering to the
north, and thence we must now look along the land to find the
plare where, in the words of the Flat Island Book, " a certain
river flowed out of a certain lake," having, as was said before.

VINLAND AND ITS RUINS.

165

great shallows at its mouth at ebb tide, whence it was far to look
to the ocean.

Following round the inner coast of Cape Cod, we pass Plymouth
and on to Boston before we find in the Charles River and Boston
Back Bay a river flowing through a lake into the sea, where great
shallows at its mouth are a conspicuous feature and it is far to
look to the ocean.

West Wall of a supposed Norse Riix in Massachusetts, showing Layeus

BETWEEN the StoNES.

iV TuUF

At this point we may add one more feature to the description
of Keel Cape — that it appears to be an island when approached
from the north. ]^ow we can continue our search down the ^NTortli
Atlantic coast, noting that Sandy Hook is not scored with bays at
the south, and that Cape Henlopen and Cape Henry could not
have been mistaken for islands.*

* Chart of North Atlantic, No. 98. Norie & Wilson, London.

i66 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

There is one event described in all three versions of the Vinland
story — the battle with the natives. According to the Flat Island
Book, this battle took place in Vinland; according to the other
two Sagas, Vinland was supposed to be north of Keel Cape. But
in these Sagas it is said that this battle took place south of Keel
Cape, where Karsefni had found a river flowing througli a lake
into the sea.

It was this word south which led the Danish archaeologist Carl
Christian Rafn to think that Vinland was in Rhode Island. Al-
though there is no land south of Cape Cod (with the exception of
Nantucket Island) between Cape Cod and Santo Domingo, it is only
fair to look once more at Mount Hope Bay * (Rafn's Vinland) to
see whether it really corresponds to the description before us. The
Taunton River flows through Mount Hope Bay to the sea, but there
are no shallows here, and the mouth of the river looks directly out,
southward and not eastward, to the open ocean. In Boston Harbor,
m.oreover, are great tongues of land and islands such as are de-
scribed in Eric the Red's Saga. There is perhaps cause for com-
ment in the use of the word " f joll," fells or mountains (accord-
ing to Vigfusson f ), applied to the hills about Boston, of which
the highest, " Blue Hill," is seven hundred and ten feet high. If
" fells " is a correct translation, it would be unobjectionable.

One morning Karlsefni saw the natives in their skin boats row-
ing toward his house, from the south, past a promontory. It is
not difficult to find the only promontory past which canoes could
have come from the south between the mouth of the river and
Watertown, the head of navigation. Here, then, Leif Erikson and
Thorfinn Karlsefni should have built their houses, if this history
be true, because this place corresponds with the description of
Vinland, and also because Ave can find no o\\\vy j)hic(:' on the coast
like it.

Having found what appears to be the site of Thorfinn Karl-
sefni's houses, it is well to inquire next what the characteristic
features of the Norse houses of the Saga-time were, and what traces
one might hope to find after nearly nine hundred years.

Icelandic homesteads of that period usually consisted of a main
house, composed of three or four apartments and one or two out-
houses, built on the surface of the ground.

The walls were one and a half metres thick, and from one to
one and a half metres high, built of alternate layers of turf and
stones on the inside and on the (uitside, the space between being

* United States Coast anrl Geodetic Survey Chart, No. 1.*!. Cuttyhunk to Block Island.

f Icelandic- Kntrlisli Dictionaiv. !{. ("Icashy. Knlarjicd and coiiiplctcil hy (Jiidlirand
Viirfiissoii.

VJNLANl) AND ITS RC/IJVS.

167

filJed ill with earth. Often, however, the walls w^ere built entirely
of turf and earth, or with only disconnected rows of stones at the
base. Wood also was sometimes used. It is stated in Thorfinu
Karlsefni's Saga that some of the trees in Vinland were " so large
they w^ere laid in a house."

A long, narrow fireplace usually extended through the middle
of the principal room, and an essential feature was the cooking
fireplace, which was about one metre square. These were either
paved or surrounded by upright stones. The plan is of the ruin
of the house of Eric the Red in Haukadalr, Iceland. It shows the
different forms of fireplace, and that the walls, which were built of

Ancikxt Wall in Iiklanh, sikiwing Layers of Tiff between the Si'

turf, were one and a half metres thick. Outhouses w^ere often
dug into the hillside, and were sometimes walled up on the inside
with stone and turf. Ruins of such old settlements in Iceland are
usually low, grass-grown ridges and hollow^s.

When Professor Horsford first visited the site which his study
of maps and literature had led him to believe was Vinland, he
found a few hollows in the hillside and also some broad, low" ridges
on the level ground, indicating that a building about twenty metres
long by five metres broad had once stood there. There was also
a mound some distance away which has since proved to be of mod-
ern construction.

i68

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

No digging was done liere until after Professor Ilorsford's
death, with the exception of a few trenches across the supposed
site of Leif Erikson's house on the other side of the creek. In
1896, during a visit of Dr. Yaltyr Gudmundsson and Mr. Thor-
steinn Erlingsson, of Copenhagen and Iceland, extensive exca-
vations were made, leaving practically nothing unexamined at
this site.

Three kinds of earth were revealed. The upper layer was
of black loam from thirty to forty centimetres deep; below this
was a yellow soil of sand and clay thirty centimetres deep; and
below that again the sand and gravel which had remained undis-
turbed since the close of the Glacial epoch.

The ruins were at the junction of the black and yellow earth.
Throughout the black loam to the bottom, wherever we dug, within
or away from the ruins, w^ere scattered fragments of china, glass,
glazed pottery, nails, pipestems, broken bricks, etc., all belonging
to the period of the occupation of this region by the English.
Xone of these \vere found in places where their presence would
show^ that they belonged to or preceded these ruins. In the paved
pathway, which will be descril)ed later, a few pieces of brick lie
.—^ between the stones,

H^" T*' -. .»ejm.*' ^IjKff • ■^'^■^■•'"•■^■" but not deeper than
* ''* "'" " ' similar fragments of

brick were found in
the undisturbed earth
near 1)V, apparently
trodden in by the cat-
tle w^hich have been
pastui'ed there for
years. There were
also objects of abo-
riginal manufacture,
such as stone imple-
ments, pottery, pieces
of flint, etc. Occa-
sionally, at different levels, remains of fires were found, some of
which were merely thin layers of charcoal and ashes. There were,
however, two well-built fireplaces, in good condition, entirely un-
like each other. One of these was an Indian clambake, neatly
paved and piled wath ashes and unoi^ened clam shells. This lay
sixty-three centimetres below the sod. The photogi'aph is not of
this fireplace, but is a good exam])lo of all Indian firo])laces or clam-
bakes in Massachusetts.

The second fii-('])lace, which was about one metre square, sur-

Old Wall in a ("ellak in F

HI William ]Iknhy, Maine.

V INLAND AND ITS RUINS.

169

Old Wall at Wiv.i \\ ili.ia.m 11i,m;i

rounded by upright stones at the four corners and filled with oak
charcoal, but no ashes, was the distinctive feature of this ruin,
and resembled the cooking fireplaces of the Icelanders, The
absence of ashes has been accounted for by absorption in the
soft clay soil. Ashes
often disappear in
this way, but can be
detected with acids.
Although the out-
line of the walls of
the long house can
only be suggested,
the few stones which
were found at the
base of the old walls
were placed about a
metre and a half
apart, as in the walls of the Saga-time. This, so far as is known,
is peculiar to that period and race. Iroquois long houses were
constructed for communal use, and were usually from one hun-
dred to three hundred feet long. The chief traces left are fire
rows and kitchen middens. They are not known to have used
stone foundations, nor to have made any attempt at regularity of
outline. The drawing shows the method of construction of these
long houses, which were built only by the Indians of the Iroquois
tribe.

Depressions which appeared to be the sites of old huts were
in the hillside back of the terrace on which the long house stood,
but the roadway in front had apparently destroyed all but one of
these, and had also carried away the front wall of this.

This hut was four metres across the front, and may have been
five metres deep. When the sod, stones, and the clearings, which
had been thrown in from the cultivated field above, were all re-
moved, the remains of two side walls were found, supported and
protected by the upper portions of these same walls which had
slipped down from above and lay close to them, forming a com-
pact mass of earth and stones. None of the stones in this wall were
in contact with each other, being separated by two or three inches
of dark earth such as results from the decay of vegetable matter.
There was no fireplace. The manner of constructing these walls
was the counterpart of Icelandic work. I shall now show you how
this differs from post-Columbian cellars.

This is a photograph of a ruin in the Thjor's River Valley, in
Iceland. It shows the sod between the stones closely packed but

170

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

distinct. The stones in uur early English and French cellars prac-
tically touch each other, as in the old cellar in Fort William Henry,
in Maine. Sometimes broken stones fill the interstices, as in an-
other example of stonework at Fort AVilliam Henry. Mortar has
been used here more or less since the beginning of the seventeenth
century.

Although European or post-Columbian walls and cellars differ
considerably among themselves, it is within certain limits. Post-

r^-^Hfrr

mi'^

I :-.v""lj->,- ',;■C?■•'

?-<■.:,'■*'-) : :~-f^i:rr

' ■■>•-"'*

Supposed Norse Pathway in Massachusetts.

Columbian wnlU. <.r t'()iiii(hiti(^ii walls when built on the surface
of the ground, were practically homogeneous in character, the
French only attaining to one metre in thickness, whereas Icelandic
walls were disposed in three distinct parts, the inner and outer
sides being constructed in layers and the space between being filled
in with closely packed earth, while they were never less than a
metre and a half thick.

^'WSKSm'

^h

Southern Turn of si-pposed Norse Pathway.

172

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

i^'^'A^y^-^-^'

Icelandic outhouses when dug into a hillside dispensed with
the triple wall at the back and on the sides, and thus when stone-
faced partially resemble our cellars. But even then they still

retain one character-
istic feature, in their
alternate layers of
turf and stone.

Wliile this hut
was being dug out,
our attention was
called to stones pro-
truding through the
turf a short distance
away and nearer to
the water. When the
earth was cleared
away, it proved to

^V I'avkmknt at Fi>i:t William IIlnjiv, Mainl. -, i , i • j

be a rude stone-laid
pathway leading along the margin of the old creek to the river.
Here at the landing place a similar pathway branched away in
another direction, stopping suddenly a few metres south of the
supposed house of Thorfinn Karlsefni. This pathway is called in
Iceland a sjdvar-gata, or path to the sea. Ancient pavings have
been found at Fort AVilliam Henry, near Pemaquid, Maine. They
are, however, similar to many street pavements still to be found
in our eastern cities. There is also a remarkable paved gutter
at the Lewis Farm,
in Maine, w^hich has
long interested histo-
rians. But none of
these resemble the
sjdvar-gata in its pe-
culiar construction,
especially where it
broadens and divides
w'ith a wide margin of
pebbles on one side
and small heaps of
stones on the other.

This map was
made for Professor
Horsford about ten years ago. It shows the site of the long house,
in which the Joclandic firoj^lace was found, and the cot, in which
Icelandic walls were found. The paved path ran along the shore

A 1'aVKMENT at PHMAlilll), Maine.

V IN LAND AND ITS RUINS.

173

in front. Professor Horsford fixed Thorfinn's landing place a
short distance south of this, on solid ground. Geologists are unable
to say how long ago the salt marshes were formed. Thev are on
Winthrop's map of 1634, but the sjdvar-gata could hardly have
been accessible as a landing place after their formation.

In summary, it may be said that at the only point of land on
the coast of North America which we have found to correspond
with the description of the site of Thorfinn Karlsefni's houses,
ruins have been dug out which bear peculiar features character-
istic of the period in Iceland known as the Saga-time, and differ-

MaP of the supposed IS'oP.SE KriN IX CAMBRintiE. MassA( III ~KTrs.

ing in certain essential features from the handiwork of all the
native races of North America, and, as far as is known at present,
from all other races in Europe or in America in post-Columbian
days.

Extracts from the Reports of Dr. Gudmundsson and Mr. Erlingsson.

The following extracts, from reports by Dr. Gudmundsson and Mr.
Erlingsson, refer to the ruins described in the preceding paper. The
plan for these researches was first to compare the aforesaid ruins with
the work of the native races supposed to have inhabited or vsited these
shores, next with that of the Norsemen of the eleventh century, and
later, if necessary, with the earliest English, French, Spanish, and Dutch
ruins on these shores. Dr. Gudmundsson and Mr. Erlingsson noted the

174 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

points of resemblance between these and Icelandic ruins, and in their
reports by request wrote everything they could think of in opposition
to, as well as in favor of, their being of Norse origin.

When these gentlemen left Cambridge the characteristic features of
the early post-Columbian ruins on this coast had not been ascertained,
and these researches were not finished satisfactorily until a year and a
half after the Icelanders returned to Europe.

From Dr. Gudmundsson' s Report.

The next place into which we dug was a depression or hollow in the
hillside in a northerly direction from the above-mentioned place. Here
we found unquestionable remains of a house which had been dug into
the hillside, with walls constructed of stones, and layers of earth between
the single rows of stones. The foundation and the lower parts of the
two side walls were solid and well preserved, but the whole back wall,
■with the exception of a single roM' (the foundation), had fallen down.
The stones from this and the upper parts of the side walls covered the
whole bottom, so that they at the first glance seemed to form a pave-
ment. When carefully examined, it was evident, however, that most of
the stones which covered the bottom belonged to the walls, though some
might have rolled down from the hill above the house. Thus it could
clearly be seen how some of the stones had fallen down from the walls
and some were just sliding down, without having as yet reached to the
bottom, as some stones underneath had hindered them from gliding far-
ther. The front wall of the house was wanting, and must either have
heen of wood or — which seems most likely — have been spoiled when the
road which runs close past the house was made. When the bottom was
cleared of the stones which had fallen in it proved to consist of a level
black floor.

The construction and situation of this house are quite Scandinavian,
built in the same way as houses in Iceland and Greenland. I would
therefore not have had the least hesitation to declare it to be a ruin of
a house built by Scandinavians in the pre-Columbian period if between
and under the stones which covered the bottom we had. not found some
pieces of glazed pottery and bricks, of which some small pieces were
found trodden down even into the floor itself. This seems to indicate
that the house must be post-Columbian, or at least have been occupied
by the first English or French colonists. As in the meantime several
American scholars, with whom I have had an opportunity to discuss this
matter, positively declare that the post-Columbian colonists never would
have built such walls of stones without mortar, and it must be regarded
as quite certain that Indian people could not have built it, there seems
to be no other explanation possible than that this ruin must be Scandi-
navian, and, having been found by some of the first post-Columbian colo-
nists (e. g., some fishermen), had been repaired and occupied by them for a
shorter or longer time. If it can be proved that such a building as this
could not have been built by the post-Columbian colonists nor by Indians,
it can hardly bo anything else than Scandinavian. This, however, must
be left to American scholars, who have sufficient knowledge in these mat-
ters. But so long as this is not proved, the pieces of pottery and bricks
which were found in it rather seem to speak for its post-Columbian ori-
gin, as those pieces must have been there when the house fell down, and

VINLAND AND ITS RUINS. 175

such a house as this built in the beginning of the eleventh century could
not have stood five hundred years before its roof and the upper parts of
the walls fell down.

On the other side of the road we found an end of an old path paved
with small stones, running from the house in the hillside along the edge
of the old river bank down to a kind of promontory which in olden time,
when the water stood much higher than it now does, seems to have served
as a landing place. In the middle of this path, which was from about
six to ten inches under the surface, was a hollow as trodden down by the
feet of men and (perhaps) horses. This path is very like Icelandic paths,
such as may still be found in many places in Iceland. But as we in some
places in this path found some bricks between the stones which formed
its pavement, it must be regarded as doubtful whether it is Scandinavian.
The bricks seem rather to speak for a post-Columbian origin, though
the whole path is so primitive that it hardly can be suggested that so
advanced a people as the first post-Columbian colonists should have made
such a path. To settle the question whether it could belong to those
colonists must be left to American scholars. This path seems, at any
rate, to have been made by the same people who built the house in the
hillside, so either both of them must be regarded as post-Columbian or
they both are Scandinavian. Another path run^ from this landing place
in a westerly direction along the old river bank, where it stops very
abruptly on a certain spot a very short distance east of the supposed
" Thorfinn's house." As I could not find any other reason for its stop-
ping on this spot than that near it stood a building, I examined the river
bank beside it, and here I found the earth, about eight inches under the
surface, mixed with charcoal, which could indicate that some refuse from
a house had been thrown there. This seems to lead to the conclusion
that there at the end of this path really has stood a building, of which
we could not now expect to find any traces, or even a building con-
structed of turf only (turf walls), which also might have wholly disap-
peared, as earth walls on an elevated ground like this perhaps might have
blown away.

The result of these researches is briefly, according to my opinion, this :
As far as concerns the construction, both the house in the hillside and
the two paths, or the two branches of the path, could be of Scandinavian
origin, but I am not so well acquainted with the life and customs of
the first post-Columbian colonists as to be able to decide whether they
could not have been made by them. This, therefore, must be left to
American scholars. Very respectfully yours,

Valtyr Gudmundsson.

Cambridoe, Mass., July 16, 1896.

From Mr. Erlingsson's Report.

It is not uncommon in Iceland that houses, especially small out-
houses, are dug into small hills, hillsides, or sloping ground, just as this
house is. It is, in fact, built very like what I have seen in outhouses in
many places in Iceland, and what is left of the walls here nobody could
distinguish from Icelandic walls. The size and the whole form is also
very like an outhouse, but as most frequently in outhouses either all the
four walls are made of stones or none of them, it would seem strange
that one of the walls here is completely wanting. But those stones which

176 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

were used in it could have been used in the road which has been made
past the house, or, besides, it is possible that the front wall of the house
has been a wooden one, and, although this is very rare in outhouses cer-
tainly, yet it must be taken into consideration that here it is much
easier to procure wood than in Iceland. The whole form, the method,
and the condition of the house itself seemed like nothing else than that
it was built by Icelandic hands, although some of the stones seem to be
rather small, but, as pieces of pottery and bricks have been found beneath
the stones which had fallen down from the walls and on the floor itself,
it seems to prove sufficiently that the house can not belong to the old
Icelandic period; but as nobody has expected such a house here, the dis-
covery is very remarkable.

This path is so like paths in Iceland, for which there have been gath-
ered stones and which later on have been trodden down by the feet of
horses and men, that I would not have hesitated to declare that it might
be Scandinavian if in it there had not been found bricks beside the other
stones, which seems to indicate that the path must belong to the same
period as the house which was dug into the hill. This discovery must
therefore, too, be regarded as very remarkable. . . .

Respectfully,

Thorsteinn Erlingsson.

Cambridge, Mass., July 12, 1896.

THE EDUCATION OF THE FEMINIST.

By DAVID STAKK JORDAN,

PRESIDENT OF LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY.

THE meeting of the Astral Club of Alcalde, on September 10,
1899, was rendered memorable by the return, from a month's
absence in the East, of the secretary of the club, Miss Corintha
Jones, D. jST. N. N. Her presence had been sorely missed at the
August meeting (though I say it who should not), for it is not
often that one of our devoted band is absent from his post.

Miss Jones had left Alcalde to conij)lete a course of study in
medicine in one of the most famous colleges of the East. At the
suggestion of the president of the club, Mr. Asa Marvin, F. T. S.,
the usual programme was suspended on her return, and Miss Doc-
tress Jones, D. N. N. N. (for such indeed is the title she has now
earned), told us of her studies at the Massachusetts University of
Mentiphysics, in Boston, a noble institution, up to date in all re-
spects, for it received its charter from the General Assembly of
Massachusetts in the year 1881.

Miss Doctress Jones left her home in Alcalde on the 20th of
July, designing to visit certain relatives residing at Homer and
Virgil, Cortland County, JST. Y., on the way. She reached Boston
on the 5th day of August, and at once proceeded to the university.

THE EDUCATION OF THE NEMINIST. 177

An ignorant hackman took her over to the suburban village of Cam-
bridge, which is the seat of Harvard College. Making inquiry of
the professors there, she found none who had ever heard of the
University of Mentiphysics, having eyes and ears for nothing but
Harvard, which in some respects is indeed a great institution, but
on a material plane.

At last, after much inquiry, Doctress Jones was sent to the
IsTeministic Headquarters, a small building on the corner of Milk
and Transcendental Streets. Here she learned, from a little lady
with a withered face and a serene smile, that the University of
Mentiphysics was situated not in Boston, but in the neighboring
town of Lynn, which lies some miles to the north. " But in Massa-
chusetts," she said, " we call it all Boston."

" So I took the train for Lynn," Miss Doctress Jones continued,
" and drove at once to the street and number named on the card.
The little white house with green blinds, white columns on the
veranda, and a few weedy roses in the front yard did not fill my
conception of a university, for it did not look like our universities
in California. But the fault was with my conception, not with
the fact.

"" The maid who answered the bell assured me that this was
indeed the university, and ushered me at once into the office of the
president. The wall was covered with pictures and photographs,
showing elderly ladies with serene smiling faces. Under each one
were the letters ]Si . N. IST., and a card giving an account of how each
one had been made whole and happy through Neministic Science.
The president was a middle-aged, matronly lady, with a high fore-
head and brown hair, streaked with gray, done in graceful frizzes
over her brow. Above the corners of her mouth, which were al-
ways drawn up in an engaging smile, were three deep creases. Mr.
Gridley, our schoolmaster, tells me that these correspond to the
grave accent in Greek, and that there being three of them shows
that the lady had been married three times. I do not know as to
this, but somehow her face seemed startlingly familiar and at the
same time strangely pleasant.

" I murmured something about having had the pleasure before.
She said, taking the words from my mouth: ' I know what you are
going to say. We are indeed very much alike, though she is on
the material plane. Still, my friends call me the " Lydia Pink-
ham of the soul," and I do not resent it, for what dear Lydia tries
to do, that I do.'

"I told the president," Doctress Jones continued, " that I wished
to learn the wisdom of Boston, and especially the science of ISTemi-
nistic Healing, of which I had heard much in Alcalde. ' But per-

TOL. LVI. — 14

178 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

liaps I should call at tlic university, and not trouble you in your rest
at home.' At this her eyes blazed, and she said, with a tragic air:
' Ifaving eyes, ye see not! I read the Soul and the Stars through
a higher than mortal sense. Has the Sun forgotten to shine and
the Planets to revolve around it? Who was it discovered, demon-
strated, and teaches the marvel of feministic Healing? That one,
whoever it be, does understand something of what can not be lost.'

" I looked dazed. She quieted down and explained to me that
she was herself the university, because no one but herself could
explain what was revealed to her alone. The whole Neministic
Science was taught in twelve lessons, and I could begin then and
there.

" I said something about preparatory work and the books I
would need to read. She placed in my hands a slip which read:

" ' X. E". N^. Persons contemplating a course in the Massachu-
setts University of Mentiphysics can prepare for it through no
books save Neministic Science and Astral Health, with a Key to the
Stars. Man-made theories are narrow, else extravagant, and al-
ways materialistic. Nihil neniini nocet.' Then she added: 'I
recommend students not to read so-called scientific works antagonis-
tic to IsTeministic Healing, which advocate material systems, be-
cause such works and words becloud the right sense of Mentiphysi-
cal Science. A primary student richly imbued with the Neministic
spirit is a better healer and teacher than a normal-class student,
who partakes less of this power. Even an apt scholar who has
dipped into my feministic Science and Astral Health, with a Key
to the Stars (the last revised edition), may enter this field of labor,
without any personal instruction, beneficially to himself and the
race.'

"Then she continued blandly: 'You must learn, my dear, to
enter this great field in a manner beneficial to yourself and the
race. You must teach others to render to Csesar what is Csesar's,
and to do this you must first render unto Caesar yourself. Do
you understand?' I looked puzzled for a moment. Then she
said : ' Twenty-five dollars, please, dear, and be sure to come
promptly at ten o'clock to-morrow. You are now admitted to the
Primary Plane, the first degree of ISTeministic Healing.' As I gave
her the California gold, she bowed me out of the room with a ten-
der and motherly smile, while she tested the unfamiliar coins by
ringing them softly on the table.

" At the second lesson she gave me the fundamental principles
of feministic Healing. I received them eagerly, for I recognized
in them a close harmony with the teachings of our dear old Mr.
Dean:

THE EDUCATION OF THE NEMINIST. 179

"'God is the principle of Mentipliysics. As there is but one
God, there can be but one Principle in this Science. As there are
many stars, there mnst be many fixed rules for the demonstration
of this Divine Principle.

'' ' The fundamental propositions among these rules are proved
by inversion, for this is the basis of all true mathematics. Two
times two is four, therefore four is two times two. As a star is
the same whether seen from the north, south, east, or west, so a
precept of Mentipliysics must be the same as seen from every side.
To invert is not to change its meaning, and must prove its truth.'
Then she gave me a printed card containing these words, over
which I was to ponder until the next lesson:

" ' IvT. ]Sr. IST. There is no Pain in Truth, therefore there is no
Truth in Pain. There is no Xerve in Mind, therefore there is no
Mind in IS^erve. There is no Matter in Mind, therefore there is
no Mind in Matter. There is no Matter in Life, therefore there
is no Life in Matter. There is no Matter in Good, therefore there
is no Good in Matter. Nihil nocet nemiiii; nihil nemini nocet.^

" ' Twenty-five dollars, please,' and I returned to my hotel filled
with new thoughts, which I found later were very incomplete.

" The next day she said :

" ' Man, my dear, is governed by Soul, not sense. Sense is the
reflection, of matter, and matter does not exist. Thus sense is but
the shadow of a dream. In dreams the laws of health are value-
less. There is but one Law of Health, and that is the one precept
of Keministic Healing.

" ' To the awakened mind the seasons will come and go, with
changes of time and tide, cold and heat, latitude and longitude.
The agriculturist finds that these changes can not affect his crops.
The mariner will have dominion over the atmosphere and the great
deep, over the fish of the sea and the fowls of the air. The as-
tronomer will no longer look up to the stars. He will look out
from them upon the universe, and the florist will find his fiower
before he beholds its seed. Thus matter will be finally proved to
be nothing but a mortal belief, wholly inadequate to affect man
through its supposed organic action or existence.'

"Then she gave me another mystic card, which read:

" ' X. IST. X. We tread on forces. Withdraw them, and Cre-
ation must collapse. Nihil nocet nemini.' And this time I did
not need to be reminded of the final ceremony with which the les-
son ended. Nor did she need to clink the coins on the table.

" In the fourth lesson the president discoursed more fully on
' the popular gods, Sin, Sorrow, and Sickness, the three S's of
Satan; all three illusions of the Sinful Soul. The very word Illu-

i8o POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

sion proves tlieir nothingness. These are but troubled dreams of
the darkened soul, and to rise above them is to wake from a cata-
leptic nightmare to see the stars shining on the hills.

" ' "When troubled by a horrible dream, my dear, one has only
to say, "This is a Dream; I will awaken." Then the stars will
shine through the open window and the hideous vision will dis-
appear.

" ' So in afflictions of disease and dread and death, one must
say, " This is a Dream." Then it becomes a dream, and we rise
above it into an atmosphere of Perfect Serenity.

"'To the material sense, dear,' continued the president, 'to
cut the jugular vein takes away life. But in ISTeministic Science
Life goes on unchanged, mounting ever and ever to higher reaches,
because there is no jugular vein, and Matter can not make its mark
on Mind.

" ' The Barometer, that little prophet of storm and sunshine,
can not be deceived by testimony of the senses. It points to fair
weather in the midst of the unreal apparition of murky clouds and
threatening rain. Thus does feministic Science, the perfect cul-
mination of Mentiphysics, point to the changeless Health and Hap-
piness of the Enlightened Man whatever material science may have
to say about the condition of his members. Man is made in the
image of perfection, therefore failure and imperfection can never
assail him. As well expect to gather peaches from a pine tree as
to gather discord from the Concord of Being.'

" Then she gave me a card:

" ' N. jST. N. The Equipollence of the Stars above and of the
Mind below shows the awful unreality of Evil. Nihil nemini nocet.'

" After the usual parting ceremony I returned to my room,
well convinced of the unreality of Boston, and doubting whether
I should ever again find my own Alcalde. I feared lest some fur-
ther precept might arise by which Alcalde could not exist.

" In the fifth lesson the president informed me that I was
now in the second degree, or Normal Plane. We were ready for
the first glimpse into the full, rounded perfection of IsTeministie
Healing.

" ' To cure men of all ills whatsoever, we have only to show
them the stars. "When we waken in the night, only the sight of
the stars can tell us we are awake. "When we are awake all dreams
must vanish, and all is dream which breaks the serenity of the
mind or checks the perfect perspicacity of being. We need not
deal with the body, for the body docs not exist. It is dull, heavy,
and aching, because it is the dead Eesiduum of Dream. When
we forget it, it is no longer there. Then and not till then can you

THE EDUCATION OF THE NE MINI ST. 181

smile the serene smile of the Neministically Healed and Menti-
physically Perfect Soul.'

"The little card read:

" ' ]S[. ]Sr. K. The body says, " I am ill." The reports of Sick-
ness may form a coalition with the reports of Sin and say, " I am
Malice, Lust, Apj)etite, Envy, Hate." Treat a belief in sickness
as you would sin — with sudden dismissal. If it were not for what
the human mind says of the body, the body would not be weary
any more than an inanimate wheel. Nihil nemini nocet.'

" On the sixth day the president gi'eeted me with her serenest
smile.

" ' "VVe liaA'e now reached the point, my dear,' she said, ' when
we must abandon Pharmaceutics and take up Ontology, the science
of Abstract Being. In this we have many rivals who echo the
cry, " Why art thou, NEMIXISM, come hither to torment us be-
fore our time ? " Among the systems that thus cry out are many
whom this world deems successful. Animal Magnetism, Atheism,
Spiritualism, Theosophy, Agnosticism, Pantheism, and Infidelity
are antagonistic to Mentiphysics and fatal to the demonstration
thereof, and of iSTeminism, its noblest culmination; and so,' she
continued, ' are some other systems.'

" She warned me especially against Pantheism, ' the worship
of the sylvan god Pan,' a cult reputed to be especially rife among
the members of our club at Alcalde.

" I tried to explain to her the difference between Pantheism
and Sciosophy, but I did not succeed very well, for she grew impa-
tient. In her judgment, I discovered, Sciosophy was grossly im-
practical, and the views of Mr. Abner Dean would take the bread
from the mouths of better men than he. ' I am told,' she said,
' that Mr. Dean actually signed that wicked paper * of those "VVash-

* In this document it is asserted that Neministic Science and Astral Health with a
Key to the Stars " and all of the inspired writings shall be free — i. e., free from the love of
the lust of gain and that the charging of three dollars for Science and Health, etc., when it
can be printed and sold for less than fifty cents per copy, is wrong in principle, and, in
effect, shuts the doors of this beautiful truth upon the poor by thus putting a prohibitive
price upon it. . . .

" We hold that in the giving of class instruction the teacher is entitled to a reasonable
compensation, and give our opinion that such compensation should be ten dollars, and we
do condemn the present practice when they charge one hundred dollars for a series of
twelve lessons. Take a class of thirty — which is not unusual — the teacher receives ebout
$258 per day for two hours' work. This is unjust, and especially so, because many of these
teachers are unable and unfit for teaching.

" In the matter of healing, when the healer gives the proper time to the work, one dollar
per treatment ought not to be excessive, but the practice of some of charging before the
patient is received into the room and then heavily charged for the treatment, is an outrage,
. . . and should be prohibited." — See full tctf, Washington News Letter, September 6, 1S99 ;
Editor.

i82 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ington soreheads, who call themselves the Reformed College of
!Neminism.' "With this, she would not listen to another word
about Sciosophy.

" Then I regretted that I had said anything, for this pleasant
lesson came to an abrupt end, and left me without even the cus-
tomary card to ponder over. I still wondered what could be the
secret meaning of X. !N. N., nihil nemini nocet.

" On the next day the storm had blown over, or rather, like
all other storms, it had no real existence, and the smile of the
president at the closing act of the lesson was the sweetest
I had ever seen, the most perfect witness to the truth of her
teachings.

" She took up the subject of Materia Medica. After reading
from a printed book the names of a host of poisons, from Abacus
to Swamproot and Sandalwood and Zygadene, she warned us
against them all. All are alike evil. All alike hJlve no real ex-
istence. Therefore the student will do well not to learn their
names. It will only interfere with his serenity of mind, and per-
fect serenity is the sole symptom of success.

" ' Surely this is better,' she said, ' than to support the popular
systems of medicine, when the physician may be perchance an
infidel and lose ninety-aud-nine patients Avhere ISTeminism cures
its hundred. Is it because Osteopathy and Ostariopathy are more
fashionable and less spiritual? Even business men have found
that ISTeministic Science enhances their physical and mental powers,
enlarges their perception of character, gives them acuteness and
comprehensiveness, and an ability to exceed their ordinary busi-
ness capacity,'

"Then she gave me this card:

"''N.'N.'N. In 1866 this discovery was made by me and by
me alone: "The erring Mortal misnamed Mind produces all the
organism and action of the mortal body." This led to the demon-
stration that Mind is All and matter is naught, and being nothing,
nothing hurts nobody. Nobody hurts nothing, which proves it
plainly by inversion. Nihil nocet nemini; nihil nemini nocet.''

" On the eighth day the president discoursed on Anatomy. Re-
ferring briefly to the pernicious notions of the ' ancients,' as with
a broad sweep of her hand she designated the professors in Bos-
ton and Cambridge, concerning the structure of the human body,
she called it the nightmare of undigested learning. ' Wliy should
we care where the jugular vein goes, when we know that there is
no jugular vein? What of bones and muscles, and teguments and
integuments? " Toil fatigues me," you say; but what is this me?
Is it muscle or Mind? Which is tired, and so speaks? Without

THE EDUCATION OF THE NEMINIST. 183

Mind could the muscles be tired? Do tlie muscles talk, or do jou
talk for them? Science includes no rule of discord, but governs
harmoniously.'

" On the card were these words:

" ' X. X. IST. ilesh is an error of physical belief; a supposition
that life, substance, and intelligence are in matter; an illusion; a
belief that matter has sensations. Nihil nocet nemini.'

" On the ninth day I was admitted to the third degree, or the
Introspective Plane. As the president entered, I noticed a touch
of camellia powder on her face, for the subject of the day was
Beauty. ' Beauty,' she said, ' is internal before it is perceived out-
wardly. To have perfect faith in the principle of iSIeminism is to
regain the charms of Eternal Youth.' She told me of patients
of hers who had become beautiful through faith. One good lady
at ninety developed new teeth through belief in feminism — in-
cisors, cuspids, bicuspids, and one molar. A gentleman at sixty
had retained his full set of upper and lower teeth without a de-
caying cavity.

" On her card were these words :

" ' jST. IST. K". The receipt for Beauty is to have less Illusion
and more Soul. Nihil nernini nocet.'

" And, as the final ceremony was passed, the president looked
almost beautiful herself.

" On the tenth day the president gave some account of her
early studies and of the origin of jSTeministic Healing.

" ' While from the human standpoint I inherited the refine-
ment that goes with culture of family and moral rectitude, as
usual here in Boston, yet there was a marked degree of spiritual
Grace, Soulful Delicacy, and Esoteric Elegance that comes not from
human ancestry, neither from communion with Nature. It was
the exquisite coloring of the touch of the astral hand which opens
the petals of thought as it does the opening rose. This ended in a
soft glow of ineffable Joy, and out of its perfect serenity femi-
nistic Science was born.

" ' The discovery was so new, the basis laid down for physical
and moral health so hopelessly original and men so unfamiliar with
the subject, that not until later did I venture to proclaim it to
the world.'

" On the card was —

" ' N. N. N.

" ' My world has sprung from Spirit
In Everlasting Day ;
Whereof I've much to glory,
Wherefor have much to pay.'

i84 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

" Under tliis was a picture of the egg of a vulture, in which,
through his microscope, Agassiz once saw the sun, moon, stars, and
the gathering of clouds. 'Nihil nemini nocetJ

" At the eleventh lesson I was directed to go out for clinical
practice. In my hotel I found a dear little six-year-old boy who
had been invited, with the rest of a kindergarten class, to attend
a picnic.

" He did not feel that he wanted to go. He seemed dumpish,
and, according to mortal belief, was not well. At noon he said
that he wanted to go to sleep. I took him in my lap and began
to read to him from Neministic Science and Astral Health with
a Key to the Stars. Very soon he expressed a wish to go to the
picnic, and did go. So T gave him a little card, with the words
' Nihil nemi7ii nocet/ and all day he said nothing more about
being sick.

" Next morning the president gave me an account of various
wonderful cures in her experience. Among others, she showed
me a letter from John B. Higgins, of Little Egg Harbor, JST. J.
This I copied down as follows:

" ' I am glad to tell you how I was healed. Beliefs of con-
sumption, dyspepsia, neuralgia, ulcers, tobacco, and bad language.
. . . Doctors that were consulted did nothing to relieve me, and
I constantly grew worse. Nearly two years ago you told me that
if I would read a book called feministic Science and Astral Health
with a Key to the Stars, I would be healed. I told you I would
go into it for all it was w^orth, and I found that it is worth all. I
got the book and read day and night. I saw that it must be true,
and believed that what I could not then understand would be made
clear later. After some days' reading I was afflicted with drowsi-
ness, followed by vomiting. This lasted several hours, when I
fell into a sleep. I awoke healed.'

" The president assured me that if I would spend no time in
intellectual drifting, adhering to the impersonal and scientific de-
ductions of the one discoverer to whose clarified spiritual eye all
truth of the mind had been revealed, with all the loyalty of a
mathematician to the principles of mathematics, I would be sure
of a comfortable fortune. Although money had no real exist-
ence, the shadow in its substance proved that there was after all
substance in its shadow. The ISTeministic Healer is at no expense
for books or instruments or medicine, providing always that the
one perfect Key to the Stars (including Xcministic Science and
Astral Health) lies open before him. AVith that in sight he can

THE EDUCATION OF THE NEMINIST. 185

not go wrong, and with perfect faitli in the unreality of all ex-
ternal things it matters not in earthly affairs what he does or
leaves undone.

" The card for this lesson was :

" ' jST. N, N. The population of our cities is ample to supply
many practitioners, teachers, and preachers with work. To enter
this field of labor beneficially to ourselves, it is necessary to demon-
strate that the patient lulio is able to pay for being healed is more apt
to recover than he who withholds a slight equivalent for health!
Nihil nemini nocet.'

" iVt the last lesson the president informed me that my course
of instruction was complete, and that I must now go forth and
bless the world. I must lean no longer on her personal leader-
ship, but, trusting in the spirit, I should rest solely on the pure
Mentiphysical principle at work. As a pioneer of Xeministic Heal-
ing in the far uncultured West, I must stand alone in the con-
flict, smiting error with the falchion of Truth. The rare bequests
of the spirit are costly, and they have w^on fields of battle from
which the dainty borrower would have fled.'

" I spoke once or twice of my diploma, w^ithout which I could
not practice my jirofession under the laws of Fresno County. At
first she made as if she did not hear me, but at last she said:

" ' The Massachusetts University of Mentiphysics draws its
breath from me, but I yearn for retirement. Xo one else can
sustain this institution amid the legislation aimed at its vital pur-
pose. This has given me conscientious scruples about diplomas,
and, with the growing conviction that every one should build on
his own foundation, no more diplomas shall be issued from this
flourishing school.

" ' But do not worry, dear,' she said. ' Your power is just the
same with or without diploma. You can make known the rare
bequests of the Spirit quite as well as a martyr as you could as a
physician. The faithful will stand by you. Those who believe
will always pay. Take this locket, and hang it about your neck.
It will contain the quintessence of all my teachings, and with this
in your right hand and jSTeministic Science and Astral Health
Avith a Key to the Stars in your left, you wall drain the cup which
I have drained to the dregs as the discoverer and teacher of iSTemi-
nism, and without tasting this cup its inspiration can not be gained.'

" Then I took the little locket, and here it is. On one side
are the letters D. I^. IST. IST., ' which,' she said, ' makes its holder
a doctress.' On the reverse is the face of Lydia Pinkham,
while around the margin, in fine gilt letters, is a scroll \Adth the
motto, ' Nihil nemini nocet.' Mr. Gridley, the learned professor of

VOL. LTI. — 15

i86 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

our Alcalde school, says this means ' nothing hurts nobody.' But
I am sure that there is more in it than that; besides, whatever
it is we can prove it by inversion: Nihil nocet nemini; nihil ne-
mini nocet — one is true like the other, and its s^nnbolic significance
is proved by its three N's, for N is the symbol of eternity. At
least, this is what the president told me. But now that I am back
in Alcalde, the whole thing seems like a dream, while all the things
I had learned to call dreams seem more real than ever. Maybe
I am still on the Material Plane after all, in spite of all I have
done and all the rest of us in Alcalde are doing to try to rise
above it."

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMEFtlCAN NEWSPAPER.

By WALTER L. HAWLEY,

OF THE NEW YOKK EVEXING SUN.

At the beginning of the present century the newspapers pub-
-^-^ lished in the United States numbered 200 — one for e?rch
26,450 of population — while at the present time the total of regu-
lar publications slightly exceeds 20,000 — one for each 350 inhabit-
ants of the country; and in that growth and development of the
business is represented more of science and art, more of physical
ingenuity and mental activity, than in any other line of human
endeavor. One hundred years ago the publication of a news-
paper did not rank as a business, and the preparation of its con-
tents was regarded as a pastime or the indulgence of a whim, rather
than a profession. At the end of the century, journalism is the
history of the world written day by day, the chief medium of en-
lightenment for the masses, the universal forum of scholar, sage,
and scientist. As a business enterprise, the newspaper of to-day
commands unlimited capital, and as a profession it ranks second
to none.

For three centuries and a half following Gutenberg's inven-
tion of type little progress was made in the art of printing, and
the production of a newspaper in this country in 1800 was accom-
plished with crude machinery and involved much slow and diffi-
cult hand labor. The printing was done on wooden presses of
primitive pattern, the type was large and ill formed, the paper
used was in many cases inferior to the lowest grade made at the
present time, and the production of a large number of copies of
any issue was out of the question. No attempt was made in this
country to publish a daily paper until 1784, and in 1800 daily edi-
tions were issued only in four or five of the larger cities.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER. 18-

The publications of that
period were not newspa-
pers in the sense in whicli
the word is now used, be-
cause no particular effort
was made to present an ac-
count of the hapiDcnings of
the day. Notices of the
arrival and departure of
ships, time tables of mail
coaches, and brief an-
nouncements of matters
of political interest filled
the limited space devoted
to domestic news. Foreign
news consisted entirely of
matter reprinted from the
English journals received
by sailing vessels, and
therefore weeks or months
old when it appeared. The
wooden presses used a hun-
dred years ago were op-
erated entirely by hand.
After the type had been set
it was placed in a frame or
" form," with little or no
regard to artistic arrange-
ment of headlines or dis-
played matter. To print
the edition, the " form "
was placed on the bed of
the press and ink spread
over the type by the use of
hand rollers. ' The white
paper was then dampened
with water, sheet by sheet,
laid over the stationary
" form," and the impres-
sion was made by pulling
down the upper part of the
press with a lever. This
work was so slow that a
circulation of three or four

Hats Loft !

SUPPOSED to have btcn Irft on the whr>rf nt
Burlinf;-)li|., ot taken on hoard nf fomt- vcfTel '.ly
luiUuky, fomc time in the month of Nnvcnihcr Jalt,
^IX Ocnticmcn's tine HATS, were packrd ip a Tea
(-heft, ami purfliafcd of Walter Kcndcrich, with
his C.:rd ififidc nT the Hati. , '•Vlvoei^'er will g-ive in-
tnniKUion where they may be jtound, (hall rcLxivc a
reward of FIVE DOLLARS, hy applying rb

J'\ViK^ CASF.V,

dec. ^^l . ^t iih. 164 Front-ftrect.

Sherry Wine,

OF the noted hii\iici.<,I. li. and D. Q^ jufl receiv-
ed per 'he brig Union, from Cadiz, and for Sale by
D. SMiril and Co
jio. ar?. Front-ftrcPt, neat Pcck-llip.
j^eceiriiber 13, _ im

l^hn Montgomery,

MUS-ICJL hVSTRUMEMT MAKER
and 10R\'ER,
TAKES this nrtthod to iiiforin the public, that
*•? has latc-1^' arrived from Charlctton, and has com-
menced biiltnefi

At iNo. 23 ROSK-STRF.RT,
wl-^re 5ic makes ar.d rcj>air5 all kinds of Wind and
String Inflruments, in the neateft marncr. He
hopes from his experience in the uiioVc liufinefs. he
ihall merit the favour of the public in general,
deechiber 14. ',rn

TOBACCO.

35 Hhd^ of an excellent qiialitj-, jufl l.ahding
from Virginia, and for Saie, as low pncts, by

JOHN P.VlRiCK,
pec. 31. No. 4 Wtlllara-flreet.

■— ^Vnn HAS ON HANn'-^
Several choice Parcel of 'l' O B A C C O.

A Kegro Wench Jor Sale^

AtiED about 2% or 30 years, is healthy, ftrosg,
honcfl, fob.''r and indullriou's — has two Childrea,
the one a lioy, in his fotrth ye^ir, trfc other a Girl,
upwards, of a year oM — Sold for no fault. '1 o pro-
vent upnecelTary applicutiua, the price ftir the three
H 8ol.- Apply to C. Scluilts, jon. corner of Eagle
and Fourih-ftreets, Bowery. in> dci. j.

lurks Iilan;>s 5ait.

Ttie fubfciiber 13 auUiorifed io dii'pofe of from 2c
it> loc.oco bufbei* fait, to be delivered at lurks
inands,an<f Will tontra^St for it, ir; afiv qitantity, at the
very hw jVfice of Ij ccHts per bu'fhel, payable iij
New-York at 60 0* 90 days after fight of ilie pur-
thafcri drafts Rif H A R D I . I" U C K E K,

■«<3- 39' l2j front-ilreet.

■■■■'■ ^ - ■ ■ , -

Landing this Day.

At Burling-flip. from the fchooner Raven,

20 bds.jinsjiav^ high proof Gt.ieva

Fkom the New York Gazette and General Ad-
vertiser OF Wednesday, JANrARV 1, 1800.

i88

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

FbR

ALMANACK

THE YEAR OF 0 U ;i LORU

iSoo,

•^
u

H

rt

January;

March.
ApfiJ. .

June.

July.

Angtift.

Stpterrtbcr,

c

5

ii

19

36
2

9
1 6

23

2

i6

3®
6

1.3

19

a?

4

II

IS

25
X

8

15

flz

ay

6

«o

27

3

lo

17

14

0
.6
I.i

20
i?

.3
lo

17
•i4

3
lo
i;
24
3J

7

i4
ai
28

5
iz

!•;

a

o

16

23

30

7

14

21

4
II
i^

2i
I

O

7

21

2^

4

IX

18

^'■^,

4

II

iX

25
I
8

15

22

•2'y

6

13

2 'J

27

3

io

i7
24

X

>{
15

2i
29

5
12
»9
26

1

I

8

'.?
22

5
12
»y
26

5
iz

I!?

26

J,

9

16
23
30

1
T4
21

a8

4

II

i?.

25

2

9

16

>3

30

6

13

20

27
3

2

16

23

6

13

2 'J

27

6

13

20

27

3

•lo

17

24

I

8

IJ

22

29

5

12

19

26

3
10

17
*4
31

7
t4
21
28

4

10
^7
2?
,^r
7
M

21

as

7
14

21

28

4
II

18
25

2

O

16

23

3<»,
6

13

20

27

3

II

18

25
I
8

15

29
5

4
II
18

25

X

8

15

22

I

S
tc
22
2V

5

12

19
26

3

10

J7
24
31

7
14
21
28

5

12

19
26

2

9

16

23

30

6

7

8

9

10

II

12

13

14

li

16

17

18

19

20

21

2t

23

24

25

26

27

iZ

29

30

I

a

3

4

Oflober.

5

6

7

8

9

i<»

11

13

13

M

15

j6

X7

18

19

20

ar

22

23

24

25

2ft

27

28

29

3«

3i

I

November.

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

It

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

ai

21

_

23

24

25

»6

»7

a8

29

December.

30

I

«

1

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

II

12

13

14

I J

16

17

18

'9

ao

21

21

23

24

25

a6

»7

a8

■*')

3»

11

From tiik Nicw Yokk Gazetpe and (Jknkkal
Advektiseu of January 1, 1800.

ImiuliT'd copies of a daily
newspaper would severely
tax the capacity of the
press room. The weekly
})ublications were as a rule
limited to about the same
figures, because the entire
mechanical part of produc-
tion devolved upon one
man, who was often owner
and editor as well as
printer. Some iron presses
were imported from Eng-
land in 1810, and in 1817
George Clymer, of Phila-
delphia, invented a lever
press that was a marked
improvement over the
crude machines then in
general use, reducing the
manual labor required and
increasing the speed with
which printed papers could
be turned out. The first
power press used in this
country was invented by
Daniel Treadwell, of Bos-
ton, in 1822, and oper-
at(Ml by - the American
Bible Society, the power
being furnished by a team
of mules. These presses
were not adapted to news-
])apcr work, and the first
considerable advance in
the mechanical part of the
business was made in 1829
and 1830, when a Wash-
ington hand press was in-
vented. Seventeen years
later a cylinder power
])rcss was perfected by
"Richard l\r. TToe, and the
mechanical ability to pro-

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER.

dnce periodicals was more than doubled; but during the time
when American ingenuity developed the steam engine, the cot-
ton gin, the sewing ma-
chine, and the electric
telegraph, the progress
made in the mechanism
of newspaper making-
was comparatively in-
significant. The pro-
cess of stereotyping was
introduced into this
country from England
in J 813, and a year
later the iS'ew Testa-
ment was printed from
plates, but the discov-
ery was not utilized in
the publication of news-
papers until 1861.

In the first half of
the century journalism
did not at any time
rank as a profession re-
quiring special training,
and capacity, and the
returns of the counting
room were so meager,
the cost of material so
high, and the aj^pliances
in the mechanical de-
partment so imperfect,
that the publication of
newspapers rose only
by slow degrees to rec-
ognition as a business
enterprise in which cap-
ital might seek invest-
ment with fair prospect
of a satisfactory return.
Modeled after English
publications, the early
American newspapers
depended, for whatever
of reputation or success

NOW LANDING.
And fjr falelby'-BRUNli and EUICII, No tj;

Pcarl-5trcct.
Platilbs Royal Clioticts or Crown Platillas
Brctap;ne8 Dowlas

tieas a la Morlais Liftados
Kouans Arabia* ^

Clifcks and Stripes
Haerl.trin Stripes and Check* No %
VricsBontcs Ofnabnigs

Ticklenburjjs Ha'flatictt and Bagging

Gcr»n<in Steel andiron waiea
Claret in Boxes fupcrior quality

i:?" Tbe above Goods are fubjeft to forcigt
drawback*

4LZ0 ON HA>iD^
RiiiTja Sail Ducic Diapers
87 bhds Mary.S Tobacco

LHiewife,
Bill of Exchange 406I. js- lod.— 60 days ow
London.

dec 5 im

" WANTED^

A Wet Nurre who can tc welJ rccommeudcJ Ap-
ply at this office. «ov 29- tf

MACKERIU:,
400 barrel* arri\T'l this day, and for Sale by

MONb'ON and JAMF.S H.-iYT,
No 140. aud r4> Wacer ftrcet,
dect6

TO LE r,

That '•.■vmlfomc and CviiiipJctdy finidied three ftory
brick rl )UiU, No,i6!{ Greenwich rtrCLt, Intcly relmilt
waf formerly occiipied l^y Gov. Crawfurd. For fur«
therpardculafs pleafe to enijuire at iVIrs. Rogers, no 7
iJeaver flreet.

»16c 16 tf

A Nejro Man,

To be feld cheap, he is about t'.7enty year'; of a'.e
miy hefcen at the iirilevvell of this City. Apply for
tcrais at 16 Broadway and i\^ Heaii etreet.
dec lo

LEATHER STOt<E,
No i?5 i'earl flreet,
JACOB LORILLARD,
Ha^ on hand a large quantity of flsughter and dryed
tilde Soal Leather, neats do. \«ax, gialn and rufiet calve
flc .n, /f Piierican aad Engli(h boot and ''o itee leg», mor .
occo r.nd kid skins ofvarioas colours, harncfs and fclrt-
ingleather, Sec. &c.
de« i$ }sn.

10 cafea mens fine f.'fliionalic black HATS
received per the Faftor from London. For priv.tc S^lc
bf UAA<; MOS£S asd ^ONS.

Advertisements from the New York Daily Adver-
tiser OF Wednesday, January 1, 1800.

190 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

they achieved, upon the fame and ability of the editor. The re-
porting of current events without comment was a secondary fea-
ture of the daily papers, and in the weekly publications it was not
attempted. Before the days of railroads and prompt and reliable
mail service, communication between men in public life and, in
fact, all persons of education, was chiefly by letter. The custom
grew into a fixed habit, and to a large extent influenced the char-
acter of the newspapers published prior to 1850. The editor ad-
dressed himself directly to his readers through long editorials upon
topics in which he was interested, and his publication was in reality

a mere instrument for
NOTICK ^^^^ expression of opin-

To the Propn.tors of Hr,od!anc1 and B.apnen, i^^^" . . ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^
nuba fend and bring WwtwooA to this (.iij for politicians were encour-

THE Common Council, finding th« great Fr.ui ^S^^. ^« . ^"^^ l^^tcrs for

is Jaily committed in :hr lale of Firc-^<iod in this ci- publication upon public

'^•;.tr't'h'r!i'''''^'"rV''';'"r^f''^'''*''^r' questions, and a long

lUreCtcd the iolJowmjj Extiad of the Law on t)i*C ^ ,' . °

fuSjca tobe republiihed, to thcend that ill perfon* Communication from a
r"ff"?;3lT"^t'Y'^'''T";'^''''^'l'^ man of national reputa-

not afreet ignorance o\ the Law. And it w llndly . ^

enjoined on the //./5>rf/(,r/o/-/^,>«,4,W to caniV; the La W tiou WaS regarded bv the

AoHi"n:xt^°;;'"rn'^j7""^ editor as matter of far

April next, on pain (A being rtmfjciij$^,n Ojji.c.

Extra& of the Laxv. more value to his journal

tKLlvlr^ki^'''"''^^7^-'^^*^'nV''' 'T'"^^ ''''• than anv amount of news

thil city tor fale as cord-w^nJ, fliall be m ]i ngth yivr

fcrt, including half the fcarf— and that if nnv pcrfon of the CVentS of the day.

fhull otter for fale any Fire-.vooJ ^i corJiu-:.d w.'iich -pi.p nvfrnmVqtimi nnfl

il.-ll i:ot be of that length, fuch pcrf..,, ih.ili forfeit ^ OlganizatlOU and

tiie fum ..fy;»f«rv-;fv, Cents for each Cart-load. development of political

^ Pubhihed by order of the Common Council. ' parties in the early part

ROBERT BKNSON, CArr*. of the second quarter of

. New vofk, ;;<o» ir, 1795,. ' the century resulted in

a rapid increase in the

A Municipal Notice from the New York Gazette mirnbov of nPWSDTDPrs
AND General Advertiser of January 1, 1800. ^ ' ^

throughout the country.
Party leaders found that they could reach a greater number of
citizens by means of published letters and speeches than by the
primitive process of campaigning by easy stages from one State
or county to another. From writing personal letters to friends
in their districts, senators and representatives in Congress found
that they could keep their constituents better informed of the
progress of legislation and politics by means of signed statements
in the press of their res])ective States. The party organ and the
personal journal were the immediate natural results of this con-
dition of public life and polities. Every secular journal sup-
ported some political party or organization without qualification,
and there was little or no independence of the press. The editor

X*

J 5 U'H

iji-

il-J

v^(J.

i-m

ff

IV

O

^??L: W

..mt

-'.^

i

i

I 1 ,1

:^.:- V--:-;:.. . - ..11

^"lil40i!illiwl||l:l!l

^:1 Mi

3«i1 p.;

•B^^r^l '•^. ; •S'l;

":«J

4a '"i5H"i- ■

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER. 191

found his subscribers among the members of his own party, and
often looked to the organization or the candidate for financial sup-
port. Papers were established and editors hired by parties, fac-
tions, and individual leaders to advocate some particular plan of
finance or tariff, or some general policy for the nation or State.
During this stage of American journalism the influence of a paper
depended largely upon the reputation, individuality, and force of
character of the editor. He needed not to possess any particular
qualification for the work, except a general knowledge of the
affairs on which he was to write and a command of vigorous lan-
guage to compel attention to his utterances. For many years the
majority of the periodicals of the country, daily and weekly, were
critical reviews of the events of the time, rather than mediums
for the spread of general information. News of important hap-
penings at home spread through all the States ahead of the circu-
lation of the papers, and the people looked to the latter for re-
view and comment upon events, rather than for detailed accounts
of the occurrences. Foreign affairs, as reported in the English
publications received in this country, took precedence in the classi-
fication of nevv's in the journals of the first half of the century, and
local events, often matters that were subsequently recognized as
of great historical value, were briefly and too often imperfectly
recorded. It is a matter to be regretted that in the days when
American statesmen and orators were making history for the world,
when the new republic, having passed beyond the stage of ex-
periment, was advancing with prodigious strides toward glorious
achievements in material development, the journals of the coun-
try kept but an imperfect and often inaccurate record of events
that should have been reported in full.

During the first forty years of the present century there was
no system of collecting the news for publication, and the capital
invested in the newspaper business was insufficient to permit of
any extra outlay to obtain reports of events occurring at a dis-
tance in advance of the regular mails. Such reports as were ob-
tained were usually voluntary contributions written by a friend
of the editor, and often colored or distorted according to the preju-
dice of the w^riter. These letters were, almost Avithout exception,
semi-editorial in character, the writers indulging freely in comment
and expression of opinion upon the event they attempted to record,
so that no political or public matter was reported entirely free
from partisan coloring. The drivers of mail coaches, the captains
of coastwise or river vessels, strolling peddlers, lawyers, surveyors,
and wandering missionaries, who made long journeys into the in-
terior and from town to. town, were the news reporters of early

J, asiuffeU's ^S? (^a^rtte.

C O M M E R

I-ubliSici! on MONDAY

: R C I A L AND

S I3d 1 HiftSDA YS. by JAMES CITTLER, u bi>

p o L 1 r I c A r.

[No. 52. 5/-Vol. villi

Office, in Coogrefi Su«l, (forrorilT Quikcr-Lanc.) fiOSfOS'.

MONDAY, Sepltmbtr \Jl, 1800. [4 .///'■ per ami.]

Mntf o( stotho. Courfc of <rit!).-iiigc.

nfili.i cw>.

T», .St.. ^«..

rr/7^r, Sjr«rd)T». /t W«/

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER. 193

days. AVlien they arrived in a city or town they would tell the
latest news from the places they had visited, and the next issue
of the local paper would coiitaiii a story beginning, "The Rev.
Mr. Bland, the traveling missionary, relates," etc., or, " Captain
Smith, of the schooner , reports having heard," etc. Infor-
mation received in this way might relate to Indian uprisings, fires,
floods, crimes, accidents, or political events; but in every case the
published account would be interspersed with opinions of the nar-
rator and the comments of the editor who prepared the story for
publication. For news of events happening in the larger cities,
the journals of the first half of the century depended almost en-
tirely on reprinting from exchanges. They had no regular corre-
spondents any^vhere, and a paper published in New York would
reprint from the papers of Boston and Philadelphia such of the
news of those cities as impressed the editor as being of more than
local interest. During the War of 1812, the subsequent Indian
wars, and the conflict with Mexico, news of battles and movements
of armies in the field was obtained by the slow process of waiting
for ofiicial reports to the Government or private letters from offi-
cers and men at the front. The Mexican War stimulated the pub-
lic demand for news, increased, the circulation of newspapers, and
did more than any other event up to that time to arouse the
editors of the country to the fact that the people wanted early
and complete information of what was going on in the world,
rather than individual opinions on general problems. While
that struggle was in progress the arrival of the weekly mail in
a remote village was an event of importance. The inhabitants
would gather in large numbers at the post office, and the meager
war news contained in the newspapers would be read aloud.
The postmaster or some subscriber to a paper would often post
a copy of the latest journal in some conspicuous place in the
town, and from that simple beginning there was developed the
newspaper bulletin board, where the public may obtain brief
information of. great events before the full report can be put
in type.

After the division of the voters of the country into organized
political parties, the tariff, banking and currency, the acquisition
of additional territory, and States rights developed into great na-
tional questions, precipitating prolonged and heated discussion by
the statesmen of that period. This condition stimulated the
growth of a certain class of newspapers, and brought into promi-
nence many writers of ability. The statesmen and politicians of
that time turned to the press as an available and valuable medium
through which to disseminate arguments. They sought to con-

194

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

1

Prize of

■ 20,000 Dollars, is 20,000

/

! 0,000

10,^00

1

ii.OOO

5,000

I

2,000

2,000

3'

1,000

3,000

20

500

10,<K)()

60

200

12,000

i5q

,

. 100 .

55,000

340

'

60

17,000

600

20

1-2,000

9,600

io

96,000

Fiist drawn number

1,000

do. ontlie 6th day

1 .000

do.

10;h day

1,000

do.

]3ih

2,000

do.

20tli

2,(rt)0

do.

25tJi

2,W0

do.

30th

2,000

do.

36th

3,000

do.

4t)th

. 3,000

do.

46th

5,000

do.

50th

1,000

vince ratlier than to inform the public, and tlie jonrnalism of that
period made no substantial progress except as an instrument for
the development and exploitation of writers of force and influ-
ence. Whatever power
XirOY,_LAIf£!NGBURGH AND WATERFORD the press exerted in shap-
.^,,.. NAVIGATION LOTTERY. . ■ events, whatever it

• accomplished in swaying
the public mind in the
days when nullification
was scotched and terri-
torial expansion was ac-
cepted as a fixed policy of
the majority, should be
credited to the genius and
individuality of the lead-
ing writers of that time,
rather than to a full pres-
entation of facts. The
years of agitation of the
question of slavery still
further developed individ-
uality in journalism. The
newspaper became an in-
strument for educating
the people on certain pub-
lic questions, and an influ-
ence upon public opinion
by means of editorial writ-
ing. That" was the period
of so-called great editors,
of whom Horace Greeley
may be mentioned as a
conspicuous example, who
made and unmade poli-
ticians with their praise
or criticism, who shaped
the policy of political
parties, controlled conven-
tions and nominated can-
didates, changed the cur-
rent of their country's his-
tory at critical points, and in many ways wielded an influence in
public affairs greater than that of the leading statesmen. The
editor of that time was greater than his newspaper, and the power

10,788 Prizes. Dollars 225,000

26,712 B/a.nks.

37,500 Tickets at 6 Dollars, is DUs. 225,000
. Siihjecl io a Deduction of 15 per cent.
. K^ Less than two and an half Blanks to a Prize.

The Managers will ccruinly commence draw-
ing in the City of Ncw-Ycrk, on tliejirsf TwsiUiy hi
May next, and will continue to draw 750 Tickets
each day until completed, as they liave disposed of
theLoTTtRY to a Company of Gentlemen in this
city, who are to sell the Tickets at the orisinal
price of Six Dollar'', until the fcs: of December.

This Lottery is for the purpose of niising ThJrt-j
Thousand DoUurs, to improve tlie ^Javigation of Hud-
son's River, between the City of Albany and the
Villages of Troy, Lansin^hrrgh, and VVaterford- -
Agreeably lo Three several Acts of the Legislanut;
cf liiis State.

DAVID GELSTON, ^
PHILIP TEN EYCK, V Manasen.
JOHN BORDMAN, >
Til? Tic kets in the above Lottery are for. sale at
Gain .t TtN Eyck's Book-store, No. 14&iPcarl-

strect. Priz(,-Tickeu i.i the New- York. StJJt.

Road Lottery taken in payment. l^v-i 16 • tl',,

Fkom Till-: Xkw York Evening Tost ok Novemueu
Hi, 1801.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER. 195

of the press was in reality tlie force of character of the individual
exerted through the instrument within his control.

From 1830 to 1860 the progress made in the mechanical de-
partment of the business

BROWN, fte 5TA^33URY.

HAVE just receive.-'', n v?.'iig^blc col'eciion of
BOOKS, among which <jrc \

Large and elejr.nt Pamilv Bibles vf\\.\\ plates, ,

The works ot vViUiam PcDn, the fbundcf of Penn-^
sylvanla, complete, • ■^ \

Barcley'j apology for the people calle*! Quakers —
'.vitb a number of books of the same description. '"

was slow and unimpor-
tant in comparison with
recent inventions. Cylin-
der presses came into gen-
eral use for the printing
of daily papers, but the
weekly and monthly pub-
lications continued to use
the primitive hand ma-
chines. The speed of press-
work was still limited to
a few hundred copies per
hour, so that an extensive
circulation could not be
supplied even if there had
been a demand for it. The
white paper used was still
made entirely of rags, and
most of the material was
imported from Austria and
Italy. The cost of produc-
tion was high, and few
newspapers in the United
States were published at a
fair profit. The uncer-
tainty of the financial re-
turns from the business
greatly retarded its devel-
opment. Inventors found
that their ingenuity would
receive more substantial
rewards in other fields, and
editors and publishers were
rarely practical men who
could discover imperfec-
tions in mechanism and
suggest improvements in
their own. shops. Through-
out the first half of the
century most of the im-

of

Blair's Sermons,

Do. Lectufes,
Goldsmith's Aninuted
' Nature.
Darwin's Zoonomia,

— = ■ Phytologia,

American Preacher,
Coxe's Svviuerlaiid,
Beaujour's History

Greece,
Gofdsraith's'Greece,
Chatham's Life,
Hornes' S^tches of the

History -of Man,
Smith's Wealth of Na-
tions, .
Tajplin's Farriery,
Prayer-Books,
Rumfoid's Essays,
Burns' Wprks,
Thompson's Works,
St. Pierre's Voyage,
— "——Studies of Nature
JcCersqn's Notes, (hot-
pressed,)
Porter's Antiquities,
Archer's Sermons,
Franklin's Sermons,
Court of Berlin,
Boureannts' History of

Spain,
Burk's Works,
Rcid's Es.say5,
Boil on V.'ounds,
System of Anatomy,
Fourcroy's Chemistry,

London Practice of Phy-
sic— ^with a great va-
riety of Books of the a-
bove description.
Durnford and East's Re- ■
ports, '

Blac kstonc's Cbmmenta-

ries,
Reports of Cases argued
and determined in tlie .
Court of king's Bench
in Hilary Tt rm, in ,
the lorty-first -year of
the reign of George 5d.
lOOlj by E. Hyde
East, parts 1 & 'i.
Park on Insurance,
Lex Mcrcatoria Redivi-

va, &c. &c.
The Oriental Navigator,
American Coast Pilot,
Jackson's Book-keep-
ing.
New Practical Navijatcr,
Walsh's Mercantile At j
rithraetic, - " ^^

A System of Exchange
• with almost all parts of
the World, to which
is added, - the India
Directory for purcha-
sing . the Di-ugs and
Spices of the E.Ind.&c.
This is a new and va-
luable bock, and has
never before been ad-
vertised.

THEY HAVE LIKEWUE ON HAND,

A Urge assortment of MERCEANTS AC-
COUNT BOOKS to various patterns, p:tcat-lined.
— All orders in this line duly attended to. '

A large asbonment of WRITING PAPER of all
descriptions, with every article used in counting-
houses— 140 dozen of LEATHER lor Bo*k-bindcrs,
for sale onnnoderate tcvms.

N.E. BOOK-BINDING done in the neatest man-
ner. Nov. 46

A Emukselli:i;'# .Vdvektiskmext from the New
York Evening Post of Frid.w, December 11,
1801.

196 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

proved methods of printing were develoi)ed iu the establishments
of book and job printers. There new presses and all new me-
chanical devices were first installed, and the newspaper followed,
instead of leading, in the work of material progress in the art.

To the New York Herald is generally credited the departure
from old-time methods that resulted in the creation of newspapers
devoted entirely to the publication of news, the reporting of the
happenings of the world day by day. The innovation was not
well received by tlu^ editors, who believed that the public cared
more for o])inions than a record of events. The new method

proved popular, however,
■•'^'^Vi^^r'^^^^f;^^^' • nnd the development <>f the

"P XHIBITION" for Christmas Et^ng, the newspaper from the per-
i-i iLStii of December ; aad also oa New- Vear'^ ^^,^y^\ iournal and partv Or-
tveniivg, {lie 1st of January : — HisE.vtellency Tco* •> , .

MAS Jefferson, President, of the United States, gan dates from that time,
will be exhibited in a large Transparent Painting, 8 'pi fmnirlpT nf tlip TTpvild
by 5 feet, lull length ; he is represented jn the atti- ' ^^° lOUnaei 01 tue lieiaiQ
tude in vs'hich he expressed that never to be forgot- and the new School of lOUr-
tcn sentence, " IVe are all RfO'ibficSiu, ua are ell fid- 1. , i

flra/-it.."— Every true republican attached from prin- naiism spent money tO Ob-
cipleto the name of Jefferson, cannot but be de. tain the newS of the World
lighted in viewing the exact rescmbiarKC of a man i 1 ■ i

so high UJ their estimation.— Also; his Excellency ahead ol the ordinary chan-
Geob.ce Cli.vton, Governor of thi« State^ rcpre- ,,,j„ ^f (.nrnmnTiipatimi TTp
sented in that calm attitude and pleasing situ Jtion that " •^ ^^ ^^ ^ omniUUlcatlon. ±10
he was placed in at Fort Montgomery, where hit established a system of Spe-
sk.iU and valour will ever be remembered. — Alike- • 1 • i J

ne&sof President Jefferion in minatuVe, ornamented ''''^^ couriers, employea COr-
with tropj.ies, which, with a Transparent Painung respondents, and made the
of Mount Vesuvius, will be placod in front of the .,

Museum— Accompanying tlic ai>ove, will be dis-. collection 01 reports OT
played, elegant full length likenesses of those dl*- ,.vpi,t^ of ooiicrfll interest a
tinguishcd ch-r.ictcis. Franklin and Fayette.— The ^ "^'^'' ^^ gcnciai lUieiebL a
Museum will likewise be bciutifuUy illuminated.— matter of first importance
Ai>MiTTA.><c£ Two Shillings. . Dec ft I • ;i i • •• i •

in the business ot making a

An Edkn MrsHK of I80I. From the Nkw Yokk - r\^.^ Ti

Evening Post of Dk.'E.mbeb 23, 18.1. llCWSpapcr. Other editors

followctl the new movement
slowly, and often with much doubt and liesilation, but those who
stood still and refused to supjilv their reaiU'i-s with the news were
in time compellecl to go out <d" the business.

When the civil war began the new order of journalism had pro-
gressed far enough to create a general demand for a full report
of the progress of that great conflict. All tlie larger cities of the
country were connected by railroads and telegraph lines, the politi-
cal agitation for five years prior to the beginning of hostilities had
aroused the people to a feeling of intense interest in the struggle,
the circulation of the daily papers had increased almost to the
limit of their mechanical capacity, and every condition favored
a rapid development of the business with a certainty of profitable
returns. Tlie leading editors of the country still e.xerted a far-
reaching iiiliu(>nce in jmblic afi'airs, au<l they wei-e cousulte(| l)v

Pj|||rH|||||i|||-

^1 -

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'^li

iki

^;5i'

M^ :i

as^

ill gr?l^".^ *' p'^'5 E-f d i|

;l''

•^?iiy

lir^

;3£ >■

C ,5 ■£ c S tti I i o B i JJ. -s '. 1 2 S a i i! f 5 = S _ ^ - - = i -J s j; ■§ S . :=. I S * S I s, ;

i -u

11^ l«i|r

:fl

?tg«6L^-:.'asi^»^=5£l.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER. 197

the liigliest otticci-s of the Government; but tlie time had come
when the people wanted the news, rather than individual opinions.
American genius and ingenuity responded promptly and adequate-
ly to the demand, and from the time of the civil war the develop-
ment of the newspaper has been a marvel of science and art. The
telegraph came into general use for the transmission of news,
correspondents and artists were sent to the front with all the
armies, the men employed in Washington to write their own views
of public questions were instructed to send to their pajDers only
a record of the great events then transpiring around them, and in
a month, or at most a year, American journalism was well ad-
vanced upon a new era of marvelous development. The time
when the opinions, the power in phraseology, or the individuality
of one man could alone make a daily newspaper a financial, liter-
ary, or political success had passed. The press had become an
institution, journalism a profession, and the publication of news-
papers a practical business requiring and rewarding enterprise and
sagacity.

AVith the sudden demand for more papers came rapid progress
in the mechanical department of the business. Double cylinder
presses capable of printing twenty thousand papers an hour were
soon perfected, folding machines came into general use, stereo-
typing was employed to save time, labor, and wear of type, white
paper was made from wood pulp at greatly reduced cost, and the
progress in all departments of the business was by leaps and bounds
until every demand was more than supplied and new expectations
created. From that time forward invention kept pace with every
increase of circulation. As soon as one press was found inade-
quate or imperfect, the manufacturers were ready to set up a
faster and better one. As competition reduced the selling price
of the newspaper, invention supplied every demand for the mate-
rial of i^roduction at a reduced rate. The impetus to circulation
imparted by the civil war created a new reading public, which rap-
idly grew to include every person who could read and a demand
for all the news' of the world once created would not be denied.
The collection of news was quickly reduced to a system and per-
fected, until to-day no event of importance occurring in any part
of the world is omitted from the daily record of current history.

The great cost of collecting news at the front and transmitting
by telegraph full reports of battles during the civil war caused
certain newspapers in New York city to enter into an arrange-
ment to receive reports in duplicate and share expenses. Then
the cost was further reduced by selling the news to i:)apers in other
cities. That was the beginning of the Associated Press, a plan

198 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of newspaper combination that ultimatel}' made the buying and
selling of news a great commercial enterprise. AVithin a few years
after the close of the war this system had been developed until
practically all the daily newspapers of the country were inter-
ested in it or subscribers to the news collected and sold. This
feature of the business continued to grow until agencies for the
collection and transmission of news were established throughout
the world. Similar associations were formed in England and on
the continent of Europe, and news exchanged with the American
organization. In the United States the business was developed
until newspapers of particular sections of the country and even
those of single States formed associations on the principle of mu-
tual benefit for the collection of full reports of all important events
within the territory where they circulated. At the present time
the system has been perfected until the great news agencies of the
country receive reports of important events from every quarter of
the globe with a degree of promptness and accuracy rendered pos-
sible only by thoroughness of organization and the constant exer-
cise of the keenest intelligence. The collection of all the news
of the world would not be possible under any other plan, but the
American newspapers, having created a demand for the news, were
the first to devise a system of obtaining it promptly at a cost that
made possible the publication of daily papers at a profit in almost
every towm in the country. Brief reports of all important events
are transmitted by cable or telegraph to a central office in Kew
York, Washington, or Chicago, where they are condensed or elabo-
rated, as occasion may require, and then sent out over special tele-
graph wires to papers all over the country that are subscribers to
the service. The larger papers of the country, however, do not
rely upon this service alone. They are represented by special
correspondents not only in all the chief cities of the United States,
but in London. Paris, Berlin, and other news centers of the Old
World.

The development of the newspaper into a medium for record-
ing day by day every event of human interest was so rapid during
the civil war and the stirring times immediately thereafter that
many faults of form and detail remained. The journalism of that
period was a new departure, and the men who created it had no
precedent to guide them, but all the time there was a steady and
intelligent effort to improve in all directions. The efforts of the
leading men in the profession, influenced by conditions and sur-
roundings, resulted in the creation of what were for a time known
as schools of journalism — that is, one man set up an ideal, and
another man strived to create a journal of another character. The

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200 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

aim of all "was to publish the general news of the day, but politi-
cal iiitiiiciices were still strong enough to control editorial policy,
and nltra-partisan and sectional views were incorporated in the
record of events. There were still editors of great power and
inthience in })olitics and public affairs, and they tried to shape
the current of the new condition by the force of editorial writing.
A number of editors, of both the old and new order, for a time
followed the policy of subordinating to partisan politics all other
features of the newspaper. They sought to make the j^i'ess the
dominant influence in politics, and to do that they presented in
their journals only one side of public and party questions. They
undertook to think and to reason for their readers, and their par-
tisan and sectional views were reflected in the news columns of
their papers. So long as party feeling ran high this style of jour-
nalism w^as popular and successful, but the newspaper, being in
the nature of an educator of the masses, soon set the people to
thinking for themselves, and created a demand for the news of
public and political events without the color of individual opinion.
The change from intense partisanship to partial or complete inde-
pendence of editorial utterance has come slowly, and is still under
way. To-day there is no great daily newspaper in the United
States so entirely subservient to a political party as to support any
man or measure without question or protest. Politicians fear this
spirit of independence, and therein lies the secret of the great
power of the ])ress in public affairs. The most powerful and suc-
cessful journals are those that combine absolute fairness and hon-
esty w'ith ind(q)endence.

So-called schools of journalism, in the rapid development of
the profession during the past twenty years, have merged into one
general system or ])lan, which is to get all the news and publish it.
Journals may be graded or classified by their treatment of news
and their judgment as to the intelligence and moral character of
the reading public.

A detailed record of the development of the mechajiical part
of the newspaper business during the past thirty years would be
almost a synopsis of all progress in science and art. The news-
paper printing press of to-day, which prints, cuts, folds, and counts
ninety-six thousand papers per hour, with one man to operate it,
is the mechanical wonder of the age. It is justly regarded as the
greatest piece of machinery that the ingenuity of man has yet
devised. Type is no longer set by hand in the making of a news-
paper, the letters being formed from the metal direct and cast in
finished lines by machinery.

Studying the perfection and magnitude of the newspaper print-

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202 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ing press of to-day it is difficult to realize that little more than
half a century of tiuic and invention stand between this piece of
mechanism, that seems to work with human intelligence, and the
AVashington hand press, upon which the production of printed
sheets was a matter of slow and arduous labor. The great metro-
politan newspapers of to-day are printed by monster machines
weighing thirty tons, composed of four thousand separate pieces
of steel, iron, brass, wood, and cloth. In the great printing-press
factory of K. Hoe & Co. eighteen months' time is required to
build one of the modern presses, and the cost of it would have more
than paid for all the newspaper printing presses in use in the
United States at the beginning of the century. These monster
machines are known as quadruple presses, which means that four
complete presses have been built into one. When in operation,
white paper is fed to them automatically from rolls, and this paper,
with a speed greater than the eye can follow, is converted into
the finished newspaper, printed on both sides, cut into sheets, pasted
together, folded, counted, and deposited in files of fifty or one
hundred at one side of the press. White paper is fed to the press
from two points, and finished newspapers are delivered at two
places on the opposite side. An idea of the speed with which the
work is done may be gained by watching the printed papers fall
from the folder. J'hey drop so fast that the eye, no matter how
well trained, can not count them. These presses have a capacity
of ninety-six thousand four-, six-, or eight-page papers per hour,
and forty-eight thousand ten-, twelve-, or sixteen-page papers.
Their mechanism is so perfect and so carefully adjusted that the
breaking of a narrow band of tape in the folder, the loosening of
a nut, the slightest bending of a rod, friction in a bearing, or any
other derangement, no matter how slight, is instantly apparent to
the skilled machinist in charge.

The white paper used in making the newspapers of to-(hiy is
manufactured from wood pulp and is put up in long rolls, wound
about an iron cylinder that can be adjusted in place at one end
of the press. These rolls contain from two to four miles of paper,
and weigh from eight hundred to twelve luuidi-ed pounds each.
As soon as one roll is used up another is lifted into place, the loos(>
ends of the two are pasted together, and, after a stop of less than
two minutes, the great press is again belching forth finished news-
papers at the rate of sixteen hundred a minute, or two hundred and
sixty-six each second.

Almost every invention and device of recent years in coimec-
fion with the use of electricity is in some way utilized in tlu^ pro-
duction and disti-ilmtioii of the daily newspapers. The evolution

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN NEWSPAPER. 203

of journalism liaviiig iiiially established the fact that the chief
function of the daily newspaper is to publish the news of the world,
the problem of the business is how to obtain the news surely, accu-
rately, and promptly. The ocean cable has taken the place of the
sailing vessel, the trained correspondent has succeeded the occa-
sional contributor, the electric telegraph and telephone have en-
tirely superseded the mail in the transmission of domestic news,
and every event of human interest throughout the civilized world
is placed before millions of readers within a few hours of its actual
occurrence.

The collection of news is not restricted by any question of the
cost of obtaining it. Fifty years ago it was considered a remark-
able feat for one newspaper to obtain information of an impor-
tant event in advance of competitors. To-day it is a matter of
comment if any newspaper fails to publish all the news desired by
its readers. If a war is fought on any part of the earth there are
reporters on the firing line, and no expense is spared in collecting
and transmitting by the quickest method available full reports of
any event of world-wide importance. To-day the hiring of spe-
cial trains, the stringing of a special line of telegraph wire, the
charter of a ship, the fitting out of an exploring expedition, or any
other great enterprise in the way of collecting information for the
newspapers of the United States, is so much a part of the everyday
business of journalism that such things are accepted as a matter
of course, or cause no more than a passing comment.

Half a century ago the result of a national convention or elec-
tion was not known all over the country for weeks afterward. In
the case of a national convention to-day, telegraph wires lead from
the convention hall into the offices of all the newspapers in the
larger cities. An operator sits near the platform of the presiding
officer, and with a muffled key he sends over the wire a full re-
port of the proceedings, with a description of every incident of
interest. At the other end of the line is an operator at a type-
casting machine receiving the report and putting it into lines as
fast as received. When a candidate for President has been nomi-
nated, extra editions of the daily papers are selling on the streets
of cities a thousand miles away almost before the applause for the
winning man has died out in the convention hall. The people of
every city and town in the United States where a newspaper is
published would feel themselves cheated of their rights if they
failed to receive news of the result of an election by midnight of
the day on which the ballots were cast.

In enterprise and originality the journalism of America leads
the world at the end of the nineteenth century. As a profession,

204 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

it commands, with alluring prospects of fame and fortune, the
services of men of genius and learning. Those who enter it from
choice succeed or fail quickly. It is a life of activity, a work where
energy and intelligence are essential qualifications, and honor and
honesty are certain of reward. There is no enduring place in the
profession for hypocrisy, indolence, or mediocrity.

VALUE OF THE STUDY OF ART.

By GEORGES PERROT.

Georges Perrot is one of the leading art writers and teachers of France. Born in
1832, not far from Paris, he was graduated from the Ecole Xormale about 1855, and was
then for three years at the French School at Athens. From his return to the present day
he has occupied, with honor and distinction, many positions in the world of letters. At
present he is a memher of the Institut, an officer of the Legion d'Honneur, a professor k la
Faculte des Lettres de Paris, and the director of the Ecole Norniale Superieure. He is best
known to scholars outside of France by the magnificent work on the History of Art in An-
tiquity, which he is writing, assisted by Charles Chipiez, architecte du gouvernement, and of
which seven superb quartos have already appeared. (Hachette et Cie.) In 1891, by a de-
cree of the Minister of Public Instruction, the study of the history of the fine arts was intro-
duced into a section of the studies pursued at the lycees. In an article in the Revue des
Deux Mondes, July 15, 1899, Perrot pleads for an increase of the time assigned to the study
and for its introduction into other parts of the curriculum.

I have translate<l those pages of the aiticle which are of general interest as a contribu-
tion to a subject which is deservedly attracting the attention of American institutions of
learning. D. Cady Eaton.

"\TTRITTEN and spoken language, the language of which the
^ ^ signs are words, is not the only language which man uses
to convey his ideas. There is also the language of forms, which,
with no less clearness and force, conveys the conceptions of the in-
tellect and the sentiments of the heart. We study the history and
the literature of bygone people for the purpose of acquiring a
better knowledge of ourselves, and this knowledge is secured by
becoming conscious of the different states of mind, to use a modern
expression, through which our ancestors have passed. Even the
most elementary and the most remote of these successive condi-
tions are, unconsciously perhaps, represented in the depths of our
being by beliefs and customs for which the present order and prog-
ress of civilization can not account.*

* The highest education consists in the presentation and in the aocejjtance of the purest
ideas and the highest ideals of all ages, whether they be presented in written or spoken
words, in songs of voices or sounds of instnmients, in plastic forms or glowing pictures, in
humble lives or glorious actions. The well-educated man should be the prodnct and the
epitome of the best thoughts and sentiments the woild has ])rodnced, for he carries the
re8ponsil)ility of past centuries.

VALUE OF THE STUDY OF ART. 205

Not to go back to the Quaternary period or to the cave dwellers,
there are many of these mental ideas or conditions which would
remain hidden from the inquiry of the historian if he were limited
to written testimony. One example may suffice: the discoveries
of Schliemann, at Troy, Mycense, and Tiryns have rescued from ob-
livion a primitive Greece of which the Greeks themselves had pre-
served but a faint remembrance. Thus has been given to the
Homeric epoch a background of many centuries. Now this Greece,
contemporary of the Thutmoses and the Ramses of Egypt, anterior
to not only Grecian history but even to Grecian tradition, could
not write, but could work and use stone; could hew wood and fash-
ion it for carpentry; could mold and bake clay; could melt and
hammer lead, bronze, gold, and silver; and could carve ivory.
Every bit of material fashioned by the instruments of this period
has the value of an authentic document. How society was consti-
tuted, the life that was led, what notions were held of the hereafter
— all these things are revealed by the marks the hands of man have
left upon everything he touched. The colossal walls of Tiryns,
the majestic funeral cupolas of Mycenae, the divisions of the royal
abodes of which the outlines can still be traced on the surface of
the soil, and the arrangement of the sepulchres hidden beneath it
all testify. So, too, the weapons, the instruments, the vases, and
the jewels which have been found scattered about amid the ruins
of the buildings or buried in the tombs. Thanks to all these monu-
ments, we are beginning to recognize in a shadow which year by
year glows with a brighter light the features which characterized
the world of Achaean heroes of which the image, transformed by
oral tradition and singularly enlarged by power of invention, is re-
flected in the Iliad and the Odyssey.

Erom these obscure and remote ages let us transport ourselves
to the Greece of Pisistratus, of Pericles, and of Alexander. In-
structors of youth tell of the losses which have been made, and of
how small a part of the literary work of Greek genius has escaped
the great shipwreck of antiquity. Should they not also indicate
where precious supplements of information may be found to fill the
voids of written tradition? There are many variations of impor-
tant myths, hardly mentioned in passing by obscure epitomizers of
the lower centuries, which have furnished to ceramic artists subjects
for pictures which make us acquainted with personages and with
episodes of which writers have hardly left a trace. But even if we
had the works of the cyclic poets, all of which have perished; if
we had the lyric poets, of whom only Pindar has survived, and
Bacchylides whose fragments are to-day the joy of Hellenists; if
we had the whole of tragedy, of- which we have but the remnants;

2o6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

it Avc had all uf that coiiicdv wliirh is rcprcsciitctl Ijv Aristophanes
alone; if we had all (d' the more ancictit comedy, all of the ndddlc
period and all of the new, with ]\Ienaiider who since the Renais-
sance is the regret of all critics of fine apprehension — all this po-
etry could not exhaust the multiple fecimdity and the j)rodii>ious
richness of the imagination whi(di created it. if malevolent For-
tune had decreed the destruction of every hit of (ii-eek ]dastic art
we should have been condemned to per])etual ignorance of many
aspects and methods of the Greek soul. Is there anything in litera-
ture worth the little clay figures of Tanagra in making clear how
the Greeks apprehended and enjoyed female beauty: how they
loved it not only in the noble and serious types of a Pallas or an
Aphrodite, but even as presented by the humble inhabitants of
little villages in the graceful abandon of their everyday life and
in the liberty of their most ordinary attitudes? If we base an
opinion of the religion of the Greeks only upon the epithets used
by poets in defining the gods and upon actions they attributed to
them, we run the risk of judging wrongly. In contemplating their
images we obtain clearer notions of the ideas associated with each
divine type. Alas! we do not possess the great works of Phidias
which according to men of authority made men more religious —
the Athene of the Parthenon and the Zeus of Olympia. But even
in the reduced copies of these two masterpieces which have reached
down to our time we can divine how the master expressed in the
one the idea of calm and luminous intelligence and of supreme wis-
dom, and in the other the idea of that sovereign force in repose
and of that omnipotence, tempered by goodness, which were con-
ceived to exist in the sovereign of the universe, th(» father of gods
and men.

In subsequent paragraphs Perrot imagines the Greek statues
of the Louvre thus addressing a classical student:

"Young man, you who are studying Greece in Ilomei- and
Plato, in Sophocles and Herodotus, do not pass us by so quickly.
We also belong to that Cireece which you discern and which \n\\
seek in their writings, of which not without diflficulty you decii)her
the prose and the verse. To understand and to love us, to read in
our features the thoughts of which we are the expression, to seize
in the modeling of our flesh and in the pure outline of onr limhs
the secret of the genius which created us, no gi-ammar nor dic-
tionary is needed; only apply yourself to the education of yoni- eye.
In this exercise, in this apprenticeship, yon will find a pleasure
which will become more and more keen as yon become more ca-
pable of perceiving rapidly the finest gradations. If you aspire to
become ati authorized iiit( ■ri)rcter of Greek genins, do not fear that

VALUE OF THK STUDY OF ART. 207

joii niaj be losing time. W'Jicii, hy long and aifcctionate inter-
course, jou shall have sufficiently entered into our intimacy to be
able at any given hour to evoke in your si)irit, as clearly as if we
stood before you, a vision of the forms whicli shall have become
dear to you, then the images M'hich shall be awakened in your
memories when you read the poets will be akin to those which the
same recitals and the same epithets suggested to the Greeks who
saw us born. To them you will be drawn by similarity of impres-
sion. You will be nearer to them, nearer to thinking and feeling
after their fashion, at least by moments, than the most subtle gram-
marian or the most learned Hellenist who never has seen us."

Turning from Greece to Italy, Perrot derives a no less strik-
ing lesson from the statues of Roman emperors:

" Is there a lesson, though given by the most learned professor,
that could cause to live before us all the life of the Rome of the
Caesars as do these effigies? In the long succession of portraits
which embrace three centuries of history the differences of times
and of men are contrasted more keenly and more vividly than in
the recitals of ancient authors or in the dissertations of modern
erudites. Augustus and Tiberius, Constantine and Theodosius, all
bore the same title — ' imperator ' ; all were called consuls, Caesars,
Augusti, patres patrice, etc. Nevertheless, from the first to the
fourth centuries the supreme power was greatly modified. Vol-
umes have been written to explain the change, but there is nothing
that makes it so clear as the comparison of the images of these
])rinces. Augustus, in perhaps the most beautiful of all his statues,
called de Prima Porta, has his head, arms, legs, and feet bare.
Over the soldier's short tunic he wears a cuirass, and over it is
thrown the military mantle of command. He is represented as
supreme chief haranguing his troops. Another statue may repre-
sent him as a simple citizen, clothed with the toga and holding in
his hand the manuscript of the discourse he proposes reading to
the senate. The statues still show forth the Roman Republic, at
least the customs and the style of it. Most vividly is the spirit and
also the deception of the system perceived which, while investing
a single individual with a power almost limitless, affects for two
centuries a preservation of ancient liberties. Turn from these to
an image of one of the successors of Diocletian, one who preferred
to reside in Constantinople, the new capital of the empire. Do
not seek his image in one of the ceremonial statues where, by force
of routine, the sculptor may perchance have preserved classic rules;
but in monuments of another order, where the artist kept closer
to reality, in miniatures adorning manuscripts, in mosaics, in ivory
diptychs, etc. There you will find figures which have nothing left

2o8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of the simplicity and nobility wliich Rome borrowed from Greece,
but figures which in some particulars recall the old art of Asia,
and in others already announce the art of the middle ages. The
head is encircled with a diadem. The body and the limbs are en-
tirely hidden by clinging draperies which are very long and very
narrow. The materials which form this species of case are deco-
rated from top to bottom with rich embroideries in the shape of
medallions, flowers, animals, and even persons. There is no more
deception; we are no longer in Rome; fictions so long preserved
have finally disappeared; the empire has turned into an Oriental
despotism.

■' Between the two extremes of the series, how many degrees
are there which furnish the very best commentaries of history?
The heads of all the Caesars, even those of Claudius, the accidental
scholar, and of Caligula, the wicked and witty fool, are aristocratic.
They show the nobility and the pride of race. You recognize in
them the descendants of those grand patrician families which at
first seemed to hold exclusively the right to give masters to the
Romans. With Vespasian, scion of a middle-class family pushing
its way into second-class public positions, the advent of a new order
is evident. Vespasian has the round and smooth, double-chinned
face of the chief clerk of a commercial or banking establishment.
Trajan has the features of a soldier who has probably pushed his
way to the front from the ranks. Hadrian, who turns his head
to hear the better, whose bright eyes gleam even in the marble,
whose half-opened mouth seems in the act of speech, shows the fea-
tures of a learned and intelligent scholar. Marcus Aurelius, with
his bristling hair and beard, would be taken for a Greek philoso-
pher. In Caracalla's looks there is derangement. His eye be-
trays that murderous and fantastic frenzy which seized more than
one emperor, especially of those who from early youth had been
exposed to the temptations of absolute power.*

" ISTot to personages alone do pictured monuments give life.

* There is a bust of Julius Caesar in England of which a cast or a copy should be by
the side of every expounder of the Commentaries. The presence of the bust would give
new life to the narrative, for there is more life in the marble than in the writing.
There are in the Louvre, placed side by side, three representations of Nero which tell
the story of the man more graphically than the pages of Suetonius. The first represents
the youth, whose thoughts are pure, hopes bright, and resolves noble. The second shows
the conflict with evil and the beginning of the triumph of sin. The third is so monstrous
in its brutality and lust that it must have been taken but a short time before the catastro-
phe which terminated the matricide's career. Historians n)ay detail the circumstances of
tiie fall of Fiome, philosophers may investigate the causes which led to it, but tiiat hideous
face in the Louvre tells the whole story with a force so startling, so instantaneous, that his-
tory and philosophy seem weak and wanting.

VALUE OF THE STUDY OF ART. 209

The same character of sensible reality is imparted to the frame and
to the surroundings of the picture, to all the theater where these ac-
tors played their parts. Of this truth no one of our teachers, when
I was a collegian, seemed to have a suspicion. There was not an
illustration in the cold and dry compendiums which were placed in
our hands. I can almost ask myself if, when I studied Greek and
Roman history, I was really convinced that Sparta and Athens,
Rome and Carthage had actually existed. I certainly did not know
how or where to place them in space, what idea to have of their
situation, or of the outlines made by the ridges of their walls, their
houses, and their temples. All these cities were to me vague shad-
ows, floating between heaven and earth. No one of them answered
to a distinct and defined form.

" If this be the case with classical antiquity, in spite of the color
and splendor of the narratives of its writers, how much more diffi-
cult is it to know and understand France of the middle ages when
condemned to study it in its literary work alone! The literature
of the period is partly in debased Latin, partly in early French.
The French of the day was not the language of the thinkers. The
deep thought of the age is not to be found in minstrelsy and bal-
lads. It must be asked of the learned, of philosophers, of theo-
logians, and of sacred writers. But to follow them in the subtle
analyses and in the excessive complications of symbolism, in which
they delight, requires mental efforts which are made all the more
laborious by the artificial character of the church Latin, which no
longer continued to renew itself at the source of popular speech.
It is impossible to see how such works, in spite of their value to
erudition, can be called to take part in the education of the young.
It is for this reason that lately, by a judicious innovation, a discreet
place has been made in the curriculum for histories and poems
written in the common language, for the Chanson de Roland, and
for the works of Villehardouin and Joinville. But the student
can only read these in translations, or in those adaptations which
so modernize the language as to leave but a little of its original
flavor, and which therefore make but an imperfect contact between
the original work and the mind of the reader. But supposing the
scholar capable of mastering the original text : can its formless and
superabundant prose, or the tiresome monotone of its flowing dis-
sonances, give him emotions which have the vivacity of those which
a page of Tacitus or a song of Virgil gives to those who know
even a modicum of Latin? Can they have the power to excite the
imagination in the same degree as any strong and concise sentence
of the historian, any sonorous and glowing verse of the Roman
poet?

TOL. LVI. lY

210 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

" It is only exceptionally and as by flashes that the writings of
the middle ages give the impression of true beauty. The concep-
tions are often grand, but the expression is always weak and drag-
ging. On the other hand, Roman or Gothic churches are not lesa
beautiful after their manner than Greek temples. Their beauty
is of another fashion, but many souls are touched more deeply.
They manifest no less clearly the power of the religious faith which
constructed them. The particular character of Christian faith is
shown with singular clearness in their majesty, in the elevation of
their vaults, in the half lights which flood them, and in the thou-
sands of figures which populate and animate every surface. As
in Greece, the sculptor co-operates intelligently and docilely with
the architect and has occupied no less happily the allotted fields.
As Phidias and Alcamenes represented on the pediments and friezes
of Doric temples the great gods of Greece and the local myths of
Athens and Olympia, so anonymous masters, called to decorate the
cathedrals of the middle ages, have placed impressive statues on
the sides and in the voussoirs of the portals, in the open galleries
which run along the facades, on the top of the pinnacles which
throng the roof — in fact, everywhere where space is offered. These
statues, distributed in an order regulated by doctrine and tradition,
show forth the Saviour, the Virgin, saints and angels, prophets and
apostles, and hosts of personages and scenes suggested by Holy
"Writ or by local and popular legends. Among these images there
are many at Bourges, Chartres, Rlieims, Amiens, and Notre Dame
de Paris, which are marvels of severe elegance, of chaste and
haughty grace, and of lofty moral nobility. This wonderful statu-
ary has but lately been investigated, exposed, and studied, but al-
ready it would be difficult to find a connoisseur unwilling to com-
pare with the most boasted statues of antiquity that admirable
image of the teaching Christ of the west portal of Amiens, to
which the popular surname has been attached of le Beau Dieu
d^ Amiens.

" For evident reasons, French sculpture of the thirteenth cen-
tury did not, as did Greek sculpture, devote itself to the study and
reproduction of the nude. It denied itself this attraction. All
figures are clad; but beneath the drapery, which is in fine masses
with large folds, the outline and the movement of form are indi-
cated with precision. The principal interest and the rare origi-
nality, however, of this sculpture is that it is perhaps the most ex-
pressive that has ever existed. This expressiveness appears in the
general effect of the pose, in the disposition of the drapery, but
especially in the character which the artist has succeeded in giving
to the features of the face.

VALUE OF THE STUDY OF ART. 211

" The august mysteries of the Christian dogma, the poetry of
the Old and of the New Testament, the triumphant deaths of mar-
tyrs, the miracles of saints and their infinite charity — these things
which the middle ages failed to put into clear and intelligible words
are fully rendered in sculpture. The work of the chisel is large and
firm. Difficulties are not sought, nor are they feared. Whatever
be the material, the form is sure. To understand how superior
the plastic is to the literary work, and to measure the distance,
compare the Amiens statue with the portraits the authors of the
Mysteries endeavor to draw of the Son of God. ' What can be
more flat than these poor verses, which are nevertheless of the six-
teenth century? The authors had good intentions and an appre-
hension of what should be done, but they were betrayed by the lan-
guage in which they wrote. The sculptors of the thirteenth cen-
tury, on the contrary, who possessed fully the grammar of their
art, expressed all they felt, and have left us the most divine images
of Jesus Christ in existence.' *

" Italy of the Renaissance is quite unintelligble to any one who
has not measured the place held by art in the preoccupations not
only of artists who practice it, but of all men of all conditions — of
princes, nobles, tradesmen, and of citizens of most humble occu-
pations. ISTo one in any rank is without a passionate love for plas-
tic beauty. This love was Italy's life and Italy's death. She died
of it, because all her sap was consumed in satisfying it. It made
her indifferent to her dismemberment, to the hard yoke of her
tyrants, to the loss of her political liberties, and of her independ-
ence. But, at the same time, it constituted the intensity of her
life which w^as exhausted and renewed again in the ardor with
which she pursued her ideal and in her endeavors to realize it under
all its aspects. Let him who would wish to obtain an exact idea
of this condition reside for a while in Mantua, in Parma, in Sienna,
in Florence, or in any other less-known city which nevertheless
had its local school of art, its architects, its sculptors, its painters,
some of whom, though they only worked for their native city, were
not far from manifesting genius. f

" The written history of the seventeenth century and its rich
literature can not alone give an idea of the situation occupied by
Louis XIV in .Europe when he was admired, imitated, or rather
servilely copied, as pre-eminently the type of the modern king even
by those who hated him the most. After two centuries, have we

* E. Male. Revue Universitaire, Third Annee, 1. i, p. 15.

f Raphael's Madonnas save the reputation of the papal see of the sixteenth century, for
pontiffs who cherished such pure and gentle representations could not have been so corrupt
as Luther's partisans assert.

212 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

not seen liis wonderful prestige still potent in dominating tlie sickly
mind of Louis II of Bavaria? In his desire to copy his chosen
model Louis ruined himself in building palaces. In this folly he
showed discrimination. Louis XIV, when dying, may have ac-
cused himself of having indulged too great a love for building; but
his edifices, with their majestic grandeur and the opulence of their
decoration, gave that royal life a frame which had much to do with
the dazzling which all Europe experienced when in the presence
of le Boi Soleil. In order to recognize and experience, though
but for a moment, a little of the impression felt by all contempo-
raries, Versailles must be visited ; the apartments of the palace, the
terraces, and the alleys of the park must be traversed. Thus will
be thrown upon this historic figure a light far more brilliant and
true than could possibly be the result of learning by heart accounts
of all the campaigns of Turenne or Conde, or all the clauses of the
treaties of Kimegue and Ryswick.

" The same may be said of the eighteenth century, of which
only an incomplete idea can be had without a knowledge of its art.
This century, to which Voltaire gave the note, seems to have had
no sentiment of poetry. Down to the time of Andre Chenier
everything called poetry was no more than rhymed prose. The
imagination, however, did not lose its rights. Like a stream which
changes its bed, it withdrew from literature to flow into the arts
of design. There it gives evidence of invention and of light and
spontaneous grace. Architects adopt plans of happy arrangement.
They employ forms of rare elegance both in the elements of con-
struction and in the ornaments which decorate them. Such sculp-
tors as Capperi and Houdon give to portraiture a marvelous inten-
sity of life, while the terra cottas of Clodion, with their fantastic
and voluptuous charm, recall the clay modelers of antiquity. Such
painters as Greuze, Lancret, and Boucher spread before the eyes
living idyls, while Watteau and Frangonard conjure dreams of
ideal Cytheras, of a chimerical paradise where reign eternal youth
and eternal desire. The politics of our kings and of our ministers
of the period is but a succession of faults and weaknesses. The
best concerted plans come to naught. The most brilliant victory
produces no useful results. If France, in spite of so many reverses,
still held her supremacy in Europe, she owed it to her writers and
to her artists."

Perrot's arguments might be used with even greater force in
reference to those notions which have had no Comines, no Join-
ville, no Froissart, no Villehardouin, but the history of whose
civilization may be traced in monuments along the Rhine and the
Danube, the Ems and the Elbe. In the last part of the article

HOW STANDARD TIME IS OBTAINED. 213

Perrot considers the best methods of giving the desired instruction.
However interesting and valuable his suggestions may be in com-
munities where the instruction has already been established, it is
evident that there must first be a conviction of the value and neces-
sity of such studies and the determination to have them started.
Methods are not diificult to devise, and Avill vary with national and
individual tastes. That American colleges of thirty, forty, or fifty
years ago should have objected to the introduction of the history
of the fine arts into their curricula is easily understood. Art in
any form was regarded by the l^ew England mind as an emana-
tion of the devil, and the New England mind controlled American
colleges. Why the repugnance continues to exist is harder to un-
derstand. It may subsist from ignorance, from prejudice, or from
conservatism. Conservatism may still regard all information to
be derived from art as objectionable. Prejudice may still be
strongly fixed in the notion that written and spoken words are the
only vehicles of instruction, and that the arts are useless and idle
vanities, while ignorance may be awaiting demonstration which will
have to be strong and conclusive to awake it from self-satisfied
apathy. May the good words of Perrot help on the cause and ac-
celerate the time when the best and the fullest education will be
offered by the American university!

HOW STANDAKD TIME IS OBTAmED.

By T. B. WILLSON, M. A.

ALMOST everybody knows that observatories are the places
-^^- from which standard time is sent out and corrected daily
or hourly. But comparatively few have more than the vaguest
idea of the means used at the observatories for obtaining it.

Probably the majority of people suppose that the observatories
obtain the correct time from the sun. When the average man
wishes to give his watch the highest praise he says, " It regulates
the sun," not being aAvare that a w^atch which would keep with
the sun around the year would have to be nearly as bad as Sam
Weller's. The farmer may safely decide when to go in to dinner
by the sun, but if th« mariner was as confident that the sun marked
always the correct time as the farmer is he would be sure to be
at times two or three hundred miles from where he thought he
was. In other words, the sun — that is, a sundial — is only correct
on a few days in each year, and during the intervening times gets
as far as a whole quarter hour fast or slow.

2 14 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

These variations of the sun from uniform time caused no end
of trouble between the astronomers and the fine clockmakers be-
fore it was discovered that sun time is subject to such irregulari-
ties. The better the clock, the worse it often seemed to go.

But as the variations in sun time are now accurately known,
correct time might be obtained from the sun by making proper
allowance, were it not for the difficulty of observing its position,
with sufficient exactness. The large disk of the sun can not be
located so perfectly as can the single point which a star makes.
For this reason astronomers depend almost wholly upon the stars
for obtaining accurate time. It is the method of doing this which
we propose to describe.

There are several hundred stars whose positions have been es-
tablished with the greatest accuracy by the most careful observa-
tions at a number of the principal observatories of the world.
If a star's exact position is known, it can readily be calculated
when it will jiass the meridian of any given place — that is, the in-
stant it will cross a north-and-south line through the place. The
data regarding these stars are all published in the nautical alma-
nacs, which are got out by several different observatories for the
use of navigators and all others who have uses for them. These
stars are known as " clock stars."

Every observatory is provided with at least one, or, better,
several clocks that are very accurate indeed. Every appliance
and precaution which science can suggest is resorted to to make
these clocks accurate. The workmanship is, of course, very fine.
What is known as the '' retaining click " prevents their losing a
single beat while being wound. The small variations in the length
of the pcndidum which changes of temperature- would cause are
offset by compensation. The rise of the mercury in the pendulum
bob, if the weather grows warmer, shortens the pendulum pre-
cisely as much as the expansion of its rod lengthens it, and con-
versely if it becomes colder. Such clocks, too, are set on stone
piers built up from below the surface of the ground and wholly
independent of the building itself. Often the clocks are made
with air-tight cases, and sometimes are placed in tightly closed
chambers, only to be entered when absolutely necessary. Some
fine clocks even have appliances for offsetting barometric changes,
but those affect such clocks less than other influences or imperfec-
tions which can not be accounted for, and thus they are seldom
provided against.

The astronomer's principal clock — the one he uses in all his
calculations — marks what is known as sidereal, not ordinary, time.
The revolution of the earth in its orbit sets the sun back in its

HOW STAND ABB TIME IS OBTAINED. 215

place in the heavens at the rate of abont four minutes a day, or
one whole day in a year, so that this clock, indicating star time,
gains this amount and is only with ordinary clocks once a year.
After it is once adjusted, no attempt is made to regulate it ex-
actly, as the astronomer would better calculate its differences than
disturb its regulation, always provided its rate is very uniform and
accurately known.

One or more of the other clocks, however, are made to show
ordinary time, and corrected by observations taken every few days.
It is from this clock that the standard time is sent out.

It is possible to connect any of these clocks telegraphically
with an instrument in the observatory, known as a chronograph.
It consists of a cylinder with a sheet of paper around it, on which

u 1 r—

A Short Section from the Paper Band of the Chronograph Cylinder, showing Tra-
cings OF 1'en connected with Clocks: 1, seconds of .sidereal clock; 2. Loth sidereal
and common clocks ; 3-10, the traciny:s of the mean-time clock fall steadily behind the
other ; 11. sidereal only ; 12, connected with observer's key. The extra teeth show when
a star passed each of the five spider lines. At the extreme right is a " rattle," put in to
show where the observation is on the cylinder.

rests a pen connected with the telegraphic instrument which fol-
lows the beats of the clock. The cylinder is turned slowly by
clockwork, and the pen, carried slowly along by a screw, describes
a spiral on the paper with jogs or teeth in it about a quarter of
an inch apart, caused by the beats of the clock. In this way the
astronomer secures a visible record of the beating of his clock,
or rather of the movements of his telegraphic recorder. Thus,
if he has another key on the same circuit with the clock, con-
nected with his chronograph recorder, and should touch it between
the beats of his clock, it would put in an extra jog or tooth on his
record, and it will show, what he could not have told in any other
way, in just what part of the second he touched this key, whether
in the first or last part of the second, and precisely how far from

2i6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

either end — that is, he can determine fractions of a second with
great nicety.

As a matter of fact, he has such a key at the telescope which
he uses to make his observations in taking time, so that when he
wishes to record the precise instant in which anything takes place
wliich he is viewing through his telescope he has but to press the
key in his hand and an extra tooth will be put into the record
which the clock is making, somewhere among the regular teeth
put in by the beating of the clock. Later, when he takes out the
sheet he can see just where the tooth came, and so at what instant
it was. If, now, he knows exactly what the instant was according
to the true time as given in his almanacs — that is, what his clock
ought to have shown at that instant — he can tell how nearly right
his clock is. Once knowing how this clock is, it is a simple calcu-
lation to find how the clock which sends the signals is running, and
to alter it if needed in a manner we shall describe later.

The observations the astronomer makes use of to determine
these instants of time are upon the " clock stars." He uses a
rather small telescope, known as a transit. It is placed with the
nicest accuracy in a north-and-south line. It can turn over ver-
tically, but can not move sideways out of its line. Its alignment
is kept perfect by occasionally sighting some small mark a few
rods from the observatory, either north or south.

If the astronomer points this transit, say, halfway up the south-
ern heavens and sees a star pass across the center of its field he
knows that that instant gives, as it were, the " noon mark " of
that star. If it is one of the " clock stars," he knows by his tables
what that instant of time is — should be — by his clock.

We have seen what his means are of comparing his clock and
his observations. iJut observe, now, how much pains he takes to
get the most exact observations.

To begin with, he must have calculated to a nicety his loca-
tion. The director of an observatory always knows where he is
located in a sense that few other men do. The accuracy of a large
part of his observations of any kind depends on his first having
determined tlie latitude and longitude of his observatory within a
very few feet. Then the data given by his tables are all modi-
fied, and adapted to conform to his locality.

There are stretched across in the eyepiece of his transit five
spider lines. The central one is on the central line of the field
of his instrument. In observing a star for time the astronomer
watches it as it is carried by the rotation of the earth past each
of these spider lines, and presses his key — that is, makes a record
— as it crosses each line. Taking the average of these five ob-

irOW STANDARD TIME IS OBTAINED. 217

servations, lie makes the possible error very small. But, in addi-
tion to this, lie also usually makes observations on at least four
clock stars, wliicli gives liim twenty observations to average up
and determine by. As lie inspects the record of these observa-
tions which has gone upon the chronograph sheet along with the
clock beats he is able to determine, after proper calculations, how
his clock stands.

Such observations are made every three or four evenings, and
thus the clocks are not given time to get far out of the Avay. It
is not usual for a good clock to show a variation of more than half
a second. If the astronomer finds that his clock which is send-
ing the time is running a fraction of a second slow, he goes to it
and lays on the top of the pendulum bob a minute clipping of
metal, which is equivalent to shortening the pendulum an infini-
tesimal amount. When he takes his next observation he discov-
ers how his clock has been affected, and again treats it accord-
ingly. Thus the time that is sent out automatically by the clock
is kept always correct within a small fraction of a second. Those
who receive the time sometimes arrange electro-magnets near the
pendulums of their clocks, which act with the beats of the observa-
tory clock, and their attraction is enough to hold or accelerate
the pendulums as needed to make them synchronize with the ob-
servatory clock.

It will be seen that the means of obtaining exact time involve
a very considerable outlay, and that the services of highly trained
men are needed. The public is thus greatly indebted to the rail-
roads, telephone companies, and other corporations which usually
bear the expense of securing standard time. It is probable, how-
ever, that from motives of scientific pride no observatory would
undertake to charge for this anything like what would be exacted
for such rare service in any department of the commercial world.

It is worth while to note that even with such perfect clocks
and favorable conditions it is still impossible to secure perfect time-
keeping. Add to this the fact that it is not usual for those who
send out the time, after it has been received from the observatory,
to pay much heed to variations, even of several seconds, in their
master clocks, and we see why it is a disheartening task to keep
the best watch as near the second as the owner would fain have it.
In the first place, the watch could hardly be made to keep such
time if kept still in an unchanging temperature; secondly, it is
still less capable of it when subjected to the jolting and changes
of temperature it encounters when carried; and, thirdly, the
means of obtaining time with sufiicient exactitude are rarely avail-
able to the general public.

TOL. LTI. 18

2i8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FOREIGN" COUNTRIES.

By W. E. DE EIEMER, M. A.

^ I ^IIE recent death, at the closing of the year 1898, of the la-
-L mented Senator Justin S. Morrill, who, as being the author
of the Land-Grant College Act, is justly styled the father of agri-
cultural education in the United States, seems to suggest the desira-
bility of taking a survey of agricultural education as it at present
exists in other countries than our own.

Since the pursuit of agriculture is one which concerns more of
the people of our globe than any other pursuit, the necessity for
scientific training for agriculturists becomes more and more evident
to educated people. It is true that the cultivators of the soil do not
generally admit the need of special schooling. At the beginning of
this century very few educators, even, thought so. It was supposed
that tilling the soil had nothing to do with schools, and that science
had no connection with plowing and sowing. Agricultural lecture-
ships were established early in the eighteenth century in several-
European universities, but they were regarded as curiosities of the
age — superfluities of culture, rather than aids to the cultivator.
Earmers themselves were supposed to be the only competent teach-
ers of agriculture, and experience the only possible guide. But it
has become apparent that no farmer's experience is broad enough
to be adapted to all soils and climates. The successful farmer has
come to regard the land which he o\vns as a wonderful machine
which, if rightly managed, will turn out the most costly and per-
fect product; but which, if neglected or ignorantly handled, will
disappoint his high hopes and possibly impoverish its owner. The
development of commerce which so easily introduces the wheat
and potatoes and other products of our country into competition
with the grain produced in a distant land has taught the producers
of this generation, and especially the citizen of European countries,
that the farmer who can produce the largest crop of grain from
the fewest acres, at the lowest price for the best cereal or vegetable,
is the only successful cultivator. The nation which succeeds best
in this direction with all its soil products is the one which is sure
to have the " balance of trade " always in its favor.

The United States awoke to this idea when, in 1862, Congress
passed the Land-Grant College Act, allotting Government lands in
every State to aid in founding agricultural colleges. The country
became more profoundly moved by this idea when, in 1887, Con-
gress passed the Hatch Act, granting annually to each State the
sum of fifteen thousand dollars to organize and perpetuate agri-

FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 219

cultural experiment stations, and still further when it organized
a Department of Experiment Stations as an integral part of the
Department of Agriculture.

But several of the countries of Europe have anticipated our
action in behalf of agricultural education by a quarter of a century.
Germany and France and little Switzerland realized fifty years ago
that agriculture in its various departments must be pursued with
the aid of the latest science combined with the broadest experience.
These countries have not Avaited for the laborer to perfect himself
in experience — an impossible attainment — but they have opened
schools of every possible grade, arranged courses of lectures by the
best educated scientists, made elementary agriculture a compul-
sory subject in the curricula of the common schools, sent out trav-
eling instructors to confer with and advise and give courses of lec-
tures to the older farmers, made it possible — even compulsory —
that young people should attend technical schools at odd hours of
the day or evening, and even tempted them to pass a serious exami-
nation in their respective studies by the offer of a valuable prize as
the reward of success. It is said that Charles Dickens once made
a speech at an agricultural dinner in which he somewhat derisively
said that " the field it paid the farmer best to cultivate was the one
within the ring fence of his own skull." Dickens was correct. The
farmer needs scientific education. The best civilized and progres-
sive nations of to-day are admitting the utterance of Dickens to be a
serious truth. Vast sums of money are appropriated by European
governments to prevent their agricultural classes from continuing
in or subsiding into ignorance of their art. Even the peasants of
Kussia, notably in the province of Ekaterinoslav, by the generous
appliances for special agricultural education made by the Ministry
of Agriculture and State Domains, united with the efforts of the
Ministry of Public Instruction, are made to feel that without expert
teaching a man can not succeed even in the raising of fowls or of
bees, the culture of silkworms, the making of wine, or the manuring
of his fields. Consul Heenan * says that in the province named
above the Government annually rents thirty-two experiment fields,
each eight acres in extent, distributed four in each district, and each
one located in the midst of peasant fields. Each of these fields is
placed in charge of some scientifically educated public-school teach-
er, who is paid twenty-five dollars per year for his direction, and
receives, besides, all the harvest produced. The teacher uses the
native tools and seeds, and hires neighbor peasants to assist in dem-
onstrating that with care in plowing, cleaning of seed, cultivating,

* See United States Consular Reports, vol. Ivii, No. 215, August, 1898, article on Gar-
dener's Schools in Russia, by Consul Heenan.

2 20 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and reaping, liis field Avill produce larger crops than his slovenly or
ignorant neighbor. The object lesson has its certain result. The
peasants are gradually adopting the four-field culture system — viz.,
fallow, winter crops, pastures, and summer crops.

Besides these, Russia sustains 68 agricultural schools, contain-
ing 3,157 pupils, at a cost of $403,500, of which sum the Govern-
ment pays $277,500, and the local zemstovs (societies) or the school
founders pay $136,000.

In France the eminent scientist Lavoisier, at the close of the
last century, advocated the founding of a national school for the
teaching of agricultural science. His plan for government initia-
tion was not realized, but in 1822 Matthieu de Dombasle founded,
near IS'ancy, the first true agricultural school. In 1829 and 1830
the schools at Grignon and Grand] ouan were founded by August
Bella and Eiefell respectively. !N"ow France boasts of one of the
most perfect systems of agricultural education of any country of
the world. Under the joint direction of her Ministers of Agricul-
ture and of Public Instruction, France plans to cover every phase
of education from the simplest forms of object lessons taught by
law in all her primary schools to the crowning National Institute
of Agriculture at Paris. The facts of science, united with the
soundest experience, are demonstrated to the farmer by lectures
and experimentation; the future agriculturists of the country are
educated in the certainties of scientific research at graded schools,
ranging from elementary to university degrees, and every milk-
maid is taught the necessity of promptness, cleanliness, and system
in the care of milch cows and in the disposal of their milk.

The former able Director-General of French Agriculture, Mon-
sieur Tisserand, says: " The aim and object of France has been not
only to give to children and young people the means of acquiring
knowledge, but also to establish means for interesting old cultiva-
tors. In this century of extreme competition we must admit that
the agriculturist can only thrive if, in working the soil, he adopts
scientific methods. Old routine is no longer sufficient in this
branch, as it is proved to be insufficient in manufacture." In car-
rying out her enlightened policy, instruction was given in 1893 *
to 3,600 pupil teachers. Thirty agricultural laboratories through-
out the country furnish analyses of soils and manures for the help
of cultivators, and 3,362 trial fields are established where farmers
can profit by experiments suitable to their own districts. The
special farm schools number sixteen; practical schools of agricul-
ture, thirty-nine; national schools of agriculture and horticulture,

* Statistics of 1893. The French Government only occasionally issues its official report
of agricultural schools.

FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 221

six; three veterinary scliools; and one each, bearing the name of
National Agronomic Institute, is a shepherd school, a cheese, and
a silkworm school. In the universities are no less than 160 depart-
ments and chairs of agriculture for students of profoundest re-
search. All this costs the departments alone over 4,504,050 francs
per annum.

In Prussian Germany no less activity is displayed or energy put
forth to make the farmer's occupation one of financial profit and
scientific status. Statistics for 1897 are at hand in the report of
the Prussian Minister of Agriculture. The German system is
based on the theory that schools and colleges are the only places
where theoretical agriculture can be properly taught. Few of the
higher agricultural schools first established were exclusively such.
A liberal education could be obtained at most of them without
touching the subject of agriculture. Later educators have devel-
oped a system which begins by fostering a love for Xature in the
minds of the pupils in the kindergarten, and patiently develops that
love through all the dozen or more grades of schools until it cul-
minates in the polytechnic school or the degree granted by the
university.

Germany is indebted to the learned Professor Thaer for the
establishment of its first agricultural school at Moglin in 1807.
But more than all is she, in common with all the world, indebted
to the famous chemist Baron von Liebig, who, in 1840, announced
the scientific truth which underlies all arguments for agricultural
education — viz., that no matter how impoverished a soil is natu-
rally, or has become by excessive cropping, its fertility may be
restored, maintained, and even increased by providing it with the
mineral and organic matter which it lacks.

Prussian agricultural affairs are under the supervision of the
Ministry of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. The state main-
tains three grades of schools — higher, middle, and lower — as in
other European countries. The most celebrated are the Royal Ag-
ricultural High Schools at Berlin and Popplesdorf, two royal acad-
emies of forestry, and the university courses in agriculture at Halle,
Gottingen, Konigsberg, Leipsic, Giessen, and Jena. The state ex-
pends something like two hundred thousand dollars annually on
agricultural education. In Germany agricultural education has so
broadened out as to include training in every technical part of a
farmer's work — culture of forests, fruits, flowers, and vines;
schools to teach wine, cider, and beer making, machine repairing,
engine running, barn construction, and surveying; knowledge of
poultry, bees, and silkworm raising; domestic economy, sewing,
and accounts for farm women — all in addition to the long scientific

2 22 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

courses of study and years of practical work on an established farm.
Verily, the country that excels Germany in training agriculturists
must be par excellence in its methods.

A special feature of agricultural teaching is the traveling pro-
fessor {Wanderlehrer). United States Consul Monaghan enthusi-
astically describes him: "These teachers, supported partly by the
state and by agricultural unions, go from place to place . . . and
lecture on agricultural and horticultural subjects. Their purpose
is to lift up and ennoble agricultural life; to afford the farmer the
knowledge gleaned by science since he left the school; to impart to
him the best methods of selecting soils, fertilizers, cattle, trees, etc. ;
to teach him how to use his lands to best advantage, to graft, to
breed in; to get the best, quickest, and most profitable results.
These teachers are skilled scientists, practical workers, not theorists,
. . . perfectly familiar with the wants and needs of their dis-
tricts. Armed with this knowledge, the teacher's usefulness is cer-
tain and unlimited. When he speaks his voice is that of one in
authority, it is heeded. . . . He is a walking encyclopaedia of
knowledge, especially of knowledge pertaining to the woods, hills,
farms, and fields."

Austria has, like Germany, a system of agricultural and forestry
schools in three grades — viz., superior, middle, and lower. Its old-
est school of superior grade was established in 1799 at Krumman.*
Similar schools existed later at Gratz, Trieste, Lemberg, Trutsch,
and Altenburg. The latter is especially complete in every appli-
ance for instruction, and well patronized. The middle schools pro-
vide two-year courses of study and practice, and are located at
Grossan, Kreutz, Dublany, and other points, while the lower schools
incline less to study and more to lectures and farm practice. They
are located in the provinces of Bohemia, Styria, Galicia, and Ca-
rinthia.

Forestry schools of various grades exist at Mariabrunn, "Wis-
sewasser, Aussen, Pibram, Windschact, and ISTagny; of these, Ma-
riabrunn is especially deserving of mention for its thorough course
and complete equipment.

Switzerland was the home of the philanthropist and educator
Fellenburg, His school, established at Hopyl in 1806, was a phi-
lanthropy in aid of the peasantry, concerning whom he said that
possessing nothing but bodies and minds, the cultivation of these
was the only antidote for their poverty. At least three thousand
pupils received their education in agriculture here. The Federal
Polytechnic School at Zurich is the nation's pride. Out of six
courses of superior training which it provides for its one thousand

* See Barnard's Journal of Education, vol. xx, 1870, p. G73.

FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 223

students, forestry and agriculture count as two. Five universities
and numerous special schools furnisli aid to agricultural education.

The little kingdoms of Belgium and Holland are following hard
upon the tracks of their powerful neighbors. In Belgium may
be found superior institutions of agriculture, horticulture, veteri-
nary science, and forestry at Gembloux, Vilvorde, Cureghem, and
Bouillon respectively.

In Holland, whose people robbed the sea to obtain lands for
farms and homes, about £71,500 were expended by the state on
its agricultural department in 1897. Its first school, established
by a communal society at Haren in 1842, was discontinued. The
state in 1876 adopted the school of agriculture which has been
established at Wageningen as its own, and this institution can fairly
lay claim to equality w^ith any in Europe. Government also sup-
ports the State Veterinary College at Utrecht, and subsidizes a
school of forestry and several dairy schools. Agricultural teach-
ing in primary schools has not yet proved a success.

Italy has not made such progress in agricultural education as
her northern neighbors, yet she is not indifferent to the require-
ments of the times. She has a most unique scheme for Govern-
ment superintendence of agricultural matters. All comes under
the purview of a general Director of Agriculture, assisted by a
Council for Agricultural Instruction, which latter was established
by royal decree in 1885, and reorganized in 1887. Four divisions
of the department exist — namely, (1) agriculture proper, (2) zoo-
techny, (3) forestry, and (4) agricultural hydraulics. Statistics are
not easily procured, but recent catalogues show that the two Royal
Superior Schools of Agriculture, located respectively at Milan and
Portici, are institutions of which any country might be proud. Of
the latter Mr. E, ISTeville Eolfe, British consul, wrote in 1897 that
it was originally a provincial establishment, but in 1885 it had been
established by royal charter and domiciled in the magnificent
grounds and buildings of a disused royal palace. Its study course
requires three years to complete, and graduates obtain the degree
of Laureato Agronomo. Up to 1896, two hundred and twenty-
eight students had obtained this degree, most of whom are instruc-
tors or Government employees of high rank. It is known also that
thirty-three special and practical agricultural schools exist in differ-
ent parts of the kingdom.

Much can not be said in praise of agricultural education in
Spain. That country possesses the machinery for education of the
higher grades, but through her seven distinctly agricultural col-
leges, located at Madrid, Saragossa, Barcelona, Corunna, Valencia,
Caceres, and Jerez, she seems only to have obtained men for Gov-

224 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ernment service at home or abroad. Spain expended in 1896 on
agricultural education the sum of £58,460, but she evidently sends
no Wanderlelirer instructors among her peasant farmers.

It is said that Portugal possesses seven agricultural schools, at-
tended in 1896 by one hundred and eighty-seven students, but of
their location, save one, and courses of study the writer has no in-
formation. The Government conduct of education is committed
to a Director-General of Agriculture. The leading school is named
the General Institute of Agriculture, and is located at Lisbon. It
provides four courses — viz., (1) rural engineering, (2) agronomy,
(3) sylviculture, (4) veterinary medicine. It has a large tract of
land for demonstration purposes located a few miles from the city.

Concerning Greece and the smaller kingdoms in southeastern
Europe, together with the land of the Turk, not much to the en-
couragement of the scientific agriculturist can be said; but turning
northward across Europe to the Scandinavian coimtries quite a
different state of things becomes apparent. At once we find that
the system of agricultural education is highly developed, and in
some phases is not surpassed by other countries. Immediately we
are in a network of dairy schools, experiment stations, chemical
and seed-control stations, agricultural societies, colleges, and uni-
versities. Here we find five institutions all under royal patronage
and state support. In Norway is the Higher Agricultural School
at Aas, established in 1859. In Sweden stands the Agricultural
Institute at Ultima, established in 1849, and the Alnarp Agricul-
tural and Dairy Institute, established in 1862. In Denmark is
the Iloyal Veterinary and Agricultural College at Copenhagen,
established in 1773 as a veterinary college. In Finland the Mus-
tiala Agricultural and Dairy Institute, established in 1840. In
these four small states there exist agricultural, horticultural, for-
estry, and dairy schools of all grades to the number of one hundred
and fifty-nine. Education in agriculture is not attempted in the
primary public schools of Norway or in any of these Scandinavian
countries, but agricultural elementary instruction is begun in what
other continental countries would call secondary schools, and is
provided for persons intending to be farmers and who are eighteen
years of age and older. Norway spent on elementary agricul-
tural education in secondary schools, in 1895-96, the sum of
$31,182, and Finland more than doubled that sum.

Crossing tlie Channel to Groat Jiritain, again we see a nation
intent on solving the question of success for her agricultural popu-
lation. Celebrated Englishmen, Scotchmen, and Irishmen early
began to plan for an educated peasantry, but it was long before any
national system was evolved. The sectional divisions and peculiari-

FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 225

ties belonging severally to Scot and Celt and Saxon Lave not yet
permitted a uniform legislation. Ireland and Scotland each has
its own scheme of Government supervision, and both differ from
England and Wales. It is estimated that but ten per cent of Eng-
land's laboring population is concerned with agriculture for sup-
port, while in Ireland there is scarcely ten per cent of the people
who are not dependent on agriculture for existence. In conse-
quence, we find in Ireland, as in France, intense interest centers
upon the plan to teach agriculture and horticulture in the elemen-
tary public schools, while in England, until very recently, agricul-
tural education served principally to produce a class of educated
scientific men fitted for the Government home and colonial service.

In Ireland compulsory attendance on primary schools is made
by law. In 1876 Ireland claimed to be the pioneer country in pro-
viding compulsory elementary agricultural instruction in all her
rural schools. She has desperately clung to the theory that in
providing such education in her elementary schools she would
eventually train a nation of agriculturists. To attain this end, ele-
mentary text-books were prepared, which all teachers must use.
The Government grant for a pass at examination in agriculture was
much larger than a pass in any other study; teachers who held cer-
tificates to teach it were given higher salaries than others, and to
enable teachers to prej)are for such certificates, scholarships were of-
fered them at teachers' colleges (normal schools), and their railway
fare was free in going and coming. Plots of ground at schoolhouse
or teacher's house were provided, where flower and vegetable cul-
ture could be constantly practiced, and a special grant was allowed
to the school for cultivating a successful garden, and another spe-
cial for classes showing proficiency in practical work. Gardens
were cultivated at convents and workhouses, and the subject was
taught theoretically to " half-time " pupils and students at the
" evening continuation schools."

In December, 1896, Ireland had 8,606 national schools, with
an average attendance of 815,248 pupils. She also had 150 half-
time schools, 155 workhouse schools, 267 convent schools, 30 model
schools, five training colleges for teachers, and two training agricul-
tural institutes (at Glassnevin and at Munster), and in all of these
agricultural science or practice is either a compulsory or a volun-
tary subject. What country can surpass Ireland's enthusiasm for
agricultural training? *

* A bill for the development of Irish agricultural industry and Irish technical educa-
tion, providing for Government aid to private enterprise in agriculture, and in manufactur-
ing mdustries also, has just passed (August, 1899) the House of Commons, and is assured
its passage by the House of Lords also.

2 26 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Scotland enjoys deservedly the distinction of having been first
among the peoples of Europe to introduce in the university course
scientific education in agriculture. In 1790 a chair was established
in the University of Edinburgh, and a course of agricultural lec-
tures was given therefrom by Eev. D. Walker. Better than that,
in 1743 a volume entitled Select Transactions was published by
Maxwell, representing the agricultural society known as the " So-
ciety of Improvers," and numbering at one time three hundred
members. Out of this society grew the " Highland and Agricul-
tural Society," which organization has fostered every agricultural
effort which private beneficence or royal grant has initiated in the
land since 1834. Through its munificence both the departments of
forestry and veterinary surgery have been placed upon a firm edu-
cational basis, and the educational lectureship of Edinburgh Uni-
versity has been permanently endowed. It has instituted its own
syllabus of examinations for granting " Eellowships in Agricul-
ture," and stimulated pupils of the secondary schools to make the
effort by offering prizes and scholarships to the ambitious students.

The University of Aberdeen has lately entered the field as an
agricultural educator by becoming what the Government styles a
" collegiate center," receiving a straight subsidy of £100 per an-
num, and furnishing professional instructors to rural assemblies
arranging lectures for them. In the public schools of Scotland
agricultural science is arranged for as an optional study from the
third to the sixth standards inclusive. In 1895-'96, 4,148 pupils
jjassed examinations in the subject, and the cost of this to the state
was £42,792. In 1896-'97 pupils in the " evening continuation
schools" to the number of 1,089 passed in agriculture, and 115
others in horticulture.

England and Wales are under a joint administration of agricul-
tural affairs. The Government policy, so far as it has one, has
been continually opposed to paternalism and direct subsidy or own-
ership of schools. Rather has her Parliament waited to be solicited
to make subventions by way of encouraging individual or local
society initiative. The fiourishing agricultural schools at Ciren-
cester and Downton, for the instruction of the higher classes, have
grown out of private establishments, then been perpetuated by ob-
taining royal charters, by which the Government became pledged
to supply any lack of income. But since 1893 the state has so far
relaxed her policy as to grant subsidies to certain colleges centrally
located, which it styles " collegiate centers," through which col-
leges it offers superior instruction to the public. These colleges
associate with themselves ample farm lands for experiment grounds
and dairy machinery, and equip themselves with competent lee-

FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 227

turers, wlio are also practical experts, and who, upon invitation
from agricultural societies or county councils, go forth as lecturers
upon their special subjects. Each adjacent county makes an an-
nual grant of £75 to the college funds, and is privileged to nomi-
nate students to attend the college agricultural course at a reduc-
tion of twenty-five per cent on the usual fee. In 1898-'99 the
Board of Education granted to fifteen colleges and associations in
England and "Wales the sum of £7,200. The colleges were the
Yorkshire College at Leeds, Durham College of Science at New-
castle-on-Tyne, University Extension College at Reading, Univer-
sity College at ISTottingham, Southeastern Agricultural College at
Wye, and in Wales the University Colleges at Bangor and Abe-
rystwith.

Besides the direct Government subsidy to higher education, the
state grants to the several counties part of the money raised from
the excise (" drink money ") for educational purposes, out of which
at least £78,000 were spent by the committees in 189G-'97 in pro-
moting agi'icultural education.

Still further. Parliament puts into the hands of the Science
and Art Department large sums of money to be expended as grants-
in-aid of " technical education." The state recognizes instruction
in the principles of agriculture as instruction in elementary science,
and through this Science and Art Department's grants to primary
and secondary schools, and to teachers' colleges, it encourages agri-
cultural education as a technical study. In 1896-97, 1,023 pupils
passed examination, and the respective school managements re-
ceived as grant on their account a total sum of £140,150.*

In 1897 the Royal Commission on Agricultural Depression in
England made its report. Among other declarations made by the
commission were these: "We believe that it is essential for the
welfare of agriculture that there should be placed within the reach
of every young farmer a sound, general school education, includ-
ing such a grounding in the elements of sciences bearing upon agri-
culture— e. g., chemistry, geology, botany, and animal physiology
— as will give him an intelligent interest in them and familiarize
him in their language." f

They further recommend that hereafter the control of all funds
for technical agricultural education be placed with the Board of
Agriculture, and that the entire income of the Customs and Excise
Act of 1890 should be devoted to educational purposes, agriculture
receiving its adequate share. Should the first recommendation
carry for all divisions of the United Kingdom, agriculture would

* Appendix to Report of Science and Art Department, 1896-97.
f Page 152 of Report.

2 28 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

cease to be one of the subjects provided for examination by the
Science and Art Department. Should the second recommenda-
tion become a law, the sum expended by local county councils in
agricultural education would be vastly increased.

Passing from England to her colonies, let us journey toward
the sunrising. Stopping for a moment in Egypt, we note with
pleasure the existence of the newly established School of Agricul-
ture at Gizeh, which is under the direction of the Ministry of Pub-
lic Instruction for Egypt. Its reconstructed course of study was
open to students in 1898, and it provides for four years of study.
Arabic and English are the teaching languages, especially the lat-
ter, and allotments of land for individual culture are made to all
pupils.

Beyond the Indian Ocean lies Hindustan. Here all science
study is awaiting its development. The best cultivation of India
is not behind that of England as a matter of empiricism,* but the
science of cultivation is yet to be developed. Agricultural chem-
istry and agricultural botany and horticulture, as related to India,
have scarcely been investigated, and text-books in the native
tongues have yet to be written. For this accomplishment all ele-
mentary instruction in public schools must patiently wait. For an
agriculturally educated set of teachers, also, Indian youth study-
ing in the vernacular must patiently wait. In 1889 the home
Government (Parliament) laid upon the Indian Educational De-
partment the duty of providing school " readers " which should
contain elementary instruction in agricultural science, and it au-
thorized a liberal grant-in-aid toward such schools as could furnish
pupils for passes in this subject. Eor those students who have mas-
tered the English language a few colleges exist. ■ Saidapet, near
Madras, with about forty students in a three-years' course, includ-
ing veterinary, is a pure agricultural institution. Fourteen stu-
dents received diplomas in agriculture in March, 1897.

Several colleges have agricultural departments, notably the
Poona College of Science in the Bombay presidenc}^; the Baroda
College; the Maharajah's College and the Shimoga College, My-
sore; the Central College, and the Sanskrit College of Bangalore.
All of these are affiliated with the University of Bombay, and

* Dr. Voelker, in his Report on Improvement of Indian Agriculture, made to the Eng-
lish Board of Agriculture in 1893, said: "At the best, the Indian rait/af, or cultivator, is
quite as good as, and in some respects the superior of, the average British farmer. It is
wonderful, too, how much is known of rotation, the system of mixed crops, and of fallow-
ing. Certain it is that I, at least, have never seen a more perfect picture of careful culti-
vation, combined with hard labor, perseverance, and fertility of resource, than I have seen
at many of the halting places. Such are the gardens of Mahim, the fields of Nadiad, the
center of the garden of Gujarat, in Bombay."

FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 229

present pupils for examination in agTiculture for tlie degree of
B. Sc. A.

In many of the English liigli schools of India are fonnd agri-
cultural classes which give both science teaching and field prac-
tice. These schools are at Nagpur, ISTasik, Sholapur, Ahmednagar,
Ahmedabad, Dhulia, Ivolapur, Surat, Belgaum, and Kadiad. The
stimulus to study in these schools is the hope of obtaining a diploma
in agriculture, which would result in employment in the Govern-
ment service.

In Lucknow is a celebrated veterinary school whose graduates
have been greatly sought after. One at Bombay has become still
more celebrated. In 1897 sixty-nine students were in attendance.
Graduates easily found employment with native rajahs, and on
the island of Ceylon, and at Mozambique. Another Government
veterinary school recently established at Belgatchia, Calcutta presi-
dency, has done good work.

The forestry school at Dehra Dun, in the j^orthwest Provinces,
has attained a great reputation. About seventy students attend,
and the Government charges the cost of the school, 33,000 rupees,
to the districts which send up pupils for study. India, under
the British rule, will soon come into line with educated agri-
culturists.

In Burmah and in Assam steps have been taken to introduce
science lessons into Government, or grant-in-aid, elementary schools
by the preparation of " readers," as in India, but no secondary or
superior schools in agriculture exist in these countries. So far as
we know, the same is true of Siam and the Malayan Archipelago
and of the Philippines.

Australia, as a federation of states, is late in its development,
but some of its states are surprisingly advanced. New Zealand
has its superior university, combining the three colleges at Auck-
land, Lincoln, and Otago. Its syllabus provides for searching ex-
aminations in agriculture to obtain the degree of B. Sc, either of
these colleges having previously granted the diploma of agricul-
ture to successful students. Each of these colleges has ample
grants of land, but only one — the Canterbury College at Lincoln —
has yet presented agricultural candidates. Forty-four graduates
have received diplomas previous to 1895. Instruction in elemen-
tary schools seems not yet to have included agriculture.

In Queensland the Queensland Agricultural College was opened
at Gatton in 1897.

In South Australia is an agricultural college at Eoseworthy
and another at Adelaide which has graduated several recipients
of the diploma.

2 30 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

In Victoria there exists a college at Dookia and another at
Longerong. There is also a school of horticulture at Richmond.
To !N'ew South Wales belongs the banner for furnishing the
greatest opportunities for agricultural education. Its university
at Sydney grants a degree of B. Sc. to students from the colleges
of St. Paul, St, John, St. Andrew, the Woman's College, and the
Sydney Grammar School. At Sydney also is the splendid Tech-
nical College, handsomely endowed, having an agricultural depart-
ment. The superior of all other schools is the Hawksbury Agri-
cultural College and Experimental Farm at Richmond, established
in 1891, richly endowed with land (three thousand acres), and or-
ganized on the most approved modern models. Science teaching
is not carried so high as the university standard, but all manner of
practical work must be performed by each student.

Homeward bound, we reach Cape Colony, South Africa.
Here, in 1887, the Government inaugurated a scheme for aiding
farm schools in which elementary agriculture was taught. In
1894, out of 852 schools aided by the Government, 202 were
classed as " farmhouse schools." In higher education there may
be found (1898) the School of Agriculture and Viticulture at
Stellenbosch, and a second one at Sunset East. As both of
these schools are young, statistics concerning them are not yet
available.

Last of England's colonies we notice the Dominion of Canada
on our northern frontier. No evident progress has been made in
introducing agricultural science teaching in the primary schools of
the entire Dominion. The first step taken in the direction of agri-
cultural education was for the enlightenment of farmers. In 1886
Parliament authorized the establishment of a system of experiment
farms, one in each province in Canada, viz.: one at Ottawa (to
serve both Quebec and Ontario), and one each at ISTappan, in Nova
Scotia; at Brandon, Manitoba; at Indian Head, Assiniboia; at
Agassiz, British Columbia; and at Charlottetown, Prince Edward
Island. To give these stations greater efficiency, the Government
encouraged the formation of farmers' institutes in every electoral
district for the hearing of lectures from experts which it provided,
and for discussion or business. To each regularly organized insti-
tute of fifty members a grant of £10 is annually made.

In jSTova Scotia five primary and secondary schools are reported
as giving agricultural instruction to two hundred pupils. Some of
these schools have farms or gardens. The Provincial School of
Agi-iculture at Truro is making a good beginning. In its last class
three students were granted teachers' diplomas, seven received
farmers' diplomas, and eighteen took farmers' certificates. Three

FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 231

Inindred and fifty students liave pursued its course of studies.
There is also a horticultural school at Annapolis Valley.

Another horticultural school exists at Wolfville, Nova Scotia,
under the control of a committee of the Fruit-Growers' Associa-
tion. Students take a thorough course of two years' duration. The
Legislatures of IN^ew Brunswick and of Prince Edward Island grant
bonuses of fifty dollars to each young man of their provinces who
will take a course at this school.

Fine creamery plants are found at various points, and several
provinces sustain each a " traveling dairy," which systematically
visits accessible centers and gives demonstration lectures to farm-
ers' families.

The crowning agricultural educational institution for the en-
tire Dominion is the college at Guelph, Ontario. It combines in-
struction in veterinary science, horticulture, bee and poultry keep-
ing, dairying, and the experimental farm. The course continues
for three years. Two years confers the " associate diploma," and
three years' study, with successful examination in the syllabus of
the Toronto University, secures the degree of B. Sc. A. Success
attends all these educational efforts and marks this colonial empire
as among the ranks representing true progress.

Mexico and the countries of South America next claim our
notice. In the first-named country, as early as the year 1850 pro-
vision was made at the old college of San Gregorio for instruction
in agriculture in five different courses. But in 1854 the Govern-
ment came into possession of the disused convent of San Jacinto,
Agosta. Here a national school was organized, combining the two
departments of agriculture and veterinary science. It was opened
February 22, 1854, and designated the National School of Agi'i-
culture and Veterinary Science. Its courses of study are up to
the best standards. Three years are necessary to complete the
agricultural course and receive the title of Superintendent of Rural
Estates, and four years' study must be given to secure that of Inge-
niero Agronomo. The course was readjusted in 1893. During
the five years past 169 graduates have received the former and
68 the latter degrees. The management consists of 48 persons,
whose salaries annually cost the Government 96,424 Mexican dol-
lars. Ample grounds and buildings are provided to make this in-
stitution a matter for national pride.

Besides this college, a farm school exists in one of the federal
districts, costing annually $17,564, and another at the colony of
Porfirio Diaz, costing the state $14,708. Mexico is also moving
to introduce agriculture as a subject for primary instruction in
public schools.

232 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY,

In Uniguaj exist fine scliools for teacliing agriculture and viti-
culture which are of recent organization. At Montevideo the Gov-
ernment has created a Department of Live Stock and Agriculture,
subject to the Home Ministry. The budget of 1897 provides for
organizing and sustaining agricultural schools and experiment
farms to the extent of $28,222, with an additional allowance of
$90,000 for experiments on farms, installation of plants, furniture,
instruments, etc.

Chili is coming to the front in her educational efforts. In the
city of Concepcion exists a Practical School of Agriculture. Others
are found at Santiago, at Talca, San Fernando, Elqui, and Sala-
manca. The school at Santiago receives an annual subvention of
$40,000, and that at Concepcion the sum of $23,000. Attached to
the latter are agronomic stations for soil analysis and oversight of
irrigation systems of the state. The Sociedad ISTacional de Agri-
cultur at Santiago receives an annual grant of $20,000, which it dis-
tributes at agricultural shows and for the support of the zoological
garden. At Quintan K^ormal is also an Institute Agricola of high
grade for agricultural engineers and agronomics, or for furnishing
a simple certificate in agriculture.

Other countries of South America possess education facilities,
but we are not supplied with details concerning them.

Our closing glance must be directed to the far Orient. Japan,
the newest of kingdoms, has a model brace of institutions for supe-
rior education in agriculture. When Japan awoke to the new
ideas, to which for ages she was oblivious, her keenest statesmen
grasped the thought that her agricultural people needed new light
and intellectual quickening along the lines w^hich so vitally affected
their daily subsistence. She took the United States into her con-
fidence. She imported for a season our Commissioner of Agri-
culture (General Capron), in 1871-72, as " Adviser to the Colonial
Ofiice at Hokaido," who, after visiting Japan, advised the Govern-
ment to organize at once an agricultural college at Sapporo, and
still another at Tokio. This advice was cordially received and
speedily adopted. American scholars of the highest wisdom and
experience were imported to inaugurate the work. The college
was inaugurated by Colonel W. S. Clark, LL. D., President of Am-
herst Agricultural College, in August, 1876, with twenty-four stu-
dents. Its new location was Sapporo, and its new name was the
Sapporo Agricultural College. The Government dealt liberally in
grants of land, but these ample acres have since been mostly con-
fiscated, leaving only sufficient for educational purposes. Few
can estimate the wonderful uplift which has come to Japan through
this efficient school. In 1893 it had sent out from its agricultural

EASTERN OYSTER CULTURE IN OREGON. 233

course 1'2'i gTaduates; from the engineering, 4; military, 42; and
from the practical department, 114,

In 1874 an agrictiltnral department was added to the Imperial
Universitj at Tokio, the original location of the Sapporo College.
An exhaustive syllabus in the Department of Agriculture provides
examination for many profound students of this science, and ad-
mits them to the highest university degree. Four courses are open
in the university — viz., agriculture, agricultural chemistry, forestry,
and veterinary medicine. In 1895 there were 261 students of
agriculture in the university.

From this extended though by no means exhaustive review
of the status of scientific instruction in agriculture throughout the
world, it is evident tliat all the progressive nations have caught the
inspiration which attaches to this branch of education, and are
swinging into line in their efforts to adopt it. Old ideals are rap-
idly giving place to the new. Educators are forced to admit that
mental culture is as possible under the study of science as by the
protracted study of languages and literature; that such study aids
vastly more than the latter in the training which prepares men for
the active duties of life ; and that if the development of husbandry
as a pursuit does not keep pace on an intelligent basis with every
other technical pursuit, national greatness and permanence will
never be achieved.

EASTERN OYSTEE CULTURE IN OREGON.

By F. L. WASHBURN, A. M.,

STATE iJIOLOGIjiT AXI) PKOFESSOK OF BIOLOGY IX THE I'NI VERSITY' OK OREGON.

T~^URING the past two years the United States Eish Commis-
^-^ sion, with characteristic enterprise, has been carrying on ex-
periments in the propagation of Eastern oysters in the bays of the
Oregon coast. Work of a similar nature is now being undertaken
in the State of Washington.

As the result of an application through official sources, re-en-
forced possibly by the results of a biological survey made by this
department during the preceding summer, twenty-two barrels of
Eastern oysters were, on November 7, 1896, deposited on a portion
of Oysterville Flat, so called, in Yaquina Bay, Oregon, seven miles
and a half from the ocean. The oystermen of that section have
agreed to abstain from tonging for native oysters upon the por-
tion of the flat thus reserved until sufficient time has elapsed to
justify an opinion as to the result of the experiment. These in-
troduced oysters were of two varieties — the long, slender East Riv-

VOL LVI — 19

2 34 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ers and the more oval, fan-shaped, and ribbed Princess Bays,
Their journey of twelve days across the continent, in sugar barrels,
from New York to San Francisco and thence to Oregon without

" Oyster City," Yaqiina Bay, Oregon.

water did not cause the mortality one might expect, for in strew-
ing them over the bed from the scows of the oystermen very few
dead individuals were observed — certainly not one half of one
per cent.

This alien oyster has much to contend with here. It was real-
ized that the cold and salt water rushing in from the Pacific — colder
and Salter by far than in their Atlantic home at the same time —
if it did not entirely prevent spawning would at least make the
survival of the young embryos a matter of doubt; yet it was hoped
that perhaps, after a number of years, the oysters might become
acclimated, as it were, and their spawn, inheriting their parents'
acquired hardiness, we might present to the people of the State a
new form of Oregon product in the shape of Eastern oysters hatched
and grown in the waters of this bay. Notwithstanding the fecun-
dity of this oyster, a female producing in the vicinity of sixty mil-
lion eggs at a spawning, it must be remembered that even under
the most favorable conditions in its own home, where the water
has in summer a fairly constant temperature of over 70° F. and
a salinity of 1.012 on an average, but a very small proportion of
this multitude survive. How much more unlikely is its survival
in the waters of Yaquina Bay, Oregon, where the wM-iter has seen
the water change from a teiujjerature of 70° F. and a saltness of
1.012 to a temperature of 55° and a salinity of 1.022 within six
hours! It was to save the young embryos from exposure to these
and kindred dangers that I, as a volunteer employee of the United

EASTERN OYSTER CULTURE IN OREGON.

= 35

States Fish Commission during the summers of 1897 and 1898,
among other things resorted to the artificial fertilization of the
eggs in a temporary laboratory, carrying the delicate embryos
to the swimming stage and dumping them by thousands into the
bay. Given some clean crocks, a microscope, dissecting instru-
ments, tumblers, rubber tubing, tliermometers, and instruments
to test the saltness of the water, and innumerable embryos can be
cared for without much trouble. The process, as practiced by
Brooks, Ryder, ISTelson, and others in America, is too well known
to need repeating here. Its efficacy is well established, and, in
spite of the incredulity of the oystermen, who wished to see the
oysters spawn " spontaneous," as they expressed it, an incredulity
amounting almost to opposition, the writer has persevered in this
work for two seasons and intends to continue it the coming summer.
The native oyster of this Northwest coast (Ostrea lurida), small-
er and by many preferred to its Eastern congener, while it is far less
fruitful in its spawning than the latter, retains its young within the
parent shell until long after they have passed the tender stages,
when they leave the mantle cavity of the parent to swim for them-
selves. This oyster could rightly be called viviparous, while the
Eastern oyster is oviparous. On account of its nurse-acting pro-

Ax ExrKlilMENTAL SPAWMNG FluAT.

clivities this West-coast oyster has an immense advantage here over
the introduced species. The latter's eggs have to run the follow-
ing gantlet: (1) N^ot meeting with a fertilizing cell and perishing
in consequence; (2) sinking, before or after fertilization, in the
fatal mud; (3) being eaten by small fish and other minute animals;

2^6

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

(4) being killed by sudden changes in the temperature and density
of the water. Artificial fertilization and the rearing of the em-
bryos in the laboratory largely eliminate these dangers. We have
adopted other methods to insure success. A few of the oysters
were removed from the Government plant and deposited two miles
farther up the bay, nine miles and a half from the ocean, where
it was thoua'lit the water was warmer, less salt, and loss variable

Eahtkt;.v Oystkus in Okkgdn. The lowt-r mw shows sizL' wiien iihuited in 1891) ; tlie
u))I)fr row represents their apiieanuice in isys.

than on Oysterville Flat. Sonic, during the breeding season, were
])laced on spawning iloats and anchored near the shore, where the
shallow water is thoii •uglily warmed by the sun. It was in one of
these floats that the oysternien had an o])i)ortunity to see the oysters
spawn " spontaneous," for the water therein, reaching 70° F., be-
came milk-white with spawn or milt within an hour after the
oysters had been taken from the plant. This was really our first
proof that the introduced oyster would spawn here. Some were

s o
^ -5

^ • # •

ri./,mri!!a?l?,J.i!l?,J,,?l?J.,!lsj,j|!,

^ 8

o S

- -n

CM

238 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

placed in sloughs adjoining the bay, with the hope that favorable
conditions would be met with there. Others were placed in arti-
ficially constructed salt ponds somewhat after the style used by the
French.

What has been the outcome? The oysters, particularly the
Princess Bay variety, have grown enormously and are in excellent
condition. Until this spring no Eastern spat or young Eastern
oysters had been discovered; this, of course, is the crucial point
in the experiment; we know they will spawn, but will the spawn
develop? Recently, much to our encouragement, a few young
oysters, apparently of last summer's spawning, have been found
and forwarded to Washington, proof positive that the oyster will
propagate here, but not certain evidence of the practical outcome
of the experiment. It is too early to predict results as yet; two
years more are really required to tell the story.

For thirty years Eastern oysters have been shipped to San Fran-
cisco by enterprising firms of that city, planted there in the bay
until a large size is attained, and then sold at an immense profit.
These firms have ahvays claimed that the Eastern oyster did not
reproduce there. As far as can be ascertained from a reliable
source, the shipments in recent years have rather increased than
diminished, this fact being used as an argument to support the
above statement. It is nevertheless a known fact that much East-
ern spat and many adult oysters undoubtedly hatched there have
been found by members of the United States Fish Commission
and others. Moreover, with increasing trade one would naturally
expect more shipments, even though the introduced oyster did
propagate to some extent.

Ostrea Ivrida, the toothsome little native oyster which years
ago w^as so abundant at Yaquina Bay, affording support to many
families, has decreased in numbers to such an alarming extent that
unless some radical measures are soon taken to prevent, the native
oyster industry of this locality wdll be a thing of the past. This
decrease in the size and numbers appears to be due to several
causes. In the first place, there has been a very persistent tong-
ing on a somewhat limited area. Tliis might have been counter-
balanced by proper precautions to insure a future supply, but, with
characteristic lack of foresight, such precautions have been neg-
lected, and the beds have been culled year after year, until the
comparatively few oysters now marketed from Yaquina Bay are
of very questionable size. Each oysterman has two acres of flats
for private use. Throe natural beds in the bay afford sources of
supply for these private beds. The larger oysters tonged on the
natural beds are marketed, and the smaller specimens spread on

MALAY FOLKLORE. 239

the private ground referred to. Beyond strewing clean shells on
these private beds, no provision is made to collect the swimming
embryos during the spa^vning season, and multitudes must be car-
ried away and lost. The writer has urged upon the oystermen the
need of collectors of brush or tile, by the use of which the oysters
which they have acquired may be largely increased in numbers, and
will endeavor to demonstrate, by the use of tile collectors, that
hundreds of young spat may be saved and raised to marketable age.
Our native oyster structurally and physiologically resembles the
European oyster (Ostrea edulis), and, like it, could be propagated
in artificial oyster ponds. The practicability of such work on the
West American coast depends, of course, on the market price of
the resulting product as compared with the outlay required for
labor.

MALAY FOLKLOKE.

By E. CLYDE FORD.

THE Malay is an Oriental, and, of course, possesses a goodly
number of superstitions and old wives' fables, but he does
not hug them to his soul like some of the other peoples of the
East — the Chinaman, for instance, who lives only by favor of
gods, ghosts, goblins, and devils. The Malay lives in spite of
spirits, good or bad, and tries to be a model Mohammedan at the
same time. With bold assurance and positiveness, he puts his trust
in Allah; but, after all, this does not keep him from cherishing,
on the sly, a knowledge of a few uncanny, hair-raising beliefs
any more than to be a devout churchman with us removes one
from the occult inlluences of stolen dishcloths, overturned salt-
cellars, and the phases of the moon.

The Malay man's aherglauhe — his superstition — is undoubtedly
of ancient origin. For five hundred years or more he has said
his prayers five times a day in response to the muezzin's cry of
Allah ho akhav, and his religion has penetrated the very life of his
race and spread to the most distant confines of the archipelago,
but it has never been able to remove entirely the heritage of that
past when he was governed by Sanskrit gods or by deities of his
own. Whatever he may have believed then and since changed,
these fragments and relics of gobliutlom and superstition go back
to that time, and so link on to all the weird love that prevailed
in the ancient world. Anotlier evidence of the primitiveness of
Malay folklore may be seen in the fact that the inhabitants of
the jungles and padangs and the aboriginal dwellers of mountains

240 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and deuse forests clieiisli much more heathen notions and greater
elaborations of everyday superstitions than the more enlightened
and modernized Malays of towns and campongs. In the East, as
in the AVest, the man who lives close to Nature " holds communion
with her visible forms/' and likewise finds out, or thinks he does,
a good deal about her invisible shapes.

The Malay has on his list of uncanny things the names of sev-
eral spirits. Disease is everywhere a great dread of men, and
often looked upon as an infliction of the supernatural powers.
There are several spirits of sickness recognized among the Malays,
but they reserve their greatest horror for the influences of the
Hantu Katumhohan, or spirit of smallpox. But other spirits
abound; there are some that inhabit the sources of streams, and
many that dwell in forests. Mines, too, have their patron gob-
lins, which are propitiated by the miners. The sea-going Malay,
also, whose vision has been clarified by bitter salt spray, knows
and frequently sees the spirits that inhabit certain parts of the
ocean.

The JIaidu Pemhuro, or phantom hunter, is a spirit the Malays
take special account of; in general, he seems to resemble the wilde
Jdger of German folklore. Long ago, so the story has it, there
lived a certain man and his wife in Katapang, in Sumatra. One

• lay the wife fell sick, and, thinking the flesh of a mouse-deer
might strengthen her, she asked her husband to kill one for her.
He went forth on the hunt, but was unsuccessful and soon re-
turned. His wife now became very angry, and told him to try
again — in fact, not to return till he could come home with the
covetod game. The man swore a mighty oath, called his dogs,
rook his weapons, and set out into the forest. - He wandered and
wandered, and always in vain. The days ran into months, the
months became years, and still no mouse-deer. At last, despair-
ing of finding the animal on earth, he ordered his dogs to bay
the stars, and they sprang away through the sky, and he followed.
As he walked with ujitnrnod gaze, a loaf foil into his mouth and
took root there.

At home things were not going well. Plis son, born after his
departure, when he became a lad, was often taunted by the other

• •iiildron of the rampovg, and twitted of the fact that his father
was a wandering ghost. After hearing the truth from his mother,
the boy wont- out into the forest to moot tlu^ hunt<5man. Far from
the haunts of riion, in tlio de])lhs <>( the foio^^t, they met and con-
versed. The l)oy told of his wrongs, and the father vowed to
avenge them, and ever since that time, say the Malays, he has
afflicted mankind. At night lie courses through the wood and

MALAY FOLKLORE. 241

sky with a noisy, yelping pack, and woe to the man who sees him!
On the peninsula the people mutter this charm to ward off his evil
influence:

" I know thy history,

O man of Katapang I

Therefore return thou

To thy jung^le of Mohang,

And do not bring sickness upon me."

The Malay is a firm, believer in the efficacy of charms. He
wears amulets, places written words of magic in houses, and sports
a tiger's claw as a preventive of disease. If he is specially primi-
tive and back woodsy, when he enters a forest he says: "Go to
the right, all my enemies and assailants! May you not look upon
me; let me walk alone! " To allay a storm he says: "The ele-
phants collect, they wallow across the sea; go to the right, go
to the left, I break the tempest." When about to begin an ele-
phant hunt, according to Thompson, he uses this charm : " The
elephant trumpets, he wallows across the lake. The pot boils, the
pan boils across the point. Go to the left, go to the right, spirit
of grandfather (the elephant); I loose the fingers upon the bow-
string."

The Malay believes in witches and witchcraft. There is the
bottle imp, the Polong, which feeds on its owner's blood till the
time comes for it to take possession of an enemy. Then there is
a horrid thing, the Penan galan, which possesses women. Fre-
quently it leaves its rightful abode to fly away at night to feed
on blood, taking the form of the head and intestines of the person
it inhabited, in which shape it wanders around.

Such beliefs may perhaps have their origin in metempsychosis,
which in other ways has some foothold among the common people.
For instance, elephants and tigers are believed sometimes to be
human souls in disguise, and so the Malay addresses them as
" grandfather " to allay their wrath and avoid direct reference to
them. Crocodiles also are often regarded as sacred, and special
charms are used in fishing for them. One such, given by Max-
well, is as follows : " O Dangsari, lotus fiower, receive what I
send thee. If thou receivest it not, may thy eyes be torn out! "

The domestic animals also figure in Malay folklore. Dogs are
unlucky and regarded with suspicion, for they would like to lick
their master's bones. Cats, on the other hand, are lucky, and show
a fondness for their OAvners.

Owls are regarded as birds of ill omen, and their hooting fore-
bodes death.

Days are lucky and unlucky. '^londay, "Wednesday, and Fri-

VOL. LVI — 20

242 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

day are fortunate birthdays, and a dream on a Thursday night
will come true. To dream of a dog or a flood is unlucky. To
stumble when starting on a journey is a bad sign, and before set-
ting out on a pilgrimage to Mecca certain formulas are mvittered
and signs followed.

The Malay hates to tear down a house, and so the old one is
left standing when a new one is built. The ladder of a house
must be built just so, or disaster comes to the owner or builder;
and to knock one's head on the lintel is regarded as unfavorable.
One rises quickly from a meal; otherwise, if he is single, he may
be regarded with disfavor by his prospective father-in-law.

As one travels over the archipelago he finds that superstitions
vary, and what may be regarded by the Malays of the peninsula
as particularly ominous may have no meaning at all with the
Malays of the south or east. The Dyaks of Borneo are probably
tlie most uncivilized of all the Malay tribes, for Mohammedan-
ism has taken but little hold upon them, and their natural pagan-
ism remains as yet unshaken. Of their folklore we know but little.
It awaits the conquest of the West, like the island itself.

ELECTRICITY FROM THALES TO FARADAY.

By ERNEST A. LESUEUE.

IT is so common a notion nowadays that electricity had its birth
and rise in the nineteenth century that it gives one a strange
mental sensation to contemplate the fact that all the myriads of com-
mercial applications that have of late years been developed in this
field might have been made by the Chinese or the ancient Egyp-
tians, so far as the potentiality of Nature for developing electrical
phenomena is concerned. The writer used to know a delightful
old gentleman in Vermont who once referred, as to a well-known
fact, to Edison's having invented electricity. It is astonishing how
closely his state of mind typifies that of a great many people.

In the form of the lightning, the aurora, and the shock of the
electric eel or torpedo, electrical manifestations have been known
ever since man commenced to observ^e those phenomena, but the
fossil resin amber was the substance which eventually gave its name
to the now tremendous agency. This material was observ^ed, many
centuries before our era, to possess the property of attracting light
bodies to itself when rubbed with w^ool, and, being called rjXeKTpov
(electron) by the Greeks, transmitted its name to the property or
force which it thus brought into evidence. The fact is mentioned as

ELECTRICITY FROM Til ALES TO FARADAY. 243

early as 600 b. c, by Tliales of Miletus, althougli he does not trans-
mit to US the name of the original observer of the phenomenon.
Homely as was the experiment, it marked a beginning in electrical
research.

Not that scientific investigations in that or any line were pushed
very assiduously in those days, for there is a great gap between the
discovery of the property above alluded to and the acquisition of
any more solid knowledge pertaining to electricity. The phenom-
enon was at that time set down in the list of natural facts, and no
attempt appears to have been made to connect it with others. The
inquiring spirit of the present age can hardly be brought into more
striking relief than by a comparison of the, at present, almost daily
advances in scientific knowledge with the fact that twenty-two hun-
dred years elapsed between the discovery of the above-mentioned
l^ower of amber by the ancients and the later one that a very large
number of other substances, such as diamonds, vitrefactions of ail
kinds, sulphur, common resin, etc., possess the same property. A
few other scattered facts were, however, also noted by the ancients:
fire is said to have streamed from the head of Servius Tullius at the
age of seven, and Virgil asserts that flame was emitted by the hair of
Aseanius.

In examining, now, the history of the rise of electrical science
we find, as just mentioned, the vast gap of over two millenniums
between the discovery of the attracting power of rubbed amber and
the mere extension of man's knowledge so as to include other sub-
stances. The philosophers Boyle and Otto von Guericke, who were
active during the latter half of the seventeenth century, added a
mass of new data in this line. Boyle, moreover, discovered the
equivalence of action and reaction between the attracting and the
attracted body, and that the rubbed amber or other " electric " re-
tained its attractive powers for a certain period after excitation had
ceased.

Otto von Guericke made a vast step forward by constructing the
first electrical machine, in a crude form, truly, but which proved of
the utmost service in adding to our knowledge of the properties of
electricity. His machine was constructed very simply of a globe of
sulphur mounted on a spindle, which could be rotated by means of a
crank; the operator applied friction with the hand, his body receiv-
ing a positive charge, while the surface of the sulphur acquired a
negative. The fact of the two electrifications being separated at tho
surface of the sulphur was not, however, known at the time; the
only charge that Guericke observed being that appearing on the
sulphur. The reason for this was that the latter, being a noncon-
ductor, any electricity generated upon it was compelled to stay there,

244 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

for a certain time at least, and consequently accnmulatcd so as to
be observable; whereas the opposite electrification flowing into the
operator's hand continuously escaped to earth without giving any
sign of its presence. Had the operator stood upon an insulating sup-
port, the electrification would have accumulated on his body as well
as upon the sulphur. Guericke made the discovery that a light body,
having been once attracted to an electrified surface, was almost im-
mediately repelled from it, and could not be again attracted without
having its imparted electrification removed by contact with an un-
charged surface.

Sir Isaac IsTewton, about 1675, made an interesting application
of a principle allied to this. He used a hollow, drum-shaped con-
trivance with glass ends and a very short axis, into which he put a
number of fragments of paper. On briskly rubbing the outside of
the glass with a piece of silk the paper was caused to " leap from one
part of the glass to another and twirl about in the air." Tliis was
repeated in 1676 before the Royal Society, to the great edification
of that learned body.

Newton made a considerable improvement in the electrical ma-
chine of Guericke by the substitution of a hollow globe of glass for
Guericke's sulphur one. What is chiefly interesting about the im-
provement is the fact that Guericke's sulphur globe, of comparative
weight and cumbrousness, was made by casting melted sulphur into a
glass globe and then breaking off the glass. Guericke observed in
the dark a peculiar luminosity of conducting surfaces when well
charged by means of his machine; he compared it to the phospho-
rescent light observed when lump sugar is broken in the dark. It
was what is now known as the brush-discharge effect.

In 1705 Francis Hawksbee discovered the peculiar phenomenon
which he termed the mercurial phosphorus. It was produced by
causing a stream of well-dried mercury to fall through an exhausted
glass receiver. The friction of the particles of mercury against the
jet piece and the glass caused an electrification which evinced itself
in a phosphorescent glow. The receiver, indeed, had not to be by
any means thoroughly exhausted, the phenomenon occurring at an
air pressure up to about fourteen inches of the barometer.

The crackling noise and the spark accompanying electrical dis-
charge suggested about this time the analogy of those miniature dis-
turbances to thunder and lightning, but the identity of the two was
not fully established imtil later.

Up to this time the fact that certain substances were capable of
conducting electricity was not known, but in 1729 Stephen Gray,
F, R. S., an enthusiastic investigator, made tlie discovery, and at the
same time the cognate one that a large class of materials are non-

ELECTRICITY FROM T HALES TO FARADAY. 245

conductors. The only source of electricity which was at the disposal
of experimenters up to this time was the electrical machine, improved,
as described, by Newton, which furnished intermittent currents (dis-
charges) of infinitesimal quantity, as we should say now, but of ex-
tremely high pressure. This fact of the enormous pressure resulted
in the electricity's forcing its way through very imperfect conductors,
so as to cause our investigators to rank many of these latter with the
metals. Thus Gray concluded that pack thread was a good con-
ductor because it did not oppose sufficient resistance to prevent the
flow of his high pressure (or, as we should now say, high voltage or
tension) electricity. He tried wire as well, but did not realize it was
a better conductor than the thread, although its conductivity was
actually in the millions of times as great. In collaboration with his
friend Wheeler he conveyed electrical discharges a distance of eight
hundred and eighty-six feet, through presumably air-dry pack
thread — an achievement which would almost be notable at the
present time. He insulated the line by hanging it from loops of
silk thread.

Gray hoped " that there may be found out a way to collect a
greater quantity of electric fire, and consequently to increase the force
of that power, which, si licet magnis componere parva, seems to be
of the same nature with thunder and lightning."

About this time Desaguliers discovered that those materials
which, upon being rubbed, develop electrical charges, are all noncon-
ductors, and that, conversely, nonelectrics are conductors. The terms
electrics and nonelectrics were applied to bodies respectively capable
and incapable of excitation; the words idioelectrics and anelectrics
were also used in respectively equivalent senses.

In France, Dufay discovered that the conductivity of pack thread
was greatly improved by the presence of moisture, and he succeeded
in conveying a discharge a distance of almost thirteen hundred feet.
He suspended himself by silken cords and had himself electrified, and
then observed that he could give a shock accompanied by a spark to
any person standing on the ground.

He also established the fact of the two opposite kinds of electri-
fication, and gave them the names of vitreous and resinous, from the
fact that the former was developed by the excitation of glass and
vitreous substances generally, and the latter from that of amber
and resins. He observed that the distinguishing characteristic of
the two was the fact that opposite charges attracted each other, while
similar ones exerted mutual repulsion. Dufay and Gray died within
three years of each other, both at the age of forty. Gray having
added to the results already mentioned the discovery of the conduct-
ing powers of certain liquids and of the human body.

246 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Experimental research now began to spread into Germany and
the Xetherlands. The electrical machine was greatly improved by
Professor Boze, of Wittenberg, and Professor Winkler, of Leipsic,
who respectively added the prime conductor and the silk rubber to
that important piece of apparatus. A Scotch Benedictine monk of
Erfurt — Professor Gordon — substituted a glass cylinder for the
sphere, and thereby brought the instrument in its essentials practi-
cally to the form in which it exists to-day. The improvement enabled
the production of very large sparks, which were caused to produce the
inflammation of various combustibles. Gordon went so far as to
ignite alcohol by means of a jet of electrified water.

We now come to an epoch-making discovery — that of the con-
denser, or, in its conventional laboratory form, the Leyden jar. Pro-
fessor Muschenbroeck, of the University of Leyden, was struck with
the idea that it would be a good plan to try to prevent the dissipation
of the electric charge by inclosing the conductor containing it in an
insulating envelope. He therefore took a glass jar, partly filled it
with water, and electrified the latter. His assistant, who was holding
the bottle, accidentally touched the wire which made connection with
the water, and received on the instant a shock much more violent
than any that the electrical machine was capable of giving. This
led to the discovery that as the charge of vitreous electricity had
accumulated in the water, a corresponding charge of the opposite kind
had gathered upon the outside of the glass and been " bound " there,
as it is called, by the attraction exercised upon it by the charge on
the inside. It had been enabled to get upon the glass by the fact
of the assistant's hand having covered part of the surface of the
latter, and, since he stood upon the ground, the electricity had quietly
flowed from the latter up through his body to the outside surface of
the glass.

The apparatus was quickly perfected by coating both the inside
and outside of a jar with tin foil, applying the charge by means of a
wire or chain to the inside coating and allowing the outer one to
stand upon the earth or upon a conducting substance in electrical
contact with the latter. The exaltation of spirit with which the
discovery was hailed by the savants appears to have been extraordi-
nary— one student who took a discharge through his body being
reported to state that he would not have missed the experience
for a fabulous consideration, and that he would not repeat it if it
were to save his life. In reality the advance was enormous; it
gave a means for literally bottling up electricity in quantities pre-
viously unthought of. The prime conductor of an electrical machine
could not retain any considerable quantity of electricity for the reason
that, a certain small intensity of electriflcation having been reached,

ELECTRICITY FROM THALES TO FARADAY. 247

the addition operated to upset the balance, so to speak, and the elec-
tricity escaped by a sudden (disruptive) discharge, or spark, or by the
brush discharge already alluded to. With the Leyden jar, however,
as fast as electricity was supplied to the inside coating it became
" bound " there by the charge of opposite sign accumulating on the
outside, and the limit of capacity of the jar was simply one of strength
of the glass : if too much electricity was supplied, the stress of mutual
attraction between the two charges relieved itself by destroying
the jar.

Although Professor Muschenbroeck discovered the principle in
the manner above referred to, it appears extremely probable that
two other investigators, working independently, also did the same.
One Cuneus and a monk named Kleist each claimed the honor of
original invention of the condenser.

About 1747 the first gun was fired by electricity; this was ac-
complished by Sir William Watson, who also succeeded in kindling
alcohol and gas by means of a drop of cold water and even with ice.
The same experimenter reversed the ordinary procedure of causing
the electric influence to pass from an electrified body to the one to
be experimented upon, the latter being unelectrified, by electrifying
the latter, and then producing the desired effect by approaching it to
an unelectrified one.

A party of the Royal Society with Watson as chief operator in-
stituted a series of researches on a grand scale to determine, if pos-
sible, the velocity of the electric discharge, and arrived at a number
of conclusions which, however, were of a decidedly negative nature.
The most important of these were as follows: That they could not
observe any interval between the instant of applying the discharge
to one end of the line and its reception at the other; that the de-
structive effects of discharge are greater through bad conductors than
through good ones; that conduction is equally powerful whether
occumng through earth or water.

Just previous to this there had been some brilliant experiments
carried on in France, and the discharge had been conveyed through
twelve thousand feet of circuit, including the acre basin of the Tuile-
ries, but they had not been performed as systematically, or with the
definite objects in view, as had the English experiments.

The following year the Royal Society continued its researches
on a larger scale than previously, using 12,276 feet of wire, and found
that even through that length the velocity was practically instan-
taneous.

Watson urged as a theory that electrical disturbances were caused
by influx or efflux of a single electric fluid from the state of normal
electrification, thus differing from Dufay in his opinion as to the

248 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

existence of two fluids. He was led to this belief by observing tliat
he obtained a larger spark between two oppositely electrified bodies
than from either to the earth.

From this time on there appears upon the scene a host of work-
ers in this field, one of the most prominent being the distinguished
American, Benjamin Franklin. Somewhat previous to his remark-
able work, or about 1750, Boze made certain discoveries in the matter
of the surface tension of conducting liquids being diminished by elec-
trification, and Mowbray and Nollet ascertained that the vegetation
of flowers and of vegetating seeds was hastened by electrifying them.

Franklin (born 1706, died 1790) made the important discovery of
the active discharge of electricity from an electrified body by points
as well as the converse of it — i. e., that electricity was rapidly ab-
stracted from a charged atmosphere by points. This enabled him to
increase the efiiciency of the electrical machine by adding a comb-
shaped series of points to the collector of the prime conductor.

Up to this time, although the identity of lightning with electri-
city had long been suspected, it had not been at all established, and
to Franklin may be said to belong the honor of doing so, although
in this, as in the case of the invention of the Ley den jar, there appears
to have been successful contemporaneous research elsewhere. Be-
fore performing his great experiment Franklin published a book
strongly supporting the belief in the identity of the two. Once
liaving conceived the idea of drawing electricity from the upper
atmosphere, he unfortunately lost some time through waiting for the
completion of the spire of a certain church in Philadelphia, from
the top of which he hoped to be able to collect electricity by means
of a wire, but finally hit upon the device which now fills much the
same place in connection with his memory that the classical cherry
tree does with Washington's — the lightning-collecting kite. This
apparatus was very simply constructed, and had a pointed wire pro-
jecting a short distance above the framework. It was controlled,
and electrical connection made, by an ordinary string which termi-
nated in a short length of silk ribbon to protect the person from pos-
sible injury, and to give electricity a chance to accumulate in the
system, by insulating the " line." At the end of the string proper
Franklin fastened a metallic key. In company with his son he flew
the kite during a thunderstorm which occurred in June, 1752; for
some time no electric disturbance approached the neighborhood, and
he was on the point of abandoning the experiment when he obser^'cd
what he had been waiting for — the outer fibers of the string stand-
ing out from the latter by repulsive force — and, ap])lying his knuckle
to the key, he drew a spark. Subsequently, when the rain soaked the
string and caused it to conduct much better, there was a fine supply

ELECTRICITY FROM THALES TO FARADAY. 249

of electricity, and Franklin charged a Ley den jar from the key, thus
achieving the actual storage of " lightning."

He continued his investigations in atmospheric electricity, and
discovered that the electrification of the clouds (or of the upper
atmosphere) was sometimes positive and sometimes negative. The in-
vention of the lightning rod is due to him.

Franklin sided with AVatson in his belief in the single nature of
the electric fluid.

As intimated above, atmospheric electricity appears to have been
collected independently about the same time in Europe, and certain
very daring and dangerous experiments were performed there. One
sad occurrence, as a result, was the death of Professor Richman, in
St. Petersburg, in 1753. Richman, in company with a friend, Soko-
low, was taking observations on an electroscope connected with an
iron rod which terminated in the apartment and extended in the
other direction above the roof of the building. During the progress
of their experiments a violent peal of thunder was heard in the neigh-
borhood, and Richman bent to examine the instrument. In doing
so he approached his head to within a foot of the end of the rod,
and Sokolow saw a ball of fire " about the size of a man's fist " shoot
from it to Richman's head with a terrific report. The stroke was, of
course, immediately fatal, and what we now know as the return shock
•stupefied and benumbed Sokolow. The unfortunate event served as
a warning to other daring experimenters.

Canton, another j^rominent worker in this field, discovered that
the so-called vitreous electricity was not necessarily always developed
by the friction of glass, as had hitherto been believed to be invariably
the case. By applying different rubbers to glass he obtained either
positive or negative at pleasure. This at once disposed of the idea
that one kind of electricity resided in certain bodies and its opposite
in others. Canton also made the interesting discovery that glass,
amber, rock crystal, etc., when taken out of mercury, were all elec-
trified positively. He was thus enabled to make the improvement in
the electrical machine of coating its rubber with an amalgam rich in
mercury, which greatly enhanced. its powers.

Among the numerous names now coming into prominence must
be mentioned those of Beccaria, Symmer, Delaval, "Wilson, Kinners-
ley, Wilcke, and Priestley.

The first named. Father Beccaria, was a celebrated Italian physi-
cist who did most valuable work in connection with atmospheric elec-
tricity, and who published several classical works on that and allied
subjects. Among these may be mentioned his Lettre del Elettri-
citd, 1758, and Experimenta, 1772. He ascertained that water is
not by any means a good conductor, as it had previously been sup-

250 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

posed to be, and, by using pure water, lie caused tbe electric spark
to become visible in it, a phenomenon capable of occurring only
through media almost nonconducting. In these experiments he
used thick glass tubes with wires led through the opposite ends, the
latter being sealed, and the tubes filled with water. These were
invariably shattered by the passage of the spark on account of the
accompanying elevation of temperature, which caused expansion.
He also established the facts that the atmosphere adjacent to an
electrified body acquires electrification of the same sign by abstract-
ing electricity from the body, and that the air then parts with its
electricity very slowly. He advanced the theory that there is a
mutual repulsion between the particles of the electric fluid and
those of air, and that a temporary vacuum is formed at the moment
of the passage of a disruptive discharge or spark.

Robert Symmer, in 1759, described some most entertaining ex-
periments, making use of the opposite electrifications of superposed
stockings of different materials or merely of different colors (the dye
matters in the latter case causing differentiation). If, in a dry atmos-
phere, a silk stocking be drawn over the leg and a woolen one pulled
over it, the two w^ill be found, upon being removed, to be very power-
fully electrified in opposite senses. If the four stockings of two
such pairs be used and then suspended together, they will indulge
in remarkable antics due to each of the silk stockings trying to attract
both of the woolen ones, and vice versa, and, on the other hand, each
of each kind repelling the other. The amount of electrical attraction
and repulsion produced in this simple way in a dry atmosphere is
remarkable. The experiment may also be performed with all silk
stockings, one pair white and the other black.

Symmer advanced the theory of two fluids coexisting in all matter
(not independently of each other, as had been previously supposed),
which by mutual counteractions produced all electrical phenomena.
His conception was that a body, positively electrified, did not exist
in that condition because of the possession of a charge of a positive
(as distinct from a negative) electric fluid which it had not held be-
fore, and did not hold in a normal state; nor that it possessed a
greater share of a single electric fluid than it did in an unelectrified
condition, as had been believed by Franklin and Watson, and by
Dufay respectively; but that such a body contained both positive
and negative electricities which, when the body behaved as " un-
electrified," entirely counteracted each other, but which, on th.e
other hand, caused a positive or negative charge to be evinced should
either positive or negative electricity respectively preponderate.

a^^pinus was the author of another notable theory, of which we
must omit further mention for want of space.

ELECTRICITY FROM THALES TO FARADAY. 251

Disjointed observations connected with animal electricity had
been accumulating for many centuries. The first chronicled note
that refers to the subject dates back to 676 a. d. Whether or
not entirely by chance, the Arabians named the electric eel, or tor-
pedo, in a way that impresses us now as singularly felicitous, raad
(the lightning). Toward the end of the last century Redi discovered
that the shock was sometimes conveyed through the line and rod to
the fisherman, and Kampfer compared the effects to those of electrical
discharges. It does not appear, however, that the resemblance was
actually believed to be more than accidental until Bancroft urged,
in the last ten years of the eighteenth century, the view w^hich was
shortly proved. Investigation since has shown that several other
aquatic animals possess this astonishing manifestation of vitality,
notably the Gymnotus electricus (Surinam eel), the Trichiurus elec-
tricus, and the Tetraodon electricus. Humboldt gives an account
of wonderful battles in South America between gymnoti and wild
horses. In fact, the most expeditious method, if not the most
humane one, of caiDturing these alarming creatures appears to be
to drive horses into the pond inhabited by them, and to allow the
eels to exhaust their strength by repeated electric discharges before
endeavoring to bring them to land by other means.

Cavendish was one of the most noted experimental investigators
in the electrical field during the latter third of the eighteenth cen-
tury. His work was remarkably accurate, considering the lack of a
proper equipment for taking observations incident to operations in
those days. He computed the relative conductivities of iron and
water as four hundred million to unity, and found that the addition
of but one part of common salt to one hundred of water increased the
conductivity of the latter a hundredfold. A twenty-six-per-cent solu-
tion of salt he found to possess only seven and one quarter times the
conductivity of the extremely weak one mentioned. He also estab-
lished the law that the capacity of condensers (of which the pre-
viously mentioned Leyden jar is an example) varies directly as the
active area, and iuA'ersely as the distance separating the conducting
surfaces. It was reserved for later investigators to make the grand
discoveries which relate to electrochemical dissociation, but Caven-
dish succeeded in accurately determining the ratio of combination
of the elements of water in a method which superficially suggests
the inverse of electrolytic decomposition — i. e., by inducing the
combination of hydrogen and oxygen by the electric spark in the
instrument known as the eudiometer.

Hard on the heels of this work came news of Galvani's remark-
able discovery (1790) of the fact that freshly amputated frogs' legs,
on being touched along the lines of the muscles by dissimilar metals,

252 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

were powerfully agitated. We can only speak of this discovery as
the stumbling on to an isolated fact, for it was reserved for Volta
to establish the generalization that a current is produced in the con-
ductor joining dissimilar metals when the latter are both in contact
W'ith a suitable electrolyte (or liquid capable both of conducting elec-
tricity and of acting on one, and incidentally also sometimes both,
of the metals). Meantime (Du Bois-Reymond observes), " wher-
ever frogs were to be found, and where two different kinds of metal
could be procured, everybody was anxious to see the mangled limbs
of frogs brought to life in this wonderful way. Physiologists be-
lieved that at last they should realize their visions of a vital power,
and physicians that no cure was impossible."

Yolta first discovered merely the fact of electrification by con-
tact. He wrote to Galvani: " I don't need your frog. Give me two
metals and a moist rag, and I will produce your animal electricity.
Your frog is nothing but a moist conductor, and in this respect it is
inferior to my wet rag! " iN^obili, nevertheless, in 1825 proved the
existence of galvanic currents in muscles.

Later on Yolta invented the " couronne des tasses " (crown
of cups), thus at the same time adopting the general form of cell
used, with modifications, to-day, and producing the higher electro-
motive force, or electrical pressure, consequent on the multiplication
of the cells in a series battery.

Just before Yolta's celebrated communication to the Royal Soci-
ety, in 1800, Fabroni, of Florence, in discussing Galvani's phenome-
non, went to the root of the matter by suggesting that the energy of
chemical action was at the bottom of galvanic manifestations, and he
was warmly upheld in this contention by Sir Humphry Davy, who,
upon the publication of Yolta's discoveries, constructed a most
elaborate battery with which (apparently about 1806) he produced
the arc light between carbon j)encils.

In the year referred to, Davy published the results of a series
of experiments of enormous significance, among other things of
the isolation of the alkali metals, sodium and potassium, whose
existence had hitherto not been dreamed of. The simple electro-
lytic decomposition of water had been accomplished by Xicolson
and Carlisle in the last year of the eighteenth century. Sir "VV. S.
Harris says : " A scries of new substances was speedily discovered,
the existence of which had never before been imagined. Oxygen,
chlorine, and acids were all dragged, as it were, to the positive pole,
while metals, inflammable bodies, alkalies, and earths became deter-
mined to the negative pole of the battery. When wires connected
with each extremity of the new battery were tipped with prepared
and well-pointed charcoal, and the points brought near each other,

ELECTRICITY FROM THALES TO FARADAY. 253

then a most intense and pure evolution of light followed, which on
separating the points extended to a gorgeous arc." It was at first
supposed that the galvanic or voltaic electricity was distinct from
the so-called " frictional " or " ordinary " electricity.

A distinguished contemporary of Cavendish was Coulomb, the
value of whose work in developing certain exceedingly important
mathematical laws with regard to action at a distance, surface den-
sities, and rates of charge dissipation can hardly be overestimated.
His name was given to the torsion balance which, since his day, has
been the standard instrument for measuring electric and magnetic
attractions and repulsions. The importance of his work has since
been recognized by the perpetuation of his name in connection with
the unit of quantity of electricity, as that of Yolta has been hon-
ored by its use, abbreviated (volt), to designate the unit of elec-
trical tension or pressure.

Certain highly instructive and interesting data were accumulated
about this time by Yolta, Laplace, Saussure, and the renowned
chemist Lavoisier, in connection with the subject of electrification
produced when evaporation, and the liberation of gases and vapors in
general from any cause, occurs. The liquid, solid, or mixture liber-
ating the gas was contained in a metallic dish and the resultant elec-
trification of the latter examined qualitatively. Volta's observations
led him to conclude that the electrification was always negative, but
Saussure demonstrated finally that its sign was dependent on the ma-
terial of the dish. These experimenters covered, between them all,
a somewhat extensive field, examining, among other things, the
electrification resulting from the ebullition of various liquids, from
the ordinary combustion of fuel, and from the decomposition of acids
by metals to liberate hydrogen.

About the end of the first decade of the century Poisson attacked
the phenomena of electricity analytically, and succeeded in demon-
strating the right of electrical investigation to rank among the exact
sciences. Of his most important mathematical propositions is one
in which, assuming as a working hypothesis the existence of two
mutually attracting fluids, he deduced formulae covering the distri-
bution of these fluids on the surfaces of two conducting spheres, in or
out of contact.

A great deal of work was done during the end of the last cen-
tury and the beginning of the present one on what is now known
as pyro-electrification. The Abbe Haiiy discovered that fragments
of tourmaline crystal exhibited opposite electrifications on opposite
extremities of their lines of cleavage. It is this crystal also which has
unusually remarkable powers of polarizing light, and which, under
electro-magnetic stress, suffers modifications of the latter j^roperty.

2 54 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Ilaiij investigated the field witli mueli diligence, and succeeded in
cataloguing a large number of natural crystals by the side of tourma-
line. The subject was amplified later by Sir David Brewster, who
added a series of artificial crystalline salts to the list of pyro-electrical
materials, among them, notably, hydro-potassic (and sodic) tartrate.
The property was found not always to reside on these substances, but
to be developed by heating them. Brewster found that even pow-
dered tourmaline exhibited opposite electrifications on the opposite
extremities of each tiny particle, causing the latter to act, so far as
attractions and repulsions went, as infinitesimal magnets.

Our rapid and imperfect survey has now brought us to the
threshold of the great activity in electrical work elicited by the tre-
mendous discovery, made by Professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, of
the existence of the electro-magnetic field. It happens that two of
the most amiable and estimable individuals that have ever devoted
their lives to scientific research stand out in this connection head and
shoulders above all other investigators — Ampere and Faraday, the
latter sixteen years younger than the former and destined to long
survive him.

WINGLESS BIRDS.

Br PHILIPPE GLANGEAUI),

IT is often said that there are no rules without exceptions. We
purpose to test the truth of this maxim once more. Fishes are
made to live in water, but some of them pass the greater part of
their existence in mud. Some even perch upon trees, thus com-
peting with birds, whose kingdom is the air, and which are able,
Avith the aid of their wings, to plunge into space and travel rapidly
over considerable distances. Yet there are birds, deprived by
Xature, which do not possess the wing characteristic of the feath-
ered tribe, and are consequently, like the majority of animals,
pinned to the soil.

Birds do not all have equal power of flight, which is closely re-
lated to the extent of the development of their wings. There exist
all grades in the spread of wings between that of the condor, which
is four times the length of the body, whereby the bird is able to
rise to the height of nearly twenty-five thousand feet, and the
little winglets of the auk, which are of no use to it. The pen-
guins have still smaller wings, which are nothing more than short,
flattened stumps, without proper feathers and covered with a fine,
hairlike down which might be taken for scales.

Another group of birds exists, called appropriately Brevipennes,

WINGLESS BIRDS. 255

the wings of whicli are so poorly developed as to be wholly unsuit-
able for flight. As an offset and just compensation for this, their
long and robust legs permit them to run with extraordinary speed.
For that reason they have been called running birds, in distinction
from other kinds that constitute the group of flying birds. Among
them are some gigantic birds, and also some that have no visible
wings on the outside of their bodies, and may therefore be prop-
erly called wingless.

The ostrich is a member of this group. With its bare, callous
head and short bill, its long, featherless neck, and its massive body,
supported by long, half-bare legs, ending in two large toes; its very
short wings, formed of soft and flexible feathers; and its plume-
shaped tail, it presents a very special appearance among the birds.

The nandous, the American representatives of the ostrich, have
still shorter wings, which have no remigia at all, and terminate in
a horny appendage, and they have no tail feathers.

The cassowary and the emu also resemble the ostrich in many
points, but their wings are still more reduced than those of the
nandou. They are only slightly distinct, and can not be seen when
the bird holds them close up to its body. In the Apteryx, the
name of which, from the Greek, means without wings, the organs
of flight are hardly apparent, and consist simply of a very short
stump bearing a thick and hooked nail. The Apteryx, which is
also called Kiwi, a native of New Zealand, is the most singular of
living birds. The neck and the body are continuous, and the
moderately sized head is furnished with a long beak resembling
that of the ibis. Having long hairs similar to the mustaches of
cats at its base, it is different from the bills of all other existing
birds in possessing nostrils that open at its upper point. Although
the Apteryx can not fly, it runs very fast, despite the shortness of
its legs, and can defend itself very effectively against assailants
by the aid of its long-nailed and sharp-nailed feet. The tail is
absent like the wings. The very pliant feathers are extremely
curious, of the shape of a lance-head, pendent, loose, silky, with
jagged barbs, and increase in length as they go back from the
neck. The bird is of the size of a fowl, and when in its normal
position stands with its body almost vertical, and carries the sug-
gestion of a caricature — resembling, we might say, a feathered sack,
with only a long-billed head and the claws projecting, and one be-
holding it feels that he is looking at some unfinished creature. It
is a nocturnal bird, of fierce temper, and has become rare in con-
sequence of the merciless war that is made upon it. Everything
is strange about it, even the single egg it lays, which w^eighs about
a quarter as much as its body.

256 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Together with the Apteryx, there lived in jSTew Zealand a bird
that reached the height of nearly twelve feet — the Dinornis. It
and the Fhororhaces and the Brontornis, which have been recently
exhumed in Patagonia, might be regarded as the giants of birds.
This bird was known to the natives as the Moa, and lived in troops
like the ostriches. Its organization was very much like that of the
Apteryx, from which it was, however, distinguished by its great size,
long neck, and short beak. It seems to have had the aspect of an
ostrich, with a feathered neck and no wings or tail. The feet of
the Dinornis, with their three large toes, were really enormous.
Isolated fragments of its bones suggest very large mammals, rather
than birds. The femur and tibia are larger than those of a bear,
the tibia alone being about four feet long, and the thickness, in the
narrowest part, of the width of a man's hand, while it was more
than seven inches in the thickest part. The sternum, on the other
hand, was small, convex, and longer than broad. The wing could
not have been visible on the outside of the body, for the bones that
constitute them are proportionally smaller than those of the Apte-
ryx. There was, therefore, a maximum reduction of the wing in
this bird.

The Dinornis was covered with a rich plumage, and this was
doubtless what led to its destruction, women preferring its plumes
to all other ornaments. The large number of bones which have
been discovered in the alluviums, the caves, and the peat bogs of
New Zealand authorize the thought that the island was once in-
habited by a considerable number of these birds, which were able
easily to repel the attacks of other animals by means of their big
feet. But they could stand no chance against Nature's more ter-
rible destroyer — man — who, when seeking the gratification of his
taste and fancy, does not hesitate to exterminate whole species.
The natives of New Zealand still recall the history of these singular
birds; their extermination seems to have occurred about the time
the island was visited by Captain Cook (1767-1778). Moreover,
some of the bones collected in later years still had animal matter
upon them. Even parts of the windpipe have been discovered,
mixed with charcoal, and evidences of cooking have been found.

A near relative of the Dinornis, which the Maoris regard as
extinct, is the Notornis, of which only four living specimens have
been found since 1842, the last one having been captured in the
latter part of 1898.

The eggs of the Dinornis were very large, having a capacity
of about a gallon and being equivalent to eighty hen's eggs. Still
larger eggs than these, however, are known. In 1851 Isidore
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire exhibited, in the French Academy of Sci-

WINGLESS BIRDS. 257

ences, eggs of a bird coming from Madagascar that liad a capacity
of two gallons. Some specimens of these eggs may be seen in the
galleries of the Paris Museum, and still larger eggs have been
found. The museum in London has one with a capacity exceed-
ing eleven quarts, or equivalent to two hundred and twenty hen's
eggs, or more than seventy thousand humming birds' eggs. It was
thought at first that the bird which laid these gigantic eggs was
still living, for natives of Madagascar spoke of having seen a bird
of colossal size that could throw down an ox and make a meal of
it. Such, however, were not the ways of the bird called the
Epiornis, which had no talons or wings, and fed on vegetable sub-
stances. The description by the celebrated traveler Marco Polo
of a great flying bird of prey, called a roc, has no reference to the
Epiornis. M. Grandidier has demonstrated that this bird no longer
exists in Madagascar, and that if man ever knew it the stories with
marvelous details which the savages hand doAvn from generation
to generation make no mention of it. "We owe to M. Grandidier,
M. Milne-Edwards, and Major Forsyth what is known of the his-
tory of this large wingless bird, which resembles the Dinornis in
several points. If its size was proportioned to that of its eggs it
should have been twice as large as the Dinornis. It was not, how-
ever, but constituted a family represented by very diverse forms
and of variable size, though never much exceeding eleven feet.
The head was similar in appearance to that of the Dinornis, but
the surface of the forehead was furrowed wdth wrinkles and cavi-
ties, indicating the presence of a crest of large feathers. A curious
peculiarity was the opening of the Eustachian tube directly on
the exterior. The cervical vertebrae are very numerous, while the
sternum is much reduced. It is a flat bone, broad but very short,
especially in the median part. The wing also has suffered a great
regression, for it comprises only a thin, short rod, the humerus,
and a small osseous mass representing all the other bones of the
wing stuck together. The Epiornis had no wings externally visi-
ble. The bones of the feet were, on the other hand, of consider-
able size, and indicate that the bird that possessed them was larger
than the Dinornis.

The Epiornis, according to M. Milne-Edwards, frequented the
borders of waters, keeping among the reeds along lakes and rivers,
for its bones are found associated with those of turtles, crocodiles,
and a small hippopotamus. It most probably nested in the low
plains around lakes.

Just as the Apteryx among birds, and the bison and the beaver
among mammals, so the Dinornis and the Epiornis have been de-
stroyed as man has extended his abode and his domination.

TOL, LTI. — 21

258 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Wlien we regard tlie fauna of Madagascar and of New Zealand
we are struck by the great resemblance between them, from the
points of view of their recent and ancient vertebrate fauna. These
resemblances suggest the past existence of relations between these
two lands now separated by a wide expanse of sea, and this agrees
with geological observations. — Translated for the Popular Science
Montldy from La Nature.

SKETCH OF FKEDERICK C. SELOUS.

THE description of Selous, in Men and Women of the Time,
as " explorer, naturalist, and sportsman," is suggestive of the
manner in which his career has been developed and his fame has
grown. Beginning his active life as a mere hunter of big game in
the wilds of South Africa, and known at first only as a sportsman,
he has become recognized as one of the leading, most intelligent,
and most efficient explorers of his time, and is accepted as the most
eminent authority respecting what relates to the large and impor-
tant region of -Mashonaland.

Fkederick Courtenay Selous was born in London, the son of
a father of Huguenot extraction and of a mother who, descended
from the Bruces of Clackmannan, could count Robert Bruce among
her ancestors, and was also related to Bruce, the Abyssinian trav-
eler. He was taught at Bruce Castle, Tottenham, and then went
to school at Rugby, where he distinguished himself by his activity,
which was displayed in his high spirits and love of violent mischief
and by his personal courage to such an extent that his school-
fellows wittily nicknamed him " Zealous."

Leaving Rugby when sixteen or seventeen years old, he spent
two years in Switzerland and Germany, studying at l^^eufchatel and
Wiesbaden. His hardy activity seems to have been as marked iu
Germany as at Rugby, for it is recorded of him that he attracted
some notice in the papers by jumping into the Rhine in Avinter
after a wild duck which he had shot. He was not dressed for a
swim, and, his great coat and top boots becoming filled with water,
he had much difficulty in getting to shore with his game. His de-
termination to achieve a career in South Africa by hunting and
collecting specimens was apparently reached while he was still
a youth, and at nineteen years of age he sailed from England, to
land at Algoa Bay in 1871. Hunting was his object, as is sub-
stantially confessed in the title of his first book, A Hunter's Wan-
derings in Africa. The book won instant recognition as a story of

SKETCH OF FREDERICK C. SELOUS. 259

sport and a hunter's prowess, and was regarded in that light by tho
critics and the general public. The Royal Geographical Society,
however, perceived other qualities in the story he had to tell, and
gave him successively honorable mention, the Cuthbert Peake
grant, and, in 1883, the Founder's Gold Medal, the highest honor
it had to bestow.

Among the earliest testimonials paid by this society to the value,
as yet not generally appreciated, of Selous's w^ork was that given
by Lord Aberdare, president, in his anniversary address, delivered
in May, 1881, to the services rendered to geography in the regions
west of Lake Nyassa by Mr. Selous, who had " hitherto been known
as a mighty hunter of large game. . . . This gentleman, w^e learn,
in 1878 penetrated for one hundred and fifty miles the unknown
country north of the Zambezi, in the direction of Lake Bangweolo.
He has since crossed in various directions the Matabele country
south of the Zambezi, discovering two new rivers and. defining the
course of others which had previously been laid down from vague
information." Selous's jSI'otes on the Chobi, it appears, had al-
ready been published by the Geographical Society.

Mr. Selous has spent most of his time since he began his Af-
rican wanderings in 1871, except for occasional visits to England, in
traveling and hunting over that part of the African continent with
Avhich his name as an explorer is associated. Li 1877 he and
some companions penetrated into Matabeleland to hunt elejDhants.
Relating the story of his wanderings in an address to the Royal
Geographical Society in 1893, he described his experiences with
fever and ague, the attacks of which began in Griqualand in 1872,
but came on only when he halted anywhere a few days. Xorth
of the Zambezi he made several journeys among the Balongas,
and spent a wretched rainy season, almost without equipment,
on the Manica table-land, of the luxuriant vegetation of which,
with sweet-smelling flowers after the rains, he gave a glowing de-
scription in his address. Interesting observations wore made on
some of the northern rivers. The curious phenomena of the steady
rise of the Avaters of the Chobi and Machabi— an outlet of the
Okavango- — was observed from the first week in June till the last
week in September, when the flood began to recede.

From 1882 the journeys acquired additional geographical im-
portance, and Mr. Selous proceeded to rectify the maps of Ma-
shonaland made by earlier travelers, taking constant compass bear-
ings, sketching the courses of rivers, and fixing the positions of
tributaries. The value of this work was made manifest in a magr
nificent large scale map of the country.

This map, which was published in 1895, was intended, first and

26o POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

chiefly, to illustrate the work done by Mr. Seloiis while in the
service of the South African Company; and, secondly, to embody,
as far as possible, the knowledge possessed of the entire region
extending from Fort Salisbury to the northward as far as the Zam-
bezi, and to the eastward as far as the lower Pungwe. Mr. Selous's
manuscript originals, deposited in the map room of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, comprise a compass survey, showing the routes
during a year's employment in the service of the British South
African Company, September 1, 1890, to September, 1891, on a
scale of 1 : 255,000; a sketch map, showing the route of the Ma-
nika Mission from Fort Charter to Umtassa's and thence to the
camp near Mount Wedza, and also the routes taken by Mr. Selous
from the camp near Mount Wedza to Makoni's, Mangwendi's, Ma-
ranka's, and back to Makoni's, on a scale of 1 : 255,000; a sketch
of routes from Umtali to Mapanda (Pungwe) and back, in 1891,
on the same scale; a sketch of Mashonaland, showing tribal bound-
aries, on the same scale; a rough survey map of the countries
ruled over by the Makorikori chiefs, for which a mineral conces-
sion had been granted to the Selous Exploration Syndicate, on a
scale of 1 : 210,000; and about thirty sheets of manuscript maps
and rounds of angles, utilized in the compilation of the first four
maps of this list.

Although Mr. Selous did not determine latitudes or longitudes,
his long-distance compass bearings enabled him to lay down a net-
work of triangles connecting Fort Salisbury with Masikesi. These
triangles included Fort Charter, Sengedza, and Mavanka's in the
south. Mount Mtemwa in the north, and Mount Dombo in the
east; and it turns out that the distance between Fort Salisbury and
Masikesi, as resulting from this triangulation, diifers to the extent
of only about a mile from that obtained by careful astronomical
observations made at the two terminal points. The greater part
of Mr. Selous's compass bearings were taken during the rainy
season, when the air was very clear and landmarks could be seen
at great distances. Mr Selous's determinations of altitude were
not so accurate, and those obtained with the aneroid were charac-
terized by himself as " of little value."

During all of his twenty years' wanderings Mr. Selous repre-
sented in his address to the Poyal Geograi)liical Society, with the
exception of a treacherous night attack made upon his camp by
the Mashuku-Sumbwe, led by a few hostile Marotse, in 1888, he
had never had any serious trouble with the natives. lie had gone
among many tribes who had never previously seen a white man,
and was always in their power, as he seldom had more than from
five to ten native servants, none of whom were ever armed. Mr.

SKETCH OF FREDERICK C. SELOUS. 261

Selous's pioneer work began in 1889, wiien lie conducted a gold-
prospecting company through eastern Mashonaland. The journey
took the party to the Portuguese settlements on the Zambezi,
where those people were found to have a full appreciation of the
richness of the gold region.

The British South Africa Company, or " Chartered Company,"
as it is sometimes called, was incorporated about the same time
(October, 1889), with power to occupy and possess the large do-
mains that constitute what is now called Rhodesia. The return
of Mr. Selous to the Cape of Good Hope with the report of what
he had observed had the effect of determining the company to speed
its operations so as to anticipate the Portuguese. Mr. Selous en-
tered the service of the company, and, although he was not yet an
explorer in the scientific sense, the accurate memory of his early
wanderings over the region enabled him to guide successfully the
pioneer expedition that took possession of Mashonaland.

One of the sensational incidents of this campaign was the re-
fusal of Lobengula to allow the pioneer force to use the road that
led through Buluwayo, his capital, the only existing wagon road
from the British frontier to the Mashonaland plateau. A new
road was cut, under the guidance and superintendence of Mr. Se-
lous, through four hundred and sixty miles of wilderness, the whole
work being accomplished in two months and a half.

Among the chiefs who submitted to the British occupation
after the seizure of Gonvola was Moloko, ruler of the country
north of Manica, who made a treaty with Mr. Selous. After two
years spent in various operations for opening up the country and
securing treaties with the native chiefs, Mr. Selous returned to Eng-
land in December, 1892, and put the narrative of his adventures
to press, but was called back in August, 1893, returning at very
short notice, on account of the threatening attitude of the Mata-
bele chief Lobengula and the consequent risk of interruption in the
development of the country. The tribes had risen against the
assumption of the company to claim as a territorial cession what
they had regarded as simply a grant of mining and exploiting privi-
leges. Mr. Selous engaged actively in the campaigTi, in which he
is credited with having fought with great gallantry by the side of
the colonists, and was wounded while protecting some negroes who
had been surprised by the enemy.

Returning again to Mashonaland, he reached there in time to
witness a second outbreak of the natives, vexed by the triple plague
of locusts, rinderpest, and the stringent regulations of the Char-
tered Company's government with respect to cattle. His OAvn cat-
tle were stolen, and he headed' a company of volunteers that went

262 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

out to clieek the insurgents and protect the people who were still
on their farms.

The fruits, in acquisition to geographical knowledge, of Mr.
Selous's adventures and explorations are to be found, mingled with
much about sporting and exciting incident, in his books: A Hunt-
er's Wanderings in South Africa, already mentioned; Travel and
Adventure in Southeast Africa (1893); Sunshine and Storm in
Rhodesia (1896); and in lectures to the Geographical Society and
periodical contributions concerning Mashonaland.

These books abound in observations on natural history, often
constituting real contributions of new facts or new demonstrations
to the science, usually occurring incidentally in the narrative of
adventure, but sometimes given in more formal shape. The author
avows that his conclusions respecting animals are drawn from per-
sonal experience of the beasts, and are not influenced in any way by
the stories of old hunters, Dutch or native. Among these notices
are original observations on the giraffe and its habits, notes on
buffaloes and their disposition, and remarks on variations in the
types of South African lions. Of this animal, while some authors
would make three species, the author believes there is only one.
" As out of fifty male lion skins," he says, " scarcely two will be
found exactly alike in the color and length of the mane, I think
it would be as reasonable to suppose there are twenty species as
three." So in !Notes upon South African Rhinoceroses, a paper
read before the Zoological Society of London in June, 1881, and
reprinted in this volume, Mr. Selous gives his reasons for afli rul-
ing that there are only two species of rhinoceros in South or in
all Africa — the square-mouthed or white Rhinoceros simus and
the prehensile-lipped or black Rhinoceros hicornis — while the sup-
posed Rhinoceros keitloa, or blue rhinoceros of the Boers, is merely
a variety of the hicornis, the distinction between the two being
based only on differences in the relative length of the horns. An-
other paper from the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, re-
printed here, is ISTotes on the South Central African Antelopes, em-
bodying again only the results of the author's own observations.
In this paper twenty-two species are described by their scientific,
native, Dutch, and English names, and their characteristics, habits,
appearance, and distinctions are indicated.

In the preface to his Travel and Adventure in Southeast Africa
Mr. Selous tells how he had determined, in 1881, upon visiting the
ostrich farm of his friend Frank Mandy, to settle down in Africa
for a quiet life. Then he went home and spent a few months in
England. Visiting the ISTatural History Department of the British
Museum, he was shown by Dr. Gunther and his associate how old

SKETCH OF FREDERICK C, SELOUS. 263

and dilapidated some of tlie specimens were, and liow many noLle
forms were not represented at all. He took note of what he ought
to get should he visit the interior of Africa again. I^ext we find
him in South Africa, not quiet on a farm as he had intended to be,
but in the wilderness, where he spent six years (1882—87) engaged
principally in collecting specimens " of the magnificent fauna which
once abounded throughout the land," but many forms of which
were now becoming scarce and some were verging on extinction.
He shot and preserved a great many fine sjDecimens of the larger
antelopes, some of which may be seen in the New Natural History
Museum at South Kensington, while others are in the collection
of the South African Museum at Cape Town. Besides the stories
of specimen hunting and adventures with the lions that are always
to be found where game is abundant, the volume contains much
matter of more general interest, such as notes of personal experi-
ences among the Boers; accounts of two expeditions sent against
the Batauweni by Lobengula; the devastations committed by the
Matabele in Mashonaland; valuable notes on the Bushmen or Ma-
sarwas; accoimts of journeys beyond the Zambezi to the countries
of the Machukulumbwi and Barotsi tribes; and a review of the past
history and present condition of Mashonaland. We find here also
a notice of the caves of Sinola, with a subterranean lake in the
principal cave having water marked by a deep-blue color like that
of the blue grotto of Capri, an account of which was published by
Mr. Selous in the Proceedings of the Geographical Society of Lon-
don for May, 1888. An account of Mr. Selous's Twenty Years in
Zambezia was published in the Geographical Journal in 1893.

Mr. Selous has done more than any other man to bring Ma-
shonaland into notice, and is credited, together with Cecil Rhodes,
with having contributed most to the creation of Rhodesia. The
first comprehensive account of Mashonaland was given by him in
the Fortnightly Review for May, 1889, when he described the
country as a land of perennial streams in which thirst is an un-
known quantity; with its high plateau, standing at an elevation of
from four thoiisand to forty-six hundred feet and forming a very
important watershed, endowed with a network of important
streams, the springs supplying which, welling out from the highest
parts of the downs, were capable of being applied to the irrigation
of an enormous area, and having a salubrious climate, the continu-
ous southwest wind giving cool breezes in summer and cold ones
in winter. The high plateaus were further of much ethnological
interest, in that they gave shelter to the very few remnants of the
peaceful Mashonas who had escaped extermination at the hands
of the Matabele.

264

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

gatt^r'B S^Wje.

SCIENCE AND THE SCIENTIFIC
MIND.

THE address delivered by Prof.
Michael Foster, as president
this year of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science,
was not as long or elaborate as such
addresses are wont to be, but it
contained many thoughts of great
value. After sketching the vast ad-
vances in scientific knowledge made
within the present century, he ob-
served, with great truth, that " the
very story of the past which tells of
the triumphs of science puts away
all thoughts of vainglory." Why?
In the first place, because no one
can study the history of science
without being made to feel how
very near, in many cases, the men
of the past came to anticipating
some of the most famous discov-
eries and generalizations of later
years. Translate the language of
an earlier age into modern terms,
and you often find that you have ex-
pressed the most advanced scientific
doctrine of to-day. In the second
place, if we find a certain lack of
definiteness and truth to fact in the
ideas of the past, how can we be
at all sure how our ideas will look
when confronted with the fuller
knowledge which doubtless our suc-
cessors will possess ? Lastly, " there
is written clearly on each page of
the history of science the lesson that
no scientific truth is born anew,
coming by itself and of itself. Each
new truth is always the offspring of
something which has gone before,
becoming in turn the parent of
something coming after." How-
ever great the work of a man of
science may be, " it is not wholly
his own; it is in part the outcome
of the work of men who have gone
before." In this resi^ect Professor

Foster sees a striking difference be-
tween the man of science and the
poet. We always know whence the
former came, but the latter is al-
most as devoid of visible ancestry
as Melchizedek. When the man of
science dies the results which he
achieved remain, and his work is
taken up where he left it off ; where-
as the poet, strictly speaking, has no
continuators. The Homerida) do
not represent Homer, nor do Dry-
den and Congreve take the place of
Shakespeare.

The story of natural knowledge
or science, we are reminded, is a
story of continued progress. " There
is in it not so much as a hint of
falling back — not even of standing
still." The enemies of science
sometimes seek to turn against it
the fact that each age revises the
conclusions of the preceding one.
They ask. What dependence can be
placed upon opinions or theories
that are thus subject to change?
The answer is that the science of
each age is the nearest approxima-
tion which that age can make to the
truth, and upon some points repre-
sents the truth with a great ap-
proach to finality of interpretation.
The law of gravitation, for example,
as formulated by Newton, lies at
the foundation of the physics of to-
day. The circulation of the blood
was discovered once for all by Har-
vey. The true theory of the solar
system was given once for all by
Kepler, It is the gloiy of science
that whatever of imperfection may
lurk in a scientific theory is sure
to be brought to light and cor-
rected by subsequent observation
and analysis.

The learned professor dwelt
briefly but forcibly upon the quali-
ties of the scientific mind. In the

EDITOR'S TABLE.

265

first place, the scientific mind must
" vibrate in unison with that of
which it is in search." It is in
search of truth, and it must there-
fore vibrate in unison with truth.
The follower of science must have a
truthfulness beyond that of the or-
dinary man, who does not set a great
price upon exactness in his observa-
tions or conclusions, and readily
confounds things which, superficial-
ly similar, are fundamentally differ-
ent. Nature resents even the most
trifling inexactness, and the care-
less student will find that the fur-
ther he carries his inquiries the fur-
ther he goes astray. The scientific
mind must also be alert. The in-
dications and hints which Nature
gives are sometimes very slight, and
only one who is watchful in the ex-
treme and attentive to the smallest
things will catch them. Then the
problems which Nature sets are
often complicated, and call for a
high degree of courage and perse-
verance. An inquiry which seemed
easy at first will suddenly become
overcast by what seems the most
hopeless obscurity, and the scien-
tific worker, unless he possesses the
necessary moral as well as intel-
lectual qualities, will fail in his
quest. Considering the character-
istics which the pursuit of science
tends to develop in its votaries, and
considering that scientific method
is now and has been for many years
past a wonderfully devised system
for carrying on research, Professor
Foster is surprised that the progress
of science is not even more rapid
than it is. He fears that perhaps
Science does not get the best minds
enrolled in her service, and rather
hints that our institutions of edu-
cation are responsible for turning
aside many who might lend great
aid in the advancement of real
knowledge to less profitable pur-
suits. In words of almost precisely
similar import to some that we used
in these columns not veiy long ago,

he observes that " that teaching is
one-sided, and therefore mislead-
ing, which deals with the doings of
man only and is silent about the
works of Nature, in the sight of
which he and his doings shrink
almost to nothing." The whole
address is stamped with the high
thoughtfulness which so eminently
distinguishes its author, and de-
sei'ves to be carefully pondered by
all who would understand the char-
acter and mission of science and
the intellectual needs of the pres-
ent age.

THE LA TE WILLIAM B. APPLET ON.

As many of our readers will have
learned through the daily press, Mr.
William H. Appleton, long the head
of the well-known publishing house
of D. Appleton and Company, passed
away at his home in Riverdale on
the Hudson, October 19, 1899, hav-
ing reached the advanced age of
eighty-five years. As one of the
founders of this magazine, who from
the start was in close sympathy with
its aims, kept up an active interest
in its management, and was ever
ready to aid its conductors with ad-
vice and encouragement, it is fitting
that a few memorial words should
be spoken of him in these columns.

The career of Mr. Appleton was
a marked one in many respects. En-
tering the book business of his fa-
ther, Mr. Daniel Appleton, at an un-
usually early age, he soon developed
such an aptitude for affairs that at
twenty-one he went abroad for the
purpose of making the acquaintance
of the leading foreign publishers and
paving the way for closer relations
with them in the importation and
sale of their books in this country.
Three years later, or at the age of
twenty-four, his father made him a
partner in the business, which had
previously been extended so as to
include the publication as well as
the sale of books, and had now so

266

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

increased in volume as to compel
removal to more commodious quar-
ters. Ten years of growth and
iminterrupted prosperity followed,
when Mr. Daniel Appleton, in 1848,
retired from the now well-estab-
lished firm, William H. Appleton,
at the age of thirty-four, becoming
its head, with his brothers John A.
and Daniel Sidney as partners. In
co-operation with these and other
brothers who afterward entered the
business, Mr. Appleton guided the
operations of the firm for a period
of nearly fifty years, successfully
piloting it through several financial
crises and carrying it to a foremost
place among the publishing houses
of America.

Besides the routine of an exten-
sive publishing business, the history
of the house during this time in-
cludes a number of large undertak-
ings involving the expenditure of
vast sums of money, and years of
labor by many workers, and attended
with risks that only the most far-
seeing business sagacity could jus-
tify. We may presume that the sev-
eral members of the firm shared a
common faith in the success of these
great enterprises, but it is fair to
infer that as the head of the house
William II. Appleton took a leading
part in their origin and execution.
One of these ventures was the pub-
lication of the American Cyclo-
pajdia, which in its present revised
form represents an outlay of over a
million dollars and some ten years
of time. Another undertaking, and
the one that we wish more particu-
larly to speak of here, was the ex-
tension of the business in the line
of popular scientific publications.

Scientific circles in this country
have never realized the debt they
owe to D. Appleton and Company,
and especially to William H. Ap-
pleton, in this regard. It is no ex-
aggeration to say that the advance
of science in the United States was
hastened by more than a quarter of I

a century by the enlightened and
courageous policy which led the firm
to add this class of books to their
lists at the time they did. Every-
thing apparently was against it —
nothing in its favor. Our scientific
literature consisted mainly of a few
text-books having only a limited
sale. Science itself was an affair of
laboratories and bug collectors, the
one to be shunned and the other
commiserated. The few utterances
of scientific men having a bearing
on the great questions of the right
interpretation of Nature, man's re-
lations to his fellows and to the
world at large, social betterment,
etc., that here and there arrested
public attention were received with
contemptuous sneers or scouted as
the rankest infidelity. Few who are
not past middle life will find it pos-
sible now to realize that this was
the general attitude toward science
forty years ago, but we have only to
refer the reader to the writings of
the time for abundant confirmation
of our statements.

It was such conditions as these
that the firm was called upon to face
when considering the question of
entering this new field of publica-
tion. All ordinary business instincts
were against it. Scarcely a pub-
lisher either here or abroad would
even listen to the proposal to risk
his capital in such an enterprise.
Nevertheless, Mr. Appleton, lending
an appreciative ear to the argu-
ments of the former editor of this
journal and displaying his usual
foresight, finally decided in favor
of the project, .which afterward re-
sulted in the introduction of the
works of Spencer, Darwin, Huxley,
Tyndall, Bain, Romanes, and other
distinguished writers to American
readers. A further step in the same
direction, taken later, was the pub-
lication of the International Scien-
tific Series, now numbering some
eighty volumes. The scheme as
originated and shaped by Professor

EDITOR'S TABLE.

267

Youmans was heartily seconded by
Mr. Appleton, as was also the plan
of the Popular Science Monthly.

A distinctive feature of the ar-
rangements for the issue of all these
foreign books, and one which re-
dounds in no small degree to the
credit of the firm, was the voluntary
agreement, in the absence of an in-
ternational copyright law, to pay
their authors the usual royalties,
making no distinction between them
and authors at home. Mr. Apple-
ton had been a lifelong advocate of
international copyright, founding
his contention on the simple justice
of recognizing the property rights
of the author, no matter where he
lived. Although to adopt such a
course was to expose themselves to
the possibility of heavy loss through
the issue of reprints by irresponsi-
ble parties, a thing which actually
happened in the case of a good many
of the volumes, the principle was
faithfully adhered to, thus antici-
pating by many years the central
provision of our present law.

The storm of denunciation raised
abroad by the appearance of the
earlier installments of these writ-
ings might well have deterred the
boldest from repeating the experi-
ment of giving them currency in
America. But in spite of solemn
warnings that dire consequences
would be visited on the publisher
who ventured to issue them here,
the books continued to appear, while
the predicted evils never came to
pass.

It miTst not be inferred from the
foregoing, however, that Mr. Ap-
pleton was either unmindful or
wanting in respect for the opposi-
tion which his course aroused.
Much of this had its origin in the
religious convictions of the commu-
nity, not a little of the criticism, be
it said, emanating directly from the
Church or its leading representa-

tives. But, being a strong church-
man himself, actively furthering the
work of the Church with his pri-
vate means and personal co-opera-
tion, in full sympathy with its pur-
poses, and rejoicing in its beneficent
influence, he was the last one who
would wantonly outrage the sacred
beliefs of his fellow-men. Yet,
gifted with a large-mindedness that
is at least unusual in the walks of
business, he was enabled to see that
the onward march of natural knowl-
edge which had so often before ex-
cited alarm among men of narrow
views could have nothing in it that
was inconsistent with a truly reli-
gious life ; while, on the other hand,
to promote its advance and diffu-
sion was to contribute by so much
to the highest human welfare.

The wisdom of Mr. Appleton's
course has been fully justified by the
event. As we look over the last half
of the century, which has been so
fruitful in discovery and has wit-
nessed the development of so many
agencies for the amelioration of hu-
man ills and so manifold an increase
in man's power for right living, we
can see at the various stages of
this evolution how large a part the
broadening of thought fostered by
these authors and the new aims and
methods in inquiry suggested by
them have contributed to the ad-
vance. It could not, in short, have
been made so rapidly or effectively
without the stimulus they gave. For
what has been done in this line in
this country we think — when we
reflect that it was he who had the
courage to bring the works of those
thinkers here, and who made them
accessible to students and the read-
ing public, who constituted the
agency through which the new
thoughts and aims were spread — a
very important part in the achieve-
ment may fairly be ascribed to Mr.
William H. Appleton.

268 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Owing to the increasing demands upon our space, authors and pub-
lishers are notified that hereafter the department of Scientific Literature,
with the exception of Publications Received, will be discontinued.

SPECIAL BOOKS.

The busy pen of Mr. John Fisl-e has produced another book marked
by the qualities which the public has learned to associate with all his work
— lucidity of expression, felicity of illustration, a large command of the
conventional elements of literary composition, and a philosophy which,
while verj"- free and lightsome in its steps and paces, always has the luck
to fetch up within easy hailing distance of a moderate orthodoxy. Mr.
Fiske undertakes to conduct us on an excursion Through Nature to God*
somewhat as Cook, of international fame, might undertake to see us
safe from 'New York to the Holy Land. Of the two, we think Cook
makes the surer thing of it; yet no one can deny that Mr. Fiske has
done his best to trace the itinerary and encourage his excursionists to
believe that they will " get there."

We may as well candidly confess that we have not much faith in the
method followed in the work before us. The intention is to show that
an analysis of Nature and of Nature's ways yields God ; in other words,
that we have only to carry out the processes of thought which an ex-
amination of the external world and of human history sets in motion in
order to find God at the end of the argument. Thus, by searching, con-
trary to what Scripture has generally been held to imply, we find out
both that God is and to some extent what he is. We prefer the older
view. The world's greatest Teacher said simply, " God is a spirit." He
did not say that this was a conclusion to which many lines of argument
led. He did not hint at any kind of argument, but assumed the affirma-
tion of God by the human consciousness. We venture to say that if
Mr. Fiske's method were successful and we could argue ourselves into
a belief in God, the result would be disastrous; for the God of argument,
or even of analogy, is not the God of the human soul or conscience.
We should have one conclusion more of science, but we should lose that
for which no conclusion of science could make amends — our sense of the
infinite and the possibility of faith.

Mr. Fiske discusses, in the early chapters of his book. The Mystery of
Evil. He takes the familiar ground that evil is the necessary correlative,
and in a manner the necessaiy condition, of good. We are placed in a
universe that abounds in evil in order that by conquering it we may raise
ourselves to a moral level otherwise impossible. On one page the author
goes so far as to say that God, and not the devil, " is the creator of evil,"
but elsewhere he relaxes his boldness and speaks of evil being " per-
mitted." One feels like asking. If good and evil are equally made by
God, then which is which? When we speak of electricity as positive and
negative we do not ascribe any superiority to one over the other. Nor
do we say that centrifugal is a more commendable form of force than

* Through Nature to God. By John Fiske. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifllin & Co,

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 269

centripetal, or vice versa. " For strong and resolute men and women,"
we are told, " an Eden would be but a fool's paradise." This is not com-
plimentary to our first parents in their primitive condition of innocence,
and it puts the curse pronounced upon them in a somewhat equivocal
light. There is also quite a rehabilitation of the " serpent," who, it
seems, knew quite well what he was talking aboixt and gave excellent
advice. We wonder whether Mr. Fiske is really of opinion that it helps
us to solve any of the practical problems of life to be told that without
evil there could not be good. Men have known for centuries that it is
good to fight evil, though what evil is essentially they have often been in
doubt. Upon the latter point Mr. Fiske does not in the least attempt
to enlighten us; and yet it should be rather a more hopeful enterprise
to attempt to show us what is specifically evil and ought therefore to
be resisted, than to vindicate evil in general as the indispensable con-
dition of good, and something, therefore, which God was justified in
making.

The second division of the book deals with The Cosmic Roots of Love
and Self-Saerifice. We can not see that these roots are traced further
back than the mother's affection for her offspring. Mother's love is
doubtless an old story in the world by now, and perhaps as good a story
as earth has to tell ; but it seems to us that the " cosmic " character of it
is not very apparent. We may believe that it was destined to come in
the fullness of time, but this can be said equally of all that exists. " I
think it can be shown," says Mr. Fiske, " that the principles of morality
have their roots in the deepest foundations of the universe; that the
cosmic process is ethical in the profoundest sense; that, in that far-off
morning of the world when the stars sang together and the sons of God
shouted for joy, the beauty of self-sacrifice and disinterested love formed
the chief burden of the mighty theme." All we can say in regard to this
is that Mr. Fiske has not sho"wn it. He has shown just what we all knew
before — that love exists in the world, that it antagonizes selfishness, and
that human beings are endowed with a moral and religious sense — but
he has not made it plain that the meaning of the universe is to be found
in these (as we regard them) higher developments. He has himself ac-
knowledged that, on a broad view of the world-wide struggle for life,
there are no moral elements to be seen.

Religion, as we hold, is its own justification. There is more of re-
ligion in one verse of the Psalms than in all the Theodicies that ever
were written. " As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my
soul after thee, O God. My soul thirsteth for God, for the living God."
Here is the whole essence of the matter — the affinnation of the human
heart that there is something or some one beyond and above the mesh of
circumstance and fact in which our lives are involved ; something or some
one who authenticates all that is good, and everlastingly condemns what
is evil; something or some one to which or to whom the soul gravitates
as to nothing else in the universe. When this affirmation is strong, re-
ligious life is strong; when it is weak, religious life is weak; should it
cease entirely, then religion is dead. The book Mr. Fiske has given us
is interesting from first to last — all his books are interesting — but it
does not increase our knowledge, nor does it add to our knowledge faith.

270

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

GEINTERAL Is^OTICES.

The author of Extemporaneoiis Ora-
tory for Professional and Amateur
Speakers * is himself one of the most
eflective orators, especially in debate, of
the time. He has embodied in this book
the results of ripened thought and suc-
cessful experience gained in a field in
which he is a master, for the instruc-
tion and help of those who would fol-
low what he regards as the greatest of
all arts, including the elements of all —
music in the intonations of the voice,
and painting and sculpture in the life,
attitudes, and expression of the speaker.
It is an art, too, which has wielded a
more general and important influence
than any other, which is almost uni-
versal in its appeals, and which any
one may at any time find useful, when
it will be of great advantage to him to
possess the ability " to speak distinctly
to the purpose, gracefully, with genu-
ine fire." Extemporaneous oratory con-
cerns the delivery, in form and lan-
guage suggested by the occasion, " of
ideas previously conceived and adopted
with more or less fullness and precision,
together with such thoughts and feel-
ings as may arise and obtain utter-
ance." It has many advantages over
other methods of oratory, all tending
to give the speaker greater power over
his audience, and particularly in the
fact that the extemporizer is at all
times ready to expound, defend, illus-
trate, and enforce his opinions. The ex-
temporaneous speaker must have a full
and fluent command of language, and
a full store of facts which he may at
any time have to bring to bear upon
the subject of his address and in the
vindication of his opinions. The first
place of importance is given to facts of
natural science, which are of increas-
ing utility. " To the educated and un-
educated alike, natural science is now
the most interesting of themes." Next
come the facts of history and biog-
raphy, those of the special branches
bearing on the speaker's theme and pur-
pose, and the great general conceptions
included in the thoughts of the learned;

• E.Ktemporaneons Oratory for Professional
and Amateur Speakers. By James M. Buckley.
New York : Eaton & Mainp. Pp. 480. Price,
$1.50.

and he must have settled opinions. At
the basis of Dr. Buckley's treatment of
this art and of his advice to those who
would perfect themselves in it is the
principle that extemporization is evo-
lution after involution. This advice, in
which the various phases of the subject
are commented upon under a great va-
riety of aspects, concerns the general
preparation for the address, the acqui-
sition of eflfective command of language,
the exercise and training of the voice,
the intellectual and physical elements
that enter into oratory, its accessories,
and the factor of the audience — all
plainly and practically presented, with
a facility of style that makes the read-
ing of the book a pleasure.

Readers of the Popular Science
Monthly have already had an oppor-
tunity of perusing some of the narrative
and observations which Professor Heil-
prin has embodied in his Alaska and
the Klondike* In it he has attempted
to portray that remarkable region in its
true aspects. Professor Heilprin is well
able to do so, for he is a keen observer
and looks with a scientifie eye, and his
literary style is free and graphic. He
made a summer journey to the region
last year (1898), between the end of
July and the middle of October, with
the object of being " able to determine
between fact and fancy, and to obtain
a personal knowledge of the region and
its varied conditions." What he saw
and heard is here presented. While by
no means pretending to that degree of
accuracy and of proper insight which
can only come with more protracted
and intimate knowledge, the author be-
lieves that he has given a careful and
unprejudiced account. Persons whose
ideas of the regions about Dawson are
associated with visions of arctic se-
verity and sterility may be a little sur-
prised at reading of one's looking from

* Alaska and the Klondike. A Jounicy to the
New Eldorado. Wi h Hints to the Traveler and
Observations on the Physical lliftory and Goolofjy
of the Gold Regions, the Condition.* and Methods
of working the Klondike Placers, nnd the Laws
governing and regiiinting Miiiinf; in the North-
west Territory of Canada. By Angelo IIeili)rin.
New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 815.
Price, $1.75.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

271

the heights about the town northwest-
ward " over a most lovely stretch of
river, with hillsides closely besetting it,
and with a vegetation of most striking
brilliancy and vigor," and of the eye
turned southward, losing, in conse-
quence of the diflferent configuration of
the ground, " all but the beautiful ver-
dant slopes which still mark out the val-
ley " ; of the beholder being able for hours
at a time to sit watching the beauty of
the landscape; and of the difficulty of
recommending to one endowed with a
proper appreciation for the works of
quiet Nature " a more enjoyable exer-
cise than to take in a bit of this won-
derful land of the North, and with it
a mellow sunshine that is not to be
found elsewhere." These pretty land-
scape pictures of the arctic summer are
followed by accounts of society at the
Klondike as the author found it, of the
trail, steamboat travel, and the routes
to the region; a description of the
placers, their occurrence, and the meth-
ods of mining; observations on the
physical history and geology of the gold
fields; and a summary of the laws regu-
lating mining. In the summary of his
geological discussion the author ex-
presses the opinion that it seems prob-
able that " the Ivlondike gold region is
merely a fractional pai't of a discontinu-
ously continuous auriferous tract that
extends in a westerly course into the
heart of Alaska, and southward into
British Columbia."

Mr. BuUen's Idylls of the ^ea * com-
prises three groups of essays, each group
being marked by distinct characteristics.
The sketches in the first group, the
designation of which gives the name to
the book, answer approximately well to
Mr. Strachey's estimation of the whole
as " some of the most vivid things ever
written about the sea," such as only . a
man who really knows the sea in all its
humors, and " has heard all those mul-
titudinous voices that echo along the
waste spaces of the deep," could write.
There is something weird about them,
and they have the air of mystery and
superstitious awe with which, according
to tradition, the sailor regards the im-

* Idylls of the Sea. By Frank T. Bullen.
With an Introduction by J. St. Loe Strachey.
New York: D. Appleton and Company. Price,
$1.25.

perfectly understood features of the sea.
They are short stories of curious or
striking incidents of sea life. The essays
of the second group are real natural-his-
tory sketches — accounts of some oceanic
birds, the kraken, sharks, the devilfish,
etc., by a man who is well and scientifi-
cally acquainted with them. The third
group includes longer sketches of sea-
farers' life, rather more actual ones than
those of the first group, and papers
having a critical bearing on the present
conditions of British seamanship.

The constant advance in the knowl-
edge of dietetics makes it desirable that
its results should be put in an accessible
form, and this is particularly the case in
regard to food for those in ill health, to
whom it may be the means of restoring
the normal condition. In her book on
Diet in Illness and Convalescence* the
author has endeavored to present the
substance of Diet for the Sick, now out
of print, together with recent thought
on the subject, especially in the treat-
ment of typhoid and malarial fevers,
which we owe in such variety to the
present war. An outline is given for
suitable food in the more common forms
of disease, suggestions for serving meals
tastefully to an invalid, and numerous
recipes for beverages, soups, dishes of
meats, vegetables, and desserts. Some of
these are taken from English and French
treatises; others are contributions of
American cooks, and include many novel
and excellent ideas. From the prepara-
tion of koumiss and ]\Iay wine to tlie
manipulation of Dixie biscuit there is
no want of explicitness, and one is
tempted to covet the state of convales-
cence in which he could fare upon such
attractive compounds as rose, violet, or
amethyst jelly. A word of caution is
inserted now and then. We are told " a
fritter of any kind should never be men-
tioned in an invalid's book." Macaroni
croquettes and souffle of shad roe are,
however, admissible. The beginning of
the volume is devoted by the author to
a brief consideration of the constituents
of food and processes of digestion, with
directions for the use of the pancreatic
ferments. There are unfortunately many
disputed points concerning a fit dietary

* Diet in Illness and Convalescence. By Alice
Worthington Winthrop. New York : Harper &
Brothers. Pp. 286.

272

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

in illness; not only idiosyncrasies of con-
stitution but incomplete knowledge of
physiological chemistry still render the
problem difficult. New foods are con-
stantly introduced which subsequent ex-
periment proves to be harmful. The last
dictum, we believe, in regard to saccha-
rin is that it is not wholly innocuous,
so that it might be as well for the dia-
betic patient to learn to do without
sweets in the beginning, while as for
the digestive ferments, they are at the
least hazardous concoctions. We can
not be too wary of artificial substitutes
and laboratory products which claim the
virtues of organic material or living pro-
toplasm.

The reason for the being of Jolin
Munro's The Story of the British Race *
is briefly indicated in the preface as to
be found in tlie fact that the current
ideas on the subject are derived from
the views of historians representing the
doctrines of an earlier and less critical
generation, while the fact is overlooked
that the new science of anthropology,
using careful observations and exact
methods, has put the real nature of the
British people in a light in which it was
never seen so clearly before. Tlie result
is that the old ideas on the subject have
been greatly modified. Mr. Llunro be-
lieves that his little book is the first
attempt to bring these important results
and views of modern anthropologists be-
fore the general public in familiar lan-
guage, whereby the oversights of his-
torians and teachers may be I'edeemed.
An important error to be controverted,
in the author's view, lies in the fine-
drawn distinctions and sharply defined
demarcations that have been made be-
tween Celts and Saxons. It is inferred
from anthropology that the population
of the British Isles is a mixture of all
the races of western Europe, in which
the Teutonic and Mediterranean ele-
ments— " the aborigines of Europe " —
predominate, while " the intrusive Celtic
race from Asia," still represented by the
Bretons, passed into the British Isles in
comparatively small numbers. Scotland
is perhaps more Teutonic and less Medi-
terranean than England, Wales, or Ire-

* The Story of the British Race. (Library of
Useful Stories.) By John Munro. New York :
D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 228. Price, 40
cents.

land. Wales is the least Teutonic and
the most Mediterranean, if not Celtic,
of the three. England has more of the
Dutch and Low Country elements than
of the Scandinavian, with apparently
not far short of an equal share of the
ilediterranean and Teutonic elements.
Ireland is perhaps as Teutonic as Eng-
land, though the better fusion of the
elements may disguise the fact. The
author thinks that the first chapters of
English history will have to be written
over again by the light of anthropology.

The Eighteenth Annual Report of the
United States Geological Survey * men-
tions, as an important change in the
held work that made necessary by the
legislation providing for the establish-
ment of levels and permanent monu-
ments and bench marks, of which 10,840
miles of levels were run and 1,820 bench
marks were established. The topographic
surveys to date covered an aggregate
area of 759,525 square miles, of which
240,000 square miles were on a scale of
four miles to the inch. The topographic
work has progressed very satisfactorily
under the present organization of the
survey, including, in the year covered by
tlie report, surveys in the Indian Terri-
tory and of the northern part of the
boundary line between Idaho and Mon-
tana— the first work of the kind as-
signed to the Geological Survey — and
the beginning of the survey of the forest
reserves. The work on the educational
series of rocks has been completed. It
includes two hundred and fifty larger
and smaller sets, which will be distrib-
uted to institutions where geology is
taught. In his general report the di-
rector mentions the work of more than
thirty geological parties in all parts of
the United States, of six paleontological
parties, hydrographic and topographic
surveys by States, and the work of the
division of mineral resources, the full ac-
count of which will constitute Part V of
the report. The theoretic and other
papers in Part II relate to the Triassic

* Eighteenth Annual Report of the United
States Geological Surrey to the Secretary of the
Interior, 18n6-'97. Charles D. Walcott, Director.
In Five Parts. Director's Report, including Tri-
nngulation and Spirit Leveling. Pp. 4.')0, with
4 plates. Part IT; Papers chiefly of a Theoretic
Nature. Pp. 053, with 10.5 plates. Part III; Eco-
nomic Geology. Pp. 861, with 118 plates. Part
IV; Hydrography. Pp. 756, with 102 plates.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

273

Formation of Connecticut (W. M. Da-
vis), Geology of the Edwards Plateau,
etc., Texas (R. T. Hill and J. W.
Vaughan), North American Tertiary
Horizons (W. H. Dal 1), Glaciers of Mount
Rainier (I. C. Russell) and Rocks of
Mount Rainier (G. O. Smith), The
Franklin White Limestone of New Jer-
sey (J. E. Wolfe and A. H. Brooks), the
Geology of San Clemente Island (W. S.
T. Smith), Geology of the Cape Cod Dis-
trict (N. H. Shaler), and Recent Earth
Movement in the Great Lakes Region
(G. K. Gilbert). Part III contains pa-
pers on the gold districts of Alaska, by
G. F. Becker, J. E. Spurr, and H. B.
Goodrich ; Coal Fields of Puget Sound ( B.
Willis), the Judith Mountains of Mon-
tana (W. H. Weed and L. V. Pirsson),
Certain Mining Districts in Idaho (W.
Lindgren and F. H. Knowlton), and the
Mining Districts of the Telluride Quad-
rangle, Colorado (C. W. Purington). The
four papers in Part IV are a Report of
Progress of Stream Measurements dur-
ing 1S96, by A. P. Davis; the Water Re-
sources of Indiana and Ohio, by Frank
Leverett; New Developments in Well-
boring in South Dakota, by N. H. Dar-
ton; and Water Storage and the Con-
struction of Dams, by J. D. Schuyler.

The purpose of Belle S. Cragin's Our
Insect Friends and Foes * is illustrated
from a passage in the author's own life,
cited in the preface : " In my younger
days, when Nature study was unknown
in schools and my problems had to be
solved by my own investigations or re-
main unsolved, I used to long for some-
body to write a book that would tell me
the things I wished to know, or show me
how to find them out for myself; and
that is what I have tried to do for you."
The beginning of the book is a chapter
on the collection, preservation, and care
of insects for specimens, giving explicit
directions for collecting them perfect, for
putting them to death, for mounting and
placing them in the cabinet, and for pro-
tecting them against vermin, dust, and
mold, with descriptions of the instru-
ments, cases, etc., that are used. In the
descriptions of insects no attempt is
made to mention any except the com-

* Our Insect Friends and Foes. How to Col-
lect, Presen-e, and Stndy them. By Belle S. Cra-
gin. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pp.377.
Price, $1.75.

VOL. LTI — 22

monest species, and not all of those. The
habitat, in most cases, is included in the
description. As a rule, most of the spe-
cies are those found in the States east
of the Rocky Mountains and north of
the Gulf States. Scientific names are at-
tached to the illustrations and a list
of popular names, with their scientific
equivalents. The descriptions are brief
and well adapted to the purpose indi-
cated in the quotation with which our
notice begins.

In presenting a revision of their
Plane and Solid Geometry * Messrs.
Beman and Smith express their belief
as being, that amid all the schemes for
breaking away from the formal proofs
of Euclid and Legendre and leading the
student to independent discovery, the
best results are secured by setting forth
a minimum of formal proofs as models,
and a maximum of unsolved or un-
proved propositions as exercises. They
likewise share in the belief that such
of the notions of modern geometry as
materially simplify the ancient should
find place in our elementary text-books.
Accordingly, they have introduced va-
rious ideas, such as those of one-to-one
correspondence, anti-parallels, negative
magnitudes, general figures, prismatic
space, similarity of point systems, etc.,
which are of real use in the early study
of the science. In general, whatever is
found to be usable in elementary work
has been inserted where it will prove
of most value.

The plan of the investigation under-
taken by Mr. Walter Smith in his Meth-
ods of Knoicledge t is, first, to give a
definition of knowledge. The methods
are then considered by which men have
thought it possible to attain knowledge
of the self on the one hand, and the
not-self on the other. The common
view of philosophers and men of science
that truth is given in general concepts,
or universals, or categories, is taken up,
and the special form of the doctrine
given in empiricism is considered and
found to be a doctrine wanting in all
its forms. Yet it is pointed out that

* New Plane and Solid Geometry. By W. W.
Beman and D. E. Smith. Boston: Ginn & Co.

Pp. ?m.

t Methods of Knowledge. An Essay in Episte-
mology. New York : The Macmillan Company.
Pp. 340. Price, §1.25.

274

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the concept has its uses in the mental
economy. The method is then expound-
ed of knowing the not-self as being
gained by sympathetic imitation. It is
then determined wherein self-knowledge
consists, and the bearing of this theory
on the philosophical problem and on
certain practical questions is indicated.

Tn The PhUosopliii of Memory and
Other Essays * Dr. D. T. Smith develops
a theory of mental action, the basis of
which is the setting up in the cells of
the gray matter of the brain, and pos-
sibly of the spinal cord, of orderly
grouping of waves or vibrations among
certain atoms or molecules by what-
ever may affect any of the senses; that
tiiesc undulations are realized first as
sensations, and then group themselves
so as to form perceptions, ideas, emo-
tions, etc. They rise in succession into
the scope of consciousness. After a time
the eft'ect of these vibrations in con-
sciousness is weakened, without per-
haps utterly passing away, and retains
the possibility of being re-enforced by
kindred vibrations in harmony with it.
This is memory.

In The Psychology of Reasoning f
31. Alfred Binet makes reasoning a
process of the formation of mental im-
ages. He finds no decided difference
between perception — the cognizance of
sensations and assignment of them to
their source — and logical reasoning.
" The two operations are both reason-
ings, transitions from the known to the
unknown"; "the two extremes of a
long series of phenomena." A premise
is " a judgment, an association of im-
ages," and a conclusion that follows
from the premises is " an association of
images produced by other associations."
The theory of three images— the two
premises and the conclusion — " is ap-
plicable to reasonings of every kind, and
therefore constitutes a general theory
of reasoning. ... If it be recollected
that images are fragments, residues of
former sensations; that they spring
from the place where former sensa-

* The Philosophy of Memory and Other Es-
says. By D. T. Smith. Louisville, Ky.: John
P. Jlorton & Co. Pp. X!03.

+ The Psychology of Reasoning. Based on
Experimental Keseurches in Ilypnotisra. By Al-
fred Binct. Chicago : The Open Court Publish-
ing Company. Pp. 191.

tions have been received, in the sensory
centers of the cerebral surface layers,
it will be understood that the purpose
of these images in grouping themselves
in reasonings, according to the laws of
their afiinity, is to replace the absent
sensations. Such is therefore the func-
tion of reasoning; it enlarges the sphere
of our sensibility, and extends it to all
objects which our senses can not know
directly. Thus understood, reasoning is
a supvlementary sense, which has the
advantage of being free from those
strict conditions of time and space — the
two enemies of human knowledge."
In memory, " the suggested image is
projected and localized in the panorama
of the past, of which it appears t5 be a
fragment." Imagination is " a faculty
of creating assemblages of images which
do not correspond to any external re-
ality."

The idea of preparing Who's Who in
America* was suggested by the success
of the English book. Who's Who? now
in its fifty-second year, and the work
has been prepared on similar lines. Its
purpose is to supply information con-
cerning living American men and
women who have achieved distinction,
who hold recognized public positions,
and who have contributed so as to have
it talked about to the growth, develop-
ment, knowledge, and civilization of the
country. Eight thousand six hundred
and two such persons are represented
in this book, inchuling, ex-officio, all
members of the Fifty-sixth Congress,
Governors of States and Territories now
in office. United States, State, and ter-
ritorial judges of courts of high juris-
diction, persons of other prominent offi-
cial classification, national academicians,
members of the National Academy of
Sciences, heads of the larger universities
and colleges, and a few others chosen on
similar arbitrary lines. Special effort
has been made to include all living
American authors of books of more than
ephemeral value, 'i'he data for the book
have been obtained from first hands,
except in a A'cry few cases, where the
modesty of the subjects made it neces-

* Who's Who in America. A Biographical
Dictionary of Living Men and Women in the
United States, ]«i)9-190(). Edited by John W.
Leonard. Chicago : A. N. Marquis & Co. Pp.
822.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

275

sary to supply the material from other
sources, when the articles were submit-
ted to the subjects for revision.

In The Down of Reason* Dr. Weir
has provided a most interesting book
for the unscientific reader as well as for
the comparative psychologist. He traces
the gradual unfolding of conscious mind
in animal life from the actinophryans
which discriminates between the grains
of starch and sand, and the Stentor
which changes its position to catch a
ripened spore, to the higher forms that
decorate their homes, exhibit parental
affection, exercise mathematical faculty,
and extricate themselves from unfore-
seen dangers. As the field of observa-
tion of the senses of touch, taste, and
smell has been so thoroughly worked
by Lubbock and other naturalists, spe-
cial attention is paid by the author to
the senses of sight and hearing, in regard
to which he furnishes new and valuable
data. In addition to these he claims to
establish the fact that tinctumutations
and " homing " are auxiliary senses — not
instincts. He located the center of color
changing in the frog exactly below the
optic, and by artificial stimulation pro-
duced the alteration in tint, and by ex-
cision, or ti'eatment with atropine, de-
stroyed the chromatophoric function.
By experimentation upon snails he found
the center of the sense of locality at the
base of the cephalic ganglion, and, re-
moving it, rendered them unable to re-
turn to their homes. Many anecdotes
are given showing that the lower orders
of animal life exercise conscious deter-
mination, and that among those with
more complex nervous systems there is
a mind akin to that of man. Not only
do animals remember friends, strangers,
and events, but they love, hate, and
fear. They evince aesthetic feeling also
when the spider ornaments its web with
logwood flakes, the dog howls in har-
monic accord with the church bell, and
salamanders assemble at the sound of a
piccolo. Still higher psychical attributes
are those of animals that show parental
alfection or ability to count, like the
mason wasp, which provides invariably
five spiders for the male larva and eight
for the female; or the harvester ants

* The Dawn of Reason. By James Weir, Jr.,
M. D. New York : The Macmillan Company.
Pp. aU. Price, $1.25.

that plant their grain, wood and win-
now it. Examples are cited of the ca-
pacity of the elepluuit to form abstract
ideas and of the dog to indulge in brown
studies. The author scouts at the the-
ory that " specialized instinct," or " in-
telligent accident," prompts actions in
animals which in man would be ascribed
to reason. " Instinct," he writes, " is
the bugbear of psychologists," and there-
upon he diflerentiates sharply the two
sadly confused functions.

In the thesis entitled A Step For-
icard, F. Theodor KriKjer proposes, as a
measure of possible social reform, plac-
ing the medical and legal professions
wholly under the direct control of the
civil authorities, to be exercised through
duly constituted boards or departments
of the several communities.

In his study of Centralized Adminis-
tration of Liquor Laws in the American
Commonwealths (Columbia University
Studies in History, Economics, and Pub-
lic Law) Clement M. L. Sites finds that
widely variant policies are followed by
the several States in the regulation of
the liquor traffic, all based upon the
broad powers of taxation and police.
While we hear much of characteristic
plans of regulation, little is said about
characteristic systems of administration.
This is because the liquor laws are
administered incoherently. There is no
consensus, even within the Common-
wealth, in standards of administration.
Each community practically determines
for itself how the law shall be enforced,
and we have all degrees of enforcement,
from rigid severity to none. The vari-
ous plans of regulation are classified by
the author according to the dominant
aspect in which they regard the liquor
traffic. It has been treated as an open
traffic, subject simply to taxation and
reasonable safeguards; as a necessary
but dangerous business, to be limited
to approved persons and places and sur-
rounded by special safeguards; as a
criminal enterprise, to be suppressed,
like highway robbery; and as a subject
of legal monopoly. It is the purpose of
Mr. Sites's essay to follow the develop-
ments of centralized administration that
have taken place in recent years in each
of these spheres, and in that of the in-
stitution and maintenance of judicial
proceedings. The phases of current de-

276

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

A'elopment tliat seem to merit special
note are the substitution of the liquor-
tax system for the license system, the
extension and elaboration of local op-
tion, the contingent central control of
city police administration, and the rec-
ognition of the general province of ad-
ministration. The author's study shows
that these developments accord in gen-
eral with the laws of evolution, each
representing some special aspect of the
difTerentiation. In considering the " dis-
})ensary " plan, ' illustrated in South
Carolina, a significant contribution to
current thought is remarked in the ap-
proval it gives to the use of liquors as
a beverage, while their abuse is disap-
proved in an equally marked degree, a
distinction being attempted here, with
correspondingly difTerent methods of
treatment between those who can be
trusted with liquors and those who
can not.

The Report of the United States Com-
missioner of Fish and Fisheries for the
year ending June 30, 1898, represents
that the operations of the division of fish
culture were in some respects more im-
portant during that than in any pre-
ceding year. This was owing in part
to the natural growth of the work, and
in part to greater efficiency in dealing
with the various questions and problems
that came up for consideration. The
propagation and distribution of food
fishes exceeded by about forty per cent
the work accomplished in any other
twelve months. The steady increase in
the catch of shad is cited as being con-
clusive evidence of the value of arti-
ficial propagation. The constant decline
in the lobster fishery accentuates the ne-
cessity for increased work in that line.
I'he cfYorts to acclimatize food fishes in
waters to wliich they are not indigenous
have been continued. The special papers
publislied in connection with the report
relate to mackerel investigations, the
alewife fisheries, the oyster beds of Lou-
isiana, the sliad fisheries of the Atlan-
tic coast, reports of fishes obtained in
sea explorations, a list of publications,
and a report of the exhibit at the Ten-
nessee Centennial.

The Tenth Annual Report of the In-
terstate Commerce Commission on the
statistics of Raihoays in the United
States covers the year ending June 30,

1897. The year is characterized as hav-
ing been for the transportation industry
one " of deferred expectations." While
the years from 1890 to 1893 each closed
with increased gross earnings as com-
pared with the preceding year, 1893-'94
was disastrous, showing a large de-
crease; no recovery took place in 1894-
'95, but an increase took place in 1895-
'96. A downward turn came again in
the year of the present report, with no
revival till the last month of the twelve.
The total increase in mileage for the
year of the report was only 1,651.84
miles, the smallest increase and the
smallest percentage of increase noted in
any year since 1890. " In many States,"
says the report, " railway construction
seems to have been practically aban-
doned. Especially is this noticeable in
the more populous districts of the coun-
try— a result which is not entirely due
to the general commercial depression,
but to the marvelous increase in electric
railways for suburban and short-dis-
tance traffic. The influence of electric
construction upon steam transportation
is noted in certain of the reports of State
railway commissions for the current
year." These are only tAvo of the nu-
merous interesting facts presented in the
report.

Small Accumulators, how Made and
Used, is the first of a series of popular
scientific handbooks for students and
engineers. The particular subject has
been selected for beginning the series
under the suggestion of a large number
of requests for advice which the author,
Percival Marshall, had received in his
capacity as editor of the Model Engi-
neer and Amateur Electrician. The
work is intended to be an elementary
handbook — " a practical and trustwor-
thy guide " — for amateurs and students.
The theory of tlie accumulator is ex-
plained, directions are given for making
them, types of small accumuhxtors are
illustrated, the charging and use of ac-
cumulators are explained, and the ap-
plications are shown. Useful receipts
and a glossary of technical terms are
given. (The book is published by Spon
& Chamberlain, New York. Price, 50
cents.)

In his Better World rhilosophy — a
8ociolof)ical Si/nthesis (Chicago: the
Ward Waugh Company), J. Howard

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

277

Moore utters a protest against the ego-
ism or selfishness of our day, and sug-
gests an ideal scheme. The problem of
life is defined as being the relation of
each individual to the rest of the uni-
verse, and is peculiarized by the exist-
ence of the social problem involving
relations of individuals to each other
difTerent from those sustained to the im-
personal universe. There are in the na-
ture of living beings the egoistic ele-
ment, which impels action in behalf of
self, and the altruistic element, which
prompts or prevents movement out of
consideration to others. At present the
egoistic element predominates, with re-
sults that make a picture far from
bright. In the social ideal the strong
should supplement the weak as they
would like to be supplemented if they
were weak; individuals not unequal but
diverse may mutualize their efforts to
the advantage of all; and each indi-
vidual should perform in the social econ-
omy that function for which he is best
fitted, and should receive in return " a
graceful equity in the means for satisfy-
ing his desires."

Among the books announced for
issue soon by Henry Holt & Co. are
The Book of Vertebrate Zoology, by
Prof. J. S. Kingsley, author of The Ele-
ments of Comparative Zoology, pub-
lished by the same house, which can be
used as a companion to McMurrich's In-
vertebrate Zoology; Elementary Studies
in Chemistry, by Prof. Joseph Torrcy,
of Harvard, which, while it is charac-
terized by the emphasis laid upon quan-
titative laboratory work in general
chemistry, will be a comprehensive text-
book on the whole subject; and Moulds,
Mlldeics, and Mushrooms, a guide to the
systematic study of the fungi and My-
cetozoa and their- literature, by Prof.
Lucien Underwood, of Columbia Uni-
versity.

Miss Cornelia E. Horsford, being in-
terested in the question of the origin of
certain ancient ruins situated on the
Charles River, Mass., and elsewhere in
America, which were discovered by the
late Prof. E. N. Horsford and were be-
lieved by him to be relics of the settle-
ments formed by the Norsemen in the
tenth century, commissioned Mr. Thor-
stein Erlingsson to examine for compari-
son certain ancient dwellings in Iceland,

in the summer of 1895. The inquiries
assigned to hira related to the method
of construction of the long houseS)
square buildings, hillside cots with pave-
ments, mounds, things and doom rings,
irrigation and drainage, ditches, river
dams, hithes and ship docks, or nauts,
grave-hills, and forts. The results of the
study are given, with illustrations, in a
small book. Ruins of the Saya Times, by
Thorstein Erlingsson. (Published by
David Nutt, London.) Mr. Erlingsson's
report is supplemented by an outline of
already ascertained knowledge regard-
ing early Scandinavian home building,
derived from previous excavations and
investigations furnished by F. T. NOrris
and Jijn Stefansson, and a summary in
French by M. E. D. Grand.

The Quarterly Journal of the An-
thropological Institute of Great Britain
and Ireland was issued during the thir-
ty-seven years from the beginning of
1871 in the form styled demi-octavo.
The small pages of this size entailed
some inconveniences, especially when
ample plates and tables were needed for
illustration. With the double number
(August and November, 1898) a new
series was begun, in the form styled im-
perial octavo, with a page considerably
larger than in the old form and corre-
sponding in size with the important
publications of some of the continental
societies of Europe. This number con-
tains the proceedings of seven meetings
of the society and important anthropo-
logical articles, some of them on Ameri-
can subjects. Among them is a criti-
cism, by Prof. W. Z. Ripley, on Deni-
ker's Classification of the Races of Eu-
rope.

In How to Switn (Putnams, $1) Cap-
tain Davis Dalton, Chief Inspector of
the United States Volunteer Life-Saving
Corps, gives a practical treatise upon
the art of natation, together with in-
struction as to the best methods of
saving persons imperiled in the water
and of resuscitating persons apparently
drowned. The treatise covers every
branch of the art, and abounds in cau-
tions in connection with nearly every
topic, against the mistakes that may
arise from timidity or the carelessness
of over-confidence. The author holds
that swimming is an art to be acquired
and learned like other athletic arts, al-

278

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

though it depends upon natural princi-
ples. The best movements for taking
advantages of the physical laws involved
in it have been studied by competent
men, and a brief and clear presenta-
tion of them is attempted here. First,
Ave have the lessons for tlie beginner,
■\vho must, before all things, " have con-
fidence." The difFerent strokes are de-
scribed in detail and illustrated; the dif-
ferent modes of swimming and the pos-
tures, swimming in clothes, taking off
clothes in the water, diving and swim-
ming under water, swimming in waves,
and other features are explained; and,
finally, the life-saving directions are
given, and public education in swim-
ming is insisted upon.

The Southern Magazine is a new
monthly, published at Manassas, Va., by
the Southern Publishing Company, of
which we have the third number, that
for August. It has a definite flavor of
the old South, for which we find no
fault with, for there was much about
the old South which ought to be pre-
served, and no little that was too pre-
cious to be lost. Among the matters of
special interest in this number are the
Sketch of Sidney Lanier, by Ellen Man-
derson, with selections from his writ-
ings: The Last Meeting of the Confed-
erate Cabinet (held, by a curious coin-
cidence, at Abbeville, S. C, where seces-
sion was started), by Walter L. Miller;
an account of the University of Vir-
ginia, by John S. Patten, which appears
to be the first of a series on Southern
Educational Institutions; and an article
on South Carolina in Letters, by Colonel
J. P. Thomas.

The fifth yearly number of IJAnn^e
Psycholoiiique of MM. Alfred Binet, H.
Beaunis, and Th. liibot is a volume of
902 pages, of which 591 pages are in-
cluded in the first part, devoted to Origi-
nal Memoirs and General lleviews. The
papers are nineteen in number, on such
subjects as muscular fatigue, the fore-
shortening of objects rising from the
horizon, stereognostic perception and
stereoagnosy, suggestibility, applica-
tions of the calculation of probabilities
to psychology, colored audition, mental
Jabor and nutritive changes, measure of
mental fatigue, sensations of smell, pho-
nographs and the study of the vowels,
cephalometry, pedology, volume of the

arm and muscular force, chronophoto-
graphic and other apparatus, and mus-
cular sense; and the authors are MM.
Van Biervliet, of Ghent; Blum, of
Xlmes; Bourdon, of Rennes; Clapar&de,
of Geneva; Claviore, Delage, Demeny,
Druauit, Mile. Joteyko, MM. Larguier,
Manouvrier, Marage; JNIarbe, of Wiirz-
burg; Obersteincr, of Vienna; Tschern-
ing and Zwaardemaker, of Utrecht. M.
V. Henri's paper on Muscular Sense
would make a volume by itself. The
second part — Analyses — consists of re-
views of psychological publications en-
tered under ten headings. The Bibliog-
raphy contains 2,558 titles, and the
index of authors fills upward of seven-
teen double-columned pages. (Paris:
Scheicher Freres. )

Valuable papers on Comparative
Tests of Bituminous Steam Coals, by
John W. Hill; the Artificial Preser-
vation of Railroad Ties by the Use of
Zinc Chloride, by W. W. Curtis; and
the Theory of Concrete, by G. W. Raf-
ter, are given in the Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers
(vol. XXV, No. 4, April, 1899), together
with discussions respecting street grades
and cross-sections in asphalt and cement
and to loads and maximum stress on
members of a bridge truss; also bio-
graphical sketches of D. L. Barnes and
W. R. IMichie.

A valuable addition to D. Appleton
and Company's International Educa-
tion Series, and a .sprightly book in
itself withal, is Montaigne on the Edu-
cation of Children, a volume of selec-
tions bearing on the subject from the
writings of the quaint old Frenchman,
translated and annotated by L. E. Rec-
tor. The significance of Montaigne, as
the editor of the series observes in his
preface to the volume, lies chiefly in his
protest against pedantry, and the trans-
hitor finds JMontaigne's modernity shown
in his attempt to degrade men learning
from the first place, and to lay the
emphasis on fitness for practical life,
ability to use one's judgment, and mo-
rality and virtue. While Montaigne
had limitations and defects in his edu-
cational views, such as are pointed out
by Dr. Harris, he still appears to have
been far in advance of his own time,
and in some respects of the present time
as well. The solution of the human

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

279

problem, suoross in dealing -with one's
self and his fellows, was his ideal. The
translator shows how Locke and Rous-
seau, and, of course, all educational
writers who have built upon these, drew
from him. The subjects of the selec-
tions given here are the Education of
Children, Pedantry, the Affection of Fa-
thers, Liars, Physiognomy, Anger, the
Art of Conversation, Idleness, Experi-
ence, and History.

An essay on The Object of the Labor
Movement, by Johann Jacohy, trans-
lated by Florence Kelley, and published
by the International Publishing Com-
pany, advocates co-operation, demands
that the employer recognize the laborer
whom he emploj^s as a being fully his
own equal and treat him accordingly,
and claims of the State an especial con-
sideration of the working class as an act
of reparative justice.

The Transactions of the First and
Second Regular Meetings of the Wyo-
ming State Medical Society, May 13

and November 1, 1898, shows that that
body is vigorous and active, and that
the doctors of Wyoming are interested
in maintaining the dignity and reputa-
tion of their profession. It is repre-
sented that fully fifty per cent of the
regular physicians of the State have al-
ready been enrolled as members of the
society.

Mr. Frederick H. Gelman's Elements
of Blowpipe Analysis (New York: The
Macmillan Company; 60 cents) is in-
tended to serve the twofold purpose of
giving the student a general outline of
the analysis and of introducing him to
the methods of determinative mineral-
ogy. Every effort has been made to
simplify the account. The first chapter
is devoted to Apparatus and Details, and
the second to the General Outline of
Blowpipe Analysis. Then the general
reactions for the detection of the me-
tallic elements in simple compounds are
described, the behavior of some of the
principal ores before the blowpipe, and
comparative tables.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Abbot, A. C, M. D. The Hygiene of
Transmissible Diseases, their Cansation,
Modes of Dissemination, and Metliods of
Prevention. Philadelphia: W. B. Saun-
ders. Pp. .311. $2 net.

Allin, Arthnr. Extra-Organic Evolu-
tion and Education. Pp. S.

Baker, Charles Whiting. Monopolies
and the People. Third eilitiou, revised
and enlarged. New York: G. P. Put-
nam's Sons. Pp. 3G8.

Baker, M. N. Potable Water and
Methods of Detecting Impurities. New
York: D. Van Nostrand Company. Pp.
97. 50 cents.

Baskett, James Newton. The Story of
the Fishes. New York: D. Appleton and
Companv. (Appletons' Home - Reading
Books.) Pp. 297.

Borodine, N., Editor. Revue Interna-
tionale de Peche et de Pisciculture. (In-
ternational Review of Fisheries and Fish-
Culture.) No. 1. August, 1S99. (Three
times a year.) St. Petersburg, Russia.
Published by the Russian Imperial So-
ciety of Fisheries and Fish-Culture. (In
English, German, and French.) Pp. 37,
with supplement of one folded page. An-
nual subscription, four francs.

Bulletin. Le, Mf'dical de Quebec. Vol-
ume I, No. 1. September, 1899. Pub-
lished under the direction of the Medical
Society of Quebec. Monthly. Pp. 56. $2
a year.

Burgess, O. O., M. D. Consciousness,
Being, Immortality; Divine Healing and
Christian Science. San Francisco. Pp. 20.

Christian Science Publishing Society,
Boston. Legal Aspects of Christian Sci-
ence. Decisions of Courts, Opinions of
Lawyers, etc. Pp. 83.

Conn, H. W. The Story of the Living
Machine. New York: D. Appleton and
Company. (Library of Useful Stories.)
Pp. 191. 40 cents.

De Morgan, Augustus. Elementary
Illustrations of the Differential and Inte-
gral Calculus. Chicago: The Open Court
Publishing Company. Pp. 144. ^1.

Descartes, Rene. Discourse on Meth-
od; or the Method of Rightly Conducting
the Reason and Seeking Truth in the Sci-
ences. Translated, etc., by John Veitch.
Chicago: The Open Court Publishing
Company. (Religion of Science Library.)
Pp. S7. 25 cents.

Flynt, Josiah. Tramping with Tramps.
Studies and Sketches of Vagabond Life.
With Prefatory Note by Hon. Andrew D.
White. New York: The Century Com-
pany. Pp. 396. $1.50.

Giles, W^illiam A., Chairman of the
Legislative Committee of the Civic Fed-
eration (Chicago). Papers on Reform
Legislation, Corrupt Practices Acts, and
Pawnbroking in Different Countries.
Chicago: R. R. Donnelley & Sons Com-
pany. Pp. 35.

Griffith, G. W. The Influence of the
Earth upon the Field of a Bar Magnet.
Pp. 4.

Harrington, Mark W. About the
Weather. New York: D. Appleton ami
Company. (Appletons' Home - Reading
Books.) Pp. 246.

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth. Con-
temporaries. Boston and New York:
Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pp. 379. ii;2.

Holland. Frederick May. Liberty in
the Nineteenth Century. New York: G.
P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 257.

28o

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

Korscholdt, Dr. E., anrt Holder, Dr.
K. Tost-Hook of the Embryologv of the
Invertebrates. Translated by Matilda
Bernard, and edited, with Additional
Notes, by Martin F. AVoodward. Vol. II.
Pp. 309. $3. Vol. III. Pp. 441. $3.25.

Lake Mohonk Conference on Interna-
tional Arliitration. Report of the Fifth
Annual Meeting, 1889. Pp. 142.

Lo Bianco, Dr. Salvatore. The Meth-
ods employed at the Naples Zoological
Station for tlie Preservation of Marine
Animals. Translated by E. O. Hovey.
United States National Museum. Pp. 42.

Newman, George. Bacteria, especially
as they are related to the Economy of
Nature, to Industrial Processes, anil to
the Public Health. New York: G. P.
Putnam's Sons. Pp. 348.

Newton, Alfred, Gadow, Hans, and
others. A Dictionary of Birds. New
York: The Macmillau Company. Pp.
loss. ifo.

Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.
Press Bulletin No. 199. Plums. A Com-
parison of Varieties. Pp. 2.

Oliver, Charles A. Description of an
Adjustable Bracket for the Reld Oph-
thalmometer. Pp. 3; A Case of Foreign
Body in the Optic Nerve. Pp. 3; A Calfe
of Keflex Irritation. Pp. 5; A Case of
Fibroma of the Eyelid. P. 1, with plate;
A New Method for the Plantation of
Glass Balls into the Optical Cavity.
Pp. 30.

Putnam, P. W. Address as Retiring
President of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, Colum-
bus Meeting, 1899. Pp. 17.

Ribot, Th. The Evolution of General
Ideas. Chicago: The Open Court Publish-
ing Company. Pp. 231. $1.25.

Russell, Charles T. The At-one-ment
between God and Man. (•' Millennial
Dawn." Vol. V.) Allegheny, Pa.: Watch-
Tower Bible and Tract Society. Pp. 507.

Stnver, E., M. D. The Importance of
a Knowledge of the Phylogeuetic Devel-
opment of tlie Child in the I'revention of
Children's Diseases. I'p. 11.

Thompson, Ernest Seton. The Trail
of the Sandhill Stag. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons. Pp. 93. $1.50.

United States Department of Agricul-
ture. Farmers' Bulletins. No. 70. The
Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. By
C. L. Marlatt. Pp. 23; No. 80. The
Peach-Twig Borer. By. C. L. Marlatt.
I'p. 15: No. 99. Three Insect Enemies of
Shade Trees. By L. O. Howard. Pp. 30;
—Division of Entomology. No. 37. The
Use of Hydrocyanic-Acid Gas for Fumi-
gating Greenlio)ises and Small Frames.
Pp. 10; No. 38. The Squash-Vine Borer.
Pp. 6; No. 39. The Common Squash Bug.
Pp. 5.

United States Fish Commission. Check-
List of the Fishes of Florida. By B. W.
Evermann and W. C. Kendall. Pp. 68.

Upsala, University of (Sweden). Bul-
letin of the Geological Institution. Hj.
Sjogren, Editor. Vol. IV, Part I, No. 7.
1S98. Pp. 131, with four plates.

Weed, Clarence Moores, Editor. The
Insect World. A Reading Book of Ento-
mology. New York: D. Appleton and
Company. (Appletons' Home - Reading
Books.) Pp. 207. CO cents.

Wisconsin Geological and Natural His-
tory Survey. Bulletin No. 4. On the
Building and Ornamental Stones of Wis-
consin. By Ernest R. Buckley. Pp. 544.

Wisla. A Geographical and Ethno-
graphical I'ublicatiou (in Polish). Vol.
XIII, Nos. 1 to 5. Warsaw, Poland.
Pp. 320.

Wright, Mabel Osgood. Wabenor the
Magician. New York: The Macmillau
Company. Pp. 34G.

^ragmetxts 0t Jcietxcje.

The Dread of the Jew.*— The
Dreyftis affair and the furious passion.s
that it has awakened have their ulti-
mate foundation in dread and hatred of
the Jews. There is a Jewish question,
more or less acute, in every continental
country, and we are told by pessimists
that before long we shall have an anti-
Jewish movement in the East End of
London. These facts naturally suggest
an inquiry into the causes of the dread
and hate which the Jews inspire, and
the asking once again whether there are
any good grounds for regarding tlie He-
brew race as a menace to the Christian
world. The main fact abotit the Jews
on the Continent which emerges from a

♦ From an article In the London Spectator.

study of the present sittiation is that
for some reason or other they inspire
terror. That this terror is as absurd
and as unreasonable as is the terror
caused respectively by Jesuits and Free-
masons, we ourselves do not dotibt for
a moment, but that does not alter the
fact that the sense of terror exists. It
is hardly too mucli to say that the ma-
jority of people on the Continent hon-
estly believe that unless the Jews are
in some way or other curbed, controlled,
and kept down, soniething very dreadful
will happen. In Russia the vast Sla-
vonic population and its leaders believe
that tinloss the Jews arc iinpoimded in
the Polish Pale they will swamp the
true Russian, and utterly ruin and de-
stroy the Russian nationality and the

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

Russian ideal. In Austria it is believed
that if the Jews are allowed to go on
as they are going on they will get every-
thing into their hands — the land of the
peasants, the sources of public informa-
tion and the press, and the nerves by
which trade and commerce are moved.
In Germany it is much the same story,
and there the Jews are believed, unless
stopped in time, to be about to monopo-
lize the universities. In France it is
thought that the Jews, if not put down
with the strong hand, will capture the
W'hole administration, as well as " stran-
gle commerce by their octopus grip."
The Jews are called a " parasitic race,"
whatever that may mean. It is said
that the Jew never becomes an agri-
culturist, that he is a usurer and a
bloodsucker, that he is a gross material-
ist, and that he has no ideals beyond
the precious metals; and that they ha-
bitually act together to further their
own racial interests and to injure those
communities which have been foolish
enough to trust them. To take the
charge of want of patriotism first. How
is it substantiated? We can not say
that we have ever seen any real evidence
of want of patriotism in the Jews. Look
at the ease of France at present. There
is something extremely pathetic in the
way in which the French Jews cling to
their nationality in spite of all the
hatred they inspire. The truth is, the
Jew is a sort of expert in patriotism.
Did not the Maccabees teach the Avorld
one of its first lessons in patriotism?
Depend upon it, if the Jew is only al-
lowed to be a patriot he will not fail
here. The charge, indeed, is like that
so often made in Russia against the
Jews. They are accused of not tilling
the soil, their accusers ignoring the fact
that no Jew is allowed to buy, or to
lease, or to occupy land, and is, in fact,
excluded by law from acting as a farmer.
Take next the charge of " aloofness."
Probably this charge is well founded,
but what can be expected of a people
so newly freed from the Ghetto ? If you
treat a race for centuries as lepers, and
visit its members with dire penalties, if
they do not keep " aloof " they are like-
ly to remain for some time disinclined
to free intercourse. The third charge is,
in reality, that the Jews of the world,
having obtained control of cosmopolitan
finance, act together in the interests of

their race, and inflict grievous injuries
upon the nations. But what proof is
there of this? Curiously enough, Mr.
Arnold WMte — though in other ways
he seems to encourage this charge — ac-
cuses the great Jewish financiers of not
doing this very thing. He tells us that
after the Russians had driven the Jews
into the Pale they wanted to raise a
loan. One would have expected the
great Jewish loanmongers to have ab-
solutely refused to help the enemy of
the race. Instead they basely, as we
think, found Russia the money she
wanted. But though this was a base
act, it certainly is not consistent with
the charge that the Jews control the
international money market for tribal
ends. We believe, in fact, that this
whole charge is a pure delusion. The
great financiers, w'hether Jew or Gen-
tile, look for a profit, and not to deep
and mysterious racial aspirations. The
charge that the Jews are steeped in ma-
terialism, and so are a demoralizing ele-
ment in the community, is equally un-
fair and absurd. Many Jews may be
fond of pomp of a vulgar kind, and may
aflect what we confess personally to
finding very disagreeable forms of Asi-
atic luxury; but these are externals. In
essentials and as a race the Jews are
no more materialistic than their neigh-
bors. And can we say that they are
a demoralizing element when it is uni-
versally confessed that the Jews are
among the best fathers, sons, and hus-
bands in the world?

Death of Professor Bunsen. — With

the death of Robert Wilhelra Bunsen,
at Heidelberg, August ICth, the world
loses a student whose name is insepai'a-
bly connected with nearly all the chem-
ical work that has been done in the
last fifty years, for it is safe to say that
hardly a discovery has been made or
experiment performed to the success of
which some process, property, or instru-
ment discovered, invented, or suggested
by Bunsen, and usually named after
him, has not contributed. A sketch of
this illustrious chemist, with a portrait,
and an enumeration of his principal
works, each of which might be charac-
terized as a milestone in the advance of
the science, was published in the Popu-
lar Science Monthly for August, 1881
(vol. xix, page 550). One of the prin-

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

cipal events in his life since that sketch
Avas published was his election, in 1883,
as one of the eight foreign associates of
the French Academy of Sciences — the
highest honor that that institution is
competent to confer. Besides Bunsen's
personal interest in the work and suc-
cess of his students, one of his most
salient traits, as described by a careful
and appreciative biographer in the New
York Evening Post, was his absent-
mindedness concerning what he had him-
self accomplished. He was afflicted with
an " incipient aphasia," which made it
impossible for him to talk about them.
" He could not answer verbal questions,
whether oral or written. He could not
have pass'ed a decent examination in his
own discoveries. Let. the question come
in the shape of an emergency in a chem-
ical operation, and a wealth of knowl-
edge would be poured out, but let it
be put in words and he could not an-
swer it." He is said to have answered
a student once, who asked him about
some substance, that he knew nothing
about it — " You will have to look up
the literature." The student looked up
the literature, and found that it con-
sisted of a single article, and that by
Bunsen! Professor Bunsen prized what
would stimulate him to effort, enjoyed
life, was fond of travel and interested
in everything human, and was a good
novel reader.

The TJnprofitableness of Strikes.
— The cost of a large strike is impres-
sively illustrated in some of the results
of the great colliery dispute of 1898 in
South Wales, as they are set forth in
the British Board of Trade returns and
the reports of the consular service. In
direct financial loss, the company suf-
fered to the extent of $100,000, and the
men of $300,000 in Avages, besides the
demoralization from being so long out
of work. To a certain extent, other dis-
tricts gained what the South Wales
mines lost by the diversion of trade to
them, but that simply aggravated the
evil in the mines, for some of this di-
verted trade will stay where it went.
It is sometimes said, indeed, that strikes
have only a temporary effect on busi-
ness, from which it will recover in time.
This is true, however, as is suggested in
Industries and Iron, only when the lo-
cality affected has a virtual monopoly

of the trade, while in the competition
of the nations instances of that kind are
growing rarer, lilngland especially has
many rivals in these days, eager to take
advantage of every opportunity to profit
by its mistakes or misfortunes, and
which, when they get their hands on a
good thing, are not apt to let go. Not-
withstanding some strikes at home, the
coal trade in the United States derived
benefits from the British sti-ike by send-
ing to markets which the Welsh mines
should have supplied; Germany sent
coal to Sweden, and Belgium increased
its shipments to the Canary Islands.
Other countries are induced, by condi-
tions making the usual sources of sup-
ply inconvenient to them, to a more ac-
tive development of their own resources,
as Austria-Hungary, Spain, and France
were in the present case. So it is
more than doubtful whether the pres-
ent strike paid.

The Scientific Spirit. — The study
of science, especially of an experimental
science, said Prof. R. H. Chittenden in
an informal talk to students of the
Sheffield Scientific School, is peculiarly
adapted for developing the poAver of in-
dependent thought, and of training one
in drawing logical conclusions from ex-
perimental data. In the laboratory is
afforded an opportunity for making ob-
ser\ations, but if real benefit is to be de-
rived from the experimental work there
must be a full realization of the neces-
sity of careful thought in drawing de-
ductions from the results observed.
Broad generalizations built on a slender
foundation of fact frequently topple to
the ground, and sometimes carry de-
struction with them, all because of a
lack of that critical spirit which prompts
a careful and thorough consideration of
all the premises. The man who has ac-
quired the habit of careful thought, of
reasoning out each step in a process,
of weighing carefullj' each reaction in-
volved, of seeking in his own mind the
reason for this or that phenomenon,
who looks at both sides of a question,
and carefully considers all the facts
available, will build much more surely
and firmly than he who by specious
arguments constructs a glittering hy-
pothesis, only to see it fade away.
Hasty reasoning, insufficient data, ob-
scure facts, are the bane of modern sci-

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

283

ence. The true scientific spirit prompts
to thorough inquiry; it will have noth-
ing to do with hasty generalizations
that may glitter but do not convince;
it puts a restraining hand on all imma-
ture conclusions, and demands, above
all else, careful, thorough observation.
It shuns all shams. Good, honest work
is the only passport to the domain of
science.

Constitution of the Funafuti
Atoll. — In the boring of the coral atoll
of Funafuti, Professor David, of the
University of Sydney, reached a depth
of 697 feet, and a subsequent boring was
made down to about 1,000 feet. The core
obtained by the David party was sent to
England and placed in the hands of
Professor Judd for investigation. The
general statement is made respecting it
that the material brought up presents
much the same character throughout,
and so far is regarded as supporting
Darwin's theory. There are no layers
of chalky ooze, such as Murray's hy-
pothesis might have made possible, and
no trace of volcanic material has been
found. The later boring beyond 700
feet passed through a hard limestone
containing many well-preserved corals.
In a boring of the bed of the lagoon
down to 144 feet, after passing through
101 feet of water, the first 80 feet below
were found to consist of the calcareous
alga Halimeda mixed with shells, and
the remaining 64 feet of the same mate-
rial mixed with gravel.

Metallic Calcium. — Metallic cal-
cium, as prepared by Professor Moissan
from solution in liquid sodium, sepa-
rates in hexagonal crystals which have
a specific gravity of 1.85 and melt at
760° ill vacuo. On solidifying, the metal
is somewhat brittle, is less malleable
than potassium and sodium, and shows
a crystalline fracture. When free from
nitride it is silver-white in color, and
has a brilliant surface. Heated to red-
ness in a current of hydrogen, a crystal-
line hydride, CaHo, is formed. When
pure, calcium is not acted upon at ordi-
nary temperatures by chlorine, though
at 100° C. the action is decided. But
if the metal contains nitride, chlorine
attacks it at the ordinary temperature.
At 300° C. calcium ignites and burns
brilliantly in oxygen. Gently warmed

in air, it burns with brilliant scintilla-
tions. It combines with sulphur, with
incandescence, at 400° C. At a red heat
it unites actively with lampblack, giv-
ing a carbide, CaC.. It gives some brit-
tle alloys with magnesium, zinc, and
nickel. The alloy with tin slowly de-
composes water. A crystalline amal-
gam is formed with mercury, which
may be distilled in hydrogen at 400°
C, but which forms nitride when heated
in nitrogen. Heated to redness with
potassium or sodium chloride, calcium
sets the metal free. Water acts on cal-
cium only very slowh', with the evolu-
tion of hydrogen. In liquefied ammo-
nia at —40° C. calcium ammonia is
formed — a reddish-brown solid.

Prosperity and Enterprise in
Mexico. — The increasing prosperity of
Mexico is one of the striking features
of current history. In four years the
imports of the country increased from
$30,000,000 in 1894 to upward of $45,-
000,000 in 1898, the 'average for five
years having been $40,000,000. The
chief sellers to IMexicans are the United
States, Great Britain, France, and Ger-
many, and the keenness of the compe-
tition for trade is shown in the fluctu-
ations in the relative shares of it of the
several countries. Spain has a small
share of trade, which is growing. In-
dustrial enterprises are being developed
throughout the country with energy,
enterprise, and success. Cotton and
linen factories have been established,
attention is given to the erection of
woolen mills, and a noticeable activity
prevails in mining industries. Under
all these influences the railroads are
prosjjering too.

A Question of Economy. — A paper,
" Shall we grow the Sugar that we con-
sume? " by Freeman Stewart, called out
by an article by ex-Secretary Wilson,
besides matter bearing directly on the
question, embodies observations on gen-
eral political principles. Thus, it seems
necessary to observe " that the idea that
republicanism requires our public offi-
cials to act as mere weathercocks for
the transient waves of popular clamor
and excitement is also a deplorable de-
lusion, Avhich, if persistently carried into
eff"ect, will soon utterly destroy republi-
canism. As free institutions depend on

284

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the recognition of correct principles by
the people, it is primarily necessary that
correct principles should be constantly
impressed upon the attention of the peo-
ple. The great need of the nation to-
day is wise leadership — unselfish men,
who appreciate the necessity of being
governed by immutable divinely ap-
pointed principles, to act as leaders, to
keep the minds of the people centered
in the right direction." Coming to the
main subject of the essay, we have, as
to the expediency of taxing ourselves
to have sugar made here : " If the farm-
er's profits must come from the consum-
ers of sugar as a bounty or tax, and not
from the inherent profitableness of the
business, then the farmer's profits are
the consumer's loss. The business is in-
herently unprofitable, and no farmer, or
any one else, has a right, ' inherent ' or
otherwise, to carry on an unprofitable
business, except at his own expense. . . .
It may be assumed that the farmers
who are gi'owing the sugar are now
growing crops Avhich, if not as profitable
as they desire, are at least sufficiently
so to keep them from being burdensome
to the rest of the nation. And how can
the prosperity of the nation be increased
by having these same farmers engage in
a new business which will require them
to draw on the productive capacity of
the rest of the people to the extent of
many millions of dollars annually, in
order to keep their heads above water ? "

Bacteria of the Dairy. — An inves-
tigation of the relation of acid fermenta-
tion to the flavor and aroma of butter,
made by C. H. Eckles at the Iowa Col-
lege Experiment Station, has given the
results that the flavor is produced by
the bacterial fermentations which have
taken place in the milk and cream.
The kind of flavor depends upon the
class of bacteria causing the fermenta-
tion. The ripening of a good quality of
acid cream is mostly a development of
acid bacteria. Four species of acid-pro-
ducing bacteria, tested in ripening pas-
teurized cream, were found to give the
butter the tjpical flavor and aroma. Of
the species tried, the most common
milk-souring organism (Bacterium lac-
tarii) was found to give the most satis-
factory results in ripening cream. Cream
ripened with common bacteria found in
hay dust {Bacillus suhtilis) gives a

very undesirable flavor to butter. The
superior flavor of summer butter is due
to the greater number of bacteria of the
acid class found in milk during that
season.

For Outdoor Improvement. — The
American Park and Outdoor Associa-
tion has taken up and aims to nation-
alize the important work of the im-
provement of outdoors. Not that it ex-
pects to improve upon Nature, but it
hopes to be able to neutralize or rem-
edy the devastation and disfigurement
which man has wrought upon her face.
At the third annual meeting of the
association, held in Detroit in July,
1899, preliminary steps were taken to-
ward off'ering prizes for the improve-
ment of grounds about manttfactories
and homes — both front and back lots — -
and especially about the homes of arti-
sans. A standing committee was insti-
tuted to consider the best way of check-
ing abuses of public advertising. A
paper read by Mr. F. Law Olmstead, on
the Relation of Reservoirs to Public
Parks, concerned such construction of
reservoirs and the surrounding them
with suitable settings as would bring
them into closer harmony with the park
landscape and make them more a part
of it. Another paper, by Mr. R. J.
Coryell, of the Detroit parks, might be
described as an efl"ort to show how a
similar service may be performed for
the parks and the people — in other
words, how to make the people at home
in the parks. Its points Avere illus-
trated by citing what had been done in
Detroit. Respecting means of prevent-
ing depredations, Mr. C. C. Lancey told
of good results accomplished in Roches-
ter, N. Y., by the distribution of circu-
lars of information on the subject; and
Mr. F. L. Olmstead, Jr., of the interest
taken by the children in the school gar-
dens in Cambridge, Mass.

Where Physical Investigation
Fails. — From the discussion of the
phj^sical method, with its descriptive
laws and applications and hypotheses.
Prof. J. 11. Poynting was led, in his
address at the British Association, to
the consideration of the limitation of
its range. It was developed in the
study of matter which we describe as
non-living, and with non-living matter it

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

285

has sufficed for the particular purposes
of the physicist. Of course, only a little
corner of the universe has been ex-
plored, but in the study of non-living
matter we have come to no impassable
gulfs, no chasms across which we can
not throw bridges of hypothesis. Does
the method equally suffice when it is
applied to living matter? Can we give
a purely physical account of such mat-
ter? Do we make any attempt to apply
the physical method to describe and ex-
plain those motions of matter which
on the psychical view we term volun-
tary? In practice the strictest physi-
cist abandons the physical view, and re-
places it by the psychical. He admits
the study of purpose as well as the
study of motion, and has to confess that
here the physical method of prediction
fails.

Honors to Sullivant and Lesque-
reux. — " Sullivant day," August 22d,
was devoted in the American Associa-
tion to the commemoration of the lives
and works of William S. Sullivant and
C. Leo Lesquereux, botanists, the former
distinguished for his studies in the
mosses and the latter for his researches
in paleobotany, both of whom lived and
did the work by which they became fa-
mous in Columbus, Ohio. Sullivant was
born and passed the whole of his life in
Columbus. Lesquereux, a Swiss by birth,
lived in Columbus during many of his
most fruitful years, and worked along-
side of Sullivant. A considerable num-
ber of objects associated with the two
botanists were on exhibition — rare bo-
tanical specimens, charts and pictures
connected with their labors, and com-
plete sets of their published works — and
excellent and highly prized portraits of
them were shown. The families of both
were represented ' by the presence of
daughters and granddaughters, among
whom was Miss Arhart, a granddaugh-
ter of Lesquereux, who was associated
with him in part of his work, and made
most of the drawings for his later books.
Prof. C. R. Barnes presided over the
exercises. Prof. W. A. Kellerman read
a tribute to Sullivant from Dr. Gray's
supplement to the leones. Mrs. Brit-
ton gave a short review of the species
named from Sullivant (including twelve
North American mosses). Professor
Barnes read a tribute to Lesquereux,

taken from the Botanical Gazette. Re-
marks were made and papers read on the
Progress in the study of the Hepatica,
by Prof. L. M. Underwood; the Moss
Flora of Alabama, by Dr. Charles Mohr
(read by Professor Earle) ; the History
of the Study of the Mosses, by Mrs.
Britton; the Classification of Certain
Mosses, by A. J. Grout; the Study of
Lichen Distribution in the Mississippi
Valley, by Bruce Fink; and Botanical
Teaching in the Secondary Schools,
by W. C. Stevens and Ida Clendenin.
Among the exhibits, those of twelve
species of hepaticse from California, by
Prof. F. E. Lloyd; forty- five photo-
graphs of American students and col-
lectors made famous by their work in
mosses, by Mrs. Britton and Professor
Underwood; and six species of mosses
discovered and collected originally by
Sullivant and Lesquereux near Colum-
bus, deserve special mention.

Rate of Evolutionary Variation
in the Past. — IMr. Adam Sedgwick,
speaking, in his address at the British
Association, of variation, selection, and
heredity, having raised the question
whether the variability of organisms
has ever been different from what it is
now, answered it in the affirmative, be-
cause it would be absurd to suppose
that organisms would remain constant
in this respect while they have under-
gone alteration in all their other prop-
erties. According to the Darwinian the-
ory of evolution, one of the most impor-
tant factors in determining the modifi-
cation of organisms has been natural
selection. It acts by presenting cer-
tain favorable variations, and allo^^^ng
others less favorable to be killed off in
the struggle for existence. It will thus
come about that certain variations will
be gradually eliminated, while the vari-
ations of the selected organisms will
themselves be submitted to selection,
and certain of these will in their turn
be eliminated. In this way a group
of organisms becomes more and more
closely adapted to the surroundings.
It would thus appear that the result of
continued selection is to diminish the
variability of a species. Hence, as selec-
tion has been going on all the while,
variation must have been much greater
in past times than it is now. Follow-
ing out this train of reasoning, we are

286

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

driven to the conclusion that one of
the most important results of the evo-
lutionary change has been the gradual
increase and perfection of heredity as a
function of organisms and a gradual
elimination of variability. This view,

if it can be established, is of the utmost
importance to our theoretical concep-
tion of evolution, because it enables us
to bring our requirements as to time
within the limits granted by the physi-
cists.

MINOR PARAGRAPHS.

Of the archaeology of Block Island,
Arthur Hollick found in his explorations
that around the shores of Great Salt
Pond and on the sand dunes that bor-
der the western shores of the island evi-
dences of former occupation by the In-
dians are numerous. Kitchen middens
are exposed in several street cuttings,
implements are often found scattered
over the surface of the ground in cer-
tain localities, and skeletons have been
unearthed from time to time. In many
places the kitchen midden accumula-
tions were so obvious that it was im-
possible to ignore them entirely. They
were found to consist of the customary
collection of oyster and other shells,
bones, pottery fragments, fire-cracked
stones, charcoal, finished implements, re-
jects, flakes, chips, etc. The finished im-
l)lements found were two axes, of a
I>lagioclase igneous rock, and three ar-
row points, all of quartzite. In the
sand dunes were many old fireplaces,
mostly buried by the sand which has
drifted over them. They could general-
ly be located by the richness of the turf
on the surface immediately above.
Mixed with the accumulations in these
places were the bones and teeth of ani-
mals. The island promises a good re-
ward for arehajological investigation.

In a form of disease known as pecki-
ness in the cypress and pin-rot in the
lihrocedrus, described by Hermann von
Schrenk in a thesis presented to Wash-
ington University, the wood is destroyed
in localized areas, which are surround-
ed by apparently sound wood. The cell
■walls are changed into compounds,
which diffuse through the walls and fill
the cells surrounding the decayed cen-
ter, and tliese have been called humus
compounds. In both trees a fungus
mycelium occurs, with strongly marked
characteristics, which flourishes within
the diseased centers, and grows between
them without afl'ccting the intervening
wood. This wood can be utilized for

many purposes even when much rotted,
and in neither case does the mycelium
grow after the tree has once been cut
down. The two trees thus diseased,
both representatives of a race of trees
the majority of which are extinct, are
closely related genetically, although
growing in difi'erent parts of the coun-
try. The two forms of decay differ but
slightly, and not more than might be
expected in two woods of different char-
acter.

Mr. J. C. Arthur, of the Purdue
University Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, a few years ago picked up a small
white flower {Cerastium arvcnse oblon-
(jifoUum) growing unobtrusively among
the grass and low weeds of the roadside.
It was a little more atti-active than its
relative which is called the field chick-
weed, and the author suggests the name
of starry grasswort for it. Under culti-
vation it spread out over the ground in
a close mat of foliage in a manner char-
acteristic of many members of the pink
family, to which it belongs; and now for
six weeks in April and May it is a mass
of " dazzling whiteness, softened with
the pale green of stems and leaves,"
while " all winter long the prostrate
stems remain alive to their very tips, and
the leaves maintain a summerlike ap-
pearance," without the indurated, pol-
ished look so usually associated with
evergreen foliage. This is one roadside
flower taken up, perhaps casually, for
cultivation and improvement. There are
others — no one knows how many — that
will doubtless likewise reward the pains
taken with them; and this inspires Mr.
Arthur to suggest to others that they
keep a lookout for plants that may
become desirable garden varieties and
try them. " It is evident that showiness
in the wild state is not the most impor-
tant criterion by wliich to gauge the fu-
ture culture value of a plant. One needs
to have many factors in mind to meet
with success, and it is hoped that the

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

287

study of the starry grasswort will be
suggestive in this line. The byways and
fields undoubtedly hold many incipi-
ently valuable decorative plants which
await the discoverer, as truly as do those
of the unexplored regions of Asia and
Africa."

An experiment has been tried in New
York during the past summer in the
way of " vacation schools " for teaching
housekeeping and domestic economy.
Instruction was given daily in these
arts in the public schoolrooms in Front
and Oliver Streets and in Hester Street.
At Front and Oliver Streets girls were
taught to air, clean, and take care of
a bedroom; to set table, clean, and take
care of a living room; kitchen cleanli-
ness ; laundry work — one week being de-
voted to each course, and talks were
given on furnishing a fiat, the care of
a cellar, and the importance of air and
sunlight to health. The children were
also taught daily to cook appetizing
dishes and serve them. At Hester Street
more time was given to the cooking les-
sons, instruction was given on the feed-
ing of babies, and a class in nursing
was taught; among other things, emer-
gency bandaging, caring for helpless pa-
tients, and the hygiene of the sick-room.

]\Ir. a. p. Coleman, during some
geological work last summer on the
north shore of Lake Superior, about
Heron Bay, discovered a new mineral,
which he has named Zyc/'OHife, and which
he describes at length in the Journal of
Geology for July- August. It is a dike
rock, consisting essentially of analeite,
orthoclase, plagioclase, and segyrite, the
analeite having the character of a base,
in which the other minerals form radiat-
ing groups of crystals. The analeite
clearly represents the magma left after
the crystallization of the imbedded min-
erals, and it is evident that it can • be
formed only from a magma highly
charged with water, and therefore un-
der pressure.

From the examination of a number
of nearly pure hydrocarbons obtained
from American petroleum by Young, it
appears that the same classes of hydro-
carbons, paraffins, polymethylene com-
pounds of naphthenes and aromatic hy-
drocarbons are present in these and in
Eussian and Galician petroleums; but

that Russian petroleum contains a rela-
tively larger amount of naphthalenes
and, in all probability, of aromatic hy-
drocarbons, than Galician, and Galician
a larger amount of the same hydrocar-
bons than American petroleum.

NOTES.

An old contributor, Dr. A. F. A. King,
of Washington, D. C., writes us calling
attention to the interesting fact that
we printed an article of his as far back
as September, 1883, suggesting the mos-
quito theory of malaria, and giving a
number of observations which seemed
strongly to support this view.

Experiments made by F. H. Hall
and W. P. Wheeler, at the New York
Agricultural Experiment Station, re-
garding the best food for " chicks, pul-
lets, cockerels, and ducklings," seem to
indicate conclusively that part of the
protein must be drawn from animal
sources if we are to get the best results.
Rations in which from forty to fifty per
cent of the protein was supplied by ani-
mal food produced more rapid growth
and at less cost of production.

Messrs. A. Stutzer and Hart-
LiEB, of Breslau, have detected bacteria
in Portland cements, which provoke the
liberation of the nitrogen from nitroge-
nous compounds in water, and the for-
mation of nitrous and nitric acids that
act upon the lime in the cement and
promote its disintegration.

According to Industries and Iron,
the tides are now utilized for generat-
ing power at Pont-l'Abbe, Finisterre,
France, during fourteen hours per day.
At flood tide the water flows through a
canal two miles and a half inland into
a pond in the rear of the power house,
and returns to the sea at ebb tide. The
total fall is seven feet and a half, and
eighty-horse power is generated by
means of turbines. Means have been
considered for applying this method of
generating power to various industries.

A PROPOSAL, for an International
Physical Congress has been accepted by
the authorities of the Paris Exposition
of 1900, and the congress will be held
from the 6th to the 12 th of August,
under the auspices of the French Gov-
ernment. It immediately precedes the
International Electrical Congress. So
far as has yet been determined, the sub-
jects of the addresses and i-eports will
be classified under the headings of the
definition and fixing certain units (of
pressure, scale of hardness, quantity of

2^8

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

heat, etc.), the Bib]io<Traphy of Physics,
and National Laboratories. The linal
programme is, however, still to be set-
tled. The subscription for membership
is twenty francs, or four dollars. The
foreign secretary of the congress is M.
Charles Edouard Guillaume, Pavilion de
Breteuil, Sevres (Seine et Oise), Paris.

In a book called Literary Munich Por-
traits, with brief biographical sketches
by Paul Heyse, are given of twenty-five
of the most prominent literary men of
that brilliant capital. Only two authors
not Germans are included. One of them
is our contributor, E. P. Evans. The
other is the Norwegian novelist Bjorn-
son. Heyse leaves himself out, although
he is the greatest literary character of
them all.

SosiE recent experiments, conducted
jointly by the Kew Observatory Com-
mittee and the International Bureau of
Weights and JNIeasures at Sevres, were
made to compare the platinum ther-
mometer of Professor Callendar, which
measures temperature by the varying re-
sistance of a platinum Avire, and the
older mercury and gas thermometers.
It Avas found that below 100° C. the dif-
ferences between the observed values on
the nitrogen scale and those deduced
from the platinum thei-mometer are ex-
ceedingly small, and that even at the
highest temperature (590°) the diflfer-
ences only amount to a few tenths of a
degree.

The American Chemical Society has
gained 232 members during the past year,
making the present number 1,540. The
report of the committee on the analysis
of coal, submitted to the recent meeting
of the society at Columbus, Ohio, em-
bodied detailed instructions in regard
to the best methods of analyzing coke,
and outlined a plan for securing uni-
formity in such analysis by chemists
throughout the land. This report was
adopted.

At the recent annual meeting of the
American Society for the Promotion of
Agricultural Science Prof. W. J. Beal
reported concerning the germination of
seeds, after long keeping, that experi-
ments had been tried with various seeds
five, ten, fifteen, and twenty years old,
from Avhich it appeared that seeds of a
large number of important plants would
germinate after fifteen years, but the
number sprouting after twenty years
was small.

A PAPER was read by Dr. L. O. How-
ard, at the recent meeting of the Ameri-
can Society of Entomologists, recording
the success which has been obtained by

the fig-raisers of California in fertiliz-
ing the Smyrna variety of figs by the
aid of the blastophaga which issues from
the Capri figs covered with their pollen.
A generation of the blastophaga has been
developed at Fresno by which many
Sniyrna figs have been satisfactorily fer-
tilized, and there is considerable proba-
bility that the insect has at last estab-
lished itself on California soil.

The five hundredth anniversary of
the birth of Gutenberg, associated with
the invention of printing, is to be cele-
brated at Mayence, June 24, 1900. It
is hoped that the foundation of a Gu-
tenberg Museum may be a result of this
movement. An exhibition illustrating
the art and progress of printing is also
expected to be held.

The conclusion is drawn by the Ital-
ian, Signor Albini, from investigations
on the nutritive value of whole-meal
bread, that it is inferior to that of or-
dinary white bread, and that a further
disadvantage comes from the excessive
quantity of indigestible matter, formed
of the harder parts of the pericarp of the
grain, which it contains.

We have to add to our obituary list
of men known in science the names of
Edward Orton, LL. D., Professor of Ge-
ology in Ohio State University, late
State Geologist of Ohio, and late Presi-
dent of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, at Colum-
bus, Ohio, October 16th, in his seventy-
first year, of whom Ave shall shortly give
a more extended sketch, Avith portrait;
Grant Allen, Avriter of several scientific
books and articles, and a contributor
to the Popular Science Monthly; Prof.
Theodore Elbert, Gerriian geologist, aged
forty-tAvo years; Dr. Max Barth, Direct-
or of the Agricultural Station of Ru-
fach, Alsace, aged forty-four years; M.
Paul Janet, member of the Paris Acad-
emy of Moral Science, and formerly pro-
fessor at the Sorbonne; Edward Case,
English engineer, Avell known for his
method of groining to prevent the sea
from encroaching on the coast, Septem-
ber 22d; Hamilton Y. Castner, whose
name is associated Avith the establish-
ment of processes for the electrolytic
production of alkali and bleaching pow-
der from common salt, and for the ex-
traction of aluminum; Dr. Oscar Bau-
niann, of Vienna, African explorer,
author of a maj) of the Congo, geograph-
ical articles, and books relating to his
explorations; and Dr. J. W. Hicks,
Bishop of Bloemfontein, formerly dem-
onstrator in chemistiy in the University
of Cambridge, and author of a text-book
on inorganic chemistry.

APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE

MONTHLY.

JANUARY, 1900.

ADVANCE OF ASTKOXOMY DUKIXG THE IsllsE-
TEENTH CENTURY.

By Sib ROBERT BALL,

LOWNDEAN PEOFE980E OF ASTEOKOMY AT TUB TJNIVEE6ITY OF CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND.

ONE of the most remarkable chapters in the astronomy of the
past century was commenced on the very first night with
which that century began. It was, indeed, on the 1st of January,
1801, that the discovery of a new planet was announced. The five
great orbs — Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Mars, and Venus — had been
known from the earliest times of which we have records, and the
planet Uranus had been discovered nearly twenty years before the
previous century closed. The solar system was thus thought to
consist of these six planets and, of course, the earth. On the
memorable night to which I have referred, Piazzi, the astronomer,
made a remarkable advance. He discovered yet another planet —
the seventh, or eighth, if the earth be included. The new body
was a small object in comparison with those which were previously
known. It was invisible to the unaided eye, and seemed no more
than a starlike point even when viewed through a telescope. It
revolved around the sun in the wide region between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter. This discovery was speedily followed by others
of the same kind, and, as the century has advanced to its close, the
numbers of these planets — asteroids, as they are generally called —
has been gradually increasing, so much so that now, of these little
bodies known to astronomers, the number amounts to about four
hundred and fifty.

But just as the beginning of the century was heralded by the
discovery of the first of these asteroids, so the close of the century

VOL. LTI. — 23

290 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

will be signalized in tlie history of astronomy by the detection
among these little objects of one which has entirely cast into the
shade all other discoveries of the same nature. On the night of the
13th of August, 1898, a German astronomer, Herr Witt, exposed a
photographic plate to the heavens in his telescope in the Observa-
tory of Urania, at Berlin. On that plate a picture of the heavens
was obtained, and in that picture a new planet was revealed. At
first the discovery of one more asteroid does not imply very much.
Hundreds of such planets might be found, and indeed have been
found, and yet no particular comment has been called forth. But
this planet found by Witt is a imique object; it is more interesting
than the whole of the four hundred and thirty-two other minor
planets which have preceded it — not, indeed, on account of its size,
for Witt's planet is a wholly insignificant object from this point
of view. The special interest which this new planet has for us
dwellers on the earth lies in the fact that it seems to be the nearest
to the earth of all the other worlds in space — the moon, of course,
excepted. This is the reason why the attention of all who are in-
terested in the science of astronomy has been concentrated on
Witt's discovery. It is certainly the most interesting telescopic
revelation which has been made for many years.

It may illustrate a characteristic feature in the progress of
modern astronomy if I describe how Witt succeeded in obtaining
this picture. He had selected one of the most rapid plates that
the skilled manufacturer can supply to the photographer. He put
this plate into his telescope, and he directed it to the heavens. If
that plate had been used in broad daylight for the more ordinary
purpose of obtaining a photographic portrait, an exposure of half
a second would have been quite long enough. But the very faint
stars can not work their charm on the plate with equal rapidity; a
second is not long enough, nor is ten seconds, nor even ten minutes.
If we desire to secure an imprint of the faintest stars we must
expose the plate for an hour, and sometimes for even much longer
than an hour. Of course, an exposure of such duration would
utterly ruin the picture if a gleam of any other light obtained
access. But in the darkness of night the plate is secure from this
danger. Each star is thus given time enough to impress its little
image at leisure.

The photographer has often occasion to deplore the poorness
of his light. It is, of course, in the endeavor to counteract the
poorness of the light that so long an exposure is frequently given.
But it will not be any longer supposed that, from the astronomer's
point of view, a tedious exposure must necessarily be a disadvan-
tage. Let it be henceforth recollected that it was the very require-

ADVANCE OF ASTRONOMY. 291

ment of a long exposure wliick led to tlie present important dis-
covery. If the stars had been bright enough to be photographed
by an exposure not longer than a few seconds or even than a few
minutes, then this new and wonderful planet Eros would not have
been revealed.

Many points of light which were undoubtedly stars, and merely
stars, were shown on this picture taken by the German astronomer
at Urania. Among these points of light was, however, one object
which, though in appearance hardly distinguishable from a faint
star, was in truth a body of a very different character. No tele-
scope, however powerful, would show by mere inspection any ap-
preciable difference between the dot of light indicating a star and
the dot of light indicating the asteroid Eros. The fundamental
difference between the star and Eros was, however, revealed by
the long exposure. The stars in such a picture are, of course, at
rest. They have occupied for years and for centuries the places
where we now find them. If they are moving at all, their move-
ments are so slow that they need not now be considered. But this
starlike point, or, as we may at once call it, this asteroid, Eros,
is moving. ISTot that its movements seem very rapid from the dis-
tance at which alone we are compelled to view it. No casual glance
would indicate that Eros was flying along. The ordinary ob-
server would see no change in its place in a second — no change in
its place even in a minute. But when the exposure has lasted for
an hour this asteroid, in the course of the hour, has moved quite
appreciably. Hence arose a great difference between the repre-
sentation which the photograph has given of the stars, properly
so called, and of the asteroid. Each star is depicted as a sharp,
well-defined point. This little body which is not a star, this un-
steady sitter in the picture, could not be so represented; it merely
appeared as a streak. The completed photograph accordingly
shows a large number of well-marked dots for the stars, and among
them one faint line for the asteroid.

Such a feature on a picture, though very unusual, does some-
times present itself. To detect such a streak on a photograph of
the stars is a moment of transcendent joy to the astronomer. It
is often for him the exciting occasion on which a discovery is made.
This little moving point is in actual fact as different from a star as
a pebble is different from a brilliant electric light. The resem-
blance of the asteroid to a star is merely casual; the resemblance
would wholly disappear if we were able to make a closer inspec-
tion. The star is a brilliant blazing orb like a sun, but so far away
that its luster is diminished to that of a point; the planet is com-
paratively near us; it is a dark body like our earth, and is like our

292 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

eartli also in this furtlier respect that all tlie liglit it enjoys has
been derived from the sun.

Though there is this immense difference between a star and a
planet, yet the observer must not expect to notice any such differ-
ence by merely taking a peep through the telescope. It was only
the long exposure in the photograph that revealed the little body.
Such is the manner in which an asteroid is generally discovered
in these latter days. A discovery like this comes as the well-earned
reward of the skill and patience of the astronomical photographer.
There are, indeed, a large number of known asteroids; our cata-
logues contained four hundred and thirty-two of them up to the
time when Witt exposed his now famous plate. Had the asteroid
Witt then found been merely as other asteroids, it would never have
received the prominent position that has now to be assigned to it in
any account of the astronomy of the century. That object foimd
by Witt on this night which is to be henceforth memorable in astron-
omy is of a wholly exceptional kind. Had Eros been merely an or-
dinary asteroid, Witt might no doubt have received the credit to
which his labors and success would have entitled him. Another as-
teroid would have been added to the long list of such objects already
known, but the newspapers would never have troubled their readers
about the matter, and the only persons who would have been
affected would have been the astronomers, and perhaps even among
them no particular sympathy would have been felt in certain quar-
ters. Those particular astronomers to whom has been intrusted
the special work of looking after the asteroids and of calculating
the tables of their movements might even have received with no
very great enthusiasm the announcement of this further addition to
the burden on their heavily laden shoulders.

I have said that Eros is quite a small globe ; it may be well for
us fully to realize how small that asteroid actually is. If the moon
were to be crushed into two million equal fragments, each of those
parts would be as big as Eros. H the whole of Eros were to be
covered with houses, the city thus formed would not be so large
as greater London. So far as mere size is concerned, Eros is quite
unimportant. We can further illustrate this if we compare Eros
with some of the other planets. The well-known evening star,
Venus, the goddess of love, is a hundred million times as big as
that tiny orb we now call Eros, the god of love. After all this
it may seem strange to have to maintain what is, however, undoubt-
edly the fact, that the discovery of Eros is one of the most remark-
able discoveries of this century.

Until Eros was discovered, our nearest neighbors among the
planets were considered to be Yenus on one side and Mars on the

ADVANCE OF ASTRONOMY. 293

other. The other great planets are much more distant, while, of
course, the stars properly so called are millions of times as far.

Great, then, was the astonishment of the astronomers when,
by the discovery of Eros, Mars and Venus were suddenly dethroned
from their position of being the earth's nearest neighbors among
the planetary host. This little Eros will, under favorable circum-
stances, approach the earth to within about one third the distance
of Mars when nearest, or about one half the distance of Venus
when nearest. We thus concentrate on Eros all the interest which
arises from the fact that, the moon of course excepted, Eros is the
nearest globe to the earth in the wide expanse of heaven. To the
astronomer this statement is of the utmost significance; when Eros
comes so close it will be possible to determine its distance with a
precision hitherto unattainable in such measurements. Once the
distance of Eros is known, the distance of the sun and of all the
other planets can be determined. The importance of the new dis-
covery arises, then, from the fact that by the help of Eros all our
measurements in the celestial spaces will gain that for which every
astronomer strives — namely, increased accuracy.

Seeing that the existence of intelligence is a characteristic fea-
ture of this earth, we feel naturally very much interested in the
question as to whether there can be intelligent beings dwelling on
other w^orlds around us. It is only regrettable that our means
of solving this problem are so inadequate. Indeed, until quite
lately it would have been almost futile to discuss this question at
all. All that could then have been said on the subject amounted
to little more than the statement that it would be intolerable pre-
sumption for man to suppose that he alone, of all beings in the uni-
verse, was endowed with intelligence, and that his insignificant
little earth, alone amid the myriad globes of space, enjoyed the dis-
tinction of being the abode of life. Recent discovery has, however,
given a new aspect to this question. At the end of this century
certain observations have been made disclosing features in the
neighboring planet. Mars, which have riveted the attention of the
world. On this question, above most others, extreme caution is
necessary. It is especially the duty of the man of science to weigh
carefully the evidence offered to him on a subject so important.
He will test that evidence by every means in his power, and if he
finds the evidence establishes certain conclusions, then he is bound
to accept such conclusions irrespective of all other circimistances.

Mr. Percival Lowell has an observatory in an eminently favor-
able position at Elagstaff, in Arizona. He has a superb telescope,
and enjoys a perfect climate for astronomical work. Aided by
skillful assistants, he has- observed Mars under the most favorable

294 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

circumstances with great care for some years. I must be per-
mitted to say that, having carefully studied what Mr. Lowell has
set forth, and having tested his facts and figures in every way in
my power, most astronomers have come to the conclusion that,
however astonishing his observations may seem to be, we can not
refuse to accept them.

No one has ever seen inhabitants on Mars, but Mr. Percival
Lowell and one or two other equally favored observers have seen
features on that planet which, so far as our experience goes, can be
explained in no other way than by supposing that they were made
by an intelligent designer for an intelligent purpose. Mr. Lowell
has discovered that there are certain operations in progress on the
surface of Mars which, if we met with on this earth, we should cer-
tainly conclude, without the slightest hesitation, were the result of
operations conducted under what we consider rational guidance.

A river, as ISTature has made it, wends its way to and fro; it
never takes the shortest route from one point to another; the width
of the river is incessantly changing; sometimes it expands into a
lake, sometimes it divides so as to inclose an island. If we could
discern through our telescopes a winding line such as I have de-
scribed on Mars it might perhaps represent a river.

But suppose, instead of a winding line, there was a perfectly
straight line, or rather a great circle on the globe drawn as straight
as a surveyor could lay it out — if we beheld an object like that
on Mars I think we should certainly infer that it was not a river
made in the ordinary course of natural operations; no natural
river ever runs in that regular fashion. If such a straight line
were indeed a river, then it must have been designedly straight-
ened by human agency or by some other intelligent agency for
some particular purpose. In its larger features Nature does not
work by straight lines. A long and perfectly straight object, if
found on our earth, might be a canal or it might be a road; it
might be a railway or a terrace of some kind; but assuredly no
one would expect it to be a natural object.

We have the testimony of Schiaparelli, now strengthened by
that of Mr. Lowell and his assistants, that there are many straight
lines of this kind on Mars. They appear to be just as straight as
a railway would have to be if laid across the flat and boundless
prairie, where the engineer encountered no obstacle whatever to
make him swerve from the direct path. These lines on Mars run
for hundreds of miles, sometimes, indeed, I should say for thousands
of miles. They are far wider than any terrestrial river, except
perhaps the Amazon for a short part of its course. The lines on
Mars are about forty miles wide. Indeed, the planet is so distant

ADVANCE OF ASTRONOMY. 295

that if these lines were much narrower than forty miles they would
be invisible. Each of them is marvelous in its uniformity through-
out its entire length.

The existence of these straight lines on the planet contains per-
haps the first suggestion of the presence of some intelligent beings
on Mars. The mere occurrence of a number of perfectly straight,
uniform lines on such a globe would in itself be a sufficiently re-
markable circumstance. But there are other features exhibited
by these objects which also suggest the astonishing surmise that
they have been constructed by some intelligent beings for some
intelligent purposes.

Sometimes two of these lines will start from a certain junction,
sometimes there will be a third or a fourth from the same junction ;
in one case there are as many as seven radiating from the same
point. Such an arrangement of these straight lines is certainly
unlike anything that we find in JSTature. We are led to seek for
some other explanation of the phenomenon, and here is the expla-
nation which Mr. Lowell offers:

It has recently been found that there are no oceans of water
on the planet Mars. In earlier days it used no doubt to be be-
lieved that the dark marks easily seen in the telescope could rep-
resent nothing but oceans, but I think we must now give up the
notion that these are watery expanses. Indeed, there is not much
water on that globe anywhere in comparison with the abundance
of water on our earth. It is the scarcity of water which seems to
give a clew to some of the mysteries discovered on Mars by Schia-
parelli and Lowell.

As our earth moves round the sun we have, of course, the
changing seasons of the year. In a somewhat similar manner
Mars revolves around the sun, and accordingly this planet has also
its due succession of seasons. There is a summer on Mars, and
there is a winter; during the winter on that globe the poles of
the planet are much colder than at other seasons, and the water
there accumulates in the form of ice or snow to make those ice-caps
that telescopic observers have so long noticed. In this respect
Mars, of course, is like our earth. The ice-cap at each pole of
our globe is so vast that even the hottest summer does not suffice
to melt the accumulation; much of the ice and snow there remains
to form the eternal snow which every arctic explorer so well knows.
It would seem, however, that the contrast between winter and sum-
mer on Mars must be much more deeply marked than the contrast
between winter and summer on our earth. During the summer of
Mars ice and snow vanish altogether from the poles of that planet.

Mr. Lowell supposes that water is so scarce on Mars that the

296 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

inhabitants have found it necessary to economize to the utmost
whatever stock there may be of this most necessary element. The
observations at Flagstaff tend to show that the dark lines on Mars
mark the course of the canals by which the water melted in sum-
mer in the arctic regions is conducted over the globe to the tracts
where the water is wanted. Not that the line as we see it repre-
sents actually the water itself; the straight line so characteristic
of Mars's globe seems rather to correspond to the zones of vegeta-
tion which are brought into culture by means of water that flows
along a canal in its center. In much the same way would the
course of the Nile be exhibited to an inhabitant on Mars who was
directing a telescope toward this earth: the river itself would not
be visible, but the cultivated tracts which owe their fertility to
the irrigation from the river would be broad enough to be distin-
guishable. The appearance of these irrigated zones would vary,
of course, with the seasons; and we observe, as might have been
expected, changes in the lines on Mars corresponding to the changes
in the seasons of the planet.

A noteworthy development of astronomy in the last century
has been the erection of mighty telescoj^es for the study of the
heavens. It m.ust here suffice to mention, as the latest and most
remarkable of these, the famous instrument at the Yerkes Observa-
tory, which belongs to the University of Chicago. Just as the
century is drawing to its close, the Yerkes telescope has begun to
enter on its sublime task of exhibiting the heavens under greater
advantages than have ever been previously afforded to any astrono-
mers since the world began.

The University of Chicago having been recently founded, it
was desired to associate with the university an astronomical ob-
servatory which should be worthy of the astonishing place that this
wonderful city has assumed in the world's history. Mr. Yerkes,
an American millionaire, generously undertook to provide the cost
of this observatory. Two noble disks of glass, forty inches in
diameter, were produced at the furnaces of Messrs. Mantois, in
Paris; these disks were worked by Mr. Alvan Clark, of Boston,
into the famous object glass which, weighing nearly half a ton, has
now been mounted in what we may describe as a temple or a palace
such as had never been dreamed of before in the whole annals of
astronomy.

Perhaps if we could now place the science of the nineteenth
century in its proper perspective the most remarkable discovery
which it contains would be that of the planet Neptune. Indeed,
the whole annals of science present no incident of a more dramatic
character.

ADVANCE OF ASTRONOMY. 297

It will be remembered that at the latter part of the eighteenth
century William Herschel had immortalized himself by the dis-
covery of a great planet, to which was presently assigned the name
of Uranus. After the movements of Uranus had been carefully
studied, it was found that on many previous occasions Uranus had
been unwittingly observed by astronomers, who regarded it as a
star. "When these observations were all brought together, and
when the track which Uranus followed through the heavens was
thus opened to investigation, it was found that the movements of
th« planet presented considerable anomalies. The planet did not
move precisely as it would have moved had it been subjected solely
to the supreme attractive power of the sun. Astronomers are, of
course, accustomed to irregularities of this description in the move-
ments of the planets. These irregularities have as their origin
the attractions of the various other members of the solar system.
It is possible to submit these attractions to calculation and thus to
estimate their amount. The effect, for instance, of Saturn in dis-
turbing Jupiter can be allowed for, and the nature of Jupiter's
motion as thus modified can be precisely estimated. In like man-
ner, the influence of the earth on Yenus can be determined, and so
for the other planets; and thus, generally speaking, it was found
that when the proper allowances had been made for the action of
known causes of disturbance, then the calculated movement of each
planet could be reconciled with observation.

The circumstances of Uranus were, however, in this respect
wholly exceptional. Due allowance was first made for the attrac-
tion of Uranus by Saturn, and for the attraction of Uranus by
Jupiter, as well as by the other planets. It was thus found that
the irregularities of Uranus could be to some extent explained, but
that it was not possible in this manner to account for those irregu-
larities completely. It was therefore evident that some influence
must be at work affecting the movement of Uranus, in addition
to those arising from any planet of which astronomers hitherto had
cognizance. The only available supposition would be that some
other planet, at present unrecognized, must be in our system, and
that the attraction of this unknown body must give rise to those
irregularities of Uranus which remained still outstanding.

A great problem was thus proposed for mathematicians. It
was nothing less than to affect the determination of the orbit and
the position of this unknown planet, the sole guide to the solution
of the problem being afforded by the discrepancies between the
places of Uranus as actually observed and the places which were
indicated by the calculations, when every allowance had been made
for known causes. The -problem was indeed a diflicult one, but,

VOL. LVI. — 24

298 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

fortunately, two mathematicians proved to be equal to the task
of solving it — Adams, in England, and Le Verrier, in France.
Each of these astronomers, in independence of the other, suc-
ceeded in determining the place of the planet in the sky. The
dramatic incident of this discovery was afforded when the mathe-
maticians had done their work. When the place of the planet
had been ascertained, then the telescopic search was undertaken
to verify if it were indeed the case that a planet hitherto unknown
did actually lurk in the spot to which the calculations pointed.
Every one who has ever read a book on astronomy is well acquainted
with the wonderful manner in which this verification was made.
Just where the mathematicians indicated, there was the great planet
discovered! To this object the name of "Neptune" has been
assigned, and its discovery may be said to mark an epoch in the
history of gravitation. It provided a most striking illustration
of the truth of those great laws Avhich ISTewton had discovered.

The latter half of the century will be also remarkable in the
history of science from the fact that within that period mankind
has been enabled to make some acquaintance with the chemistry
of the celestial bodies. It was in 1859 that Kirchhoff and Bunsen
first expounded to the world the true meaning of the dark lines in
the solar spectrum. In this they were following out a line of rea-
soning that had been previously suggested by Prof. Sir G. Stokes,
of Cambridge, England. Those who are at all conversant with
that wonderful branch of knowledge known as spectrum analysis
are aware how these discoveries have rendered it possible for us
to determine in many cases the actual material elements found in
the most distant bodies.

One of the striking results to which this investigation has
led is the demonstration of the substantial unity of the mate-
rials from which the earth and the various heavenly bodies have
been constructed. Those elements which enter most abundantly
into the composition of the earth are also the elements which
appear to enter most abundantly into the composition of the sun
and of the stars. The iron and the hydrogen, the sodium and the
many other materials of which our globe is so largely formed, are
also the selfsame materials which, in widely different proportions
and in very different associations, go to form the heavenly bodies.
This conclusion is as interesting as it was unexpected. It might
naturally have been thought that, seeing the sun is separated from
us by nearly a hundred million miles, and seeing that the stars
are separated from us by millions of millions of miles, all these
celestial bodies must be constructed in quite a different manner
and of substances quite distinct from the substances which we know

ADVANCE OF ASTRONOMY. 299

on this earth. But this is not the case. Indeed, at the present
moment it seems doubtful if there be any element which spectrum
analysis has hitherto disclosed in the celestial bodies which is not
also a recognized terrestrial body. The well-known case of helium
gives a striking illustration. In the year 1868 Sir jSTorman Lockyer
detected the presence of rays in the solar spectrum which were
unknown at that time in terrestrial chemistry. These rays ap-
peared to emanate from some substance which, though present in
the sun, did not then appear to belong to the earth. This element
was accordingly named " helium," to indicate its solar origin.
Twenty-five years later Professor Kamsay discovered a substance
on the earth which had been hitherto unrecognized, and which, on
examination, yielded in the spectrum precisely those same rays
which had been found in the so-called helium from the sun. In
consequence of this discovery this element is now recognized as a
terrestrial body. It is indeed a remarkable illustration of the
extraordinary character of modern methods of research that a sub-
stance should have first been discovered at a distance of nearly one
hundred million miles, that same substance being all the time,
though no doubt in very small quantities, a constituent of our
earth as well as of the sun.

Much has been done within the past century in many other
branches of astronomy. I must especially mention the important
subject of meteoric showers. For the development of our knowl-
edge of this attractive part of astronomy we are largely indebted
to the labors of the late Prof. H. Newton, of Yale. By his inves-
tigations, in conjunction with those of the late Professor Adams,
it was demonstrated that the shower of shooting stars which usually
appears in the middle of ITovember is derived from a shoal of small
bodies which revolve around the sun in an elliptic track, and accom-
plish that circuit in about thirty-three years and a quarter. The
earth crosses the track of these meteors in the middle of November.
If it should happen that the great shoal is passing through the
junction at the time the earth also arrives there, then the earth
rushes through the shoal of little bodies. These plunge into our
atmosphere, they are ignited by the friction, and a great shower is
observed. It is thus that we account for the recurrence of spe-
cially superb displays at intervals of about thirty-three years.

But one more great astronomical discovery of this century
must be mentioned, and here again, as in so many other instances,
we are indebted to American astronomers. It was in 1877 that
Prof. Asaph Hall discovered that the planet Mars was attended
by two satellites. This was indeed a great achievement, and
excited the liveliest interest and attention. Since the days when

300

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

telescopes were first invented all the astronomers have been look-
ing at Mars, and yet they never noticed (their telescopes were not
good enough) those interesting satellites which the acute observa-
tion of Professor Hall detected with the help of the great telescope
of the Naval Observatory at Washington. This discovery was fol-
lowed by another of a still more delicate nature, when that con-
summate observer, Professor Barnard, using the great Lick tele-
scope, detected the fifth satellite of Jupiter. This is indeed a most
difficult object to observe, requiring, as it does, the highest optical
power, the most perfect atmospheric conditions, and the most skill-
ful of astronomical observers. "We may take this observation to
represent the high-water mark of telescopic astronomy in the nine-
teenth century. This being so, it may fitly conclude this brief
account of some of the most remarkable astronomical discoveries
which that century has produced.

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

By ClIARLKS E. MUNKOE,

PEOFESSOE OF ClIEMISTEY, COLUMBIAN DNIVEESITY.

THERE is something about fire which fascinates every one, yet
the action of explosives arouses even a livelier interest, since
the accompanying fiery phenomena are more intense and are at-
tended with a shocking report and a violent destruction of the sur-
rounding material, while this train of events, with all its marked

Gun-Cotton Factory. I)i|>iiiiifr cottini in nitratiiif,' troughs.

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

301

effects, is set in operation by what appears to be a very slight ini-
tial cause. It is evident on brief consideration that these bodies,
like a coiled spring, a bent bow, or a head of water, are enormous
reservoirs of energy which can be released at a touch, and which, if

GcN-CoTTON Factory. Diirestion troui^hs.

the explosive be properly placed in well-proportioned amounts and
discharged at the right time, can be made to do useful and impor-
tant work that can not be as conveniently and quickly accomplished
in most cases, and in some cases can not be accomplished at all by
any other means.

The marked characteristic of all explosive substances, and espe-
cially of the so-called high explosives, is that the energy, as devel-
oped, is at high potential, and the uses to which energy in this con-
dition can be economically put are so manifold that the production
of explosives has become one of the most important of our chemical
.industries, this country alone producing, in 1890, 108,735,980
pounds, having a value of nearly $11,000,000.

The number of possible substances possessing explosive prop-
erties is exceedingly large; the number actually known is so great
that it has taxed the ingenuity of inventors to provide them with
suitable names; but these various explosive substances vary to so
great an extent in the energy they will develop in practice and in
their safety in storage, transportation, and use that but a compara-
tivelv small number have met with wide acceptance. All may be

302

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

classified under the heads of physical mixtures like gunpowder, or
chemical compounds like nitroglycerin, and they owe their develop-
ment of energy to the fact that, like gunpowder, they are mixtures
in which combustible substances such as charcoal are mixed with
supporters of combustion such as niter; or that, like chloride of
nitrogen, they are chemical compounds, the formation of whose
molecules is attended with the absorption of heat; or that, like gun
cotton, they are chemical compounds whose molecules contain both
the combustible and the supporter of combustion, and whose for-
mation from their elements is attended with the absorption of heat;
while occupying a middle place between the gunpowder and the

Gu^■-C^'TT^>^ Factduv. J-'inal i>n:ss.

gun-cotton class, and possessing also to some degree the properties
of the nitrogen-chloride class, are the nitro-substitution explosives,
of which melinite, emmonsite, lyddite, and joveite furnish conspicu-
ous examples.

It may lead to a clearer understanding of what is said regarding
the applications of explosives to dwell briefly on the methods by
which some of them are produced, since, although the raw material
in each case is different and the details of the operations vary, the
underlying principles of the methods are the same, and a good ex-
ample is found in the military gun cotton as made by the Abel
process at tho TTiiitorl States Naval Torpedo Station.

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

303

Gi;npowi)j;r Grains. The large ones are over
five pounds weight, each.

The material employed is cotton, but whether fresh from the
field or in the form of waste, it must first be freed from dirt by
hand picking and sorting,
and from grease and in-
crusting substances by boil-
ing in a weak soda solution.
The cotton is now dried by
wringing in a centrifugal
wringer and exposing to a
current of hot air in a metal
closet; but as the compacted

mass of cotton holds moisture with great persistency, after partial
drying the cotton is passed through a cotton picker to open the
fiber, so that it not only yields its contained water more readily
and completely, but it also absorbs the acids more speedily in the
dipping process to which it is subsequently exposed.

When the moisture, by the final drying, is reduced to one half
of one per cent the cotton is, while hot, placed in copper tanks
which close hermetically, where it cools to the atmospheric tem-
perature and in which it is transported to the dipping room, where
a battery of large iron troughs, filled with a mixture of one part of
the most concentrated nitric acid and three parts of the most con-
centrated sulphuric acid, set in a large iron water bath to keep the
mixture at a uniform temperature, is placed under a hood against
the wall. The fluffy cotton, in one-pound lots, is dipped handful
by handful under the acid, by means of an iron fork, where it is
allowed to remain for ten minutes, when it is raised to the grating
at the rear of the trough and squeezed with the lever press to re-

BuRNiNQ Disk of Gun Cotton.

EXTINGI ISHINO BURNING GuN CoTTON.

move the excess of acid. It still retains about ten pounds of the
acid mixture, and in this condition is placed in an acid-proof stone-
ware crock, where it is squeezed by another iron press to cause the
contained acid to rise above the surface of the partly converted

304

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

cotton. The covered crock is now placed with others in wooden
troughs containing running water so as to keep the temperature
uniform, where the cotton is allowed to digest for about twenty-
four hours. The acid is then wrung out in a steel centrifugal, and
the wrung gun cotton is thrown in small lots into an immersion
tank containing a large volume of flowing water, in which a paddle
wheel is revolving so as to rapidly dilute and wash away the residual

Making Mehcuky Fulminate.

acid in the gun cotton without permitting any considerable rise
of temperature from the reaction of the water with the acid.

Even these severe means are not enough, for, as the cotton fiber
is in the form of hairlike tubes, traces of the acid sufficient to bring
about the subsequent decomposition of the gun cotton are retained
by capillarity. Therefore, after boiling with a dilute solution of
sodium carbonate, the gun cotton is pulped and washed in a beater
or rag engine until the fiber is reduced to the fineness of corn meal,
and a sample of it will pass the " heat test." This is a test of the

resistance of gun cotton

^=^

Detonator used in the United States Navy.
Contains thirty -five grains of fulminate of mercury.

to decomposition, and re-
quires that when the air-
dried sample of gun cotton
is heated to 65.5° C in a
closed tube in which a moistened strip of potassium iodide and
starch paper is suspended, the paper should not become discolored
in less than fifteen minutes' exposure.

This pulping of the gun cotton not only enables one to more

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

305

completely purify it, but it also renders it possible to mold it into
convenient forms and to compress it so as to greatly increase its
efficiency in use. For this purpose the pulp is suspended in water

Torpedo Cases and Blocks of Wood destroyed by a Naval Detonator.

and pumped to a molding press, where, under a hydraulic pressure
of one hundred pounds to the square inch, it is molded into cylin-
ders or prisms about three inches in diameter and five inches and
a half high, and these are compressed to two inches in height by
a final press exerting a pressure of about sixty-eight hundred pounds
to the square inch. As this is regarded as a somewhat hazardous
operation, the press is surrounded by a mantlet woven from stout
rope to protect the workmen from flying pieces of metal in case
of an accident. The oper-
ation is analogous to that
employed in powder-mak-
ing, where the gunpowder
has been pressed in a great
variety of forms and into
single grains weighing sev-
eral pounds apiece.

Even under the enor-
mous pressure of the final
press the compressed gun cotton still retains from twelve to six-
teen per cent of water, and in this form it is quite safe to store
and handle. When dry it is very combustible and burns readily

Testing Detonators on Iron Plates

3o6

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

when ignited, but it can be quenelied by pouring water upon it.
When confined in the chamber of a gun or the bore-hole of a rock,
gun cotton will burn like gunpowder when ignited, if dry, and pro-
duce an explosion, but, in common
with nitroglycerin and other high
explosives, gun cotton is best ex-
ploded and develops its maximum
effect when detonated, a result
which is secured by exploding a
small quantity of mercury ful-
minate in contact with the dry
material.

Mercury fulminate is made by
dissolving mercury in nitric acid
and pouring the solution thus pro-
duced into alcohol, when a violent reaction takes place and the ful-
minate is deposited as a crystalline gray powder. This powder is
loaded in copper cases and, after drying, it is primed with dry-mealed

Ikon Cylihder filled with Water and
CONTAINING A Naval Detonator. Be-
fore and after tiring, shows the work ac-
complished by thirty -five grains of mer-
cury fulminate.

Smokeless I'owdeks. In the bottle is iiulurite in flake grains. Tlit hir>rcr grains are cylin-
drical and Jie.xagonal multiperforated United States army grains. The bent grain in the
foreground, looking like a piece of rubber tubing, is a grain of Maxim powder with a
single canal. The flat strips in tlie foreground on the left are grains of the French B. N.
powder. The flat strips in the foreground on the right are grains of the United States
navy '• pyrocclbilosc " ]>owder.

gun cotton, the mouth of the case being cluicJ with a sulphur-glass
plug, through which pass two copper leading wires joined by a bridge
of platinum-iridium wire, two one-thousandths of an incli in diame-

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

307

ter, which becomes heated to incandescence when an electric current
is sent through it. This device is what is known as the naval deto-
nator. Mercury fulminate is so employed because it is the most vio-

Blendino Machine for Cobdite.

lent of all explosives in common use, and exerts a pressure of forty-
eight thousand atmospheres when fired in contact. Although the
naval detonator contains but thirty-five grains of mercury fulminate,
yet it will rupture stout iron and heavy tin torpedo cases when fired
suspended in them, it will rend thick blocks of wood when placed in
a hole and fired within them, and it will even pierce holes through
plates of the finest wrought iron one-sixteenth inch in thickness if
only the base of the detonator is in contact with the plate, and this
has been used as a test of their efficiency. Its force is markedly
shown by firing one in a stout iron cylinder filled with water and
closed tightly, when the cylinder is blown into a shredded sphere.
When used to detonate gun cotton, either when confined or in the
open, the detonator is placed in the hole which has been molded
in the center of the gun-cotton disk or block, so that it shall be
in close contact with the gun cotton.
I have found that perfectly dry com-
pressed gun cotton is detonated by
2.83 grains of mercury fulminate;
but as a torpedo attack is neces-
sarily in the nature of a forlorn hope
and should be provided with every

possible provision against failure, and since if the detonator fails
the attack fails, the naval detonator is supplied with thirty-five
grains, so as to give a large coefficient of assurance.

Cartridge of Cordite Siiokeless Pow-
der. Char^'e lor 6-inch 2 F gun, 13
pounds, 4 ounces. Cords, 22% inches
lonir, 3 inches in diameter.

3o8

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

GUX-COTTOX Si'AK TOKPEDO.

A characteristic feature of gun cotton is that it may be deto-
nated even when completely saturated with and immersed in wa-
ter, if only some dry gun cotton be deto-
nated in contact with it. Thus in one
experiment a disk of dry gun cotton was
covered with a water-proof coating and
the detonator inserted in the detonator
liole of this disk. This dry disk was laid
upon four uncoated disks, the five lashed
tightly together, and sunk in Newport
Harbor, where the column remained
until the uncoated disks were saturated
with salt water, when the mine was fired
and the saturated disks were found by
measurement of the work done to have
been completely exploded. I have found
that three ounces of dry compressed
gun cotton v/ill cause the detonation
of wet compressed gun cotton in contact with it, but forty
ounces of dry gun cotton are used as the primer in our naval
mines and torpedoes, so as to give a large coefficient of assur-
ance.

In the mining and other industries the fulminate is used in
smaller quantities and it is generally mixed with potassium chlo-
rate, the mixture being com-
pressed in small copper cases
and sold as blasting caps.
They are fired by means of a
piece of Bickford or running-
fuse, consisting of a woven
cotton or hemp tube contain-
ing a core of gunpowder,
which is inserted in the mouth
of the copper cap and made
fast within it by crimping.
The capped fuse is then in-
serted in a dynamite cartridge
so that the cap is firmly in
contact with the dynamite,
the mouth of the cartridge
is fastened securely, and the
charge inserted in the bore-
hole in the rock and tamped,
lighted, and the fire travels at the rate of three feet per minute

lil,il\VI.\(} II' TIIK SCIIOONEK .Joil.l'll JIkN1:V.

The protruding end of the fuse is

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

309

down the train of gunpowder to the fuhninate, which then deto-
nates and causes the detonation of the dynamite.

Although gun cotton, nitroglycerin, and their congeners can
be and usually are fired by detonation, there has within recent
years been a great number of compositions invented which, while
formed from gun cotton alone or mixtures of it with nitroglycerin,
burn progressively when ignited and are therefore available for
use as propellants; and since the products of their burning are
almost wholly gaseous, they produce but little or no smoke and
are therefore called smokeless powders. As upward of fifty-seven
per cent of the products of the burning of ordinary gunpowder
are solids or easily compressed vapors, this comparative smokeless-
ness of the modern powders is a very important characteristic, and

TuKl'KDu I'KAl IICI.,

when used in battle they seriously modify our former accepted
methods of handling troops. While this is the feature of these
powders which has attracted popular attention, a far more impor-
tant quality which they possess is the power to impart to a pro-
jectile a much higher velocity than black powder does, without
exerting an undue pressure on the gun. A velocity of over twenty-
four hundred feet per second has been imparted to a one-hundred-
pound projectile with the powder that I have invented for our
navy, while the pressure on the gun was less than fifteen tons to
the square inch.

Prior to my work in this field all the so-called smokeless pow-
ders were mixtures of several ingredients, resembling gunpowder
in this respect. But, consideriixg the precise and difficult w^ork
that was expected of these high-powered powders and the difficulty

310

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

which had always been found in securing uniformity in mixtures,
and that this difficulty had become the more apparent as the gun be-
came more highly developed, I sought to produce a powder which
should consist of a single chemical substance in a state of chemical
purity, and w^hich could be formed into grains of such form and
size as were most suitable for the piece in which the powder was
to be used.

I succeeded in so treating cellulose nitrate of the highest de-
gree of nitration as to convert it into a mass like ivory and yet
leave it pure. In this indurated condition the gun cotton will
burn freely, but it has not been possible to detonate it even when
closely confined and exposed to the initial detonation of large
masses of mercurv fulminate.

i'ol.'I'EIici I'KAc TIiK

>N Tin; « rsiiiN(

I am happy to say that this principle has now been adopted
by the Russian Government, and by our navy in its specifications
for smokeless powder; but they have, I think unwisely, selected
a cellulose nitrate containing 12.5 per cent or less of nitrogen in-
stead of that of the highest nitration.

This work was completed, a factory established, and the pro-
cesses well marked out when I left the torpedo station in 1892.
Besides this, there were then already commercial works established
elsewhere in this country for the manufacture of the nitroglycerin-
nitrocellulose powders of the ballistite class, while large quanti-
ties of many varieties could be easily procured abroad. Consid-
ering these facts, and that France and Germany had already
adopted smokeless powders in 1887, that Italy adopted one in
1888, and England about the same time, it is unpardonable that
our services should not yet have adopted any of the smokeless pow-
ders available when we were drawn into the conflict with Spain.

THJi] APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

311

Besides their use as ballistic agents, gun cotton, dynamite, and
explosive gelatin in their ordinary condition have found employ-
ment and been adopted as service explosives in military and naval
mining, as their great energy and the violence with which they

Launching Patrick Torpedo from the Wats.

explode, even when unconiined, especially adapt them for use in
the various kinds of torpedoes and mines which are in vogue in
the service.

One form of these torpedoes was attached to the end of a spar
or pole which was rigged out from the bow of a launch or vessel
so that it could be thrust under the enemy's vessel, and the deto-
nators of such spar torpedoes were not only connected with elec-
tric generators, so that they could be fired at will, but they, in
common with mines, were frequently provided with a system of
levers so arranged that the enemy's vessel fired the torpedoes and
mines automatically as it came in contact with the levers. It
was with such a contact-spar torpedo, containing thirty-three

Patrick Torpedo undek way. Movin<T at the rate of twenty-three knots per hour.

pounds of gun cotton, that the schooner Joseph Henry was blown
up in Newport Harbor in 1884.

There are many types of the automobile torpedo. Among
them the Hall, Patrick, -Whitehead, and Howell may be cited.

312 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

The first three are propelled by the energy resident in compressed
gases ; the Howell by the energy stored in a heavy fly wheel, which
also, by acting on the gyroscopic principle, serves to maintain the
direction imparted to the torpedo as it is launched. The Hall,
Whitehead, and Howell are launched from tubes or guns by means
of light powder charges, and are independent of exterior control
after launching. The Patrick is launched from ways, and is con-
trolled from the shore or boat by a wire through which an elec-
tric current may be sent to its steering mechanism. The charges
are quite variable, but the war heads of the larger torpedoes con-
tain as much as five hundred pounds of gun cotton.

[To be concluded. '\

A PARADOXICAL ANARCHIST.

By Pruf. CKSARE LOMBROSO.

"TTT^HILE I have had the privilege of making several indirect
^ » studies of anarchists by means of the data furnished by
legal processes, the journals, and the handwriting of the subjects,
I have only rarely been able to examine one directly and make
those measurements and craniological determinations upon him
without which any study can be only approximate, or, we might
even say, hypothetical. I had, however, an opportunity a short
time ago to observe a real anarchist in person, and study him ac-
cording to the methods of my criminological clinic. The results
have been singular, and it seems to me that they should cast some
light upon the dark world of these agitators, and especially upon
the phenomena of the strange contradictions presented in their
life; manifestations which jurists and police officers, intent only
on achieving the judicial triumph of a conviction, consider and call
simulations and falsehoods.

He was a fellow who had caused a great excitement, during the
crowded days of the exposition at Turin, by saying that he wanted
to kill the king. In fact, he gave himself up to the police, saying
that the anarchists of Alexandria were seeking the assassination
of the king, and had written him a letter directing him to arm
himself, but that he, wishing anything else than to commit regicide,
had surrendered in order to denounce the scheme. There was no
real basis of criminal intent, but our police put him in prison,
and there I found him.

His physiognomy presented all the characteristics of the born
criminal and of the foolhardy and sanguinary anarchist. He had

A PARADOXICAL ANARCHIST.

313

flaring ears, premature and deep wrinkles, small, sinister eyes sunk
back in their orbits, a hollowed flat nose, and small beard — in short,
he presented an extraordinary resemblance to Kavachol, as may be
seen from their portraits.

The cranium was a little smaller than the normal, and the
upper part of the skull was much rounded and deformed, with a
cephalic index of 91 — considerably more rounded than the head
of Luceheni. The horizontal

fold of the hand was of a .. .>.uc:'_

type much like that of Rava-
chol.

I add that the biological
study, which was made di-
rectly, and therefore more
satisfactorily than was prac-
ticable with Caserio and Luc-
eheni, revealed a series of
very singular anomalies; a
touch six times more obtuse
than the normal — six milli-
metres on. the right, five on
the left; a remarkably blunt
sensitiveness to pain and dull
perception of location; an
extraordinarily reduced vis-
ual field, jDarticularly in the
left eye; a somewhat tremu-
lous handwriting, and slight
defects of articulation in
speech; and thin hair. There
was nothing very striking in
his affective nature. He spoke kindly of his parents, whom he
would be glad to see. But he had a blunt moral sense, and had
committed frequent thefts, especially against his family, so that he
had been put into a house of correction. And it was just while
he was still in this establishment, at sixteen years of age, that he
pretended to have been invited to attend a meeting of about thirty
anarchists at Brescia, where he was made to swear, kissing a dag-
ger, to kill the king. He described the room, and spoke of the
individual persons present, and then said that he thought no more
of the matter after he returned to the house; but a few days ago
it had come into his m.ind to go to the post oflace, and there he had
found a letter from the anarchists of Alexandria, urging him to
arm himself to kill the king.

VOL. LTI. — "25

Ci-...

S-t^^'

,J..

(-'Vr

3H

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

He repeated this story minutely and with great persistence,
notwithstanding the postal authorities denied having given him the
letter, in the face of the asseverations of the prefects that there
were not thirty anarchists in Brescia, where he was in correction,
and although all the facts were against him. Observe that he
was in prison, that he had been there three months, and that
he was told he would be likely to stay there as long as he adhered
to his story.

Efforts to account for the phenomenon were unsuccessful, be-
cause his friends and relatives made no mention of any traces of
insanity. Light began to break upon the case when it was learned
that he had attempted suicide, a few years before, in grief at the
death of his mother, and also that on the day before he gave him-
self up he had stolen a small sum from his drunken brother.
These, however, were only distant hints. The matter was fully
explained when, after he had drunk a litre of wine in the prison,
he began to exclaim, " Viva Vanarchio! " (Hurrah for anarchy!),
" Morie al Be!'' (Death to the king!), to kiss a dagger, to break
various things against imaginary guards, and, after a short period
of quiet, to swear and forswear himself that his companions had

done what he had done, that
they had shouted for anarchy,
had broken the vases, and had
desired to kill the king.

This cleared up the matter at
once for me, but I wished to
complete the elucidation with
an experiment. I began by giv-
ing him ten, then twenty, then
tliirty, then forty grammes of al-
cohol, up to eighty. I observed
that liis personality began to
change after forty grammes.
He became somewhat insolent
and suspicious, and had vague
delirious imaginings of persecu-
tions. When invited to sing
anarchistic songs he refused, evidently fearing to compromise
himself, but sang them voluntarily in an undertone. When
the dose of alcohol was increased to ninety grammes his personal-
ity seemed immediately to undergo a full change; his touch be-
came twice as fine (three millimetres), and his visual field increased
threefold; he declared that there was a spy around. When
put into his cell he sang annrcliistic hymns, threatened death to

Kavachol.

A PARADOXICAL ANARCHIST.

315

the king, bandied a box as if brandisbing a dagger, climbed
to a windoAv and insulted the sentinel, resisted five men who
tried to disarm him, and continued in this condition for eight
hours.

The next day he denied having done any of these things, avowed
that he was a good monarchist and a good citizen, and declared dis-
tinctly that he had not do]ie

what he had done, in the "

face of the concurrent tes-
timony of several witnesses.
On renewing the experi-
ment a few days afterward
with eighty grammes of al-
cohol, the same series of
phenomena recurred — a
real anarchistic raving, a
genuine mania for regi-
cide, which would certainly
have ended in some act if
he had not been restrained
by force; and this person,
who had at first present-
ed an evident obtusity of
touch and an extraordinary
contraction of the visual
field, now exhibited an al-
most normal toucb of three millimetres and a visual field enlarged
to triple its extent when he was sober.

On the day after this he recollected none of all the things that
had happened the day before. This double personality was deter-
mined in him by alcohol, as it is in others by misery or by fanati-
cism, while it rests with all upon a congenital basis. The fact
helps us to explain how some inoffensive man may have a type of
physiognomy quite similar to that of Ravachol, showing how often
there are true criminals in potency, whose physiognomy, or rather
the anomalies of it, bears a prophetic relation to the crime which
breaks out on the first determining circumstance. And we have
here another explanation of such contradictory characters as those
of Ravachol, Caserio, and Luccheni, who, having been once well-
behaved, end by becoming criminals.

Visual Field (Left Eye) of Chie . . . Giac . . .

The line indicates the normal visual

field Heft eye).
Tlie line

indicates the visual field (left

eye) under alcoholic excitement.

Applied science was defined by Sir W. Roberts Austen, in his presi-
dential address to the Iron and Steel Institute, 1899, as " nothing but the
application of pure science to particular classes of problems."

3i6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

WPIAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

By WILLIAM BAXTER, Jr., C. E.
I.

OE all the wonderful operations accomplished by the aid of
electricity at the present time, none so completely mystifies
the beholder as the action of the trolley car. The electric light,
although incomprehensible to the average layman, does not excite
his curiosity to the same extent. The glowing filament of an in-
candescent lamp or the dazzling carbon points of an arc light stimu-
late the inquisitive proclivities to some extent, but as the popular
notion with respect to the nature of electricity is that it is some
kind of fluid that can flow through wires and other things like water
through a pipe, the conclusion arrived at is that the current, in its
passage through the filament or the carbon points, generates a suffi-
cient amount of heat to raise the temperature of the material to
the luminous point. The fact that energy is required to raise the
temperature of the mass to the incandescent point is not taken into
consideration by those not versed in technical matters, owing to
the fact that, as nothing moves, it is not supposed that power can
be expended. When a trolley car is seen coming down the street
at a high rate of speed the effect upon the mind is very different.
Here we see a vast amount of weight propelled at a high velocity,
and yet the only source through which the power to accomplish
this result is supplied is a small wire. The mystifying cause does
not stop here, for if we look further into the matter we see that
the energy has to pass from the trolley wire to the car through
the very small contact between it and the trolley wheel. After
contemplating these facts, it appears remarkable that the energy
that can creep through this diminutive passage can by any means
be made to develop the force necessary to propel a car with a
heavy load up a steep grade. An electrical engineer, if asked to
explain the action, would say that the force of magnetic attraction
was made use of to accomplish the result, but this explanation
would fail to throw any light upon the subject. In what follows,
it is proposed to explain the matter in a simple manner, and then
it will be seen that what appears to be an incomprehensible mys-
tery, when not understood, is, in fact, no mystery at all.

Electricity and magnetism are two forces that are intimately
associated with each other, and, although radically different, it is

NoTK. — The illus^trations of railway motor, penerator, and switchboard (Fifjs. 15, 16, l*/)
were made from photographs kindly furnished by the manufacturers, the Westinghouse
Electric and Manufacturing Company.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

317

difficult, if not impossible, to obtain one without the other, although
it is a simple matter to make one inactive under certain conditions.
It is very generally understood that a magnet possesses the power
of attraction, and that it will draw toward it pieces of iron, steel,
and other magnets. The laws governing the attractive properties
of magnets, however, are not so well understood, and many are
not aware of the fact that under certain conditions one magnet
will repel another, but such is nevertheless the case.

In Fig. 1 the lower outline, M, represents a magnet fixed in
position, and the upper bar represents another magnet arranged
to swing freely around the pivot a. A magnet, as is generally
known, will arrange itself in a north-to-south position if suspended
from its center, like a scale beam, and allowed to swing freely, and
the same end will always point toward the north. On this account
the ends of a magnet are called its poles, and the one that will
point toward the north is desig-
nated the north pole, while the
other one is the south pole. The
terms north and south poles were
applied to magnets centuries ago,
but at the present time the ends
are more commonly designated
as positive and negative. In Fig.
1 it will be noticed that the sta-
tionary magnet has its positive
end upward, and this attracts the
negative end of the swinging
magnet. If the order of the

poles is reversed, so that the positive of the swinging magnet wdll
come opposite the positive of the stationary one, then there will
be a repulsive action instead of an attraction, as is shown in Fig. 2.
If the two negative ends were placed opposite, the effect would
be the same. From this we see that to obtain an attraction we
must place the magnets so that opposite poles come together, and
that by reversing the order we obtain a repulsive action.

If the swinging magnet is replaced by a bar of iron, as is shown
in Fig. 3, there will be an attraction, no matter what end of the
magnet may be uppermost, thus showing that either end of a mag-
net will attract a bar of iron. The explanation of these different
actions is that when tw'o magnets are brought into proximity to
each other each one exerts its force without any regard to the
other, and if the two are set to act together they will attract one
another, but if set to act in opposition they will repel. When one
of the bars is not a magnet, but simply a piece of iron or steel,

Figs. 1, 2, 3. — Diagrams illustrating the
Attraction and Kepllsion of Magnets.

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

this bar, having no attractive or repulsive force of its own, can
only obey the attractive action of the other, which is the only one
that exerts a force.

In Fig. 4 M is a magnet bent into the form of a U, commonly
called a horseshoe magnet. The short bar set between the upper
ends is also a magnet, and is arranged so as to revolve around the
shaft s. From what has just been explained in connection with
Figs. 1 and 2 it will be understood that, with the poles as indi-
cated by the letters, there will be an attractive force set up be-
tween the top end of the straight bar and the P end of the horse-
shoe, and thus rotation will be produced in the direction of the
arrow. The rotation, however, will necessarily stop when the bar
reaches the position shown in Fig. 5, for then the attraction be-
tween the poles will resist further movement. If the straight bar
were not a magnet, but simply a piece of iron or steel, it is evident
tliat when in the position of Fig. 4 the attraction would be just

as much toward the right as
toward the left, and if the
bar were placed accurately in
the central position it would
not swing in either direction.
It would be in the condition
called, in mechanics, unstable
equilibrium. In practice this
condition could not be very
w(dl realized, as it would be
difficult to set and retain the
l)ar in a position where the
attraction from both sides would be the same, therefore the rota-
tion would be in one direction or the other; but whichever way
the bar might move, it would only swing through one quarter of
a revolution, into the horizontal position of Fig. 5.

If we reflect upon these actions we can see that if we could
destroy the magnetism of both parts before the straight bar reaches
the position of Fig. 5 it would be possible to obtain rotation through
a greater distance than one quarter of a turn, for then the head-
way acquired by the rotating part would cause it to continue its
motion. If, after the completion of one half of a revolution, we
could remagnetize both parts, we would then set iqi an attraction
between the lower end of the straight bar and the loft side of the
horseshoe, for then the polarity of the former would be the reverse
of that shown in Fig. 4 — that is, the lower end would be negative.
By means of this second attraction we would cause the bar to ro-
tate through the third quarter of the revolution, and if, just before

F.g. 4.

Fig. 5.

Figs 4,5. — Diagkajis ii.listrating the Method

OF OBTAINING Rotary iMoTION with MA(iNET.-l.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO. 319

completing this last quarter, we were to remove all the magnetism
again, the headway would keep up the motion through the final
quarter of the revolution, thus completing one full turn. From
this it will be realized that if we could magnetize and demagnetize
the two parts twice in each revolution a continuous rotation could
be obtained.

If the magnetizing and demagnetizing action were only applied
to the rotating part we would fail to keep up a continuous rota-
tion, for, as was shown in connection with Fig. 3, the action when
the straight bar reached the position of Fig. 5 would be the same
as if it were magnetized, owing to the fact that a magnet always
exerts an attraction upon a mass of iron. Suppose, however, that
we were to reverse the polarity of the rotating part just as it
reaches the position of Fig. 5, then there would be two poles of
the same polarity opposite each other, and, as shown in Fig. 2,
the force acting between them would be repulsive, and would push
the bar around in the direction of rotation. I^ot only would the
right-side pole of the horseshoe force the end of the bar away from
it, but the negative pole, on the left side, would attract this same
end, and thus a force would be exerted by the two poles of M to
keep up the rotation through the next half of a circle. On reach-
ing this last position the rotation would stop if the polarity of the
revolving bar were left unchanged, for then the poles facing each
other would be of opposite polarity. If, however, we again re-
versed the polarity, a rej)ulsion would be set up between the poles
facing each other, and thus a force would be exerted to continue
the rotation. Thus we see that if the polarity of the horseshoe
magnet is not disturbed it is necessary to reverse that of the rotat-
ing part to obtain a continuous motion, but if we change the mag-
netic conditions of both parts, then it is only necessary to magnetize
and demagnetize them alternately.

From the foregoing it is seen that there are two ways in which
the force of magnetism could be utilized to keep up a continuous
rotation, and the question now is, Can either of them be made
available in practice? To this we answer that, by the aid of the
relations existing between electricity and magnetism, both can be
and are made available, as will be shown in the following para-
graphs :

In Fig. 6 W represents a coil of wire provided with a cotton
covering, so that there may be no actual contact between the ad-
joining convolutions. If the ends p n of this coil are connected
with a source of electric energy, an electric current will flow
through it, and if a bar, as indicated by N P, of iron or steel is
placed within the coil it. will become magnetized. If the bar is

320

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

g

^
i

. 7. Fig. 8.

Figs. 6, 7, 8. — Diagrams ilhstratino the Phin
ciri.Es OF Electko-Magnets.

made of steel and is hardened it will retain the magnetism, and
become what is called a permanent magnet; such a magnet, in fact,
as we have considered in all the previous figures. If the bar is
made of iron it will not retain the magnetism, but will only be a

magnet as long as the elec-
tric current flows through
the coil W. A magnet of
the latter type is called
an electro-magnet. If the
iron is of poor quality —
that is, from an electrical
standpoint — it will require
an appreciable time to lose
its magnetism, but if it is
soft and high grade, elec-
trically considered, it will
lose its magnetism instantly, or nearly so. If we take two bars of
soft iron and arrange them side by side, as in Fig. 7, and w^ind coils
around them as indicated each one will become magnetized when
the ends p n of the coils are connected with an electric circuit. If
the lower ends of the two bars are joined by a piece, as shown at
M, we will have a horseshoe electro-magnet. If we take a round
disk of iron, as in Fig. 8, and wind a coil around it, it will also
become a magnet when an electric current traverses the coil. Thus
it will be seen that it makes little difference what the shape of the
iron may be, providing it is surrounded by a coil of wire and an
electric current is passed through the latter. This being the case,
it is evident that either of the processes explained in connection
with Figs. 4 and 5 can be made available for the production of a
continuous rotation by the aid of electro-magnets. Suppose we
make a drum, as shown in Fig. 9, and wind a wire coil around it in
the direction indicated, then when a current passes through the
wire the drum will be magnetized, with poles at top and bottom.
If the electric current passes through the wire from end p to end n
the drum will be magnetized positively at the top and negatively at
the bottom, and if the direction of the current through the wire
is reversed the polarity of the drum will be reversed. If we con-
struct a horseshoe magnet of the slia])(^ shown in Fig. 10, and place
within the circular opening between its ends the drum of Fig. 9,
we will have a device that is capable of developing a continuous
rotation, providing we have suitable means for reversing the direc-
tion of the electric current through the wire coil; and this machine
constitutes an electric motor in its simplest form.

In an electric motor the horseshoe magnet is calh'd the field

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

321

magnetj and tlie rotating part is called the armature, while the
device by means of which the direction of the current through the
armature coil is reversed is called the commutator. In this last fig-
ure it will be noticed that the coils wound upon the field magnet are
represented as of wire much finer than that wovmd upon the arma-
ture. In actual practice machines are sometimes wound in this
way, and sometimes the field wire is twice as large as that on the
armature. When the field wire is very much finer than that of
the armature the machine is what is known as shunt wound, which
means that only a small portion of the current that passed through
the armature passes through the field coils. Although with this
type of winding the current that passes through the field coils is
very weak, the magnetism developed thereby can be made greater
than that of the armature if desired. This result is accomplished
by increasing the number of turns of wire in the field coils. Thus
if the current through the armature is one hundred times as strong
as that through the field coils, the latter can be made to equal the
effect of the former by increasing the number of turns in the pro-
portion of one hundred to one, and if the increase is still greater
the field coils will develop the strongest magnetism. The reason
why a small current passing around a magnet a great many times

/o-

■"^p'

^\

n ,' - )\

('

0

( Q^ 1

f ■

,■ )

^^"-

')/

\.-. /v

.if

Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

FifiS. 9. 10. — Diagrams ilu'strating the Principles of the Electric Motor.

will develop as strong a magnetization as a large current, can be
readily understood when we say that the magnetism is in propor-
tion to the total strength of the electric current that circulates
around the magnet. Suppose we have two currents, one of which is
one thousand times as strong as the other, then if the weak one is
passed through a coil consisting of one thousand turns it will de-
velop just as strong a magnetization as the large current passing

322 POPULAR SCIEXCE MOXTHLY.

through a coil of only one turn. This last explanation enables
us to see how it is that the comparatively small current that can
pass through the contact between the trolley wire and the trolley
wheel can develop in the motor force sufficient to propel a heavy
car up a steep grade. When that small current reaches the car
motors it passes through a thousand or more turns of wire, and
thus its effect is increased a corresponding munber of times.

A motor having a single coil of wire upon the armature, as in
Fig. 10, would not give very satisfactory results, owing to the fact
that the rotative force developed by it would not be uniform.
Such motors are made in very small sizes, but never when a ma-
chine of any capacity is required. For large machines it is neces-
sary to wind the armature with a number of coils, so that the
rotating force may be uniform, and also so that the current may
be reversed by the commutator without producing sparks so large
as to destroy the device. When an armature is wound with a
number of coils the direction of the current is reversed, by the
commutator, in each coil as it reaches the point where its useful-
ness ends, and where, if it continued to flow in the same direction,
it would act to hold the armature back. The effect of this rever-
sal of the current in one coil after another is to maintain the
polarity of the armature practically at the same point, so that the
strongest pull is exerted between it and the field magnet poles at
all times. To explain clearly the way in which, the commutator
reverses the current in one coil at a time it will be necessary to
make use of a diagram illustrating what is called a ring armature.
Such a diagram is shown in Fig. 11. The ring A is the armature
core, and is made of iron; the wire coils are represented as consist-
ing of one turn to each coil, and are marked www. The current
enters the wire through the spring B, and passes out through C.
As can be seen, the current from B can flow through the coils
w IV in both directions, thus dividing into two currents, each one
of which will traverse one half of the wire wound upon the arma-
ture. The two half currents will meet at C. If the armature is
rotated the springs B and C (which are called commutator brushes)
will pass from one turn of the wire coil to another just back of it
as the rotation progresses, and each time that contact is made with
a new turn the direction of the current in the turn just ahead will
be reversed. The current in the wire as a whole, however, will
always be in the same direction — that- is, in all the turns to the
right of the two brushes; the current will flow toward the center
of the shaft on the front side of the armature, and away from the
shaft in all the turns on the left side. As the direction of the cur-
rent on opposite sides of the brushes is always the same, the poles

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

323

of the armature will remain under B and C, therefore the relation
between the position of the jDoles of the armature and the field
magnet will be the same substantially as that illustrated in Fig. 10,
and, as a result, the force tending to produce rotation will at all
times be the greatest possible for the strength of the current used
and the size of the magnets.

Armatures are wound with a number of turns of wire in each
coil, unless the machine is very large, and present an appearance
more like Fig. 12. In this figure the brushes are arranged to make
contact with the outer surface of the ring C, which is the commu-
tator. The segments s s are connected with the ends of the arma-
ture coils c c c, but are separated from each other by some kind
of material that will not conduct electricity — that is, they are elec-
trically insulated. As will be noticed from this, the armature

Fig. 1-2.

Figs. 11, 12. — Diagrams illustrating the Method of winding Armatures of Electric
Motors and Generators.

in Fig. 11 acts as a commutator as well as an armature, its
outer surface performing the former office. In the winding the
difference between Figs. 11 and 12 is simply in the number of
turns in each coil, there being one turn in Fig. 11 and several
in Fig. 12.

The armature shoAvn in Fig. 1 0 is of the type called drum arma-
ture, but it can be wound so as to produce the same result as the
ring, although it is not so easy to explain this style of winding. It
will be sufficient for the present explanation to say that whatever
t^^ie of armature may be used, the winding is always such that the
direction of the current through the wire coils is reversed pro-
gressively, so that the magnetic polarity is maintained practically
at the same point; therefore there is a continuous pull between
this point of the armature core -and the poles of the field magnet.
The commutator is secured to the armature shaft, and the brushes

324 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

through which the current enters and leaves are held stationary;
keeping this fact in mind, it can be seen at once that in Fig. 12 the
current will flow from the brush a through the two sides of the ar-
mature wire to brush h, hence all the coils on the right of the ver-
tical line will be traversed by the current in the same direction —
that is, either to or from the center of the shaft — and in the coils
on the left the direction will be opposite, which is just the same
order as was explained in connection with Fig. 11.

An electric motor can be turned into an electric generator by
simply reversing the direction in which the armature rotates —
that is, any electric machine is either a generator or a motor. This
fact can be illustrated by means of Figs. 13 and 14, both of which
show the armature and the poles of the field magnet. The first
figure represents an electric motor, and, as can be seen, the pull
between the N pole of the armature and the P pole of the field is
in the direction of arrow &, hence the armature will rotate in
the same direction, as indicated by arrow a. To obtain the
polarity of the armature and field it is necessary to pass an elec-
tric current through both — that is to say, we must expend elec-
trical energy to obtain power from the machine. As soon as the
current ceases to flow, the polarity of the armature and field dies
out, and the rotation of the former comes to an end. The mag-
netism, however, does not die out entirely; a small residue is al-
ways left, although it is never sufiicient to produce rotation, and
even if it were it could only cause the armature to revolve through
one quarter of a turn. If, after the current has been shut off,
the armature shaft is rotated in the reverse direction, as indicated
by arrow a in Fig. 14, the motion will be against the pull of the
magnetism; therefore, although the poles may be very weak, an
amount of power sufiicient to overcome their attraction must be
applied to the pulley, otherwise rotation can not be accomplished.

In consequence of the back-
ward rotation a current is
generated in the armature
coils, and this current, as it
traverses the field coils as
well as those of the armature,

Figs 13, 14.— Diagrams illustratino the Dif- CaUSeS the polarity of both

FERENCE BETWEEN AN El-ECTRIC MoTOR AND p^j.^g ^^ iuCrCaSC. As a TCSUlt
A (lENEKATOK. , , . 1 1 •

of the increased polarity the
resistance to rotation is increased, and more power has to be applied
to the pulley. The increase in the strength of the poles results in
increasing the current generated, and this in turn further increases
the pole strength, so that one effect helps the other, the result being

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

325

that the current, which starts with an infinitesimal strength, soon
rises to the maximum capacity of the machine.

The motor shown in Eig. 10 does not in any way resemble an
electric railway motor, nevertheless the principle of action is pre-
cisely the same in both. The design of a machine of any kind has
to conform to the practical requirements, and this is true of rail-
way motors, just as it is true of printing presses, sawmills, or any
other mechanism. A railway motor must be designed to run at

Fig. 15. — External View of Electric Railway Motor mounted upon Car-Wheel Axle.

a comparatively slow speed and to develop a strong rotative force,
or torque, as it is technically called. It must also be so constructed
that it will not be injured if covered with mud and water. It must
be compact, strong, and light, and capable of withstanding a severe
strain without giving out. To render the machine water- and mud-
proof it is formed with an outer iron shell, which entirely incases
the internal parts. The first railway motors were not inclosed,
and the result was that they frequently came to grief from the
effects of a shower of mud. When the modern inclosed type of
motor, which is called the iron-clad type, first made its appearance
it was frequently spoken of as the clam-shell type, and the name
is not altogether inappropriate, for while the outside may be cov-
ered with mud to such an extent as to entirely obliterate the de-
sign, the interior will remain perfectly clean and dry, and there-
fore its effectiveness will not be impaired.

To enable the motor to give a strong torque and run at a slow
speed the number of poles in the field and armature is increased.
The design of Fig. 10 has two poles in the field and two in the
armature, and is what is known as the bipolar type. Machines
having more than two poles in each part are called multipolar
machines. The number of poles can be increased by pairs, but
not by a single pole — that is, we can have four, six, eight, or
any other even number of poles', but not five, seven, or any odd
number. This is owing to the fact that there must always be

326

POPULAR SCIEXCE MONTHLY.

as many positive as negative poles, no more and no less. Rail-
way motors at tlie present time are made with four poles. The
external appearance can be understood from Fig. 15, while Fig.
16 and Fig. 17 will serve to elucidate the internal construction.
In Fig. 15 the motor casing is marked M, and, as will be seen,
it forms a complete shell. The motion of the armature shaft is
transmitted to the car-wheel axle F through a pinion, which en-
gages with a spur gear secured to the latter. In Fig. 16 the pinion
and gear are marked N and L respectively. As it is necessary
that the armature shaft and the axle be kept in perfect alignment,
the motor casing M is provided with suitable bearings for both,
those for the armature shaft being marked P P in Fig. 16, and one
of those for the axle being marked T in Fig. 15. It will be under-
stood from the foregoing that the motor is mounted so as to swing
around the car-wheel axle as a center, but, as it is not desirable to
have all this dead weight resting upon the wheels Avithout any elas-
ticity, the motor is carried by the crossbars B B, Fig, 15, which rest
upon springs s s at each end. The beam A and a similar one at
the farther end of the B B bars extend out to the sides of the car
truck and are suitably secured to the latter. The coils w w are the
ends of the field coils and the armature connections, and to these

Fig. 16. — Eailw.vv ^loroii with Casing Open, .'showing Akmati're in Lower Half.

the wires conveying the current from the trolley are connected.
The cover C on top of the motor at one end closes an opening
through which access to the commutator brushes is obtained. The
arnuitiii-o is shown at // in Fig. 10 ;iii<1 llic commutator at K in
the same figure. Directly under the aniiatui'c may be seen one
of the field magnet coils, it being marked B.

As will be noticed in Fig. 1 0, the motor casing is made so as to
open along the central lino, and tlic lowci- lialf is secured to the

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

327

17. — Armature of Electuic Railway Motor.

top by means of hinges, g g, Fig. 15, and also by a number of bolts,
which are not so clearly shown. The gear wheels are also located
within a casing, which (Fig. 16) is made so as to be readily opened
whenever it becomes necessary. All the vital parts of the ma-
chine are entirely covered, and are not easily injured by mud or
water.

The construction of the armature and commutator is well illus-
trated in Fig. 17, which shows this part of the machine by itself.
The armature is marked A, the shaft B, and the commutator
C. In the diagrams,
Figs. 9, 10, 11, and
12, the wire coils
are represented as
wound upon the sur-
face of the armature
core, but, from Fig.
17, it will be noticed
that they are located
in grooves. A rail-
way motor armature core, when seen without the wire coils, looks
very much like a wide-faced cog wheel with extra long teeth,
not very well shaped for gear teeth. In Fig. 17 the ends of the
teeth are marked D, and the grooves within which the wire is
wound are marked E. The coils are not wound so that their sides
are on diametrically opposite sides of the armature core, but so
that they may be one quarter of the circumference apart, and, as
will be noticed, the wires are arranged so as to fit neatly into
each other at the ends of the armature core. The bands marked
F F F F are provided for the purpose of holding the wire coils
within the grooves. The flanges H and I are simply shields to
prevent oil, grease, or even water, if it should pass through the
bearings, from being thrown upon the commutator or armature.
The pinion through which the armature imparts motion to the car-
wheel axle is not shown in Fig. 17, but it is mounted upon the taper
end of the shaft.

An electric railway motor is a machine that is characterized by
extreme simplicity (there being only one moving part), compactness,
and great strength. In addition, as none of the working parts is ex-
posed it can not be injured, no matter how much mud may accumu-
late upon it. One of the reasons why the electric railway motor has
met with such unparalleled success is that it is a machine that can
withstand the roughest kind of usage without being damaged there-
by. Another reason is that an electric motor can, if called upon,
develop an amount of power two or three times greater than its

328 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

full-rated capacity without injury, providing the strain is not main-
tained too long. A steam engine or any other type of motor that
has ever been used for railway propulsion if loaded beyond its
capacity will come to a standstill — that is, it will be stalled — but
an electric motor can not be stalled with any strain that is likely
to be placed upon it. If the load is increased the motor will run
slower and the current will become greater, thus increasing the
pull, but the armature will continue to rotate until the current
becomes so great as to burn out the insulation. A railway motor
calculated to work up to twenty-five-horse power will have to de-
velop on an average about six- or seven-horse power, but if the
car runs off the track on a steep grade, and has such a heavy load
that the motor is called upon to develop one-hundred-horse power
for a few seconds, the machine will be equal to the occasion. This
result a steam, gas, or any other type of engine can not accomplish,
and it is this fact as much as anything else that has given the elec-
tric motor the control of the street-railway field.

\^To be condnued.l

WOMAN'S STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY IN GERMANY.

By MARY MILLS PATRICK, Ph. D.,

PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE FOR GIRLS AT CONSTANTINOPLE.

IT is during the latter part of the present century that a general
movement has arisen to give women their rights in business
life and in political and social affairs. It is the intention of this
article to treat of this movement, especially in its relation to edu-
cation, in Germany, where, of all civilized lands, it has had appar-
ently the smallest results. Progress in the direction indicated
has been, however, far greater than appears on the surface, and
the movement is slowly taking shape in a form that will gain offi-
cial recognition and support, and the way is being prepared for
scholarly attainments among the women of Germany, superior,
possibly, to those of the women of other nations.

There is, moreover, an ideal side to this movement in Germany
not altogether found in other lands. The motive for advanced
study is more largely joy in the study itself, and desire to supply
the spiritual needs of an idle life. In order to understand this
ideal tendency it is necessary to cast a glance backward over nearly
three hundred years.

Let us begin with the contest which was waged so successfully
for the development and protection of the German language, first

WOMAJV'S STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY IN GERMANY. 329

against tlie Latin and later against the Frencli. In tliis struggle
women took a prominent part, especially through membership in
the society called the " Order of the Palms," which, before the
beginning of the Thirty Years' War, united the strongest spirits
of Germany for this purpose. The first woman to join this soci-
ety was Sophie Elizabeth, Princess of Mecklenburg, married in
1636 to the Herzog of Braunschweig. She was followed by many
others, both of the nobility and the common people, and was named
by virtue of this leadership " The Deliverer."

In the eighteenth century we have the founder of the German
theater, Caroline iSTeuber. In the artistic sense she was the first
director of the German stage, the first to turn the attention of the
greatest actors of her day to the ideal side of dramatic presenta-
tion. Early in the eighteenth century women began to take up
university studies. A certain Frau von Zingler received a prize
from the University of "Wittenberg for literary work, and the wife
of Professor Gottscheds entered upon a contest for a prize in poetry
with her husband.

We find some old verses published in Leipsic, in a book of stu-
dents' songs, in 1736, recognizing the fact that women attended
lectures in the university there, although the reference is rather
sarcastic, speaking of " beauty coming to listen in the halls of
learning."

In 1754 the first woman received her degree of Doctor of Medi-
cine in Ilalle — Dorothea Christine Erxleben, nee Leborin, a
daughter of a physician, who attained to this result only after
many years of painstaking effort. With her father's help she
studied the classics and medicine, and gradually, in spite of the
objections of his brother physicians, began to practice as a doctor
imder her father's protection. She is said to have cured her pa-
tients cito tuto, jucunde, and in 1742 she published a book on the
right of women to study, the title of which, according to the cus-
tom of the day, included the full table of contents. This book
passed through two editions, and enabled her to gain the attention
of Frederick II, who was persuaded to order the University of
Ilalle to grant her the privilege of taking her examination there.
The day arrived, and the hall was crowded for the occasion; the
candidate passed the ordeal in a brilliant manner, and took the
oath for the doctor's degree amid a storm of applause from the
listeners present.

In the present century the germ of the movement for educa-
tional rights for women came into consciousness in Germany in
the stormy year 1848, and first found expression and life through
the work of two women — Louise Otto Peters and Auguste Schmidt.

VOL. LVI. 26

330 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

The former founded tlie Universal Association for Women in Ger-
many, and through this society both these women worked for thirty
years and did much toward preparing the way for the broader
efforts of the present time.

It is a fact granted by all the educational world that scholar-
ship attains a depth and thoroughness in Germany not found in
other lands, and this very perfection has been in part the cause of
the backwardness of the educational movement among the women,
for a high degree of scholarship has often been acquired by the men
at the expense of the devoted service of the women connected with
them. Yet when the women of Germany demand their educational
rights it will be to share also in the rich intellectual inheritance
of their land.

The majority of the men thus far regard the movement with
distrust and suspicion, but are powerless to crush it out. An amus-
ing instance occurred last year in the family of an official in one
of the large university towns. He was a conservative man who
had his immediate family in a proper state of subjection, but his
mother-in-law, alas! he could not control, and to his dismay she
enrolled herself at the university as a Bospitant, and, in spite of
the protestations of her son-in-law, she was a regular attendant
upon the courses of lectures that she had elected.

The regular schools for girls in Germany, above the common
schools attended by girls and boys together, are of two grades —
the middle schools and the high schools. The avowed object of
these schools is to fit girls for society and for the position of
housewife, as Ilerr Dr. Bosse, the Minister of Public Instruction
for the German Empire, states in his report on the condition
of girls' schools in Germany, and as he publicly declared before
the German Parliament in the discussion regarding the establish-
ment of a girls' gjannasium in Brcslau, referred to later on in
this paper.

''Jlie girls' schools established by the Government provide well
for the study of the modern languages, and it is the exception to
find women in the upper classes who do not speak French and Eng-
lish. Literature, religion, gymnastics, and needlework are also
well taught. The course of study in the high school includes a
little mathematics, offered under the name of reckoning, and suffi-
cient to enable a woman to keep the accounts of a household, and
also a little science of the kind that can be learned without a knowl-
edge of mathematics. Let me quote a paragraph from the report
of the ]\Iinister of Public Instruction for the year 1898 in regard
to the aim of the mathematical course in the girls' high schools:
" Accuracv in reckoning with numbers and the ability to use num-

WOMAN'S STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY IN GERMANY. 331

bers in the common relations of life, especially in housekeeping.
Great weight is laid upon quick mental computations, but in all
grades the choice of problems should be such as especially apply
to the keeping of a house." This is the opportunity which is
offered to girls by the Government in the department of mathe-
matics ! In addition to the two grades of schools mentioned there
are seminaries in many of the large cities for the purpose of edu-
cating women teachers. The instructors in these seminaries are
well prepared for their positions, are mostly men, and the instruc-
tion given is very superior to that given in the girls' high schools.
Latin and Greek are, however, not studied in these seminaries, and
mathematics and science are expurgated, we might say, of points
that might prove difficult for the feminine intellect.

The ability to learn Latin and Greek seems in the German mind
to especially mark the dividing line between the masculine and
feminine brain. The writer was at one time studying a subject
in Greek philosophy, in the City Library of Munich, requiring the
use of a number of Greek and Latin books, and it was amusing to
notice the astonishment of the men present that a woman should
know the classic languages!

The women who hold certificates from the seminaries are al-
lowed, according to a new law passed in 1894, to continue their
studies and to take the higher teachers' examinations. This is
considered a great step in advance, for a woman who has success-
fully passed this latter examination can hold any position in the
girls' schools, and can even be director of such a school.

That German women have long been discontented with the
education provided for them by the Government is proved by the
fact that the number of higher institutions offering private oppor-
tunities to girls is constantly increasing. As far back as 1868 the
Victoria Lyceum was founded by a Scotch woman — Miss Georgina
Archer — at her own expense and on her own responsibility, and
this institution was well sustained from the beginning. It is now
under the patronage of the Empress Frederick, and offers courses
to women that run parallel to a certain extent with those given
on the same subjects in the university. Professors from the uni-
versity lecture in the Victoria Lyceum, but a young woman who
had listened to the same professor in both places informed me that
he (perhaps unconsciously) simplified his lectures very much for
the Victoria Lyceum. Fraulein Anna von Cotta is the director
of the institution. Among the women who teach there we note
the name of the well-known Fraulein Lange, who lectures on psy-
chology and German literature.

There are several girls' gymnasia in Germany which testify to

332 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

tlie demand for higher education. These institutions are all but
one private, and three of them — one in Leipsic, one in Berlin, and
a third, opened in October, 1898, in Konigsberg — are called "gym-
nasial courses," and are for girls who have finished the girls' high
school, and who must pass entrance examinations in order to be
received into them.

There has been for some time a girls' gymnasium which corre-
sponds exactly to those for boys in Carlsruhe, under the auspices
of the " Society for Reform in the Education of Women," which
receives girls of twelve who must have finished the six lower
classes of a girls' school. This society, to which the girls of Ger-
many owe much, is planning to open another gymnasium in Han-
nover, to which girls will be received from the junior class of the
girls' high school; the course of study will occupy five years, and
will fit girls for the same official examinations as the boys' gymnasia.
The language courses in the highest class will be elective, provid-
ing either for Greek or the modern languages, but Latin is oblig-
atory in all the classes. The girls from all these g^nnnasia are
debarred from taking any of the official examinations for which
their studies have prepared them.

The next step in the matter of gymnasial education for girls
was what might have been expected. The people of the wide-
awake city of Breslau voted, by an overwhelming majority, to
establish a girls' gymnasium under the same laws and furnishing the
same advantages as the boys' g;^Tnnasia. The completed plan
was sent to the Minister of Public Instruction in Berlin in Janu-
ary, 1898, for approval, w^th the intention of opening the gymna-
sium at Easter, for which twenty-six girls were already enrolled.
Herr Dr. Bosse, however, foreseeing the results such an undertak-
ing would involve, consulted the other departments of the minis-
try, and two months later a decided refusal came like a thunder-
bolt upon the people of Breslau. On the 30th of April, 1898,
Herr Dr. Bosse was called to account in the Reichstag for his action
in the matter, which he justified on the ground that Government
approval of girls' gymnasia would mean the acceptance of the
diploma for matriculation in the universities and the opening to
women of all Government professional examinations, and that to
have granted it would have been to take a step in the direction
of the modern movement for women which could never have been
recalled, and would open the lecture rooms of Germany in gen-
eral to women. He contended, further, that the founding of offi-
cial gymnasia for girls would delegate the existing girls' high
school to a secondary place, an institution which had been planned
thoughtfully by the Government for the purpose of educating

WOMAN'S STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY IN GERMANY. 333

women in the best manner, not to become rivals of men, but help-
meets and able housekeepers.

The demand of the people of Breslau, Dr. Bosse said, was an
unnatural one, and his refusal was founded on the fear that such
a movement would increase and threaten the social foundations
of all Germany, as the idea that women can compete with men in
all careers is a false one.

The petition of the magistrate of Breslau was supported in the
discussion by some of the national-liberal, free-conservative, and
Polish representatives. These took the broad ground that girls
have a right to equal education with boys, and that the educational
institutions of Germany which have so long stood at the head of
those of the world should not, in the matter of education of women,
leave the question to be decided according to the whims of private
individuals.

Some of the arguments of those who spoke in favor of the
enterprise were amusing. One said that the girls of Germany
would be grateful if the Minister of Public Instruction would fur-
nish them with husbands, but, as there were not enough to go
around, the others should have some career provided for them.
Another, that about forty per cent of the girls of the higher classes
no longer marry, and they should not be allowed to suffer the con-
sequences of the fact that young men of the present day do not
care to marry, but they have a right that the way be shown them
to such careers as are suited to their feminine nature.

An objector said that he could not understand how any man
of pedagogical culture could approve of a girls' gymnasium, for it
is evident that any such progress for women as that would imply
must be at the expense of the men, who would gaia less on account
of the increased number of candidates for work of all kinds and
would more seldom be able to offer the best of all existences to a
woman — that of wifehood. The city of Breslau was obliged, there-
fore, to give up the undertaking for the present, but the agitation
of the question has probably prepared the way for more extended
plans in the future in the same direction in Prussia.

A similar undertaking in Carlsruhe, in Baden, has met with
better success, and resulted in the opening of the first official gym-
nasium for girls in Germany, in September, 1898. This gymna-
sium was planned about the same time as that of Breslau, and as
the pei-mission of the Minister of Public Instruction in Baden was
obtained without difficulty, the institution came into existence ac-
cording to the will of the people of Carlsruhe. Seventy-nine of
the members of the Biirgerauschuss voted in favor of the under-
taking in the meeting in which the final action was taken early

334 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

in the summer of 1898. The Christian-conservative party only
decidedly opposed it. The leader of this party was very much
excited over the matter, and called out, when the action was taken,
" I ask you, gentlemen, on your honor, if any of you would marry
a girl from a gymnasium? "

The opening of the Government gymnasium will remove the
necessity for continuing the private one in Carlsruhe, under the
society in charge of it, and leave that society free to direct its
efforts elsewhere.

There had already been several references to the general sub-
ject of the education of women in the Reichstag before the ques-
tion of the gymnasium in Breslau came up. In January, 1898,
Prince Carolath spoke in favor of founding several girls' gymnasia,
and admitting women legally to the universities and to pedagogical
and to medical state professional examinations, remarking that in
all other civilized lands the universities are more open to women
than in Germany.

Coming now to the present attitude of the universities to the
higher education of women, we find that a great change has taken
place during the last few years. While it is still the fact that
no German woman can matriculate in any university in Germany,
yet the problem of the stand which the universities should take
is working out its own solution in the right direction.

The University of Berlin, the largest and in many respects the
leading one, has made progress in the matter, although women still
work there under great limitations. The cause was injured at
the outset in Berlin by the fact that women, often foreigners, who
had not the required preparation, rushed into lecture rooms which
were open to them from motives of curiosity. This caused such
strong feeling among the professors that in one instance a pro-
fessor, on entering his classroom, saw a lady sitting in the rear,
walked up to her, offered her his arm, and led her out of the room.

The first step in the right direction has been to demand either
a diploma from some well-known institution, or, as tliat could
not be complied with by German women, the certificate of the
teachers' examinations. The possessors of such credentials may
attend lectures in any course, where the professor is willing, as
Ilospitants. The conditions under which women may attend the
University of Berlin arc the following:

1. A written permission must be obtained from the curator of
the university on presentation of a satisfactory diploma, a pass-
port, and, by Russian applicants, a written permission from the
police authorities to study in Germany.

2. AVritten permission from the rector.

WOMAN'S STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY IN GERMANY. 335

3. "Written permission from the professors or docents whose
lectures the applicant wishes to attend.

4. The permission from the rector must be obtained each se-
mester, but from the curator only when a new subject is chosen.

5. The same fee is demanded from women as from men, and
women are requested to always carry with them, in attending lec-
tures, the wiitten permission from the rector.

At the public installation of Rector Waldeyer, in October,
1898, both in his address and in that of the resigning rector, Ge-
heimrath Professor Schmoller, the subject of education of women
received attention.

Geheimrath Schmoller said that the first condition of further
concessions in the matter must be better preparation on the part
of the women, and when this deficiency should be provided for the
faculty of the university could make the conditions of their attend-
ing lectures lighter, perhaps even the same as those for men. Ge-
heimrath Waldeyer made the subject one of three to which he
gave equal space, and which he said called for immediate atten-
tion in the educational affairs of Germany. The other two sub-
jects were the relation of technical schools to the universities, and
university extension. Geheimrath AValdeyer said that he had for-
merly been opposed to the higher education of women, but had
been led to change his mind from seeing that the movement is not
an artificial one, but rather the natural result of the present social
condition of society, and on the simple ground of right should be
forwarded in a legitimate manner. He spoke strongly, however,
in favor of the establishment of separate universities for men and
women, on account of the natural differences in the working of
their minds and the necessity of adapting methods in both instances
to their needs.

The number of women in the University of Berlin has increased
very rapidly, being in the autumn of 1896 thirty-nine, in the win-
ter of the same year ninety-five. The next year the largest nimi-
ber was nearly two hundred, and in 1897-'98 three hundred and
fifty-two were in all inscribed. jSTearly half of these were German
women. Most of the women in the University of Berlin are in
the department of philosophy, but several are pursuing courses in
theology and law. These women are of all ages. One from Char-
lottenburg was sixty-two years old, and, besides this honored lady,
there were five others whose white hair testified to an age of from
fifty to fifty-five, while the youngest of all was a Bulgarian girl
of seventeen.

The first woman to take her. degree in the University of Berlin
was Dr. Else Xeumanu, in December, 1898, in physics and mathe-

336 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY,

matics, who succeededj notwitlistanding tlie difBculties to be con-
tended with in the absence of preparatory study and the necessity
for private preparation.

It is not, however, only in Berlin that the desire for university
study has taken a strong hold on the German women, but it is
shown in other places, not simply by the fact that many of them
attend the universities of Switzerland, which are everywhere open
to them, but by their also obtaining the advantages in their own
land which have so long been denied them.

Heidelberg was the first university in Germany to grant the
doctor examination to women, and this was done several years
before lectures were open to them. The writer called upon Prof.
Kuno Fischer one day in the summer of 1890 to ask permission to
attend a lecture which he was to give that afternoon on Helm-
holtz. He said that he was very sorry indeed, but he was obliged
to refuse women the privilege of listening to him, as they were not
admitted to the university. I asked when they would probably
be admitted, and he replied, speaking in French, " Jamais, made-
moiselle, jamais ! " Four years later, however, a friend of mine
took her degree there in the department of philosophy, thus prov-
ing that the wisest of men sometimes make mistakes.

Women have for years studied as Hospitanis in the Universi-
ties of Leipsic and Gottiugen, but since November, 1897, the con-
ditions of their admission in Gottingen have been made more
difficult.

In Kiel the professors who are not willing to allow women to
attend their lectures put a star opposite their names in the uni-
versity programme of the lecture courses, and this star is unfor-
tunately seen opposite the names of all the professors of theology
and many of those of medicine. Women began to attend the Uni-
versity of Tubingen in the autumn of 1898, Dr. Maria Griifin von
Linden being the first, who was soon followed by many others.

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy honoris causa has been
conferred on two women by the University of Munich — in Dccemr
ber, 1897, on the Princess Theresa, and in October, 1898, on Lady
Blennerhassett, an author, for her researches in modern languages.
The Dean of the Philosophical Faculty, accompanied by three pro-
fessors, visited her in her home in Munich to communicate to her
the honor which she had received.

The University of Breslau offers better conditions to women
than are provided elsewhere, as might naturally be exj)ected, espe-
cially in the department of medicine.

Germany was represented in the International Council of
Women, held in London in June of this present year, by Frau

SCENES ON THE PLANETS. 337

Anna Simson, Frau Bieber Boehm, and Frau Marie Stritt, of
Dresden.

It was also decided at this congress that the next Quinquen-
nial International Council of Women should be held in Berlin,
and it will without doubt be an occasion that will mark an era in
the history of the progress of liberty for the women of Germany.

SCENES ON THE PLANETS.

By GAEKETT P. SERVISS.

ALTHOUGH amateurs have played a conspicuous part in tele-
-^-^ scopic discovery among the heavenly bodies, yet every owner
of a small telescope should not expect to attach his name to a star.
But he certainly can do something perhaps more useful to himself
and his friends. He can follow the discoveries that others, with
better appliances and opportunities, have made, and can thus im-
part to those discoveries that sense of reality which only comes
from seeing things with one's own eyes. There are hundreds of
things continually referred to in books and writings on astronomy
which have but a misty and uncertain significance for the mere
reader, but which he can easily verify for himself with the aid of
a telescope of four or five inches' aperture, and which, when ac-
tually confronted by the senses, assume a meaning, a beauty, and
an importance that would otherwise entirely have escaped him.
Henceforth every allusion to the objects he has seen is eloquent
with intelligence and suggestion.

Take, for instance, the planets that have been the subject of
so many observations and speculations of late years — Mars, Jupi-
ter, Saturn, Venus. For the ordinary reader much that is said
about them makes very little impression upon his mind, and is
almost unintelligible. He reads of the " snow patches " on Mars,
but unless he has actually seen the whitened poles of that planet
he can form no clear image in his mind of what is meant. So the
^' belts of Jupiter " is a confusing and misleading phrase for almost
everybody except the astronomer, and the rings of Saturn are be-
yond comprehension unless they have actually been seen.

It is true that pictures and photographs partially supply the
place of observation, but by no means so successfully as many
imagine. The most realistic drawings and the sharpest photo-
graphs in astronomy are those of the moon, yet I think nobody
would maintain that any picture in existence is capable of impart-
ing a really satisfactory visual impression of the appearance of the

VOL. LVI. 27

338

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

lunar globe. Nobody who has not seen the moon with a telescope
— it need not be a large one — can form a correct and definite idea
of what the moon is like.

The satisfaction of viewing with one's own eyes some of the
things the astronomers write and talk about is very great, and the
illumination that comes from such viewing is equally great. Just
as in foreign travel the actual seeing of a famous city, a great gal-
lery filled with masterpieces, or a battlefield where decisive issues
have been fought out illuminates, for the traveler's mind, the
events of history, the criticisms of artists, and the occurrences of
contemporary life in foreign lands, so an acquaintance with the

sights of the heavens gives a
grasp on astronomical prob-
lems that can not be ac-
([uired in any other way.
The person who has been in
Rome, though he may be no
archseologist, gets a far more
xivid conception of a new
iliscovery in the Forum than
does the reader who has
never seen the city of the
Seven Hills; and the ama-
teur who has looked at Jupi-"
ter with a telescope, though
he may be no astronomer,
finds that the announcement
of some change among the
wonderful belts of that cloudy planet has for him a meaning and
an interest in which the ordinary reader can not share.

Jupiter is perhaps the easiest of all the planets for the amateur
observer. A three-inch telescope gives beautiful views of the
great planet, although a four-inch or a five-inch is of course better.
But there is no necessity for going beyond six inches' aperture in
any case. For myself, I think I should care for nothing better
than my five-inch of fifty-two inches' focal distance. "With such
a glass more details are visible in the dark belts and along the
bright equatorial girdle than can be correctly represented in a
sketch before the rotation of the planet has altered their aspect,
while the shadows of the satellites thrown upon the broad disk,
and the satellites themselves when in transit, can be seen some-
times with exquisite clearness. The contrasting colors of various
parts of the disk are also easily studied with a glass of four or fivc^
inches' aperture.

Jupiter seen with a Five-Inch Telescope.
Shadow ot a satellite visible.

SCENES ON THE PLANETS. 339

There is a charm about the great planet when he rides high in
a clear evening sky, lording it over the fixed stars with his serene,
unflickering luminousness, which no possessor of a telescope can
resist. You turn the glass upon him and he floats into the field
of view, with his cortege of satellites, like a yellow-and-red moon,
attended by four miniatures of itself. You instantly comjjrehend
Jupiter's mastery over his satellites — their allegiance is evident.
JSTo one would for an instant mistake them for stars accidentally
seen in the same field of view. Although it requires a very large
telescope to magnify their disks to measurable dimensions, yet the
smallest glass differentiates them at once from the fixed stars.
There is something almost startling in- their appearance of com-
panionship with the huge planet — this sudden verification to your
eyes of the laws of gravitation and of central forces. It is easy,
while looking at Jupiter amid his family, to understand the con-
sternation of the churchmen when Galileo's telescope revealed that
miniature of the solar system, and it is gratifying to gaze upon one
of the first battle grounds whereon science gained a decisive vic-
tory for truth.

The swift changing of place among the satellites, as well as the
rapidity of Jupiter's axial rotation, give the attraction of visible
movement to the Jovian spectacle. The planet rotates in four
or five minutes less than ten hours — in other words, it makes two
turns and four tenths of a third turn while the earth is turning
once upon its axis. A point on Jupiter's equator moves about
twenty-seven thousand miles, or considerably more than the en-
tire circumference of the earth, in a single hour. The effect of
this motion is clearly perceptible to the observer with a telescope
on account of the diversified markings and colors of the moving
disk, and to watch it is one of the greatest pleasures that the tele-
scope affords.

It would be possible, when the planet is favorably situated, to
witness an entire rotation of Jupiter in the course of one night,
but the beginning and end of the observation would be more or
less interfered with by the effects of low altitude, to say nothing
of the tedium of so long a vigil. But by looking at the planet
for an hour at a time in the course of a few nights every side of
it will have been presented to view. Suppose the first observation
is made between nine and ten o'clock on any night which may have
been selected. Then on the following night between ten and
eleven o'clock Jupiter will have made two and a half turns
upon his axis, and the side diametrically opposite to that seen
on the first night will be visible. On the third night between
eleven and twelve o'clock Jupiter will have performed five com-

34°

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

plete rotations, and the side originally viewed will be visible
again.

Owing to the rotundity of the planet, only the central part of
the disk is sharply defined, and markings which can be easily seen
when centrally located become indistinct or disappear altogether

Eclipses anu Tkansits of Jupitek's Satellites. Satellite I and the shadow of III arc
seen in transit. IV is about to be eclipsed.

when near the limb. Approach to the edge of the disk also causes
a foreshortening which sometimes entirely alters the aspect of a
marking. It is advisable, therefore, to confine the attention main-
ly to the middle of the disk. As time passes, clearly defined mark-
ings on or between the cloudy belts will be seen to approach the

SCENES ON THE PLANETS. 341

western edge of the disk, gradually losing their distinctness and
altering their appearance, while from the region of indistinct defi-
nition near the eastern edge other markings slowly emerge and
advance toward the center, becoming sharper in outline and more
clearly defined in color as they swing into view.

Watching these changes, the observer is carried away by the
reflection that he actually sees the turning of another distant world
upon its axis of rotation, just as he might view the revolving earth
from a standpoint on the moon. Belts of reddish clouds, many
thousands of miles across, are stretched along on each side of the
equator of the great planet he is watching; the equatorial belt
itself, brilliantly lemon-hued, or sometimes ruddy, is diversified
with white globular and balloon-shaped masses, which almost re-
call the appearance of summer cloud domes hanging over a terres-
trial landscape, while toward the poles shadowy expanses of grad-
ually deepening blue or blue-gray suggest the comparative cool-
ness of those regions which lie always under a low sun.

After a few nights' observation even the veriest amateur finds
himself recognizing certain shapes or appearances — a narrow dark
belt running slopingly across the equator from one of the main
cloud zones to the other, or a rift in one of the colored bands, or
a rotund white mass apparently floating above the equator, or a
broad scallop in the edge of a belt like that near the site of the
celebrated " red spot," whose changes of color and aspect since its
first appearance in 1878, together with the light it has thrown on
the constitution of Jupiter's disk, have all but created a new Jovian
literature, so thoroughly and so frequently have they been dis-
cussed.

And, having noticed these recurring features, the observer will
begin to note their relations to one another, and will thus be led
to observe that some of them gradually drift apart, while others
drift nearer; and after a time, without any aid from books or
hints from observatories, he will discover for himself that there is a
law governing the movements on Jupiter's disk. Upon the whole
he will find that the swiftest motions are near the equator, and
the slowest near the poles, although, if he is persistent and has a
good eye and a good instrument, he will note exceptions to this
rule, probably arising, as Professor Hough suggests, from differ-
ences of altitude in Jupiter's atmosphere. Finally, he will conclude
that the colossal globe before him is, exteriorly at least, a vast
ball of clouds and vapors, subject to tremendous vicissitudes, pos-
sibly intensely heated, and altogether different in its physical con-
stitution, although made up of similar elements, from the earth.
Then, if he chooses, he can sail off into the delightful cloud-land of

342 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

astronomical speculation, and make of the striped and spotted
sphere of Jove just such a world as may please his fancy — for a
world of some kind it certainly is.

For many observers the satellites of Jupiter possess even greater
attractions than the gigantic ball itself. As I have already re-
marked, their movements are very noticeable and lend a wonderful
animation to the scene. Although they bear classical names, they
are almost universally referred to by their Roman numbers, begin-
ning with the innermost, whose symbol is I, and running outward
in regular order II, III, and IV. The minute satellite much nearer
to the planet than any of the others, which Mr. Barnard discovered
with the Lick telescope in 1892, is called the fifth, although in the
order of distance it would be the first. In size and importance,
however, it can not rank with its comparatively gigantic brothers.
Of course, no amateur's telescope can show the faintest glimpse
of it.

Satellite I, situated at a mean distance of 261,000 miles from
Jupiter's center — about 22,000 miles farther than the moon is
from the earth — is urged by its master's overpowering attraction
to a speed of 320 miles per minute, so that it performs a complete
revolution in about forty-two hours and a half. The others, of
course, move more slowly, but even the most distant performs
its revolution in several hours less than sixteen days. The plane
of their orbits is presented edgewise toward the earth, from which
it follows that they appear to move back and forth nearly in straight
lines, some apparently approaching the planet, while others are
receding from it. The changes in their relative positions, which
can be detected from hour to hour, are very striking night after
night, and lead to a great variety of arrangements always pleas-
ing to the eye.

The most interesting phenomena that they present are their
transits and those of their round, black shadows across the face
of the planet ; their eclipses by the planet's shadow, when they dis-
appear and afterward reappear with astonishing suddenness; and
their occultations by the globe of Jupiter. Upon the whole, the
most interesting thing for the amateur to watch is the passage of
the shadows across Jupiter. The distinctness with which they can
be seen when the air is steady is likely to surprise, as it is certain
to delight, the observer. "When it falls upon a light part of the
disk the shadow of a satellite is as black and sharply outlined as
a drop of ink; on a dark-colored belt it can not so easily be seen.

It is more difficult to see the satellites themselves in transit.
There appears to be some difference among them as to visibility
in such circumstances. Owing to their luminosity they are best

SCENES ON THE PLANETS. 343

seen when they have a dark belt for a background, and are least
easily visible when they appear against a bright portion of the
planet. Every observer should provide himself wuth a copy of the
American Ephemeris for the current year, wherein he will find
all the information needed to enable him to identify the various
satellites and to predict, by turning Washington mean time into
his own local time, the various phenomena of the transits and
eclipses.

While a faithful study of the phenomena of Jupiter is likely
to lead the student to the conclusion that the greatest planet in
our system is not a suitable abode for life, yet the problem of its
future, always fascinating to the imagination, is open; and who-
soever may be disposed to record his observations in a systematic
manner may at least hope to render aid in the solution of that
problem.

Saturn ranks next to Jupiter in attractiveness for the observer
with a telescope. The rings are almost as mystifying to-day as
they were in the time of Herschel. There is probably no single
telescopic view that can compare in
the power to excite wonder with that
of Saturn when the ring system is
not so widely opened but that both
poles of the -planet project beyond
it. One returns to it again and again
with unflagging interest, and the
beauty of the spectacle quite matches ^""^''^ ""^^.^""^1 ^'"^'^""'^
its singularity. When Saturn is in

view the owner of a telescope may become a recruiting officer for
astronomy by simply inviting his friends to gaze at the wonderful
planet. The silvery color of the ball, delicately chased with half-
visible shadings, merging one into another from the bright equa-
torial band to the bluish polar caps; the grand arch of the rings,
sweeping across the planet with a perceptible edging of shadow;
their sudden disappearance close to the margin of the ball, where
they go behind it and fall straightway into night; the manifest
contrast of brightness, if not of color, between the two principal
rings; the fine curve of the black line marking the 1,600-mile gap
between their edges — these are some of the elements of a picture
that can never fade from the memory of any one who has once be-
held it in its full glory.

Saturn's moons are by no means so interesting to watch as are
those of Jupiter. Even the effect of their surprising number
(raised to nine by Professor Pickering's discovery last spring of a
new one which is almost -at the limit of visibility, and was found

344

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

only with the aid of photography) is lost, because most of them are
too faint to be seen with ordinary telescopes, or, if seen, to make
any notable impression upon the eye. The two largest — Titan and
Japetus — are easily found, and Titan is conspicuous, but they give
none of that sense of companionship and obedience to a central
authority which strikes even the careless observer of Jupiter's sys-
tem. This is owing partly to their more deliberate movements

Polar View of Saturn's System. The orbits of the five nearest satelHtes are shown.
The dotted line outside the rings sliows Roche's hmit.

and partly to the inclination of the plane of their orbits, which
seldom lies edgewise toward the earth.

But the charm of the peerless rings is abiding, and the interest
of the spectator is heightened by recalling what science has re-
cently established as to their composition. It is marvelous to think,
while looking upon their broad, level surfaces — as smooth, appar-
ently, as polished steel, though thirty thousand miles across — that
they are in reality vast circling currents of meteoritic particles or

SCENES ON THE PLANETS. 345

dust, through which run immense waves, condensation and rare-
faction succeeding one another as in the undulations of sound.
Yet, with all their inferential tumult, they may actually be as
soundless as the depths of interstellar space, for Struve has shown
that those spectacular rings possess no appreciable mass, and,
viewed from Saturn itself, their (to us) gorgeous seeming bow may
appear only as a wreath of shimmering vapor spanning the sky and
paled by the rivalry of the brighter stars.

In view of the theory of tidal action disrupting a satellite with-
in a critical distance from the center of its primary, the thought-
ful observer of Saturn will find himself wondering what may have
been the origin of the rings. The critical distance referred to, and
which is known as Roche's limit, lies, according to the most trust-
worthy estimates, just outside the outermost edge of the rings.
It follows that if the matter composing the rings were collected
into a single body that body would inevitably be torn to pieces and
scattered into rings; and so, too, if instead of one there were sev-
eral or many bodies of considerable size occupying the place of
the rings, all of these bodies would be disrupted and scattered. If
one of the present moons of Saturn — for instance, Mimas, the in-
nermost hitherto discovered — should wander within the magic cir-
cle of Roche's limit it wpuld suffer a similar fate, and its particles
would be disseminated among the rings. One can hardly help
wondering whether the rings have originated from the demolition
of satellites — Saturn devouring his children, as the ancient myths
represent, and encircling himself, amid the fury of destruction,
with the dust of his disintegrated victims. At any rate, the ama-
teur student of Saturn will find in the revelations of his telescope
the inspirations of poetry as well as those of science, and the bent
of his mind will determine which he shall follow.

Professor Pickering's discovery of a ninth satellite of Saturn,
situated at the great distance of nearly eight million miles from
the planet, serves to call attention to the vastness of the " sphere
of activity " ov«r which the ringed planet reigns. Surprising as
the distance of the new satellite appears when compared with that
of our moon, it is yet far from the limit where Saturn's control
ceases and that of the sun becomes predominant. That limit, ac-
cording to Prof. Asaph Hall's calculation, is nearly 30,000,000 miles
from Saturn's center, while if our moon were removed to a dis-
tance a little exceeding 500,000 miles the earth would be in dan-
ger of losing its satellite through the elopement of Artemis with
Apollo.

Although, as already remarked, the satellites of Saturn are not
especially interesting to the amateur telescopist, yet it may be well

346 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

to mention that, in addition to Titan and Japetus, the satellite
named Khea, the fifth in order of distance from the planet, is not a
difficult object for a three- or four-inch telescope, and two others
considerably fainter than Khea — Dione (the fourth) and Tethys
(the third) — may be seen in favorable circumstances. The others
— Mimas (the first), Enceladus (the second), and Hyperion (the sev-
enth— are beyond the reach of all but large telescopes. The ninth
satellite, which has received the name of Phcebe, is much fainter
than any of the others, its stellar magnitude being reckoned by
its discoverer at about 15.5.

Mars, the best advertised of all the planets, is nearly the least
satisfactory to look at except during a favorable opposition, like
those of 1877 and 1892, when its comparative nearness to the earth
renders some of its characteristic features visible in a small tele-
scope. The next favorable opposition will occur in 1907.

When well seen with an ordinary telescope, say a four- or five-
inch glass. Mars shows three peculiarities that may be called fairly
conspicuous — viz., its white polar cap, its general reddish, or or-
ange-yellow, hue, and its dark markings, one of the clearest of
which is the so-called Syrtis Major, or, as it was once named on
account of its shape, " Hourglass Sea." Other dark expanses in

the southern hemisphere are
not difficult to be seen, al-
though their outlines are
more or less misty and indis-
tinct. The gradual diminu-
tion of the polar cap, which
certainly behaves in this re-
spect as a mass of snow and
ice would do, is a most in-
teresting spectacle. As sum-
mer advances in the south-
ern hemisphere of Mars, the
white circular patch sur-
rounding the pole becomes
^ , „ smaller, night after night,

Mahs seen with a Five-Inch Telescope. ' •= , <=> '

until it sometmies disappears
entirely even from the ken of the largest telescopes. At the same
time the dark expanses become more distinct, as if the melting of
the polar snows had supplied them with a greater depth of water,
or the advance of the season had darkened them with a heavier
growth of vegetation.

The phenomena mentioned above are about all that a small
telescope will reveal. Occasionally a dark streak, which large in-

SCENES ON THE PLANETS.

3+7

strimients show is connected with the mysterious system of " ca-
nals," can be detected, but the " canals " themselves are far be-
yond the reach of any telescope except a few of the giants handled
by experienced observers. The conviction which seems to have
forced its way into the minds even of some conservative astrono-
mers, that on Mars the conditions, to use the expression of Pro-
fessor Young, " are more nearly earthlike than on any other of
the heavenly bodies which we can see with our present telescopes,"
is sufficient to make the
planet a center of undying
interest notwithstanding the
difficulties with which the
amateur is confronted in his
endeavors to see the details
of its markings.

In Venus " the fatal gift
of beauty " may be said, as
far as our observations are
concerned, to be matched by
the equally fatal gift of
brilliance. Whether it be
due to atmospheric reflec-
tion alone or to the preva-
lence of clouds, Venus is
so bright that considerable
doubt exists as to the actual
visibility of any permanent
markings on her surface. The detailed representations of the disk
of Venus by Mr. Percival Lowell, showing in some respects a re-
semblance to the stripings of Mars, can not yet be accepted as de-
cisive. More experienced astronomers than Mr. Lowell have been
unable to see at all things which he draws with a fearless and un-
hesitating pencil. That there are some shadowy features of the
planet's surface to be seen in favorable circumstances is prob-
able, but the time for drawing a " map of Venus " has not yet
come.

The previous work of Schiaparelli lends a certain degree of
probability to Mr. Lowell's observations on the rotation of Venus.
This rotation, according to the original announcement of Schiapa-
relli, is probably performed in the same period as the revolution
around the sun. In other words, Venus, if Schiaparelli and Lowell
are right, always presents the same side to the sun, possessing, in
consequence, a day hemisphere and a night hemisphere which never
interchange places. This condition is so antagonistic to all our

The Illumination of Venus' s Atmopphere at
the beginning of her transit across the
Sun.

348 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ideas of what constitutes habitability for a planet that one hesi-
tates to accept it as proved, and almost hopes that it may turn out
to have no real existence. Venus, as the twin of the earth in size,
is a planet which the imagination, warmed by its sunny aspect,
would fain people with intelligent beings a little fairer than our-
selves; but how can such ideas be reconciled with the picture of a
world one half of which is subjected to the merciless rays of a
never-setting sun, while the other half is buried in the fearful
gloom and icy chill of unending night?

Any amateur observer who wishes to test his eyesight and his
telescope in the search of shades or markings on the disk of Venus
by the aid of which the question of its rotation may finally be set-
tled should do his work while the sun is still above the horizon.
Schiaparelli adopted that plan years ago, and others have followed
him with advantage. The diffused light of day serves to take off
the glare which is so serious an obstacle to the successful observa-
tion of Venus when seen against a dark sky. Knowing the loca-
tion of Venus in the sky, which can be ascertained from the Ephem-
eris, the observer can find it by day. If his telescope is not per-
manently mounted and provided with " circles " this may not prove
an easy thing to do, yet a little perseverance and ingenuity will
effect it. One way is to find, with a star chart, some star whose
declination is the same, or very nearly the same, as that of Venus,
and which crosses the meridian say twelve hours ahead of her.
Then set the telescope upon that star, when it is on the meridian
at night, and leave it there, and the next day, twelve hours after
the star crossed the meridian, look into your telescope and you will
see Venus, or, if not, a slight motion of the tube one way or an-
other will bring her into view.

For many amateurs the phases of Venus will alone supply suffi-
cient interest for telescopic observation. The changes in her form,
from that of a round full moon when she is near superior conjunc-
tion to the gibbous, and finally the half-moon phase as she ap-
proaches her eastern elongation, followed by the gradually nar-
rowing and lengthening crescent, until she becomes a mere silver
sickle as she swings in between the sun and the earth, form a suc-
cession of delightful pictures for the eye.

Not very much can be said for Mercury as a telescopic object.
The little planet presents phases like those of Venus, and, accord-
ing to Schiaparelli and Lowell, it resembles Venus in its rotation,
keeping always the same side to the sun. In fact, Schiaparelli's
discovery of this peculiarity in the ca^se of Mercury preceded the
similar discovery in the case of Venus. There are perceptible
markings on Mercury which have reminded some astronomers of

''NATURALISM AND AGNOSTICISMS 349

the appearance of the moon, and there are various reasons for
thinking that the planet can not be a suitable abode for living
beings, at least for beings resembling the inhabitants of the earth.
Uranus and Neptune are too far away to present any attraction for
amateur observation.

PKOFESSOR WARD O^ "I^ATURALISM AND
AGNOSTICISM."

By HERBEKT SPENCER.

IN a recent advertisement. Professor Ward's work entitled as
above was characterized as " one of the most important contri-
butions to philosophy made in our time in England," and this was
joined with the prophecy that it " may even do something to re-
store to philosophy the prominent place it once occupied in English
thought." Along with laudatory expressions, I have observed in
some notices reprobation of the 'manner adopted by Professor
Ward in his attack upon my views — I might almost say upon me;
and one of the reviewers gives examples of the words he uses —
" ridiculous," " absurd," " blunder," " nonsense," " amazing fal-
lacy," '' our oracle."

When, some time ago, I glanced at one of the volumes, I came
upon a passage which at once stamped the book by displaying the
attitude of the writer; but, being then otherwise occupied, I de-
cided not to disturb myself by reading more. Now, however,
partly by the reviews I have seen, and partly by the comments of
a friend, I have been shown that I can not let the book pass with-
out remark. The assumption that a critic states rightly the doc-
trine he criticises is so generally made, that in the absence of proof
to the contrary his criticisms are almost certain to be regarded as
valid. And when the critic is a Cambridge Professor and an Hono-
rary LL. D., the assumption will be thought fully warranted.

Let me set out by quoting some passages disclosing the kind of
feeling by which Professor Ward's criticisms are influenced, if not
prompted. In his preface he says: —

" When at length Naturalism, is forced to take account of the facts of
life and mind, we find the strain on the mechanical theory is more than
it will bear. Mr. Spencer has blandly to confess that ' two volumes ' of
his Synthetic Philosophy are missing, the volumes that should connect
inorganic with biological, evolution."

Respecting the first of these sentences, I have only to remark
that I have said (as in First Principles, § 62) and repeatedly im-

350 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

plied, that force or energy in the sense which a " mechanical the-
ory " connotes, can not be that Ultimate Cause whence all things
proceed, and that there is as much warrant for calling it spiritual
as for calling it material. As was asserted at the close of that work
(p. 558), the " implications are no more materialistic than they are
spiritualistic; and no more spiritualistic than they are material-
istic "; and as was contended in the Principles of Sociology, § 659,
" the Power manifested throughout the Universe distinguished as
material, is the same Power which in ourselves wells up under the
form of consciousness."

But it is to the second sentence I here chiefly draw attention.
Whether or not there be a sarcasm behind the words " blandly to
confess," it is clear that the sentence is meant to imply some dere-
liction on my part. JSTow in the programme of the Synthetic Phi-
losophy, the division dealing with inorganic nature was avowedly
omitted, " because even without it the scheme is too extensive " ;
and this undue extensiveness was so conspicuous that I was thought
absurd or almost insane. Yet I am now tacitly reproached be-
cause I did not make it more extensive still — because an under-
taking deemed scarcely possible was not made quite impossible.
When blamed for attempting too much, it never entered my
thoughts that I might in after years be blamed for not attempt-
ing more.

Repeated reference to First Principles as " the stereotyped phi-
losophy " are manifestly intended by Professor Ward to reflect on
me, either for having left that work during many years unchanged,
or for implying that no change is needed. Much as I dislike per-
sonal explanations, I am here compelled to make them. If, in 1896,
when the ten volumes constituting the Synthetic Philosophy were
completed, I had done nothing toward revision of them, the omis-
sion would not have been considered by most men a reason for com-
plaint. The facts, however, are, that in 1867 I issued a recast
and revised edition of First Principles; in 1870 an edition of the
Principles of Psychology, of which half was revised, and ten years
later an enlarged edition of the same work; in 1885 a revised edi-
tion of the first volume of the Principles of Sociology; and now I
have fortunately been able to finish a revised and enlarged edition
of the Principles of Biology. Any one not willfully blind might
have seen that when persisting, under great difficulties, in trying to
execute the entire work as originally outlined, it was not practi-
cable at the same time to bring all earlier parts of it up to
date. Professor Ward, however, thinks that I should have sac-
rificed the end to improve the beginning, or else that I should
have found energy enough to re-revise an earlier volume while

''NATURALISM AND AGNOSTICISMS 351

writing the later ones; and my failure to do both prompts sarcastic
allusions.*

In further illustration of the feeling Professor Ward brings to
his task, I may quote the following passage, in which he interposes
comments on my mode of writing: —

"By the persistence of Force [capital F],.we really mean the persist-
ence of some Power [capital P] which transcends our knowledge and con-
ception. The manifestations, as recurring either in ourselves or outside
of us, do not persist ; but that which persists is the Unknown Cause
[capitals again] of these manifestations."

The matter itself is trivial enough. It is worth noticing only as
indicating a state of mind. Supposing even that capitals were in
such cases inappropriate — supposing even that small initial letters
would have been more appropriate ; it is clear that only one having
a strong animus would have gone out of his way to notice it.

After thus enabling the reader to judge in what temper the
criticisms of Professor Ward are made, I may pass on.

As implied at the outset, my intention is not to discuss Pro-
fessor Ward's own philosophy — the less so because I discussed a like
philosophy nearly a generation ago. His position is that " Once
materialism is abandoned and dualism found untenable, a spiritual-
istic monism remains the one stable position. It is only in terms of
mind that we can understand the unity, activity, and regularity that
nature presents. In so understanding we see that jSTature is Spirit."
{Preface.) This was the position of Dr. Martineau in 1872 (and
probably is now). He argued, that to account for this infinitude
of physical changes everywhere going on, " Mind must be con-
ceived as there," " under the guise of simple Dynamics." My
criticisms on this view, given in an essay entitled " Mr. Martineau
on Evolution," can not here be repeated. But I held then, as I
hold now, that " the Ultimate Power is no more representable in
terms of human consciousness than human consciousness is repre-
sentable in terms of a plant's functions." Briefly the result is, that
in saying " Nature is Spirit " (capital IST and capital S !), Professor

* Candor often brings penalties, as witness the announcement " stereotyped edition."
When another thousand of a work has been ordered, the printers do not always refer to the
author for correction of the title-page, but, as a matter of course, put " second edition," or
" third edition," as the case may be. When my attention has been drawn to s>ich matters,
however, I have directed that the words " stereotyped edition " shall be put on the title-
page if the printing is from plates, and if the work is unaltered : objecting to a usage which
betrays readers into the false belief that new matter is forthcoming. I did not perceive
that an antagonist might transform the words " stereotyped edition " into an assertion that
the work needed no changes. Experience should have warned me that adverse interpreta-
tions are inevitable wherever they are possible. To the question — " Why did you stereo-
tvpe ? " the obvious reply is — " From motives of economy."

352 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Ward implies that he knows all about it; while I, on the other
hand, am sure that I know nothing about it.

And now, passing to mj essential purpose, let me exemplify
Professor Ward's controversial method. Specifying an hypothesis
of the late Dr. Croll (who, he thinks, had " incomparably more
right to an opinion on the question " than I have), he says, that
it " at least recognizes a problem with which Mr. Spencer scarcely
attempts to deal — I mean the evolution of the chemical elements.
It thus suffices to convict Mr. Spencer's work of a certain incom-
pleteness " (i., 190). Apparently the words " scarcely attempts "
refer to a passage in the above-named essay, " Mr. Martineau on
Evolution," where several reasons are given for thinking that the
" so-called elements arise by compounding and recompounding."
More than this has been done, however. The evolution of the ele-
ments, if not systematically dealt with within the limits of the
Synthetic Philosophy, has not been ignored. In an essay on " The
ISTebular Hypothesis " {Essays, i., pp. 156-9), it is argued, that
" the general law of evolution, if it does not actually involve the
conclusion that the so-called elements are compounds, yet affords
a priori ground for suspecting that they are such "; and five groups
of traits are enumerated which support the belief that they origi-
nated by a process of evolution like that everywhere going on.
But the point I here chiefly emphasize is that, having reflected
upon me for omitting two volumes, Professor Ward again reflects
upon me for having omitted something which one of these volumes
would have contained. " Sir, you have neglected to build that house
which was wanted! Moreover, you have not supplied the stairs! "

From a sin of omission let us pass to a sin of commission. Pro-
fessor AYard quotes from me the sentence — " The absolutely homo-
geneous must lose its equilibrium; and the relatively homogeneous
must lapse into the relatively less homogeneous." — First Princi-
ples, p. 429). Then presently he writes: —

" In ti-uth, however, homogeneity is not necessarily instability. Quite
otherwise. If the homogeneity be absolute — that of Lord Kelvin's pri-
mordial medium, say — the stability will be absolute too. In other words,
if ' the indefinite, incoherent homogeneity,' in which, according to Mr.
Spencer, some rearrangement must result, be a state devoid of all quali-
tative diversity and without assignable bounds, then, as we saw in dis-
cussing mechanical ideals, any * rearrangement ' can result only from
external interference; it can not begin from within" (i., 223).

And then he goes on to argue that " Thus, the very first step in
Mr. Spencer's evolution seems to necessitate a breach of continuity.
This fatal defect, &c." (ibid.).

^'NATURALISM AND AGNOSTICISMS 353

Observe the words " without assignable bounds "- — without
knowable limits, infinite. So that the law of the instability of the
homogeneous is disposed of because it does not apply to an infinite
homogeneous medium. But since infinity is inconceivable by us,
this alleged case of stable homogeneity is inconceivable too. Hence
the proposal is to shelve the law displayed in all things we know,
because it is inapplicable to a hypothetical thing we can not know,
and can not even conceive ! !N^ow let me turn to the essential point.
This nominally-exceptional case was fully recognized by me in the
chapter he is criticising. In § 155 of First Principles (p. 429), it
is written: —

" One stable homogeneity only, is hjy'pothetically possible. If centers
of force, absolutely uniform in their powers, were diffused with absolute
uniformity through unlimited space, they would remain in equilibrium.
This, however, though a verbally intelligible supposition, is one that can
not be represented in thought; since unlimited space is inconceivable."

So that this nominal exception which Professor Ward urges against
me as a " fatal defect," was set forth by me thirty-seven years ago !
A somewhat more involved case may next be dealt with. Pro-
fessor Ward writes: —

" Moreover, on the physical assumption from which Mr. Spencer sets
out, viz., that the mass of the universe and the energy of the universe
are fixed in quantity — which ought to mean are finite in quantity —
there can be no such alternations [of evolution and dissolution] as he
supposes " (i., 192).

After some two pages of argument, he goes on : — -

" And so while all transformations of energy lead directly or indi-
rectly to transformation into heat, from that transformation there is no
complete return, and, therefore finally no return at all. This then is the
conclusion to which Mr. Spencer's premises lead. Two eminent physi-
cists who accept those premises may be cited at this point : ' It is abso-
lutely certain,' they say, ' that life, so far as it is physical, depends essen-
tially upon transformations of energy; it is also absolutely certain that
age after age the possibility of such transformations is becoming less and
less; and, so far as we yet know, the final state of the present universe
must be an aggregation (into one mass) of all the matter it contains, i. e.
the potential energy gone, and a practically useless state of kinetic en-
ergy, i. e. uniform temperature throughout that mass. . . . The present
visible universe began in time and will in time come to an end ' " (p. 194).

Mark now, however, that this opinion of " two eminent physi-
cists," quoted to disprove my position, and tacitly assumed to have
validity in so far as it serves that end, is forthwith dismissed as hav-
ing, for other purposes, no validity. His next paragraph runs: —

" To this conclusion we are surely led from such premises. But again
I ask what warrant is there for th6 premises? Our experience certainly
does not embrace the totality of things, is, in fact, ridiculously far from

VOL. LVI. — 28

354 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

it. We have no evidence of definite space or time limits; quite the con-
trary. Every advance of knowledge only opens up new vistas into a
remoter past and discloses further depths of immensity teeming with
worlds."

Thus the trnth urged against me is that we can not know any-
thing about these ultimate physical principles in their application
to the ultra-visible universe. But, unhappily for Professor Ward's
criticism, T entered this same caveat long ago. Demurring to that
doctrine of the dissipation of energy to which he now demurs, I
wrote : —

" Here, indeed, we arrive at a barrier to our reasonings ; since we can
not know whether this condition is or is not fulfilled. If the ether which
fills the interspaces of our Sidereal system has a limit somewhere beyond
the outermost stars, then it is inferable that motion is not lost by radi-
ation beyond this limit ; and if so, the original degree of diffusion may
be resumed. Or supposing the ethereal medium to have no such limit,
yet, on the hypothesis of an unlimited space, containing, at certain inter-
vals. Sidereal Systems like our own, it may be that the quantity of molec-
ular motion radiated into the region occupied by our Sidereal System,
is equal to that which our Sidereal System radiates; in which case the
quantity of motion possessed by it, remaining undiminished, it may con-
tinue during unlimited time its alternate concentrations and diffusions.
But if, on the other hand, throughout boundless space filled with ether,
there exist no other Sidereal Systems subject to like changes, or if such
other Sidereal Systems exist at more than a certain average distance
from one another; then it seems an unavoidable conclusion that the quan-
tity of motion possessed, must diminish by radiation ; and that so, on
each successive resumption of the nebulous form, the matter of our
Sidereal System will occupy a less space; until it reaches either a state in
which its concentrations and diffusions are relatively small, or a state
of complete aggregation and rest. Since, however, we have no evidence
showing the existence or non-existence of Sidereal Systems throughout
remote space ; and since, even had we such evidence, a legitimate conclu-
sion could not be drawn from premises of which one element (unlimited
space) is inconceivable; we must be forever without answer to this tran-
scendent question." (First Principles, § 182, pp. 535-6.)

See, then, how the case stands. After urging against me the
argument of " two eminent physicists " as fatal to my conclusions,
he thereupon expresses dissent from the premises of that argument;
and the reasons he gives for dissenting are like those given by me
before he was out of his teens!

Tt is not always easy to disentangle misrepresentations; espe-
cially when they are woven into a fabric. For elucidation of this
matter there needs another section. It may fitly begin with an
analogy. An astronomer who "saw reason to think" that the
swarm of November meteors this year would be greater than usual,
would be surprised if the occurrence of a smaller number were

''NATURALISM AND AGNOSTICISMS 355

cited in disproof of his astronomical beliefs at large. It would be
lield that so undecided a phrase as " saw reason to think," not im-
plying a definite deduction, did not implicate his general concep-
tions nor appreciably discredit them. Professor Ward, however,
thinks a tentative opinion is equivalent to a positive assertion. In
the course of the foregoing argument (p. 191) he represents me
as saying that " there is an alternation of evolution and dissolution
in the totality of things." He does not quote the whole clause,
which runs thus : — " For if, as we saw reason to think, there is an
alternation of evolution and dissolution in the totality of things, &c."
Here, then, are two qualifying expressions which he suppresses; and
not only does he here suppress them, but elsewhere he refers to this
passage as not speculative, but quite positive. On p. 197 he says: —

" But of a single supreme evolution embracing them all we have no
title to speak: not even to assume that it is, much less to say what it is;
least of all to affirm confidently that it can be embraced in such a mean-
ingless formula as the integration of matter and the dissipation of
motion." [The italics are mine.]

So that a hypothetical inference (implied by " if "), drawn from
avowedly uncertain data (implied by '' reason to think "), he trans-
forms into an unhesitating assertion. He does this in presence of
my statement that respecting transformations of the Universe as a
whole, no '' legitimate conclusions " can be drawn, and that we
must be forever " without answer to this transcendent question."
N^ay, he does it in presence of a still more specific repudiation of
certainty. Section 182 begins: —

" Here we come to the question raised at the close of the last chapter
— does Evolution as a whole, like Evolution in detail, advance toward
complete quiescence? Is that motionless state called death, which ends
Evolution in organic bodies, typical of the universal death in which
Evolution at large must end? . . .

" To so speculative an inquiry, none but a speculative answer is to be
expected. Such answer as may be ventured, must be taken less as a
positive answer than as a demurrer to the conclusion that the proximate
result must be the ultimate result" (p. 529). Instead of being a posi-
tive answer, it is intended to exclude a positive answer.

One more instance may be given to illustrate Professor Ward's
mode of discrediting views which he dislikes. On p. 198 of his first
volume occurs the sentence —

" At any rate such a conception is less conjectural and more adequate
than Mr. Spencer's ridiculous comparison of the universe to a spinning
top that begins by ' wabbling.' passes into a state of steady motion or
equilibrium mobile, and finally comes to rest."

The reader who seeks a warrant for this representation will seek in
vain. If, in the chapter of First Principles on " Equilibration," he

356 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

turns to section 171, where the celestial applications of the general
law are considered, he will find the Solar System alone instanced as
having progressed toward a moving equilibrium; and the moving
equilibrium even of this not compared as alleged. Neither in that
section nor in any subsequent section of the chapter, is any larger
celestial aggregate mentioned as progressing toward a moving equi-
librium. Contrariwise, in the succeeding chapter on " Dissolu-
tion," it is said that " the irregular distribution of our Sidereal
System " is " such as to render even a temporary moving equilib-
rium impossible " (p. 531). On pp. 533-4 it is contended that
even local aggregations of stars, still more the whole Sidereal Sys-
tem, must eventually reach a diffused state without passing through
any such stage. And had not conclusions respecting the changes
of the Universe been excluded as exceeding the bounds even of
speculation (p. 536), it is clear that still more of the Universe would
no moving equilibrium have been alleged; but, had anything been
alleged, it would have been the reverse. How, then, has it been
possible, the reader will ask, for Professor Ward to write the sen-
tence above quoted? If instead of vainly seeking through the sec-
tions devoted to " Equilibration " and " Dissolution " in relation to
celestial phenomena, he turns back to some introductory pages he
will find a clew. I have pointed out that in an aggregate having
compounded motions, one of the constituent motions may be dissi-
pated while the rest continue; and that in some such cases there
is established a moving equilibrium. In illustration I have taken
"the most familiar example" — "that of the spinning top"; and
to remind the reader of one of the movements thus dissipated while
the rest continue, I have used the word " wabbling " ; there being
no other descriptive word. What then has Professor Ward done?
That mode of establishing an equilibrium which the spinning top ex-
emplifies, he represents as extended by me to celestial phenomena,
though no such comparison is made nor any such word used. Nay,
he has done so notwithstanding my assertion that a moving equi-
librium of our sidereal system is negatived, and regardless of the
implied assertion that still more would be negatived a moving equi-
librium of the Universe, could we with any rationality speculate
about it. Actually in defiance of all this, he says I compare the
motion of the Universe to that of a " wabbling " top. Having con-
structed a grotesque fancy, he labels it " ridiculous " and then debits
me with it.

I can not pursue further this examination of Professor Ward's
criticisms: other things have to be done. Whether what has been
said will lead readers to discount the laudatory expressions I quoted
at the outset, it is not for me to say. But T think I have said

EFFECTS OF VAGRANT ELECTRICITY. 357

enough to warn them that before accepting Professor Ward's ver-
sions of mj views, it will be prudent to verify them.

Postscript. — I said that I did not propose to discuss Professor
Ward's own philosophy, and I contented myself with quoting his
summary of it — " Nature is Spirit." It occurs to me, however,
that as showing the point of view from which his criticisms are
made, it may not be amiss to give readers a rather more specific
conception of his philosophy, by reproducing a laudatory quotation
he makes. Here it is: — -

" If ' rational synthesis ' of things is what we seek, it is surely more
reasonable to say with Lotze : ' What lies beneath all is not a quantity
which is bound eternally to the same limits and compelled through many
diverse arrangements, continuously varied, to manifest always the very
same total. On the contrary, should tlte self-realization of the Idea [!]
require it, there is nothing to hinder the working elements of the world
being at one period more numerous and yet more intense; at another
period less intense as well as fewer'" (i., 218). [The italics are mine.]

It is M^orth remarking that on the opposite page some of my
views are characterized as " astounding feats of philosophical jug-
glery " !

DESTKUCTIVE EFFECTS OF VAGKANT ELECTRICITY.

Br HUBERT S. WYNKOOP, M. E.

LJ) EVERTING to the dictionary for a definition, electrolysis is
-*- *^ " the process of decomposing a chemical compound by the pas-
sage of an electric current through it." Electroplating is a popu-
lar illustration of this definition, having been numbered among the
industrial arts for nearly a century.

If in a bath of sulphate-of-copper solution are placed a copper
plate and a plumbago-covered wax mold, the passage of an electric
current through the solution, from the plate to the mold, will re-
sult in the deposition of copper upon the mold, or negative elec-
trode, and the wasting away of the plate of copper, or positive
electrode. Generalizing from this and other experiments, it may
be broadly stated that the passage of an electric current through a
solution of electrolyzable metallic salt, from an oxidizable metal
to some other conductor, will be attended by the separation of the
salt into two parts: first, the metal, appearing at the negative elec-
trode; and, second, an unstable compound of the remaining ele-
ments. This unstable compound is supposed to unite with the
hydrogen of the water, liberating oxygen, and forming an acid.
Both oxygen and acid appear only at the positive electrode, which

358 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

is thus made subject to a double decay — a corrosion by oxygen and
a solution by acid.

There is nothing new about this. It is not even a novel state-
ment of a fundamental electro-chemical truth. In times past, how-
ever, we were wont to consider this matter as pertaining solely to
the laboratory or to the electroplating industry; now we are forced
to see that the reproduction of this experiment on a grand scale is
attended with results as disagreeable as they are widespread.

Hidden beneath our highways lie gas pipes, water pipes, rail-
way tracks, Edison tubes, cement-lined iron subway ducts, and lead-
covered cables. These are the electrodes. In contact with these
conductors is the soil, containing an electrolyzable salt — chloride,
nitrate or sulphate of ammonia, potash, soda, or magnesia, gener-
ally. In the presence of moisture this soil becomes an electrolyte, or
salt solution. In the absence of electricity no appreciable damage
occurs; but the passage of an electric current, no matter how small,
from one pipe to another is sure, sooner or later, to leave its traces
upon the positive conductor in the form of a decay other than

CoppKK Djiii" Pipe aftek Seventeen Days' Exposlre in Salt Watek to the Action
OF Electkicity. Hall' size.

mere oxidation. It is to this decay that has been given the name
of electrolysis; so that when this heading appears in the daily press
or in technical journals one may interpret the term popularly as
■' the electrolytic corrosion of metals buried in the soil."

To produce electrolytic disintegration of pipes, etc., on a scale
grand enough to cause apprehension, a bountiful source of elec-
tricity is essential. Unfortunately, this condition is not lacking
to-day in any town in which the usual overhead trolley electric
railway is in operation. This system of electric propulsion is
based upon the use of a " ground return " — that is to say, the elec-
tricity passes out from the power house to the bare trolley wire,
thence to the pole on the roof of the car, thence through the motors
to the wheels, whence it is expected to return to the power house,
via the rails.

As a matter of fact, however, the released electricity by no
means confines itself to the rails and the copper return feeders —
legitimate paths provided for it. It avails itself, on the other
hand, of what may be termed, for brevity's sake, the illegitimate
return — comprising all imderground electrical conductors except

EFFECTS OF VAGRANT ELECTRICITY.

359

the rails and return feeders, and incliidiii<>' subten-a
courses, sewers, and metallic earth veins.

In the light of our
experience of the last
eight years, it is easy
to identify as electroly-
sis the effects shown in
the accompanying cuts
of buried metals that
have been actually sub-
jected to a flow of elec-
tricity. It is not to be
inferred that the de-
structive action here
depicted is universal
throughout our towns,
but, rather, that the
damage occurs in spots,
its rate of progress be-
ing dependent upon the
amount of current and
the duration of tho
flow. Dry, sandy soil>
tend to keep down the
flow of current by in-
terposing a high resist-
ance, so that in such
localities electrolytic ef-
fects are not as pro-
nounced as in wet.
loamy soils. In the
same way, the charac-
ter of the pipe surface
^or coating, if there be
any — acts as a partial
barrier to check the pas-
sage of electricity.

Until recently it
was generally supposed
that cast iron was not
attacked — at least not
rapidly enough to cause
alarm. In Brooklyn the
water mains, of very- . %; - .^i^ ^^^

nean water

360 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

hard, dense, even-grained cast iron, containing alloyed rather than
combined carbon, have not been appreciably corroded. At Day-
ton, Ohio, on the other hand, seventy-seven thousand dollars' worth
of damage has already resulted. One peculiarity of electrolyzed

.ijiiiiki*:4lc-£^;

Lead Service Fii'e aftkk Eight Months' Bi i:iai. in Builders' Sand. Thu collapsed ap-
pearance of the pipe is due entirely to the iciuoval of the lead by electrolysis, the bore
retainini^ its oriszinal shape. Tlie dark spot 011 the upper surface of the pipe is the point
of rupture. One third size.

cast iron is that the original shape is usually retained, the iron
being eaten away and leaving a punky formation of pure or nearly
pure graphite. In such a case a superficial examination detects
nothing wrong, and it requires a mechanical scraping to show that
the strength is not there. For this reason good photographs of
cast-iron electrolysis are somewhat hard to obtain.

The reason for the comparative immunity of cast iron is not
as yet definitely understood. It certainly does not lie particularly
in the asphaltic varnish usually applied, for this varnish affords
little or no protection when used upon wrought iron or other metals.
Xor can it be accounted for by the composition of cast iron itself,
inasmuch as a fractured or brightly scraped surface of cast iron
shows approximately the same symptoms as other metals when
acted upon by a given current for a given time. Whether the iron
oxide is the saving feature, or whether the " skin " due to the
process of casting acts as an insulator, is not yet settled.

When the trouble first appeared in Boston, in 1891, its cause
was promptly identified. The electric-railway construction of those
days was so crude, however, that many well-informed electricians
fell into the error of assuming that heavier rails, more and larger
return feeders, and better bonding (i. e., wire connections from rail
to rail, around the joints, designed to decrease the resistance) would
prove a panacea for all electrolytic ills. Indeed, this view is still
held by a surprisingly large numl^er of men versed in matters
electrical.

I am of the opiiiiun that it is imijossible, from a financial stand-
point, to provide so satisfactory a legitimate return that consider-
able electricity will not seek a path through pipes, cable covers,
etc.; for, in order to confine the electric current to the rails, the
resistance of the earth and its contained pipes would have to be
infinitely great, and this condition can be realized only by making
the resistance of the rail infinitely small as compared with that of

EFFECTS OF VAGRANT ELECTRICITY.

361

the earth. The cost of arriving at this condition is prohibitive,
and the improved track return is, and always must be, a palliative
merely, not a cure.

Assuming, then, that under the most favorable character of elec-
tric-railway construction some of the current may be expected to
stray from the straight and narrow path, it behooves us to consider
how it may best be cared for in order that it may not cause electroly-
sis. Since corrosion of this nature occurs only at those points where
electricity leaves the metal, one might suppose that the attachment
of a conducting wire to the affected part would result in the harm-
less carrying away of the current. In isolated cases, in small towns,
such a plan might accomplish the desired result. It is open to the
objection, however, that it in a measure legalizes the conveyance
of electricity on conductors other than those designed for the pur-

•»»s«»-r^ ■-,

Lead Service Pipe showing the Effects of Eight Months' Electrolytic Action, and

CLEARLY ILLUSTRATING THE FaCT THAT DaMAGE OCCURS ONLY WHERE THE ElECTEICITY

LEAVES THE CONDUCTOR. The interior suiiace is unattacked.

pose. In larger towns, with more than one power house and with
car lines radiating from and circumscribing the business center,
the attachment of conducting mres entails a ceaseless disturbance
of the electrical equilibrium, curing the evil in spots and develop-
ing new danger points. Furtluermore, these connections tend to
decrease the resistance -of the total illegitimate return, thereby

362

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

tempting a greater flow of electricity along other paths than the
rails and track feeders. It has been generally believed that this
increased current would develop electrolysis at the ends of the pipes,
due to the jumping of the electricity around the presumably high
resistance of the joints; and, indeed, many samples of such corro-
sion are in existence. I have found, however, that it is possible
to calk a bell-and-spigot joint in cast-iron pipe in such a manner
that the resistance is practically nil; and as for wrought iron or
steel, the joint resistance may be made as low as we please by
fitting the surfaces so carefully that white-leading is unnecessary.
Arguing from the fact that the negative electrode is not at-
tacked, it has been suggested to employ an auxiliary dynamo and
a special system of wiring, in order to maintain the pipes, etc., at
all times and at all points, negative to the rails. Could this ideal
condition be realized, the rails alone would suffer. We can not

liEAD SkRVICK PiPK SHOWING THE luBEiiULAKll V OV I'^l.l.i I Jiul.Y 1 10 At Ilvi.N, uK WHAT IS
TECHNICALLY KNOWN AS " PITTING."

hope, however, to thus easily solve the problem in towns where the
distribution of buried conductors is at all complex.

It has been suggested, also, to discourage the flow of electricity
along pipes and cable covers by inserting insulating sections of
wood or terra cotta. This phiu lias never been tried on a scale
large enough to afford a suitable demonstration of its utility.
AVhile it niight reasonably be tried on new construction, its ap-

EFFECTS OF VAGRANT ELECTRICITY. 363

plication to old work is almost prohibited by the atteiiduiit
expense.

Attacking the problem from a directly opposite standpoint,
there seems to be a chance of successfully invoking the aid of some
purely chemical method of rendering lead and iron innocuous, elec-

Lead Service Pipe illustrating the Local Effects of Eight Months' Electrolysis.
The other side of this pipe is smooth and clean.

trolytically speaking. If we can obtain an insulating oxide, lac-
quer, or varnish that will retain its high-resistance properties dur-
ing the ordinary lifetime of the buried metal, it will be possible to
effectually protect pipes and cable coverings by coating them prior
to burial. Or, if we can stumble upon an electrolysis-proof alloy,
formed by the addition of a few per cent of some foreign metal to
the pipe material during manufacture, the buried conductor will
need no protection whatever.

But, supposing that we discover this lacquer or this alloy and
by such means guard against damage to all new construction, how
are we to care for the metals already buried? We can not dig
them all up and paint them, neither can we attempt to replace
them by the new alloy. I do not see that the state of the art
to-day presents any solution of the difficulty, other than the ban-
ishment of the single trolley system. None of the electrical reme-
dies (so called) offers more than partial and temporary relief, and
the chemical field is just beginning to be explored.

Permit me to state most emphatically that this is not intended
as an argument in favor of the abolishment of single trolley sys-
tems. Our civilization owes more to them than could be rehearsed
in catalogue form within the limits of one issue of this magazine.
We have nothing at present that can be employed as a satisfactory
substitute for the ordinary electric railway. The underground
trolley is a safe substitute, but the great expense of installation
renders it available for very few localities. The overhead trolley,

364

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

with two wires and no ground return, is cumbersome, vexatious,
and unsiglitly. The storage battery is more or less experimen-
tal in its nature.
The electro - mag-
netic contact sys-
tems, with plates set
in the pavement
at stated intervals,
make no pretense
of avoiding electro-
lytic troubles. The
compressed-air mo-
tor has yet to re-
ceive popular ap-
proval.

There seems to
be a mistaken im-
pression abroad that
the railway compa-
nies are indifferent
to this subject. So
far as my experi-
ence and informa-
tion go, this is not

the case. They are

only too anxious to

find a remedy — not,

as some electricians

have stated, to save

their coal-pile, for

energy is wasted in

forcing the elec-
tricity back to the

power house, no

matter what the

path, but because

they fear that at

some future date

the taxpayer, the

corporation, and the

municipality will

band together, ])rc-

sent overwhclmiiii;

bills for damage^.

EFFECTS, OF VAGRANT ELECTRICITY. 365

and sweep the trolleys off the face of the earth. The instinct of
self-preservation, if nothing else, demands that the electric-railway
companies should put forth every endeavor to solve the electrolysis
problem.

And yet, conservative judgment requires that the railway com-
panies should not take the initiative. It is one of boyhood's max-
ims not to shoot arrows at a hornet's nest unless one has mud
handy to apply to the subsequently afflicted part. Thus it hap-
pens that the railway company remains apparently inactive, bear-
ing the burden of public condemnation, while we, whose lethargy
is responsible for failing pipes, read electrolysis articles in the daily
press and wonder how soon the impending catastrophe is likely to
occur.

This condition of affairs is deplorable; for, while we may not
care how extensively or how frequently the city authorities or the
private corporations are obliged to renew their underground metals,
we are at least vitally concerned as to whether the stray electricity
is endangering our steel office buildings, our bridges, our water
supply, our immunity from conflagrations, and the safety of the
hundred and one appliances that go to make up our modern civili-
zation.

Are the Brooklyn Bridge anchor plates going to pieces, or are
they not? Are the elevated railroad structures about to fall apart,
or are they not? The consulting electrical engineer says "Yes,"
the railway man says " No." The municipal authorities say noth-
ing. " When doctors disagree "

I deem it doubly unfortunate that so much valuable brain
energy has been inefficiently expended in the discussion of elec-
trolysis. Each writer has viewed it from his own standpoint.
Electrical literature has acquired in this way a series of views, in-
teresting and instructive, but also bewildering. There is no com-
posite view, such as might be obtained from the report of a com-
mission composed of a technical representative of each of the in-
terests affected. So far as I am able to learn, such a commission
has never existed.

A CURIOUS coincidence of superstitions, illustrating anew how all men
are kin, is exemplified in the native belief, mentioned in Mrs. R. Langloh
Perkins's book of More Australian Legendary Tales, that any child who
touches one of the brilliant fungi growing on dead trees — which are called
" devil's bread " — will be spirited away by ghosts. An English reviewer
of the book remembers having been dragged away from a fungus of this
kind for the same reason. In the north of England children used to be
told that, if they touched the dangerous growths, a fungus of the same
kind would grow from the tip of every finger.

366

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

WINTER BIRDS IN A CITY PARK.

15y .iames b. CARKINCJTON.

nV /T OST of US are so used to thinking of birds, if we notice them
-^^-J- at all, as belonging to spring and summer that we easily fail
to see or hear the comparatively few feathered winter visitors.
Among these, however, are some of the most attractive and amus-
ing of birds, and to hear their cheery notes and to watch their busy
hunt for food on a cold winter day adds a very considerable pleas-
ure to a walk in a city park or the near-by woods. In New York
city bird lovers have learned that Central Park is one of the very
best places in which to watch birds both summer and winter. There
is room enough there and the conditions are varied enough to
offer congenial dwelling places for nearly all of the better-
known birds. In the spring and fall the beautiful and tiny migrat-
ing w^ood warblers find
the park a good feed-
ing ground, and a safe
place wherein to linger
for a brief time on
their journeys north and
south.

With the approach
of winter the innumer-
able fat and saucy rob-
ins that have hunted an-
gleworms, and strutted
about the lawns of the
park since early spring
disappear, except for an
occasional hardy fellow
who perhaps prefers the
dangers of a northern
winter to those of the
lung journey southward.
The wood- and the her-
mit-thrush; the veery, or
Wilson's thrush; the yel-
low warbler, so abundant and so musical; the perky little red-
start, whose song of " Sweet, sweet, sweeter " closely resembles
the yellow warbler's; the somber-colored blackbirds; the Balti-
more and the orchard oriole; the scarlet tanager; the catbird;
Phoebe; Jenny Wren; the tiny chipping sparrow; the vireos; and

MU. ('IIICKADEK TAKING < )llSKI{VATI<>NS.

WINTER BIRDS IN A CITY PARK.

367

many other familiar warm-weather friends liave also jonrneyed
southward.

The bare trees and the groiind l>n>\vii with fallen leaves have to
some a bleak and dreary look, l)iit this is because a wrong impres-
sion has gone abroad
concerning them.
Nature in winter is
not dead, not even
sleeping; she is all
the time storing up
energy to enable
her to gi'eet the re-
turning sun in her
very best dress. If
you will look care-
fully at the bare
limbs and branches
of the trees and
bushes, you will see
the little buds that
are slowly but sure-
ly swelling up with
the pride of young,
active, vigorous life,
only waiting, with
the great patience
of Nature, for the
proper and suitable
time to break away
their part in the new year.

Some of the pleasantest days I have ever known in the open
have been spent in the winter woods, when the snow was on the
ground and everything seemed still and unfamiliar. Every little
sound is accented on a cold day, and the creaking of a swaying
limb or the note of a bird comes to you with almost startling dis-
tinctness. Somehow you feel on such days that you are more a
part of the things about you than in the full flush of summer. It
is like meeting people stripped of all the artificial distinctions of
clothes and position.

There is something fine in the way the trees stand up in win-
ter; no one can fail to understand what is meant by the "sturdy
oak." They seem to feel pretty much as you do, and show a
spirit of vigorous resistance and ^power to enjoy and cope wath the
worst that Jack Frost can bring, and the bright sun sends the sap

Getting Acquainted.

from their winter retirement and take up

368

POPULAR SCIENCiJ MONTHLY

tingling tliroiigh their limbs just as it does the blood through yours.
One day especially that I remember in Central Park brought me
a somewhat novel experience, and gave me the privilege of trans-
ferring some old bird acquaintance to the list of my bird friends.
It was after a fall of snow, and the air was crisp and sharp, indeed
it was nipping, and standing still was a chilly occupation. From long
faiuiliarity T knew just about where to go to find certain birds, and I

TlIK SiLKNT WiNTEK WooIJS.

was not disappointed in my hunt. My overcoat pocket, it is need-
less to say, was fully stocked with peanuts and a box of bird seed,
and demands were very soon made upon the peanut supply by the
fat and friendly gray squirrels that come bravely up to your hand
to be fed. They have a most attractive and appealing way of ap-
proaching you. The more timid ones stop often to sit \\\) inquiringly,
and put one hand on their heart, as if to stop its excited beating.

WINTER filRDS IN A CITY PARK. 369

The first birds I saw were the rugged and noisy English spar-
rows, written down in most bird books as " pests," but I confess I
could not resist giving them a crumb or two, for they appeal to
my sympathies much as the plucky little gamin newsboys of the
streets do, and then, too, I have learned that their loud chatter and
rush for food attract more desirable acquaintances. I soon heard
the sharp, shrill peep of the white-throated sparrows, and listened
to their scratching " with both feet " under the bushes. jSTow and
then one would try his throat with his full song, two sweet whistles
followed by very plain calls for " Peabody, peabody, peabody."
They are called the peabody bird by many. There is no mistaking
this beautiful sparrow. Among a bunch of his noisy English neigh-
bors the rich brown of his feathers is easily seen, and the three white
stripes on his head and the white patch on the throat attract your
eye at once. In a group of thirty or forty whitethroats that were
feeding on my bird seed I noticed also two plump song sparrows.
They are brovm, too, but smaller than the whitethroats, and their
breasts are streaked with dark-brown stripes, with a spot right in
the center. This is the sparrow that makes music for us from very
early spring until late in the autumn. I have heard them in Feb-
ruary, with the snow yet on the ground, perched on the tip of some
bush and singing away with a joyfulness that made everything take
on a more cheerful look. While I was watching the whitethroats
I heard the jolly little song that I especially hoped for, and very
soon had a near view of wee Mr. Chickadee himself, with his jet-
black head, throat, and chin, and gray cheeks. He, in company
with several of his friends, came down to feed at once, and hopped
about my feet and a near-by bench to pick up the bits of pea-
nut I had dropped for his benefit. The chickadees are always
" chummy " little birds, and seem to have found their human ac-
quaintances in general pretty good sort of people. After a time
I put some peanut crumbs in my hand and held it out invitingly.
The chickadees would alight on the tree over my head, sing their
song, look down inquiringly, and then fly off, apparently inter-
ested in searching for some important business they had overlooked
on the bark of another tree. Gradually, however, one became
more familiar and finally lighted on my hand with entire confi-
dence, selected the largest piece of peanut to be had, and flew away
to eat it. He held the bit between both feet on a bench, and leaned
forward and pecked away until it disappeared. Occasionally he
would hold a small piece in one foot only. One little fellow stopped
to sing me his Chick-a-dee-dee-dee, as he perched on my little fin-
ger, before selecting his morsel. They followed me about the
paths, and wherever I stopped there were sure to be several chicka-
vot LVi— 29

370 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

dees peeping about the tree trunks asking me to please give
them more peanuts. While this was going on I heard a hoarse
" Quank, quank, quank! " that sounded very near, and on look-
ing up saw a white-breasted nuthatch, a blue-gray bird with a
very distinct black band on the top of his head that extends back
across his shoulders. His short tail and legs make him look very
funny when on the ground. On a tree, however, he is a regu-
lar circus, walking head up or head down on the limbs and trunk,
and now and then doing the giant swing, completely circling
some twig, just to show what he can do when he tries. He
was attracted by the noise and conduct of the chickadees, his
winter companions, and was calling for something for himself.
His long, slim bill is not made for cracking things as the spar-
rows can with their short, strong bills, but he punches holes in
them very much as tlie woodpeckers do. When he came down
to the path and picked up a peanut he flew off to a near-by tree
and hunted up and down until he found a place in the bark where
he could wedge the nut in and then proceeded to hatch or crack it
into bits to suit his taste. A brown creeper was walking up his
tree a short distance away very much as the nuthatch does, poking
his long, curved bill into the bark, though I did not see him for
some time, as his brown and gray feathers were so like the color
of the tree on which he walked. He circles round the trunk or
limb, and you have to keep a sharp lookout to get more than an
occasional rapid glance at him. A loud rapping and a noise that
sounded a good deal like a giggle attracted my attention to a downy
black-and-white woodpecker, with a bright-red spot on the back of
his head. He was hammering away with all his might, and the
limb on which he hung, back down, fairly rattled as he drove his
chisel-like bill into the wood. Another woodpecker, the big and
beautifully marked flicker, with his brown back barred with black,
his spotted breast with its big black crescent and the red band on
the back of his head, stopped for a minute or two on a tree a
hundred feet away. His cry of alarm rang out shrilly as he flew
away. All of these birds are handsomely marked, though none
of them compare, in the mere matter of color, with some of the
many beautiful summer species. There was one bird there that
day, though, whose brilliant plumage and altogether tropical aspect
comes as a great surprise to the unaccustomed visitor to the park
in winter. As he lighted on the snow-covered ground among a
group of feeding whitethroats the cardinal, with his splendid crest,
stood out like a jet of flame, and the black spot at the base of his
bill only made the rest of him seem the brighter, !^^r. and Mrs.
Cardinal spend their winters regularly in Central Park, and I hear

OLD RATTLER AND THE KING SNAKE. 371

or see tlicm every time I go there. His only note now is a sharp
squeak of alarm, but a little later he will perch high up in some
tree near the lake and awake the echoes with his loud whistling.
High over my head, mere specks of shining white against the blue-
gray of the sky, I could see several gulls floating along on their
way to the reservoir, where hundreds of them often gather in the
open water that is usually found in the center. As I walked toward
the entrance of the park, on my way to the car, I heard, on some
cedars near the border of the lake, the gurgling music of a party
of goldfinches. They had on their winter coats of yellowish brown,
but their song and dipping flight made them easily recognizable.
Once you become acquainted with a few birds, every flutter
of a wing or cheep or peep becomes an object of interest and a
motive for many days in the open. It is very easy also to sentimen-
talize about Nature and to assume a patronizing air toward her,
but the more you know of her and her ways the sooner you get
over this. You can not help being impressed with the fact that
the life and ways of the animals and birds are, after all, in many
ways very like your ov/n. Birds, you will find, are very human
indeed, and show a wide diversity in disposition and habit. There
is one thing sure to follow an interest of this kind, and that is a
greater respect and care for wild life. The cruelty of egg-collect-
ing and the wanton destruction of birds for millinery purposes are
becoming less tolerable every year in civilized communities.

OLD RATTLER AND THE KING SNAKE.

By DAVID STARR JORDAN,

PEESIDENT OF LELAND STANFORD JTINIOE UNIVERSITY.

" I only know thee humble, bold,
Haughty, with miseries untold,
And the old curpe that left thee cold,
And drove thee ever to the sun
On blistering rocks. . . .

. Thou whose fame
Searchest the grass with tongue of flame,
Making all creatures seem thy game,
When the whole woods before thee run,
Asked but — when all is said and done —
To lie, untrodden, in the sun ! " — Bret Harte.

OLD RATTLER was a snake, of course, and he lived in the
King's River Caiion, high up and down deep in the moun-
tains of California.

He had a hole behind and below a large, flat granite rock, not
far from the river, and he called it his home; for in it he slept
all night and all winter, "but when the sun came back in the spring

372 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and took the frost out of the air and the rocks, then he crawled
out to lie until he got warm. The stream was clear and swift in
the caiion, the waterfalls sang in the side gulch of Roaring River,
the wind rustled in the long needles of the yellow pines, and the
birds called to their mates in the branches. But Old Rattler did
not care for such things. He was just a snake, you know, and his
neighbors did not think him a good snake at that, for he was surly
and silent, and his big, three-cornered, " cofFm-shaped " head, set
on a slim, flat neck, was very ugly to see. But when he opened
his mouth he was uglier still, for in his upper jaw he had two long
fangs, and each one was filled with deadly poison. His vicious
old head was covered with gray and wrinkled scales, and his black,
beadlike eyes snapped when he opened his mouth to find out
whether his fangs were both in working order.

Old Rattler was pretty stiff when he first came from his hole
on the morning of this story. He had lain all night coiled up like
a rope among the rocks, and his tail felt very cold. But the glad
sun warmed the cockles of his heart, and in an hour or two he be-
came limber, and this made him happy in his snaky fashion. But,
being warm, he began to be hungry, for it had been a whole month
since he had eaten anything. When the first new moon of August
came, his skin loosened everywhere and slipped down over his
eyes like a veil, so that he could see nothing about him, and could
not hunt for frogs by the river nor for chipmunks among the trees.
But with the new moon of September all this was over. The
rusty brown old coat was changed for a new suit of gray and black,
and the diamond-shaped checkers all over it were clean and shiny
as a set of new clothes ought to be.

There was a little striped chipmunk running up and down the
sugar-pine tree over his head, pursing his little mouth and throw-
ing himself into pretty attitudes, as though he were the center of
an admiring audience, and Old Rattler kept a steady eye on him.
But he was in no hurry about it all. He must first get the kinks
out of his neck, and the cold cramps from his tail. There was
an old curse on his family, so the other beasts had heard, that
kept him always cold, and his tail was the coldest part of all. So
he shook it a little, just to show that it was growing limber, and
the bone clappers on the end rustled with a sharp, angry noise.
Fifteen rattles he had in all — fifteen and a button — and to have
80 many showed that he was no common member of his hated
family. Then he shook his tail again, and more sharply. This
was to show all the world that he, Old Rattler, was wide awake,
and whoever stepped on him would better look out. Then all the
big beasts and little beasts who heard the noise fled away just as

OLD RATTLER AND THE KING SNAKE. i-j-i,

fast as ever they could; and to run away was the best thing they
could do, for when Old Eattler struck one of them with his fangs
all was over with him. So there were many in the canon, beasts
and birds and snakes too, who hated Old Rattler, but only a few
dared face him. And one of these was Glittershield,* whom men
call the King of Snakes, and in a minute I shall tell you why.

And when Old Rattler was doing all that I have said, the King
Snake lay low on a bed of pine needles, behind a bunch of fern,
and watched with keen, sharp eye. The angry buzz of Rattler's
tail, which scared the chipmunks and the bullfrogs and all the
rest of the beast folk, was music for Glittershield. He was a
snake too, and snakes understand some things better than any of
the rest of us.

Glittershield was slim and wiry in his body, as long as Old
Rattler himself, but not so large around. His coat was smooth
and glossy, not rough and wrinkly like Old Rattler's, and his up-
raised head was small and pretty — for a snake. He was the best
dressed of all his kind, and he looked his finest as he faced Old
Rattler. His head was shiny black, his throat and neck as white
as milk, while all do"um his body to the end of his tail he was
painted with rings, first white, then black, then crimson, and every
ring was bright as if it had just been freshly polished that very day.
So the King Snake passed the sheltering fern and came right
up to Old Rattler. Rattler opened his sleepy eyes, threw him-
self on guard with a snap and a buzz, and shook his bony clappers
savagely. But the King of Snakes was not afraid. Every snake
has a weak spot somewhere, and that is the place to strike him.
If he hadn't a weak spot no one else could live about him, and
then perhaps he would starve to death at last. If he had not some
strong points, where no one could harm him, he couldn't live
himself.

As the black crest rose. Old Rattler's tail grew cold, his head
dropped, his mouth closed, he straightened out his coil, and stag-
gered helplessly toward his hole.

This was the chance for Glittershield. With a dash so swift
that all the rings on his body — red, white, and black — melted into
one purple flash, he seized Old Rattler by his throat. He car-
ried no weapons, to be sure. He had neither fangs nor venom.
He won his victories by force and dash, not by mean advantage.
He was quick and strong, and his little hooked teeth held like the
claws of a hawk. Old Rattler closed his mouth because he couldn't
help it, and the fangs he could not use were folded back against
the roof of his jaw.

* Lampropeltis zonatut.

374 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

The King Snake leaped forward, wound his body in a "love-
knot " around Old Kattler's neck, took a " half-hitch " with his
tail about the stomach, while the rest of his body lay in a curve
like the letter S between the two knots. Then all he had to do
was to stiffen up his muscles, and Old Rattler's backbone was
snapped off at the neck.

All that remained to Glittershield was to swallow his enemy.
First he rubbed his lips all over the body, from the head to the
tail, till it was slippery with slime. Then he opened his mouth
very wide, with a huge snaky yawn, and face to face he began
on Old Eattlcr. The ugly head was hard to manage, but, after
much straining, he clasped his jaws around it, and the venom
trickled down his throat like some fiery sauce. Slowly head and
neck and body disappeared, and the tail wriggled despairingly,
for the tail of the snake folk can not die till sundown, and when
it went at last the fifteen rattles and the button were keeping up
an angry buzz. And all night long the King of Snakes, twice as
big as he ought to be, lay gorged and motionless upon Old Rat-
tler's rock.

And in the morning the little chipmunk ran out on a limb above
him, pursed up his lips, and made all kinds of faces, as much as
to say, " I did all this, and the whole world was watching while
I did it."

REMARKABLE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS LN" THE
PHILIPPINES.

Bt E. L. PACKARD.

EVERY one knows that the Philippine archipelago, like other
regions in its neigliborhood, abounds in volcanoes, some of
which are still active, while the majority are extinct. Some geolo-
gists have tried to distribute the Philippine volcanoes into two
parallel belts or lines running in a general northwest and south-
east direction, following the trend of the island group, and extend-
ing from the southern end of Mindanao to the northern part of
Luzon — some sLxteen degrees of latitude. Early, possibly pre-
historic, volcanic activity in the group has left its imprint upon
the native mythology, as was the case in the Mediterranean, and
an explanation of some of the mythical stories is to be found in
earth movements. Tlie Spaniards have given accounts of many
eruptions in the last three hundred years, which were remarkable
either from the destruction they caused or the terror they inspired.
Some of these accounts were written by the terrified eyewitnesses

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 375

themselves, such as the monks in charge of parishes where the great-
est damage was done, and are sufficiently vivid, however much
they may lack of what would now be called " scientific " accuracy.

Probably the most remarkable volcanic outburst in historical
times, on account of the distance apart of the simultaneous erup-
tions, although its intensity might not be regarded as great when
compared with that of ]s!rakatoa, was that of January 4, 1G41,
when a volcano on the southeastern extremity of Mindanao, an-
other on the northern coast of the island of Sulu to the west, and
a third in Luzon far to the north, became active at the same time.
A translation of the original Spanish report of this extraordinary
phenomenon, which is extremely rare and practically inaccessible
to students, is given in Jagor's Reisen in den PJiilippinen. From
this it appears that upon two occasions, toward the end of Decem-
ber, 1G40, volcanic ashes fell at Zamboanga (on the southwest
coast of Mindanao) and covered the fields like a light frost. On
January 1, 1G41, the auxiliary fleet carrying troops from Manila
to the island of Ternate was off Zamboanga, and on the 3d, at
about 7 p. M., people in the latter place heard Avhat they sup-
posed was artillery and musketry firing at some miles' distance.
Believing that an enemy was attacking the coast, preparations
were made to meet him, and the commander of the galleys sent
a boat out to see if any of the vessels of the fleet needed assistance,
but the boat returned without finding the fleet.

On the next day, January 4, 1G41, at about 9 a. m., the noise
of the supposed cannonading increased to such an extent that
it was feared in Zamboanga that the Spanish fleet had been at-
tacked by the Dutch, with whom the Spaniards were then at war.
This noise lasted about half an hour, when it became evident that
it was not caused by artillery, but proceeded from the outbreak
of a volcano, for, toward noon, thick darkness began to spread
over the sky to the south, which soon covered that part of the
heavens and gradually spread over the whole sky, so that by 1
p. M. it was as dark as night,, and by 2 p. m. the darkness had so
increased that one could not distinguish objects a short distance
off. Candles were lighted, and a great fear fell upon the people,
who fled to the churches to pray and confess. This darkness, dur-
ing which no light was visible in the whole horizon, lasted until
2 A. M., when the moon became visible, to the great joy of both
Spaniards and Indians, who were afraid of being buried beneath
the ashes which had been falling since 2 p. u. The fleet, which
was then passing the southern end of Mindanao, was thrown into
confusion by the tumult of the elements, and was in darkness
earlier than Zamboanga — viz., at 10 a. m. — because it was nearer

376 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the volcano. The darkness was so intense that the crews believed
the last day had come, and the vessels were endangered by the
heavy shower of stones, ashes, and earth which fell upon them
and which the men hastened to throw overboard. The ships' lan-
terns were lighted as at night. The volcano could be seen, at a
considerable distance, throwing up columns of flame which, on
descending, set the neighboring woods on fire. The darkness cov-
ered the greater part of Mindanao, which is a very large island,
and the ashes were carried to Cebu, Panay, and other islands, and
there was an especially heavy fall on the island of Jolo (Sulu),
which is more than forty leagues west by south from the south-
east point of Mindanao, where the volcano burst out. On this
island, on account of the darkness and the general uproar, the
source of the ashes which fell there was not known at the time,
but when it became light enough to see it was found that at the
same time with the eruption on Mindanao a second volcano had
burst out upon a small island which lies off the mouth of the prin-
cipal river of Sulu. There the earth had opened with a violent
commotion, and had vomited out flames mingled with trees and
huge stones. So great was the disturbance that the sea bottom
was mingled with the interior of the earth, and the volcano threw
out quantities of shells and other things that grow upon the bot-
tom of the sea. The mouth of this volcano remained open after-
ward. It was very broad, and the eruption had burned up every-
thing upon the island. But what excited the greatest amazement
was that a third volcano broke out on the same day and hour with
the two just mentioned, in the province of Ilocos, in Luzon, and
at least six hundred miles north; and this volcano ejected water.
The outbreak was preceded by a violent storm and earthquake.
The earth swallowed up three mountains, on the sides of one of
which were three villages. All three mountains were torn from
their foundations and blown into the air, together with a vast
amount of water, and the chasm which took their place formed a
broad lake, that showed no trace of the mountains which had
stood on the spot. The letter from which the foregoing account
is taken goes on to say that the noise of this outbreak, which oc-
curred between 9 and 10 a. m., was heard not only in Manila
but in all the Philippine Islands and the Moluccas. It even
reached the mainland of Asia in the kingdoms of Cochin China,
Champa, and Cambodia, as was learned from priests and others
who came to Manila from those countries afterward. The noise
sounded like heavy artillery and musketry fire at two or three
leagues' distance. In Manila it was supposed that the firing was
going on in Cavite, while at Cavite it was referred to Manila,

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 377

and messengers were sent from one place to the other to make
inquiries, and a similar impression prevailed in all the islands,
cities, and villages in a circuit of nine hundred leagues, within
which the noise was heard. Malacca was taken by the Dutch on
the 13th of January, and was already hard pressed on the 4th, and
many pious Spaniards believed, after the news had come of the
capture of the place, that Heaven had taken this volcanic means
of warning them of the great injury which would result to the
archipelago from the loss of so important a city.

The missionaries in Cochin China gave January 5th as the
date of the outbreak, instead of the 4th, there being one day's
difference between the reckoning of the Portuguese, who sailed
from west to east, and that of the Spaniards, who sailed from east
to west, to their Eastern possessions.

The volcano of Mayon, or Albay, in the province of Cama-
rines, has been in frequent eruption from 1616 down to within
thirty years. Some of the eruptions were very destructive to life
and property. After an activity in July, 1766, of six days' dura-
tion, accompanied by a great flow of lava, on October 23, 1766,
during a violent storm, which began at about 7 p. m. from
north-northwest and at 3 a. m. suddenly veered to the south and
blew down all the houses of one of the villages in the neigh-
borhood, the volcano ejected such a vast quantity of water that
several torrents of thirty varas (ninety feet) wide ran down to the
sea between the villages Tibog and Albay. Between Bacacay and
MaKnao the floods were over eighty varas (two hundred and forty
feet) wide, and the highways were obliterated. One village was
entirely destroyed, nearly all the houses of the region were swept
away, and the fields were covered with sand; another village was
partly destroyed, its remainder forming an island, or rather a hill,
surrounded by deep, broad ravines, through which the stream of
sand and water ran. In another place palms and other trees were
buried in sand to their tops. Some fifty persons lost their lives.
As far as could be judged, the account declares, this [cold?] water
came from the interior of the volcano, while we should be inclined
to regard it as a cloudburst. The outbreak of February 1, 1814,
however, was the most destructive of all. An eyewitness writes
that at about 8 a. m. the mountain suddenly threw out a thick
column of stones, sand, and ashes, which quickly rose to the highest
layers of the air. The sides of the volcano became veiled and
disappeared from the view of the spectators, while a stream of fire
ran down the mountain and threatened to annihilate them. Every
one fled to the highest attainable point for safety, while the roar
of the volcano struck terror into all. The darkness increased.

378 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and many of the fleeing ones were struck down by the falling
stones. Houses afforded no protection, because the red-hot stones
set them on fire, and the most flourishing villages of the Camarines
were thus laid in ashes. Toward 10 a. m. the rain of stones ceased,
and was replaced by one of sand, and at about 2 p. m. the noise
had lessened and the sky began to clear. Twelve thousand per-
sons were killed and many wounded by this eruption. After the
mountain had become quiet it presented a frightful appearance,
its former picturesque, highly cultivated slopes being covered with
barren sand, which enveloped the cocoanut trees to their tops, and
some one hundred and twenty feet of its summit had been carried
away during the eruption. An enormous opening had been formed
on its southern side, near which three other mouths appeared, which
continued to emit ashes and smoke. The finest villages of the
Camarines were destroyed, and the best part of the province was
converted into a sandy waste.

This mountain has been active at short intervals down to the
present time. Sometimes its activity has been continuous for a
year or more. Its eruptions were frequently accompanied by
earthquakes and storms. The next outbreak after that described
above was in 1827. In 1834 and 1835 the mountain was active
nearly all the time. There was no eruption of ashes, but every
night a stream of molten lava could be seen running into the higher
ravines. In 1845 there was an eruption of ashes which lasted sev-
eral days; a violent eruption occurred in 1846, two unimportant
ones in 1851, and another violent ash and stone eruption occurred
on July 27, 1853, during which thirty-one persons were killed.
Others "occurred in 1855, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1860, 1865, and 1871.
The heights of the Philippine volcanoes vary from ten thousand
and nine thousand feet (Albay or Mayon) down to Taal, only
seven hundred and eighty feet high. This curious volcano is upon
an islet in the middle of Lake Bombon, south of Manila. Lake
Bombon was originally probably a vast crater. It is separated
from the China Sea by a narrow isthmus. Taal contains second-
ary craters, crevasses emitting vapors, and lakelets of acid water.
It is the principal " show " volcano of the islands, and was in
action in 1885, when all the vegetation upon the island was burned
up. Lake Bombon was doubtless formerly connected with the sea,
the intervening barrier being formed of eruptive scoriae. Its water
is still saline, and its marine fauna has adapted itself to its modi-
fied environment.

On the small island Camiguin, on the northwest coast of Min-
danao, is the extinct volcano Catarman, with a crater lake upon its
summit whose level has been subject to great fluctuations. Some-

THE SCAVENGERS OF THE BODY. 379

times the lake dried up, and again it has overflowed and inundated
the low lands in the neighborhood, as in 1827 and 1862. Often
its water has been set boiling by escaping gases. It would be in-
teresting to know what varying pressure caused the changes in the
level of this lake on the top of Mount Catarman.

A further idea of the volcanic activity of this region may be
gained from the circumstance that a volcanic island emerged from
the sea on the north coast of Luzon in 1856, which grew to seven
hundred feet in height by 1860, and is now about eight hundred
feet high. Every one has seen photographs of the streets of Ma-
nila after an earthquake, which form of subterranean activity is
so common that it is taken into account in building.

THE SCAVENGEES OF THE BODY.
Bt m. a. dastre.

THE labors of M. Metchnikoff have made known one of the
most curious mechanisms — perhaps the most effective — which
Nature employs to protect the organism against the invasion and
ravages of microbes. We are only beginning to learn the means
which are provided for our defense against the countless swarms
of enemies of this class, some of them exceedingly dangerous,
among which we have to live and move. In the first rank of these
defenses is phagocytosis. The struggle of the organism against its
minute assailants is an image of human wars. The cutaneous or
mucous integument, continuous over the whole body, constitutes a
kind of fortified inclosure which the microbe can not penetrate, ex-
cept where some breach has been made. On one side of that wall,
in the living city, the phagocytes or leucocytes (white cells) form
an immense defensive army in a state of continual mobilization, or,
as M. Duclaux would say, an innumerable and vigilant police.

These phagocytes or leucocytes are the nomadic elements of our
economy. The animal body may be compared to an organized
city in which all the living corpuscles, all the cellular elements, are
sedentary, each having its place and staying there. Hence the
comparison, often made, with the stones of a building, which is not
exact, however, because these vital elements grow and increase,
enlarging the structure without change of arrangement, while the
stones do not. The growth and nutrition of these anatomical ele-
ments, it should be added, are carried on exclusively at the expense
of liquid matters. IN'othing solid can enter them or come out
from them.

38o POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

An exception to these two fundamental rules is found in tlie
single case of the leucocytes or white globules of the blood. They
have no fixed or determined place in the organism. Besides being
carried passively by the flow of the blood in a perpetual circula-
tion along with the red corpuscles, they possess a motion of their
own. They can swim in the current that carries them, fi:s them-
selves to the walls, and travel in a sort of creeping way, which has
been called the amoeboid motion.

They are also exceptions to the second law, according to which
living cells can dispose only of liquefied matters. All solid bodies
that pass within reach of the leucocytes are seized and incorporated
by them, provided they are sm.all or inert enough to be enveloped.
The nature of the body is of little import. Whatever it may be,
it is swallowed and quickly inclosed within the mass of the leuco-
cyte and submitted to the dissolving action of its juices — or, in a
way, eaten. Hence the names " phagocyte," or devouring cell, given
to the enveloping white globule, and " phagocytosis " to the process.
No other element of the organism, or hardly any other, possesses
this singular faculty of seizure and swallowing (inglohemeni).

All the other characteristics of the white globules flow from
these two of mobility and phagocytism, the significance of which
has been set in a clear light by M. Metchnikoff. These character-
istics are the attributes of the most primitive types of animal life.
They appertain to cells not yet differentiated, to the unicellular
organisms which occupy the first stages of life. They translate
the vital energy of elements still independent and isolated, with-
out definite place in the social organization and as yet without spe-
cial high function, but for that very reason better adapted to the
needs of the simplest animality. Their voracity is useful for the
preservation of the social organism. By eliminating old, ex-
hausted, diseased cells they rejuvenate the structure and prepare
the way for new generations. And when the fecundity of these is
exhausted the leucocytes come in to occupy the vacated situations,
and conduct the organism thus patched up through a senile degen-
eracy to natural death.

The leucocytes, white globules, or phagocytes, by virtue of their
mobility, are found everj'Avhere — in the blood, in all the organs,
and in all parts of the body — but are perhaps most abundant in
the blood. The study of them proceeds slowly, and we are still
engaged in distinguishing the varieties among them. The most
abundant and best known of them — those which answer most closely
the description we have given — are those called the polynuclear,
neutrophilous leucocytes. They are colored with neutral hues,
and have a nucleus like a rolled-up scroll in structure. Other

THE SCAVENGERS OF THE BODY. 381

varieties — the eosinophiles, lymphocytes, etc. — are less mobile and
have still less marked phagocytic properties.

The roll-call of the phagocytic army would be a long task. The
phagocytes are numerous in the sanguineous fluid, but are still six
hundred and fifty times less so than the red corpuscles. They are
almost as numerous in the lymph and the conjunctival tissue, where,
besides occurring in their normal condition, they sport into a variety
which appears to have abandoned its migratory habit, for a time at
least, and into a giant variety one hundred times larger than the
ordinary leucocytes, which M. Ranvier calls clasmatocytes. They
are further found in such tissues as the skin and the mucous mem-
brane, where, notwithstanding the cells are so crowded, they make
their way into the intestine, and, by a sort of diapedesis (passage
through the pores or interstices) called the phenomenon of Stoehr,
toward all the free surfaces, whither exterior soluble substances
invite them. As they go they destroy the microbes which, ad-
vancing in an inverse direction, would invade the organism and
provoke an infection of intestinal origin.

The fact that this immense army of phagocytes is always in
motion was first clearly recognized by Cohnheim, in 1867. He
saw, in inflamed regions, where the vessels are gorged and dis-
tended, the white globules thrusting out a prolongation which
seemed to pierce the wall, but in reality simply insinuated itself
between its elements, and elongating itself, drew its entire body,
as it were, through the narrow channel. This emigration, which
is produced without making a break, through the pores and inter-
stices of the vascular wall, has been designated diapedesis. It is
ordinarily provoked by some foreign body, a pathogenic microbe,
for instance, which has introduced itself into the place and spread
its irritating secretion or cause of infection there. The phago-
cytes, attracted from the interior of the vessel, come up and de-
vour the invader. But if they are incapable of dissolving it they
bear it away to work their own ruin; they degenerate in their
turn, become transformed into globules of pus, and the inflamma-
tion results in purulence. The study of the mechanism by means
of which the leucocytes traverse the tissues is very interesting.

These remarkable wandering elements are foimd in all classes
of animals, and in all present the same essential characteristics.
They are more like free existences than the other cells living in
society which compose the bodies of animals, and their history is
substantially like that of the naked one-celled organisms. Their
various functions and properties are of the highest interest in all
departments of physiology. It has been demonstrated, in particu-
lar, that the white globules of the blood give rise to the most ener-

382 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

getic and most special agencies of living chemistry, to the ferments
which determine the coagulation of the blood when drawn from
the vessels (coagulating ferment, or thrombosis) and the consump-
tion of sugar (glycolytic ferment), and to numerous diastases. The
presence of nuclein in their bodies involves consequences which
we are only beginning to perceive.

Behaving like independent beings, the leucocytes or phagocytes
perform similar functions with those of the highest animals, feed-
ing, respiring, and reproducing themselves; they move and feel —
that is, are impressed by internal excitants. These operations, how-
ever, assume with them a character of extreme simplicity. They
seem to be the direct result of the physical and chemical proper-
ties of the protoplasm that composes them, so that the mysterious
side of those vital functions nearly vanishes when we scan them in
these their very beginnings. Their respiration is the effect of a sort
of affinity between their substance and the vital gas — a ehimiotac-
tism directing them toward oxygen. This may be illustrated by
forming a microscopic preparation of fresh lymph, imprisoning a
few bubbles of air, and sealing it hermetically with paraffin.
After two or three hours we can see the leucocytes grouped around
the bubbles. When the provision of air is exhausted, several hours
afterward, the leucocytes will cease to move and become inert.
On inserting a needle, the contact of the air revives them.

The faculty possessed by the leucocytes of- seizing solid cor-
puscles coming in contact with them, inglobing them, and absorb-
ing them, or, as M. ]\Ietchnikoff calls it, intracellular digestion or
phagocytosis, is easily observed. If we mix fine granulations of
carmine or cinnabar, mingled with slightly salted water, with a
drop of lymph, we can see the coloring matter penetrating the leu-
cocytary protoplasmic mass, which is soon stuffed with it. The
anatomo-pathologists had already observed, in tattooed subjects,
white globules charged with grains of charcoal or vermilion. It
is legitimate to conclude that some parts of the coloring matter
that had been introduced under the epidermis had been taken up
by the white globules. This proceeding has been observed in the
very act by M. Metchnikoff.

A classic experiment illustrating this operation is now common
in our laboratories, and the fact of phagocytosis has come to be
regarded as incontestable.

The generality of the phenomenon results from the leucocyte
preserving its phagocytic faculty in all its peregrinations, and these
peregrinations are unlimited. The tendency of the nomadic ele-
ments to push on and insinuate themselves into the finest inter-
stices and the narrowest passages is a rudiment of a tactile sense,

THE SCAVENGERS OF THE BODY. 383

to this extent simply a physical phenomenon, which MM. Mascart
and Bordet have clearly distinguished. As soon as a leucocyte
touches a resisting body it reacts to the contact by applying the
largest possible surface to it. It spreads out, becomes thin,
stretches itself along, and ceases deforming itself only after it has
obtained the maximum of contact. By such mechanism it pene-
trates objects that offer it any breach and overcomes them. "When
the foreign body has been disaggregated into fragments, into small
enough grains, phagocytosis intervenes and disposes of the remains.
In this way the organism sometimes rids itself of splinters of bone
that remain in the tissues after a fracture. So, too, the leucocytes,
when occasion arises, repair the blunders of surgeons by extracting
and absorbing forgotten objects left in wounds, while at other
times they act as auxiliaries by destroying things that have been
voluntarily abandoned in them, like threads of catgut in buried
sutures and drains of decalcified bone.

There are two conditions, under normal circumstances, in which
phagocytosis plays a marked part. The first is the case where
vital action brings on the destruction of the organs or the tissues,
or, to use exact language, their disintegration in a solid form.
The wastes of organic activity are usually in liquid form, and,
turned into the blood, they are eliminated in that state through
the natural emunctories. Sometimes, however, disintegration re-
sults in solid wastes, and the phagocytes do the work of carrying
them away. This is the case with the red globules of the blood,
which, after a longer or shorter career, are deposited in the spleen
and break up into debris, some of the parts of which are insoluble
in the interstitial liquids. The leucocytes collect around these resi-
dues so thickly as sometimes to fuse themselves into a solid mass, a
sort of Plasmodium or giant cell which digests the debris. At other
times, and more rarely the isolated leucocytes are not able to absorb
the incorporated matters. They then conduct them to the surface
of the intestine and discharge them there. A like phenomenon
occurs in the liver. The coloring matter of the blood frequently
gives rise to insoluble ferruginous deposits which the leucocytes
have to convey to the digestive tube. This occurs when a wound
provokes an effusion of blood and a mortification of the red globules
or of the neighboring anatomical elements. All of the waste that
can not take the liquid form and pass in that condition into the
circulatory passages is incorporated within the phagocytes. The
mechanism of resorption of bone does not seem different.

The phagocytes perform a similar function in another process
which very frequently takes place in various animals that pass
through metamorphoses, -as in insects whose organs are transformed

384 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

in changing from one stage of their existence to another, and in
tadpoles which lose their tails in becoming frogs; the old parts that
disappear are devoured by phagocytes.

Especially in the case of infectious diseases has the protective
part performed by the leucocytary phagocytes been brought into
full view by M. Metchnikoff. He has shown that the white glob-
ules rush to meet the bacterides of inflammation that are introduced
through any wound, absorb them, and render them powerless to
do harm. In the lymphatic organs — the spleen, the lymphatic
ganglions, and the marrow — the white globules are normally accu-
mulated, and there is where the struggle is most active between
the bacterides of inflammation which are swarming in the blood
and the defensive agents of the organism. The same takes place
with the spirilla of recurrent typhus and the microbe of erysipelas.

The leucocytes are capable of adapting themselves to conditions
different from those in which they usually live, provided the change
is not too abrupt. It may sometimes occur that the poison secreted
by a microbe will paralyze and kill the leucocyte, unless care has
been taken, by inoculations of virus, at first attenuated and after-
ward gradually increasing in virulence, to create an immunity in
the phagocyte, to make it refractory to the poison and capable of
swallowing the toxic bacterium without suffering from it. Expla-
nations have been sought in this property for the virtue of vaccina-
tion and the immunity that results from it, but they are evidently
only fragmentary, and there are other theories of immunity.

The leucocytes are not always victorious over the microbes,
and when these excel in numbers or force it sometimes comes to
pass that they are overcome and succumb. Poisoned by the sub-
stance they have incorporated, they undergo a fatty degeneration
and become globules of pus. Pus is therefore formed of the ca-
davers of conquered leucocytes. Although that humor ought, for
the good of the system, to be rejected, like every other mortified
part, it is nevertheless true that the production of it is a beneficent
effort, and a salutary reaction of Nature against the morbid agent.

It will be an enduring honor to the name of M. Metchnikoff
that he has revealed the importance of the function of phagocytes,
and has enriched science with a large number of new truths. A part
of this honor will be reflected upon the Pasteur Institute, which has
welcomed the eminent biologist for many years, and has intrusted
the direction of one of its services to him. The learned Kussian,
in creating the study of phagocytism, with its causes, mechanism,
and consequences, has opened a very extensive field of research to
which we have given only a distant and cursory glance. — Translated
for the Popular Science Monthly from the Revue des Deux Mondes.

EDITOR'S TABLE,

385

gdit0r^s %^yi%.

LIBERAL EDUCATION AXD
DEMOCRACY.

IN" a most thoughtful article, in
the Modern Education Series of
The Cosmopolitan, President Had-
ley, of Yale, remarks that the
conception of a liberal education
changes as forms of government
change. " It takes one shape," he
proceeds to say, "in a military
state, and quite another shape in a
state ruled by public opinion. In
the former case it will teach the
sterner virtues of courage and pride.
In the latter case it will teach re-
spect for law, progressiveness, and
human sympathy. But in either
case a liberal education is an edu-
cation for citizenship; a develop-
ment of those distinguishing quali-
ties moral, intellectual, and physical
by which the people are to be ruled."
It is a happy definition of " a
liberal education " to say that it
is " an education for citizenship."
From this point of view the most
liberally educated man will be he
who is educated to be a citizen of
the world and to feel his relation
not only to the present but to the
past, and the future as well. Comte
had much the same idea when he
taught that the moral and social
education of the individual was ac-
complished first by the family, then
by the state, and finally by the race.
In other words, the egoism of the
individual is first tamed by family
life, then broadened by political
life, and, lastly, humanized in the
full sense by conscious participa-
tion in the age-long progress of
mankind. President Hadley has
well chosen the qualities which he
says a liberal education under a
democracy should aim at develop-
ing, but we think he might with
much advantage have added an-

TOL. LVI. — 30

other. He will remember that
when the poet Horace would de-
scribe the character of a high-prin-
cipled citizen, a man just and firm
of purpose, he says that his mind is
shaken neither by the lowering
countenance of a tyrant nor by the
frenzy of the populace command-
ing vicious courses of policy. In
our land and time the vultus in-
stantis iyranni is no longer, if it
ever was, an object of terror, but
the civium ardor prava juhentium is
a danger, we fear, which has yet to
be reckoned with.

In a state, therefore, which is
ruled by public opinion one of the
qualities which a liberal education
should most distinctly aim to im-
part is firmness to resist popular
pressure when exerted in a wrong
direction. In like manner, under
an aristocracy a truly liberal educa-
tion would not be one that would
tend to perpetuate in the rising
generation the faults of the preced-
ing one, or to shut out all criticism
of the established regime; on the
contrary, its tendency should be to
temper whatever was extreme or
one-sided in the views of the ruling
class. The liberality of an educa-
tion comes in just here, in opening
out wider views than would prob-
ably be acquired in actual contact
with private business or public af-
fairs. When William Pitt, while
Prime Minister of England, be-
took himself to the study of Adam
Smith's recently published Wealth
of Nations, and began to consider
how he could apply the enlightened
and philosophical views contained
therein to the fiscal policy of the
British Empire, he was converting
his old-fashioned liberal education
into a liberal education of the best
kind.

386

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

A liberal education, let it be
thoroughly understood, is not one
which delivers over an individual to
the dominant influences of his place
and time, whatever they may be,
but one which enables him to react,
when necessary, against such influ-
ences under the guidance of wider
views and deeper principles. It is
an illiberal education, let it em-
brace what it may, which simply
equips a man for exploiting for his
own benefit the conditions and tend-
encies which he finds prevailing in
the society around him; and too
much of what passes for liberal
education has, we fear, had no bet-
ter result. In a country like ours,
liable to be swept by gusts of popu-
lar excitement, not to say passion,
the aim of all higher education
should be to create a class of citi-
zens trained for social influence,
and yet able to stand on their guard
against sensational politics, to dis-
tinguish between true and false pa-
triotism, and to uphold the claims
of justice and honor when threat-
ened by popular infatuation and
tumult. We read in Thucydides
that Cleon, the typical demagogue
of ancient Athens, did not hesitate
to tell his fellow-citizens that re-
publics were not adapted for hold-
ing distant territories in subjec-
tion. If Cleon was a demagogue,
what are we to think of the highly
educated men who in our country
echo the popular cry for an im-
perial policy, and say that millions
of people beyond sea who ask only
for liberty should be compelled by
force of arms to be our subjects?
Let our colleges and universities see
to it that they understand " a lib-
eral education " in the right sense.

EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL
AGGRESSION.

Much surprise has been expressed
at the unusual prevalence of vio-
lence of all kinds in the United

States during the past year. It has
seemed quite extraordinary that in
a nation devoted, as the American
nation is, to vast schemes of phi-
lanthropy at home and abroad, such
atrocious crimes as the mutilation
and burning of negroes and the ex-
plosion of dynamite under street
cars should be committed. From
the sympathetic and self-sacrificing
spirit manifested in the enthusiastic
response to the appeal to arms to
free Cuba and Puerto Rico from
Spanish cruelty and despotism, and
the repression of the insurrection in
the Philippine Islands for the pur-
pose of introducing order and civi-
lization, something quite different
was expected. There should have
been a deeper interest in the welfare
of the negro and a greater effort to
protect him in the enjoyment of hia
rights. There should have been cre-
ated a tie between capital and labor
that no differences about wages or
hours of toil could have ruptured
with murderous animosities. In a
word, there should have been a mani-
festation of fraternal feeling among
all classes and in all sections that
would have advanced the United
States a long step toward the goal of
civilization. So general has been
the anticipation of these fruits from
the war with Spain that one of the
most familiar arguments in favor of
it has been the subjective regenera-
tion that would follow the attempt
at objective regeneration. That is
to say, the American people were to
find a cure for their own moral dis-
orders in their cure of the moral dis-
orders of their neighbors.

To a student of the social phi-
losophy of Herbert Spencer it will
be no surprise nor disappointment
that this expectation, so worthy of
a generous and self-sacrificing peo-
ple, has not been and is not likely
to be realized. No truth set forth
in his works is more firmly estab-
lished than his profound induction
that external aggression always be-

EDITOR'S TABLE.

387

gets internal aggression — that as-
saults upon the rights of others
abroad leads to assaults upon the
rights of others at home. " As it
is incredible," he says, " that men
should be courageous in the face of
foes and cowardly in the face of
friends, so it is incredible that other
feelings fostered by perpetual con-
flicts abroad should not come into
play at home. We have just seen,"
he adds, alluding to the proofs of
this truth that he has given, " that
with the pursuit of vengeance out-
side the society there goes the pur-
suit of vengeance inside the soci-
ety, and whatever other habits of
thought and action constant war
necessitates must show their effects
on social life at large." The facts
in support of Mr. Spencer's general-
ization are to be found in the his-
tory of every militant people. He
mentions himself the Fijian's sacri-
fice of their own people at their can-
nibal festivals, and the prevalence
of assassination among the Turks
from the earliest times down to the
present. He mentions also the hide-
ous acts of cruelty that are to be
found in the records of Greek and
Roman civilization. To these ex-
amples may be added the atrocities
committed by Italians upon Italians
during the last days of the mediae-
val republics, and those committed
by Frenchmen upon Frenchmen
during the French Revolution.
" The victories of the Plantagenets
in France," said Goldwin Smith,
pointing out not long ago the futil-
ity of war as a cure for national
factiousness, " were followed by in-
surrections and civil wars at home,
largely owing to the spirit of vio-
lence that the raids in France ex-
cited. The victories of Chatham
were followed by disgraceful scenes

of cabal and faction, as well as cor-
ruption, terminating in the prostra-
tion of patriotism and the domina-
tion of George III and North."

It is impossible to hope that the
United States can be an exception
to the social law thus established.
However pure the motive that may
lie at the bottom of a war of aggres-
sion, it can not annul the law. The
shedding of blood and the seizure
of territory produce a callousness of
feeling and a perverted view of the
rights of others that are certain to
turn the hands striking a foreign
foe to the work of domestic strife.
Already we have seen with what bit-
terness such men as Prof. Charles
Eliot Norton and Mr. Edward At-
kinson have been assailed. We have
seen, too, how attempts have been
made to discredit the principles of
the Declaration of Independence,
and to show that the Constitution
must not be permitted to stand in
the way of what has been politely
called the fulfillment of the destiny
of the United States. We have
seen, finally, how proposals for the
disfranchisement of American citi-
zens have been listened to in all
parts of the country with a tolera-
tion that must cause the old aboli-
tionists to turn in their graves. But
the spirit thus manifested has not,
we may be sure, failed to contribute
to the perpetration of the outrages
that have shocked every right-mind-
ed observer of current events. It
is not a difference of kind but only
one of degree that separates the
slaughter of Spaniards in Cuba and
Tagals in Luzon from the slaughter
of negroes in the South and the ex-
plosion of dynamite under street
cars in the North. The inhuman in-
stincts that impel to the one impel
to the other.

388

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

^ragnxjetxts txt ^titxitt.

Zola's Anthropological Traits. —

Mr. Arthur MacDonakl has published,
originally in the Open Court, a minute
anthropological study of the personality
of li,mile Zola. Passing all the physical
points noted, we select a few only of
the most peculiar mental traits men-
tioned by the author. Fear is spoken
of as Zola's principal emotion, connected
in him with the instinct of self-preser-
vation. He is not much afraid of the
bicycle, but shrinks from a ride through
a forest at night. He has no fear of
being buried alive, yet sometimes when
in a tunnel on a railroad train he has
been beset with the idea of the two ends
of the tunnel falling in and burying
him. Some morbid ideas have devel-
oped in him, but they do not cause him
pain when not satisfied. He lets them
run into their "manias," and is then con-
tented. The idea of doubt is one. He
is always in fear of not being able to
do his daily task, or of being incapable
of completing a book. He never re-
reads his novels, for fear of making
bad discoveries. He has an arithmetical
mania, and when in the street he counts
the gas jets, the number of doors, and
especially the number of hacks. In his
home he counts the steps of the stair-
cases, the different things on his bureau.
He must touch the same pieces of furni-
ture a certain number of times before
he goes to sleep. Some numbers have
a bad influence for him, and there are
good numbers. In the night he opens
his eyes seven times, to prove that he
is not going to die. He is regarded by
the author as a neuropath, or a man
whose nervous system is painful but
does not seem to affect the sound-
ness of his mind. " In brief, the quali-
ties of Zola are fineness and exactitude
of perception, clearness of conception,
power of attention, sureness in judg-
ment, sense of order, power of co-ordina-
tion, extraordinary tenacity of effort,
and, above all, a great practical utili-
tarian sense."

The Simplon Tunnel. — The follow-
ing facts are taken from a brief account
of this great engineering feat in the En-

gineering Magazine: There is at pres-
ent no direct rail connection between
western Switzerland and Italy, and to
reach Milan it has been necessary to go
around to Lucerne and so on through
by the St. Gothard route. The distance
by rail from Milan to Calais by the
Mont Cenis is 665 miles, and by the St.
Gothard 680 miles. The distance by
way of the Simplon Tunnel will be only
585 miles. The Jura-Simplon Railway
from Geneva around the lake and up the
Rhone Valley ascends to Bricg at an
altitude of about 2,300 feet, while on the
Italian side the railway from Milan
stops at Domodossola, at an altitude of
900 feet. Between the two, which are
41 miles apart and over an elevation of
6,590 feet, lies the famous Simplon Pass.
Connection is now made by diligence,
the trip occupying a whole day. The
plan of the new railway includes the
prolongation of the present line on the
Italian side to Iselle, at an altitude of
about 2,100 feet, where the Italian en-
trance to the tunnel was begun in Au-
gust, 1898. On the Swiss side the en-
trance is at Brieg, and the tunnel will
connect these two towns, being 12.26
miles long. This is nearly three miles
longer than the St. Gothard, but the
altitude is only 2,300 feet above the sea,
instead of 3,800 feet, as at the St. Go-
thard. The tunnel is to be straight lat-
erally, but higher in the middle than at
either end, the grade being 1 in 143 on
the Italian and 1 in 500 on the Swiss
side. The principal difference between
the Simplon Tunnel and those previous-
ly pierced through the Alps is that, in-
stead of one single tunnel, two separate
tunnels, fifty-five feet apart, are to be
constructed, connected by lateral pas-
sageways every 650 feet. At first but
one of these is to be completed to the
full dimensions, the other being carried
through at only about a quarter of the
ultimate cross-section, and not enlarged
and put into use until the traffic de-
mands it. Both tunnels are now being
bored by the use of the Brandt hydrau-
lic rotary drills, water being supplied at
a pressure of 70 to 100 atmospheres.
The borings are through gneiss, lime-

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

389

stone, and slate. Holes two inches and
three quarters in dianieter and four or
five feet deep are bored and the rock
dislodged by means of dynamite. A nar-
row-gauge railway is used to remove the
ddbris. It is expected that the tunnel
will be completed in five years and a
half. At the close of 1898, 300 feet had
been penetrated on the south side and
1,300 on the north. The estimated cost
of the complete double-track tunnels is
69,000,000 francs. This does not include
the construction of the permanent way.
The Mont Cenis Tunnel cost 75,000,000
francs, and the St. Gothard 59,750,000
francs. The work is practically con-
trolled by the Jura-Simplon Railway.

Grant Allen. — The death of our
contributor, Mr. Grant Allen, was men-
tioned in the last number of the Popu-
lar Science Monthly. Mr, Allen was
born in February, 1848, the son of the
Rev. J. A. Allen, of Wolfe Island, Can-
ada. He attended schools in the United
States, in France, and in Birmingham,
England, and entered Merton College,
Oxford, whence he took his degree of
B. A. in 1870. He afterward spent a
few years in Jamaica as principal of a
college for the higher education of the
negro, which had only a brief career.
He returned to England and settled
down in London for literary work, writ-
ing rather on social and scientific than
political subjects, for various journals.
While he loved and appreciated scien-
tific truth, he rather regarded his subject
from the essthetic side, and this gave a
peculiar charm to his articles. He pub-
lished books on Physiological Esthetics
and The Color Sense, which did not
prove profitable. Finding it hard to
gain a livelihood from his scientific
work, he turned- to fiction, and soon
found, as the London Times has it,
" that his worst fiction was more profit-
able than his best science." His love of
science, however, " approached enthusi-
asm," and he contributed frequent popu-
lar scientific articles to the magazines,
so that " for years past hardly one of
those publications has been reckoned
complete " without contribution of this
character from him. He removed from
London to Dorking, and afterward went
to southern France and Italy for his
health. Then, having so far recovered
that he could spend his winters in Eng-

land, he maae himself a home at Hind-
head, Surrey. Here he died, October
•25th, after several weeks' suffering from
a painful internal malady. Among his
scientific works, his books on Physio-
logical ^Esthetics, The Color Sense, and
the Evolution of the Idea of God deserve
special mention.

Japanese Paper. — The peculiar
qualities of Japanese paper, most of
them excellent ones, and the great va-
riety of uses to which it is applied, are
known everywhere. It is a wood or
bark paper, and derives its properties
from the substances of which it is made
and the method of its manufacture.
Several plants are cultivated for the
oianufacture, which, in the absence of
English names, must be called by their
Japanese or scientific ones, of which
the principal are " mitsumata " (Edge-
worthia papyrifera), the " sozo " (Bros-
sonia papyrifera), and the "gampiju"
{Wiekstroannia canecensis). Bamboo
bark also fxirnishes a good paper, but is
not much used. The mitsumata rami-
fies into three branches, and is culti-
vated in plantations, being propagated
from seeds and by cuttings. It is fit
for use in the second year if the soil
is good. Its cultivation and exporta-
tion have reached an enormous im-
portance, largely because the Imperial
Printing Office uses it for bank notes and
official documents. The so::o is propa-
gated by seeds, and somewhat resembles
the mulberry. The gampiju is a small
shrub which is cut in its third year.
To make paper, the bark is steeped in a
kettle with buckwheat ashes to extract
the resin in it. When it is reduced to
a pulp, a sieve-bottomed frame with silk
or hempen threads is plunged within,
very much as in Western paper-making.
This, letting out the water, holds the
pulp, which, felting, is to form the future
sheet of paper. This is pressed, to squeeze
all the water out, and is left to dry. The
uses made of paper in Japan are in-
numerable, particularly in old Japan,
which treasures up its past. The pa-
pers, though all made in a similar way,
are called by different names, according
to the uses to which they are applied
and their origin. Window lights are
made of paper, and partitions between
rooms, when it is stretched on frames,
which work as sliding doors. The ccle-

390

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

brated lanterns, called (liin, are made
of it at Tokio and Osaka. Under the
name of shibuganni it is applied to
the covering of umbrellas which are
sold in China and Korea. As zedogawa
shi bank notes are printed on it. Oiled
it is kappa, impermeable and suit-
able for covering packages and for mak-
ing waterproof garments. Handker-
chiefs are made from it, cords by twist-
ing. For light, solid articles it is mixed
and compressed very much as our papier-
machC». Covered with thick paste and
pounded, it forms tapestries. Imitations
of Cordova leather are made of it b.y
spreading it and pressing it with hard
brushes upon boards in which suitable
designs have been cut. It is then cov-
ered with oil and varnish. Japan pro-
duced nearly five million dollars' worth
of paper in 1892. Unfortunately, Euro-
pean methods of manufacture have been
introduced, and there is danger of the
paper losing its distinctive qualities.

The Deeps of the Ocean. — In his

geographical address at the British As-
sociation, Sir John Murray showed that
the deep oceanic soundings are scat-
tered over the different ocean basins in
varying proportions, that they are now
most numerous in the North Atlantic
and Southwest Pacific, and in these
two regions the contour lines of depth
may be drawn with greater confidence
than in the other divisions of the great
ocean basins. On the whole, it may be
said that the general tendency of recent
soundings is to extend the area with
depths greater than one thousand fath-
oms, and to show that numerous vol-
canic cones rise from the general level
of the floor of the ocean basins up to
various levels beneath the sea surface.
Considerably more than half of the sea
floor lies at a depth exceeding two thou-
sand fathoms, or more than two geo-
graphical miles. On the Challenger
charts all areas where the depth ex-
ceeds three thousand fathoms have been
called " deeps," and distinctive names
have been conferred upon them. Forty-
two such depressions are now known —
twenty- four in the Pacific Ocean, three
in the Indian Ocean, fifteen in the At-
lantic Ocean, and one in the Southern
and Antarctic Oceans. The area occu-
pied by these deeps is estimated at
7,152,000 geographical square miles, or

about seven per cent of the total water
surface of the globe. Within these
deeps more than 250 soundings have
been recorded, of which twenty-four ex-
ceed 2,000 fathoms, including three ex-
ceeding 5,000 fathoms. Depths exceed-
ing 4,000 fathoms, or four geographical
miles, have been recorded in eight of
the deeps. Depths exceeding 5,000 fath-
oms have been hitherto recorded only
within the Aldrich Deep of the South
Pacific, to the east of the Kermadecs
and Friendly Islands, where the great-
est depth is 5,155 fathoms, or 530 feet
more than five geographical miles. This
is about 2,000 feet more below the level
of the sea than the summit of Mount
Everest, in the Himalayas, is above it.

Death of Sir "William Dawson. —
By the death of Sir J. William Daw-
son, at Montreal, November 19th, Amer-
ica loses one of its most highly distin-
guished geologists. Sir William was
born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, in October,
1820, and was deeply interested in the
study of Nature from his early college
days, M'hen he made extensive collec-
tions of various kinds. When he was
twenty-two years old a happy fortune
brought him in contact with Sir Charles
Lyell, then visiting America, and he
was that eminent geologist's traveling
companion during his scientific tour of
Nova Scotia. He studied chemistry at
the University of Edinburgh. Return-
ing to Nova Scotia -in 1850, he engaged
in teaching, and was associated with
the first normal school in the pi-ovince.
He was afterward connected with the
new University of New Brunswick,
and from 1855 to 1893 was Principal of
McGill College and University. Al-
though his duties in the college were
very exacting. Professor Dawson's in-
dustry in scientific research was never
relaxed, and he was the author of con-
tributions of very great value to the
geology and paleontology of Canada.
Among these were the discoveries of the
Dcndrcpeton acadianum — the first rep-
tile found in the American coal forma-
tions— and the Pupa vetusta — the first-
known Paleozoic land shell. His dis-
covery and exposition of the Eozoon
canadcnse attracted great attention,
and was much discussed, but his views
of its importance do not seem to have
been justified, for some doubts now ex-

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

391

ist among geologists whether it repre-
sents any organic structure. He was
the first President of the Koyal Society
of Canada, wliich was organized in
1882; was one of the sectional presi-
dents of the British Association at its
Montreal meeting (1884), and was pres-
ident of that body at its Birmingham
meeting, 1886. Among his published
works are the Description of the Devo-
nian and Carboniferous Flora of East-
ern North America, constituting two
volumes of the Reports of the Geologi-
cal Survey of Canada; Air-Breathers of
the Coal Formation; Acadian Geology;
The Story of the Earth and Man; Ori-
gin of Animal Life; Fossil Men; the
Canadian Ice Age; the Meeting Place
of Geology and History; the Geologi-
cal History of Plants (in the Interna-
tional Scientific Series) ; Relics of Prime-
val Life (Lowell Lectures) ; The Chain
of Life in Geological Times; Modern
Science in Bible Lands; the Dawn of
Life; Modern Ideas of Evolution; a
book of travels in Egypt and Syria;
and many contributions to scientific pe-
riodicals. He received numerous de-
grees and honors from learned bodies
and institutions, among them the Lyell
medal of the Geological Society of Lon-
don, in 1882. A sketch of Principal
Dawson, as he was then called, was pub-
lished, with a portrait, in the Popular
Science Monthly for December, 1875
(vol. -vdii, p. 132).

Glacial Lakes in New York. — A

glacial lake is defined by H. P. Fair-
child, in his paper on Glacial Waters in
the Finger Lake Region of New York
(Geological Society of America, Roch-
ester, N. Y.), as a body of static water
existing by \artue of a barrier of ice.
Such impounded waters may exist where
a glacier blocks a stream, or where the
general land surface inclines toward the
glacier foot. The lakes described in Mr.
Fairehild's paper belongs to the second
class, and were formed in the southern
part of the Ontario basin, where the
land slopes northward from a plateau
of two thousand feet elevation down to
Lake Ontario, two hundred and forty-
six feet. The high plateau was deeply
gashed by the preglacial stream erosion,
and in these trenches along the north-
em border of the plateau lie the present
" Finger Lakes." The topography was

peculiarly favorable to the production
against the bold ice front of a series of
distinct valley lakes, in many respects
unequaled elsewhere. Between twenty
and thirty of these lakes are described
in Professor Fairehild's paper, which oc-
cupied sites now partly represented by
nineteen streams and lakes, beginning
with Tonawanda Creek on the west and
extending to Butternut Creek (James-
burg and Apulia) on the east. The
local lakes were not of long duration,
and their surface level was unstable,
changing with the down-cutting of the
outlets and with the greatly increased
volume of the summer melting of the
ice sheet. Consequently, true beaches
are usually wanting. The conspicuous
evidences are the deltas of land streams,
\rith their teiTaces, embankments, bars
and spits, and the outlet channels. The
records of these extinct waters are the
very latest phenomena connected with
the ice invasion, and are the connecting
link between the glacial condition and
the present hydrography. They are of
lively interest, perhaps, to only a few
persons, but the details are necessary to
the more general study of the Pleisto-
cene. No economic or practical result
from the knowledge is foreseen, " but as
pure science the study of these waterless
lakes, waveless shores, and streamless
channels has a fascination and ro-

The Environment in Education.

— " Two considerations of equal and fun-
damental importance," says Mr. Wilbur
S. Jackman, " are included in teaching —
the choice of the subject-matter and its
presentation, and the reaction of the
pupil as the result of the presentation.
Xo presentation ever reaches conscious-
ness without a reaction, however feeble,
from which results an immediate and in-
evitable corresponding mental construc-
tion. Certain instincts called primitive,
it may be generally agreed, exist in chil-
dren, and, by taking intelligent advan-
tage of these, definite educative presen-
tation may be begun at a much earlier
age than was once supposed. Under the
theory that the child repeats the racial
history in its growth, a practice has
arisen of meeting the early instincts of
childhood with presentations from the
adult lives of primitive peoples. Pres-
entations are made to stimulate the idea

392

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of liunting and fishing, of building wig-
wams and tlie like." But it is a funda-
mental error, Mr. Jacknian believes, to
suppose that while the child may be In-
dianlike in his instincts he is to be con-
sidered or treated as an Indian. An-
other factor of which evolution makes a
great deal — the nature of the environ-
ment— must be considered, and it is very
powerful. The material for satisfying
the cravings of the early instincts should
therefore be chosen from the immediate
environment, to which the pupil's reac-
tion is at once positive and definite.
" It is scarcely possible to overmagnify
the benefits of an education that seeks
first to make the most out of the imme-
diate things of life. Its results and its
ideals are about us everywhere. The
ability to use in the most intelligent
and skillful way the materials of our
environment is the necessary condition
for the highest purposes and the most
glorified ideals. One must have a pro-
found respect for the education that pro-
poses to give us clean cities and hygienic
homes."

An Athabascan Indian Lodge. —

The caribou-skin lodge of the northern
Athabascan Indians is described by Mr.
Frank Russell, in his Explorations in
the Far North, as supported by a frame-
work of from twelve to thirty poles.
In pitching camp in winter, sticks are
thrust through the snow in order to find
solid earth for a floor. If the stick
enters soft moss the place is avoided,
as the camp fire would spread and un-
dermine the lodge. When a suitable
site is found, the men clear away the
snow with their snowshoes, and perhaps
assist the women in cutting and carry-
ing the lodge poles. It is the women's
duty to carry bundles of spruce boughs
with which to cover the floor of the
lodge. The brush is carefully laid,
branch by branch, so that the stems are
under the tops and point away from the
center. This floor is renewed every Sat-
urday afternoon. The fireplace is sur-
rounded by a pole of green wood, three
or four inches in diameter, cut so as to
be bent in the form of a polygon. Above
the doorway a pole eight feet long is
lashed to the lodge-poles in a horizon-
tal position, six feet from the ground ;
this, and a similar pole on the opposite
side, support from six to twelve poles.

crossing above the fire, making a stage
on which to thaw and dry meat. Each
hunter's powder-horn and shot-pouch
are suspended from a lodge-pole or his
back, while his gun stands in its cover
against a pole or lies on a stage outside.
Near the door flap are several hungry
and watchful dogs, which, by constantly
running in and out, make an opening for
the cold wind to enter. The dogs are
tied at night. The side of the fire next
to the entrance is allotted to the children
and visiting women. On either side sit
the wives, for there are usually two
families in one lodge. Behind them are
muskimoots and an inextricable confu-
sion of rags, blankets, bones, meat, etc.
If a crooked knife, a tea bag, or any-
thing that is in the heap is needed, every-
thing is tumbled about until it is found.
The sled-wrapper is extended behind the
lodge-poles and serves as a catch-all for
stores of meat, bones to be pounded and
boiled to extract the grease, and odds
and ends not in constant use. The next
space is occupied by the men of the
house; that farthest from the door is
reserved for the yovmg men and the men
guests. At night each adult rolls up in
a single three-point blanket or a caribou-
skin robe, and sleeps on an undressed
caribou skin. A piece of an old blanket
generally covers the small children in a
bunch.

The Sand Grouse. — Pallas's sand
grouse is a native of the Kirghiz steppes
of central Asia, and occasionally, driven
by some pressure of circumstances of
which we can only conjecture the na-
luie, makes visits to England. Its pres-
ence in that country has never been re-
corded till this century — more, perhaps,
for lack of observers than of migrating
birds — but it has appeared in 18G3, 1872,
1873, 1888, 1889, and 1899. The princi-
pal migration in recent years was in
1888, when many examples were seen
and shot in difi'erent parts of the coun-
try. In the same year it was seen " far
and wide " in western Europe, and as
far north as Trondhjem, in western Nor-
way. A writer in the Saturday Review
remarks on the resemblance of this
sand grouse, as described by Prjevalski
in central Asia, to the various sand
grouse he has seen in South Africa. At
the drinking places they circle round
the water. Presently they alight and,

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

393

Prjevalski says, " hastily drink and rise
again, and, in cases where the flocks are
large, the birds in front get up before
those at the back have time to alight.
They know their drinking places very
well, and very often go to them from
distances of tens of miles, especially in
the mornings, between nine and ten
o'clock, but after twelve at noon they
seldom visit these spots." In the Kala-
hari country, at the scant desert waters,
the Saturday Review writer says, three
kinds of sand grouse " are to be seen
flocking in from all parts of the country
from eight to ten o'clock a. m. for their
day's drink. Circling swiftly round the
pool with sharp cries, they suddenly
stoop together toward the water. The
noisy rustle of their wings as they alight
and ascend is most remarkable. We no-
ticed that the birds nearest the water
drank quickly and moved off, allowing
those in the rear to take their places
and slake their thirst, the whole pro-
cess being accomplished with unfailing
order and regularity. . . . The specta-
cle of these punctual creatures, stream-
ing in from all points of the compass
with unfailing regularity between eight
and ten o'clock was always most fas-
cinating. After drinking they circled
once or twice round the water pool, and
then flew ofl" with amazing swiftness for
their day of feeding in the dry, sun-
scorched desert. The seeds of grass and
other desert plants seem to constitute
their principal food. The sand grouse
has some characteristics of the pigeon
and some of the grouse, which suggest a
' singular blending ' of the two orders."

Plantations for Rural School
Grounds. — A paper on the Laying out
and Adornment of Rural School Grounds,
by Prof. L. H. Bailey, published as a
Bulletin of Cornell University Experi-
ment Station, lays down as a general
principle in plantation that it should be
in the main for foliage effects. " Select
those trees and shrubs which are the
commonest, because they are the cheap-
est, hardiest, and likeliest to grow. There
is no district so poor and bare that
enough plants can not be secured with-
out money for the school yard. You
will find them in the woods, in old
yards, along the fences. . . . Scatter in
a few trees along the fences .and about
the buildings. Maples, basswood, elms,

ashes, buttonwood, pepperidge, oaks,
beeches, biiches, hickories, poplars, a
lew trees of pine or spruce or hemlock
— any of these are excellent. If the
country is bleak, a rather heavy plant-
ing of evergreens about the border, in
the place of so much shrubbery, is very
good. For shrubs, use the common things
to be found in the woods and swales,
together with the roots which can be
found in every old yard. Willows, osiers,
witch-hazel, dogAvood, wild roses, thorn
apples, haws, elders, sumac, wild honey-
suckles— these and others can be found
in every school district. From the farm-
yards can be secured snowballs, spireas,
lilacs, forsythias, mock-oranges, rosea,
snowberries, barberries, flowering cur-
rants, honeysuckles, and the like. Vines
can be used to excellent purpose on the
outbuildings or on the schoolhouse itself.
The common wild Virginia creeper la
the most serviceable on brick or stone
schoolhouses. The Boston ivy or the
Japanese ampelopsis may be used, unless
tiie location is very bleak. Honeysuckle,
clematis, and bittersweet are also at-
tractive." Flowers may be used for dee-
orations.

Destruction of the Birds. — A cir-
cular sent us by the New York Zoologi-
cal Society opens with the declaration
which is only a moderate expression of
the truth, that " the annihilation of
the finest birds and quadrupeds of the
United States is a crime against civili-
/.ation which should call forth the dis-
approval of every intelligent American."
The second annual report of the society
(for 1897) contains an article on this
subject by Mr. William T. Hornaday,
•>vhich sets forth some remarkable facta
concerning the rate at which the de-
struction of Nature's fair creatures ia
proceeding. It is not creditable to
American science or American manhood
that most of the measures that have
been adopted for the protection of ani-
mal life in this country have been taken
in the interest and at the urgency of
sportsmen; or, to prevent killing the
poor creatures in an irregular way, in
order that they may be more conven-
iently killed in the regular way. Mr.
riornaday has a fairly satisfactory num-
ber of reports in answer to his inqui-
ries concerning the rate at which birds
are disappearing from thirty-six States.

394

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

From these he has compiled a graphic
table for thirty States, taking care to
keep within the conservative limit in
every particular, which shows that for-
ty-six per cent of the birds of the coun-
try have been destroyed within the last
fifteen j-ears — the State averages rang-
ing from ten per cent in Nebraska and
twenty-seven per cent in Massachu-
setts to seventy-five per cent in Con-
necticut, Indian Territory, and Mon-
tana, and seventy-seven per cent in
Florida. In North Carolina, Oregon,
and California the balance of bird life
has been maintained; and in Kansas,
Wyoming, Washington, and Utah it has
increased — Kansas, with its law abso-
lutely forbidding traffic in certain birds,
being the " banner State." " The west-
em part of the State of Washington
reveals the uncommon paradox of a lo-
cality being filled up with bird forms
because of the clearing away of the tim-
ber." The agencies bringing about the
destruction of our animal life are many
and various. There are the " sports-
men," of whom Mr. Hornaday registers
five kinds, all eager to " kill something,"
hunting for one hundred and fifty-four
species of " game birds," and when these
fail, taking the song birds in their place.
If the reports are true, the boys of
America are the chief destroyers of our
passerine birds and other small non-edi-
ble birds generally. " The majority of
them shoot the birds, a great many de-
vote their energies to gathering eggs,
and some do both." Then there are
the women wearing birds or feathers in
their hats. Egg collecting, which was
fostered at one time as encouraging in-
terest in natural history, has increased
till it has become an abuse as danger-
ous and destructive as any of the others,
and even genuine scientific collectors are
advised to call a halt. Mr. Hornaday
concludes that "under present condi-
tions, and excepting in a few localities,
the practical annihilation of all our
birds, except the smallest species, and
within a comparatively short period,
may be regarded as absolutely certain
to occur."

Annual Flowers. — In a Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment bul-
letin on Annual Flowers the authors,
G. N. Lauman and Prof. L. H. Bailey,
teach that the main planting of any

place should be trees and shrubs. The
llowers may then be used as decora-
tions. They may be thrown in freely
about the borders of the place, but not
in beds in the center of the lawn. They
show off better when seen against a
background, -which may be foliage, a
building, a rock, or a fence. Where to
plant flowers is really more important
than what to plant. " In front of
bushes, in the corner of the steps, against
the foundation of the residence or out-
house, along a fence or a walk — these
are places for flowers. A single petunia
plant against a background of foliage
is worth a dozen similar plants in the
center of the lawn. . . . The open-cen-
tered yard may be a picture; the pro-
miscuously planted yard may be a nur-
sery or a forest. A little color scattered
here and there puts the finish to the
picture." If the person wants a flower
garden, the primary question is one not
of decoration of the yard, but of grow-
ing flowers for flowers' sake. The flower
garden, therefore, should be at one side
of the residence or at the rear, for it is
not allowable to spoil a good lawTi even
with flowers. A good small garden is
much more satisfactory than a poor
large garden. Many annual plants
make efTectiA'e screens and covers for
unsightly places. Wild cucumber, coboea,
and sweet peas may be used to decorate
the tennis screen or the chicken-yard
fence. Efficient screens can be made of
many strong-growing and large-leaved
plants, such as cannas, castor-beans,
sunflowers, or tobacco.

A Thirteenth-Century Miracle. —
The legend of St. Prokopy relates that
on the 25th of June, 1290, the city of
Wilikij Ustjug, government of Volog-
da, southern Piussia, was imminently
threatened by a violent storm. The
populace appealed to the saint, and, by
virtue of his prayers, the storm changed
its direction, and, passing on one side
of the city, spent its fury upon a desert
spot about fifteen miles away, where it
left, with hail, a mass of fire-marked
stones, the fall of which wrought great
havoc with the undergrowth. The inci-
dent made a deep impression upon the
minds of the people, so that the story is
still current and alive after the lapse
of six hundred years. A testimony to
what the people believe is its truth

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

395

may be found by visiting the spot,
where a surface extending along about
four miles is covered with blocks of
stone, assumed to be meteorites. A
church dedicated to St. Prokopy has
been built in the neighboring village of
LobofF or Catoval, and near it stands a
curious little wooden chapel of gi-eat
antiquity, the foundation of which was
made of the stones that fell. The church
Is decorated with pictui-es of St. Pro-
kopy and of incidents of the meteoric
storm, and one of the stones that fell
has been mounted on a pedestal in the
cathedral of Ustjug, where it is an ob-
ject of devotion. Mr. Melnikoff, Con-
servator of the Mineralogical Collections
of the Mining Institute of St. Peters-
burg, has examined the place and the
stones, and finds that they are not me-
teoric and heavenly at all, but simply

earthly granite and sandstone. Yet M.
Stanislas Meunier suggests, in La Na-
ture, that the story, so carefully treas-
ured up for six hundred years, may have
a foundation. That such stones as lie
on the ground at Catoval may have been
taken up and transplanted by a tor-
nado of extreme violence he regards
as within the possibilities. M. Meunier
has himself investigated a phenomenon
of the kind in France, where the ground
was " mitrailled " with stones measur-
ing one, two, and three cubic centime-
tres, which had been brought a distance
of one hundred and fifty kilometres.
Another possible explanation is that the
stones were already there, so concealed
by the dense growth as not to attract
particular attention, but became more
plainly ob\'ious when the ground had
been cleared by the tornado.

mi:n'or paragraphs.

While it recognizes the desirability
of agreeing upon some language as a
general medium of communication be-
tween nations, the London Spectator
presents certain forcible reasons for not
seeking to institute one universal lan-
guage. " Mankind," it says, " will never
adopt a universal language, nor is it to
be desired that it should. The instru-
ment for expressing thought must vary
with the character, history, and men-
tal range of those who have thoughts
to express, and if all men spoke alike,
ninety-nine per cent of them would be
speaking stiffly — not using, that is, a
natural and self-developed vehicle of ex-
pression. Arabic could not have grown
up among Englishmen, or English
among Arabs. The seclusion of nations,
too, from one another by the want of
a common tongue is by no means all
loss, and we may doubt with reason
why the higher races would not be de-
graded if they understood without ef-
fort all that the lower races say to one
another. They would be bred, as it
were, in the servants' hail, not to their
advantage."

In a recent address on The Chem-
istry of the Infinitely Little, M. Gri-
maux referred to the fact, with which
all who have thought about it have
been struck, that pathogenic microbes
being diffused all through the atmos-
phere, everybody must breathe and ab-

sorb all sorts of them, including germs
of typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diph-
theria, etc., and yet we are not all at-
tacked with those diseases. "Why? Be-
cause each person has a peculiar tem-
perament, and cells adapted, to a greater
or less extent, to resist the microbe, to
destroy it when it enters the organism,
and thus constitutes, as the case may
be, a good or a bad cultural medium.
Every one, we might say, is immune
against some or other of the pathogenic
microbes. Like immunity belongs also
to certain animal species, and if a mi-
crobe pathogenic to man or to some
other species is injected into them they
will resist it. The blood of refractory
animals probably contains principles not
yet known which oppose the develop-
ment of the infectious microbe. From
this fact the idea has been suggested of
injecting the blood of refractory animals
and communicating an artificial immu-
nity to the individual to whom the in-
jection is applied.

M. J. Cr^pix, of Paris, " an enthu-
siast concerning the goat," as M. de
Par\nlle calls him in La Nature, has es-
tablished a model goat dairy, and is
endeavoring to diffuse a taste for goat's
milk and its products. As a means to
this end, he has sought to procure an
improved breed of goats, and has ob-
tained a stock of very satisfactory qual-
ity by crossing the best native goats

396

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

with the Nubian buck. The hitter ani-
mal is rather awkward in form and
movement, but M. Crepin hopes to breed
that out. Otherwise the Nubian is well
acclimated, vigorous, and indifferent to
cold, hornless, and a most excellent
milker. Goat's milk generally is richer
in cascine than cow's milk, and owes
some of its special qualities to this fact,
and to the further circumstance that
the flecks of goat-milk cheese are small-
ei', softer, and more easily broken up
— consequently more digestible — than
those of cow's milk. Further, goat's
milk is more nearly than any other
common milk like in composition to
human mother's milk; and it has the
very great advantage that, the goat
being less subject to attacks of tuber-
culosis and other dangerous disorders, it
is comparatively free from the liability
to convey infection. A single objection
to the general use of goat's milk is the
odor which is supposed to be character-
istic of it, but M. Cr6pin affirms that
this is not apparent when the goats are
properly bred and kept. M. Cr6pin is
experimenting with butter from goat's
milk, and represents that he finds it
very nice.

The fundamental principle involved
in the new form of telemeter, or instru-
ment for estimating the distance of
visible objects without actual measure-
ment, invented by Herr Zeiss, of Jena,
is that of the stereoscopic eflfect which
appears in natural vision, where the in-
clination of the eyes in concentrating
on the object gives the sense of dis-
tance. The base line between the eyes
is increased in the Zeiss instrument by
means of a system of prisms so as to
give a widened base of binocular vision,
and of mirrors which give magnifying
power. Double images are formed, the
distance between which varies in pro-
portion to the distance from the ob-
server, and appliances are provided for
measuring how far apart they are. The
arrangement is fairly satisfactory for
moderate distances — say of 3,000 me-
tres, or about 10,000 feet.

M. MoissAN believes that he has
found a solution of the problem of the
manufacture of ammonia from the at
mosphere, and consequently of render-
ing atmospheric nitrogen available in
agriculture, by the artificial production

of calcium nitride. While calcium un-
dergoes no change in contact with ni-
trogen at the ordinary temperature, it
is affected by it under the operation of
heat, and finally burns in it, absorbing
it rapidlj' and giving rise to a bronze-
colored nitride. Thrown into water,
this substance decomposes with effer-
vescence, producing ammonia and cal-
cium hydrate.

Prof. A. E. Dolbear, of Tufts Col-
lege, Massachusetts, patented an inven-
tion for telegraphing without wires in
1SS6, which he claims covers all that
Marconi is doing. He has sent mes-
sages with it for as long distances as
five miles. According to his account he
invented the system and made success-
ful experiments with it as far back as
1882. He made an application for a
patent, which was rejected by the Pat-
ent Office with the statement that it
was contrary to science and would not
work. " But as it did work, the claim
was maintained in the office, and four
years later, in 1886, a patent for it was
issued." Professor Dolbear does not
wish it to be understood that his patent
is on tlie " art of wireless telegraphy,"
Init that it covers everything that has
been so far done in the art.

On the occasion of the visit of the
French Association to the British Asso-
ciation, Prof. J. J. Thomson gave an ex-
position of the lines of research by
which it has been concluded that the
atom is not the smallest existing quan-
tity of matter. Electro-chemical phe-
nomena teach us to associate a definite
amount of electricity with each atom
of matter; but these recent researches
indicate that under certain circum-
stances a much larger quantity of nega-
tive electricity may be conveyed by the
atom, or else that the negative elec-
trical charge resides on a small detach-
able portion of the " atom," which alone
is concerned in the experiments. The
positive charge seems to be distributed
over the whole mass of the atom.

The merits of two methods of clari-
fying sewage — by dilution and by bac-
terial action — are discussed by Mr. Ru-
lolph Hering in articles in the Engi-
neering Magazine. Disposal by dilution
in large streams of water is regarded as
satisfactory in many places — where the
water of the stream is not to be used

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

397

for drinking or cooking — provided the
flow of the stream is always copious
enough to dilute and disperse the sew-
age 80 Avidely as to prevent putrefac-
tion and substitute oxidation. For puri-
fication by bacterial action no single
method is found adapted to all condi-
tions. The method by filtration and
aeration is declared practicable only in
localities where a sufllcient area of por-
ous land is available, upon which the
crude sewage can be spread in sufncient
quantity, into which it can filter with
the proper velocity, and from which it
can emerge as a thorouglily purified
water. Where these conditions are ab-
sent, other methods must be adopted,
of which the experiments in artificial
filtration by tanks, as practiced at Exe-
ter and Sutton, England, are described.
These experiments promise to improve
the present method, but perhaps not as
greatly as is anticipated by the pro-
moters. The author regards a prior sep-
aration of the suspended or dissolved
organic matter as essential to permanent
success when the amount of land is
limited.

By using the tuberculin test the fac-
ulty of the Ohio Agricultural Experi-
ment Station have learned that in cattle
the tubercle bacillus usually first ob-
tains its foothold in some of the minor
glands, that it may exist there for
months and years before any other or-
gans are aflfected, and that it is only in
advanced cases that the lungs become
diseased. While the growth of the or-
ganism is limited to these minor glands
the health of the animal usually shows
no sign of impairment. During this pe-
riod there is no evidence that any un-
wholesome effect is being produced upon
the flesh, and so long as the infection
is localized in this way in one or two
organs the Government inspectors pass
the meat as sound. Tuberculosis, there-
fore, is a veiy different complaint from
such diseases as pleuropneumonia or
Texas fever, in which the whole system
is saturated from the first instant with
the febrile symptoms.

NOTES.

Mr. Jajies W^eir tells of a spider
which stretched its web in the division
between two parts of a sawmill, where
the lower fastenings of the structure
were frequently broken by the repeated

passing of lumber through. Discover-
ing the situation, the insect gave up the
use of guy threads, and, finding a nail,
wove it into the lower edge of its web,
so that it should operate as a sinker to
keep the web stretched.

N. G. JoiiN.SON, of the Maryland Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station, telling
the Society for the Promotion of Agri-
cultural Science the story of his fight
with the pea louse, represented that the
pea raisers in his State had lost this
^•oar more than three million dollars by
the ravages of this insect. A parasite
bad been discovered which practically
annihilated tlie pest, but the discoveiy
was not made in time to save the crops
in some parts of the State from de-
struction.

TuE American Society for the Pro-
motion of Agricultural Science, after
hearing the account of the work of the
Gypsy Moth Commission of Massachu-
setts, which has spent more than a mil-
lion and a half of dollars in trying to
exterminate the mischievous insect, ap-
proved the action of the Massachusetts
Legislature in maintaining the commis-
sion, and requested that the work be
kept up for a short time longer. This
was because it was represented that the
moth Avas now confined to a limited
area, and could be easily exterminated
by the expenditure of a small amount
more of money.

The history of science has sustained
a great loss by the burning of most
of the relics which had been collected
for the Volta Centenary Exhibition at
Como, Italy. Only a few things were
saved, comprising a sword presented by
Napoleon Bonaparte to Volta, a cast of
the skull of the great electrician, his
watch, and a few personal relics. On the
other hand, his books and manuscripts,
his collection of batteries, the only au-
thentic portrait of him, and his will,
were destroyed. Nevertheless, the cele-
bration was not stopped. The fire was
attributed to the fusing of some electric
wires.

An example of patient industry is
the sorting of hogs' bristles as it is car-
ried on at Tientsin, China. Each one of
the hairs of the six hundred thousand
kilogrammes exported from that place
in 1897 had to be picked out, measured,
and placed in the bundle of hairs of cor-
responding length; and the different
lengths by which the hairs are sorted
are very numerous.

It is stated by M. L(5on Vaillant
that the late M. A. d'Abbadie had and
used an effective remedy against the

398

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

bites of insects and the infections they
bring by fumigating the entire body
with sulphur. For tYiis purpose he cov-
ered the unclothed body with a suitable
envelope, under which the sulphur was
burned. The remedy was communi-
cated to M. d'Abbadie by a hippopota-
mus hunter who had, by using it, es-
caped all the diseases incident to the
swamps to which he had to resort.

The Gregorian Calendar is to be
adopted by the Russian Government on
January 1, 1901, or at the beginning of
the new century.

The following figures, from the En-
gineering and Mining Journal, are of in-
terest as showing the enormous quantity
of iron and steel which was manufac-
tured in 1898, and the leading position
which the United States has already as-
sumed in the industry:
Iron and Stbci- Production, is Metric
Tons.*

PIG IBON.

COUN-

TEIBS.

189T.

1898.

United

States .

9,807,123

11,962,817

United

Kingdom

8,980,086

8,769,249

Germany

6,889,087

7,402,717

Total..

25,026,296

26,184,888

Austria-

Hungary.

1,205,000

1,2.50,000

Belgium..

1,024,666

982,748

Canada . .

41,500

46,880

France. . .

2,472,143

2,534,427

Italy

12,500

12,8.50

Russia...

1,857,000

2,228,850

Spain

282.171

261,799

Sweden . .

583,800

570,550

All other.

450,000

545,000

Grand

total.

33,505,076

36,507,487

7,889,300

4,559,736
5,091,294

9,045,815

4,639,042
5,784,807

16,940,330

553,
616,

19,413,664

605,500
668,180

57,
881,
121,
268
310,

,595 1,441,6;«
,2501 58,7.50

1,095,000
112,6''5
289,7.50
365,000

* A metric ton is about 2,200 pounds.

Although fewer casual members or
members for the year than usual were
present at the recent meeting of the
British Association at Dover, the at-
tendance of distinguislied men of sci-
ence and of active scientific workers, ac-
cording to the London Times, seemed
to be greater. And so far as the proper
work of the association is concerned,
the meeting should take a high rank.
Excellent and serious work was done in
all the sections.

A PAPER has been published by
Pliny T. Sexton, of Palmyra, N. Y., set-
ting forth reasons for favoring the uni-
fication of the whole educational system
of the State of New York under the
jurisdiction of a single board — that of
the Regents of the University. The rea-
Bons are presented in the form of various

newspaper articles which were published
last year against a proposition of an op-
|)Osite character — to abolish the present
Department of Public Instruction and
create a State Commission of Education,
the affiliations of which would be politi-
cal. !Mr. Sexton has further offered two
prizes of one hundred dollars each for
articles or essays by women and similar
productions by men in support of the
proposed unification.

M. HiLDEBERT RiCHAJtD, of Avi-

gnon, France, relates that he experi-
mented upon two adult geranium plants,
both healthy and of vigorous growth,
under like conditions of exposure, wa-
tering one (A) with well water and the
other (B) with water containing a
measured proportion of butylic alcohol
daily. A kept on with its healthy-
growth. B, after four days of alcoholi-
zation, showed an enfeebled growth,
with symptoms of jaundice, drowsiness,
and intoxication; a special odor percep-
tible in all parts of the plant, partially
burned spots, and melanosis and geotro-
pism in the leaves.

In his papers on The Art and Cus-
toms of Benin, Mr. Ling Roth con-
eludes that the art of that savage land
consists of mixed elements, partly Eu-
ropean forais which the native mind
was prone to copy, partly introduced
from other parts of Africa. It is char-
acterized by boldness, freedom, clear-
ness in execution, originality, and va-
riety. Among the customs he mentions
are the practice of human sacrifice and
the sprinkling of the blood of the ani-
mals killed at the periodical sacrifices
on the ivories and 'on the cast-iron or
bronze figure-heads placed on the altars.
When there was too much rain, a wom-
an had a message saluting the rain god
put into her mouth. She was then
killed and set up in the execution tree,
so that the rain might see.

Our scientific obituary list of the
month includes the names of Sir Wil-
liam Dawson, the distinguished Cana-
dian geologist, of whom a fuller notice
is given in another place; Dr. Luther
Dana Woodbridge, Professor of Anat-
omy and Physiology in Williams Col-
lege, at Williamstown, Mass., of heart
disease, November 3d, aged forty-nine
years; Dr. Oscar Baumann, African ex-
plorer, geographer to the Austrian Con-
go Expedition of 1885, who made studies
for the projected railroad from Tanga
to Karog; Dr. F. Kuhla, botanical ex-
plorer, at Manfios, Brazil; Percy S.
Pilcher, inventor of flying machines,
from an accident while experimenting.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

399

September 2d; Professor Hayduck, Pri-
vat Decent in Chemistry in Berlin;
M. A. Snow, Instructor in Entomology
in Leland Stanford Junior University,
drowned October 10th in San Francisco
Hai-bor; he had also been Instructor in
Entomology in the Universities of Kan-
sas and of Illinois, and was the author
of several systematic papers on Z)t/>^era;
Prof. J. B. Carnoy, of the Catholic Uni-
versity of Louvain, author of Biologic
Cellulaire and of papers on the develop-
ment of sexual elements, and founder

of the journal La Cellule, at SchiUs,
Switzerland, September 6th; Dr. A.
Ernst, Director of the National Mu-
seum, Caracas, Venezuela; Dr. Edward
Petri, Professor of Geography and An-
thropology in the University of St.
Petersburg, aged forty-five years; Dr.
Ottmar Mergenthaler, inventor of the
linotype type machine, in Baltimore,
Md., October 28th; and Dr. Henry
Hicks, an English geologist and Lyell
medalist, at Hendon, England, Novem-
ber 18th, aged sixty-two years.

PUBLICATIONS KECEIVED.

I

Agricultural Experiment Stations.
Bulletins and Reports. Delaware Col-
lege: No. 45. The Pruning of Young
Fruit Trees. By G. Harold Powell. Pp.
16. — New Jersey: No. 137. Dairy Ex-
periments, etc. Pp. 24; No. 138. Crude
Petroleum as an Insecticide. Pp. 22;
No. 139, Fertilizer Analyses. Pp. 60.—
Ohio: Press Bulletin No. 199. Plums
(Comparison of Varieties). Pp. 2; No.
200. Fall Treatment of Insect Pests.
Pp. 2. — United States Department of
Agriculture: Results of a Biological
Survey of Mount Shasta, California. By
C. Hart Merriam. Wilt Disease of Cot-
ton, Watermelon, and Cowpea. By Er-
win F. Smith. Pp. 54, with plates.

Association Re\iew, The. Frank W.
Booth, editor. Bimonthly. Vol, I, No.
1. An Educational Magazine. Pub-
lished by the American Association to
promote the Teaching of Speech to the
Deaf. Mount Airy, Philadelphia, Pp.
128, $2.50 a year,

Bullard, Frank D, The Aristophilon.
A Nemesis of Faith (Poem). Chicago:
R. R. Donnelly & Sons Company. Pp. 109.

Bulletins, Reports, and Proceedings.
Alabama Geological Survey: Map of the
Warrior Coal Basin. By Henry McCal-
ley, Assistant State Geologist. — Boston
Society of Natural History: The Blood-
vessels of the Heart in Carcharis, Baja,
and Amia. By G. H. Parker and Fred-
erick K. Davis. Pp. 16, with plates;
Marine Mollusca of Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island. By F. N, Balch, Pp. 30,
with plates; The Development of Per-
silia Schmackeri, Richard. By M. T.
Sudler. Pp. 20.— Colorado College Stud-
ies. Three Papers. Pp. 48. — Buitenzorg
Botanical Institute: Bulletin, No. 1.
Pp. 40; United States Department of
Labor; No. 24. Statistics of Cities. Pp.

140. — Iowa, State University of: Report
on the Ophiuroidea collected by the Ba-
hama Expedition in 1893. By Prof. A.
E. Varrill. Pp. 86, with plates.— Lin-
nsean Society of New York: The Tur-
tles and Lizards of the Vicinity of New
York City. Pp. 36, — Wagner Free In-
stitute of Science, Philadelphia: The
Salenodont Artiodactyles of the Uinta
Eocene. By W. B. Scott. Pp. 121, with
plates.

Constantin, J. La Nature Tropieale.
(Tropical Nature.) Paris: F61ix Alcan.
(Bibliotheque Scientifique Internatio-
nale.) Pp. 315.

Demoor, Jean, Massart, Jean, and
Vandervelde, Emile. Evolution by
Atrophy. New York: D. Appleton and
Company. (International Scientific Se-
ries.) Pp. 322. $1.50.

Fiske, John, A Century of Science,
and other Essays, Boston and New
York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pp.
477. $2.

Germania. A Monthly Magazine for
the Study of the German Language and
Literature. A. W. Spanhoofd and P. E.
Kunzer, editors. Boston: New England
College of Languages. Pp. 27. 15
cents. $1 a year.

Oilman, Nicholas Paine. A Divi-
dend to Labor. A Study of Employers'
Welfare Institutions. Boston and New
York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pp.
400. $1.50.

Hill, Robert T. The Geology and
Physical Geography of Jamaica. A
Study of a Tj-pe of Antillean Develop-
ment. With an Appendix on Corals
by T. W. Vaughan. Cambridge, Mass.:
Museum of Comparative Zoology of
Harvard College. Pp. 250, with plates.

Holden, Edward S. The Family of
the Sun. Conversations with a Child.

400

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

( Appletons' Home-Reading Books.) New
York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp.
252. 50 cents.

Interstate Commerce Commission.
Eleventh Annual Report on tlie Statis
tics of Railways in the United States
for the Year ending June 30, 1S9S.
Washington. Pp. 692.

Jordan, David Starr. The Story of
Knight and Barbara. Being a Series of
Stories Told to Children. New York:
D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 2G5.
$1.50.

Jordan, David Starr, Stejnegor,
Leonhard, Lucas, F. A., and other offi-
cial associates. The Fur Seals and Fur-
Seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean.
Washington: Government Printing Of-
fice. Pp. G29.

MacCorkle, W. A. Some Phases of
the Race Question. Cincinnati: The
Robert Clarke Company. Pp. 49.

MacGregor, Prof. J. G. On the Util-
ity of Knowledge-making as a Means
of Liberal Training. Halifax, N. S.
Pp. 24.

MacMillan, Conway. Minnesota
Plant Life. St. Paul: State Botanical
Survey. Pp. 568.

Newman, George. Bacteria, espe-
cially as they are related to the Econ-
omy of Nature, to Industrial Processes,
and to the Public Health. New York:
G. P. Putnam's Sons. Pp. 348.

Reprints. Chesmit, V. K. Prelimi-
nary Catalogue of Plants Poisonous to
Stock. Pp. 36.— Fernow, B. G. Forest
Policies and Forest ]\Ianagement in
Germany and British India. Pp. 64;
Forestry in the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Pp. 44; Brief His-
tory of the Forestry IMovement in the
United States. Pp. 44.— Gerhard, Wil-
liam Paul. The Safety of Theatre Au-
diences and of the Stage Personnel
against Danger from Fire and Panic.
Pp. 30. — Girsdansky, Max. Dust in the
Etiology of Tuberculosis. Pp. 10. —
Hay, O. P. On Some Changes in the
Names, Generic and Specific, of Certain
Fossil Fishes. Pp. 10; Two new Species
of Tortoises from the Tertiary of the
United States. Pp. 24, with plates.—
Howard, W. L. Physiologic Rhythms.
The Practical Vahie of tlieir Recogni-
tion in the Treatment of Functional
Neuroses. Pp. 7. — Langmuir, A. C, and
Baskerville, Charles. Index to the Lit-
erature of Zirconium. (Smithsonian

Miscellaneous Collections.) Pp. 32. —
Grosser, Charles S. Correlation of Car-
boniferous Rocks of Nebraska with
those of Kansas. — Roth, Filibert. R6-
sumC; of Investigations carried on in the
L^nited States Division of Forestry, 1889
to 1S98. Pp. 64.

Schimmell & Co. (Fritzsche Broth-
ers.) Leipsic and New York. Semi-
annual Report, October, 1899. (Essen-
tial Oils, etc.) Pp. 75.

Steel Portland Cement. Cliicago:
Illinois Steel Company. Pp. 96.

Stewart, Sara Elizabeth, and Day, R.
E. Two Prize Essays on Educational
Unification in the State of New York.
Palmyra, N. Y.: The Unification Prize
Committee. Pp. 19.

Swift, Llorrison I. Imperialism and
Liberty. Los Angeles, Cal.: The Ron-
broke Press. Pp. 491.

L'nited States Commission of Fish
and Fisheries. Bulletin No. 409. List
of Fishes known to inhabit the Waters
of the District of Columbia and Vicin-
ity. By H. M. Smith and B. A. Bean
Pp. 80; No. 410. Notes on a Collection
of Tide-Pool Fishes from Kadiak Island,
Alaska. By C. M. Rutter. Pp. 4; No.
411. The Southern Spring Mackerel
Fishery of the United States. By Hugh
M. Smith. Pp. 80; No. 412. Notice of
Filefish New to the Fauna of the United
States. By H. M. Smith. Pp. 8; No.
413. The Pearly Fresh-Water Mussels
of the United States. By Charles T.
Simpson. Pp. 10; No. 414. The Mussel
Fishery and Pearl-Button Industry of
the Mississippi River. By H. M. Smith.
Pp. 24; No. 415. The Peripheral Nerv-
ous System of the Bony Fishes. By C.
J. Herrick. Pp. 6; No. 416. The Reap-
pearance of the Tilefish. By H. C.
Bumpus. Pp. 12; No. 423. A Review
of the Fisheries in the Contiguous Wa-
ters of the State of Washington and
British Columbia. By Richard Rath-
bun. Pp. 96, with plates.

United States Geological Survey.
Nineteenth Annual Report. Part II.
Papers, chiefly of a Theoretic Nature.
Pp. 958; Principles and Conditions of
the ]\Iovements of Ground Water. By
F. H. King. With a Theoretical Inves-
tigation of the Motion of Ground Wa-
ters. By C. S. Richter. Pp. 384.

Wiechmann, F. G. Chemistry, its
Evolution and Achievements. New
York: W. R. Jenkins. Pp. 176.

APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE

MOl^THLY.

FEBRUARY, 1900.

SOUTH SEA BUBBLES IN SdENCE.

By Prof. JOHN TROWBRIDGE,

DIRECTOE OF JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITT.

THE advances in science lead to hopes of tlie sudden accumu-
lation of gold, just as tlie discovery of new worlds led our
ancestors to invest in many inflated enterprises of commerce and
conquest. This older temptation has passed away, for there are
no new worlds to discover, and this small globe has been practically
staked out; but the mysterious domains of science are still illimit-
able, and afford vast opportunities for inflated schemes which have
their prototype in the South Sea Bubble.

Let us refresh our memory of this surprising delusion. It arose
in the reign of Queen Anne, nearly one hundred and eighty years
ago, and when we consider the extent of the speculation and gam-
bling which it caused and the number of those who lost everything
and who consigned their families to bitter poverty, we are tempted
to class it with those other calamities which preceded it and which
afflicted England so heavily— ^the great fire of London and the
plague. The South Sea Company claimed to have enormous
sources of profit in certain exclusive privileges, obtained from the
Spanish Government, for trading in their possessions in South
America and Mexico; and it may be well for us in these times of
the flotation of schemes for obtaining gold from salt water and
from sands, of power from air and something more ethereal than •
air, to be reminded of the many bubbles that came into existence
and burst at the time of the collapse of the Soiith Sea Bubble.

The stock of the South Sea Company rose from one hundred
to a thousand, and an army of future victims crowded the offices of

VOL. LVI. — 31

402 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the company, anxious to invest in what they believed would sud-
denly enrich them. Indeed, all England seemed to go mad, and
the craze of the time is reflected in the writings of Pope and Swift.
Pope says:

" At length conniption like a general flood
Did deluge all ; and avarice creeping on,
Spread like a low-born mist, and hid the sun.
Statesmen and patriots plied alike the stocks,
Peeress and butler shared alike the box ;
And judges jobbed, and bishops bit the town.
And mighty dukes packed cards for half a crown ;
Britain was sunk in lucre's sordid charms."

The rise of the great bubble was accompanied by the formation
of hundreds of minor ones. Among these we will mention a few
which are pertinent to the subject of this paper:

A wheel for perpetual motion. Capital, one million pounds.

For extracting silver from lead.

For the transmutation of quicksilver into a malleable fine metal.

Puckles Machine Company, for discharging round and square
cannon balls and bullets, and making a total revolution in " the
art of war."

For carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, "but
nobody to know what it is."

It is estimated that the proposed capital for floating these and
similar schemes was three hundred million pounds. We find, in
the annals of the time, that the Duchess of Marlborough per-
suaded her husband, John Churchill, the great general, not to
increase his holdings, and to sell his shares; he, like a sensible man,
took a sensible woman's advice and made one hundred thousand
pounds. When we come to speak of the connection of women with
modern delusions, we must remember this act of one of their sex.

At this time, nearly two hundred years after the singular out-
break of chimerical projects of Queen Anne's reign, we can match
some of these bubbles almost exactly; for have we not had the
Koeley motor, the extraction of gold from salt water, and is there
not great activity in making the wonder of the public over some
advance in science a source of money-making? The unscientific
person is certainly open to a new danger in the increasing tendency
to promote enterprises based upon some new scientific discovery,
and it behooves the followers of science to suggest a remedy for
this growing evil. I shall endeavor to do my part in this paper
in pointing out the necessity of some oracular medium — a scientific
oracle of Delphos — to which the common man can repair and get
trustworthy information, for it is a melancholy fact that such infer-

SOUTH SEA BUBBLES IN SCIENCE. 403

mation can not be obtained from the daily press or from tbe literary
magazines of the time.

Many of our newspapers draAv such an income from their adver-
tising columns that the editors are unwilling to print any criticism
which would lead to the restriction of this source of gain; thus if
a company promoting a scientific bubble should advertise liberally
in a leading newspaper, the editors are usually loath to insert an
article upon the scheme, for the printing of the criticism might
lead to the withdrawal of the advertisement. It is possible that
the editors of such daily papers have not overmuch confidence in
the judgment of scientific men, for have not the latter often been
mistaken? There was Lardner, who prophesied that steamships
could not cross the Atlantic, but we must remember that Lardner
was not a scientific man; he was a popularizer of science, and never
made a scientific investigation. It is said that there have been col-
lege professors who have denied the possibility of sending messages
under the ocean. This I also doubt, for I am a witness in the flesh
of the way such stories can arise. ISTot long since I was invited
to speak before a commercial club, and the presiding officer, in in-
troducing me, remarked : " The professor will now address you on
the advances in electricity. When I was in college I well remem-
ber his describing an electric motor and his remark that it would
never become a practical invention." There was, of course, laugh-
ter, and the president sat down with a comfortable air of having
made a point. The professor pointed out that the presiding officer
graduated before he became professor in the university, and before
the Gramme machine and the electric motor were invented. ^IsTev-
ertheless, the world loves to believe in the inaccuracy of the accu-
rate, and even a sophomore takes infinite delight in discovering
arithmetical mistakes in an edition of ISTewton's Principia.

I mention this proneness to believe that scientific men are apt
to be mistaken, for it is a blame laid at their doors often by the
promoters of scientific bubbles, and for a very easily understood
reason, and the editors of newspapers and literary magazines can
ease their consciences after publishing sensational scientific articles
by reflecting on the fallibility of the followers of science. Lawyers
and judges, too, make their mistakes; nevertheless, we continue to
resort to them for advice; and few editors, I imagine, would dare
to publish a legal opinion without consulting an authority in law.
Yet we read every day so-called scientific articles in newspapers
and magazines which have evidently never been submitted to com-
petent critics. Have we not read statements of the possibility of
exploding powder magazines oh board ships by electric waves; of
the manufacture of liquid air without the expenditure of energy;

404 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of electricity direct from coal; papers on the nebular theory, more
nebulous than any nebula yet discovered? AVhen we read a broad
sheet in the morning paper setting forth a glowing scheme to manu-
facture power out of nothing, to what oracle can we repair to ascer-
tain the truth? It is true that common sense might lead the
reader to reflect that when he is told that the shares can npw be
obtained for five dollars, but in a short time they will be advanced
to ten dollars, and now is the time to invest, that such good things
are quickly taken up without the necessity of advertising. When
the morning mail brings a prospectus of a company formed to make
diamonds by electricity, a company with ten million dollars capital
(why not one hundred millions?), to whom should one go to allay
the fever of sudden gain? While men and women will carefully
consider which line of steamships to Europe is the best equipped
with engines, the efficiency of which depends upon the laws that
prove the impossibility of perpetual motion, they enter at the
same time upon schemes to obtain power without the consumption
of work.

We are indeed confronted with the curious fact that even so-
called intelligent people can be led to believe that what we have
learned in regard to the working of Nature may be thrown aside,
and that some new and unrelated laws may rule supreme. Thus
we have what is called Christian Science, one of the intuitional
sciences which may be said to add a new peril to matrimony. We
find cultivated men believing that a government can make money
by pronouncing silver equal to gold. Thus there are those who
fondle their delusions and those who bank upon credulity. Edu-
cation seems to be ineffectual with some temperaments; on the
whole, however, it has a saving grace, and there are undoubtedly
a number in the community who would welcome a source of scien-
tific authority which might answer for them just as the Times does
in political and economic questions to an Englishman. The Ameri-
can has especial reason to fear scientific bubbles, for our patent
laws make it comparatively easy for promoters to make a great
show of vested rights. One method is to build an imposing plant,
with powerful dynamos and vrith a multiplicity of electrical devices,
and to capitalize for an enormous sum an expensive plant in sight
with millions in patents of very little value. The proposed in-
vestor is taken to see the great plant; its magnitude appeals to his
reverence for size, and his pocketbook is soon at the service of the
promoter. Another method is to select some scheme which is on
the borderland between physics and chemistry, such as the elec-
trolytic method of obtaining gold from salt water. There is a
minute quantity of gold in salt water, and the chemist, thinking

SOUTH SEA BUBBLES IN SCIENCE. 405.

that electricity miglit afford an economical method of treating large
quantities of water, is reticent in regard to such a scheme, while
the electrician, ignorant of chemistry, is ready to concede that the
chemists may have found a cheap extractor, so the promoter can
play the chemist against the electrician, and there is no arbitrator in
sight. The American is peculiarly in peril from the absence of a
large body of men trained in technical science, such as exist in Ger-
many. He also has been unduly excited, and his desire for love of
sudden wealth stimulated by phenomenal successes. The commer-
cial triumph of the telephone has led to a multitude of scientific
bubbles, and has resulted, like the discovery of gold in the Klon-
dike, in a rush into electrical schemes which have been held up to
a hungry crowd of victims as second only to the Bell telephone.

While the telegraph and the telephone can prevent speculations
like the South Sea Bubble in a great measure, for such schemes
were much aided by a lack of a general dissemination of intelli-
gence, and this lack is supplied by a quick interchange of knowl-
edge, they bring their own peculiar peril, for they are examples
of what profit may be reaped from discovery in the world of science.
The commercial enterprises of the world have been brought within
reach of the many by the telegraph and telephone. They no longer
belong to the few, while the successful working of the field of sci-
ence is still confined to a minority and the general public; even
the cultivated people are very ignorant of the approaches to the
New El Dorado. !N^o bogus land scheme or salted mining enter-
prise can be kept in existence to-day for a long period; but the
Iveeley motor, with its ethereal vibrations and its pseudo-molecular
motions, was limited in activity only by the life of the promoter.
Instead of the alchemists we have the seekers after power, which
costs nothing, and in the train of the honest inventor there are
unscrupulous promoters ready to capitalize any remarkable new
fact or discovery which attracts public attention.

I have mentioned the influence of the first Duchess of Marl-
borough in inducing her husband, the great duke, to sell out his
shares in the South Sea Bubble when they had risen to a high value
because this example of discrimination and prudence in a woman
supports one in the belief that all women are not prone to invest
in women's bank schemes, in Keeley motors, or in enterprises for
" carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to
know what it is." One of my friends recently visited the office
of a company which proposed to produce power without the expend-
iture of a due amount of energy, and found among those anxious
to invest a woman who said that she had just received a di^ddend
from the company for "extracting gold from salt water, and she was

4o6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

anxious to invest it in the new power company. The dividend was
the result of a liquidation of the Gold from Sea Water Company,
and represented half of her original sum. She had come out of
one delusion with a loss of half of her property, and was now
ready to enter another one with the remaining half. It was an
old-fashioned notion that women should be kept in ignorance of
business, for business knowledge, it was thought, was the concern
of the husbands. This notion prevails still in some quarters, and
there may be some connection between the number of women in
Christian Science temples and their lack of education in practical
matters, or in what may be called the legal business habit — a habit
which weighs the probabilities of this and that, and leads to ways
of exact thinking.

One of the remedies for this proneness of women to invest in
scientific bubbles, to invest money on faith, is the lack of exact
training, which is not acquired by them either in private schools
or colleges. The classes of philosophy and psychology in women's
colleges are crowded, while those in the exact sciences have only
handfuls. This remark also applies to the students in men's col-
leges, and we realize in this respect how closely college women imi-
tate college men. They follow the latter also in the habit of taking
lecture courses, a custom which increases vagueness, inaccuracy of
thought, and looseness of statement. This choice of studies by the
young women in their colleges is a serious question for mankind,
in view of the speculative spirit which the feminine sex show toward
scientific bubbles and schemes which promise an inordinate rate
of interest; for the graduates of these colleges will become teachers
of youth, and if not teachers they have an influence upon the com-
ing citizen during his formative period. As teachers they will far
outnumber men teachers, and they are fast coming into competi-
tion with men also in the routine of business offices and in certain
positions in commercial houses. In these activities they will need
a balance of judgment, exactness of thought, and business habits.
They should be given a sufficient knowledge of the elements of
physical science to know that power can not be created from noth-
ing, and that the great mass of our knowledge of mechanics and of
the relation of electricity to mechanics can not be overturned by
any new discovery. AVhatever is discovered must be related to
what has preceded it. This is a characteristic of a science, and this
is what distinguishes it from a delusion — namely, the great body
of related facts put upon a mechanical basis, so that any fact can
be substantiated and any phenomenon repeated. When this latter
test is applied to many of the isms of the day they fade into thin
air, and young women need especially to be taught to apply such

SOUTH SEA BUBBLES IN SCIENCE. 407

a test. It would seem as if the present choice of study by women
students tended to intensify vagueness of thought rather than to
correct it, to keep them in ignorance of business habits rather than
to educate them in the balance of judgment on economic questions.

Women are born speculators, and are peculiarly prone to invest
money and heart in bubbles. Being the power behind the throne,
they can carry men into action, and it seems to me that especial
attention should be paid in women's colleges to the studies that
cultivate accurate thought and business methods. A certain amount
of the study of scientific methods and a study of common law might
take the place of the study of philosophy, psychology, and biology,
certainly in the first years of a woman's college course, for psychol-
ogy and biology are studies which demand long scientific training
and maturity of thought. Recently I heard the following conver-
sation at a bank in Cambridge. The cashier was speaking with a

young lady : " Miss , your friend has overdrawn her account

three hundred dollars, and you say she has left Cambridge." " Yes,
the trouble with Jane is she is too much educated." A long resi-
dence in a university town makes one wary of educational theories,
but the proneness of women to invest in women's banks and bogus
trust companies certainly seems to need a corrective in a new col-
lege curriculum. Men can indulge in delusions and can recover
mental balance, and perhaps their fortunes; but women are apt to
become bankrupt permanently. Their experience in business delu-
sions is similar to that in affairs of the heart. "Washington Irving
says of this feminine attribute:

" She sends forth her sympathies on adventure; she embarks
her whole soul in the traffic of affection, and if shipwrecked her case
is hopeless, for it is a bankruptcy of the heart."

More mathematics and science, and less philosophy and psychol-
ogy, might correct that vagueness of thought which leads both men
and women into delusion.

IS^ow for our other remedies. Shall we have an academy which
shall issue storm warnings of scientific bubbles? I fear that the
influence of academies is waning, and that the conviction that there
are as many good men outside of the academy as inside would
militate against their dicta. We could have courts of scientific
appeal, with judges appointed by the State to sit on scientific ques-
tions of perplexity, and to sift expert opinions. Such a constitu-
tion of scientific courts might be a good thing in several ways — a
saving health to the public. The college professor would certainly
be greatly relieved of endeavors of promoters to use the name and
reputation of the professor's university, and incidentally the little
his own name might add. This remedial solution is not in sight.

4o8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and we must direct our vision in another direction. We know
that the newspaper can not serve us, for we seek to kill sensations,
and it seeks to live on them. We are bound to turn to some jour-
nal or periodical which will publish only what it considers sound
science and will eschew sensational science; a journal which, just
as the London Times is regarded as the authority on political and
economical questions, will be looked up to as an authority on mat-
ters of science.

In order, therefore, to protect the public against scientific bub-
bles we must impress upon both men and women the fact that an
education in science is desirable, and is becoming more important
as the world grows older; but until a scientific education becomes
more general, it is important that there should be some scientific
oracle of Delphos, and I can not think of any better than a well-
managed scientific journal, the editors of which will seek for the
best information on scientific questions which interest the financial
world. When it is known that such a journal admits to its pages
nothing that is sensational, when it is realized that the best spe-
cialists contribute to it, surely it will become a saving help in times
of trouble.

WHAT MAKES THE TKOLLEY CAK GO.

By WILLIAM BAXTER, Jr., C. E.
II.

IF the successful operation of a street-railway car by mechanical
power depended wholly upon the ability to produce a motor of
sufficient capacity to do the work, the problem would be an easy
one to solve, and would have been solved long before the advent
of the electric motor. Mere ability to furnish the necessary power,
however, is not enough to meet the requirements. As already
shown, the mechanism must be light, strong, compact, simple, and
so well protected that it can not bo injured except under abnormal
conditions. In addition, speed-controlling devices must be pro-
vided whereby the velocity may be changed at will and in the short-
est possible time, and with as nearly absolute precision as possible.
This controlling mechanism must also be so arranged that the direc-
tion of motion may be varied with the greatest certainty and as
rapidly as may at any time be required. The way in which these

Note. — The illustrations of railway generator and switchboard were made from photo-
graphs kindly furnished by the Westinfrhonse Electric and Manufacturing Company.

For the photographs of the electric truck and car controller we arc indebted to the
courtesy of the General Electric Company.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO. 409

results are accomplished in an electrically operated car can ba
understood from Figs. 18 and 19, which are line drawings, in a
simplified form, of an ordinary trolley car. Fig. 18 is an eleva-
tion showing the outline of the car body and the wheels in broken
lines, while the motors and the wires through which the current is
conveyed thereto are drawn in solid lines. Fig. 19 is a plan in
which the outline of the car floor and the platforms is represented
in broken lines, the solid lines being the motors and connecting
wires.

In almost every instance railway cars are provided with two
motors, as shown at M M in these two figures. This arrangement
is adopted not because one motor can not furnish all the power
required, but simply for the purpose of making the equipment more
reliable. Everything of human make is liable to fail; hence if
only one motor were used there would be more or less liability of
its giving out at a critical moment, and then the car would be help-
less. If two motors are provided, should one give out the car
would not be disabled, for the remaining machine would be able
to run it to its destination. In order that this result may be suc-
cessfully accomplished, each motor is made of sufficient capacity
to run the car without being overtaxed, unless the load is abnor-
mally large; but even under the latter conditions the machine will
in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred withstand the strain. Some
roads, in small towns, where the traffic is light and the expense
must be kept down to the lowest point, use single-motor cars, so
as to effect a saving in first cost. This course, however, is verv
seldom followed, except in places where there are no heavy grades
or where there is very little probability of the loads becoming ex-
cessive, except at rare intervals. If the cars are provided with a
single motor, when one becomes disabled from any cause it has to
wait until overtaken by the car behind it, so that it may be pushed
by the latter to the end of the road.

The electric current for operating the motors is generated in
a power house that is located at some convenient point along the
route. The current is conveyed to the moving cars by means of
a trolley wire, which is marked T in the drawings. Unless the
road is very small and operates but a few ears, this wire will not
be sufficient to carry all the current, hence in most cases there are
a number of supplementary wires, which are called feeders. These
wires are carried along on poles, and at proper intervals are con-
nected with the trolley wire T. The electric current passes from
the trolley wire through the motors on the car, and thence to the
rails R, and through these, and also through the ground, back to
the power house. The exact path of the current is as follows:

TOL. LTI. 82

410

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

From tlie trolley wire, tliroiigli the trolley pole t, to the fixture
on top of the ear which holds the latter. From this fixture, as
shown by the heavy full line, the current passes to a, which is a
switch located under the car hood overhanging the platform.
From this switch the current passes to a similar one, marked h,

-R-

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

Figs. 18, 19.— Outline Elevation and Plan of Electric Railway Car, showing
OK Motors, Controlling Switches, and Connecting Wires.

Location

located in a like position at the other end of the car. These two
switches are called emergency switches; they are provided simply
as a safety device, and are used only when the main switches get
out of order and the motorman can not turn the current off in the
regular way. From the last hood switch h the current passes to

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO. 411

the bottom of the car, where it enters the wire d d &i the point c.
This wire d d, as will be seen, runs in both directions, and ends in
the stands C C. These latter are the controlling switches, and are
provided with a handle h, by means of which the current is turned
on or off from the motors, and is directed through them in such a
way as to make the car run in whichever direction may be desired.
From the controllers C C several wires are run under the car, as
shown at e e e. These wires are generally bunched into one or
two cables, but they are kept separate from each other by means
of strong insulating coverings. Four wires lead into each motor,
and three or four into each of the boxes marked G G. If the
motors were required to run in one direction only, then two wires
would be sufficient to convey the current to them ; but as they have
to run in either direction, at least three wires are necessary, but in
almost every case four are used, as the results obtained thereby are
more satisfactory. The boxes G G are called rheostats, and are
simply devices through which the current is run so as to reduce
the speed of the car, and also for the purpose of graduating the
strength of the current that passes through the motors in the act
of starting. These rheostats are very seldom in use when the car
is in motion, because it is a waste of power to pass the current
through them. After the current has passed through the motors
it enters the ironwork, and thus gets into the car wheels and
finally to the track.

The lines drawn in Fig. 18 to indicate the position of the wires
in the car do not show their actual position, but only the general
direction they follow. From the trolley base to the first hood
switch the wire, as a rule, is run along the car roof on one side of
the ventilator, and the wire leading from the first to the second
hood switch occupies a corresponding position on the opposite side
of the roof. From the last hood switch, h, the wire is run down
one corner of the car body, being either within the car body, or, if
not, so covered by moldings as to not be reached by the hands of
passengers. The wires d and e are generally run under the car,
and are firmly secured to it by means of suitable fastenings.

The controlling switches C C are provided with one and some-
times two handles, one of which is used to regulate the speed of
the car and stop and start it, while the other is for the purpose of
reversing the direction in which it runs. The handle h is for the
purpose of regulating the speed, and by means of Ic the direction
of motion is changed. Before h is moved from the inactive posi-
tion Ic is turned so that the car may run either forward or backAvard,
as may be desired ; then, when h is moved, the car will start, and by
varying the position of Tithe speed can be changed. If it is de-

412 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

sired to reverse the car, h is brought back to the stop position, h is
shifted to the reverse motion, and then h is again turned to the
running position. "When the controlling switch is provided with
only one handle this is turned in one direction to run the car ahead,
and in the opposite direction to run it backward, the graduations
in velocity being obtained by placing the handle in positions inter-
mediate between the stop position and the highest speed position.

As will be noticed, the wire d d branches at c and runs in both
directions. Now, when the controller handles are both turned to
the stop position the current from the trolley can get no farther
than the ends of d in either switch, but if one of them is turned
to the running position, the current at once passes to the wires in
the cable e e e, and thus to the two motors. If the switches C C
are in proper working order and there is no disarrangement of the
wires leading to the motors or those within the latter, the current
will obey the movements of the handle h, but under other condi-
tions it may not. If such an emergency arises, the motorman
reaches up to the hood and turns the safety switch a or h, and thus
cuts the current off.

The force with which the motors turn the car wheels around
depends upon the strength of the current; this is owing to the fact
that the magnetic force is increased or decreased by variations in
the current strength. If the current is doubled the magnetic force
of the armature is nearly doubled, and so is that of the field mag-
net, therefore the pull between the poles is nearly four times as
great. From this it will be seen that the force with which the car
is pushed ahead can be increased enormously by a comparatively
small increase in the strength of the current.- If the current
strength is doubled, the propelling force is practically quadrupled;
and if the current is increased four times, the propelling force is
made nearly sixteen times as great.

The speed at which the car runs depends upon the force that
impels the current through the wire, and which is called electro-
motive force. The greater the electro-motive force, the higher
the velocity. If the current passes from the wires in the cable
e e e through each motor separately, and thence to the rails R, each
machine will receive the effect of the whole electro-motive force
of the current; but if after the current has passed through one
motor it is directed through the other, then each machine will be
acted upon by only one half the electro-motive force, and, as can
be seen at once, the velocity in the first instance will be twice as
great as in the last. This fact is taken advantage of in regulating
the speed of the car, and controlling switches arranged so as to
direct the current through the motors in this way are designated

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

413

as belonging to the series parallel type, the name being given from
the fact that when the car is running slow, the current passes
through the two motors in series — that is, through one after the
other; but when the motors are running fast, a separate current
passes through each machine.

If, when a car is running, the controlling switch is turned to
cut the current off, the eifect will be that the speed will gradually

i, ^h

•'■slSM^^'-

Fig. 20.

-View uf Elkijtkk' Kailway Truck with (J.nm: ihaui;
VIDEO WITH Magnetic Brakes.

J^ LAtU Ai.

reduce ; but if it is desired to effect a sudden stop, it becomes neces-
sary to cheek the headway by means of a brake. For this purpose
the hand brake ordinarily used on all types of cars is employed,
but magnetic brakes are also used in some cases. Fig. 20 shows
a car truck equipped with two motors and magnetic brakes, one
on each axle. Looking at the front end of the truck, the brake
is seen on the left side of the axle, between the motor bearing and
the car wheel. The larger drum, on the right side, is the casing
within which the g€ar wheel and pinion are inclosed. These mag-
netic brfikes are operated by a current generated by the motors, and
not by that of the main line. As was explained in the first article,
an electric motor can be made to act as a generator of electric cur-
rent by simply reversing the direction in which the armature re-
volves. If we do not desire to reverse the direction of rotation,
the result can still be attained by reversing the direction in which

+ 14 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the current passes through the armature coils. It is evident that
the direction of a car motor can not be reversed at the instant that
it is desired to have it act as a generator — that is, when it is de-
sired to put the brakes on; hence the direction of the current
through the armature is reversed.

When a car is provided with magnetic brakes, the controlling
switches are so made that when the handle h is moved back to the
stop position it disconnects the motors from the trolley wire and at
the same time connects them with the magnetic brakes in such
a manner that they will act as generators and thus send current
through the coils of the latter. In order that the force mth
which the brakes are applied may be graduated, the controlling
switches are arranged so as to be moved several steps back of the
point which in the ordinary type of switch would be the final stop
position. When the handle h is placed on the first brake position
the current generated by the motors is not very strong, and as a
consequence the force of the brake is light, but sufficient to bring
the car to a stop in a reasonable distance. If a quicker stop is
desired the handle is moved to the second, third, or fourth brake
position, thus increasing the retarding force as much as may be
desired. Magnetic brakes are very desirable, as they save the car
wheels, and furthermore afford an additional safety in cases where
it is necessary to arrest the speed instantly.

The position of the motors with reference to the truck and car
wheels is very well shown in Fig. 20, and also the manner in which
they are held in place. The covers of the openings through which
access to the commutator brushes is obtained are removed from
both motors, and in the forward one the top of- the commutator
and one of the brushes can be readily seen. The manner in which
the motors are suspended from the truck is not the same in this
figure as in those previously shown, but this is simply because the
machines are not made by the same concern, and each manufac-
turer has his own design.

Fig. 21 shows the appearance of the interior of the controlling
switches C C, Figs. 18 and 19. It will be noticed that there are
two upright shafts, the ends of which project above the top of the
box. The handle h is placed upon the shaft to the left, and h on
that to the right. The first is the main controller, and the other
is the reversing switch. It will be noticed that the main con-
troller shaft carries a number of circular segments of different
lengths; these are so disposed that they come in contact with suit-
able stationary pieces as the handle h is turned around, and thus
vary the path of the current through the motors and the rheostats
in the manner required to effect the desired changes in the velocity

WHAT MAKES TBI: TROLLEY CAR GO.

415

of the car. The reversing shaft is also provided with a number
of segments, but these are not so easily seen, although they can be
discerned on close examination. The wires from the cable e e e
and also wire d d are attached to the stationary pieces with which
the segments carried by the two shafts make contact when the
latter are moved around by the motorman. These Avires can be
seen back of the main switch shaft, and also above the board located

Fig. 21. — View of Interior of Car Controller.

at the lower left-hand corner. All these wires enter the controller
through an opening in the bottom.

In addition to the apparatus shown in Figs. 18 to 21, electric
cars are provided with a safety fuse and a lightning arrester, the
object of the latter being to protect the motors from the destruc-
tive effects of lightning strokes. The object of the safety fuse is
to protect the motor from injury when the current becomes too
strong. An electric current in passing through a wire generates
heat, and the stronger the current the greater the heat. If the wire
is large and the current weak, the heat developed may be insufficient
to raise the temperature to a noticeable degree; but, on the other
hand, if the wire is small or the current very strong, the heat gen-
erated may be capable of raising the temperature of the metal to
the fusing point. In fact, the incandescent lamp operates upon this
principle; the carbon filament is traversed by a current of a
strength sufficient to heat it to a point where it becomes intensely

41 6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

luminous, and sometimes, tlirough accident or otherwise, the cur-
rent becomes strong enough to melt the filament, and then the light
goes out. In an electric motor it is not necessary to raise the tem-
perature of the wire to the melting point to do serious injury; in
fact, if the heat is sufficient to char paper or cloth, the machine will
be rendered useless until suitable repairs are made. The insula-
tion of the wire coils is made principally of cotton, which is a very
good electrical insulator in its natural state, but when carbonized
by excessive heat it becomes a conductor. As soon as it becomes
a conductor the current is no longer confined to the proper channel,
but cuts through the insulation to find the shortest path through
the machine. If safety fuses were not provided the danger of de-
stroying the insulation of the motors and thus disabling the car
would be decidedly great, for, as already said, the motors can not
be stalled with an overload, the only effect produced being a re-
duction in the speed and an increase in current strength. Now,
if there were no way of limiting the increase in current strength
the motors, if greatly overloaded, would continue to operate until
the insulation gave out. The safety fuse is simply a piece of wire
of such size that it will be melted by a current that the motors
can carry without being injured; hence when the current strength
reaches a point where the safety of the apparatus is endangered
the fuse melts and thus breaks the circuit and stops the further
flow of current. Fuses are generally made of an alloy that melts
at a low temperature, so that the molten metal may not set fire
to anything upon which it may fall. These easily fused alloys are
inferior to copper as electrical conductors, and on this account
the fuse wire is as a rule much larger than that wound upon the
motors, which fact makes its action somewhat mysterious to the
uninitiated; but whatever its size may be, it is so proportioned that
it will melt before the current rises to a strength that would injure
the motor coils.

The manner in which the electric current generated in the
power house reaches the motors is illustrated in Fig. 22. In this
figure four tracks are shown, which may be taken to represent
roads running in as many different directions. The three squares
at the left side represent generators located in the power house.
The circles a a a represent switches, by means of which the gener-
ators are connected or disconnected from the trolley lines. A
and B represent heavy metallic rods, generally made of copper,
with which the generators are connected by means of the switches
a a a. These rods are called bus bars. The circles h h h h repre-
sent switches by means of which the current is turned on or off
from the several tracks.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

417

Electric currents must always circulate in closed paths — that
is, the current that starts out from a generator must return to it,
and the amount coming back is the same as that which leaves.
The action of an electric generator can be understood by compar-
ing it with that of a water pump pumping into a pipe which runs
around from the delivery end to the suction. With such an ar-
rangement it can be seen that the action of the pump would be to
keep the water in circulation, but the same water would be pumped
through the pump and the pipe all the time. "With an electric

b

& ja«

b

' b

h5i

#'

^:

:i^:

('V (')

G)-' G)

R

f /

::5=>

"^

^L^^

0) 0

G) G)

IP ■'

^V^

(^ 0

SZSI

R

~^L

:^

^:

iD Q_

_0 0_

_0 Ql

Fig. 22.-

-DlAORAM ILLUSTRATING THE Ma>'NER IN WHICH THE ElECTRIO CURRENT FLOWS

FROM THE Generators to the Cars upon the Tracks.

generator the action is the same, and in Fig. 22 the current flow-
ing along any one of the tracks follows the course indicated by the
arrows. The currents pass out to the several tracks through the
trolley wires T T T T, and return through the tracks R R R R.
The bus bar A is connected with a plate D, which is imbedded in
the ground, and is also connected with the ends of the rails
R R R R. Suppose for a moment that the two lower generators
are out of service, their switches a a being turned so as to discon-
nect them from the bus A, and, further, suppose that the three
lower h switches are open, so that the current can only pass to the

41 8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

upper track; then tlic top generator will feed into the top road
only. Tracing the path of the current under these conditions,
we find that it will start from the upper side of the generator
through the a switch to the B bus, and thence to the trolley wire
at the top of the figure. On reaching the first car a portion of the
current passes to the track R, the amount being dependent upon
the speed of the car and the load. Why the whole current does
not follow this path generally puzzles the layman, but the explana-
tion is that the motors hold the current back, and only allow as
much to pass through them as is necessary to perform the required
work — that is to say, the current flowing through each car is not
controlled by the generator or by the force of the current, but by
the requirements of the motors. The amount of current deliv-
ered by the generator is governed by the demands of the motors.
The current that does not pass through the first car goes on to
the second one, and if there were more cars there would be cur-
rent left in the trolley wire to supply them. After passing through
the motors of the two cars the current returns through the rails R
to the plate D, and thus to bus A, from which it enters the lower
side of the top generator. It will from this explanation be seen
that the action of the generator is simply to keep the current cir-
culating. If two of the generators are connected with the bus
bars A and B, the current required by the motors will be delivered
by the two machines, and if the three generators are placed in
service the current will be divided among them.

"When two or more generators are used, it is necessary to pro-
vide means to prevent the current from dividing unequally between
them; if this were not done, one machine might do nearly all the
work, while the other one would be practically idle. The means
employed to accomplish the result is simply an additional bus bar,
which is called an equalizing bus. We will not undertake to ex-
plain the principle upon which this arrangement acts; it is suffi-
cient to say that by such means the work can be distributed in
amounts directly proportional to the capacity of the generators,
so that if one machine is very much larger than the others it will
take a portion of the load corresponding to its size. In order that
these results may be attained it is necessary to properly adjust the
several generators, and as no machine can be made to work with
the accuracy of perfection, the work will not be distributed in true
proportion for all conditions of load; thus if the generators are
adjusted so as to each take its proper share when all the cars are in
operation, one machine may do too much or not enough when only
one half the number are running, but the excess or deficiency will not
be more than a few per cent unless the adjustment is very defective.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

419

Electric generators for railway work are made in all sizes, from
those only large enough to operate fonr or five cars to others
capable of furnishing sufiicient current for thirty or forty or even
more. Small generators are made so as to be driven by a belt run-
ning over a pulley mounted on the end of the armature shaft, or
they may be arranged to be connected to the end of a steam-engine
shaft, and thus become what is called direct connected machines.
Large generators are almost invariably of the latter type. A ma-
chine of this class is illustrated in Fig. 23. The driving engine is
shown at E, the cylinder being in the background and the crank
toward the front, the shaft being clearly seen at 8, while F is the

Yu,. -i:

]lllti

Kli

vY Generator.

fly wheel. The generator is mounted directly upon the engine
shaft, between the bearing at the crank end and the fly wheel.
The large ring marked G is the field magnet ring, and ai D D D the
field coils are shown. These coils are equally spaced all the way
around the circle. The commutator is marked C, and the com-
mutator brushes are located at B B. The armature can not be
seen very well, as it is covered by the brush holders and their sup-
porting frames, but it is located within the ring G in the position
designated by A. This machine is one of a number used to oper-
ate the roads of Troy, IST. Y., and is of about one-thousand-horse-
power capacity, which is enough to furnish all the current required
to run sixty or seventy cars.

The switches a a and & h, shown in Fig. 22, and the bus bars

420 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

A B, are mounted upon a large panel, made of marble or slate,
called a switch board. These switches are sufficient for the pur-
pose of turning the current on or off any track or for connecting
and disconnecting the generators, but for the successful operation
of the plant it is necessary to have other devices by means of
which the strength of the current may be ascertained, and also the
electro-motive force. It is necessary to provide each generator
with means for varying the electro-motive force of the current it
generates, otherwise the load could not be properly equalized be-
tween the several machines. All these different devices are located
upon the switch board, so as to have them in an accessible position.
A railway switch board, arranged for four generators and a large
number of distributing circuits, is shown in Fig. 24. The four
generator switches are shown at a a a a, and the circles marked R,
directly under them, are the devices by means of which the electro-
motive force of the current is regulated. These devices are called
field regulators, from the fact that their office is to regulate the
strength of the field magnets of the generators, making them
stronger to increase the electro-motive force and weaker to reduce
it. The part seen iipon the front of the switch board is not the
regulator proper, but only the handle and the contact points over
which this swings. The instruments marked A A A A are for meas-
uring the strength of the current of each individual generator, and
are called ammeters. The instruments marked V V V V are for
the purpose of indicating the electro-motive force of the currents
of the several generators, and are called voltmeters. Ag is an
ammeter used to measure the strength of the total current, and
Vg is a voltmeter that indicates the electro-motive force of the
current passing out to the cars on the various lines. The ammeter
^^ is not an actual necessity, for the strength of the total current
can be ascertained by adding the readings of the four instruments
connected with the generators, but it is a convenience, as it saves
the trouble of performing the addition. The voltmeter Vg, how-
ever, can not be regarded in this light; in fact, its presence is
decidedly serviceable, for it indicates the average electro-motive
force of all the generators; therefore if any one of the instruments
V V V V is higher or lower it shows at once that the generator
to which it is attached is out of adjustment and not doing its proper
share of the w^ork. The switches hhh,hj means of which the cur-
rent is turned on to the several external circuits, are shown at the
extreme end of the switch board.

The instrument marked W, located between the a switches, is
called a wattmeter, and its office is to indicate the amount of power
furnished by the generators. This instrument is not always used.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

421

as it is a convenience but not a necessity. It can be seen at once
that whether it is used or not, the amount of power required to
operate the roads will be the same, but it is thought by most rail-
road managers that it is desirable, for then the relation between
the coal consumed and the power developed can be seen; and if
the showing is not as good as it should be, the engineer can remind
the firemen that they are not exercising as much care in feeding
the boilers as they should. Considered in this light, the watt-
meter acts as a check to wastefulness on the part of the employees.
The instruments marked C C C C serve the same purpose in
connection with the generators as the safety fuses do with respect
to the car motors; they are electro-magnetic devices used to open

Fig. 24. -^Electric Kailway Switchboard.

the generator circuits whenever the current reaches a strength that
is sufiicient to injure the machine. These devices are called circuit
breakers. As will be noticed, there are four located directly above
the four a switches, and, at the farther end of the board, a large
number located directly above the b switches. The latter act to open
the individual circuits when the currents flowing in them become
too strong, and the former are controlled entirely by the current of
the generator circuits. A circuit breaker is more reliable than a
safety fuse, because it acts quicker. With the fuse the current
must act for some time before it can melt the metal, as a sufiicient
amount of heat can not be generated instantly. "With the circuit
breaker, however, the action -is instantaneous, for as soon as the
current reaches the predetermined strength the magnetism of the

422 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

operative parts of the device becomes sufficiently strong to cause
it to act. A circuit breaker is simply a switch that is arranged to
be opened automatically by the action of a magnet, instead of by
the hand of the operator. The switch part of the apparatus is
held in place by a catch that is set much after the fashion of the
catch in a mouse trap — that is, so that the least pressure will dis-
engage it. A strong spring acts to throw the switch open, and as
soon as the catch is tripped by the actuating magnet the force of
the spring comes into action and the circuit is opened.

The circuit breaker is a very valuable apparatus, for it fre-
quently happens that, through delays of one kind or another, a
large number of cars concentrate at one point on the road, and, as
all the motormen are anxious to make headway, they all start up
at once at the first opportunity. If there were no circuit breakers
at the power house the result would be that some of the generators
would be greatly overloaded and perhaps disabled; but, owing to
the presence of the circuit breakers, the actual result is that the cir-
cuit is broken, and then the motormen have to wait until the cur-
rent is turned on again. If too many of them try to start their
cars at the second trial the current will again stop. After two
or three ineffectual efforts have been made to start all the cars
together the motormen will conclude to go easy, and set a few in
motion at a time. In this way the cars will become more evenly
distributed along the line, and the demand for current at the point
of blockade will reduce to the normal amount, or nearly so, and
the running of the cars will continue without further interruption,
for the current drawn by the motors having been reduced to the
average amount, the circuit breaker will cease to act.

The bus bars and all the connections between them and the
generators and external circuits, as well as with all the instruments,
are located behind the switch board. All these connections are so
secured that they can not come in contact with each other except
where contacts are required; care is also taken to prevent any con-
nection being made with the iron framing that supports the marble
slabs. The front of a switch board is generally very attractive,
the surface being of highly polished marble, while all the switches
and instruments are finely finished and, as a rule, of decidedly
ornamental design.

The switch board might be looked upon as the fountain head
from which the entire operation of an electric railway system is
controlled. By the movement of one set of switches upon it the
generators are thrown in or out of service, and by the movement
of another set of switches the several branches of the road are
rendered active or inactive.

TS THE CHRISTIAN RELIGIOX DECLINING? 423

IS THE CHKISTIAN KELIGION DECLINmG?

Bv THE Rev. CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D. D.,

PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY.

THE question whether the Christian religion is declining is agi-
tating the public mind in some measure at the present time.
This is due to the many changes that are taking place in the forms
of religion, the types of doctrine, and the methods of action in the
numerous religious organizations which bear the name of Jesus
Christ. Are these changes symptoms of disease and decay in the
Christian religion, or are they evidences of renewed vitality and
enlargement by growth? It is quite evident that many things
which have been regarded as important and even essential in the
past have declined in importance, and some of them seem to be
on the eve of disappearing altogether. It is not surprising that
those who have been trained to regard these as essential to Chris-
tianity should think that the Christian religion is declining with
them. If, however, these things are not so important as has been
supposed, but have gained for a time an exaggerated importance,
then their decline to their normal position and the advance of
other things to their rightful place, as more important things than
has hitherto been supposed — all this is evidence of a healthful ad-
vance in Christianity. This question, therefore, will be answered
in accordance with the point of view of the one who considers it.
If it is to be answered correctly we must put aside all prejudice,
and examine the whole situation candidly and with a critical scien-
tific spirit. It is impracticable within the bounds of this article
to examine this question on all sides. We can only make a few
suggestions relating to it.

It is necessary at the outset to approach the question aright.
We must distinguish between what is essential to the Christian
religion and what is non-essential. This is not so easy a task as
one might imagine. We can only make this distinction generally,
and not with scientific precision. In the study of religions we
have to distinguish (1) the more fundamental things in the his-
torical institutions and experience in life; (2) the doctrines which
express the popular belief or scientific knowledge of the adherents
of the religion; and (3) the expression of the religion in ethical
principles and moral conduct. The order of development is always
life, doctrine, morals. The earlier stages of the Christian religion
and of Christian experience at any time and in any community is
the vital experience and the institutional organization. Doctrines
of faith and knowledge presuppose the vital relation, and morals

424 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

presuppose both, and conduct is the final aim and crown of the
whole development. And yet there are some scholars who exagger-
ate the relative importance of each one of the three in its relation
to the other two and to the whole.

In our age greater attention is given to Christian ethics and
sociology than ever before. A man who has the ethical enthusiasm
of our times is inclined to criticise historical Christianity with great
severity, because of its failure to realize the highest ethical ideals,
and especially those presented by Jesus in his teaching and his ex-
ample. Historical Christianity is so far below these ideals, even
in its best types, that one is inclined to say if the Church has failed
so badly in nineteen centuries, what prospect has it in the present
or the future? Some good men in our times are disgruntled with
historical Christianity for its ethical failures, and keep aloof from
the Church on that account; but these are after all proportion-
ately few, and they are unreasonable, for they exaggerate the eth-
ical phase of Christianity over against the doctrinal and the vital;
they fail to see what is necessarily involved in the development
of the Christian religion, that the ethical age should come last of
all; and they also are not just in their estimate of Christian his-
tory, for, notwithstanding the failure of the Church, there has been
a wonderful and steady ethical advance through the centuries. In-
deed, it is Christianity itself which is chiefly responsible for the
ethical enthusiasm of the present time, and this is an evidence that
Christianity is about to enter upon the last and highest stage of its
development. Holy love in principle and practice in the liberty
of self-sacrifice is better understood in the Church to-day than
ever before, and it is becoming more influential in the Church and
in the world. The Church is about to put forth the supreme eth-
ical influence of holy love to transform society and the lives of men.

In large sections of the Church the greatest stress is still laid
upon Christian doctrine, especially as expressed in dogmatic forms.
If a man thinks that orthodox doctrine is the test of a healthful
and vigorous church, he will make that the determining element
in his judgment whether Christianity is advancing or declining.
In this sphere w^e have to distinguish three things: (1) The popular
orthodoxy, which is determined by the consensus of teaching from
the pulpit; (2) the scholarly orthodoxy, which is determined by
the teaching of the theologian from the chairs of the theological
schools and in text-books of dogmatic theology; (3) the ofiicial
orthodoxy, which is determined by creeds, liturgies, confessions of
faith, and canons of the Church.

There can be no doubt that there has been a great overturning
of dogma in our times, and it is altogether probable that this will

IS THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION DECLINING? 425

assume much greater dimensions. Many think that dogma has
had an exaggerated importance in the past, and, from their point
of view, the Christian religion has made an advance by pushing
dogma back to a less dominant position. Those who maintain that
dogma is of supreme importance naturally think that the Chris-
tian religion declines wheji dogma is discredited in the Christian
community. There can be little doubt that a large number of
men absent themselves from church attendance because they dis-
like the popular orthodoxy, which seems to them antiquated, un-
scientific, and untrue. Many refuse to unite with religious organi-
zations which are dominated by an orthodoxy representing the
theories of scholastic theology. Many remain apart from the
churches because they are unwilling to be responsible in any way
for their official orthodoxy. Many, born and trained in Pres-
byterian families, refuse to remain in an organization which is
responsible for the hard doctrines set forth in the Westminster
Confession. Many Methodists refuse to be compromised by Wes-
ley's doctrines and Wesley's rules of hie. Many refuse to remain
Baptists because of what is involved in close communion. Many
refuse to be Episcopalians because they resent the doctrines and
practices of sacerdotalism. And so we could find, more or less
in all religious communions, a dissatisfaction with dogmas — some-
times superficial, giving a plausible excuse for absence, sometimes
profound, inciting active hostility to the Church. If all of these
dissatisfied ones are to be regarded as hostile or indifferent to Chris-
tianity, then it is evident that an army of Christians have prac-
tically separated themselves from the Church in our time, and we
must say that Christianity has in this respect declined. If, on the
other hand, we think that these dissatisfied and disgruntled ones
are yet Christians, and that they are maintaining their faith in
Christ in opposition to an unreasonable church, that they are exert-
ing an important influence in the transformation of the dogmas of
the Church, then we may say that this is an evidence that Chris-
tianity is in a state of transition, that it is on the move away from
an untenable position of exaggerated dogma to a truer and stronger
position, in which dogma will be transformed and given its normal
place and importance.

The effort to throw off the bondage of the popular and the scho-
lastic dogma is an advance, and not a decline; it is an advance into
the realm of freedom. It first gives the possibility of a critical
re-examination of the dogmatic faith of the Church. Only by the
application of the scientific methods of our age to dogma is it pos-
sible for our age to verify dogma and accept it as valid and reli-
able. We can not rely on anything that is merely traditional or

VOL. LVI. — 33

426 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the product of the logical analysis of premises which remain them-
selves unverified. The revolt against the confessional orthodoxy,
especially in the Presbyterian, Reformed, and Lutheran Churches,
is not a sign of decline, as some think, but a wholesome movement
which indicates a determination to know the truth and to hold
nothing but the truth.

The Chicago-Lambeth articles, adopted by the whole Anglican
communion throughout the world, reduces the essential doctrines
of Christ's Church to the Nicene Creed and the Apostles' Creed;
those creeds in which all the great historical churches, the Greek
and the Oriental, the Koman and the Protestant, agree. This
marks a dogmatic advance, not a dogmatic decline, because it makes
the distinction between the essential and unessential doctrines, it
defines essential doctrines by holding up ancient fundamental his-
torical creeds; it thereby represents all other matters as within
the realm of the unessential doctrines, the province of Christian
liberty.

The churches are therefore readjusting themselves in their rela-
tion to Christian doctrine, and the Christian community is read-
justing itself likewise. The offensive features of Christian dogma,
while still retained and advocated by some theologians and some
communions, have been in great measure removed by other theo-
logians and communions, and the process is going on with great
rapidity. The war against science, criticism, literature, and art —
all that is characteristic of our age — is gradually being limited to
a smaller number of theologians and denominations, and there is
ever an increasing number of theologians and churches which fully
recognize all the achievements of modern times, and who are at
work in harmonizing them with the verified Christian dogmas in a
larger, grander system — in a new theology representing all that is
noblest and best in Christianity as applied to the modern world.
While this process is going on, the dissatisfied ones will take some
little time to find their new church homes and to adjust themselves
to new conditions and circumstances.

So far as the great mass of mankind is concerned, the chief
factor in the Christian religion is the fundamental one of the Chris-
tian life and the Christian institution, and the advance or decline
of Christianity will be judged from this point of view. Here, how-
ever, we must recognize that there are several types of religious
life which sometimes combine in one community, but which ordi-
narily exist apart as characteristic of different temperaments, dif-
ferent nations, different races. The lines of cleavage in historical
Christianity are for the most part racial, national, or tempera-
mental. We have to take this into account when we consider the

Is THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION DECLINING? 427

religious life and institutions of different countries. What a dif-
ference there is in religion from this point of view in the great
centers, such as Rome, St. Petersburg, Berlin, London, Edinburgh,
New York! That man would go far astray who should imdertake
to use any one of these as a test of any or of all the others.

Let us consider, for example, the question of participation in
the services of the Church. Rome has apparently, from a Protes-
tant point of view, an abnormal number of churches, and in these
churches an extraordinary number of chapels and altars. The
reason for this is that there is an immense number of clergy in
Rome, and all these altars are needed that they may perform the
most important of their duties — the sacrifice of the mass. The
churches, chapels, and altars are not erected for the people merely
— if so, vastly fewer would be necessary — but for the priests who
sacrifice for the people even when they are absent. Berlin has
apparently very few churches, and these are not always well at-
tended by the people, and are used infrequently except on Sun-
days. Judging from this, it would be a very irreligious city;
but any one who really knows Berlin would not say that it is less
religious than Rome. The religion of the German people finds
its expression in a mystic type of personal piety and of family
and social life; it maintains and propagates itself without frequent
attendance upon public worship.

In London regular attendance upon public worship is com-
monly regarded as indispensable for the maintenance of the Chris-
tian religion. Therefore Christian people frequent the churches
to an extent that is unknown on the continent of Europe. But
to make the British habit of frequenting the Church for public
worship a test of the vitality of the Christian religion in the
great cities of the Continent would be altogether unjust and
untrue. The historical development of religion in Great Brit-
ain has brought about an entirely different state of affairs there
from that which we find everywhere else in the world. The situ-
ation in Great Britain is therefore special, peculiar, and, one might
say, abnormal as compared with the situation in other parts of the
world. In the United States the original population was chiefly
British, and therefore followed British methods in religion. But
in the present century our land, and especially our cities, have filled
up with a population from the continent of Europe, bringing with
them Continental methods of worship which would not yield to or
readily adopt British methods. Intermarriage with the British
stock and familiar converse in society have tended to assimilation,
and therefore the situation has gradually and inevitably emerged
that the Christianity of ISTew York and Chicago and our other great

428 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

cities has assumed an intermediate position between that of the
Continent and that of Great Britain. The religious customs char-
acteristic of British Christianity have undoubtedly declined — they
have yielded to the influence of Continental Christianity. If Brit-
ish Christianity is the norm by which we are to judge, then Chris-
tianity has declined in the United States. If, however, it is not
the norm, then it might appear that an intermediate position, such
as we have attained by the assimilation of the British and the Con-
tinental types, may be a real advance and gain, because of the ap-
propriation of some of the best features of both methods and the
rubbing off of some of the eccentricities and excrescences of both.
A decline in the relative attendance upon the public worship, and
especially upon the second service on Sunday, is exactly what we
would anticipate under the circumstances. It is altogether prob-
able that the decline is much less than we had the right to expect
in view of the vast influence exerted upon us by Continental types
of Christianity during the past half century. And it is altogether
probable that the decline has not reached its normal goal. Espe-
cially is this the case when we take into consideration other influ-
ences which tend to diminish the attendance upon public worship.

1. In Great Britain, where the churches were established by law,
the state and Church were so entwined that it was a badge of good
citizenship to attend upon public worship. In antithesis with this,
attendance of the nonconformists upon public worship was re-
garded as a standing by their principles and a test of fidelity and
courage. These influences worked also in the United States dur-
ing the colonial period; but during the present century this mo-
tive has lost its influence, and it is to be feared that politicians as
such feel under no special obligation to attend church, especially
in view of the attitude of many of the ministry as to political life
and political questions.

2. In Great Britain it has been a badge of social propriety to
attend public worship. Social influences still prevail greatly in the
United States, in villages and small cities, and even to some extent
in the churches in the great cities, where they are organized and
conducted in social lines as social religious clubs. But this influ-
ence is much weaker than it used to be, and it is gradually passing
away.

3. The pulpit was once the chief means of instruction and of
intellectual and moral stimulation for the people. The preacher
was the people's orator. The pulpit has in great measure lost its
attractive power in this regard. The daily and weekly press have
a greater influence in public instruction. The multiplication of
cheap books also takes from the preacher a large share of his

IS THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION DECLINING? 429

influence in tliis regard. Oratory in legislative bodies has to a
great extent lost its influence. Its place has been taken by simple,
compact, time-saving statements, often printed but not delivered.
Committees do the work which used to be done after discussion be-
fore the public. So the people will not listen now to the pulpit
orator of former generations. They demand short, crisp sermons
that bristle with points, and are practical and helpful. In other
words, the oratorical and highly intellectual character of the pul-
pit which used to attract worshipers no longer attracts them.
They feel that they can get more benefit in this regard by reading
in the comfort of the home. Multitudes of people can no longer
be induced to attend church to be instructed by the minister or to
get his judgment on topics of the time, or to be stirred by his elo-
quence; they can get all these things cheaper and easier by read-
ing at home. When, now, this is re-enforced by the fact that mul-
titudes dislike the doctrines of the Church, and resent them when
they are preached, we can easily understand that church attendance
should decline very greatly from this reason.

But this is no evidence that the Christian religion has declined.
If men absent themselves from public worship because it is no
longer necessary for them, as good citizens and as respectable mem-
bers of society, to attend, or because they may get their instruction
and stimulation elsewhere easier and with less expenditure of time
and money, that is simply an evidence that attendance upon church
in the past has been due in great measure to other than religious
reasons, and that, these no longer holding, attendance has disap-
peared with them. The attendance upon public worship, though
reduced so far as number is concerned, is now more simply and
purely for religious reasons, and therefore minister and people may
with greater freedom make the services more distinctly religious.
This is indeed the real situation that has emerged. The ser-
mon has declined relatively in importance, and rightly so. It had
an exaggerated importance in the Protestant Church, especially in
the non-liturgical churches. There is a world-wide tendency now,
which is increasing in power, to improve and enlarge the worship
of the Church. Liturgies and ceremonies of worship are more
discussed now in the Protestant world than are sermons and lec-
tures, because it is becoming every day more evident that the
Church is organized for common prayer and for public worship,
and not merely to furnish a pulpit for a minister. The pulpit is
more and more being merged in the worship, and is losing its domi-
nation over the worship. With this tendency goes increased atten-
tion to the Holy Sacraments, especially the Holy Communion, more
frequent celebrations and more frequent participation, increased

430 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

opportunity of worship during Sunday and during the week, and
also therewith the greatly increased attention to the organization
of the Church for aggressive Christian work. Those who think
that the pulpit is everything in the public service naturally suppose
that with the decline of the pulpit Christianity declines, but those
who think that public worship is the essential thing in the Church
rejoice at the changes that are taking place, and hold that Chris-
tianity is advancing. They maintain that it is not so important for
the Church to gather large crowds to listen to the sermon as it
is for the church doors to be ever open, with frequent services for
the convenience and help of worshipers at any time, without re-
gard to whether they are few or many, assured that thereby a much
greater number of people are reached and benefited than by the
former limited methods.

It is sometimes said that biblical criticism has undermined
faith in Holy Scripture, and that, therefore, many absent them-
selves from public worship. But there is no real evidence for it.
I doubt not that the opponents of biblical criticism drive many
people from their congregations, just as they do when they attack
the sure results of modern science, or expose their ignorance in the
discussion of political and economical questions in which they have
not been trained; but these people simply remove to other congre-
gations where they will not be offended by obscurantism and intol-
erance. Biblical criticism really makes the Bible more attractive
to the people, and its reading and exposition more interesting and
influential in the Church.

A careful study of the situation makes it evident that the Chris-
tian religion is not declining in our land ; but it is passing through
a transition state, putting off antiquated dogTiias, customs, and
methods, and adapting itself to the modern world, and transferring
itself so as to better accomplish its work. In no age has Christian-
ity made more advance than in the century now drawing to a close.

The Indiana of Bolivia are described by Sir Martin Conway as " an
exceedingly bigoted folk, retaining under a mask of Christianity their
ancient superstitions, little altered," and are kept in order by priestly
management rather than by force. Mr. Conway was seriously interfered
with by them in the prosecution of his researches because the nature of
his undertaking involved some outrage to their superstitions. They re-
gard the mountains above the level of habitation as part of the other
world, and holding, among other fancies, that a golden bull and a golden
cross planted by supernatural agency stood on the summit of one of
the peaks round the base of Mount Serata, thought that the object of
the explorer's expedition could be nothing else than to obtain posses-
sion of these priceless treasures. Hence they offered formidable oppo-
sition to him.

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 431

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY.*

By Peof. JOSEPH LE CONTE.

GEOLOGY is one of the youngest of the sciences. It may
almost be said to have been born of the present century. It
is true that knowledge concerning the structure of the earth had
been accumulating ever since the time of the Greeks and Romans;
it is true that these materials became more abundant and were
better organized in the eighteenth century; but this knowledge had
not yet taken form as a distinct branch of science until about the
end of that century. There are two distinctive marks of scien-
tific as compared with popular knowledge: First, that its funda-
mental idea is clearly conceived; and, second, that its method is
distinctly inductive.

1. FtnsTDAMENTAL Idea. — The fundamental idea underlying
geological thought is the history of the earth. Now, until the be-
ginning of the present century the earth was not supposed to have
any history. It was supposed to have been made at once, out of
hand, about six thousand years ago, and to have remained substan-
tially unchanged ever since as the necessary theater of human his-
tory. Changes were known to have taken place and in less degree
to be still taking place, but these were not supposed to follow any
law such as is necessary to constitute a history, and thus to con-
stitute a science distinct from geography. Buffon, about the mid-
dle of the last century, did indeed bring out dimly the idea of an
abyss of time, preceding the advent of man, in which the earth
was inhabited by animals and plants wholly different from those
of the present day, but he was compelled by the priests of the Sor-
bonne to retract these supposed irreligious views. So tardily was
the fundamental idea of geology clearly conceived that Comte,
the great originator of scientific philosophy, in his classification of
the sciences in 1820, denied a place to geology because, according
to him, it was not a distinct science at all, but only a field for the
application of all the sciences. It is evident that he did not per-
ceive the fundamental idea underlying geology and distinguishing
it from geography — viz., a life history of the earth through all
time. The claim of geology to a place in a scheme of classification
is exactly the same as that of astronomy. As astronomy is a field
for the application of mathematics, mechanics, physics, and, re-
cently, chemistry, but is distinguished from them all by its charac-
teristic fundamental idea of illimitable space, so geology is a field
for the application of all other lower sciences, but is distinguished

* In this article I have attempted to give only the development^of geological thought.

432 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

from them all by her characteristic fundamental idea of illimit-
able time. As all other sciences are terrestrial, but astronomy
alone celestial, so all other sciences belong to the present — the
" now " — but geology alone belongs to the illimitable past. The
fundamental idea of the one is infinite space, of the other infinite,
in sense of inconceivable, time. All other sciences, including as-
tronomy, are but a flash-light view of Nature. Geology alone is
a view of ISJ'ature in continuous movement, a life history — an evo-
lution of Nature. This mode of thought began to dawn only in
the closing years of the last and the opening years of the present
century. It seems to have been first clearly conceived by the mind
of Hutton in the last part of the eighteenth century.

2. Inductive Method Applied. — When the true idea under-
lying geology was clearly conceived and geology thus distinctly
separated from other departments of science, geology may be said
to have been born. But it was still in helpless infancy, its growth
irregular, and even its continuous life uncertain, because a solid
basis of inductive method was not yet laid. That basis was laid
mainly by Hutton in 1795,* and still more clearly by Charles
Lyell in 1830, in the principle that the study of causes now in
oper-ation is the only true foundation of geology.

Geological changes, of course, belong to the irrevocable past,
and are therefore hopelessly removed from direct observation.
Their causes and process must be reconstructed by the skillful use
of the scientific imagination. Until Lyell, more or less probable
hypotheses seemed all that was possible. AVhat a field was here
for the conflict of opposite extreme views! But Lyell showed that
" causes now in operation " are producing similar eifects under our
eyes, if we will only observe. From that moment geology became
a truly inductive science and its indefinite progress assured.

These two events, then — viz., the conception of geology as a dis-
tinct science, and the introduction of a true scientific method — are
the greatest epochs in the history of geological science. Some dim
adumbrations of these appear before this century, especially the
former in the mind of Buffon, and the latter somewhat fully in the
mind of Hutton, but they were not generally accepted and had not
become working principles until the beginning and even some time
after the beginning of the nineteenth century. These must be
borne in mind in all we have further to say of the progress of geol-
ogy through the century.

When the century opened, the war between the Neptunists and
the Plutonists, between the Wcrnerites and the Huttonites, was
still going on, but was approaching the usual result in such cases

* niitton's Theory of the Earth.

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 433

of dispute — viz., the recognition of tlie fact that there was truth
on both sides, and they must be combined into a more comprehen-
sive view. The chief difference of opinion still remaining was as to
the relative importance of the two agencies, aqueous and igneous.
Two great advances took place about the beginning of this century:
William Smith, by patient, painstaking field observation and map-
ping, laid the foundation of stratigraphy; and Cuvier, by his pro-
found and brilliant studies of the wonderful discoveries of extinct
mammals in the Eocene basin of Paris, laid the foundations of pa-
leontology. These researches placed in clearer light than ever
before the existence of other time-worlds before the present one.
William Smith published his tabular view of the British Strata in
1790, but his map was not completed and published until 1815.
Cuvier's great work on the Organic Remains of the Paris Basin
was published in 1808.

Thus, early in the century the two bases of our science were
laid by Smith and Cuvier. We now proceed to touch lightly only
the main steps of subsequent growth through the century.

As, in the previous century and the early part of this, the dis-
cussion was between the opposite schools of l^eptunists and Pluton-
ists, with the final result of reconciliation in a more scientific view
which combined these two surface views into a stereoscopic reality,
so now the discussions began between catastrophism and uniformi-
tarianism, and ended with a similar final result. Geologists, in
the early part of the century, before the study of causes and pro-
cesses now in operation was generally acknowledged as the only
rational basis of a true scientific geology, seeing the frequent un-
conformities in the geological series and the apparently sudden
changes of life forms associated with these unconformities, were
naturally led to the conclusion that the whole history of the earth
consisted of a series of sudden and violent catastrophes by which
the bed of the ocean was suddenly raised and its waters precipi-
tated on the land as a great wave of translation, carrying universal
ruin and extermination of all life in its course. Such catastrophes
were supposed to be followed by periods of quiet, during which the
new earth was repeopled, by direct act of creation, with new forms
of life adapted to the new conditions.

This view was in perfect accord with the then accepted doctrine
of the supernatural origin and the permanence of species. Species
were supposed to have been created at once, out of hand, without
natural process, in some place (center of specific origin), spread in
all directions as far as physical conditions would allow, but re-
mained unchanged and unchangfeable as long as they continued to
live or until another universal exterminating catastrophe. Species

434 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

are " medals of creation." They are successive individuals struck
from the same die, until the die is worn out or broken. Then a
new die is made, and the process of coinage of identical individuals
is renewed.

Thus the whole history of the earth was supposed to consist of
a succession of alternate supernatural and natural events. The
catastrophes were supernatural; the times of quiet were natural.
The creation of new dies or creation of first individuals was super-
natural; the coinage of individuals of successive generations was
natural. But on the whole the successive conditions of physical
geography and the successive faunas and floras were higher and
more complex according to a preordained plan. The great apostles
of catastrophism were Cuvier in France and Buckland in England.
According to Buckland, the last of these great catastrophes was
the Quaternary or drift period, and this period was, by him and by
many others since, associated with the Noachian Deluge.

Lyell opposed this view with all his power. According to him
we can not judge of geological causes and processes except by study
of causes and processes now in operation and producing effects
under our eyes. The slow operation of .similar causes and processes
is sufficient — given time enough — to account for all the phenomena
in geological history. Thus arose the extreme opposite doctrine of
uniformitarianism. Things have gone on from the beginning and
throughout all time much as they are going on now. This view,
of course, required illimitable time, and was of great service in
enforcing this idea. But, in revulsion from the previous idea of
catastrophism, it undoubtedly was pushed much too far.

Meanwhile the theory of evolution was incubating in the mind
of Darwin. Even Lyell, while he established the doctrine of slow
uniform changes so far as inorganic Nature was concerned, was still
compelled to admit supernatural catastrophic changes in organic
Nature. Species, even for Lyell, were still immutable — still there
were supernatural creation of first individuals, and continuance of
similar individuals by natural process of generation. On the pub-
lication of Darwin's Origin of Species by Descent \vith Modifica-
tion, Lyell at once embraced the new view as a completion of his
principle of causes now in operation and his doctrine of uniformi-
tarianism. In a certain superficial sense evolution is certainly con-
firmatory of the doctrine of uniformity of causes and processes in
the past and the present, but in a deeper sense it is quite contrary
in its spirit. Uniformitarians of the Lyell school look upon geol-
ogy as a clironicle of events — evolutionists as a life history of the
earth. The one regards the slow changes as irregular, uncertain,
without progress or purpose or goal; the other as an evolution to

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY.

435

higher and higher conditions, as a gradual movement onward to-
ward the present condition and toward man as its goah The rec-
ognition of this is only now approaching clearness. If geology
is the history of the evolution of the earth from primal chaos until
now, then the conditions have changed at every step, and absolute
uniformity is impossible. Extreme uniformitarianism is therefore
untenable. Catastrophism and uniformitarianism are opposite ex-
tremes which must be combined and reconciled. This reconcilia-
tion is only now being completed, and we therefore put off its dis-
cussion for the present. Suffice it to say now that geologic thought
in this regard has passed through three stages — catastrophism, uni-
formitarianism, and evolutionism. And this latter is the final
stage, because (1) it is a complete reconciliation between the other
two, and (2) because it is plastic and indefinitely modifiable and
progressive, while the other two are equally rigid and unchange-
able by their mutual antagonism.

With these fundamental principles in mind, we proceed to
touch briefly the most important advances during the century.

EVOLUTION OF EARTH FORMS.

The idea of the progressive development of the earth in its
greater features throughout all geologic time by the action of
forces resident in the earth itself preceded the acceptance of the
evolution of organic forms. We have said that the fundamental
idea of geology is that of the evolution of the earth through all
time. Now, it was Dana who first studied geology wholly from
this point of view. For him geology was the development of
the earth as a unit. Before him, doubtless, geology was a kind
of history — i. e., a chronicle of thrilling events — but Dana first
made it a philosophic history. Before Dana, geology was an
account of the succession of formations and their fossil contents.
Dana made it an account of the evolution of earth forms and
the concomitant and resulting evolution of organic forms. It is
true that first and for a long time his evolutional conception was
incomplete. It is true that while he attributed the evolution of
earth forms to natural causes and processes, he still shrank from
applying similar causes to the changes in life forms, but this was
the almost necessary result of the then universal belief in the
supernatural origin and the unchangeableness of organic forms.
He lived to make his conception of evolution as a natural process,
both of the earth and of organic forms, complete.

Ocean Basins and Continents. — If we divide geological causes
and processes into two general kinds as to their origin — viz., in-
ternal, or earth-derived, and external, or sun-derived — evidently

436 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the former is the original and fundamental kind. These deter-
mine earth forms, while the other only modify them; these de-
termine the great features, the other only the lesser features;
the former rough-hews the earth features, the latter shapes
them. It is the effects of these interior earth forces which are the
most important to study. And among these effects the most fun-
damentally important of all is the formation of those greatest fea-
tures— the ocean basins and continental arches. The most prob-
able view is that they are formed by unequal radial contraction
in the secular cooling of the earth. The earth was certainly at
one time an incandescently hot mass, which gradually cooled and
contracted to its present temperature and size. ISTow, if it were
perfectly homogeneous both in density and in conductivity in all
j)arts, then, cooling and contracting equally in every part, it
would retain its symmetric oblate-spheroid form, though diminish-
ing in size. But if there were any, the least, heterogeneity either
in density or especially in conductivity over large areas, then the
more conductive areas, contracting more rapidly toward the center
radially, would form hollows or basins, and the less conductive areas
would stand out as higher arches. Thus were formed the oceanic
basin and the continental arches of the lithosphere. The same
causes which produced would continue to increase them, and thus the
ocean basins would increase in depth and the continents in height.

The hydrosphere is still to be added. In the beginning of this
process doubtless the lithosphere was hot enough to maintain all
the water in the form of vapor in the atmosphere. But when the
surface was cool enough the water would precipitate and partly or
wholly cover the earth — whether partly or wholly would depend
on the amount of precipitated water and the amount of inequality
which had already taken place. The amount of water, as we know,
is sufficient, if the inequalities were removed, to cover the whole
surface two and a half miles deep. Inasmuch as the forming of
the inequalities is progressive and still going on, it seems improb»
able that the inequalities had become sufficiently great, at the time
of precipitation, to hold the waters. If this be so, then the prime-
val ocean was universal and the future continents existed only as
continental banks in the universal ocean.

However this may have been, there seems little doubt that the
same cause which produced the inequalities continued to operate
to increase them. The ocean basins, so far as these causes are con-
cerned, must have become deeper and deeper, and the continents
larger and larger. In spite of many oscillations producing changes
mostly on the margins, but sometimes extending over wide areas
in the interior of the continent, this, on the whole, seems to be in

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY.

437

accordance with the known geological history of the earth. If so,
then the oceanic hasins have always been oceanic hasins, and the
places of the continents have always been substantially the same.
This introduces a subject on which there has been much discussion
recently — viz. :

The Permanency of Ocean Basins. — Closely associated with the
Lyellian uniformitarianism was the doctrine of extreme instability
of earth features, especially the forms and places of sea and land.
Crust movements were irregularly oscillating to such a degree that
in the course of geologic history sea and land frequently and com-
pletely changed places. Abundant evidence of this was supposed
to be found in the unconformities so frequent in the stratified
series. The tendency of that time was toward a belief in up-and-
down movements, back-and-forth changes, without discoverable,
law, rather than progressive onward movement. On first thought
it might seem that such lawless movement was rather in keeping
with catastrophism than uniformitarianism. But not so, for the
movements are supposed to be very slow. Again, it might seem
on first thought that gradual progressive change — in a word, evo-
lution— would be peculiarly in accord with uniformitarian ideas.
But again not so, because this doctrine was, above all, a revulsion
from the idea of supernatural purpose or design or goal contained
in catastrophism. Uniformitarianism strongly inclined toward
purposelessness, because of its supposed identity with naturalism.
Thus for a long time, and still with many geologists, the tendency
is toward a belief in irregular movements without discoverable
law, toward instability of even the greatest features of the earth —
viz., sea basins and continental arches. Geology for them is a
chronicle, not a life history.

The contrary movement of thought may be said to have com-
menced with Dana. Dana studied the earth as a unit, as in some
sense an organism developing by forces within itself. The history
of the earth is a life history moving progressively toward its com-
pletion. The forces originating oceanic basins and continental
arches still continue to deepen the former and enlarge the latter.
From this point of view, oceanic basins and continental arches must
have always been substantially in the same places. Oscillations
there have been at all times and in all places, but they affect mainly
the outlines of these great features, though sometimes affecting
also the interior of continents and mid-sea bottoms, but not suffi-
ciently to change greatly their general form, much less to inter-
change their places.

Such is the doctrine of permanency of oceanic basins. It is
undoubtedly a true doctrine, but must not be held in the rigid

438 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

form characteristic of early thought. The forces originating
oceanic basins still continue to deepen them and to increase the size
and height of continents, but other forces are at work, some antago-
nizing (i. e., cutting do^-n the continents and filling up the ocean
beds), and still others determined by causes we little understand,
by oscillations over wide areas, greatly modifying and often ob-
scuring the effects of the basin-making movements. Here, then,
we have two kinds of crust movements: the one fundamental and
original, determining the greatest features of the earth and moving
steadily onward in the same direction, ever increasing the features
which it originates; the other apparently lawless, uncertain, oscil-
lating over very wide areas, modifying and often obscuring the
effects of the former. The old unif ormitarians saw only the effects
of the latter, because these are most conspicuous; the new evolu-
tionists add also the former and show its more fundamental char-
acter, and thus introduce law and order into the previous chaos.
The former is the one movement which runs ever in the same
direction through all geologic time. The latter are the most com-
mon and conspicuous now and in all previous geologic time. The
former underlies and conditions and unifies the history ; the latter
has practically determined all the details of the drama enacted
here on the surface of the earth. Of the causes of the former we
know something, though yet imperfectly. Of the causes of the
latter we yet know absolutely nothing. We have not even begun
to speculate profitably on the subject, and hence the apparent law-
lessness of the phenomena. A fruitful theory of these must be
left to the coming century.

Mountain Ranges. — If oceanic basins and ■ continental domes
constitute the greatest features of the earth's face, and are deter-
mined by the most fundamental movements of the crust, surely
next in importance come great mountain ranges. These are the
glory of our earth, the culminating points of scenic beauty and
grandeur. But they are so only because they are also the culmi-
nating points, the theaters of greatest activity, of all geological
forces, both igneous and aqueous — igneous in their formation, and
aqueous both in the preparatory sedimentation and in the final ero-
sive sculpturing into forms of beauty. A theory of mountain
ranges therefore lies at the bases of all theoretical geology. To
the pre-geologic mind mountains are the type of permanence and
stability. "We still speak metaphorically of the everlasting hills.
But the first lesson taught by geology is that notliing is per-
manent; everything is subject to continuous change by a process
of evolution. Mountains are no exception. We know them in
embryo in the womb of the ocean. We know the date of their

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 439

birth; we trace their growth, their maturity, their decay, their
death; we even find in the folded structure of the rock, as it were,
the fossil bones of extinct mountains. In a word, we are able now
to trace the whole life history of mountains.

Mountains, therefore, have always been a subject of deepest
interest both to the popular and the scientific mind — an interest
intensified by the splendors of mountain scenery and the perils of
mountain exploration. The study of mountains is therefore coeval
with the study of geology. As early as the beginning of the pres-
ent century Constant Prevost observed that most characteristic
structure of mountains — viz., their folded strata — and inferred
their formation by lateral pressure. All subsequent writers have
assumed lateral pressure as somehow concerned in the formation
of mountains. But that the whole height of mountains is due
wholly to this cause was not generally admitted or even imagined
until recently. It was universally supposed that mountains were
lifted by volcanic forces from beneath, that the lifted strata broke
along the top of the arch, and melted matter was forced through be-
tween the parted strata, pushing them back and folding them on
each side. And hence the typical form of mountain ranges is that of
a granite axis along the crest and folded strata on each flank. But
attention has lately been drawn to the fact that some mountains,
as, for example, the Appalachian, the Uintah, etc., consist of folded
strata alone, without any granite axis. In such ranges it is plain
that the whole height is due not to any force acting from below,
but to a lateral pressure crushing and folding the strata, and a
corresponding thickening and bulging of the same along the line
of crushing. Then the idea was applied to all mountain ranges.
So soon as the prodigious amount of erosion suffered by mountains,
greater often than all that is left of them, was fully appreciated,
it became evident that the granite axis so characteristic of moun-
tains was not necessarily pushed up from beneath and protruded
through the parted strata, but was in many cases only a sub-moun-
tain core of igneous matter slowly cooled into granite and exposed
by subsequent erosion greatest along the crest.

Next, attention was drawn to the enormous thickness of the
strata involved in the folded structure of mountains. From this
it became evident that the places of mountains before they were
formed were marginal sea bottoms off the coasts of continents, and
receiving the whole washings of the continents. Thus the steps
of the process of mountain formation were (1) accumulation of
sediments on offshore sea bottoms until by 'pari passu subsi-
dence an enormous thickness was .attained. This is the prepara-
tion. (2) A yielding along these lines to the increasing lateral

440 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY..

pressure with folding and bulging of tlie strata along tlie line of
yielding, until the mountain emerges above the ocean and is added
to the land as a coast range. This is mountain hirth. (3) As
soon as it appears above the water it is attacked by erosive agents.
At first the rising by continuance of the crushing and bulging is
in excess of the erosion, and the mountain grows. This is mountain
youth. (4) Then supply and waste balance one another, and we
have mountain maturity. (5) Then the erosive waste exceeds the
growth by up-bulging, and mountain decay begins. (6) Finally,
the erosive forces triumph and the mountain is clean swept away,
leaving only the complexly folded rocks of enormous thickness to
mark the place of a former mountain. This is mountain death.
Such briefly is the life history of a mountain range.

In all this we have said nothing about causes. In this connec-
tion there are two points of especial importance: (1) Why does
the yielding to lateral pressure take place along lines of thick sedi-
ments? (2) What is the cause of the lateral pressure?

1. Cause of Yielding to Lateral Pressure along Lines of Thick
Sediments. — The earth was once very hot. It is still very hot
within, and still very slowly cooling. If sediments accumulate
upon a sea bottom the interior heat will tend to rise so as to keep
at the same distance from the surface. If the sediments are very
tliick, say five to ten miles, their lower parts will be invaded by a
temperature of not less than 500° to 1,000° F. This temperature,
in the presence of water (the included water of the sediments),
would be sufficient to produce softening or even fusion of the sedi-
ments and of the sea floor on which they rest. This would estab-
lish a line of weakness, and therefore a line of yielding, crushing,
folding, bulging, and thus a mountain range. In the first for-
mation of a range, therefore, there would necessarily be a sub-
mountain mass of fused or semifused matter which by the lateral
crushing might be squeezed into cracks or fissures, forming dikes.
But in any case the sub-mountain mass would cool into a granite
core which by erosion may be exposed along the crest. The ex-
planation seems to be satisfactory.

2. Cause of the Lateral Pressure. — No question in geology has
been more discussed than this, and yet none is more difficult and
the solution of which is more uncertain. But the most obvious
and as yet the most probable view is that it is the result of the
secular contraction of the earth which has gone on throughout its
whole history, and is still going on.

It is admitted by all that in an earth cooling from primal incan-
descence there must come a time when the surface, having become
substantially cool and receiving heat also from the sun, would no

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 441

longer cool or contract, but, tlie interior being still incandesccntly
liot, would continue to cool and contract. The interior, therefore,
cooling and contracting faster than the exterior crust, the latter
following down the ever-shrinking nucleus, would be thrust upon
itself by a lateral or tangential pressure which would be simply irre-
sistible. If the earth crust were a hundred times more rigid than
it is, it still must yield to the enormous pressure. It does yield
along its weakest lines with crushing, folding, bulging, and the
formation of mountain ranges.

This is the barest outline of the so-called " contractional theory
of mountain formation." Very many objections have been brought
against it, some of them- answerable and completely answered, but
the complete answer to others must be left to the next century.
Perhaps the greatest objection of all is the apparent insufficiency
of the cause to produce the enormous amount of folding found not
only in existing mountains but in the folded structure of rocks
where mountains no longer exist. But it will be observed that I
have thus far spoken only of contraction by loss of heat. I^ow,
not only has this cause been greatly underestimated by objectors,
but, as shown by Davison and especially by Van Hise, there are
many other and even greater causes of contraction. It would be
out of place to follow the discussion here. The subject is very
complex, and not yet completely settled.

We have given, the barest outline of the history of mountain
ranges and of the theory of their formation as worked out in the
last third of the present century, and, I might add, chiefly by
American geologists. So true is this, that by some it has been
called the " American theory."

Oscillatory Movements of the EartWs Crust over \Yide Areas. —
We have already spoken of these as modifying the effect of the
ocean-basin-making movements, and therefore now touch them
very lightly. These differ from the movements producing oceanic
basins on the one hand and mountain ranges on the other, by the
fact that they are' not continuously progressive in one direction, but
oscillatory — now up, now down, in the same place. Again, they
do not involve contraction of the whole earth, but probably are
always more or less local and compensatory — i. e., rising in one
place is compensated by down-sinking in some other place. Never-
theless, they often affect very wide areas — sometimes, indeed, of
more than continental extent — as, for example, in the crust move-
ments of the Quaternary period or ice age.

These are by far the most frequent and most conspicuous of all
crust movements — not only now, but also in all geological times.
If ocean-basin-forming movements are the underlying cause and

VOL. Lvr. — 34

442 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

condition of tlie evolution of the eartli, these wide oscillations, by
increasing and decreasing the size and height of continents and
changing greatly their contours, have determined all the details of
the drama enacted on the surface, and were the determining cause
of the varying rates and directions of the evolution of the organic
kingdom. These were the cause of the unconformities and the cor-
responding apparent wholesale changes in species so common in the
rocky strata, and which gave rise to the doctrine of catastrophism
of the early geologists. These also have so greatly modified the
contours of the continents and their size by temporary increase or
decrease that they have obscured the general law of the steady de-
velopment of these, and therefore their substantial permanency.

Although the most important of all crust movements in deter-
mining the whole history of the earth, and especially of the organic
kingdom, we shall dwell no further on them, because no progress
has yet been made in their explanation. This, too, must be left
to the workers of the twentieth century.

[llie Frinciple of I sostasy.— The principle of static equilibrium
as applied to earth forms was first brought forward (as so many
other valuable suggestions and anticipations in many departments
of science) by the wonderfully fertile mind of Sir John Herschel,
and used by him in the explanation of the sinking of river deltas
under the increasing weight of accumulating sediments.* It was
afterward applied to continental masses by Archbishop Pratt f and
by the Iloyal Astronomer Professor Airy.:}: But for its wide appli-
cation as a principle in geology, its clear definition, and its embodi-
ment in an appropriate name, we are indebted to Major Dutton,
United States Army.*

The principle may be briefly stated as follows: A globe so large
as the earth, under the influence of its own gravity, must behave
like a very stiffly viscous body — that is, the general form of the
earth and its greatest inequalities must be in substantial static
equilibrium. Por example, the general form of the earth is oblate
spheroid, because that is the only form of equilibrium of a rotating
body. Rotation determines a distribution of gravity with latitude
which brings about this form. AVith any other form the earth
would be in a state of strain to which it must slowly yield, and
finally relieve itself by l)ecoming oblate. If the rotation stopped,
the earth would accommodate itself to the new distribution of
gravity and become spherical.

* Philosophical Magazine, vol. ii, p. 212, 1837; Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,

vol. ii, p. 548, 1837.

t Pliilosophifal Magazine, vol. ix, p. 2:?1, and vol. x, p. 240, 1865.

+ riiilosupliiual Trans., 1855, p. 101. * Philosophical Society of Washington, 1892.

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 443

The same is true of tlie large inequalities of surface. Oceanic
basins and continental arches must be in static equilibrium or they
could not sustain themselves. In order to be in equilibrium the
sub-oceanic material must be as much more dense than the conti-
nental and sub-continental material as the ocean bottoms are lower
than the continental surfaces. Such static equilibrium, by differ-
ence of density, is completely explained by the mode of formation
of oceanic basins already given.

So also plateaus and great mountain ranges are at least partly
sustained by gravitative equilibrium, but partly also by earth rigid-
ity. It is only the smaller inequalities, such as ridges, peaks, val-
leys, etc., that are sustained by earth rigidity alone.

These conclusions are not reached by physical reasonings alone,
but are also confirmed by experimental investigations. For ex-
ample, a plumb line on the plains of India is deflected indeed
toward the Himalayas, as it ought to be, but much less than it
would be if the mountain and sub-mountain mass were not less
dense and the sub-oceanic material more dense than the average.*
Again, gravitative determinations by pendulum oscillations, under-
taken by the United States along a line from the Atlantic shore
to Salt Lake City, show that the largest inequalities, such as the
Appalachian bulge, the Mississippi-basin hollow, and the Rocky
Mountain bulge, are in gravitative equilibrium — i. e., the moun-
tain and sub-mountain material is as much lighter as the mountain
region is higher than the Mississippi-basin region.

Now, so sensitive is the earth to changes of gravity that, given
time enough, it responds to increase or decrease of pressure over
large areas by corresponding subsidence or elevation. Hence, all
places where great accumulations of sediment are going on are sink-
ing under the increased weight, and, contrarily, all places where
excessive erosion is going on, as, for example, on high plateaus and
great mountain ranges, are rising by relief of pressure.

This principle of isostasy is undoubtedly a valuable one, which
must be borne iii mind in all our reasonings on crust movements,
although its importance has been exaggerated by some enthusiastic
supporters. Its greatest importance is not as a cause initiating
crust movements or determining the features of the earth, but
rather as conditioning and modifying the results produced by other
causes. The idea belongs Avholly to the latter half of the present
century. Commencing about 1840, it has grown in clearness and
importance to the present time.

[To be concluded.^

* Pratt, Philosophical Magazine; vol. ix, p. 231, 1855; vol. x, p. 340, 1855; vol. xvi,
p. 401, 1858.

444

POPULAR SC-IENCE MONTHLY.

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

By CHARLES E. MUNKUE,

PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY.

[Concluded. ]

IT is apparent that the range of even the most highly perfected
torpedo is comparatively short, while their accuracy of travel is
low. Besides, their j^ropelling, controlling, and discharging mech-
anisms are complicated, delicate, and easily deranged, they are
very expensive, and not only the explosive chamber but the entire
system is destroyed in use. The superiority of gunpowder guns
as a means of throwing projectiles to great distances with accu-
racy is well known, and their capacity for safely and efficiently
projecting shells filled with gunpowder has long been demonstrated.
It was obvious that as the superior destructive power of dynamite,
gun cotton, and other high explosives became known and their
eomniereial manufacture was assured, attempts would be made

to employ them as
bursting charges for
shells. Experiments
to demonstrate how
this might be done
and what effects could
be expected were be-
gun more than forty
years ago, and have
been continued in
many different places from time to time ever since; but while it
has proved that small charges might be fired with low velocities
and pressures in ovdiiuiry shell, and large charges in specially con-
structed shell or in specially prepared forms of charge, with com-
parative safety so far as the premature explosion of the explosive
charge itself is concerned, yet these bodies are so sensitive to the
shock resulting from the discharge of the propellant, the heat gen-
erated by its combustion, and that arising from friction in the
" set-back " of the shell charge and the rotation imparted by the
rifling, that they can not be safely fired from modern high-power
guns under service conditions, particularly as these explosives all
require that the shell shall be fitted with a detonator in order that
tlie charge may be fully exploded. The most promising results
with explosives of this class have been obtained with compressed
wet gun cotton, which has been |>;ickc<l di redly in the shell in
rigid blocks completely filling the shell cavity, or cut in cubes and

GuN-CoTTox Shell akteu Impact.

THE APPLICATIONS .OF EXPLOSIVES.

445

cemented in the cavity with carnaiiba wax, for shell filled in the
former manner, but nnfused, were repeatedly fired, in 1887 and
1888, at Newport, R. I., from S-l-pounder Dahlgren howitzers and

Sims-Dudley Pneumatic Gux, limbered up.
(Courtesy of the Scientific American.)

20-pounder muzzle-loading rifles with service charges of powder,
and though they were fired point blank into the masonry escarp-
ment of the old fort on Rose Island, but fifty yards distant from
the muzzle, so that the shells were broken up or distorted and the
gun cotton in them subjected to a powerful compression, yet not
only was there no premature explosion, but none of the shell

Sims- Dudley Pneumatic Gun, in Battery.
(Courtesy of the Scientific American.)

exploded by impact. About the same time fused shell contain-
ing cemented gun cotton were fired in Germany, with an initial
velocity of fourteen hundred feet per second, and they passed com-

446

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Tv.ndall's Buonze BELL-MorxiiEi) Gun.

pletely through four inches and three quarters of compound armor,
backed with twentj-four inches of oak, and burst inside the bomb-
proof, while in 1897 fused armor-piercing shells containing wet
gun cotton were fired from the six-inch quick-firing gun, with a muz-
zle velocity of nearly nineteen
hundred feet per second, which
completely perforated three
inches of steel and burst behind
the plate. Encouraged by these
results, this system was adopted
by our "army officials, but, on trial
in larger calibers at Sandy Hook,
it gave rise to premature explosions, and the tale of disaster reached
its climax on April 29, 1899, when Captain Stuart, of the Ordnance
Corps, was superintending the loading of a twelve-inch torpedo
shell with wet gun cotton by compressing it into the shell, for an
explosion resulted which killed four men instantly and fatally
wounded two others. Captain Stuart being one of them.

The history of the attempts made to use nitroglycerin, dyna-
mite, explosive gelatin, and explosives of this class as bursting
charges for shell fired from service guns is even less satisfactory
than that given for gun cotton. It is not surprising, therefore,
that inventors should have proposed catapults, slings, rotary wheels,
and other means for projecting these powerful agents into the
enemy's midst, but the Mefford air gun, as mounted on the United
States steamship Vesuvius, and the Sims-Dudley gun, in which a
reduced charge of powder is fired
in a chamber exterior to the gun
proper, were deemed to possess
sufficient merit to warrant their
trial in the field. These devices
were employed in the recent war
with Spain, the pneumatic guns
on the Vesuvius being used to
throw shells containing three hun-
dred pounds of gim cotton, while
the Sims-Dudley guns were used
on land to throw small charges
of dynamite or explosive gelatin;
but, beyond frightening the enemy by the startling character of
their reports, these superficial charges produced no serious effect.
There is a widespread niisa})prehenpion in regard to the devastat-
ing effect of these high explosives, for when unconfined the effect
even of large charges of them upon structures is comparatively

MiKROR OR Reflector in which to
FiuE Oi'N Cotton.

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

447

iiAll.iiiiAD TuKPEIXIKS KAS'IKXEll m.\ KaIL.

slight. At the ISTaval Ordnance Proving Ground, so long ago as
1884, repeated charges of dynamite, varying from five pounds to one
hundred pounds in weight,
were detonated on the face
of a vertical target con-
sisting of eleven one-inch
wrought-iron plates bolted
to a twenty-inch oak back-
ing, nntil 440 pounds of
dynamite had been so deto-
nated in contact with it,-
and yet the target remained practically uninjured; while at Braam-
fontein the accidental explosion of fifty-five tons of blasting gela-
tin, which was stored in railway vans, excavated but 30,000 tons of
soft earth. This last may seem a terrible effect, but the amount
of explosive involved was enormous and the material one of the
most energetic that we possess, while if we compare it with the
action of explosives when confined its effect becomes quite mod-
erate. Thus at Fort Lee, on the Hudson, but two tons of dyna-
mite placed in a chamber in the rock and tamped brought down
100,000 tons of the rock; at Lamberis, Wales, two tons and a half
of gelatin dynamite similarly placed threw out 180,000 tons of
rock; and at the Talcen Mawr, in Wales, seven tons of gunpowder,
placed in two chambers in the rock, dislodged from 125,000 to
200,000 tons of rock. We might cite many such examples, but on
comparing these we find that the gunpowder confined in the inte-
rior at the Talcen Mawr was over forty-two times as efficient as

the explosive gelatin on the
surface at Braamfontein,
while the dynamite at Fort
Lee was over ninety times
as destructive.

Considerations similar to
these led me, in 1885,* to
point out that high explo-
sives for use in shells must
be strongly confined, and' in
the attack on armored ships
they should be fired in projectiles that can " either penetrate the
armor partially and explode in place or pierce it completely and
burst inside the ship " to secure the greatest efficiency. This re-
quires that the projectiles shall be fired at higher velocities than
can be imparted to them by guns- of the kind just described, and
* Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine, vol. xxxii, pp. 1-9, 1885.

Steel Disks i pon which Gln ('otton has been

DETONATED TO TEST THEIR EeSISTANCE TO

Shock. Midvale steel disks after second fire.

448

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Avhich can oiilv be realized at present in modern breecli-loading
rifles. Although experience has shown the futility of all our efforts
to use gun cotton and nitroglycerin explosives in this manner, it
has been proved that the nitro-substitntion explosives can be em-
l)loyed with safety and effect.

The nitro-substitution explosives are made from nitrobenzenes,
nitrotoluenes, nitronai)lithalenos, nitrophenols, and bodies of a
similar character, and one of them, called joveite, has given excel-
lent results in this country. After having demonstrated that the
destructive effect of joveite was greater than that of gunpowder,

smokeless powder, or gun cotton,
and, by repeated trials under se-
vere conditions, that service shell
loaded with it could be fired from
service guns under service condi-
tions with safety, on November
3, 1897, the naval officials at In-
dian Head fired a fused ten-inch
Carpenter armor-piercing projec-
tile containing 8.25 pounds of
joveite, with a velocity of 1,960
foot-seconds, at a Harveyized
nickel-steel plate taken from the
armor for the United States
steamship Kentucky. The shell
passed completely through the
armor plate, where it was 14.5
inches in thickness, and burst
immediately behind tlic plate,
[n a second round an unfused
ten-inch Midvale semi - armor-
piercing shell containing twenty-
eight pounds of joveite was fired
with a velocity of 1,925 foot-seconds at the same plate where it
was sixteen inches thick. The shell penetrated to a depth of twelve
inches, and the heat produced by the upsetting of the shell was
so great as to explode the joveite, which broke the plate and burst
the shell with tremendous violence. In fact, the explosion was so
very severe that the heavy base plug of the shell was sheared
longitudinally, an effect never obsorvcr] before with any exj'jlosive
fli-od at the proving ground.

Notwithstanding that no accident occurred in any of the many
firings, that the stability and safety of the explosive are assured,
and that the explosion has been effected with a well-known and

Shooting an Oil Wki.l with
Nitroglycerin.

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

449-

long-used form of fuse, no provi-
sion has yet been made to supply
the service "witli charges for its
costly armor-piercing projectiles.
Happily, the force resident
in explosives may be applied to
the saving as well as to the de-
struction of human life, advan-
tage having long since been
taken of the penetrating power
of the report from the discharge
of a gun to employ them as sig-
nals of distress at sea or as warn-
ings in foggy weather. The Eng-
lish Lighthouse Board, under
Professor Tyndall's guidance,
some years ago sought to find the
form of gun best suited to this
purpose, and their experiments
led them at first to a bronze gun
with a bell-shaped mouth. Sub-
sequently, their attention being
called to the sharpness and carry-
ing power of the report from detonating gun cotton, an apparatus
was devised in which the gun cotton was detonated in the focus of
a parabolic mirror. The ^

best results, however,
were attained with rock-
ets carrying gun-cotton
charges arranged to be
exploded in mid air.

Guns have also been
arranged for projecting
life-lines between strand-
ed ships and the adjacent
shore, and are now em-
ployed on a smaller scale
for conveying lines to
upper stories of
monumental build-
when they are on
By means of guns
rockets, projectiles

Safe to be opened bt Detoxation of
Nitroglycerin. Before the charge was
fired.

the
our

ings
fire.

or

filled with oil may be cast"

After firing Ch.^rge.

45<

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

to considerable distances from a vessel in a raging sea, so that the
oil, as it diffuses, may still the waters in her course; while sound-
ing-lines may be thrown far in advance of a vessel while she is still
under way, and the soundings taken without her laying-to.

Inclosed in shallow tin boxes, which are fixed by lead strips to
the top of the rail, explosives are used as torpedoes in the railroad
service to give warning, by the report of their explosion as an
engine runs over them, that another train is on the same track
and but a short distance ahead, and by this means collisions in
fogs or on curves are frequently prevented.

Explosives find applications in many industries. The farmer
uses them in breaking bowlders, grubbing stumps and felling trees,
in shaking the soil to fit it for deep-soil cultivation, and, in the

wino-growing districts, to
free it from phylloxera,
while the farmer's friend
has tried by this means, in
times of drought, to shake
the nerves of Jove and to
divert the hailstorm from
its course.

The iron founder uses
thom in breaking up large
castings. The iron smel-
ter employs them to clear
out obstructions in blast
furnaces while the latter
are still in operation, the
dynamite, protected by a clay envelope, being inserted in the red-
hot mass which clogs the furnace. The author has proposed to
use the detonating explosives for testing the integrity of large
masses of metals and their resistance to shock.

Dynamite has been employed in fishing, since submarine explo-
sions of it will kill or stun fish for a long distance about the charge.
This method of fishing, which threatened to deplete the waters,
has very properly been ])rohil)ited by law, but guns are employed
for projecting harpoons in the whale fishery, and have reduced
very much the danger attending this extra-hazardous occupation.
Nitroglycerin, inclosed in tin cans three to five inches in diam-
eter and five to twenty-five feet in length, is used for shooting oil
wells to free them from the solid paraffins with which they l)ecome
choked, or to shake the oil-bearing sandstone so as to ]ii<»(liice a
greater yield. In this work the loaded can, having a detonating cap
attaehed to its top, is lowered by a wire to the bottom of the well.

Sakk perforated bv Hollow Dynamite
Cartridge.

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.

451

Hollow Dynamite Caut-
KiDGE ; Elevation.

Avliicli is often fifteen hundred feet or more in depth. A per-
forated weight is then strung on the wire, and when the tor-
pedo is in place the weight is allowed
to fall, strike the cap, and explode the
charge.

Dynamite has been used to knock out
the blocking from the ways when launch-
ing ships. Fired on an iron plate placed
on the top of a pile and covered with a
tamping of earth or clay, it has success-
fully and economically replaced the pile
driver. It has been found efficient in ex-
cavating holes in which to plant telegraph
and telephone poles; in driving water out
of quicksands in which foundations are to
be laid or shafts to be driven; in slaugh-
tering cattle; in breaking down ice dams
to prevent inundations; in blowing up
buildings to prevent the spread of confla-
grations ; in razing unsafe walls of burned
buildings; in destroying wrecks which en-
danger navigation, and even in freeing vessels which arc hard
aground on shoals.

An especially notable instance was in the blasting out of the
debris in the river at Johnstown after the frightful flood that oc-
curred there, which formed an enormous dam above the bridge
and threatened its existence, and which was successfully and expe-
ditiously removed by blasting
after all other means had
been tried in vain.

In fact, the amount of ex-
plosives consumed in the in-
dustries is so great that the
quantity employed for mili-
tary purposes sinks into insig-
nificance. Yet we have failed
to refer to those industries
— quarrying and mining, and
the engineering operations —
in which they are most ex-
tensively and commonly used,
being employed so largely in mining alone that it is an almost daily
occurrence for blasts containing twenty, thirty, and even fifty
thousand pounds of explosives to be used in a single charge; and

Hollow DY^■AMITE Cartridge.
View from below.

452

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

I'lRINO ON lliUN Disk, J!EST-

ING ON Lead Disk, in

TESTING THE EkFICIENCV

OF GcN Cotton.

the system of large blasts has even become common in hard-rock
excavations, such as quarries and railroad cuttings, while in the
blast at the blowing up of Flood Kock, in New York Harbor, Octo-
ber 10, 1885, over one hundred and forty-
one tons of rack-a-rock, dynamite, and mer-
cury fulminate were used in a single shot.

Nor have I alluded to the use of explo-
sives by the anarchists in their dastardly
outrages, througli which the safety of the
old and young, feeble and strong, the inno-
cent and the offending, are alike endan-
gered; but I will touch briefly upon the
iipplications of these powerful agents in the
too-much cultivated industry of safe-rob-
liing, since I was called upon some years
ago to demonstrate, before a Government
commission, how safes might be successfully
attacked either in a burglarious way or by
a mob with explosives, meaning by the bur-
glarious operation that the safe should be
made accessible within twenty-four hours with means such as a
party of men could smuggle into a bank and which might be used
without attracting attention or doing material damage to the
1)uilding, and l)y " mob violence," meaning that the vaults are
supposed to be in the hands of a mob which has ample time and
quantities of explosives at command, and does not care how much
noise is made or destruction is wrought, provided the treasure is
secured.

In the experiments made in a burglarious way, among others,
a three-thousand-dollar square safe of the most approved construc-
tion was attacked by inserting in the crevice about the locked door
four and eight tenths ounces of ni-
troglycerin, and in eight minutes
after the operation of loading was
begun the charge was fired, with
the result that the whole of the
jamb below the door was blown
out and a hole made in the door
of sufRcient size to admit the hand
and arm, while the doors and divi-
sions of the interior compartments
were completely shattered. On r('i)oatiiig the operation with four
ounces and a quarter of forcito dynamite the door was completely
torn off.

(iiN-<'oTTi)N Disk. With .ntleuted inscrip-
tion, and iron plate upon which the in-
dcnteil inscription has lioen icproduccd.

THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES. 453

Among experiments made to demonstrate the resistance of
structures to attack by a mob was one npon a safe twenty-nine
inches cube, with walls four inches and three quarters thick, made
up of plates of iron and steel, which were re-enforced on each edge
so as to make it highly resisting, yet when a hollow charge of dyna-
mite nine pounds and a half in weight and untamped waS detonated
on it a hole three inches in diameter was blown clear through the
wall, though a solid cartridge of the same weight and of the same
material produced no material effect. The hollow cartridge was
made by tying the sticks of dynamite around a tin can, the open
mouth of the latter being placed downward, and I was led to con-
struct such hollow cartridge for use where a penetrating effect is
desired by the following observations:

In molding the gun cotton at the torpedo station, as stated
above, a vertical hole was formed in each cylinder or block in which
to insert the detonator, and in
the final press a steel die was
laid uj)on the cake so that an
inscription in letters and figures
was forced upon it. This in-
scription was indented in the
cylinders and was raised upon
the surfaces of the blocks.
When the gun cotton was fired
untamped, in testing it, the cyl- a

inder or block was usually -^

placed with the inscribed face
resting on a polished iron plate k'«'

/•?»■

or iron disk, and after firing, if Holes produced m Iron Plates by bored

the gun cotton had detonated it

was invariably found that not only was a vortexlike cavity produced
below the detonator, but that the inscription on the gun cotton
was reproduced on the iron plate, and, what was most singular,
when the inscription was indented in the gun cotton it was indented
in the iron plate, and when the inscription was raised on the sur-
face of the gun cotton it was reproduced raised on the surface of
the iron plate. In experimentally investigating this phenomenon
I eventually soaked several cylinders in water, so that I could bore
them without danger, and then bored holes of various diameters
and depths in them, until in the last instance I bored a vertical
hole an inch and three quarters in diameter completely through
the cylinder. These wet cylinders were each placed on a similar
iron plate, a similar dry disk was placed on each as a primer, and
they were successively fired, when it was found that the deeper

454

POPULAR SCIEXCE MONTHLY

and wider the hole in the gun cotton the deeper and wider were
the holes produced in the iron j^late, until when the completely
perforated gun-cotton cylinder, from which at least half of the
weight of explosive had been removed by the boring, was fired,
the iron plate was found to be completely perforated.

Advantage was taken of this action of the rapidly moving mole-
cules to produce some beautiful effects by interposing laces, coins,
leaves from the trees, and stencils wdth various devices cut in them
between the base of the gun cotton and the iron plate, for after
the detonation of the gun cotton the objects were found to be
reproduced upon the iron with the utmost fidelity and in their most
delicate parts, and the impressions were raised upon the iron as the
objects had been before the explosion.

In one instance a disk of gun cotton was placed in a tin which
had been used in canning peas. The disk was covered with water

so as to be completely immersed
in it, and a second dry disk, with
which to fire it, was placed upon
the wet one. The face of the
can resting in contact with the
iron plate was originally the top
of the can, through which the
vegetable had been introduced,
and it was consequently grooved
where the cover was soldered
on, and it also had an irregular
drop of solder over the vent
hole, the solder being raised,
therefore, above the general
level of the face. On firing, the can was completely volatilized
or comminuted as usual, but the face of the can w'as reproduced in
every feature and with the original values of the surface, the groove
being indented in tlio iron, and the solder being raised above the
rest of the impression.

In another instance a disk of gun cotton three inches in diam-
eter was placed in a tin can five inches in diameter, and the can,
which had a smooth bottom, placed on the face of an iron I-beam.
The can was filled with w'ater so as to just cover the gun cotton, a
second dry gun-cotton disk was placed on the wet disk of a primer,
both being in constant contact with one side of the can, and the
system detonated. As a result the can and water disappeared and
the face of the beam was torn off, but on recovering the pieces and
matching them it was found that not only was the smooth base of
the gun cotton and the face of the can reproduced in the iron, but

Maplk I>eaf KEPRonucF.i) ox Iron Plate.

A YEAR'S PROGRESS IN THE KLONDIKE. 455

in the space between the gun cotton and the side of the can, occu-
pied by the water, three distinct sets of waves were produced, hav-
ing an increasing amplitude from the center proceeding outward.
It is evident that many curious effects can be produced with explo-
sive substances, and I do not doubt that useful applications will be
found through a close study of the phenomena attending them.

A YEAR'S PROGRESS IN THE IvLONDlKE.

By Prof. ANGELO HEILPRIN.

TWO years ago the difficulties of reaching the Klondike were
thought to be of such a nature as to preclude the probability
or even possibility of DaAVSon ever becoming a place of permanent
habitation. The trials of the Chilkoot and AVhite Passes were
exploited in magazine and journal from one end of the continent
almost to the other, and the wrecks of humanity, and particularly
of the thousands of beasts that lay scattered along the trail — the
tribute to the Sahara turned to shame — Avere appealed to as grim
testimou}' of the almost insuperable barrier which separated man
from the object of his search. To-day, and since July 6th of the
past year (1899), a steam railway traverses the full forty-two miles
of the White Pass trail, and the traveler enjoys the beauties of
the subarctic landscape in much the way that he enjoys the trip
through the Alleghany Mountains in the East, or of the prairies
in the West. Deposited at Bennett, on Lake Bennett, at virtually
the head of navigation of the mighty Yukon River (otherwise
known as the Lewes), he engages passage on one of several commo-
dious steamers heading down stream or northward, and with one
change — at the Miles Canon and White Horse Rapids, where
there is a five-mile portage — reaches Dawson after a voyage, de-
lightful in its change of scene and novelty of experience, of from
four to six days. It is a fact, therefore, that with a strict timing
of departures the traveler from ISTew York may make the journey
to Dawson in summer time in twelve days, and exceptionally even
in less; and the journey has indeed been made in eleven days and
a half. Such is the change which the effort of less than two years
has accomplished.

The Dawson of 1899 is no longer the Dawson of 1898, and
much less that of the year previous. The thousands of bateaux
that were formerly lined up against the river front, in rows six

Note. — Acknowledgment is here made to Mr. E. A. Hegg for tlie use of most of the
photographs accompanjing this article.

456

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

deep and more, and comprising all manner of craft from the small
canoe to sliced sections of scows, have mostly disappeared, and in
their place we now find the gracefnl and nngraceful forms of
varying types of steamboat. It is no nncommon thing to find
five or more of those larger craft tied np at one time to tlie

river front, and the amplitnde and majesty of the Mississippi boats
gain but little in a comparison with some of the larger craft of
the Yukon River. Overhung signs call attention to the flying-
queens of the river, the Bonanza King, Canadian, and Sibyl, and
thousands are offered upon the result of the race to the AVliite

A YEAR'S PROGRESS IN THE KLONDIKE. 457

Horse Rapids. So here, as in the olden days of the Mississippi, the
struggle for supremacy has led to the opening of the throttle and
to the scraping of the fire box. Upward of a hundred arrivals from
down the river were registered at Dawson during the season of
open water of 1899.

Dawson has been further put into comparatively close touch
with the outer world by the entry of the telegraph, and since the
early days of October messages have been freely going to the sea-
board at Skaguay. It is true that a cableless stretch of hundreds of
miles still separates this town from the nearest port of importance
on the continent, but doubtless before very long even this blank
in the line of communication will have been supplied. It may be
first by means of wireless telegraphy, as it is mooted that the Cana-
dian Government looks with favor upon experimentation with the
Marconi system; or, what is more likely, the desired end will be
brought about by the laying of a continuous wire. The extraordi-
nary rapidity with which the five hundred to six hundred miles of
land wire were laid — five and seven miles per day — speaks well
for the morale of the Canadian sapper and engineering service.

In its commercial and residential aspects the city has made
vast progress. The days of ingulfing mires are virtually over, and
from one end of the town almost to the other, one may safely tread
the streets on secure board sidewalks. Not alone the main street
is furnished in this way, but also several of the streets running
parallel with it, and parts of streets that run across at right angles.
A wise enactment, not perhaps absolutely just in its details, haa
swept off the shacks and booths from the river side of the front
street, and one now enjoys an almost uninterrupted view of the
opposing bank of the stream, already marred by giant advertising
letters announcing bargain sales in merchandise, and directing to
particular shops in the metropolis of the North.

The shops of Dawson have risen to the dignity of establish-
ments having corrugated-iron covers, plate-glass fronts, and red-
wood shelves and counters, rollowdng closely upon the pioneer
constructions — department stores, they might be classed — of the
Alaska Commercial Company are the depots of the North Ameri-
can Trading and Transportation Company, the Alaska Exploration
Company, Ames Mercantile Company, and the Yukoner Company,
several with retaining warehouses placed beyond the reach of a
city fire and with dimensions that would lend dignity to locations
of much larger size than the emporium of the North. Many of
the smaller shops also carry a varied line of goods, but others are
restricted to a specialty, and their' wares are now offered at rates
which are in the main only reasonably in advance of the " high "

VOL. I.M — 35

458

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

rates of the AVestern coast towns. There are exceptions to this rule,
however, especially where skilled local labor is called into requisi-
tion in a manufacture. Thus fourteen dollars for a pair of trou-
sers made to order strikes the imagination rather forcibly, when a

first-grade quality of boot or shoe can be obtained for five dollars
and six dollars. Really good meals may be procured almost every-
where for from a dollar to a dollar and a half, and the best hotels
supplv twcntv-ono iricals for twenty-five dollars, and these do not

A YEAR'S PROGRESS IN THE KLONDIKE. 459

absolutely reject delicacies of one kind or another. Cow's milk
can now be had as a regular adjunct to coffee, since the milcher is
no longer a stranger to the country. The price of rooms in the
hotels still remains high — from four to six dollars per night, with-
out meals — but the character of these rooms has materially im-
proved, even though they would be considered with us decidedly
third rate. In a few establishments of a more private character,
lodging for a certain amount of permanency may be had for fifteen
dollars the week, or, where the condition of the surroundings is
not closely scanned, for even less. A new and capacious hotel, the
Hotel Metropole, reared from the wealth of the " King of the
Klondike " — Alexander MacDonald — has recently been added to
those of less pretentious design which served the community last
year. A heavy cut in rates is promised.

The conflagration of April 26th, through which perhaps one
quarter of the business portion of Dawson was burned to the
ground, has given opportunity for the introduction of improve-
ments, and the most important of these is that which has resulted
in the removal of houses and resorts of evil repute from the heart
of the city and consigned them and their inmates to a localized
area or " tenderloin " district. Women of refinement may now
parade the streets without having their finer sensibilities offended
through the public intrusion of the immorals of the lower world.
The tone of the public places of amusement, the theaters and
dance houses, has also been in a measure elevated, even if far from
sufficiently so, and some real talent occasionally sparkles behind
the footlights. A new " opera house," with a seating capacity of
perhaps seven hundred or eight hundred, but advertised for two
thousand, was thrown open to the public last August, after a con-
struction, it is claimed, of only two weeks. Its season's repertoire
included, among other plays, Michael Strogoff and Camille, both
of which, even in their crudest type of presentation, felt well of
the public pulse.

School education plays as yet little part in the morals of the
Dawsonites. The greed of fortune has left scant time for the con-
sideration of educational matters, and what little of school train-
ing is imparted to the youth of tender years comes largely in the
shape of a beneficence from private hands. If the issuance o"!;
newspapers be properly classed as belonging to education, then
Dawson has made material advances during the past year, for, in
addition to the three weeklies which more than supplied all the
information that was needed to the inhabitants of 1898, it has now
a daily (the Dawson Daily T^eVvs) and a Sunday paper (The
(ileaner), while the pioneer Nugget has been converted into a semi-

460 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

weekly. Some of these journals, which in typographical detail
stand fully equal to many of the foremost journals of the United
States, are devoted largely to a vilification of the Yukon govern-
ment, and secondarily to the nonpartisan interests of the commu-
nity. But little space is given over to murders and daring deeds
of robbery, since occurrences of this kind, thanks to the continued
vigilance and efficiency of the Northwest Mounted Police, are all
but unknown, and the safety of possessions is as well established
as that of the person. The shooting of an actress by her lover,
followed by the suicide of the murderer, furnished the sensation
for the year; but previous suicides, also in the ranks of the theat-
rical profession, had already paved a way to this form of excitement.

Two or more lines of telephone unite Dawson with the nearer
mining region, and a partial city service has also been established.
The city remains as yet without an electric-light plant, but it is
by no means unlikely that before the present season has passed the
darkness of the winter night will be lifted by the arc light, and
much of the oppressiveness of the closed season thereby removed.
After two winters of experience, the Dawsonites continue to think
lightly of the " terrors " of the cold, and to but few apparently is
the extreme of temperature a deterrent to exercise. Sleighing
continues to be a pastime, with the temperature marking 40° to
50° below zero, but only with this season does it enter into the
category of a fashionable recreation. Hitherto dog-sled teams per-
formed the full service of winter travel, and divided with skating
and " ski "-ing the winter exercise; but this year the snow cause-
ways will be lively with the jingling of cutter bells and the rapid
pacing of the horse.

One can not help remarking thie vast improvement in the gen-
eral tone of Dawson society, if by that term we may include all
that constitutes the population of the city. More particularly is
this marked in the case of women, among whom it is no longer a
rarity to meet with strict refinement and culture. Musical soirees
regioter among the events of the week, and literary recitals are not
exceptional. The male portion of the population has also under-
gone a refining process through the departure of hundreds or even
thousands of " bums," who only too late for their comfort discov-
ered that their presence was neither a necessity to Dawson nor a
mainspring to the extraction of gold from the soil. By their de-
parture the city has probably suffered a decrease in its population
of some three thousand to four thousand, but has more than re-
ceived compensation in that stability of purpose which such elimi-
nation always insures. As a city of about thirteen thousand in-
habitants, it enters upon its history in the year 1900 with principles

A YEAR'S PROGRESS IN THE KLONDIKE.

461

cast largely upon a pure business basis, and witli a future that is
bound in with the product of the soil.

The gold resource of the Klondike region seems fully to sustain
the anticipations which had been put forth touching the product
of 1899. The better-known creeks, such as the Bonanza, Eldo-

rado, and Hunker, have kept well up with their record of the
previous year, and give indications of continuing as important fac-
tors in the calculation of output for some time to come in the
future. The introduction of a certain amount of mining machin-
ery, such as steam drills, thawers, and powerful pumps — applied

462 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

more particularly to the deposits of the benches and hillsides —
<!Oupled with a more definite method of conducting extensive opera-
tions on a comparatively economic basis, has given fresh impetus to
the work of mine holders, and made largely remunerative that
which had promised to be little profitable. A more just adminis-
tration of the mining laws has helped to a considerate feeling
among the miners, and reduced very materially the grievances
which formerly fell with thick force upon the ofiaces of the Re-
corder and Gold Commissioner. Access is now easily had to the
records of claims, and individual " cases " receive an early and
proper hearing. Electric plants have been introduced on some
of the claims, so that there need be no interruption in work for the
full twenty-four hours of the day.

Apart from the discovery of rich pay-dirt on creeks and gulches,
such as Last Chance (tributary to Hunker), Gold Bottom (tribu-
tary to Sulphur), and American, Magnet, and Adams (tributary
to the Bonanza), concerning which much skepticism was expressed
last year, the filling in of assumed barren gaps in the general line
of creeks has done much to inspire the feeling that more of the
broad area is gold-bearing than the first surveys and explorations
" indicated " — a feeling to which particular confidence has been
given by the surprising wealth which has been washed out from
the hillsides. For a nearly continuous four miles of the " loft
limit " of the Bonan.za, extending northward from Gold Hill at
the confluence of the Eldorado to the " forties below discovery,"
the crests of the hills at an elevation of some one hundred and
eighty to two hundred feet above the creek are laid bare with the
work of the shovel, pick, and drill, and the same or a correspond-
ing stratigraphical height is pierced elsewhere along the stream.
Gold Hill (and French Hill, on the Eldorado side), Skookum,
Adams, Magnet, and American Hills, and Monte Cristo, all have
their summits capped by what is now familiarly known as the
" white layer " — a feature in the landscape as interesting to the
casual tourist as the construction is important to the more fortu-
nate claim holders who are located here.

Up to this time no quartz locations determined to be of posi-
tive value have been located, although a goodly number of " quartz
reefs," " lodes," and kidney masses have been staked, restaked, and
recorded. Some of these have shown gold in small quantity, but
in by far the greater number of cases they have proved absolutely
barren, and are without promise of yielding anything. The antici-
pation of many, naturally fostered by individual wish and hope,
that an originating or " mother " lode must be present and found
somewhere rests without any geological support so far as evidence

A YEAR'S PROGRESS IN THE KLONDIKE.

463

has been accumulated up to the present time, and there is nothing
that looks like a promise to the geological eye. At the same time,,
it would be premature to assert that such a reef or series of reefs
mav not be discovered in the future. The hill crests that have

furnished so much of the white material of the high benches of the
Bonanza and the Eldorado may perhaps be searched with best
advantage in this direction, and thence extended to the water
parting which surrounds or incloses the upper waters of Gay Gulch.

464

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY,

No estimate, naturally, can yet be put to the total gold supply
of the Klondike region, but to inquiry that is frequently put re-
garding the future existence of Dawson as an energetic mining
camp one can unhesitatingly answer that this existence is assured

for many years to come, and there are indications that pomt to a
permanence independent of the simple supply of gold.

The earlier conceptions of the extreme severity of the chmate
of the Yukon Valley forbade the hope of agricultural possibilities,
but a more intimate knowledge of the conditions prevailing m the
summer lime— a season of four to five months' duration, with day-

A TEAR'S PROGRESS IN THE KLONDIKE. 465

light and day heat protracted far into the normal hours of night —
and a comparison of these conditions with somewhat similar condi-
tions prevailing elsewhere, have given hope not alone of a possibil-
ity, but of a probability, and there are few to-day who doubt that ag-
riculture may not be practiced with at least a legitimate amount of
success in many parts of the Yukon basin. This probability has, in-
deed, been already emphasized by Prof. George Dawson, and the
more recent examinations of Alaskan territory, made by Colonels
Ray and Abercrombie, confirm with a conviction the reference to
American soil. The feeble but more than promising eiforts in
agriculture and gardening that were made in the region about
Dawson in 1898 have borne surprising fruit in 1899, and while the
results may not, for various reasons, have proved in all cases remu-
nerative to the " prospector," they at least clearly demonstrate
the possibilities to which the future may lay claim. Cabbages,
turnips, peas, radishes, lettuce, and beans are now raised to per-
fection in favored spots along the Yukon and Klondike, and Qn
scattered hillsides of the Bonanza and Eldorado, and ^a good
promise is also held out for the potato. In the charming spot
known as the Acklin Garden, situated on the Klondike about two
miles from Dawson, oats and barley, sown on April 26th and May
22d respectively (1899), were grown to beautiful heads, and har-
vested in the middle of August. ^0 wheat had ripened up to
that time, and I suspect that, owing to a light frost which took
place on the 19th of the same month, none of this grain came to
maturity. Radishes sown on April 24th were collected on May
20th, and string beans, whose seed was scattered on May 26th, were
collected on August 1st. Other successful crops were those of
beets, onions, and spinach.

The exquisite beauty of the "flower garden in this spot rivets
the attention of all passers-by, and few there are who do not for
a moment lay aside their packs to enjoy the feast of color that is
presented to them. Poppies of the size and brilliance of those
which adorn the fields about Naples, chrysanthemums, gorgeous
dahlias, pansies, the cornfiower, mignonette, and centaurea are
part of the outside bloom, to which Nature " beyond the fence "
has fittingly added the wild rose, anemone, fireweed, and forget-me-
not. Such is the aspect of the region which to-day illumines the
far North, and carries with itself a hopeful promise to many and
the certainty of disappointment to many more.

VOL. LVI. 36

466 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

THE DECLINE OF CRBIINAL JURISPRUDENCE IN

AMERICA.

By GINO C. SFERANZA.

THE rights of personal security, personal liberty, and private
property have been called the " rights of the people of Eng-
land," and may be said to constitute the richest heirloom in the
Anglo-Saxon family. While, in a certain sense, they belong to
all civilized people, yet, in their practical application, they are
peculiarly the creation of Anglo-Saxon common sense and love of
order. The underlying principle of these rights, clothed by the
Latins in the seductive garb of Liberie, Egalite, Fraternite, gave
us a Reign of Terror, a Commune, and finally a doubtful republican-
ism; but the same principle, embodied in the less dazzling formula,
" That no man shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property with-
out due process of law," produced in the hands of the Anglo-
Saxons more enduring democracies " of the people, by the people,
and for the people."

With the instinct of a race born for self-government, the An-
glo-Saxons have ever sought and almost always found the highest
safeguard for their ancient rights in the courts of law. Between a
partisan Legislature and a tyrannical Executive an honest judiciary
has generally been found ready to annul the excesses of the one
and to prevent any infringement by the other; so that it has
become a belief, having the force of faith, that in our courts will
be found the bulwark of those liberties which we consider essen-
tial to the full enjoyment of life.

Laws and courts, however, are after all the creation of men,
and, like all such creations, they are necessarily imperfect and
fallible; or, more correctly, they are organisms which develop and
improve. In other words, justice and law are only relatively im-
mutable and perfect. Tliey do, indeed, represent, in a sense, ab-
stract perfection, and at any given time they must be considered
the highest criterion of human conduct. But justice and law are
not such divinities that they can withdraw themselves from the
operation of those forces which we call progress. Seriousness, dig-
nity, and venerability are not sufficient to sustain the majesty of the
law; it needs also adaptation to those higher conditions and broader
views which mark the growth of human thought. The more we
come to look upon law as the standard and gauge of upright human
action, the more do we grow to expect it in consonance with the
highest dictates of human knowledge and reason, for what is above
us must represent what is best in us, else it will be neither respected

DECLINE OF CRIMINAL JURISPRUDENCE. 467

nor obeyed. Whenever this consonance is not found, human be-
lief in the dignity of the law and in the efficacy of justice ceases.
For, theoretically at least, law is so near ideal perfection that the
least defect destroys it entirely; and by this "ideal perfection"
is meant that laws must reflect the highest and soundest thought of
every age. Laws that fail in this cease to be a power for good;
they are then looked upon either as ridiculous or as oppressive. If
the former, they defeat their ends by becoming dead laws; if the
latter, they become a source of disorder and discontent. Hence we
see that jurisprudence is essentially evolutionary and progressive,
and that the majesty of the law does not lie in its age but in its
perennial youth, or, more correctly, in its successive rejuvenescence.
It is true that in China the antiquity of a law is its highest pres-
tige, but, as a consequence, Chinese justice is proverbially ineffi-
cient and barbarous. It therefore follows that the constant study
and improvement of what we have called the safeguards of our
fundamental rights should be our highest duty, and the object of
the care and solicitude of the State. It is not enough to rest con-
tentedly in the thought that a Magna Charta, a Petition of Eights,
and sundry written constitutions protect us. Their very exist-
ence is but an argument for our eternal vigilance. ]^3^ow, the
question to be here examined is whether we have exercised that
care and vigilance which are essential to the free enjoyment of
our rights.

Let me premise the statement that the protection of the rights
of life, liberty, and property is peculiarly within the province of
the criminal law. What constitutes the right of life, Kberty, and
property can not be defined or described, except negatively by a
definition of what will be deemed its infringements. These we
call crimes. To declare what acts come within the definition of
such crimes is the function of the criminal courts.

It is upon the criminal law, therefore, that we must rely for
the enunciation of what acts shall constitute a breach of the right
of life, liberty, and property, and it is to the criminal bench and
bar that we must turn for the correct interpretation and applica-
tion of such enunciations. Hence the more time and attention
we devote to the study of criminal legislation and to the enlight-
enment of the criminal bench and bar, the more will the safety of
our rights be increased and strengthened. Likewise, the more we
allow criminal legislation to be the product of hasty consideration
and the criminal bar to drift into disrepute, the more the safety
of our rights will be proportionally weakened.

The first question that presents itself is, " What is done hy
our law schools for the study of criminal law?" The answer is

468 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

not very encouraging. Let us take those law schools which are of
most importance, either by reason of their curriculum or of their
attendance. Harvard, witli a three years' course, devotes two
hours a week for one year to criminal law (including criminal pro-
cedure). Allowing nine months of four weeks each to the scho-
lastic year, and a weekly average of eighteen hours, it will be
found that the time devoted to the study of criminal law (includ-
ing procedure) is a little over iliree 'per cent of the entire course.
By a similar computation we find that Columbia devotes to crimi-
nal law (and procedure) a little over four per cent of the entire
course, which is about the percentage given by Yale and a little
lower than that of the Universities of Michigan, Cornell, and New
York respectively.

These computations are based upon figures given in the cata-
logues of those universities, or kindly furnished by the deans.
Nothing more eloquent of the decline of the study of criminal
jurisprudence in our country could be cited. But the catalogues
of these law schools add further proof. At none of them is there
a professor whose instruction is confined solely to criminal law.
Nearly all the instructors in criminal law devote but a small part
of their time (and probably of their study) to the teaching of this
subject. In Columbia tlie instructor in criminal law is professor
of international law and diplomacy; * at Harvard the incumbent of
the chair of criminal law teaches the law of carriers ; that of Michi-
gan teaches the law of bills and notes and of public corporations;
that of the New York University the law of sales and wills. It
is, moreover, a significant fact that the faculties of the above-
named institutions, while recommending to law students the op-
tional study of political economy, constitutional history, taxation,
physical science, English literature, and modern languages as con-
ducive to a higher standard of legal culture, utterly fail to advise
them to pursue courses in criminal anthropology, criminology, or
penology. In other words, it is deemed advisable that the future
lawyer should bring to the aid of his civil practice the complemen-
tary knowledge of French and history, for instance, but it is of
no importance that he should be acquainted with the results of
modern criminologic and penologic research. Thus the conclu-
sion is forced upon us that the study of criminal law, whose
importance I have endeavored to set forth, has become a subject
at sufferance in our universities, a practically optional course

* This has since been changed ; but the change malces the case worse, as the new in-
structor in criminal law teaches not only two branches of the law (as under last year's
course), but five — viz., Criminal Law, V/ills and Administration, Common-Law Practice and
Pleading Bankruptcy, and Bailments and Carriers.

DECLINE OF CRIMINAL JURISPRUDENCE. 469

of little consequence to the student, and of no interest to the
teacher.

From the very beginning of his legal career the future lawyer
is made to feel that the field of criminal law is not the one in
which to exercise his best talents. Both the school curriculum
and popular sentiment strengthen this prejudice. To the com-
munity at large our criminal courts have come to mean places
where criminals are sentenced or rogues saved on technicalities;
they have ceased to be centers of justice, where innocent men are
saved and guilty men tried according to the law of the land.
Hence has arisen the popular belief (despite the rule that the ac-
cused shall be considered innocent until his guilt is proved), shared
in a measure by the bench and bar, that every man accused of
crime is criminal and depraved, and that, therefore, contact with
him should be avoided. Thus the criminal lawyer, who necessarily
must come in touch with such alleged crime and depravity, is prac-
tically ostracized not only from the community but also from the
civil forum.

The existence of such prejudice against the criminal bar is most
deplorable. j\Ien of ability and position will shun criminal prac-
tice, leaving the field clear to unscrupulous shysters. Let it be
remembered that to a man charged with the commission of a crime
and deprived of his liberty the lawyer appears a savior; that the
accused is practically at his lawyer's mercy, being under most try-
ing duress and very easily influenced. The temptation for unpro-
fessional dealing is here at its highest, because of the manifest ad-
vantage of the lawyer who is able, or whom the client believes
to be able, to unlock the prison doors. It takes men of more than
ordinary fiber to persistently resist such temptation in all its forms.
Hence the necessity of upright and learned men at the criminal
bar. But how few are our great criminal practitioners! How
often have I heard lawyers, too young and clientless to allow them-
selves preferences, declare most decidedly that they were willing
to do anything "except criminal law " ! They had been trained to
look upon it not merely as inferior but as degrading practice.
Yet it is common knowledge that in European countries, where
less boast is made of inalienable rights, it is the ambition of all
lawyers to get a reputation at the criminal bar. It is there, in
fact, that reputations are made.

It is likewise in those countries where many would make us
believe that life, liberty, and property are not as sacredly guarded
as in our own country, that the criminal laws are a constant object
of scholarly study and investigation. The great progress made
in the study of crime, the building up of a criminal science and

470 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY,

a criminal sociology, is almost exclusively the work of Continental
criminologists. Penology lias indeed engaged our attention, but
criminology has been almost practically ignored by us.

Of criminal law it was long ago said that, " by reason of the
numberless unforeseen events which the compass of a day may
bring forth," the knowledge of its provisions " is a matter of uni-
versal concern." Yet, despite this " universal concern," our crimi-
nal law has been and still is inferior to our civil law. I have
pointed out at the beginning of this article how the majesty of the
law depended essentially upon its ever-recurring rejuvenescence;
that law was a living organism, subject to change and the forces
of evolution.

The theories on criminal responsibility and on crime in general,
in the light of modern medical, anthropologic, and sociologic sci-
ences, have completely supplanted the old doctrines, yet criminal
legislation has apparently taken no notice of them. Modern sci-
ence tells us that our antiquated tests of criminal responsibility
result in sending hundreds of men to prison who ought to be sent
to asylums, but we do nothing to avoid this scandal. Under our
system the courts are obliged to let the conclusions of the learned
judges who occupied the bench three hundred years ago have more
weight than the positive investigations of the men of science of
our day, and so, consciously or unconsciously, numberless crimes
are committed in the name of stare decisis. True it is that in
some jurisdictions, and notably in ISTew York, the courts have rec-
ognized to some extent the progress of science and its influence
upon juridic theories. But even in these cases the concession
has been made only in civil cases. Thus Mr. Bishop, in his Crimi-
nal Law, is obliged to point out that our courts recognize two hinds
of insanity — to wit, civil and criminal irresponsibility. Why the
test to be applied in the case of the validity of a will should be
different from that applied in the case of murder does not seem
very clear. The scientific test as to insanity has been oftentimes
recognized and applied by our civil tribunals, but the criminal
judges still cling with unabashed attachment to the unscientific
and unprogressive rule in MclSTaughten's case. The Guiteau trial,
which followed that celebrated decision, added fresh authority to
the English view, and practically made the rule to be applied in
criminal trials a legal dogma.

In an able and exhaustive paper by Mr. J. H. Dougherty on
this very subject, before the Society of Medical Jurisprudence,
the evils of such dogmatism in criminal law are strikingly set forth.
" Life," he said, " should be as sacred as property. While society
needs protection from the criminal, it does not require that the

DECLINE OF CRIMINAL JURISPRUDENCE. 471

protection should be insured througli the application of a fallacious
and discredited legal dogma."

This is but one example of the unprogressiveness of our crimi-
nal jurisprudence. Yet, if we really have the ancient principle
of the right of life and liberty at heart we ought to recognize that
this legal dogma is a greater menace to the practical abrogation
of the right than the despotism of an unscrupulous executive.
For while the latter is an infringement of a right which the law
forbids, the former is a breach of a right which the law sanctions.
Again, the theories regarding the object of penal provisions have
entirely changed. Punishment has been scientifically shown to be
practically useless either as a deterrent or as a correctional remedy.
Yet our penal codes are confessedly based on the idea of punish-
ment and retribution. We have indeed made some little headway,
such as indeterminate sentences and suspension of judgment, but
only in a scattered and tentative way.

The additions to or changes in our criminal codes have been
unimportant and unprogressive. What additions are made are
slipshod in their make-up, at times partisan in intent, seldom in
harmony with the teachings of modern science, and oftentimes in
disregard of fundamental principles. Our legislators grant " hear-
ings " before passing a law affecting the business of a few privi-
leged men and give it due weight; but criminal bills, which may
affect the public, are generally " rushed through," probably be-
cause of an absolute lack of interest. This is but a repetition of
Blackstone's complaint against criminal legislation in his day. " It
is never usual in the House of Commons," he wrote, " even to read
a bill which may affect the property of an individual without first
referring it to some of the learned judges and hearing their report
thereon. And surely equal precaution is necessary when laws are
to be established which may affect the property, liberty, and per-
haps the lives of thousands." And he thus concludes his obser-
vations : " The enacting of penalties to which a whole nation should
be subject ought not to be left as a matter of indifference to the
passions or interests of a few, who upon temporary motives may
prefer or support such a bill."

The lack of public interest and of intelligent consideration by
the people and the bar in criminal problems and criminal legislation
are clearly shown by the paucity of criminal statistical data fur-
nished by various States.

Penological research is based on an intelligent study of sta-
tistics, and civilized nations, recognizing this fact, have provided
elaborate systems of records based on the suggestions of statistical
science. But with us statistical facilities in the field of crime are

472 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

not merely primitive or old-fashioned, but in many cases shame-
fully absent. In reply to requests addressed to the Secretaries of
State of various States for official statistics of crimes committed
in their respective jurisdictions, the answers I received were in a
number of cases negative. The officials mentioned replied that
no statistics were published by the State in Illinois, Georgia, New
Jersey, Tennessee, Kentucky, Maryland, Vermont, California,
Idaho, Missouri, South Carolina, Connecticut, Texas, "Wisconsin,
Nebraska, Mississippi, Virginia, Colorado, and Kansas. It is true
that in some of these States this lacuna is filled in by special prison
reports or reports of commissioners or of the attorneys-general.
But even in these cases, as well as in those published officially by the
State (Ohio, Indiana, New York, Massachusetts, and Louisiana),
the information furnished is a monument of antiquated methods
and of very little value to the student of criminology. How, then,
can we study the grave questions of crime and criminals without
a basis of computation?

It may be true, as some claim, that Continental jurists have
refined the criminal law to an unpractical degree and too much
on classic and theoretic lines, but it will not be claimed that by
adhering to an old-fashioned and obsolete criminal jurisprudence
the Anglo-Saxons are safeguarding their fundamental liberties.
That there is something essentially wrong, or at least antiquated,
with our criminal law is evidenced by the popular discontent against
it, which is too widespread and insistent to be the result of igno-
rance or sentiment. If there is inertia as to changes in the law
it is probably because, while feeling that there is something wrong,
the people either can not define it or the conservatism of centuries
in this field is unconsciously affecting their better intentions. Who
will deny (and I address this question to lawyers and judges) that,
under our system, guilty men escape and innocent men suffer in
larger numbers than it should be, even allowing for the defects
inherent in all human systems? — that technicalities and not facts
often save scoundrels; that unscrupulous lawyers do not avoid
them, and the best of judges are obliged by legal dogmas to respect
them? Who will deny (and I address this question to sociologists
and penologists) that the penal provisions of our present laws are
inappropriate, inelastic, and unscientific; that they neither pre-
vent nor reform; and that the basic principle of our penal codes
is still retribution and punishment? Can it be that the right of
life, liberty, and property is becoming a pious fraud? Of course,
it is not claimed that we have less liberty now than our fathers
had three centuries ago; progress never stops, and each day is
something gained; but it seems clear that the juridic basis and

THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA. 473

form of our liberties have not kept up with the progress of those
very liberties. Yet, what we call rights must have a counterpart
or reflection in our laws. We may, while enjoying those rights,
forget that the juridic basis on which they stand is crumbling with
age. Unless that basis is rejuvenated the entire edifice must even-
tually fall. AVliile we are in full possession of our rights we need
no laws to guarantee them ; but it is when those laws are encroached
upon that there arises the necessity of juridic sanction for them.

The right of life, liberty, and property constitutes the essence
of the " law of the land." But the conception of rights, as we
have seen, changes and progresses. The law of the land must like-
wise change and progress.

Laws may be the highest and best creation of man's intellect,
but they are not " hedged in by any divinity." That is wdiy they
are neither infallible nor unchangeable. Yet, as the highest and
best creation of man's intellect, and as the final criterion of human
public conduct, they should conform to the best thought and to
the highest scientific progress. If they do not approach this stand-
ard they are worse than useless, for they become legalized means
of oppression. It is then that Justice needs a bandage over her
eyes, not to avoid partiality, Imt to hide her shame.

THE BLIND FISHES OF NOKTH AMERICA.

Bt cael h. eigenmann,

PEOFESSOE OF ZOOLOGY, INDIANA tlNIVEEPITY.

" An investigation into the history of degenerate forms often teaches us more of the
causes of change in organic Nature than can be learned by the study of the progressive
ones." — Weismann.

THE caves of the United States are inhabited by three cave
salamanders, tw^o of them with degenerate eyes; by six cave
fishes, all with impaired vision — five of them with rudimentary
eyes, one with eyes the most degenerate among vertebrates; and
by several mammals. It is thus seen that among the interest-
ing features of the North American fauna the blind vertebrates
are not the least. Yet during the past twenty-five years the only
additions to our knowledge, aside from diagnoses of new species,
have been a few random notes on the habits and a short account
of the eye of Troglichthys by Kohl.

Various classes of vertebrates have blind members, but no large
vertebrate has become blind or permanently taken up its home in
caves. Blatchley reports that a number of cats have established

VOL LVI.— 37

474

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

themselves in Wyandotte Cave, where they bring forth and rear
their young. They have exterminated the cave rats, and now sta-
tion themselves in a narrow passage of the cave and capture bats
as they fly through.

Among the permanent residents in dark places we have, among
mammals, the moles, which habitually live in burrows of their own

make. In .Mammoth Cave lives a rat

— Neotoma pennsylvanica. In Marengo
< 'ave, Indiana, white-footed mice have es-
lablishcd themselves. Although with un-
impaired eyes, they have acquired ears and
whiskers longer than the rest of their kind
living outside.

In Florida occurs a blind lizard — Rhi-
neura floridana. It burrows in the ground,
and is colorless and blind.

Of salamanders, one blind species lives
in European caves. In the large caves of
the eastern United States no blind sala-
manders have been found, although other
species, especially Spelerpes maculicauda,
abound. In the caves of Missouri a veiled-
eyed salamander, Typhlotriton, has been
described within recent years by Stejne-
ger. Still another salamander, Typhlo-
molge, having rudimentary eyes, has been
cast up from an artesian well at San Marcos, Texas, and occurs in
the cave streams about that place.

The most abundant of the blind vertebrates, both in individuals
and in species, are the blind fishes. These, from their geographical
distribution, may be separated into three groups: (1) Those inhab-
iting the depths of the ocean; (2) those inhabiting dark places
along the shores of the ocean; (3) those inhabiting the under-
ground fresh waters.

The fishes, blind or partially blind, living in the depths of
the ocean bordering the American continents, are as follows: 1.
Ipnops Murrayi Giinther lives at depths varying from 955 fathoms
to 2,158 and has the very wide distribution suggested by the locali-
ties from which specimens have been secured — viz., off the coast
of Brazil, near Tristan da Cumba, near Celebes, latitude 24° 36'
north, longitude 84° 51' west, and off Bequia. This is the only ver-
tebrate in which no vestige of an eye has been found. Ipnops stands
alone in a family. 2. The Brotulidse have several members blind
or with very much reduced eyes in various parts of the globe.

Fiu. 1. — The cave salaiiiaiKlur
of the Mississippi Valley
(Spelerpes maculicauda).

THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA.

475

xVphyonus mollis G. and B., 955 fathoms, and Alexeterion parfaiti
Vaillant, 5,005 metres, are the only ones found in the neighbor-
hood of America. 3. The Lophiidse are represented by Mancalias
Schiifeldtii Gill, from a depth of 372 fathoms. Other blind spe-
cies are found in foreign waters, while others with small eyes are
found in American waters. The majority of deep-sea fishes have
well-developed eyes.

The shore fishes have their blind representative in Typhlogobius
californiensis St., which lives under rocks between tide water on
the coast of southern and Lower California. I have elsewhere
described the habits of this form. In the fresh-water caves of
Cuba two blind fishes — Stygicola denta Poey and Lucifuga subter-
raneus Poey — have been found. Their relatives live in the ocean,
Brotula barbata in Cuban waters; some of the others are blind and
inhabitants of deep water.

The inland fresh-water fishes are represented by Gronias nigri-
labris Cope, a catfish from cave streams of eastern Pennsylvania,
and by members of the Amblyopsidse, concerning which a more
detailed account is given below.

The AmblyopsidzE. — The Amblyopsidse are a small family of
fishes allied to the Cyprinodontidse. They are found in the Mis-
sissippi drainage basin and in certain southeastern streams. Three
of the members of the fam-
ily, the Chologasters, are
provided with well-devel-
oped eyes, while four other
species are cave fishes in
the strictest sense, being
blind and colorless. The
distribution of the differ-
ent members of the Am-
blyopsidse is as follows:

Chologaster cornutus is
found in lowland swamps
of the Southern States
from the Dismal Swamp
to the Okefinokee Swamp.
Chologaster Agassizii is
found in subterranean
streams in Tennessee and Kentucky. Chologaster papilliferus has
so far been found only in southwestern Dlinois.

Amblyopsis is abundant in the cave streams of the Ohio Valley
south of the east fork of White River.

Typhliehthys subterraiieus inhabits the region south of the Ohio

Fui

-Tlie larva and adult of the Missouri cave
salamander (Typhlotriton).

476 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and east of the Mississippi. A single specimen of another Ty-
phlichthys has been found north of the Ohio River in a well at
Corydon, Indiana. Trogliehthys rosge inhabits the caves west of
the Mississippi in Arkansas and Missouri.

Chologaster. — Mr. E. 13. Forbes secured a school of Cholo-
gaster papillif erus for me, and he wrote : " The little fishes were
found under stones at the edges of the spring very close to the
blutf, and when disturbed they swam back under the cliff. . . .
None were found at any considerable distance from the face of the
cliff." I found the Chologaster Agassizii to act similarly in the
river Styx, in Mammoth Cave. As soon as my net touched the
water they darted in under the ledge of rock at the side of the
little pool in which I found them.

Chologaster })ai)illiferus detects its food entirely by the sense
of touch. Two which were kept in an aquarium for over a year

Fi(i. 3.— Blind sahiiiKiiKlcr Inmi iiii urtc-ian well ut Sau Marcos, Texas {Typhlomolye).

were starved for a few days. They became very nervous, con-
tinually swimming along the sides of the aquarium. Asellus was
introduced. These, even if quite near, produced no effect if mov-
ing in front of the Chologaster. The moment one came in close
proximity to the fish from any direction, by a flashlike motion it
was seized. None of them were swallowed. The fish became very
alert after the introduction of the sowbugs, and when swimming
forward would strike at a part of a leaf if it came in contact with
the head of the fish. It seemed evident that the eye gave no in-
formation of the character of the object. As Asellus was not alto-
gether to their taste, Gammarus was introduced. One of these
swimming rapidly toward the chin of the Chologaster from behind
and below was instantly seized when it came in contact with the
fish. The eye could not have located the Gammarus at all. The
action is in very strong contrast to the action of a sunfish, which
detects its food by the sight. It is undoubtedly this peculiar

THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA. 477

method of locating and securing food which has enabled the Am-
blyopsidae to establish themselves in caves.

The Chologaster in general make-up is like Amblyopsis, but is
somewhat longer-jointed. It sits with its pectorals extended.
When it moves horizontally for some distance the pectorals are
usually pressed to the sides, the propelling being done largely by
the tail very much after the manner of a salamander, which it
resembles. In swimming toward the surface it uses its pectoral
fins chiefly, and the fish usually sinks to the bottom as soon as its
efforts to raise itself are stopped.

Individuals kept in aquaria -with one end darkened either col-
lected in the darkened area floating about, or under leaves or
sticks in any part of the aquarium. They are frequently found
under a floating board, where they float with the tops of their
heads in contact with the board, their bodies slanting downward.
They seek the dark, regardless of the direction of the rays of light.
These characteristics they have, in great part, in common with the
blind members of the family. The adult Amblyopsis frequently
floats with its head to the top of the water, the tail sloping down-
ward, and in swimming along ledges of rock the top of the head
is applied to the ledge. I have captured many specimens simply
by scraping my net along the surface of a ledge.

Typhlichthys, living in total darkness, has retained the habit
of staying under floating boards, sticks, and stones. Miss Hoppin
noticed that Troglichthys swims with its back to the sides of the
aquarium, and I have repeatedly noted the same in the young of
Amblyopsis up to fifty millimetres, and the still younger Ambly-
opsis frequently hides under rocks.

Amblyopsis. — The general impression given by Amblyopsis is
that of a skinned catfish swimming on its back. The expressions,
"They are catfish"; "They look as though they were skinned";
" They are swimming on their backs," are heard from those who
see these fishes for the first time.

The largest individual secured by me measured 135 millime-
tres in total length. Individuals as large as this are rare. The
usual length of an adult is about 90 millimetres. One individual
was mentioned to me at Mammoth Cave having a length of 200
millimetres!

Amblyopsis is found in pools in the cave streams it inhabits.
I have secured as many as twelve from a pool perhaps ten by fifty
feet in size. Very rarely they are to be found in the riffles connect-
ing the pools. I have seen them lying at the bottom, or swimming,
or rather gliding, through the water like " white aquatic ghosts."
In the aquarium they lie at the bottom or at various depths in the

478

POPULAR SCIENCJS MONTHLY.

water, their axes making various angles with the horizontal, their
pectorals folded to their sides. When swimming slowly it is chiefly
by the use of the pectorals. The strokes of the pectoral are lazily
given, and the fish glides on after a stroke till its impetus is ex-
hausted, when another stroke is delivered. The fishes frequently

Fio. 4. — Ipiiopx Mnrrajji, living at a depth of 1,.')00 to ii,100 fathoms.
Fio. 5. — l!lilnri>i)htlutliniiti (jraciliif, from 1,100 fathoms, off JSew Zeuhtiul.

roll slightly from side to side at the exhaustion of the result of
a stroke. When swimming rapidly the pectorals are folded
to the sides, and their locomotion is then similar to that of a
salamander — by the motion of the tail. They readily adjust them-
selves to different depths, and are usually perfect philosophers,
quiet, dignified, unconcerned, and ini perturbed, entirely different
from such eyed species as minnows and sunfislies which are some-
times found in caves and which are much more readily disturbed
by any motion in the water, making it almost impossible to capture
them when found in the caves. The pectorals are also almost ex-
clusively used when quietly rising in the water. At such times
the pectorals are extended laterally and then pressed to the sides,
beginning with the upper rays. A downward stroke is delivered
in this way not quickly, but with apparent lazy deliberation. In
swimming the pectorals are brought forward upper edge fore-
most. The center of gravity seems to be so placed in regard to
their various axes that the fish does not lose its balance whatever
its position. They float horizontally in the water without any
apparent effort to maintain their position, or with the main axis
inclined upward, with the snout sometimes touching the surface
of the water, apparently lifeless. Once one was seen resting on
its tail in a nearly vertical position, and one while quietly swim-
ming was once seen to leisurely turn a somersault and swim on
undisturbed. At another time the same individual rolled com-
pletely over. When one of them is kept out of the water for a
short time it frofjuently goes in a corkscrew-shaped path through
the water, continually spinning around its long axis. In their
quiet, floating position it is difficult to determine whether they are
alive or not.

THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA. 479

I have not found the slightest difficulty in capturing Amblyop-
sis with a small dip net, either from a boat or while wading through
the subterranean stream, and I have caught one in the hollow of
my hand. At such a time all the noise I could make did not affect
the fishes found swimming in the water. Frequently they were
taken in the dip net without apparently noting the vibrations pro-
duced in the water until they were lifted out of it; very rarely
a fish became evidently scared. Such a one would dart off a few
feet or a few inches, and remain on the qui vive. If not pursued,
it soon swam off quietly; if pursued, it not infrequently escaped
by rapidly darting this way and that; when jumping out of the
water, often an abrupt turn in the opposite direction from which it
started would land it in the net, showing that their sense of direc-
tion was not very acute. At other times, if disturbed by the waves
produced by wading, one or another individual would follow a ledge
of rock to the bottom of the stream, where it would hide in a
crevice. But very frequently, much more frequently than not,
no attention was paid either to the commotion produced by the
wading or by the boat and dip net. In general, it may be said
that the fishes in their natural habitat are oblivious to disturbances
of the water until frightened by some very unusual jar or motion,
probably a touch with the net, when they become intensely alert.
The fact that they are not easily frightened suggests the absence
of many enemies, while their frantic behavior if once scared gives

Fig. ^.—Brodula harbata from Havana, t"i'-- l.—Stygicola dentatm from the

(;ju})a. caves of Cuba.

evidence either that occasional enemies are present and that they
are very dangerous, or that the transmission of the instinct of fear
is as tenacious as the transmission of physical characters.

Contrary to Sloan's observation, that they detect the presence
of a solid substance in their path, I have never noticed that those
in confinement became aware of the proximity of the walls of the
aquarium when swimming toward it. Instead, they constantly use
the padded, projecting lower jaw as bumpers. Even an extremely
rapid dart through the water seems to be stopped without serious
inconvenience by the projecting jaw.

The first observations on the feeding habit of Amblyopsis are
those of Cope. He remarks that " the projecting lower jaw and
upward direction of the mouth render it easy for the fish to feed
at the surface of the water, where it must obtain much of its

480

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

food. . . . This structure also probably explains the facts of its
being the sole representative of the fishes in subterranean waters.
No doubt many other forms were carried into the caverns since
the waters first found their way there, but most of them were like
those of our present rivers — deep-water or bottom feeders. Such

Fig. ^.—Aphyonns gelatiiiosits, l,4oO fathoms, between Australia and New Guinea.

Fig. 9. — Aphyonus mollis^ 955 fathoms, 24'* 36' north, 84° 5' west.

Fig. 10. — Tauredophidiiim he.ctli, 1,310 fathoms, Bay of Bengal.

Fig. W.—Acaiithouus anmitus, 1,050 fathoms, mid I'acifle. off tlic i'hilippines.

Fig. \i.— Typhloniis nasus, 2,150 to 2,440 fathoms, north of Australia and north of

Celebes.
Fig. 13. — Hephthncara »imi/m, 902 fathoms, Coromandel coast.
Fig. \4.—Alexeterion parfaiti, 5,005 metres, North Atlantic.

fishes would starve in a cave river, where much of the food is car-
ried to them on the surface of the stream."

The observations of Cope are entirely erroneous, as we shall
see, and the speculations based on them naturally fall to the ground.

Dr. Sloan recorded one Amblyopsis which he kept twenty
months without food. " Some of them would strike eagerly at
any small body thrown in the water near them, rarely missed it,
and in a very short time ejected it from their mouths with consid-
erable force. I tried to feed them often with bits of meat and fish-
wf)rmp, but they retained nothing. On one occasion I missed a

THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA. 481

small one, and found his tail projecting from the mouth of a larger
one."

Wyman found a small-eyed fish in the stomach of an Am-
bljopsis.

Hoppin was struck by the fact that, if not capable of long fasts,
Troglichthys must live on very small organisms that the unaided
eye can not discern. Garman found, .in the stomachs of Troglich-
thys collected by Hoppin in Missouri, species of Asellus, Cambarus,
Ceuthophilus, and Crangonyx.

All the specimens of Amblyopsis 'so far taken by me contained
very large fatty bodies in their abdominal cavity, a condition sug-
gesting abundance of food. The stomachs always contained the
debris of crustaceans, a closer identification of which was not at-
tempted. One yoimg Amblyopsis disappeared on the way home
from the caves, and had evidently been swallowed by one of the
larger ones. A few old ones, kept in an aquarium from May to
July, were seen voiding excrement toward the last of their cap-
tivity, and their actions at various times suggested that they were
scraping the minute organisms from the side of the aquarium.
The young Amblyopsis reared in the aquarium seemed to feed on
the minute forms found in the mud at the bottom of its aquarium.
Some Coecidotsea placed in the aquarium of the young soon disap-
peared, and the capture of one of these was noted under a reading
glass. The fish was quietly swimming along the side of its aqua-
rium; when it came within about an inch of the crustacean it be-
came alert, and with the next move of the Coecidotsea it was cap-
tured with a very quick, well-aimed dart on the part of the yoimg
fish. Others were captured while crawling along the floor of the
aquarium. From all things noted, it seems very probable that
Amblyopsis is a bottom feeder, and that it also picks food from the
walls of the caves. It is not at all improbable or impossible that
food should be captured at the surface or in open water, but there
seems no warrant for Cope's supposition that Amblyopsis is a top
feeder. I have frequently seen larger specimens, which had been
in captivity for several weeks, nosing about the bottom of the aqua-
rium, with their bodies inclined upward in the water and quietly
taking in the organic fragments at the bottom. An Asellus stir-
ring about at such a time always produced an unusual alertness.

The number of respiratory movements of Amblyopsis averaged
nineteen a minute in five observations, reaching a maximum of
thirty in a small individual and a minimum of fourteen in a large
one. This is in strong contrast to Chologaster, the number of
whose respiratory motions reached an average of eighty per minute
in five observations, with a minimum of fifty-six and a maximum

VOL. LVI. — 38

4^2 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of one hundred and eight in a small specimen. Dr. Loeb has called
my attention to the more rapid absorption of oxygen in the light
than in the dark; this extended would probably mean the more
rapid absorption of oxygen through the skin of light-colored ani-
mals, a matter of doubtful value, however, to species living in
the dark.

The gill filaments are small as compared with the gill cavity.
Oxygenation probably takes place through the skin. Ritter *
has suggested the same for Typhlogobius.

" Cutaneous respiration is not unique in Typhlogobius and the
Amblyopsidse. In the viviparous fishes of California the general
surface, and especially the fins, which have become enormously
enlarged, serve as respiratory organs during the middle and later
periods of gestation; the fins are a mass of blood-vessels, with

merely sufficient cellular
substance to knit them to-
gether. There is, however,
no pink coloration."

Skin respiration would
account for the extreme re-
sistance to asphyxiation in

Fig. \b.—Mancalias Sehufeldtii, 372 fathoms. Amblyopsis and TyphlogO-

bius. About forty-five ex-
amples of Amblyopsis were carried in a pail of water four hun-
dred miles by rail, with only a partial change of water three times
during twenty-four hours. A smaller number may be kept for
days or weeks — probably indefinitely — in a pail of water without
change. The characteristics of Typhlogobius along this line have
been set forth elsewhere.

Sticks, straws, etc., are never avoided by the fishes even when
perfectly imperturbed. By this I mean that they are never seen
to avoid such an object when it is in their path. They swim against
it and then turn. An object falling through the water does not
disturb them, even if it falls on them. A pencil gently moved
about in front of them does not disturb the fishes much, but if
the pencil is held firmly in the hand it is always perceived, and the
fish comes to a dead halt ten or fifteen millimetres before it reaches
such an object. On the other hand, they may be touched on the
back or tail before they start away. They glide by each other
leisurely and dignified, and if they collide, as they sometimes do,
they usually show no more emotion than when they run against
a stick. But this indifference is not always displayed, as we shall
see under the head of breeding habits.

* Ritter, Museum of Comparative Zoology, vol. xxiv, p. 92.

THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA. 483

A number kept in an aquarium with a median partition, in
whicli there was a small opening, were readily able to perceive the
opening, swimming directly for it when opposite it. This observa-
tion is in direct contrast to their inability to perceive solid sub-
stances in their path. A sharp tap on the sides of an aquarium in
which six blind fishes were swimming, where they had been for a
number of days undisturbed, in a dark room, caused nearly all of
them to dart rapidly forward. A second tap produced a less unani-
mous reaction. This repeated on successive days always brought
responses from some of the inmates of the aquarium. Those re-
sponding were not necessarily the nearest to the center of disturb-
ance, but sometimes at the opposite side of the aquarium or vari-
ously distributed through it. After a few days the fishes took no
notice of the tapping by any action observable in the artificially
lighted room.

Such tapping on a well-lighted aquarium containing both Cholo-
gaster and Amblyopsis was always perceived by the Amblyopsis,
but the only response from these imperturbable philosophers was a
slight motion of the pectorals, a motion that suggested that their
balance had been disturbed and that the motion was a rebalancing.
Chologaster, on the other hand, invariably darted about in a fran-
tic manner. One individual of Amblyopsis floating on the water
was repeatedly pushed down by the finger without being disturbed.
If, however, they are touched on the side they always rapidly dart
away.

From everything observed, it is quite evident that Amblyopsis
is not keener in perceiving objects or vibrations than other fishes,
and ordinarily pays much less attention to them. Whether it pos-
sesses a greater power of discrimination of vibrations it would be
difficult to say. It certainly possesses very elaborate tactile or-
gans about the head. These tactile organs are probably more serv-
iceable in detecting and precisely locating prey in the immediate
neighborhood than for anything else. Some observations on young
Amblyopsis are of interest in this connection.

The young, with a large amount of yolk still attached, show a
well-developed sense of direction. A needle thrust into the water
near their heads and in front of them causes a quick reaction, the
young fishes turning and swimming in the opposite direction. They
will do this two or three times, then, becoming exhausted, will re-
main at rest. Sometimes an individual will not move until it is
actually touched by the needle. The needle must come within
about three or four millimetres of the fish before it is noticed.
Then, if it produces any result, it causes the fish to quickly turn and
swim some distance, when it falls to the bottom again and remains

484 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

at rest. If tlie needle is placed beMnd the fish, it will swim directly
forward; if at the side or about the middle, it causes the fish to
swim directly forward or to turn and swim in a direction opposite
the origin of the disturbance. Younger specimens have, as yet,
no power over the direction of their progress; the wiggling of the
tail simply produces a gyration, with the yolk as pivot.

A young blind fish, six months old, swims about in a jerky man-
ner, chiefly by the use of its pectoral fins. It keeps close to the
side of the vessel, usually with its back to the glass. (The aqua-
rium was a cylindrical jar three hundred millimetres in diameter
and three hundred millimetres high.) It perceives a stick thrust
toward it as readily as a seeing fish can. It always perceives from
whatever direction it may be approached, and will invariably dart
away a short distance, sometimes making sharp turns to avoid the
stick, and always successfully. It can be approached from the top
nearer than from the sides or from in front. It does not avoid
the sides of the aquarium, which it frequently strikes. It is a
bottom feeder; its intestinal canal is always partially full.

A long series of experiments was made on Amblyopsis and
Chologaster to determine their reaction to white and monochro-
matic light. Without going into the details of these experiments,
it may be stated that Amblyopsis avoids the light, regardless of
the direction or the color of the rays. The same is true of Cholo-
gaster, except that they were positively attracted by the red rays
of the spectrum as against the blue.

We owe the first observations on the breeding habits of Am-
blyopsis to Thompson, who states that a fish " was put in water
as soon as captured, where it gave birth to nearly twenty young,
which swam about for some time, but soon died; . . . they were
each four lines in length." Little or nothing has been added to
our knowledge of this subject since that time, but the highly inter-
esting supposition of Thompson that they were viviparous has
gained currency, and it is therefore unfortunate that in this respect
he was in error.

Putnam adds to the above that, judging from some data in his
possession, the young are born in September and October, and
further along remarks that they are " undoubtedly " viviparous.

The eggs are laid by the female in under her gill membrane.
Here they remain for perhaps two months, till the yolk is nearly
all absorbed. If a female with young in her gill pouches is handled,
some of the young are sure to escape. This was observed, and
gave rise to the idea that this fish is viviparous. Eggs have been
obtained as early as March 11th and as late as September, and the
indications are that the breeding season extends throughout the

THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA.

>S

year. The eggs are large — 2.3 millimetres in diameter from mem-
brane to membrane — and about sixty to seventy are laid at one
time.

Certain structures gain an entirely new significance in tbe light
of the breeding habits. These are the enlarged gill cavities, with
the small gills, the closely applied branchiostegal membrane, and
the position of the anus and sexual orifices. The latter are placed
just behind the gill membrane in such close proximity to it that
they can be covered by it. It is probable, therefore, that the
membrane is drawn over the sexual orifice and the eggs deposited
directly into the gill cavity. In an individual thirty-five milli-

Fio. 16.— The embryo of TypUogohim, showing the well-developed eye.

Fig. 17. — A yoimg Typhlogolius, times 4%-

Fig. 18. — Adult Typhhgohius.

Fig. 19.— Adult GilUchthys-y-caiida living in crab holes in San Diego Bay.

Fig. 20.— Young GilUcTithys mirabilis under the same magnification as Fig. 17.

metres long the anus is situated between the origin of the pec-
torals; in one twenty-five millimetres long it lies between the pec-
torals and ventrals. In the young it lies behind the ventrals, as in
other fishes.

In an aquarium containing six Amblyopsis two took a great
antipathy to each other. Whenever they touched, a vigorous con-
test began. Frequently they came to have a position with broad-
side to broadside, their heads pointing in opposite directions. At
such a time the fight consists in quick lateral thrusts toward
the antagonist to seize him with the mouth. The motion is in-
stantly parried by a similar move by the antagonist. This blind
punching may be kept up for a few seconds, when, by their vig-
orous motions, they lose each other and jerk themselves through

486 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the water from side to side, apparently hunting for each other.
At this time they are very agile, and move with precision. When
the belligerents meet one above the other, the snapping and punch-
ing is of a different order. While jerking through the water im-
mediately after a round, if one of the belligerents touches one of
the neutrals in the aquarium it frequently gives it a punch, but
does not follow it up, and the unoffending fellow makes haste to
get out of the road, the smaller ones doing so most quickly. If,
after an interval of a few seconds, a belligerent meets a neutral
they quietly pass each other without paying any further attention,
whereas if the two belligerents meet again there is an immediate
response. Whether they recognize each other by touch or by their
mutual excitability I do not know. At one time, in another aqua-
rium, I saw one belligerent capture the other by the pectorals.
After holding on for a short time it let go, and all differences were
forgotten. The thrust is delivered by a single vigorous flip of the
tail and caudal to one side. These fights were frequently noticed,
and always occurred between males.

The absence of secondary sexual differences in the cave fishes
is a forcible argument in favor of sexual selection as the factor
producing high coloration in the males. The absence of secondary
sexual differences in cave animals opposes the idea of Geddes and
Thompson that the differences are the external expression of male-
ness and femaleness.

Attempts at acclimating Amblyopsis in outside waters have so
far failed.* A few were placed in Turkey Lake, Indiana. They
were surrounded by a fine wire net, to keep off other fishes. They
died in a few days, as the result of attacks of leeches, sa'prolegnia,
or fish mold, and from unknown causes. Others were kept in an
elongated box sunk into the ground, where fresh spring water
flowed through it constantly. Saprolegnia sooner or later de-
stroyed all of them. They live longest in quiet aquaria, where
the water is rarely changed. The young I have secured died, with
one exception, within a few weeks. The difficulty of rearing the
young is not at all insurmountable. They eat readily. Their
aquaria must be kept free from green plants, and have a layer
of fine mud, with a few decaying leaves, in the bottom. They will
feed on minute crustaceans and other micro-organisms. When
they have reached a sufficient size, examples of Asellus are greed-
ily devoured. Fish mold is the bane of the larvae. Many of them
were found with tufts of the hyphen growing out of their mouths
and gill openings.

* Since the above was written an apparently successful atten-pt has been made to col-
onize them in a pool at Winona Lake. A record of this colony will be published later.

THE MAN OF SCIENCE IN PRACTICAL AFFAIRS. 487
THE MAN OF SCIENCE IN PKACTICAL AFFAIRS.

By F. W. CLARKE.

THE human mind is addicted to the creation of types, a process
which implies classification and generalization of a somewhat
low order. Some prominent feature of the thing classified is se-
lected for emphasis, and there is often a degree of exaggeration
which leads, in the end, to caricature. John Bull, Brother Jona-
than, the Jew of the comic papers, and the stage Irishman are exam-
ples of this tendency. So, too, a profession or occupation is summed
up in one conventional character, with a little truth distorted as if
seen reflected from the surface of a curved mirror. The likeness
is there, but unlike the reality. The individual embodiment of the
type is rarely, if ever, encountered.

The man of science deals with questions which commonly lie
outside of the range of ordinary experience, which often have no
immediately discernible relation to the affairs of everyday life, and
which concentrate the mind upon apparent abstractions to an ex-
traordinary degree. Accordingly, the scholar, the scientific inves-
tigator, is typified as an elderly dreamer in spectacles, who is so
uncouth, so self-forgetful, so absent-minded, and so ignorant of
practical matters as to be hardly more than a child. He is one to
be cared for and humored, like an imbecile — treated with some con-
sideration, perhaps, on account of his learning, but never to be
trusted in the transaction of business nor in the administration of
public affairs. With him, as an antithesis, is contrasted the prac-
tical man, who knows whither his steps are tending, who has learned
to control others, and who never dreams of abstractions during office
hours, if indeed he troubles himself about them at all. The one
is thought to be vague, visionary, and unpractical; the other is
deemed efficient, precise, prompt, and clear. Has this distinction
any basis in reality? Do scientific pursuits disqualify a man for
administrative responsibility?

These questions, like all other legitimate questions, are to be
answered by evidence, and the popular impression is entitled to no
weight whatever. This evidence is to be found by a study of the
thing itself, the man of science as he actually is; by an examina-
tion of the training which he receives, the character of the work
which he does, and the results which he accomplishes. By this
method it will be found that the supposed type is purely imaginary,
that the workers in science exhibit all the variations which are found
in any other group of occupations,* that the human race as a whole
is their only symbol or representative. The man of science may

488 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

be grave or gay, moral or immoral, social or unsocial, keen or
visionary — in short, he may exemplify any trait of human nature,
except the traits of ignorance and stupidity. He must be intelli-
gent and educated, methodical and exact; apart from these quali-
fications he may resemble any other man, chosen from any other
vocation. Indeed, his nearest analogue is the so-called man of busi-
ness, and the chief distinction between the two is that one deals
with unfamiliar, the other with familiar things.

The direct tendency of the scientific training is to develop as
fully as possible the positive traits which have been mentioned.
Each science is a body of systematic, well-organized knowledge, with
clear fundamental principles and distinct outlines. The study of
science is a continual discouragement of obscurity or vagueness; it
is a discipline in the statement and solution of definite problems,
and it trains one to see things as they are, apart from all irrele-
vancies. The technicalities of science, so bewildering to the lay-
man, are merely aids to exactness, avoidances of circumlocution — in
short, they are practical devices whereby labor is saved. Economy
of effort is one of the features in which the scientific training excels.

The results of such a training vary, of course, with the indi-
vidual, and depend upon his personal peculiarities. A broad man
is broadened by it; a narrow man shuts himself up within the limits
of a specialty. To some extent specialization is necessary, but
there is a wide difference between the man who sees only his own
province and one who realizes its relations to other fields. The
same distinction is found in commercial life, and with the same re-
sults. The specialist in money, in stocks, in iron, or in cotton may
be just as narrow as the specialist in stars, or reactions, or insects,
and know little or nothing of any subject outside his own. Neither
narrowness nor breadth of view is monopolized by any vocation.
The mere fact that men of science rarely devote their attention
to accumulating wealth does not prove them to be unpractical.
They are not, as a rule, careless or thriftless in money matters;
they are as likely to handle their fijiancial affairs intelligently as
any one else, but their main business lies in other directions. If
seldom a millionaire, the man of science is still more seldom a bank-
rupt. In wild speculation the so-called practical man takes the lead,
and anything which bears the trade mark of electricity, from the
electrical refining of sugar to the extraction of gold from sea water,
can secure from otherwise shrewd financiers the support which a
worker in science would contemptuously refuse to give. A few
years ago the would-be rain-makers obtained the money for their
experiments from men of business, and from Congress even, in spite
of advice based upon scientific knowledge, and failure was the in-

THE MAN OF SCIENCE IN PRACTICAL AFFAIRS. 489

evitable end. In that borderland between business and research,
which is known as applied science, the scientific student is more
practical than the financier. When both work together, wealth is
produced, but the seedtime of abstract investigation always pre-
cedes the harvest. The commercial value of exact knowledge is
often very great, but to the prospective investor this truth is not
always evident.

The practical value of the scientific training is perhaps most
fully recognized in Germany. There the importance of the inves-
tigator, the apparently abstract scholar, is thoroughly understood,
and to his work the great industrial advance of Germany is largely
attributable. In chemical and electrical industries this is particu-
larly true, and their growth can be directly traced to the influence
of the universities. The German professor is a man trained to
research, and from among his students many of the best investi-
gators are chosen for service in the factories. German competi-
tion in the commercial world is to-day the bugbear of other Euro-
pean countries, and its success is due, first of all, to the utilization
of trained intelligences. In our own country the importance of
applied science is fully realized and its achievements are beyond
dispute, but the scholar as yet receives less consideration than the
commercial expert. The latter is practical, the former is regarded
as visionary. Accurate knowledge is a good thing, but rule-of-
thumb experience is often thought to be better. It is only when
knowledge and experience join hands that the highest practical
results are attainable, the one factor tending to advance, the other
to perpetuate, industry. The man of affairs is not a practical man
until he appreciates the force of these propositions.

At bottom the scientific training is a training in clear thought,
precise statement, accurate observation, the verification of evidence,
and the ascertainment of truth. Why should its recipient be un-
fitted for practical things? Good administration, the effective trans-
action of business, implies system, exactness, the judgment of evi-
dence upon its merits, and the prompt solution of problems as they
arise, and to each of these requisites the scientific education is
directly related. What other training is less likely to produce
dreamers, or more likely to develop efficient men? The main dis-
tinction between the workers in science and men of other vocations
is one of aim, a difference in ambition, perhaps a difference in the
point of view. The scientific scholar seeks to discover and possibly
to apply new truth; and after that his ambition is to win the recog-
nition of his fellows, to gain reputation, rather than to acquire
wealth. He may not be indifferent to the latter purpose, but it is
not his chief end. It is difficult to do both things well.

490 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

For tlie administration of large interests, involving tlie control
of men and the building-up of great institutions, men of science
have over and over again demonstrated their fitness. In the scien-
tific societies of the world they have shown their capacity for organi-
zation, and in the management of schools and colleges their ability
has often been proved. Among the presidents of universities and
technical schools who have been drawn from the ranks of science
I may mention Eliot, of Harvard; Oilman, of the Johns Hopkins;
Dro^vn, of Lehigh; Jordan, of the Leland Stanford; Chamberlin,
of Wisconsin; Morton, of the Stevens Institute; and MendenhaU,
of the "Worcester Polytechnic. The Institute of Technology in
Boston has been directed successively by Rogers, Runkle, Walker,
and Crafts; the Columbia School of Mines was built up by a group
of scientific workers, aided by President Barnard; and the list might
be lengthened almost indefinitely. Have these men fallen below
the average of their fellows? Have they not shown at least as
high administrative ability as has been found elsewhere? The mere
statement of their names is a sufficient answer, and renders argu-
ment unnecessary. With them the scientific training has not been
a disqualification, nor even a handicap; it has rather been to their
advantage, for to it they owe much of the insight, the power to
grasp great problems intelligently, the ability to interpret evidence,
and the tendency to prompt and decisive action, without which suc-
cessful administration is impossible.

Again, consider the scientific institutions of the world, the mu-
seums and observatories, and the various governmental organiza-
tions in which science is recognized. In our own country, the
Smithsonian Institution and National Museum were built up by
Henry and Baird, in spite of great and varied difficulties; the Coast
Survey was created by Hassler and Bache; and the Geological Sur-
vey was developed by a group of men among whom Hayden, King,
and Powell were pioneers. The last-named organization has been
controlled from the beginning by men of science, and the Coast
Survey has been weak only when under nonscientific management.
The Commission of Fish and Fisheries owes its existence and a great
part of its effectiveness to its creator, Baird; the Army Medical
Museum and Library represents the executive genius of Billings;
and in none of these institutions has partisan politics ever exerted
an appreciable influence. No bureaus of the Government have
been more wisely or more efficiently handled than those which men
of science have controlled; in none have there been fewer errors
or scandals; there is not one in which the essential purpose of its
existence has been better fulfilled.

Instead, then, of excluding the scholar, the investigator, the

THE MAN OF SCIENCE IN PRACTICAL AFFAIRS. 491

man who knows, the man of scientific training, from his fair share
of public responsibility, we should do well to call him into service
more and more. He may be, he often is, averse to administrative
work, for the reason that it interferes with his chosen occupation,
and hinders the prosecution of research. But his training and his
mental bias are both needed in public affairs, wherein the scientfic
method is too often unapplied. In European countries men of high
scientific rank are frequently found in legislative bodies and minis-
tries; men like Playfair, Roscoe, and Lubbock in England, Yir-
chow in Germany, Quintino Sella in Italy, and Berthelot in France.
With us in America the maker of speeches outranks the thinker
in popular esteem, and is given duties to perform in which he may
become ridiculous. Both in legislation and in diplomacy many
questions arise which demand the most careful scientific treatment,
or which can be answered only by thorough scientific knowledge,
and many of these have been intrusted for settlement to men of
no specific training whatever. Of late years we have had the
fur-seal controversy, the question of forest reserves, the irrigation
of our arid lands, problems of sanitation and water supply, and in
each of these the man of science has played a part which was too
often subordinate to that of the politician. In an ideal government
the two should work together, each suj^plementing the peculiar
ability of the other. Many details of the tariff, and a notable part
of the coinage question, require scientific data for their proper
settlement, but the true expert has not always been consulted. The
result of this neglect is sometimes seen in courts of law, where ques-
tions of interpretation arise which might have been averted, obscu-
rity in legislation being often due to the careless use of scientific
terminology or to ignorance of the relations in science between two
branches of industry. The voice of the trained investigator might
well be heard in Congress, but his testimony now is limited to the
committee room. Even there it is received with an attention which
is too often mingled with incredulity. The myth of the dreamer,
the visionary, is more than half believed.

The supposed type, then, is not a type, but an exception — a man
of straw, which is hardly worth overthrowing. But the belief in
it has been and still is mischievous, a hindrance to wise action, an
obstacle to progress. The misconception has worked injury to
science. These words of protest, therefore, are not wholly super-
fluous.

492 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

FOREIs^OON AND AFTERNOOiT.

Bt CHARLES F. DOWD, Ph. D.

IT is a fact of common observation, at different times of the year,
that the forenoon and afternoon, as to daylight, are of unequal
length. Along in later autumn the shortness of the afternoons is
very noticeable, and the shortness of forenoons along in later win-
ter. Whatever makes common facts more intelligible adds to the
general intelligence and to the general good. It is to this end that
the folloAving brief statements are made.

Nothing is more evident than that the sun requires just as much
time to go from the eastern horizon to the midday meridian as to
go from that meridian to the western horizon. But, strange to say,
there are but four days during the whole year in which the sun
reaches the midday meridian at just twelve o'clock. The true
noon point varies from about fifteen minutes before to about six-
teen minutes after twelve o'clock. These extreme points in one
set of variations fall in the first week of November and in the sec-
ond week of February, not to designate exact days for years in
general.

The calendars show that in the latitude of Saratoga (essen-
tially Boston latitude) on November 3, 1898, the sun rose at 6.30
and set at five o'clock, thereby making the forenoon a half hour
longer than the afternoon. On that day the sun reached the mid-
day meridian at 11.45. On February 13, 1899, the sun rose at just
seven o'clock and set at 5.30, thereby making the afternoon a half
hour longer than the forenoon, and on this day the sun reached
the midday meridian at 12.15. These are facts plainly open to
general view, and therefore need no verifying.

The causes of the foregoing are not so apparent to common
observation. It must be borne in mind that the mean or average
solar day is the basis for all time measurements, therefore its exact
length is of the greatest importance. Yet the general solar day,
from which the average one is derived, is a very indefinite term
as to its length. Its length in general may be defined, under view
of the sun's apparent motion, as the time extending from the in-
stant that the sun's center crosses any given meridian of the earth
on one day to the instant that center crosses the same meridian
on the following day — i. e., the time intervening betwe'en these
two instants is the length of a solar day.

The motion of the sun, however, is only apparent; the actual
motion is in the earth's revolution upon its axis. We should have
one day a year long if the earth did not revolve on its axis at all,

FORENOON AND AFTERNOON. 493

since the revolution of tlie earth around the sun once a year would
in the course of the year bring all sides facing the sun. Conse-
quently the earth makes one more revolution upon its axis each
year than the nimiber of solar days in that year, and a little con-
sideration of this fact will show that in each solar day the earth
makes one full revolution on its axis and about ^J-^- of another,
which fractional addition is occasioned by one day's progress of the
earth along its orbit.

Another fact needs to be considered. Since the earth's orbit
is in the form of an ellipse, with the sun at one of the foci, the
earth must pass nearer the sun in some parts of its orbit than in
others. By the laws of gravity, when nearer, the attraction be-
tween the earth and sun is greater, and if this were not balanced
by increased velocity along its orbit the earth would fall into the
sun; and, on the other hand, when farther off this attraction is
less, and if this were not balanced by a diminution of velocity along
its orbit the earth would fly off into space. This varying velocity,
together with other complications too technical for a magazine
article, gives varying lengths of orbit to the several solar days of
the year. If the earth's orbit were laid out upon paper and, by
astronomical calculations, an exact proportionate section were
marked off for each solar day of the year, the variable lengths of
orbit for the different days of the year would plainly appear to
the eye.

But, as before explained, the time of a solar day is the time of
one revolution of the earth upon its axis, together with the frac-
tional part of another revolution occasioned by one day's progress
of the earth along its orbit. Then it must follow that as the daily
sections of the orbit vary in length, the time of the solar day must
vary in length. ISTo clock could be made to keep the variable time
of true solar days, and if this were possible, the hour, minute, etc.,
would be variable of length, and hence no standard for time meas-
urements. But by working a simple arithmetical problem of addi-
tion and division an average length of day for the year may easily
be found. This average day is the mean solar day adopted. Its
time is arbitrary and exact, forming a perfect standard for all time
measurements. From this the term mean time gains its significance.

By referring to the foregoing earth's orbit laid out on paper,
with the true solar days marked off in sections of mathematical
exactness" it will be seen that by dividing each section into two
equal parts and marking the division point with red ink, the true
noon point of each solar day in the year will be conspicuous upon
the drawing, and in its proportionate relations in every way. If
now we set a pair of dividers or compasses so that the opening shall

494 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

reach over the exact space on the orbit of one half of the mean

solar day, and beginning at the red noon point of one of the four

days in the year when the true noon falls at just twelve o'clock —

say December 24th — and step the di^dders around on the orbit,

making a blue point mark at each second step, then as the blue

points vary from the red so will the mean time which our clocks

keep vary from the true noon of each day of the year.

Variation in length of forenoon and afternoon, therefore, may

be viewed by common intelligence not only as a fact but as a

necessity.

^»»

PRESIDENT JORDAN'S "FEMINISM."

Office of the President, Leland Stanford Junior University,

Palo Alto, Cal.

Post Office, Stanford University.

Dear Dr. Toumans:

The inclosed, from an anonymous but appreciative source, may
interest you. It is doubtless true that the philosophy of femi-
nism goes back to India, through Hegel and Plato, but the high
priestess does not know this. She made it all out of her own head.

Truly yours,

David S. Jordan.

The University of Mentiphysics,

Lynn, Mass., December 6, 1899.

President David Starr Jordan, Leland Stanford University, Cali-
fornia.
Sir: I have before me the last issue of one. of our two or three
great scientific magazines, in which Mr. Giddings lays down the
exact method we are to follow in sociology, thereby creating the
pleasing impression that hereafter he intends to stick to it himself.
But, sir, I wish to say, as a student of " feminism," as you call it,
that my emotions were far less agreeable on perusing your bril-
liant plagiarism, the doctrine of Nihil nemini nocet, an aphorism
which apparently you wish to make rival the Cogito ergo sum of the
Cartesian philosophy. I will concede to you (I being, as it is per-
haps necessary for me to remark, a literary person) the undoubted
right all real literary persons have of appropriating everything of
a literary nature that they can lay their hands upon; but, while we
are in perfect harmony upon tliis occasion, in regard to that point,
I regret to insist that the thing must be done judiciously — that is
the art. Any mere plebeian can accumulate facts — that is the
raison d'etre of the plebeian; his duty is to work — but the real
ethereal literary man, such as the monthly magazines nourish, must

PRESIDENT JORDAN'S ''NEMINISM:' 495

disdain facts and theories and the truth, and must float in the pure,
soft twilight of his o^vn imagination while he writes about people
who never existed, in a language which nobody can understand.
Yet, sir, in your unblushing appropriation of the late Professor
Hegel's dictum of Sein und nicht Sein sind dieselbe (which I pre-
sume you, sir, to exculpate yourself, will swear you do not under-
stand), and in your changing that immortal antithesis to your Nihil
nemini nocet — in doing all this I declare that you have violated one
of the most sacred principles, in fact, the very essence of "NTemi-
nism; for to say, as you have said, that nothing hurts nobody, is to
say a very dull, prosaic, vulgar fact which any fool can under-
stand; but to say that " to be and not to be are the same " is to
say something that is not only very beautiful, but, what is far more
to the point, is likewise utterly incomprehensible; yet to do this is
the essence of ]^eminism, as you yourself have shown.

As a confirmed Neminist glorying in his K^eminism, as Pascal's
Father Joseph, the Jesuit, gloried in " interpretation " of the words
" murder " and " charity," I am, sir (and I hope my frequent use
of this monosyllable will not annoy you, for the first feminist,
Plato, uses H So)KpaTe<i quite as frequently, though his expression
requires four times as much wind or space as mine), I say, then,
that I am always anxious to be thought well of by people who are
on top or are getting there, in order, to use your own undignified
and cruel metaphor in the Rev. Mr. Lyman Abbott's journal of news
and Christianity, that I may continue " to hold down " my position
as the janitor and Professor of Leibnitzian Monadology in the
University of Mentiphysics. But there are times, sir, when even
a ISTeminist rises above his interest, and, like Richelieu in the play,
exchanges the lion's and the fox's skins. In short, I beg to inform
you that I believe that you, seeing the growing attachment of the
vulgar mob for the Wissenshaftliche Pddagogie of the Robinson
Crusoeans or concentrationists, have had the thought to sap the
foundations of their success by vulgarizing our noble monopoly of
feministic science, and I should not be at all surprised to see your
name, after a little, as the editor of a " Journal of Psycho-Materno-
Kinder Apperceptics," or of a strictly American " Great Educator
Series," beginning with Pontiac and ending with Jim Fiske.

Or perhaps, sir, you are actuated by deeper motives. Our imi-
versity has not yet received the complimentary copy of your work
on Imperial Democracy, the Government probably holding it back
until General Young can catch Mr. Aguinaldo, but I see by the
publishers' lists that it is out, Now, it is easy to see that if Impe-
rial Democracy gets within a stone's throw of China it will get into
China, and, with your knowledge of Aristotle's Politics and the

496 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Iliglibinders in Chinatown, you can not have failed to have recog-
nized that feminism and Orientalism are very similar. To be or
not to be; to be alive or to be dead; to be drunk or to be sober —
'tis all the same for the people; 'tis Nirvana. You wish to vul-
garize jSTeminism. What follows your success? Immediately
every State will make it an obligatory study in the public schools,
and when, in the distant future, we meet the Chinamen face to
face, we will be ready to exterminate them or be exterminated by
them; for it is an axiom of sociology, which it is to be hoped Mr.
Giddings will see the value of and will in the next edition of his
Social Euclid make number one, that when two societies completely
differing in origin, history, manners, institutions, and laws come
together they start in the more quickly to cut each other's throats
when they have a common idea in which they can locate a differ-
ence, and hence find a logical excuse to begin.

I would have preferred that our president had taken up this
unpleasant task of criticising your mischievous efforts to vulgarize
our beautiful science, which, like the true religion of the Egyptians,
should be retained sub rosa in the temples; but she, as you your-
seK have said, does not like controversial publicity, and has often
remarked that our science is like the mushroom, for, though it is
the child of darkness and Byzantian filth, it is eminently adapted
to be retained by weak stomachs, wliile for others it may be nause-
ating. I am, sir, very respectfully,

Anaohaesis Pangloss, M. Plane.

Though religiously refraining from introducing my own per-
sonality in the foregoing, it being a cardinal point in our science that
it is good form to appear modest — videri quam esse, as was said of
Cato — I am, nevertheless, obliged to observe that I am not at all
in any way related to the Dr. Pangloss, LL. D., A. S. S., mentioned
in the play of the Heir at Law, nor yet, though perhaps more spir-
itually akin, to that other Dr. Pangloss — Dr. Leibnitz Pangloss,
the tutor of Candide mentioned by the late Monsieur Voltaire of
happy memory. Dr. L. Pangloss, a fine old fellow at bottom, was
engaged in showing how, in the best possible words, a cause always
precedes its effect; for instance. Monsieur the Baron Thunder den
Trockendorf has a nose, argues he — it will carry spectacles, hence
the nose was created for spectacles, and spectacles are created. It
is plain that Dr. L. Pangloss was a scientist. Now, I am a sociolo-
gist, and it is the hope of my life to fill the chair of Monadology in
the new American university, where I intend to show that while
the rich are becoming richer the poor will become richer than the
rich in contemj)lating how much more satisfaction the rich get out

CORRESP ONDENCE.

497

of their riches than they, the poor, get out of their poverty. This,
as you will at once recognize, is in the line of what Mr. Lester
Ward calls Dynamic Sociology, and, though it is not the acme of
the application of dynamics such as that which knocked Hebraism
out of Saul of Tarsus, I beg to remind you that, until German sci-
ence has made further progress in the application of electricity, we
lack the means of producing the necessary phenomena by which
alone such effects can be secured. A. P.

®0m*s^j0ttxlcH cje.

FAITH AND KNOWLEDGE.

Editor Popular Science Monthly :

Sir: In your editorial, in the issue of
September, you speak of " faith as the
organ of religious apprehension." This
suggests some important facts that are
not always apprehended, or are forgot-
ten. There is no organ for the discov-
ery, the proof, or the apprehension of
truth but reason, whether facts of Na-
ture or of religion. " Faith " is not a
sixth sense which we do not use in sci-
entific pursuits, but which comes to our
help when we seek for religious truth.
Much of the difficulty comes from the
fact that the word " faith " is ambigu-
ous, having two meanings, which are
not distinguished. It is (1) simply be-
lief of a fact because of evidence pre-
sented to and apprehended by the rea-
son; or is it (2) trust, confidence in, be-
lief in, as in a person, resting on the
belief of that person's competency and
truthfulness, that belief resting on evi-
dence apprehended by the reason. Be-
cause of this " faith " in the person we
accept his testimony as to facts beyond
our personal cognizance, we believe them
not because we have discovered them, or
may be are competent to discover them,
but because of our " faith " in a per-
son whom we have seen reason to be-
lieve is trustworthy — i. e., competent and
truthful.

Now, these two meanings of " faith "
are often confused, interchanged. Hence
the discredit thrown upon belief of re-
ligious truth, because an illegitimate use
is made of the place of " faith " in its
justification. And writers defending re-
ligious belief have been great sinners in
this illegitimate use of " faith."

VOL. LTI. — 39

The place of " faith " is the same in
science as in religion — i. e., it is the con-
dition and justification of our accept-
ance of truth which is beyond our per-
sonal cognizance. We accept it be-
cause of the testimony of men in whom
we have learned to have faith — e. g.,
How few of us who accept the reve-
lations of the spectrum analysis as to
the composition of the stars have any
other justification for accepting them
than just this? We believe them sim-
ply because men, whom we, in the ex-
ercise of our reason, have come to be-
lieve competent and truthful, tell us
what they have seen. We believe on
their testimony because we trust them.
Our process involves three steps: (1) Be-
lief of their competence through appeal
to reason; (2) trust in them because of
this belief; (3) belief of their testimony
because of this trust or " faith " in
them. The only organ we have used is
reason, in its initial act of belief of the
competence and truthfulness of the wit-
nesses. Error in the use of reason here
vitiates all that follows. Correct use
of reason here gives a legitimate condi-
tion for correct results of the other
steps. But reason must go along with
US and guide us in these, that we may
come to a rationally accepted belief of
the truth.

Here is the place of " faith " in sci-
ence, as belief and as trust. By its use
we accept the great issues of scientific
truth which we believe, and do it legiti-
mately.

It is the same in all right acceptance
of religious truth. Here appears a per-
son in human history claiming to reveal
facts beyond our sphere of cognizance.
Now, the first (1) step is belief in his

498

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

competence and truthfulness as a wit-
ness, just as in cases of science. His only
appeal is to reason, our only organ for
apprehending truth. We, because of the
evidence presented to our reason, believe
him competent and truthful — i. e., trust-
worthy— and we take the second step
(2), as in case of search for scientific
truth. We trust him, we have " faith "
in him. Then (3) we believe his testi-
mony as to facts beyond our cognizance,
as to God, as to the inner world and life,
as to his own person and work, and
his agency in helping us to the true life.
Here are the same three steps as in our
believing the great facts of science, and
they are equally legitimate, and the be-
lief is equally legitimate, and with the
same use of " faith " in both cases, which
use is legitimate if we have applied our
reason correctly.

It may be said that there is this dif-
ference in the two cases: We are, it
may be, competent with training to per-
ceive with our reason the facts to which
the scientists witness, whereas in reli-
gion we are not competent by any train-
ing, in our present state, to see what
Jesus Christ testified to; therefore the
believing him is not legitimate.

Space forbids arguing this point, but
the writer is confident it can be shown
that this does not vitiate the process
in the least. The only point now argued
is that reason is the only organ of man
for the apprehension of truth, and that
" faith " acts the same part in scientific
and religious belief.

John R. Thtjkston.
Whitinsville, Mass., SepUmber so, IS'.ni.

[The point which our correspondent
discusses is one which falls rather within
the province of theology or philosophy
than within that of science. In the ar-
ticle to which he refers we did not dis-
tinctly say that " faith " was " the or-
gan of religious apprehension." What
we said was that (jrantiiu/ such was the
case, tlie question still remained to be
settled where the line should be drawn
between faith and knowledge. We doubt
whether the account which our corre-
spondent gives of faith would be widely
accepted by those who approach the
subject from the theological side, while
those who approach it from the scien-
tific side would — at least many of them
would — be disposed to consider the term
one which might better be dispensed
with in favor of the less ambiguous
word " belief." Belief is the inclination
of the mind toward a proposition for

which absolute or demonstrative proof
is wanting, and it is this condition of
mind, it seems to us, that our corre-
spondent has in view. Faith in the re-
ligious sense, unless we are mistaken, is
something different. It is an affirma-
tion made by the human conscience or
consciousness in its own behalf — a cer-
tain instinctive recognition of a presence
and power in the universe which, though
inaccessible to scientific investigation,
sustains an intimate, profound, and all-
essential relation to man's moral nature.
If trust in an individual ever rises to
the level of faith in this sense, it is be-
cause the influence of the individual
harmonizes with and re-enforces the pri-
mal instinct. That, at least, is how we
view the matter. — Editor.]

FISKE'S VIEWS COMPARED.

Edit 07' Popular Science Monthly :

Sir: Will you permit me to say a
few words supplementing your review
of Through Nature to God? To those
who have perused Mr. Fiske's latest
three scientifico - theological bool-dets,
and also his Cosmic Philosophy, it can
not be new that their author has become
entangled in hopeless contradictions of
himself. The limited space of a letter
does not allow of adducing more than
one remarkable passage from Cosmic
Philosophy, demonstrating the antithe-
sis between the arguments of this work
and Mr. Fiske's latest opinions, these
new thoughts having been developed, as
he tells us, by ." carrying such a subject
about in his mind for " twenty-five
years. We are told in Through Nature
to God (page 12) that "it has usually
been found necessary to represent the
Creator as finite either in power or in
goodness, although the limitation is sel-
dom avowed, except by writers who
have a leaning toward atheism and take
a grim pleasure in pointing out flaws in
the constitution of things. Among mod-
ern writers " Comte and Mill are con-
spicuous for such a " leaning toward
atheism." Then we are informed (page
20) that the " shock whicli such a clear,
bold statement gives to our religious
feelings is no greater than the shock
with which it strikes counter to our
modern scientific pliilosophy." And a
little further on Ave find that " the God
which Mr. Mill off"ers us, shorn of the
attribute of omnipotence, is no God
at all."

CORRESP ONDENCE.

499

If the reader will now open Cosmic
Philosophy, he is told in vigorous lan-
guage (vol. ii, p. 405) that "if there
exist a personal Creator of the universe
who is infinitely intelligent and power-
ful, he can not be infinitely good; if,
on the other hand, he be infinite in good-
ness, then he must be lamentably finite
in power or in intelligence. By this
two-edged difficulty, theology has ever
been foiled." Then (vol. ii, p. 406) Mr.
Fiske, quoting from Mill, expresses his
entire concurrence with the views of
this eminent thinker, and adds (vol. ii,
p. 407), "With Mr. Mill, therefore, 'I
will call no being good who is not what
I mean when I apply that epithet to
my fellow-creatures.' And, going a step
further, I will add that it is impossible
to call that being good who, existing
prior to the phenomenal universe and
creating it out of the plenitude of in-
finite power and foreknowledge, en-
dowed it with such properties that its
material and moral development must
inevitably be attended by the misery of
untold millions of sentient creatures for
whose existence their Creator is ulti-
mately alone responsible."

No comment of mine can show more
clearly than the passages cited above
the " conversion " of Mr. Fiske, against
which imputation so much subtle in-
genuity is expended in the preface to
The Idea of God.

That Mr. Fiske is merely reviving
gross anthropoeentrie views he himself
admits. To him, man is " the goal to-
ward which Nature's work has been
tending from the first." But might not
also some pithecoid ancestors of ours
have deemed themselves the " goal to-
ward which Nature had been tending
from the first " ? Wliat is Nature's goal
in the endless cycle of evolution in
which life is but an infinitesimal part?
But with Huxley I believe that " it
would be a new thing in history if a
priori philosophers were daunted by a
factious opposition of experience." Mr.
Fiske's latest writings, as all theodicies,
bear testimony to the truth of Huxley's
scathing remark.

But granting, for the sake of the ar-
gument, that " in the d,eepest sense it is
as true as it ever was held to be, that the
world was made for man," there is an
objection to be raised on moral grounds
stronger than any that could be founded

on scientific arguments. Had this world
been created for man, entailing, as it
does, the " misery of untold millions of
sentient creatures," who but the crassest
egotist could worship this Fiskean God
of iniquity?

The careful student of Thomas Hux-
ley's works may be surprised to find
Through Nature to God " consecrated "
to the memory of him whose life work
was devoted to " untiring opposition to
that ecclesiastical spirit " that shines
through every page of Mr. Fiske's latest
writings. I echo Mr. Fiske's words: "I
can never cease to regret that Huxley
should have passed away without see-
ing my [Mr. Fiske's] arguments and
giving me the benefit of his comments."
The last stroke of Huxley's pen was
giving Mr. Balfour " the benefit of his
comments " ; would that he could have
given them to the author of the excur-
sion Through Nature to God!

B. A. Behkend.
Eeie, Pa., December 5, 1S90.

Editor Popular Science Monthly :

Sir: Your trenchant criticism of Mr.
John Fiske's discussion of the mystery
of evil recalls Mr. Spencer's reminder
that " there is a soul of truth in all
things erroneous."

Mr. Fiske certainly has not made it
plain that the meaning of the universe
is to be found (exclusively) in the
higher developments of love and self-
sacrifice; but is it not equally a mistake
to say inferentially that " on a broad
view of the world-wide struggle for life
there are no moral elements to be seen"?
If we define morality as the equivalent
merely of love and self-sacrifice, the ever-
present love of mother and, in a degree,
of father for the off"spring imperatively
negatives such a conclusion.

But morality is something more than
love and self-sacrifice. Morality is right
conduct, and right conduct in the last
analysis is conformity to the conditions
of existence. The nearer the conform-
ity, the more complete the life, and life
approaches completeness only as the ac-
tivities of men cease to be impeded by
each other's aggressions, the highest life
being reached when men help to com-
plete one another's lives.

Conversely, evil must be defined aa
nonconformity to the conditions of ex-
istence. Slowly but surely man is learn-

500

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ing these conditions, and as he learns
it is not to be doubted that " evil "
will lessen. If we affirm acquisition
of knowledge by man, we must postu-
late a precedent or " necessary " con-
dition of ignorance. Hence it may be
truthfully said that evil is a necessary
correlative, and in a manner the neces-
sary condition of good; and also, I
think, that a broad view of the world-
wide struggle for life shows not an ab-
sence of moral elements, but rather that
the ethical is inherent in the very na-
ture of animate things.

We may not all share Mr. Fiske's
exuberant optimism, and many can not
accept his teleological implications, but
of the ultimate triumph of good over
evil, of knowledge over ignorance, we
may not doubt. Frank M. Loomis,
Buffalo, November 10, 1899.

THE LOCATION OF VINLAND.

Editor Popular Science Monthly :

SiK: I beg to take exception to the
exploded Boston theory again revived
by Miss Cornelia Horsford in the last
number of your valuable magazine. It
is astonishing to notice how little Prof.
G. Storm's excellent prize essay and Mr.
Reeve's careful edition of the text of
sagas seem to have availed against the
misplaced patriotism that persists in
carrying those Norse explorers down to
New England in the face of the numer-
ous difficulties with which this feat is
associated. If I am not mistaken, not a
single historian or antiquarian of note
has taken Professor Horsford's extreme-
ly unscientific treatment of the sagas or
his Norse discoveries seriously, and the
sober verdict of Mr. Thorsteinn Erlings-
son and Dr. V. Gudmundsson on the
alleged Norse ruins seems to show that
Miss Cornelia Horsford has met with no
better success. To refute all the philo-
logical curiosities and illogical conclu-
sions drawn by Professor Horsford in
his ten treatises on the subject would,
however, require a book of at least five
hundred pages, and nobody seems to
think the question important enough to
warrant such an output. The fact that
Mr. A. H. Keane, in his recent work,
Man, Past and Present, takes it for
pranted that the Norsemen met with
I'skimos in New England in the year
1(X)0 seems to prove, however, that this

persistence in defending a baseless sup-
position is not merely a matter of inno-
cent patriotism. Fortunately, the cur-
rent year, which marks the nine hun-
dredth anniversary of the discovery, will
be sure to see some valuable new trea-
tises on the subject, and those who are
sufficiently interested furthermore need
only consult the above-mentioned books
to discover how many serious objections
the New England theory really has to
contend with. Permit me to mention
one of them. Cape Cod has, it is true,
one singular feature that suggests the
Keel Cape of the best version of the Vin-
land manuscripts — viz., sandy shores.
As everybody can see for himself, how-
ever, by consulting Mr. Eeeve's book,
the explorers sailed south from Keel
Cape on the eastern shore till the coun-
try became indented with bays. At the
mouth of one of these they established
their first winter quarters (the so-called
ytreamfirth), and the next fall proceeded
still farther south for a considerable
time till they came to " Hop," the true
Wineland. The extraordinary ease with
which Professor Horsford, in his book
Landfall of Leif Ericson, undertakes to
chop up this version, in order to make
the explorers return to Boston from
Cape Cod instead of continuing on their
course, is something remarkable in the
annals of historical research. But even
then his theory fails utterly to satisfy
the critical reader. The trouble with
most of the writers on this subject, not
excluding a professional historian like
Prof. John Fiske, is that they have failed
to sift the material or see the force of
Professor Storm's criticism of the Flat
Island version. This being done, every-
thing falls into line for the Nova Scotia
theory, due consideration being given to
the fact that an oral tradition of at
least one hundred years intervened be-
tween the events narrated and the first
somewhat extended written record.

While, therefore, owing to the last-
mentioned fact, it is not altogether im-
I)ossible that the Norsemen reached New
England, it should be distinctly under-
stood that such a conclusion can only
be drawn on archaeological lines, the
test of the sagas pointing clearly in the
opposite direction.

JUUL DlESERtTD.
Field Columbian Museum, Chicago,
December 7, 1S99.

EDITOR'S TABLE.

501

%^iXox's "gMit.

THE WAE SPIRIT.

IT must be a matter of deep re-
gret to all right-thinking men
that there should have been during
the latter half of the century now
expiring so marked a revival of the
war spirit. In the middle of the
century it was thought by many
that the world had learned wisdom
from the terrible experiences of the
past, and that with the development
of international trade war would
become an outworn mode of set-
tling international controversies.
How different a turn things were
destined to take need not here be
told. Coming to recent events,
however, we may say that it is la-
mentable our own country could not
have won by peaceful means what-
ever advantages it has secured by
its recent war with Spain. Equally
lamentable is it that Great Britain,
the other great representative of
Anglo-Saxon civilization, should at
this moment be engaged in a still
bloodier struggle over questions
which it is hard to believe could not
have been settled by negotiation.
" Whence come wars and fightings
among you ? " is a question that was
asked very long ago, and we do not
know that it is possible to improve
on the answer then given : " From
your lusts."

We do not say that a nation
should not resist to the death a dis-
tinct aggression on its liberties or
its independence. We do not say
that when horrors are being enacted
in any part of the world force may
not righteously be employed to ar-
rest them; but it is clear to our
mind that, in the present age, wars
between civilized countries might be
almost wholly avoided if more re-
liance were placed upon moral force
and less rein given to the impulse

to employ physical force. This is
a matter for the people in any state
enjoying free institutions to take
to heart. Let every man in a time
of national difficulty ask himself
this question : " Do I personally
want to have blood shed over this
matter? " Or this one : " Am I per-
sonally indifferent whether or not
this dispute ends in bloodshed ? "
If a nation or the majority of a na-
tion wants to have blood shed over
a dispute with another nation, or is
indifferent as to whether that shall
be the outcome, the discussion will
be carried on in a very different
spirit from what it would be if there
were a pronounced aversion to such
a result. With nations, as with in-
dividuals, everything depends upon
the spirit and ulterior purpose with
which a question is approached.
The cases must be very few in
which a great nation, safe itself
from attack, might not, in any mat-
ter in which minor interests are in-
volved, resolve within itself that it
will not resort to war — that it will
work, and continue to work, on
moral lines, trusting that, if it has
right on its side, it will in due time
carry its point. If blood cries from
the ground against the slayer, what
must be the responsibility of those
who heedlessly and ruthlessly give
their voices for war, when patience,
moderation, and disinterestedness
would have better accomplished
every legitimate purpose? Slaugh-
ter is slaughter, murder is murder,
however we may seek to weaken
their import by a conventional
treatment. War is mutual murder
carried on professionally and sys-
tematically. Yet the primal com-
mand still makes its solemn appeal
to the human heart and conscience:
" Thou shalt not kill."

502

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

It is, unfortunately, only too
easy to cultivate the military spirit
in almost any nation, and the mili-
tary spirit, it need hardly be said,
is the spirit that seeks quarrels.
To the military man war means
excitement, emulation, reputation,
promotion, subject of course to the
possibility of injury or death. No
one denies that deeds of heroism
and self-devotion are done on the
battlefield; but that men should ac-
quit themselves nobly in the field is
no compensation for the horrors of
a war brought on by the predomi-
nance of the military spirit.
" ' Great fame the Duke of Marlborougb won,

And our good Prince Eugene.' —
' Oil, 'twas a very wicked thing,'

Said little Wilhelmine."

And every war is wicked and de-
testable that could consistently with
national honor be avoided. When
we say " honor " we do not mean
" reputation." Reputation depends
on the canons of judgment prevail-
ing among those who presume to
award it. In a dueling community
a man's reputation might suffer
by declining a challenge, but his
honor would be intact if he declined
from sincere unwillingness to do a
wrong act. There is much honor
sometimes in sacrificing reputation,
particularly the " bubble reputa-
tion " that is won " in the cannon's
mouth." Every appeal to the sword
weakens the reliance placed upon
principles of justice, and thus un-
does a vast amount of the work of
peace. When war is once set on
foot, the national judgment is m.ore
or less blinded. True, it is the ac-
tion of a majority of the people
only — admitting that a majority
wanted it — but who is uncompro-
mising enough, when his countiy's
armies are in the field, to proclaim
that they are fighting in a wrong
cause? A few may do it, but they
do it at their peril. In all other
matters a minority may censure
with any degree of severity the pol-

icy of the majority, but not in the
matter of a war once entered on.
Yet how perverting such a situation
is to right judgment, and how inju-
rious an effect it must have on the
rising generation, are only too ap-
parent.

These reflections may not at
first sight seem to have a very di-
rect bearing on the interests for
which this magazine is supposed to
stand, but to our mind science, in
the broad sense, has no function so
important as that of settling the
education of the young upon a right
moral basis. No system of educa-
tion deserves to be called scientific
that does not place the idea of jus-
tice at the very foundation of hu-
man life. You can not do this, how-
ever, without making it a working
principle, and without inculcating
a belief in it as such. Applying the
principle to national affairs, we see
at once that a strong nation which
desires to be just will take no
advantage of its strength in its
dealings with other nations. If
it has a demand to make, it will
make it simply in the name of jus-
tice, and cast no sidelong glances
at its up-to-date battle ships or
its well-equipped battalions. It
will have unbounded patience with
weaker communities, which, rightly
or wi'ongly, may seem to think they
have right on their side. It will not
be ashamed to shrink from the shed-
ding of blood. The " young bar-
barians " of our public schools are
always only too ready to exalt might
above right ; but the judicious teach-
er into whom the true spirit of sci-
ence has entered will seize every
favorable opportunity for inculcat-
ing the great lesson that the moral
law has a way of vindicating itself
in the end, and that the inheritance
of the earth has been promised not
to the quarrelsome or the overween-
ing, but to the meek. A generation
brought up on these principles
would be slow to make war, and

EDITOR'S TABLE.

503

their influence on the world would
be in every way powerful for good.

LANGUAGE AND LIFE.

The ordinary school education
in language and grammar is doubt-
less responsible for the impression
which we find existing in so many
minds that, in all matters of verbal
expression, there is some one abso-
lute standard of authority to which
it implies simply ignorance not
to bow — some supreme court, as it
were, empowered to decide for us
what words we are to use, how we
are to pronounce them, and what
rules of syntax we are to follow. It
would be difficult, doubtless, to im-
part to children or very young peo-
ple the wider and more scientific
view of language, inasmuch as they
need, in the first place, clear guid-
ance as regards usage rather than
correct theory. The idea, therefore,
with which they grow up, if their
school studies take any hold upon
them at all and if no wider culture
comes to change their way of look-
ing at things, is that some very wise
man made an infallible grammar
and another veiy wise man an in-
fallible dictionary, and that no one
need be in doubt in regard to what
is orthodox in language who has ac-
cess to these tables of the law. We
have known grown-up persons to
turn away with a very skeptical air,
and a kind of look as if they had
found out a weak spot in your
educational armor, when they were
told that really it was impossible
to say which of two pronunciations
of a word was right and which
was wrong — that either might be
employed without mortal offense
against elegance of speech or good
breeding.

A hidebound view of language
tends so much to narrow thought
on general subjects that it seems
to us of importance that the. true
and scientific view of the subject

should be brought forward when-
ever opportunity offers. Mr. Wil-
liam Archer, the well-known Eng-
lish critic, contributed an article not
long ago to the Pall Mall Magazine
which might be read with much ad-
vantage by pedants and purists, and
all blind followers of authority. He
takes the broad ground that lan-
guage is a transcript, as it were, of
life, and that as life widens and be-
comes more varied, language must
do the same. It must reflect the
fancy, the imagination, and the hu-
mor of the day, and not merely the
fancy, imagination, and humor of
past generations. If we want a lan-
guage that is fixed and unalterable
in its forms we must seek one that
has ceased to be spoken by men.
Even then we can not always get
absolute decisions. Cicero is perhaps
the best standard of Latin prose,
but no competent critic would say
that his writing was flawless. We
know that grammatical questions
were much debated among the an-
cients, and we have no doubt that
many such questions were left un-
settled. In a living language there
must be unsettled questions. There
is a constant struggle for life going
on among the words and phrases
with which men endeavor to express
their ideas, and, at a given moment,
it is impossible to say which shall
prosper, this or that. The word or
phrase that prospers — that com-
mends itself, after adequate trial,
for expressiveness, convenience, or
euphony, or for any combination of
useful qualities — will survive and
become classic; the expression that
has nothing special to commend it,
beyond its novelty and slanginess,
will probably pass, after a brief and
partial currency, into the vast limbo
of the unfit. All we can say of a
word at a given moment is how far
it has actually become current and
what kind of society it keeps. What
its fortune will be we can only
guess. Just as in the financial

504

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

world great fortunes are sometimes
very suddenly made and names be-
fore obscure spring into world-wide
notoriety, so, in the realm of lan-
guage, a word of very uncertain
ancestry and no social repute may
assert its right to recognition and
take its place among the best.

It does not follow from this that
it can ever be a matter of indiffer-
ence what words we use or what
tricks we play with language, any
more than it can be a matter of in-
difference what personal habits we
adopt. Language is the clothing of
our thoughts, and as such it may
exhibit the same qualities which at-
tach to the clothing of our bodies.
It may be marked by neatness and
propriety, or by slovenliness and
want of taste. Some men are over-
dressed, and some affect over-fine
language. Some go after the latest
novelties in the tailoring world, and
some after the latest slang, assert-
ing thereby their resolution to be up
to date. It is needless to draw the
parallel further, but it is evident
that there is wide scope in the
choice of language for the exhibi-
tion of personal preference and per-
sonal character. We think it safe
to say that the interests of a lan-
guage, considered as an instrument
of thought, will be best promoted
by those who pay due respect to its
established forms, and only counte-
nance such neologisms as make good
their claim to acceptance by sup-
plying a real want. Mr. Archer, in
the article we have referred to,
states, and we do not doubt with
truth, that the English language has
been greatly enriched and strength-
ened by the fact that it has been
spoken and written by millions of
people on this side of the Atlantic,
leading an intense and vigorous life
of their own, under conditions very
different in many respects from
those pr(»vailing in the mother coun-
try. The language moves with a
freer step, beats with a stronger

pulse, and assumes a more imperial
bearing from the fact that it ex-
presses the activity and sums up the
life of the foremost communities
of the human race in both hemi-
spheres.

A great classical scholar not
long ago wrote a letter to an Eng-
lish weekly newspaper expressing a
very contemptuous estimate of the
French language, as being only a de-
graded form of Latin. He thought it
a great disgrace to the language that
it had no better word for " much "
than heaucoup, which, as he learned-
ly explained, came from two Latin
words meaning " fine " and " blow."
The most cursory examination of
any language will show that it
abounds in just such verbal devices.
We do not in English put the words
" great " and " stroke " together,
but, using them separately, we say
" a great stroke " of luck and of
many other things when there is no
question of " striking " at all. In
the same way we would say " a great
hit," when there is no question of
hitting, except by remote analogy.
Languages grow rich and flexible
precisely by the adoption of such
convenient combinations. What
they may originally have meant be-
comes a matter of little moment
when once they have become thor-
oughly accepted and thoroughly ex-
pressive. After they have become
welded together, as sometimes hap-
pens, in one word, it is an advantage
rather than otherwise if the sepa-
rate meanings of their constituent
parts become lost to all except the
professional etymologist. As long
as the separate parts retain their
separate meaning some sense of in-
congruity will sometimes arise in
connection with the use of the term.
Thus to say " a handful of corn " is
all right, but one might feel that it
was not all right to say " a mere
handful of men." Yet it would be
futile to criticise the expression
which has become idiomatic Eng-

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

505

lish. If the word "handful" had
parted with its essential meaning as
completely as say the word " troop "
has, for all but etymologists, there
would be no kind of incongruity in
its employment for any small num-
ber or quantity whatsoever.

The scientific view of language,
then, is that it represents the effort
of mankind to use audible symbols
for the expression of thought; that
it follows the development of man's
activity and enlarges with his en-
larging knowledge, and comprehen-
sion of things; that while its ob-
ject is essentially a practical one it
gathers beauty with use and age,
and begins to react on the minds of
its makers; that its makers are the
people, not the grammarians, these
being merely its policemen, who,
useful in general, are sometimes too
oiEcious; that great writers are the

architects who felicitously .arrange
materials which the people have
gathered and shaped, placing the
best of such materials where they
can be seen to best advantage ; final-
ly, that the language of each nation
is its most precious possession, the
record of its civilization, and the
repositoiy of all that is best in its
moral and intellectual life, and that
it is therefore the duty of all who
make any pretensions to liberal
training to watch over their herit-
age and, while allowing all reason-
able scope for further development,
to guard it by all means in their
power against degradation and pol-
lution. A great people will have a
great language : when a language
shows signs of weakness or declen-
sion, there is reason to fear for the
civilization of which it is the ex-
pression.

g^ragiujewts crt Jijcijetucje.

" Dark Lightning." — The attention
of meteorologists and photographers has
been engaged to a considerable extent,
within a few months past, with the ap-
pearance on photographs of lightning of
what seemed to be dark flashes as well
as bright ones. In the effort to account
satisfactorily for the phenomenon it has
been referred to photographic reversal,
due to extreme brilliancy; to a predomi-
nance of infra-red radiations; to the
existence of flashes deficient in actinic
rays; to changes in the density of the
air occasioned by the spark, when a
dark line with a light line within it is
shown if the air is compressed, and a
light line inclosing a dark one if it is
rarefied; and to some qualities of the
photographic plate. The first real light
was thrown on the subject by some ex-
periments described by Mr. A. W. Clay-
den, who, having photographed some
electric sparks of different intensities,
before developing the plates exposed
them to the diffused light of a gas. flame.
The brilliant sparks then yielded images

which might either be called normal
with a reversed margin, or reversed with
a normal core, while the fainter images
were completely reversed — or, in other
words, came out darker than the back-
ground. The " fogging " of the picture,
to produce this reversal, must be done
after the image of the flash is impressed;
for if it is done before, the image ap-
pears lighter than the background. This
effect, which is called the " Clayden ef-
fect," is accepted as a satisfactory expla-
nation of the phenomenon by two of the
authors who have most studied it — Dr.
W. J. S. Lockyer and Prof. R. W. Wood,
of the University of Wisconsin. Professor
Wood, on repeating Mr. Clayden's ex-
periment, obtained dark flashes without
any difficulty, but as they failed to ap-
pear when the light of an incandescent
lamp was substituted for the electric
spark, he concludes that there is some-
thing in the spark essential to the re-
versal. Dr. Lockyer summarizes his con-
clusion by saying that dark-lightning
flashes " do not exist in Nature, but

5o6

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

their appearances on photographs are
due to some chemical action which
takes place in the gelatin film."

"Warming XTp." — "Warming up"
is the expressive term of general cur-
rency, which Dr. E. G. Lancaster adopts
to denote the process in which one start-
ing on any work in a little while suf-
fers a short period of fatigue, from
which he soon recovers, to go on with
new and increased vigor. This occurs
in the course of walks, with students
engaged in earnest reading or in writ-
ing, and in animals, as in dogs on the
chase, tlie animals pursued, and race-
horses. " It is said of two famous trot-
ters, each of which has reduced the
world's record within a few years, that
the period of warming up was very
characteristic. . . . Athletes, especially
ball players, realize the importance of
practice just before the games, to be
followed by a slight rest. A pitcher
would hardly enter the box till he had
got his arm in working order by a few
minutes' practice. Orators often are
dull at first, but warm up. It is said
that Wendell Phillips was often hissed
for his slow, uninteresting speech, but
rallied to the occasion at such times
with his masterly oratory." Dr. Lan-
caster has experimented on the phenom-
ena, using a method like those of Mosso
and of Lombard in the psychological
laboratory at Clark University, and
publishes the results, with details and
curves, in the papers of the Colorado
College Scientific Society. He tried ten
or twelve subjects, experimenting on
the middle finger of the right hand, and
gaining most of his results from four or
five persons. He finds that warming
up is general, but not universal. One
subject always did his best w^ork first.
He likewise showed no warming up in
his mental work. The phenomenon
called " second mind " is closely allied
to warming up, but is not the same.
The author is of the opinion that the
importance of this process is greatly
misunderstood.

Sixty Years' Improvements in
Steamships. — A review of what has
been accomplished in sixty years in the
improvement of transatlantic traffic,
given by Sir William H. White in his
address at the British Association on

Steam Navigation at High Speeds,
shows that speed has been increased
from eight and a half to twenty-two and
a half knots an hour, and the time of the
voyage has been brought down to about
thirty-eight per cent of what it was in
1838. Ships have been more than trebled
in length, about doubled in breadth, and
increased tenfold in displacement. The
number of passengers carried by a
steamship has been enlarged from about
one hundred to nearly two thousand.
The engine power has been made forty
times as great. The ratio of horse
power to the weight driven has been
quadrupled. The rate of coal consump-
tion per horse power per hour is now
only about one third what it was in
1840. Had the old rate of coal consump-
tion continued, instead of three thou-
sand tons of coal, nine thousand would
have been required for a voyage at
twenty-two knots. Had the engines
been proportionately as heavy as those
in use sixty years ago, they would have
weighed about fourteen thousand tons.
In other words, machinery^ boilers, and
coal would have exceeded the total
weight of the Campania as she floats to-
day. " There could not be a more strik-
ing illustration than this of the close re-
lation between improvements in marine
engineering at high speed. Equally true
is it that this development could not
have been accomplished but for the use
of improved materials and structural ar-
rangements."

American. Advances in Forestry.
— The Department of Agriculture hav-
ing determined to prepare a book for
the Paris Exposition, reviewing what
has been accomplished in scientific ag-
riculture in the United States, the Divi-
sion of Forestry will contribute to it a
short history of forestry in the United
States, with an account of the efforts of
private landholders to apply the prin-
ciples of forestry. Much more has been
accomplished in the United States in
the way of forestry than has been sup-
posed. Mr. Pinchot, the forester of the
division, holds that wherever private
owners have made the effort to use the
merchantable timber on their woodland
without injuring its productive power,
and to establish new forests, there has
been the intention of true forestry. The
methods may have been imperfect, but

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

507

they have tended toward economic for-
est management so far as their object
was the continued use of the land for
producing woods. Among the measures
looking in this direction Mr. Pinchot
mentions in his circular the practice
which has been adopted " because it
pays," in some of the spruce lands of the
Northwest, of leaving the small trees
standing, so that the lumbermen can
return for a second crop earlier than
would otherwise be possible; and the
adoption by farmers of methods in get-
ting their wood, for saving the best
trees and promoting their growth and
that of the new ones; of keeping
sprout lands to be cut over regularly
and systematically, for periodical re-
newal, and of tree planting on waste
places, hillsides liable to be washed, and
the banks of streams. Other forms of
planting are the institution of wind
breaks in the treeless West, and special
plantations for fence posts, etc. A kind
of forestry practice is likewise indi-
cated in the special pains that are taken
by farmers and in lumbering disti'icts
to lessen the danger of fires. Forester
Pinchot desires that all the information
that can be gained be communicated to
him for the proposed article.

Professor Putnam on the Origins
of the American Races. — In his ad-
dress as retiring President of the Ameri-
can Association, Prof. F. W. Putnam,
after expressing his high opinion of the
late Dr. D. G. Brinton and his scientific
labors, referred to the differences of
opinion that had existed between them
in respect to the origin of the American
peoples, and proceeded to expound his
own views on the subject. He regard-
ed the term " mound-builders " as com-
prehensive enough to include all the
peoples who had left the marks of their
former presence in this country. Even
the shell heaps could not be regarded
as the work of one people. From the
time of the earliest deposits — which
were of great antiquity — to the present,
such refuse piles had been made and
many of the sites reoccupied, sometimes
even by a different people. So with the
mounds of earth and stone; many of
them are of great antiquity, while others
were made within the historic period,
and even during the first half of the
present century. These works were de-

voted to a variety of purposes, and there
are many different kinds of them. Be-
sides the mounds, there are groups of
earthworks of a different order of struc-
ture, that must be considered by them-
selves — great embankments, fortifica-
tions, and singular structures on hills
and plateaus that are in marked con-
trast to the ordinary conical mounds,
and mounds in the form of animals and
of man. The considerable antiquity of
these older earthworks is proved by the
accumulation of mold and the forest
growth upon them. " If all mounds of
shell, earth, or stone, fortifications on
hills, or places of religious and ceremoni-
al rites, are classed, irrespective of their
structure, contents, or time of forma-
tion, as the work of one people, and that
people is designated as the ' American
Indian ' or the ' American race,' and con-
sidered the only people ever inhabiting
America north and south, we are sim-
ply . . . not giving fair consideration
to differences, while overestimating re-
semblances." Citing analogies between
our earthworks and Mexican structures,
and looking upon the Pueblos as a con-
necting link, " we must regard the cul-
ture of the builders of the ancient earth-
w^orks as one and the same with that
of ancient Mexico, although modified by
environment. Our northern and eastern
tribes came in contact with this people
when they pushed their way southward
and westward, and many of their arts
and customs still linger among some of
our Indian tribes. It is this absorption
and admixture of the stocks that has
in the course of thousands of years
brought all our peoples into a certain
uniformity. This does not, however,
prove a unity of race.

Heat Insulators.— Mr. C. L. Nor-
ton has made experiments, at the re-
quest of Mr. Edward Atkinson, in order
to determine the relative efficiency of
several kinds of steam-pipe covering
now on the market ; to ascertain the fire
risk attendant upon the use of certain
methods and materials employed for in-
sulation of steam pipes; to show the
gain in economy attendant upon the in-
crease of thickness of coverings; and to
find the exact financial return that may
be expected from a given outlay for cov-
ering steam pipes. A method of experi-
mentation was adopted which repre-

5o8

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

sented as nearly as practicable the con-
ditions existing in the actual use of
steam pipes. Of sixteen non-conduct-
ing preparations tried, the most efficient
were found to be those made of cork;
next was a cover composed of an inner
jacket of earthy material and an outer
jacket of wool felt; and next magnesia.
In reference to the last substance it is,
however, observed that, while it is a
most effective non-conductor, the name
has been applied to many compounds of
which the greater part consist of car-
bonate of lime or plaster of Paris, mate-
rials which are not good as heat retard-
ents. Asbestos is merely a non-combus-
tible material in which air may be
entrapped, but, when non-porous, is a
good conductor of heat. Generally
speaking, a cover saves heat enough to
pay for itself in a little less than a year
at three hundred and ten ten-hour days,
and in about four months at three hun-
dred and sixty-five twenty-four-hour
days. The decision as to the choice of
cover must, however, come from other
considerations, as well as from that of
non-conductivity. Ability to withstand
the action of heat for a prolonged period
without being destroyed or rendered less
efficient is of vital importance. The
cork coverings were found to respond to
this test extremely well, and there can
be no question respecting magnesia; but
Mr. Norton does not consider it safe to
put upon a steam pipe wool, hair, felt,
or woolen felt in any form, though the
danger is not likely to accrue when an
inch of fireproof material stands be-
tween the felt and the pipe. In general
it may be said that if five years is the
life of a cover, one inch is the most eco-
nomical thickness, while a cover which
has a life of ten years may to advantage
be made two inches thick. The method
of judging a pipe cover by the warmth
felt on putting the hand upon it is fal-
lacious; the sensation depends so much
upon the nature of the surface that it
utterly fails to give any idea of the
actual temperature.

Effect of Sea Water on Soil. — In

a paper read at the liritish Association,
1899, on the chemical effect of the salts
of the salt-water flood of November 27,
1897, on the east coast of England,
Messrs. T. S. Dymond and F. Hughes re-
corded the remarkable result that, al-

though the proportion of salt left in the
soil was insufficient to prove injurious
to growing crops, the earthworms were
entirely removed, with the consequence
that very few crops were worth harvest-
ing the following year. In the next year
nine tenths of the salt at first present
had disappeared from the soil, and
young worms had again made their ap-
pearance, but still the condition of the
soil remained unsatisfactory, the rate
of percolation of water through the
flooded earth being only one half as
rapid as through the unflooded. The
authors ascribe this to the action of the
chlorides of the sea water on the sili-
cates of the soil with the formation of
silicate of alumina in a gelatinous con-
dition.

The War against Monopolies. —
Mr. Eobert Ewen writes, in the West-
nunster Eeview, demanding free bank
circulation as likely to be a very effect-
ive weapon to be used in " the coming
contest with monopolists." The subject
seems to have attracted official atten-
tion in England in 1875, when Sir Staf-
ford Northcote was Chancellor of the
Exchequer. As chairman of the com-
mittee appointed to inquire into the
working of the Bank Acts, he submitted
a memorandum showing that, while cer-
tain items of the monopoly enjoyed by
the Bank of England had been with-
drawn, a residuum of restrictions on
issuing banks still remained unrepealed.
Some other countries have found a way
of giving elasticity to the cuiTcncy by
buying in and laying aside their bonds,
as the United States has recently been
doing. This can not be done in Great
Britain, because the Bank of England
and the other bank monopolists block
the way. The bank is tied down by
acts of Parliament to buy and sell gold
at a fixed price, and this restriction has
been a cause of panics, whereas had gold
been allowed to rise and fall in price,
according to supply and demand, and
the bank got a free hand in dealing with
that commodity and in issuing legal
notes to supply the circulating medium,
" all would have gone well." Foreign
protectionists now have the power to
prevent British goods from getting into
their markets by imposing heavy duties
on them, and at the same time forcing
tlioir produce into British markets, be-

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

509

cause English laws allow them to get
gold from the English cheaper than
their goods can be obtained. " Suppose
a merchant in Britain buys £100,000
worth of corn from America and gives a
check on the Bank of England for the
amount of the purchase. The American
draws the £ 100,000 in gold and takes it
home; he will have to pay no export or
import duty thereon — indeed, the proba-
bility is he may get a premium on the
gold in America. But reverse the trans-
action: Suppose the British merchant
sold £100,000 worth of his goods to
America, there would, in the first place,
be the exorbitant duty imposed there
upon our manufactures of from forty to
fifty per cent. Or suppose our merchant
wished to buy corn or any American
produce in exchange for his goods in
place of bringing money, the case would
be different — it would tell against the
American farmer, who would get a less
price for his corn, etc., than he would
have done by free trade." This instance
is given " to show how free trade in gold
would bring about free trade and reci-
procity between the United States and
Britain, and is applicable to every other
state with which we trade. . . . There
should be full scope given to all good
banks in tlie country, large or small, to
carry on banking business in the best
modern manner for the benefit of all
parties, so as to encourage and develop
all trades and industries."

Rats and the Plag'ue. — In his in-
troductory address at the opening of the
London School of Tropical Medicine, Dr.
Manson preached a war of extermina-
tion against rats with the vigor of Cato
calling for the destruction of Carthage.
" Were I asked," he said, " how I would
protect a state from plague, I would
certainly answer. Exterminate the rats
as a first and most important measure."
He added, " At the present juncture,
were I the responsible sanitary head of
any town in Europe, in anticipation of
a possibility compared to which in hor-
ror and in destructiveness a general
European war would be a trifle, I would
do my best to have every rat and, if
possible, every mouse in my district
promptly exterminated." Dr. Manson
does not reveal his plan of campaign.
Wholesale poisoning of sewers" might
have serious disadvantages, and there

would be difficulties about inveigling
the rodent population of these subterra-
nean health resorts (as some enthusiasts
consider them to be) into a lethal cham-
ber. Are we to cry havoc and let slip
the cats of war? or to hurl an army of
snakes against the foe? In either case
we might find ourselves in the awkward
position of a king who had called a too
powerful auxiliary to his aid. Already
action is being taken on the rat theory
of plague. The French Government has
ordered that special precautions are to
be taken to prevent the importation
of rats in vessels from plague-stricken
places. It is to be hoped that similar
precautions will be taken in regard to
the transports which convey the Indian
contingent to the Cape, or the situation
there may become complicated by the
intervention of an enemy who will deal
destruction impartially to Boers and to
Britons.

Forestry in California. — As a rem-
edy for the devastation of the forest
lands of California, Marsden Manson,
having shown that Government admin-
istrations with politics in them can not
be trusted in the matter, recommends
that all forest reservations and public
lands upon mountain slopes within the
borders of the State be granted to the
University of California in trust, for the
purpose of maintaining, developing, and
extending the water supply of those
regions forever. For this purpose the
regents should be empowered to lease,
under proper control, the timber cut-
ting and pasturage privileges of those
areas, and to use the resultant fund to
protect the catchment areas, to main-
tain a college of practical forestry, to
construct reservoirs at such points as
may be necessary to the industries of
the State, and dispose of the water for
the benefit of the trust, to acquire
mountain lands to be added to the
catchment areas, and to do all such
things as may maintain wise systems
of forest and water conservation and
use. The extent of income-bearing prop-
erty which can be made available for
forest preservation and storage of flood
waters, Mr. Manson says, is far beyond
the general idea.

Another New Element. — The min-
eral pitchblende is distinguished for its

510

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

radio-activity, or the property it has of
emitting the peculiar light-rays -which
have recently attracted attention. The
property has been attributed to the
presence of uranium, one of the most
radio-active among the known metals.
About a year ago the chemists M. and
Madame Curie, e.varaining the different
substances in pitchblende, found among
them two new radiant substances, both
more active than uranium, which they
called polonium and radium. Polonium
was found to be closely akin to bis-
muth, accompanying that metal in all
its reactions, but separable from it by
fractionation. Radium resembles ba-

rium in its chemical reactions. Recent-
ly M. A. Debierne, examining one of
the products of solution and precipita-
tion of pitchblende, observed intensified
radio-active properties in a portion con-
taining titanium, and on further inves-
tigation found still another substance
showing the principal analytical prop-
erties of titanium, but which emitted
extremely active rays. While these
rays were comparable with those ob-
served from polonium and radium, the
chemical properties are entirely diflfer-
ent from those of these substances. Ra-
dium, however, is spontaneously lumi-
nous, while the new substance is not.

MINOR PARAGRAPHS.

SoiiE recent experiments were made
by Armand Gautier on the amount of
the chlorides contained in sea air. They
were conducted at the lighthouse at
Rochedouvres, situated about fifty-five
kilometres from the coast, during and
after the long continuance of a good
breeze directly inshore from the Atlan-
tic. The air was drawn through a long
tube containing glasswork, and this well
then analyzed. He found that iii a litre
of air there was only 0.022 of a gramme
of chloride of sodium. Small as this
quantity is, it suffices, perhaps, with the
aid of the traces of sodium present, to
give sea air its tonic qualities.

The second International Congress
on Hypnotism is to be held in Paris,
August 12 to* 16, 1900, Dr. Jules Voisin
presiding. The programme of discus-
sions includes such topics as the termi-
nology of hypnotism, its relations to
hysteria, its application to general ther-
apeutics, the indications of it and sug-
gestions for the treatment of mental dis-
ease and alcoholism, its application to
general pedagogy and mental orthopae-
dics, its value as a means of patho-
logical investigation, its relation to the
practice of medicine and to jurispru-
dence, and special responsibilities aris-
ing from the practice of experimental
hypnotism.

The following is from a recent letter
to Science by Prof. James H. Hyslop, of
Columbia University: "So much has
been published far and wide this last
summer about my intention ' to scien-
tifically demonstrate the immortality of

the soul within a year,' that it is due to
the facts bearing upon the choice be-
tween materialism and spiritism to say
that I have never made any such pro-
fessions as have been alleged. I wish
the scientific public that still has the
bad habit of reading and believing the
newspapers to know that I was careful
to deny that I made any such preten-
sions as were so generally attributed to
me. More than one half the interviews
alleged to have been held with me were
the fabrications of reporters who never
saw me, and the other half omitted
what I did say and published what I
did not say."

Some novel results have been ob-
tained by M. Bafllaud, of the Toulouse
Observatory, France, from recent obser-
vations of the annular nebula in Lyra
and comparisons with photographs taken
in 1S90. Among them are the discovery
of small stars in the central space of
the ring, the existence of bright points
on the ring itself, a more distinct figure
of the central star on the later photo-
graphs, giving it the aspect of a true
star, and greater brightness in the cen-
tral space, and certain changes in the
shape of the edge of the ring, which
shows at one point, more distinctly
than in 1890, an eminence indicating a
jet of matter escaping from the ring.
Other nebulae, especially that called the
Dumb-bell and the nebula in the Crown,
are spoken of as exhibiting similar phe-
nomena.

The Chicago Manual-Training School,
which is said to be the first independent

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

511

manual-training school in the United
States, is now in its sixteenth year, hav-
ing been founded in 18S3 by the Com-
mercial Club of Chicago. It has been,
since 1897, an integral part of the Uni-
versity of Chicago. \ATiile its pecul-
iar feature is manual training, it also
furnishes instruction in the essential
studies of a high-school course. The sliop
work and drawing are eminently prac-
tical. The making of a machine, such
as a lathe or steam engine, is begun by
the pupils in the drawing room, and is
followed by them through the pattern-
making shop, the foundry, and the forge
room, and is perfected in the machine
shop. The forge tools and engine-lathe
tools are made by pupils. The courses
of the school include a business course,
a technological course, and a college
preparatory course.

NOTES.

The Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology has received, by the will of Mr.
Edward Austin, deceased at the age of
ninety-four years, a bequest of $400,000,
the interest of which is to be used for
the assistance of needy and meritorious
teachers in prosecuting their studies.
In addition to this bequest, the insti-
tute received, during 1898, an accession
of $928,000 to its general funds, and one
of $46,000 to its scholarship funds.

At the recent meeting of the Al-
lied Scientific Societies, at New Haven,
Conn., Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the United
States Geological Survey, was chosen
to act as retiring President of the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement
of Science, in place of Prof. Edward
Orton, deceased.

The meeting of the Allied Scientific
Societies of the United States was held
in New Haven, Conn., during holiday
week. It was much larger than either
of the meetings previously held, and was
attended by nearly five hundred mem-
bers, representing ten societies — viz., the
American Society of Naturalists, the
Association of American Anatomists,
the American Morphological, Physio-
logical, Psychological, and Chemical So-
cieties, the Society for Plant Morphol-
ogy and Physiology, the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, and the Archaeological Association

of America. The discussions were all
interesting.

The great Roman Catholic Mission-
ary Society, the Sacred Congregation of
the Propagation of the Faith, is reported
to have sent a circular to all its mis-
sionaries urging them to interest them-
selves in the collection of natural-his-
toiy specimens for scientific societies
and institutions. This is intended, it is
said, to interest and encourage mission-
aries who have a scientific bent, and to
inform the world that the Church is not
hostile to biological research.

We have to record, among the later
deaths of men in science, the names of
Francis Guthrie, formerly Professor of
Mathematics in Graaflf Reinet College
and aftei-ward in South African College
till 1898, aged sixty-eight years; he was
interested in botany, on which he gave
public lectures, and, with Harry Bolus,
revised the order of Heaths for Flora
capcnsis; Prof. P. Knuth, botanist and
author of researches on the relations of
insects and flowers and on cross-fertili-
zation, at Eael, Germany, aged forty-
five years; he had published two of the
projected three volumes of the Eand-
buch der Bliiten Biologie; Prof. R. Ya-
tube, Japanese botanist; Ferdinand Tie-
mann, honorary Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Berlin; Alexander
McDougall, inventor, sixty years ago,
of an atmospheric railway, and since of
many useful mechanical and chemical
appliances, at Southport, England; Dr.
Camera Pestana, chief of the Bacterio-
logical Institute at Lisbon, Portugal, of
plague, which he contracted while ex-
perimenting with it at Oporto; and
Prof. Elliott Coues, an American natu-
ralist, most distinguished in ornithology,
in Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore,
December 2.5th, after a surgical opera-
tion, aged sixty-seven years; he had
been a professor in Norwich University,
Vermont, and in the National Medical
College in Washington, and had done
scientific work while in the military
service of the Government, in the Geo-
logical Survey, and in the United States
Northern Boundary Commission; and
was the author of several books on or-
nithology and on the Fur-bearing Ani-
mals, besides editing the journals of
Lewis and Clark and other books of
American exploration.

512

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

PUBLICATIOXS RECEIVED.

Agricultural Experiment Stations.
Bulletins and Reports. Cornell Univer-
sity: No. 172. The Cherry Fruit-Fly.
A New Cherry Pest. By M. V. Slinger-
land. Pp. 20.— Maryland: Twelfth An-
nual Report. Pp. 212. — Michigan: Hor-
ticultural Department. No. 176. Straw-
berry Notes for 1899. By L. R. Taft
and H. P. Gladden. Pp. 14.— Ohio: Press
Bulletin No. 202. Results of Sugar-Beet
Investigations in 1899, etc. Pp. 2. —
United States Department of Agricul-
ture: Practical Forestry in the Adiron-
dacks. By Henry S. Graves. Pp. 84.

American Chemical Society, Journal
of the. Vol. XXI, No. 12. December,
1899.

Blatchley, W. S. Gleanings from
Nature. Indianapolis: The Nature Pub-
lishing Company. Pp. 348.

Capon Springs Conference, The Sec-
ond, on Education in the South. 1899.
Proceedings. Pp. 109.

Catlin, Charles A. Baking Powders.
A Treatise on the Character, Methods
for the Determination of the Values,
etc. Providence, R. I.: Rumford Chem-
ical Works. Pp. 40.

Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.
Zoological Series. Vol. I, No. 16. List
of Mammals obtained by Thaddeus Sur-
ber, chiefly in Oklahoma and Indian
Territories. By D. G. Elliot; No. 17.
Notes on a Collection of Fishes and Am-
phibia from Muskoka and Gull Lakes.
Pp. 6. By S. E. Meek and D. G. Elliot.

Knight, W. C, and Slosson, E. E.
The Oil Fields of Crook and Uinta Coun-
ties, Wyoming. University of Wyo-
ming, Laramie. (Petroleum Series, Bul-
letin No. 3.) Pp. 30.

Lange, D. Our Native Birds. How
to protect them and attract them to
our Homes. New York: The Macmillan
Company. Pp. 102. $1.

Manson, Marsden, San Francisco,
Cal, The Evolution of Climates. Pp.
100.

Morgan, William, 96 Bowery, New
York. A New Scientific Discovery. The
Correct Reason why the Magnetic Nee-
dle points to the Pole. Pp. 14.

New Epoch, The, Publishing Com-
pany. The Bibliography of Progressive
Literature. New York. P. O. Box 130,
Madison Square Branch. Pp. 96.

Orcutt, H. E. The Empire of the
Invisibles. New York: The Metaphys-
ical Publishing Company. Pp. 80. $1.

Peabody Education Fund. Proceed-
ings of the Trustees at their Twenty-
eighth Annual Meeting. New York,
October 4, 1899. Pp. 58.

Sunset. Vol. HI, No. 6. October,
1899. Monthly. San Francisco, Cal.
Southern Pacific Railway Company.
Pp. 24.

Starr, Frederick, Chicago, 111. Some
North American Spear-Throwers. Pp.
3, with plate; Survivals of Paganism in
Mexico, Pp. 14; The International Con-
gress of Prehistoric Archseology. Pp. 8;
Holy Week in Mexico. Pp. 6; The Art
of Benin City, Pp. 8.

Turner, Mrs. M. M. The Bible God,
Bible Teachings, Selections from the
Writings of Scientists. (Library of Lib-
eral Classics.) New Y'^ork: Peter Eck-
ler. Pp. 139. 25 cents.

United States Commission of Fish and
Fisheries. Pamphlet No. 424. Experi-
ments in Photography of Live Fishes.
By R. W. Shufeldt. Pp. 5, with nine
plates; No. 425. Notes on the Tide-Pool
Fishes of California, with a Description
of Four New Species. By Arthur White
Greeley. Pp.20; No. 426. The Synaptas
of the New England Coast. By Hubert
Lyman Clark. Pp. 12, with plate; No.
427. Descriptions of New Genera and
Species of Fishes from Puerto Rico. By
Barton W. Evermann and ^Millard C.
Marsh. Pp. 12.

United States National Museum
(Smithsonian Institution). Directions
for collecting and rearing Dragon Flies,
Stone Flies, and May Flies. By James
G. Needham. Pp. 12; Contributions to
the Natural History of the Commander
Islands. (A New Species of Stalked
Medusae, Haliclystus Stejnegeri.) By K.
Kishinouye. Pp. 5; Report for the Year
ending June 30, 1897. Part L Pp. 1021.

University of California. The In-
auguration of Benjamin Ide Wheeler as
President of the University. Berkeley:
University Press. Pp. 30.

Ward, Lester F., Jenney, W. F., Fon-
taine, W. M., and Knowlton, F. H. The
Cretaceous Formation of the Black Hills
as indicated by the Fossil Plants. United
States Geological Survey. Pp. 188.

EUWAKD OKTON.

APPLETO'NS'

POPULAR SCIENCE

MO:^TTHLY.

MARCH, 1900.

THE TKA:^SPLA:NrTATIOi^ OF A KACE.

By N. S..SHALER,

DEAN OF THE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

THE experiments which have been intentionally or accidentally
made in transplanting organic species from the countries in
which they have been developed to others of diverse soil, climate,
and inhabitants are always of much interest to the naturalist — each
of them affords indications of some value as to the relations of
species to what we term " environment." In almost all instances
we find that the transplanted forms undergo changes in conse-
quence of the alteration of their circumstances. It is true that
certain of our domesticated animals, such as the horse, the dog,
and most cattle, follow men from the Arctic to the Antarctic Circle,
and that sundry insect pests appear to demand nothing of iSTature
save the presence of man; yet, as a whole, the creatures we have
turned to use, both plant and animal alike, have shown themselves
incapable of accommodating themselves to conditions of tempera-
ture differing much from those in which they were developed.
With hardly an exception, species or varieties which have been de-
veloped in the tropics perish when called on to withstand the winter
of higher latitudes. Few, indeed, do well when taken to stations
where the heat or the humidity differs greatly from that to which
they are accustomed.

The intolerance of organisms to climatal changes is nowhere
more evident than in the varieties, or species, as we would term
them, of mankind. It is a well-attested fact that none of the
tropical races has ever of its own instance colonized in the tem-
perate zones. It is also clear that none of the northern peoples

TOL. LVI. — 40

5l4 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

have ever become fully acclimated within the tropical realm. The
colonies which have been founded there by the Teutonic folk, in-
cluding the English group therein, have been lamentable failures,
the pure-blooded strains dying out in a few generations. The
people of southern Europe have been a little more successful in the
equatorial regions, probably because their blood has there to a
great extent become mingled with that of tropical origin. These
general conclusions concerning the climatal limitations of man
would be unassailable were it not for the history of the negro in
North America. In his case we have the one masterful exception
to the rule, otherwise good, that creatures bred near the equator
can not endure boreal conditions.

The negroes who came to North America had to undergo as
complete a transition as ever fell to the lot of man, without the least
chance to undergo an acclimatizing process. They were brought
from the hottest part of the earth to the region where the winter's
cold is of almost arctic severity — from an exceedingly humid to
a very dry air. They came to service under alien taskmasters,
strange to them in speech and in purpose. They had to betake
themselves to unaccustomed food and to clothing such as they had
never worn before. Rarely could one of the creatures find about
him a familiar face of friend, parent, or child, or an object that re-
called his past life to him. It was an appalling change. Only
those who know how the negro cleaves to all the dear, familiar
things of life, how fond he is of warmth and friiendliness, can con-
ceive the physical and mental shock that this introduction to new
conditions meant to them. To people of our own race it could have
meant death. But these wonderful folk appear to have withstood
the trials of their deportation in a marvelous way. They showed
no peculiar liability to disease. Their longevity or period of use-
fulness was not diminished, or their fecundity obviously impaired.
So far as I have been able to learn, nostalgia was not a source of
mortality, as it would have been with any Aryan population. The
price they brought in the market and the satisfaction of their pur-
chasers with their qualities shows that they were from the first
almost ideal laborers. If we compare the Algonkin Indian, in
appearance a sturdy fellow, with these negroes, we see of what stuff
the blacks are made. A touch of housework and of honest toil
took the breath of the aborigines away, but these tropical exotics
fell to their tasks and trials far better than the men of our own
kind could have done.

At their first coming, or soon afterward, the negroes were dis-
tributed along the coast of our country from the Carolinas to Nova
Scotia. So far as I have been able to find, there appears to have

THE TRANSPLANTATION OF A RACE. 515

been no distinct difference in their tolerance of the climate in any
part of this varied district. There are still negroes in the mari-
time provinces who are said to be the descendants of those who came
upon the ground certainly more than a century ago. They are
good specimens of their stock. So, too, along the New England
coast and in i^Tew York there is a sufficient number of the progeny
of those once held as slaves to make it clear that the failure to
become a considerable part of the population in that district is not
due to any incapacity to withstand the climate. The failure of
the negro to increase in this field can be accounted for in other
ways — by the effects of race prejudice, nowhere stronger than in
this part of the country, and by the vice and misery that overtake
a despised lower class.

It early became evident that slavery was to be of no perma-
nent economic advantage to any part of the colonies within the
glaciated district, say from central New Jersey northward. In that
portion of the coastal belt the state of the surface and the charac-
ter of the crops alike tended to make the ownership of slaves un-
profitable. The farms were necessarily small. They became in a
natural way establishments worked by the head of the house, with
the help of his children. Such other help as was needed was, in the
course of two generations, readily had from hired white men and
women. It was otherwise in the tobacco-planting region to the
southward. The cultivation of that plant, to meet the extraordi-
nary demands that Europe made for it, gave slavery its chance to
become established in this country. But for that industry the
institution would most likely have taken but slight root, and the
territory as far south as North Carolina would have been in social
order not very different from Pennsylvania, New York, and the
New England settlements. But, owing to some peculiar, as yet
unrecognized, adjustments of climate and soil, tobacco for pipes
has a quality when grown in the Virginia district such as it has
nowhere else in the world, and the world turned to smoking it
with a disregard' for expense that made each laborer in the field
worth some hundred dollars a year. Moreover, the production of
good tobacco requires much care, which extends over about a year
from the time the seed is planted. Some parts of the work de-
mand a measure of judgment such as intelligent negroes readily
acquire. They are indeed better fitted for the task than white
men, for they are commonly more interested in their tasks than
whites of the laboring class. The result was that before the period
of the Revolution slavery was firmly established in the tobacco-
planting colonies of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. It
was already the foundation of their only considerable industry.

5i6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Although the production of tobacco had made slavery a great
economical success in the limited field where the best product was
to be had, it is doubtful if the institution would have attained to
any widespread importance but for the development of another
form of planting — that of cotton. Thus, in Kentucky, where the
crops, with the exception of a coarse tobacco, are the same as in
the other iSTorthern States of the Union, the institution, despite the
long-continued scarcity of labor, never attained any very great
development. The slaves were generally used for household serv-
ice, but to no great extent in the fields, and in such employment
only in the districts where the soil was of such great fertility that
large quantities of grain were raised for export. In one third of
that Commonwealth negroes were, and remain to this day, quite
unknown. The invention of the cotton gin ended all hope that
slavery might be limited to a part of the seacoast region, for nearly
all of the lowland regions of the South, as well as some of the up-
land country north to the southern border of Kentucky and Vir-
ginia, are admirably suited to that crop — producing, indeed, a bet-
ter " staple " than that of any other country. This industry, even
more than that of raising tobacco, called for abundant labor which
could be absolutely commanded and severely tasked in the season
of extreme heats. For this work the negro proved to be the only
fit man, for while the whites can do this work they prefer other
employment. Thus it came about that the power of slavery in
this country became rooted in its soil. The facts show that, based
on an ample foundation of experience, the judgment of the South-
ern people was to the effect that this creature of the tropics was a
better laborer in their fields than the men of their own race. Much
has been said about the dislike of the white man for work in asso-
ciation with negroes. The failure of the whites to have a larger
share in the agriculture of the South has been attributed to this
cause. This seems to me clearly an error. The dislike to the
association of races in labor is, in the slaveholding States, less than
in the JSTorth. There can be no question that if the Southern folk
could have made white laborers profitable they would have pre-
ferred to employ them, for the reason that the plantations would
have required less fixed capital for their operation. The fact was
and is that the negro is there a better laboring man in the field
than the white. Under the conditions he is more enduring, more
contented, and more trustworthy than the men of our own race.

The large development of the cotton industry in this country
came after the importation, of negroes from Africa had ceased to
be as completely unrestricted as it was at first. The prohibition
of the trafiic came indeed before the needs of laborers in the more

THE TRANSPLANTATION OF A RACE. 517

Southern and Western slave States had been met. For a while
there was some surreptitious importation, which in a small way
continued down to the middle of this century, but this smuggling
was quite insufficient to supply the market of the new States with
slaves. The result was that the border slaveholding States be-
came to a considerable extent the breeding grounds for men and
women who were to be at maturity exported to the great planta-
tions of Alabama and Mississippi, there to be herded by overseers
in gangs of hundreds, with no hope of ever returning to their kin-
dred. With this interdiction of the foreign slave trade the evils
of the former situation became magnified into horrors. The folk
who were brought from Africa came from a state of savagery to
one of relative comfort. When once adjusted to their new condi-
tions, their lot was on the whole greatly bettered. But their de-
scendants, who had become attached to the places where they were
born with the peculiar affection the better of them had for their
homes, being accustomed to masters who on the whole were gentle,
were now to undergo a worse deportation than that which made
them slaves. It is not too much to say that the deeper evils of
the system to the slaves themselves, as well as to their masters,
began with this miserable slave trade that went on within the
limits of this country, and was about at its height when the civil
war began.

It can not be denied that even in the best stages of slavehold-
ing there had been a good deal of commerce in slaves where the
feelings of these chattels were in no wise regarded. Still, there
was a prevailing sentiment among all the slaveholders of the gen-
tler sort that it was in a way disgraceful to part families. I dis-
tinctly recall, when I was a lad, some years before the civil war,
my maternal grandfather often charged me to remember that
I came of a people who had never bought or sold a slave except
to keep families together. I know that this was a common feel-
ing among the better men of Kentucky and Virginia, and that the
practice of rearing negroes for the Southern market filled them
with sorrow and indignation. Yet the change was the inevitable
result of the system and of the advancing commercialism which
separated the plantation life more and more from that of the
owner's household. At the time when the civil war began the
institution of slavery was, from the commercial point of view, emi-
nently successful. Notwithstanding the occasional appearance of
the spendthrift slave owner in iJ^orthern pleasure resorts or in
Europe, the great plantations were generally in charge of able
business men, who won a large interest on their investments and
who were developing the system of planting in a way which, though

5i8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

it appeared to those who were accustomed to close tillage as shift-
less, was really well adjusted to the conditions. Not one fourth
of the land of the Southern States that was well fitted for the
work of slaves had been brought into use. The blacks who were
carefully managed in all that regarded their health and in their
morals, so far as might affect their breeding, were in admirable
physical condition, and rapidly increasing in numbers. It is doubt-
ful if ever a peasant class was so well cared for or so freed from
avoidable diseases. The growing protest against the institution,
so far as it operated in the South, was practically limited to the
border States, mainly to Kentucky, where alone did a considerable
number of well-born men set themselves against it. There is good
reason to believe that if the civil war had not occurred the end of
the nineteenth century would have seen a negro population in the
South much more numerous than we now have there. Experience
has shown that the American cotton crop is little affected by for-
eign competition, so that it would have maintained the success of
the institution.

Although the system of slavery was by a chance of ISTature so
firmly planted on the cotton fields as to give it entire dominance in
the South, and something like control of the Federal Union, there
was one geographic condition that menaced its future, and in the
end did much to insure its downfall in the events of the civil war,
and most likely would have brought about its end even if the Con-
federacy had been established. This was the form and extent of
the Appalachian uplands between the Potomac and the Ohio on
the north and Alabama and Georgia in the South. In this area
of nearly one hundred and fifty thousand square miles in extent the
surface lies at an average height of some fifteen hundred feet above
the sea; the good arable land is found mostly in narrow valleys
suited only for household farms, totally unfit for the systematic agri-
culture in which alone negroes could be profitably employed as
slaves. Into this area drifted the class of small farmers who by one
chance and another had never been able to enter or to maintain
themselves in the aristocratic class of slaveholders. These moun-
taineers— they may better be termed the hill people of the South —
were an eminently peculiar people. Thej^ are not to be compared
with the " poor white trash " — i. e., the downfallen and dependent
whites, who were broken men in spirit, scarce above the slaves in
quality. These poor whites were often, if not generally, either
the weaker strains of the militant families or the descendants of the
people who had been imported into this country by the land com-
panies or sent out as peons.

Partly because of their separation from the slaveholding class

THE TRANSPLANTATION OF A RACE. 519

and partly because of the circumstances of their origin, the people
of the Southern highlands formed a curiously separated class. They
retained the quality of their English stock, as they had brought it
with them — an independence, a carelessness as to life, and a humor
for quarreling with those who were set above them whenever their
liberties or their license seemed to be threatened. Even their cus-
toms and utensils held with curious adhesion to the usages of earlier
centuries. Thus, in 1878, I found, in a secluded valley of south-
western Virginia, men hunting squirrels and rabbits with the old
English short bow. These were not the contrivances of boys or of
to-day, but were made and strung and the arrows hefted in the
ancient manner. The men, one of them old, were admirably skilled
in their use; they assured me that, like their fathers before them,
they had ever used the bow and arrow for small game, reserving
the costly ammunition of the rifle for deer and bear. These hill
folk were, in a passive but obdurate manner, opposed to slavery,
and even more to negroes. There are still many counties in this
district where a negro has never dwelt. In some parts of it I have
had people gather from twenty miles away to stare at my black
camp servants, as the folk of central Africa are said to do at a
white man.

At the outbreak of the civil war the Appalachian upland was
still thinly peopled; it was, however, fitted to maintain a popula-
tion of some millions. If the Confederacy had won its independ-
ence, its plantation districts, with a relatively small voting popula-
tion, would soon have had to settle an account with the people of
the hills. As it was, the existence of this folk in a great ridge of
country extending from the ISTorthern States to within two hun-
dred miles of the Gulf of Mexico was an element of weakness which
went far to give success to the Federal arms. It kept Kentucky
from seceding, prevented the region of West Virginia from being
of any value to the rebellion, and weakened its control in several
other States. In all, somewhere near one hundred thousand re-
cruits came to the Federal army from this part of the South.. It
is not improbable that to this folk we may attribute the failure of
the great revolt. That they turned thus against the people of their
own States to cast in their lot with those who were strangers to
them shows their feelings toward the institution of slavery; it
indicated where they would have stood if the Confederacy had been
established.

It is not easy to picture the condition of the negro population
in 1860. There is a common notion that it was consciously and
bitterly suffering from its subjugation — ready to rise in arms
-against its oppressors. This view was Indeed shared by the South-

520 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ern people, who lived in clironic fear of insurrections. The error
of it arose from the fallacious notion that the people of another
race must feel and act as we would under like circumstances. The
facts showed that the negi-o mind does not work in the fashion of
our own. He had, it is true, suffered from slavery, but not as
men of our race would have suffered. Against its deprivations
and such direct cruelty as he experienced, not often great, he could
set the simple comforts and small pleasures which are so much to
him. That he was on the whole fairly contented with his lot, that
his relations with his masters were on the whole friendly, is sho^vn
by his remarkable conduct during and since the civil war. If the
' accepted account of the negro had been true, if he had been for
generations groaning in servitude while he passionately longed for
liberty, the South should have flamed in insurrection at the first
touch of war. We should have seen a repetition of the horrors of
many a servile insurrection. It is a most notable fact that, during
the four years of the great contention, when the blacks had every
opportunity to rise, there was no real mark of a disposition to turn
upon their masters. On thousands of Southern farms the fighting
men left their women and children in the keeping of their slaves,
while they went forth for a cause whose success meant that those
slaves could never be free.

That the negroes desired to be free is plain enough. The fact
that they fled in such numbers to our camps shows this. Their
failure to revolt must be taken as an indication that their relations
with their masters measured on their o'svn instinctive standards
were on the whole affectionate. They had the strength to have
made an end of the war at a stroke. They were brave enough
for such action. That they did not take it after the manner of
their kindred of Santo Domingo is the best possible testimony as to
the generally sympathetic relation which existed between master
and slaves. Of this no better test can be imagined than that which
the final stages of the institution afforded.

In taking account of the history of the slave in this Union it is
not amiss for me to bear testimony as to the spirit with which the
body of our slave owners met the singular obligations of their
positions. There were here and there base men who abused their
trust as masters — some, indeed, who never perceived its existence.
But of the very many slave owners whom I can remember I can
recall but three who failed to recognize the burden that fate had
put upon them and to deal with it much as they dealt with the
other cares of their households — conscientiously and mercifully,
though often in the rude whacking way in which parents of old
dealt with their children; so far as slavery was a household affair,

THE TRANSPLANTATION OF A RACE. 521

and even where the farm employed no more hands than could be
gathered in a house " quarter," the people were commonly subject
to an anxious scrutiny as regarded their moral and religious train-
ing. Here and there, especially when there were young white men
about, the result was the deplorable mixture of the races. There
is no question but that this was extensive, though the amount of
it is exaggerated. Yet it was common enough to degrade the
whites and to make of itself a sufficient reason for ending the insti-
tution, however profitable it might otherwise have been. Men of
no race are safely to be trusted with such power. The social evil
was the heaviest part of the load which the high-minded slave
owners had to bear. It was shared in even larger measure by his
wife and daughters. How heavy the cross was can only be known
to those who remember the conditions of that unhappy time.

The result of the hopeless effort to keep the slaves in decent
ways and to prevent the pollution of their sons was to make nearly
every right-minded slaveholder at heart an abolitionist. Although
the men, and even the women, who suffered most would have been
disposed to slay any one who suggested that they shared the opin-
ions of the detested antislavery folk, nearly every one in his heart
reprobated the institution and in his mind was revolving some
scheme, generally fanciful, by which an end of it might be made.
They were in the unhappy position where overwhelming self-inter-
est fought with their moral sense. Now and then some one of
them passed the critical point and entered into the fold of the
accursed abolitionists; but others, after the manner of average
men, paltered with the situation, waiting for fate to decide the
matter. In the meantime, they strove as best they could to lift
these people to a higher estate.

In many ways the standard of care by which the conduct of a
master in relation to his slaves was judged was high. He was ex-
pected to clothe them in a fit manner, keep them from the nocturnal
wanderings, termed " running," so common a trait in these children
of the tropics, to see that they were decently married, that they
went to church in a dutiful way, and, above all, that they were
not abused by other whites, particularly by other slaveholders.
To strike or even to vilify the slaves of another was a very serious
thing. The offended person knew well that it was his part to
make his complaint to the servant's master. Where the negroes
exceeded in number those needed for household and personal serv-
ice— there were often a dozen or two thus employed in families
of no great wealth — there was a division between the house people
and the " hands." Those in the forftier group were selected folk,
often belonging to families that had been associated ^\^th those of

VOL. LVI. — 41

522 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

their masters for a century or more. Such servants had rights that
none could dispute. Not uncommonly their elders were the actual
rulers of the establishment. These family slaves often received
some little schooling, even when the laws forbade that slaves should
be taught to read and write. The children of the household serv-
ants were allowed freely to play with those of their masters until
the young people were about twelve years old. The boys of both
often had their rough-and-tumble games together until they were
young men. The field laborers, where the class was separate, had
less perfect connection with their masters. They usually came to
the family storeroom for the daily issued rations, which they re-
ceived from the hands of the mistress or the daughter of the house.
They were visited when sick, and their complaints were heard.
They were free to all of the many festivities of the holiday time.

It is impossible to conceive of a more effective schooling for the
African peoj3le than was given this adoption into the households,
and often into the hearts, of high-minded masters. A like opportu-
nity never before came and will never again come to so lowly a
folk. The effect of this educative contact with the superior race
is, as before noted, to be seen in the temper of the negroes during
and after the civil war. Upon the high-minded master the effect
of the institution was in many ways enlarging. A man is morally
what his cares have made him, and of these the dutiful slaveholder
has more than an average share. He grew. in the power of com-
mand and in the habit of doing justice to many fellow-beings. He
lived a large life. The qualities bred of his station have been of
profit to his folk and time. All this is true of slavery of the domes-
tic sort. It is not so in like manner of the great plantations which
came with the development of the cotton and sugar industries. It
was characteristic of the northern part of the South until it began
to be the place of supply for the rapidly developing plantation
district.

So long as the negro could look forward to life in the place
and with the people of his birth his simple, careless nature opened
to him little to bring a sense of danger. He was to live on until
he passed in to the Elysium of the hereafter, of which he had no
doubt whatever. Gradually there came, in the overcrowding of
the farms and the diminishing fertility of the wasted land, the
need of reducing the number of slaves. Then each year came the
dreaded visits of the " trndor," who was like a visible angel of
death, to lead one or iii(»i-<' into the f;ir unknown country. Before
the plantation demand for slaves began there were, of course, sales
of slaves, but they commonly went as families, and not to places
to them inconceivably remote. These could hope for Christmas

THE TRANSPLANTATION OF A RACE. 523

reunions and other exciianges, but when the negro was " sold
South " the place and people that had known him would know him
no more. My first impression of the iniquity of slavery came from
the anxious questions of negroes as to the danger of their being sold
to Alabama, that State being then the supposed destination of all
those who were out of favor. They naturally strove to make in-
terest with children whom they thought could successfully inter-
cede for them.

There were several very diverse consequences arising from the
exportation of slaves from the border States to the far South. It
shook the confidence of the negro as to his safety in all that was
dearest to him, and thus did much to degrade the relation between
him and his master. It served, cruel as it was, to elevate the rela-
tively uncivilized blacks of the more Southern districts, where the
newly imported laborers were mostly accumulated. It curiously
operated to elevate the quality of the blacks in what was termed
the slave-breeding States, those where the institution had longest
been established. This was due to the selection of those of lower
grade for the market. As it became necessary to part with slaves,
a choice was naturally made of men and women who had least
endeared themselves to the household. Save in rare cases, the
trader sought rather the lusty youths for their brawn than the
more delicate, refined house people. Moreover, where a fellow
had showm a tendency to any vice, the choice fell on him. In this
way for two or three generations a weeding process went on, with
the result that the negroes who were left in the districts where
the work was done acquired a quality noticeably better than those
on the Southern plantations. The difference is almost that we
would look for between two distinct races. The faces of the se-
lected folk are more intelligent, the lines of their bodies finer, their
moral and intellectual quality very much above those of their
lower kindred. They are at their best, in very numerous instances,
as gentle as the elect of our owm race.

Where, as in the Southern plantations, the institution of slav-
ery was deliberately made the basis of large commercial interests,
the motives were wholly different from whatever existed in the
early and better days, when the slaves were appendages of a house-
hold. Even on the largest tobacco plantations the numbers were
not such as to exclude a share of contact with friendly whites.
But on the great properties of the South the negro was not to any
extent subject to the influences which had in the earlier stage of
his apprenticeship done so much for him. AVorked in gangs that
were counted by the hundreds, seeing no whites except the over-
seers, they tended to lose what little culture they had gained.

524 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Their peculiar but perfectly intelligible speech began a degrada-
tion into a puzzling jargon. African superstitions, little if any
trace of which remained among their kindred in Virginia and Ken-
tucky, regained their hold. Marriage and a respect therefor, which
had been tolerably well affirmed, tended to disappear. All trace
of good thus vanished from the system.

Although the great plantation, of the Mississippi type, was a
relatively novel feature in American slaveholding, it was evidently
the only largely profitable method of using slave labor. In the
household system the care of the children, the aged, and the infirm,
the unbusinesslike management of the labor, and the tendency to
slipshod methods which with negroes can only be corrected by strict
discipline, made ordinary farming unremunerative. It is evident
that the profit, other than that in mere money, which the institu-
tion in the earlier state had brought to master and slave was rap-
idly diminishing, and that any further maintenance of it would
have been calamitous. Though we may regret that it was ended
by the civil war, it is difficult to see any other way in which it
could have been terminated, or any profit which could have been
gained by postponing the crisis.

MODERN CITY ROADWAYS.

By nelson p. LEWIS,

ENGINEER OF IIIGHWAYS, BOROUGH OF BROOKLYN.

ONE of the conspicuous results of cheapened transportation and
the facility with which the products of field, forest, mine,
and factory can be transferred to the consumer has been the rapid
increase in population of all our cities. In 1890 over forty-five
per cent of the population of New York State (nearly six millions)
was concentrated in four cities, while it is estimated that the greater
city of New York contains at present not less and probably more
than fifty per cent of the State's population. Nor is this tendency
characteristic only of American cities, though the general impres-
sion seems to be that it is more conspicuous with us. In fact,
many European cities (notably those of Germany) have outstripped
ours in growth. In 1870 Berlin had about 150,000 less people than
A^ew York; in 1890 it had over 73,000 more. In 1875 Hamburg
exceeded Boston in population by but 6,000, while in 1890 the Ger-
man city was more than 121,000 ahead.

^leanwhile the rural population the world over has increased
very slowly, or has positively decreased. The massing together
of large numbers of people, without proper regard to sanitary con-

MODERN CITY ROADWAYS.

525

ditions, has always resulted in great mortality, as witness the ter-
rible plagues which have swept over the old cities of Europe, and
the disastrous results during the summer of 1898 of concentrating
large numbers of our volunteers in camps not subjected to rigid
sanitary regulations.

It has been amply demonstrated, however, that our cities can
be made at least as healthful as the country districts, and an in-
creasingly large number of engineers are engaged in such city
building.

One branch of this municipal work will be considered in this
paper — that of street improvement. The first impression gained
by a stranger entering a city is undoubtedly that produced by the
appearance of its streets. If they are poorly paved, irregular,

i

~X~r

:sj:s^xr-s;<;::?- — -;?.-

Sections or HoM/tN Ro^ps

dirty, and generally unkempt, he will consult his time table to
see how soon he can get away. If they are broad, smooth, clean,
well shaded and lighted, he will stay as long as possible.

In spite of the pride of the American people in the develop-
ment of our cities, and notwithstanding the fact that their wealth
enables them to have only the best, they have been slow to appre-
ciate the value of thoroughly well-paved streets. As stated by Mr.
Albert Shaw, European cities have been ahead of us in accepting
the doctrine that " smooth and clean highways are a wise invest-
ment from every point of view, and that so long as the work is
done in a thorough and scientific manner the result is worth hav-
ing, regardless of cost. No city should think itself rich enough
to prosper without them, and no city is so poor that it can not
afford them if it has any reason whatever for continued existence.

:26

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Good roadways are cheap at any cost, and bad ones are so disas-
trously expensive that only a very rich country, like the United
States, can afford them."

Space will not permit even a brief history of street paving, or
an attempt to sketch its development, but reference will be made

to the different kinds
in general use, and the
kind most in favor in
various cities. Prob-
ably no one has intro-
duced the subject of
pavements without ref-
erence to the Roman
roads.

While Carthage was
probably the first city
to boast of paved
streets, the Romans
soon followed its exam-
l)le, and all over Eu-
rope, Asia, and Africa,
as far as the domain
of their emperors ex-
tended, they built with the greatest care and at enormous expense
that magnificent system of roads which were often supposed, in the
middle ages, to be of supernatural origin, and remain the w'onder of
our modern civilization. These roads were generally from four
to six metres in width, and were constructed in this way: The road-
bed was excavated; in it was placed a layer of stones, which were
sometimes united wdth mortar. These stones were such as were
most available, sometimes rounded stones similar to the cobble-
stones with wdiicli we are familiar, and in some cases in the Alps
the foundation was a compact mass of angular stones, two feet or
more in tlicir longest dimension, carefully fitted together.

On this foundation was placed a layer of plaster made of stone
or brick pounded with mortar; then a course of sand and lime or
sand and clay, leveled and pounded until very hard. The top or
wearing surface was made of irregular flat stones, fitted together
with nicety and united with cement. The total depth of these
roads, or pavements, as they can properly be called, was from three
to (in some cases) seven feet. It is said that in the province of
Hispania alone (Spain and Portugal) twenty thousand miles of
roads were built.

The first stone pavements to be laid in modern city streets were

A Strekt in Pompeii, showing Old Koman Pavement.

MODERN CITY ROADWAYS.

527

those formed of stones in tlieir natural condition, variously known
as bowlders, pebbles, or cobblestones.

The first attempt at a street pavement in this country was doubt-
less that referred to by Mrs. John King Van Rensselaer, in the
Goede Vrouw of Mana-na-ta, where she says, in speaking of what
was once called Brower Street, because it passed by the great brew-
ery built by one of the first of the Van Cortlandts: " This street lies
between Whitehall and Broad, and was one of the first lanes laid
out by the settlers, and ^vas commonly known as ' The Road.' In
1657 it was paved with small round cobblestones, and the circum-
stance created such a sensation that the country people visited it
as a curiosity, and it was one of the sights of the little dorp. The
burghers laughingly nicknamed it Stone Street, which name it still
retains. The improvement was effected by Madame Van Cortlandt,
as she could not endure the dust that filled her tidy house, caused
by the heavy brewers' wains that were constantly' passing her door."

This cobblestone pavement, laid on Stone Street nearly two
centuries and a half ago, has been a persistent type, and, on ac-
count of their availability and cheapness, such stones continued
to be used in many
cities until within a
very few years.
When they Avere well _,_'--■
shaped and uniform
in size they made
quite a durable pave-
ment, and, though
rough and noisy,
were capable, when
well laid, of sustain-
ing a considerable
traffic. Fortunately,
the better class of
these stones are- now
so scarce and the
poorer ones are so

execrable tnat tUlS ^ Street in ;Xaple:^, shuwixg Lai;oe i'AVLS'G Stones.

type of pavement is

becoming obsolete, though there are many miles for which more
civilized pavements are yet to be substituted, two hundred and
thirty-eight miles of which are unfortunately in the Borough of
Brooklyn. The next step in advance was tlie use of stone shaped
to uniform size, or aiDproximately so, and wdth a more or less smooth
surface. This is the pavement in most general use to-day, and for

528

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

permanency and, consequently, cheapness can not be surpassed.
When first used, these blocks ^vere quite large, and the size has
been decreased until the best stone pavements laid at the present

Cobblestone Pavement ox Saratoga Avenue, Bhooklyn.

time in Great Britain are six-inch cubes, or still smaller, with a
surface four inches square and a depth of seven inches.

But stone pavement when most carefully laid and maintained
is noisy and unpleasant to ride over, and in these days we can never
reconcile such a pavement with a handsome residence street. The
writer experienced a distinct shock when on riding over Euclid
Avenue, in Cleveland, last year, he found it still paved with Medina
sandstone blocks, and it seemed that this famous street was still
living on the reputation which Bayard Taylor gave it years ago
as the handsomest street in the world.

In looking about for something more quiet and smooth than
stone, the first material tried was wood. In London the first wood
pavement was laid in the Old Bailey in 1839, and was soon followed
by many others. None of these pavements lasted more than seven
years, and, as they cost more than granite and were so short-lived,
a prejudice arose against them, and as they wore out they were
mostly replaced with granite. Since that time wood pavement
has become popular again, and a large area is now covered with it.
The material most generally in use is Baltic fir, though there is
quite a large amount of Australian hard wood which is more du-
rable. The people of London seem willing to bear the greater ex-

I

MODERN CITY ROADWAYS. 529

pense and submit to the annoyance of more frequent renewals for
the sake of the quiet, and wood is certainly the least noisy of all
known pavements.

Paris had at the close of 1893 more wood than asphalt, the areas
of pavements of different kinds being as follows:

Stone .... 7,541,258 sq. yds., 71.5 per cent.

Wood 886,286 " 8.4

Asphalt 402,394 " 8.8 "

Gravel or macaduni 1,724,632 " 16.8

Berlin also has some wood pavements, but asphalt seems more
popular, though by far the greatest area is still of stone pavements.

The most durable wood pavements are those made of the hard
woods of Australia, which are especially adapted to this purpose.

GKANrrK rAVEMK.NT UN KoADWAY OF BkOOKLTN BrIUGE AFTER CONSTANT L SE WITH VeRY

Heavy Traffic for Sixteen Years.

They are mostly of the eucalyptus family, the red gum, blue gum,
black butt, tallow-wood, and mahogany, Mr. George W. Bell, in
a pamphlet published in 1895, gives some remarkable statistics as
to the durability of these pavements. He cites the case of George
Street, in Sydney, which sustains a very heavy traffic, and on which

53°

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

I

a wooden-block pavement had been in constant use for over ten
years, without repair of any kind. The only piece of wood pave-
ment of this class which has been laid in this country, to the writer's
knowledge, is on Twentieth Street, between Broadway and Fifth
Avenue, in the Borough of Manhattan, where, in 1896, the Aus-
tralian " kari " wood was laid. The work was done with the
greatest care, and the resulting pavement has proved quite satisfac-
tory. When Fifth Avenue was lately repaved the use of this mate-
rial was considered, but, on account of the popular prejudice against
all wood pavements and the delay which would be involved in
obtaining the blocks, the idea was abandoned.

When wood pavements are spoken of in most of our cities, the
taxpayer pictures to himself the round cedar block so generally

Looking -NoiiTii from Bevekly Road Axn East Fifteenth Street, Brooklyn,

in use in Western cities. These arc used on account of their
cheapness. They are usually laid on one or two courses of plank.
The blocks are round, from four to eight inches in diameter
and six inches in depth, are set as closely as possible to each other,
and the joints are filled with gravel, after which they are usually
poured full of pitch. Such a pavement, when new, is quite agree-
able to ride over. It soon, however, becomes uneven; the defective
blocks quickly decay; the surface not being impervious to water,
the wet foundation under a pavement with so little rigidity becomes
soft, and the mud or slime works its way up between the blocks,
and the process of decomposition is expedited. We hear sometimes
of the floating ])iivcments of Chicago. These are such cedar-block
pavements which are said to rise with the floods of water filling
the roadways after heavy rainfalls, and from specimens of the pave-

MODERN CITY ROADWAYS.

531

meiit which may be seen in that city considerable sections must have
floated away. The round block has nothing to recommend it but
its cheapness, and this usually proves to be expensive economy. In
Galveston, Texas, creosoted yellow pine blocks have been laid for
some years with general satisfaction. They are laid directly on the
fine sand, which is water-rammed so as to be very compact. The
surface is formed with great care by a template to the exact

LodKIXG ^'ulITIl FROM IjEVEULV RoAI) AND EaST FlfTEEXTll StKEET, BkOOKLYN,

IN October, 1899.

grade and crown, and the joints are filled with similar fine sand.
In Indianapolis creosoted blocks have been laid for several years,
sixty thousand square yards having been put down during the
past season. They are laid as closely as possible on a concrete
foundation, with a sand cushion of one inch, and the joints filled
with paving cement, composeti of ten per cent of refined Trini-
dad asphalt and ninety per cent of coal-tar distillate, after which

532

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the surface is covered with half an inch of clean coarse sand or
granite screenings.

Improved wood pavements are a luxury. They have many
points of superiority over asphalt. They are so considered in Lon-
don, where their use is continued, although they require renewal

A iS'kw C'kdak Block rAVEiiKNT in ToKoNiy.

oftener than asphalt, and much more often than granite. They
will undoubtedly be used more frequently in this country when the
people are willing to pay the additional cost for the quiet and free-
dom from dust and from the somewhat disagreeable glare of asphalt.

For a dozen years or more brick has been used for street pave-
ments in the cities of the middle West, The use of this material
is by no means new. It began in Holland in the thirteenth cen-
tury, and in the seventeenth century the highway from The Hague
to Scheveningen was paved with brick. In Amsterdam such pave-
ments are said to last from ten to twenty years, or an average of
fourteen years. After about ten years they are commonly turned
over and relaid, after which they will last about four years more.
The size in common use is about the same as that made in this
country.

A good paving brick sIkhiM Ik- tough enough to withstand the
wear to which a street surface is subjected without chipping or
cracking, and should not absorb more than from two to four per
cent of its weight of water after submersion for forty-eight hours.
It has not the wearing qualities of granite, although there is
one block on Ninth Avenue, in the Borough of Manhattan, which
has been subjected to very heavy traffic for eight years, has had

MODERN CITY ROADWAYS.

533

no repairs to speak of, and its condition to-day compares very favor-
al)ly with almost any street pavement of eqnal age which has been
subjected to similar traffic.

Another kind of street improvement which must be considered
is macadam. In small towns, and some quite large cities, most of
the streets are improved in this way. When w^ell maintained and
kept smooth, but not too hard, it forms a most agreeable surface
for driving. It should not, in the writer's judgment, be classed as a
pavement at all, certainly not as a permanent one, and its use should
be restricted to park drives and boulevards (for maintaining which
liberal appropriations can be secured), and to suburban roads, where
sewers and subsurface pipes have not yet been laid, and where tem-
porary roads are required to furnish convenient communication
between centers of population, and to assist in developing these
districts.

jMacadam has no place in a city street, nor is it wise to lay it on
the entire width of a roadw^ay. It best serves its purpose when laid
in a comparatively narrow strip, leaving the sides of the road unim-
proved, except for the formation of earth gutters, so that the sur-

Ax Old Cedar Block Pavement.

face water can readily soak away where the soil is sufficiently
porous.

Macadam is the most expensive of all street surfaces to keep in
thoroughly good condition, and in this country it is rarely, if ever,
so maintained, except in some of our park roads.

The pavement which is to-day, more generally than any other,
superseding stone on all streets where the traffic is not excessive

534

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

nor the grades extreme, is asphalt. It is scarcely necessary to
attempt to give a history of the use of this material, how its adapta-
bility to paving- purposes was first discovered by the improved con-
dition of the roads over which it was hauled from the French mines
for use in reservoir and tank linings, etc. The drippings from the
carts were observed to have been compacted by travel until a
smooth, hard roadway resulted. The first street to be paved with
it was Rue Bergera, in Paris, in 1854, and it was so successful that
in 1858 Rue St. Honore was similarly treated. An asphalt pave-
ment was laid in Threadneedle Street, London, in May, 1869, and
in Cheapside and Poultry in the fall of 1870, while in Berlin its
use began in 1ST3.

Eh.iiTiKMii AvKMK, Bh<>(iki.v.n; Macaiiamized Full Width of KoAnwAr and Gltteks
PAVED, WITH xo Pkovision kok Surface Dkainage.

The laying of bituminous pavements in this country began
in 1861), and they were first made of tar concrete, or Scrimshaw.
Asphalt began to be used within the next year or two, and its
popularity has been astonishing, as will be seen from the fact that
on January 1, 1898, the area of this kind of pavement laid in the
United States was, as nearly as could be ascertained, thirty million
square yards.

There is a notable difference between the European and Ameri-
can asphalts. The former may be called natural and the latter arti-
ficial pavements. In the former the material, as it comes from the
mine, is ground to a powder, heated, placed upon the foundation
prepared for it, and tamped into approximately the same condition

MODERN CITY ROADWAYS. 535

as before it was disturbed, though usually the product of several
mines is mLxed in order to obtain the best percentage of bitumen,
but nothing is added to or taken from the bituminous rock. In
the pavement usually laid in America, on the other hand, only a
small proportion of the material is brought from the asphalt depos-
its, the principal part of it (sand) being obtained near at hand.
In the one case the cost of long ocean or rail transportation has
to be paid on the entire mass forming the pavement, while in the
other this expense attaches to but from twelve to fifteen per cent
of the material. This, of course, is a great advantage, and at
recent prices it is scarcely possible for the European rock asphalts
to compete with the artificial ones.

The making of a pavement from one of the standard asphalts
may be briefly described as follows: The material as found in Xa-
ture has this composition:

Bitumen 38 . 14 per cent.

Organic matter, not bitumen 7.63 "

Mineral matter 26.88 "

Water 27 . 85 "

100.00

This is cooked until the water has been driven off, and some of
the mineral matter has settled.

The above analysis is of Trinidad Pitch Lake asphalt, and is a
particularly favorable result. This material is too hard for use in
making a pavement, and it has to be softened or fluxed by the addi-
tion of something which will accomplish this purpose. In order
to do this there is usually added to each one hundred pounds of
refined asphalt about eighteen pounds of heavy petroleum oil.
After this addition w^e have the asphaltic cement ready to combine
with mineral matter, which is so selected that when asphaltic ce-
ment is added at the rate of about seventeen pounds of the cement
to eighty-three pounds of the other all the particles Avill be coated,
and more could not be added without making the pavement too soft.
What is found to accomplish this best is fine stone dust and sand.

The asphaltic cement and sand are heated separately to about
300"^ F. The stone dust is then added to and mixed with the hot
sand in the proportion of from five to eighty in the case of fine, well-
graduated sand, to fifteen to sixty-seven for coarse sands, having
less variation in size. The asphaltic cement is then added, and the
materials are mixed to a homogeneous mass, which is ready to be
taken to the street. It should reach there at a temperature not
less than 250°, and is spread with hot iron rakes so as to give usually
a thickness of two inches after consolidation. After spreading, it
is rolled with a hand rollel-, after which a small amount of hvdraulic

536

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

cement is swept over the surface, and it is thorouglily rolled with
a steam roller of not less than ten tons, the rolling to be continued
as long as the roller makes any impression on the surface.

The foundation is usually of cement concrete about six inches
thick, though asphalt pavements are often laid over old stone pave-
ments. Between the foundation and the wearing surface there is
generally laid wdiat is called a binder course, one inch thick and
formed of small broken stone, to which has been added asphaltic
cement, the same as is used in making the wearing surface. Five
or six pints of this cement are used to each cubic foot of stone.

The pavement just described is made from Trinidad asphalt,
the material from which nearly all the earlier artificial asphalt

King's IIic-hwav, Bijooklvn ; Sixtkkn Feet in Centek of Uoad Macadamized.

pavements in this country were made, and which was used almost
exclusively until within the last half dozen years.

Within that time, however, it has been discovered that there
are a number of other deposits of asphalt well adapted to use for
street pavements. A very large deposit containing a high per-
centage of bitumen and very little mineral matter is located near
the coast in the State of Bermudez, in Venezuela. Large deposits
have been found in several places in California, and in Utah, Ken-
tucky, and Texas, and a number of other })laces. The Kentucky
]iroduct is classed as a luilural rock asphalt, as it is a sandstone im-
])regnated with bitumen. It has been mixed with about an equal
]jortion of German rock as])halt and used with very satisfactory
results in Buffal'j. These asphalts are quite different in their com-

MODERN CITY ROADWAYS.

537

position, and each requires somewhat different treatment. The
Bermndez, being richer in bitumen and softer, requires the addi-
tion of very little flux. The California deposits furnish their own
flux in a liquid asphalt or maltha, which is almost absolutely pure
bitumen, and the use of petroleum residuum is thereby avoided
altogether.

It has been recognized since 1836 that the bitumen which forms
the greater part of natural asphalts can be separated into two
substances, which have been commonly known as petrolene and as-

AsriiALT I'avkmknt o>- Clinton Avenie, Biiouklyn.

phaltene, the former of which possesses the cementitious qualities
essential to the making of a successful pavement. Instead of the
arbitrary names — petrolene and asphaltene — these substances are
sometimes more aptly designated as active and inert bitumen. It
has been found that of the bitumen extracted from asphalts which
have given the most satisfactory results in making street pavements,
sixty-nine per cent or more is soluble in petroleum naphtha having
a specific gravity of 72° Beaume.

An asphalt pavement can not be economically kept in good

TOL. LTI. — 42

538 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY,

condition iniless every defect whicli may develop is immediately re-
paired. When the smooth, hard surface is once broken, disintegra-
tion proceeds very rapidly, and a large hole is soon formed. The
more general distribution of smooth pavements, however, will tend
to distribute the traffic more evenly, and the increasing use of
rubber tires and rubber shoes for horses, to say nothing of the prob-
ably quite general use of motor vehicles, within the next decade
will result in the elimination of the forces at present most destruc-
tive to pavements.

Much regret is often expressed that asphalt pavements should
be so frequently opened for the purpose of laying or obtaining
access to subsurface pipes and conduits, and thereby mutilated.
As a matter of fact, there is no pavement at present in use
Avliich can be so effectively and satisfacortily restored as asphalt.
AVhen skillfully done, almost no trace of such an opening can
be found.

The first question to arise, when it has been determined to pave
a street, will be the selection of material, or the kind of pavement
to be laid. In determining this, the governing considerations will
be the traffic to be sustained, its density and character, the rate of
grade, and the presence or absence of railroad tracks.

If the traffic be very heavy and the street given up wholly to
business, ease of traction, durability, and economy of maintenance
are of first importance, while quiet, comfortable riding, and beauty
can be sacrificed to them. Many efforts have been made to deter-
mine the relative force required to draw a load over different kinds
of surface under similar conditions. The following is from a table
compiled by Mr. Rudolph Hering, from different authorities, the
force being that necessary to move one ton on -a level grade at a
speed of three miles an hour:

Kind of Road. Pounds'.

Ordinary dirt road 224

Ordinary cobblestone 140

Good cobblestone 75

Common macadam fi4

Very hard, smooth inacudaii] 46

Good stone block 45

Best stone block (London) 36

Asphalt 17

(Jraiiitc tiani way 1 2^ to 1 3^

Iron railway 8 to 1 H

The question of durability occurs next, and the different kinds
of pavement which may be considered for city streets may be
rated as follows, it being assumed that the traffic is not excessively
heavy:

TYPICAL CRIMINALS. 539

Kind of Pavement. Life in years.

Best g;ranite block on concrete 30

Granite block laid on ^axiA 20

Belgian trap -0

Cobblestone 1 ^

Asphalt 15

Best wood — rectangular block 10

A^itritied brick 12

Macadam 8

Cedar block — round — on sand 5

No class of municipal work comes so near to the daily life of
an urban population — both the business and the home life — as the
surface improvement of city streets, and no expenditure is too great
(provided the work is skillfully and honestly done) to make them
smooth, clean, sanitary, and beautiful.

TYPICAL CRIMINALS.

By SAMUEL G. SMITH, LL. D.

IF the question of a criminal type, defined by certain marks of a
physical nature and emphasized by accompanying mental and
moral characteristics, were confined to the technical speculations
of a special craft of scientists, the public would have little interest
in the spread of the doctrines of Cesare Lombroso and his confreres
in this country. When it is believed, however, that certain men
and women are committed to prison or condemned to death not on
account of crimes in any ethical sense, but because of spontaneous
actions from vicious impulses beyond their control, the subject
affects the administration of law, the theory of punishment, and
the safety of society.

Lombroso and the Italian school say that they have discovered
a type of man who is born a criminal, and who may be recognized
by a Mongolian face, abnormal features, ill-shaped ears, imsymmet-
rical skull, and various psychical peculiarities, which are the result
of bad organization. This doctrine is illustrated by descriptions
of criminals who have the abnormalities, and in the hands of skill-
ful writers the case is made very plausible. The theory is in har-
mony with so much popular modern thought, which loosely inter-
prets the doctrine of evolution by a crass materialism, that it has
infected American prison literature, while it has never misled those
men to whom practical experience has given the most right to have
an opinion on the subject. The sense of personal responsibility is
still the foundation of social order, and if in truth there is no
such thing, the world is awake at last from its dream of morality;

5+0

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY,

righteousness is resolved into heredity, structure, and habit; living
is a mere puppet show, and the wreck of things impends. If Lom-

Group 1, No. 1.

Group 1, No. 2.

broso is right, modern scientific methods are sure to prove him so,
and we shall have at last sound theories; but we shall have no world

in which they can be used, for
the dissolution predicted by Her-
bert Spencer will have come.

Exceptional opportunities for
the study of the abnormal classes
in the institutions of this country
and Europe have given me a per-
sonal interest in the question of
the criminal type. I have discov-
ered that the criminal anthropol-
ogists do not choose for compar-
ison with the prison population
their normal men from the ranks
where the criminal classes are re-
cruited. Blackwell's Island has
110 more peculiar inmates than
abound in sections of l^ew York
near the East River; the resi-
dents of the "Whitechapel district
of London may be compared with the inmates of Pentonville, to the
distinct credit of the latter; and the man in Hoquette is no worse off

TYPICAL CRIMIXALS.

541

in body than scores whom I have seen in certain localities south of
the Seine. The fact is, no human body exists which is not in some

Group 2, No. 1 (forger).

Groujj 2, jNo. 2.

respects abnormal. The number of abnormalities and their extent
depend upon a variety of circumstances, among which are food, cli-
mate, occupation, and the inci-
dents of birth itself, as well as
the various forms of infantile dis-
ease. I will undertake to find
enough physical peculiarities, in
any locality, or among the mem-
bers of any profession, to estab-
lish any physical theory which
may be propounded.

It occurred to me to try an
experiment in a manner entirely
different from the usual criminal
researches. Having been very
familiar with a certain prison for
many years, I requested the war-
den, who is a very able man in his
profession, to send me the pho-
tographs of ten or a dozen men
whom he regarded as the most
representative criminals in his population of some- five hundred per-
sons. The warden was not informed of the use I intended to make

Group 2, No. 3.

542 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of the material, and supposed it was for illustration in university
class work. Later, he gave me the Bertillon measurements of the
men, with an epitome of their history. A number of these men I
have known for years. So far from this selection supporting the
modern theory of a criminal type, it confutes it in a conspicuous
manner. The abnormalities are slight, and there is as great a
diversity among the men as could be asked. It must be remem-
bered that these cases were selected by a shrewd and competent
official, solely upon their criminal record, and not in the interests
of any theory whatever.

Of course, the men do not look well, but neither would any ordi-
nary company of citizens if their heads were shaved and they were
put in prison dress. I am always shocked by the changed appear-
ance of the men after the prison transformation. Young em-
bezzlers of elegant figure, who have moved in good society with-
out a question, easily look the rascal behind prison walls.

The first group are murderers. No. 1 murdered his daughter
because she insisted upon going to a party against his wishes. He
has the head of a philosopher. It was his first crime. It may be
noted that tattooing is supposed to be common among criminals.
This man is tattooed, but committed no crime until fifty years of
age, and was a deputy sheriff for some years. No. 2 did not kill
his victim, but the assault was murderous, and the escape from
death was accidental. It is difficult to discuss the negro in crime
without entering into racial and social questions beyond the pres-
ent limits. No. 3 has a very good head, an excellent ear, and,
barring the expression, a pleasing face. He has a life sentence for
murder. He is the worst man in the prison. • I have for years
believed him to be insane. His family is criminal. His father
murdered his mother in a brutal manner before the child's eyes,
when No. 3 was only eight years old. He himself has committed
several desperate assaults, growing out of his persistent mania of
persecution. No. 3 is not morally responsible, and there are usu-
ally two or three such prisoners out of a thousand subjects.

The second group are very diverse in structure and tempera-
ment, but have committed the same kind of crime. No. 1 is a
confidence man and a forger. He is a crafty and an habitual crimi-
nal, has served terms in various prisons, is keen of intellect, well
educated, has traveled in many countries, and is a citizen of the
world.

No. 2 is a confirmed forger, and has served several terms in
prison for the same offense. He is a skillful bookkeeper, has an
attractive manner, and as soon as he is out in the world secures
employmont and plan? his next crime.

TYPICAL CRIMINALS.

543

N^o. 3 is a counterfeiter. ITis head is small, but of excellent
shape, and he has rather a refined physical organization. His crimi-

Group 3, Xo. 1.

Group 3, No. 2.

nal record is bad, and he has served at least one term before for
the same offense. His imagination, temperament, and vices wonld
select him as a person who would
be guilty of a very different and
more fleshly kind of crime. The
group is formed by the correla-
tion of crime; they have noth-
ing in common in physical or-
ganization.

The third group are thieves.
No. 1 is a confirmed criminal,
and has served several terms in
prison. He is the tallest man in
the list. His head is "long"-
and well formed, and his fea-
tures are regular. His expres-
sion indicates power of sustained
thought, and his peculiar appear-
ance is not due to his kind of
crime, but to his habit of mind.
He is a pessimist of the first

Group 3, No. 3.

rank, and hates the world, his fellow-men, and perhaps himself
most of all. He will not work when at liberty, thinks that society

54+

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

is totally deprnvcHl, and tlial war upon it is the only proper mission
in life. lie is pre-eminently the antisocial man.

Xo. 2 is really a pleasing fellow. He is tender, sympathetic,
and pious. Under proper circumstances he might have made an
admirable Sunday-school superintendent. He is plausible, insinu-
ating, and winning. In temperament, feeling, and social habit he
is the complete antithesis to Ko. 1. He is a most dangerous crimi-
nal, and has a black and varied record.

No. 3 is a man of lower grade of organization and habit, bvit
he is a criminal by profession. He is an idle and worthless vaga-
bond, but he is an accomplished thief. He makes an excellent
prisoner, obedient to the rules, industrious, and seemingly anx-

li

Coutnists, No. 1.

t'outnists, ^l

ious to improve. In fact, the prison furnishes his best environ-
ment, for it is only there that he is at peace with himself and
his world.

The last two men presented are contrasts. Ko. J is an acci-
dental criminal. His previous history and character give strong
grounds for the belief that, under pressure of want for the neces-
saries of life, he was led astray by a man older and stronger than
himself. It is not likely that he would repeat his fault. No. 2,
on the other hand, is a sexual pervert of the worst kind, whose ease
seems so hopeless that perpetual imprisonment is indicated as the
only relief for him, and the only safety for society. Apart from
the expression of his eyes, caused by an irregular focus, there is
nothing marked about the face. The head is of a pronounced

TYPICAL CRIMINALS. 545

'' broad " type, but, on the other hand, he comes from a province
of Germany where that type is dominant.

To complete the experiment, I submitted these portraits to a
number of gentlemen, and to no two of them at the same time, for
their opinions of the cases. The informal committee represented
the different professions which might be expected to fit men for
observation, for there was a lawyer, a physician, a railway presi-
dent, a criminal judge, and a college professor. Each of them is
eminent in his special field. The committee was manifestly handi-
capped by the shorn head, the prison dress, and the lack of the
accessories of masculine ornamentation, such as collars and cravats.
The committee was asked to name the crimes, and to group the
men according to their criminal record. Each opinion differed
from the other, and all were wide of the mark. The shrewd lawyer
thought the accidental criminal " might be guilty of anything."
It was only the college professor, the last man of the company from
whom anything might properly be expected, who was able to select
the worst two cases with the remark, " These men are degenerates."
But while the committee was at work on the photographs the -vvTiter
was at work on the committee, and actually discovered more
anomalies of organization in these distinguished citizens than are
apparent in the criminals. After this remark it is necessary to
withhold their names, though some of them are men of national
reputation.

It is time to reassert with increasing emphasis the personal
responsibility of the individual, and to insist upon the enthrone-
ment and guidance of conscience. There are certainly social and
economic reasons for crime, some of which the writer has pointed
out elsewhere, but the chief fact in human life is the power of self-
determination. The chief causes of crime, outside of personal and
moral degradation, are psychical and not physical. The reader of
history can not fail to have noted that relation of prevalent ideas
to conduct which is so conspicuous in human affairs. The scenes
of blood and desolation characteristic of the Erench Revolution
are directly traceable to the doctrines which prepared the way for
anarchy, but not for rational freedom.

We have had our attention directed to the contagion of suicide
which has marked the last half decade. But Lecky tells us that
suicide was made practically unknown in the civilized world by the
spread of Christianity and its beliefs in the dignity and sanctity
of man. The present contagion will disappear not as the result
of food, or raiment, or houses, or any other material good, but by
a revival of practical faith in the human soul and its capacity, in
human righteousness and its obligation.

TOL. LTI — 43

546 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY.

By Pkof. JOSEPH LE CONTE.

\^Concluded. ]

THE AGE OF THE. EARTH.

UXTIL almost the beginning of the present century the gen-
eral belief in all Christian countries was that not only the
earth and man, but the whole cosmos, began to exist about six
thousand to seven thousand years ago; furthermore, that all was
made at once without natural process, and have remained sub-
stantially unchanged ever since. This is the old doctrine of the
supernatural origin and substantial permanency of the earth and
its features. Among intelligent and especially scientific men this
doctrine, even in the eighteenth century, began to be questioned,
although not publicly; for in 1751 Buffon was compelled by the
Sorbonne to retract certain views concerning the age of the earth,
published in his Natural History in 1749.* Remnants of the old
belief lingered even into the early part of the present century, and
may even yet be found hiding away in some of the remote corners
of civilized countries. But with the birth of geology, and espe-
cially through the work of Hutton in Scotland, Cuvier in France,
and William Smith in England, the much greater — the inconceiv-
ably great — antiquity of the earth and the origin of its present
forms, by gradual changes which are still going on, was generally
acknowledged. Indeed, as already said, this is the fundamental
idea of geology, without which it could not exist as a science.

Geology has its own measures of time — in eras, periods, epochs,
ages, etc. — but it is natural and right that we should desire more
accurate estimates by familiar standards. How old, then, is the
earth, especially the inhabited earth, in years? Geologists have
attempted to answer this question by estimates based on the rates
of sedimentation and erosion, or else on the rate of changes of
organic forms by struggle for life and survival of the fittest. Physi-
cists have attempted to answer the same question by calculations
based on known laws of dissipation of energy in a cooling body,
such as the sun or the earth. The results of the two methods
differ widely. The estimates of the geologists are enormous, and
growing ever greater as the conditions of the problem are better
understood. Nothing less than several hundred million years will
serve his purpose. The estimates of the physicists are much more
moderate, and apparently growing less with each revision. The

* Lyell's Principles of Geology, eighth edition, p. 41,

h

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 547

latest results of King and Kelvin give only twenty to thirty mil-
lions.* This the geologist declares is absurdly inadequate. He
can not work freely in so narrow a space — he has not elbow room.

The subject is still discussed v6ry earnestly, but with little hope
of definite conclusion. One thing, however, must be remarked.
Both parties assume — the geologist tacitly, the physicist avowedly
— the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system, and
therefore the early incandescent fluid condition of the earth as the
basis of all his reasonings. Now, while this is probably the most
reasonable view, it is not so certain that it can be made the basis
of complex mathematical calculation. There is a possible alterna-
tive theory — viz., the meteoric theory — which is coming more and
more into favor. According to this view, the planets may have
been formed by aggregation of meteoric swarms, and the heat of
the earth produced by the collision of the meteors in the act of
aggregation. According to the one view (the nebular), the heat
is all primal, and the earth has been only losing heat all the time.
According to the other, the aggregation and the heating are both
gradual, and may have continued even since the earth was inhab-
ited. According to the one, the spendthrift earth wasted nearly
all its energy before it became habitable or even a crust was
formed, and therefore the habitable period must be comparatively
short. According to the other, the cooling and the heating, the
expenditure and the income, were going on at the same time, and
therefore the process may have lasted much longer.

The subject is much too complex to be discussed here. Suffice
it to say that on this latter view not only the age of the earth, but
many other fundamental problems of dynamical geology, would
have to be recalculated. The solution of these great questions
must also be left to the next century. In the meantime we sim-
ply draw attention to two very recent papers on the subject — viz.,
that of Lord Kelvin, f and criticism of the same by Chamberlin.:}:

. ANTIQUITY AND ORIGIN OF MAN.

Even after the great antiquity of the earth and its origin and
development by a natural process were generally accepted, still
man was believed, even by the most competent geologists, to have
appeared only a few thousand years ago. The change from this
old view took place in the last half of the present century — viz.,
about 1859 — and, coming almost simultaneously with the publica-
tion of Darwin's Origin of Species, prepared the scientific mind

* Clarence King, American Journal of Science, pp. 45-51, 1893 ; Kelvin, Science, vol.
ix, p. 665, 1899.

f Science, vol. ix, p. 665, 1899, % Ibid., p. 889, and vols, x and xi, 1899,

548 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

for entertaining, at least, the idea of man's origin by a natural
process of evolution.

Evidences of the work of man — flint implements, associated
with the bones of extinct animals and therefore sho\ving much
greater age than usually accepted — had been reported from time
to time, notably those found in the river Somme by Boucher de
Perthes. But the prejudice against such antiquity was so strong
that geologists with one accord, and without examination, pooh-
poohed all such evidence as incredible. It was Sir Joseph Prest-
wich who, in 1859, first examined them carefully, and published
the proofs that convinced the geological world that early man was
indeed contemporaneous with the extinct animals of the Quater-
nary period, and that the time must have been many times greater
than usually allowed.*

Since that time confirmatory evidence has accumulated, and the
earliest appearance of man has been pushed back first to the late
glacial, then to the middle glacial, and finally, in Mr. Prestwich's
Plateau Gravels, to the early glacial or possibly preglacial times.

Still, however, in every case earliest man was unmistakably
man. No links connecting him with other anthropoids had been
found. Very recently, however, have been found, by Du Bois, in
Java, the skull, teeth, and thigh bone of what seems to be a veri-
table missing link, named by the discoverer Pithecanthropus erec-
ius. The only question that seems to remain is whether it should
be regarded as an ape more manlike than any known ape, or a
man more apelike than any yet discovered. The age of this crea-
ture was either latest Pliocene or earliest Quaternary.

BREAKS IN THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE.

From the earliest times of geologic study there have been ob-
served unconformities of the strata and corresponding changes in
the fossil contents. Some of these unconformities are local and the
changes of organic forms inconsiderable, but sometimes they are of
wider extent and the changes of life system greater. In some cases
the unconformity is universal or nearly so, and in such cases we find
a complete and apparently sudden change in the fossil contents.
It was these universal breaks that gave rise to the belief in the
occurrence of violent catastrophes and corresponding wholesale
exterminations and re-creations of faunas and floras.

It is evident, however, on a little reflection, that every such
unconformity indicates a land period at the place observed, and
therefore a time unrecorded in strata and fossils at that place — i. e.,

* Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Prescwich, pp. 124 tt seq.

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 549

a lost interval — certain leaves missing from the book of time.
And if the unconformity be widespread, the lost interval is corre-
spondingly great. It is therefore probable that change of species
went on slowly and uniformly all the time, although not recorded
at that place. Intermediate strata may be and often are fomnd
elsewhere, and the supposed lost interval filled. The record was
continuous and the changes uniform, but the record is not all found
in one place. The leaves of the book of Time are scattered here
and there, and it is the duty of the geologist to gather and arrange
them in proper order, so that the record may read continuously.

This is the uniformitarian view, and is undoubtedly far truer
than the catastrophic. But the objection to it is that in the case
of very widespread unconformities, such as occurred several times
in the history of the earth, the changes of organisms are so great
that if the rate of change was uniform the lost interval must have
been equal to all the rest of the history put together. Therefore
we are compelled to admit that in the history of the earth there
have been periods of comparative quiet (not fixedness) during which
evolutionary changes were slow and regular, and periods of revolu-
tion during which the changes were much more rapid, but not
catastrophic. This is exactly what we ought to expect on the idea
of gradual evolution of earth forms by secular cooling, for in the
gradual contraction of the earth there must come times of general
readjustment of the crust to the shrinking nucleus. These read-
justments would cause great changes in physical geography and
climate, and corresponding rapid changes in organic forms. In
addition to this, the changes in physical geography and climate
would cause extensive migrations of species, and therefore min-
glings of faunas and floras, severer struggles of competing forms,
and more rapid advance in the steps of evolution. Among these
changes of organic forms there would arise and have arisen new
dominant types, and these, in their turn, would compel new adjust-
ment of relations and still further hasten the steps of evolution.
Such changes, whether geographic, or climatic, or organic, would
not be simultaneous all over the earth, but propagated from place
to place, until quiet was re-established and a new period of com-
parative stability and prosperity commenced.

This "sdew is a complete reconciliation of catastrophism and
uniformitarianism, and is far more rational than either extreme.

Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. — Such periods of
rapid change may well be called critical periods or revolutions.
They are marked by several characteristics: (1) By Avidespread
oscillations of the earth's crust, and therefore by almost universal
unconformities. (2) By widespread changes of physical geography,

550 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and therefore by great changes in climate. (3) By great and wide-
spread changes in organic forms, produced partly by the physical
changes and partly by the extensive migrations. (4) By the evo-
lution of new dominant types, which are also the cause of exten-
sive changes in species. (5) Among the physical changes occurring
at these times is the formation of great mountain ranges. The
names of these critical periods or revolutions are often taken from
the mountain range which form their most conspicuous features.

There have been at least four of these critical periods, or
periods of greatest change: (1) The pre-Cambrian or Laurentide
revolution; (2) the post-Paleozoic or Appalachian; (3) the post-
Cretaceous or Rocky Mountain; (4) the post-Tertiary or glacial
revolution.

Now, as these critical periods separate the primary divisions of
time — the eras — it follows that the Present — the Age of Man —
is an era. It may be called the Psychozoic Era. These views
have been mainly advocated by the writer of this sketch, but I
believe that, with perhaps some modification in statement, they
would be accepted by most geologists as a permanent acquisition
of science.*

GEOLOGICAL CLIMATES.

Attention was first drawn to this subject by the apparently
unique phenomena of the Glacial epoch.

For nearly a century past Alpine glaciers, their structure, their
mysterious motion, and their characteristic erosive effects, have
excited the keenest interest of scientific men. But until about
1840 the interest was purely physical. It was Louis Agassiz who
first recognized ice as a great geological agent. He had long been
familiar with the characteristic marks of glacial action, and with
the fact that Alpine glaciers were far more extensive formerly
than now, and had, moreover, conceived the idea of a Glacial epoch
— an ice age in the history of the earth. With this idea in his
mind, in 1840 he visited England, and found the marks of glaciers
all over the higher regions of England and Scotland. He boldly
announced that the whole of northern Europe was once covered
with a universal ice sheet. A few years later he came to the
United States, and found the tracks of glaciers every^^here, and
again astonished the world by asserting that the whole, northern
part of the ISTorth American continent was modeled by a moving
ice sheet. This idea has been confirmed by all subsequent inves-
tigation, especially here in America.

* Critical Period?, etc., American Journal of Science, vol. xiv, p. 99, 1877'; Bulletin of
the Geological Department of the University of California, vol. i, No. 11, 1895,

J CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 551

But it would be strange, indeed, if the cold of tlie Glacial epoch
should be absolutely unique. Attention was soon called to similar
marks in rocks of other geological periods, especially in the Per-
mian of the southern hemisphere. This opened up the general
question of geological climates and their causes.

Perhaps no subject connected with the physics of the earth is
more obscure and difficult than this. The facts, as far as we know
them, are briefly as follows: (1) All the evidence we have point to
a high, even an ultra-tropical, climate in early geological times;
(2) all the evidence points to a uniform distribution of this early
high temperature, so that the zonal arrangement of temperatures,
such as characterizes present climates, did not then exist; (3) tem-
perature zones were apparently first introduced in the late Meso-
zoic (Cretaceous) or early Tertiary times, and during the Tertiary
the colder zones were successively added, until at the end there
was formed a polar ice-cap as now.

Thus far all might be explained by progressive cooling of the
earth and progressive clearing of the atmosphere of its excess CO2
and aqueous vapor. But (4) from time to time (i. e,, at critical
periods) there occurred great oscillations of temperature, the last
and probably the greatest of these being the Glacial period. The
cause of these great oscillations of temperature, and especially the
cause of the glacial climate, is one of the most interesting and yet
one of the obscurest and therefore one of most hotly disputed points
in geology. Indeed, the subject has entered into the region of
almost profitless discussion. "We must wait for further light and
for another century. Only one remark seems called for here.
It is in accordance with a true scientific method that we should
exhaust terrestrial causes before we resort to cosmical. The most
usual terrestrial cause invoked is the oscillation of the earth's crust.
But recently Chamberlin, in a most suggestive paper,* has in-
voked oscillations in the composition of the atmosphere, especially
in its proportion of CO2, as the immediate cause, although this in
turn is due to oscillations of the earth's crust.

THE NEW GEOLOGY.

Heretofore the geological history of the earth has been studied
only in the record of stratified rocks and their contained fossils.
But in every place there have been land-periods in which, of
course, erosion took the place of sedimentation. This kind of
record is very imperfect, because there are no fossils. Until re-
cently no account was taken of these erosion-periods except as

* Journal of Geology, vol. vi, p. 597, 1898, and vol. vii, p. 545, 1899.

552 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

breaks of indefinite length in the record — as lost intervals. But
now, and mainlj through the work of American geologists, in-
terpretation of these erosion-periods has fairly commenced, and
so imjoortant has this new departure in the study of geology seemed
to some that it has been hailed as a new era in geology, connecting
it more closely with geography. Heretofore former land periods
were recognized by unconformities and the amount of time by the
degree of change in the fossils, but now the amount of time is esti-
mated in existing land surfaces by topographic forms alone. This
idea was introduced into geology by Major J. W. Powell, and has
been applied with success by William Morris Davis, W J McGee,
and others.

The principle is this: Land surface subject to erosion and
standing still is finally cut down to gently sweeping curves, with
low, rounded divides and broad, shallow troughs. Such a surface
is called by Davis a Peneplain. Such a peneplain is characteristic
of old topography. If such a surface be again lifted to higher
level, the rivers again dissect it by ravines, which are deep and
narrow in proportion to the amount and rate of the uplift. If the
land again remains steady, the sharply dissected surface is again
slowly smoothed out to the gentle curves of a peneplain. If, on
the contrary, the surface be depressed, the rivers fill up the chan-
nels with sediment which, on re-elevation, is again dissected. Thus
the whole ontogeny of land surfaces have been studied out, so that
their age may be recognized at sight.

Thus, wliile heretofore the more recent movements of the
crust were supposed to be readable only on coast lines and by
means of the old sea strands, now we read with equal ease the
movements of the interior by means of the physiognomy of the
topography, and especially the structure of the river channels.
Moreover, while heretofore the history of the earth was supposed
to be recorded only in stratified rock and their contained fossils,
now we find that recent history is recorded and may be read also
in the general topography of the land surfaces. Geography is
studied no longer as mere description of earth forms, but also as
to the causes of these forms, no longer as to present forms, but
also as to the history of their becoming. Thus geogi'aphy, by its
alliance with geology, has become a truly scientific study, and as
such is now introduced into the colleges and universities. It is
this alliance with geology which has caused the dry bones of geo-
graphic facts to live. It is this which has created a soul under the
dry *' rihs of this death." This mode of study of the history of the
earth has just commenced. How much will come of it is yet to
be shown in the next century.

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 553

In this connection it is interesting to trace the effect of en-
vironment on geological reasonings in different countries. Here-
tofore, especially in England, what we have called peneplains were
usually attributed to marine denudation — i. e., to cutting back of
a coast line by constant action of the waves, leaving behind a level
submarine plateau, which is afterward raised above sea level and
dissected by rivers. American geologists, on the contrary, are apt
to regard such level surfaces as the final result of aerial degrada-
tion or a base level of rain and river erosion. The same differ-
ence is seen in the interpretation of glacial phenomena. Until
recently, English geologists were inclined to attribute more to ice-
berg, Americans more to land ice. Again, in England coast scen-
ery is apt to be attributed mainly to the ravages of the sea, while
in America we attribute more to land erosion combined with sub-
sidence of the coast line. In a word, in the tight little sea-girt
island of Great Britain, where the ravages of the sea are yearly
making such serious inroads upon the area of the land, it is natural
that the power of the sea should strongly affect the imagination
and impress itself on geological theories, and tend perhaps to ex-
aggeration of sea agencies, while the broad features of the Ameri-
can continent and the evidences of prodigious erosion in compara-
tively recent geological time tend to the exaggeration of erosive
agency of rain and rivers. These two must be duly weighed and
each given its right proportion in the work of earth sculpture.

PALEONTOLOGY.

Paleontology at first attracted attention mainly by the new
and strange life forms which it revealed. It is the interest of a
zoological garden. This interest is of course perennial, but can
hardly be called scientific. Geology at first was a kind of wonder
book.

ISText fossils, especially marine shells, were studied as character-
istic forms denoting strata of a particular age. They were coins
by which we identify certain periods of history. They were
" medals of creation." It was in this way chiefly that William
Smith, the founder of English stratigraphic geology, used them.
It was in this way that Lyell and all the older geologists, until the
advent of evolution, were chiefly interested in them.

It was Cuvier, the great zoologist and comparative anatomist,
who, in the beginning of the present century, first studied fossils,
especially mammalian fossils, from the zoological point of view —
i. e., as to their affinities with existing animals. Cuvier's studies
of the vertebrates of the Paris basin may be said to have laid the
foundation of scientific paleontology from this point of view.

VOL. LVI.— 44

554 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Thenceforward two views of paleontology and two modes of
study gradually differentiated from one another, the one zoologi-
cal, the other geological. In the one case we study fossils in
taxonomic groups — i. e., as species, genera, families, orders, etc. —
and trace the gradual evolution of each of these from generalized
forms to their specialized outcomes, completing as far as possible
the genetic chain through all time. In the other we study fossils
in faunal groups, as successive geological faunas, and the geo-
graphic diversity in each geological period — i. e., the evolution of
geologic faunas and the causes of geographic diversity in each. In
a word, we study the laws of distribution of faunas in time geo-
logically and in space geographically, and the causes of these laws
in each case. The first is strictly a branch of zoology and botany,
and we leave it to these specialists. The second alone belongs
properly to geology. In this purely geologic paleontology, as seen
from its scope given above, there are many questions of widest
philosophical interest which are only now attracting the attention
they deserve. I only touch lightly two which have been brought
forward in these very last years of the century.

I. GE^^ERAL LaW'S of Faunal Evolution. — The evolution of
the organic kingdom from this strictly geological point of view may
be briefly formulated as follows:

1. Throughout all geological time there has been a general
movement upward and onward, as it were abreast, everywhere.
If this were all, there would be only geological progress, but no
geographical diversity. Geological history would be the same
everywdiere. A time horizon would be easily determined by iden-
tity of fossil species. This we know is not true. Therefore there
are other elements besides this.

2. In different countries, isolated from one another and under
different conditions, evolution takes different directions and differ-
ent rates, producing geographical diversity in each geological pe-
riod. This diversity increases with time as long as the isolation
continues. If this were all, the geographical diversity by continued
divergence would have become so great that it would be impossible
even approximately to determine any geological horizon. The
history of each country must be studied for itself. A general his-
tory of the earth would be impossible. But this also is not true.
There is therefore still another element.

3. From time to time, at long intervals-^i. e., critical periods —
there are widespread readjustments of the crust to internal strain,
determining changes of physical geography and of climate, and
therefore wide migrations of species with mingling and conflict of
faunas. This would produce more rapid movement of evolution,

A CENTURY OF GEOLOGY. 555

but at the same time more or less complete obliteration of geo-
graphical diversity.

4. After these periods of migrations and minglings there would
be re-isolations in new localities, and the process of diversification
would recommence and increase as long as the isolation continues.

The last of these critical periods of migi'ations and minglings
and struggles for life among competing species was the Glacial
epoch or ice age. Therefore the present geographical distribution
of species was largely determined by the extensive migrations of
that time.

n. Cosmopolitan and Provincial Faunas. — There are appar-
ently in the history of the earth periods of widespread or cosmo-
politan faunas, alternating with localized or provincial faunas.
The cosmopolitan periods are usually times of prevalence of lime-
stones or organic sediments, and the fossils are very abundant.
The provincial periods are usually characterized by sandstones and
shales or mechanical sediments, and are comparatively poor in fos-
sils. Moreover, it is believed that the cosmopolitan limestone
periods are oceanic periods — i. e., periods of wide oceans and lower
and smaller continents and little erosive activity, while the sand-
stone periods, characterized by provincial faunas, are periods of
higher and larger continents, and therefore of great erosion and
abundant mechanical sedimentation.

!N"ow, according to Chamberlin, these remarkable alternations
are due to oscillations of the crust, in which the continents are alter-
nately lifted and depressed. It must be remembered that abyssal
faunas are almost unkno^vn among fossils. This is the necessary
result of substantial permanency of oceanic basins. The whole
geological record is in shallow-water faunas. These shallow waters
are along continental shore lines and in interior continental seas.
According to Chamberlin again, during a period of continental
depression all the flat continental margins are submerged, forming
broad submarine platforms, and the lower interior portions of the
continents are also submerged, forming wide and shallow interior
seas. Under these conditions continental waste, and therefore sand
and clay sediments, are reduced to a minimum. Life, animal and
vegetal, abounds, and therefore much limestone is formed. The
oceans are widely connected with one another, and therefore the
faunas are widespread or cosmopolitan. During the period of ele-
vation, on the contrary, the continents are extended to the margin
of the deep oceanic basins, the broad, shallow submarine platforms
are abolished, the interior seas are also abolished, the shallow-
water areas are reduced to isolated bays, and their faunas are
peculiar or provincial. Also, elevated and enlarged continents

556 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

give rise to maximum erosion, and therefore abundant sediments
of sandstone and clay, and comparative poverty of life and there-
fore of limestone. Chamberlin also gives reasons why the oceanic
periods should be warm, humid, equable in temperature, and the
atmosphere highly charged with CO2, and therefore highly favor-
able to abundant life, both vegetal and animal, while land periods
would be drier and cooler, the atmosphere deficient in CO2, and
therefore cold from that cause and in many ways unfavorable to
abundant life.

These extremely interesting views, however, must be regarded
as still on trial, as a provisional hypothesis to be sifted, confirmed,
or rejected, or in any case modified, in the next century.

Lastly, it is interesting to note the ever-increasing part taken
by American geologists in the advance of this science. There has
been through the century a gradual movement of what might be
called the center of gravity of geological research westward, until
now, at its end, the most productive activity is here in America.
This is not due to any superiority of American geologists, but to
the superiority of their opportunities. Dana has well said that
America is the type continent of the world. All geological prob-
lems are expressed here Avith a clearness and a simplicity not found
elsewhere. We must add to this the comparative recency of geo-
logical study in this rich field. In Europe the simpler and broader
problems are already worked out, and all that remain are difficult
problems requiring much time. In America, on the contrary, not
only are all problems expressed in simpler terms, but many great
and broad problems are still awaiting solution. For these reasons
the greatest activity in research, and the most rapid advance dur-
ing the next century, will probably be here in America.

"SALAMANDERS" AND "SALAMANDER" CATS.

By NOHMAX ROBINSON.

IN many places in the extreme Southern States, especially in
what is locally known as the " piney woods," one of the most
notable features is the constantly recurring mounds of yellow sand
which everywhere dot and, it must be confessed, disfigure the
monotonous landscape. These piles of earth are usually nearly
circular in form, fairly symmetrical in contour, from six inches to
two feet in diameter, and, save where they have been beaten down
by rain or winds or the trampling of cattle, about half as high as
they are broad. Often these sand heaps are pretty evenly dis-
tributed, sometimes so thickly as to cover at least one fourth of the

''SALAMANDERS'' AND ''SALAMANDER'' CATS. 557

soil surface. If you ask a native the cause of this singular phe-
nomenon, which you will perhaps at first be disjjosed to consider a
kind of arenaceous eruption which has somehow broken out on the
face of Nature, your informant will sententiously reply, " Sala-
manders! "

All this disfigurement is indeed the work of a curious little
rodent popularly so named and about the size and color of an ordi-
nary rat. He is never seen above ground if he can possibly help it.
He digs innumerable branching underground tunnels at depths
varying from one to six feet, and these mounds of sand are simply
the " dump heaps " which, in his engineering operations, he finds
it necessary to make.

After carrying the excavated earth to the surface this cautious
little miner takes the greatest pains to cover up his tracks. ISTo

Snap-shot" View of a Live "Salamander.'

opening into his burrow is left. How he manages to so carefully
smooth over his little sand mound and then literally " pull the hole
in after him " is as yet unexplained. The work is mostly done at
night, when observation is especially difficult. Sometimes, when
he is a little belated and the early morning twilight admonishes
him that it is " quitting time," he gets in a hurry and slights his
work. Then a little depression at the top of the mound tells where
he has made a hasty exit. Ordinarily the rounding out of the
sand pile is as deftly done as though it had all been managed from
above. Indeed, the feat actually accomplished by this little under-
ground builder appears more puzzling the more it is considered.
The most skilled human engineer would confess his inability to

558 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

thus pile Tip a mound of loose sand, go down through it, leave the
top perfectly smoothed over, and, with no supports save the sand
itself, to so fill up the passageway above him as he went down that
not the slightest mark should be left to indicate his pathway of
retreat.

Even if you dig into and under one of these sand mounds you
will find very little to betray the builder's whereabouts. It is
seemingly all solid earth, and unless you know exactly when and
where and how to dig you will probably give up the search in dis-
gust, with your labor and your backache but no " salamander "
hole for your pains. Indeed, the cunning of this little rodent in
hiding his burrow is quite as conspicuous as his skill in digging it.
" Strategy " is his strong point. If by any chance you come upon
his burrow it is probably an old abandoned one that is closed up
and leads nowhere. The chances are ten to one that his real bur-
row is rods if not furlongs away.

Provided you can find the last mound he has built and not more
than four or five hours have elapsed since its completion, by dig-
ging diagonally to the right or left, at the distance of a foot or so,
you will have a fair chance of encountering his burrow. He is
probably near by, resting from the severe labors of the previous
night. If you give him time to get his nap out and finish his job,
your wiser plan will be to stop hunting and digging a little before
you begin.

Why this little underground dweller should be called " sala-
mander " is one of those mysteries of popular nomenclature which
is seemingly inexplicable. There is certainly nothing in the habits
or appearance of the animal to suggest the fabled fireproof ba-
trachian. Like some other lovers of darkness, he has quite a num-
ber of aliases by which in various portions of the South and West he
is known. " Gopher," "■ pouched rat," " hamster," and " muelos "
are some of the titles by which he is locally known. " Salaman-
der " appears to be the most generally accepted one.

This enterprising little rodent belongs to an ancient if not hon-
orable family. By naturalists he is generally known as " pocket
gopher," and is classed among the Geomyidm. Some fifteen known
species have been recognized, with possibly more to hear from, and
with a habitat extending quite across the continent. The Florida
species is probably Geomys tuza (Ord.), and though not as large
as one or two others, is quite the peer of any of his cousins in en-
terprise and ability to look out for himself.

The illustration given is from what is probably the only photo-
graph of a living " salamander " ever taken. Mr. Geomys is not
a model " sitter." ISTo unwilling candidate for the " rogues' gal-

'' SALAMANDERS'' AND ''SALAMANDER'' CATS. 559

lerj " lias more decided views on the subject of having his picture
taken. In a general way, it may be said that he doesn't pose for
anybody. Precisely how this prejudice was finally overcome it is
needless to state. Perseverance and " snap shots " were too much
for our recalcitrant rodent. In the matter of " looking pleasant "
it must be conceded that Mr. Geomys was a little intractable.

The fore legs and feet of the " salamander " are worth studying.
They remind one somewhat of those of the mole, but are more
stoutly built, with much longer claws, and are evidently designed

"Dump Heaps'' of thk

•ALAilAMlER.

for harder tasks. They are controlled by powerful brachial and
pectoral muscles, and, as we shall see, are not only special tools
adapted to special and difficult work, but work which requires an
enormous expenditure of physical force.

The engineering problems which this little troglodyte has to
solve are far and away ahead of any that the New York Rapid-
Transit Commission has to deal with. It is very much as though
a single miner were placed over in Jloboken, a hundred feet below
the surface, wdtli instructions to tunnel under the Hudson River

56o POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

with no tools except his hands, without a chance of seeing daylight
until lie reached it on the I^ew York side, and with the added condi-
tions that all the excavated earth should be carried out at the east-
ern opening of the tunnel, and finally that he should obliterate all
marks of his work and, as he retreated into his tunnel, pack the
exit shaft above him so tightly and so deftly that it is impossible
to trace its course!

How our little fur-coated engineer solves all these problems is
as yet a mystery. We only know that he does it. He has a steam
engine in his shoulders and shovels for hands, but his exact methods
of using them is as yet largely a matter of conjecture. Only two
plans of operation would seem to be possible. One would be
for the " salamander " to first carry the excavated earth all to
the rear into some portion of his already finished tunnel, and
finally, when the outward exit is completed, to carry it back
again and deposit it on the surface. This, of course, involves
a double transfer of all the earth removed. It is more likely
that the " salamander " first forces a narrow passageway along
the line of his future tunnel in a way similar to that pursued
by the mole. The latter animal has the advantage of working
near the surface, and the earth always yields along the line of least
resistance, which of course is upward. Four or five feet down
there is no such line, and the amount of force required to push the
ground aside must be something enormous. When the " salaman-
der " comes to the upper air the work of excavation and enlarge-
ment begins. He then piles upon the surface all the earth that he
can not use in obliterating his upward passageway. As the writer
has frequently observed fresh sand mounds hundreds of feet from
any others, he is inclined to believe that this is the real method
pursued.

The exceeding care which the " salamander " takes to leave no
opening into his subterranean home arises, no doubt, from his hor-
ror of snakes. In this respect no woman can surpass him. His
antipathies to reptiles are probably the accumulated embodiment of
hundreds of centuries of ancestral experience. He is aware that
these hereditary enemies of his race are of a very investigating turn
of mind, and put in a good deal of spare time when awake in crawl-
ing into and exploring any tempting hole they may discover. And
so Mr. Geomys, like the sensible fellow that he is, not only takes
good care to shut and lock his front gate every time he is compelled
to go through it, but he blocks up the whole passageway and does
his best to convince trespassers that it is all a mistake to suppose
that there ever has been any roadway leading to his underground
home.

''SALAMANDERS'' AND ''SALAMANDER'' CATS. 561

Indeed, it is bj taking advantage of this morbid antipathy to
intruders and daylight that our little underground dweller is usu-
ally caught. If by skillful digging a recently formed burrow is
reached, one may be reasonably certain that in from five to ten
minutes Mr. " Salamander " will be on hand to see what has hap-
pened and to repair damages. A shotgun kept steadily aimed at
the opening, and with a quick pull on the trigger the instant the
slightest movement in the sand is seen, " fetches " him every
time. Another very successful method is to place a strong trap
right at the opening into his burrow. In making repairs our " sala-
mander " is in too big a hurry to look very carefully where he steps,
and so is quite likely to blunder into the trap. He is always caught,
however, by one of his legs, and if left any length of time is quite
apt to gnaw off the captive limb and thus make his escape. Spar-
tan bravery or love of freedom surpassing this would be hard to
find.

The food of Geomys bursarius appears to be exclusively vege-
table. ITative roots and root stocks, cones and bulbs, together
with the root bark of various trees, are eaten by him, and sometimes
in a very annoying way. Orange trees are peculiarly liable to
his attacks. He gnaws through and around the tap root as near
to the surface as he can without disturbing it or in any way call-
ing attention to his work, and not infrequently he continues his
depredations until every root of any size is eaten off. This, of
Course, means the death of the tree.

From the " salamander " point of view, however, the greatest
food " bonanza " of all is a sweet-potato patch. "A 'possum up a
'simmon tree " or a " pig in clover " is not more alive to the de-
lights and advantages of the situation. He not only eats all he
can stuff, but invites his relatives and friends. Nor is this all.
He has learned that in autumn sweet potatoes are liable to sud-
denly disappear, so he " takes time " — and the potatoes — " by the
forelock," and packs them away in liberal measure in his burrow
for winter use. So well understood are the ways and weaknesses
of this underground marauder that any suspicious mound of earth
in a sweet-potato field is the signal for an active campaign of ex-
termination, which ends only in the intruder's flight or death.

The " side pockets " of the " salamander " have already been
referred to. They are undoubtedly a great convenience to their
owner in carrying food and possibly other things. The capacity
of these cheek pouches is about sufficient to give room for a pigeon's
egg. They are, however, quite extensile, and can readily be made
to hold three or four times this amount. Indeed, the skin and
underlying connective .tissue are so elastic that these pockets can

VOL. LTI. — 45

562 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

readily be turned inside out. It is claimed that the " salamander "
employs bis bandlike fore feet to fill and empty tbese receptacles,
using tbe rigbt foot for tbe left pouch, and vice versa. A gentle-
man in Florida recently assured me tbat by a lucky tbrust of a spade
be once killed one of tbese mischievous rodents as he was in the
very act of cutting off the roots of an orange tree. The cheek
pouches of the culprit were filled Avith fragments of bark which
be bead gnawed off, doubtless to be stowed away in his burrow.

Why, in a climate where there is almost no winter, where there
is very little interruption to vegetable growth and the food supply
is practically unlimited, provisions should thus be stored away is
somewhat difficult to explain. It is not impossible that it is sim-
ply the survival of an ancestral habit acquired during the Glacial
period. Or it may be that, like the dog, the " salamander " finds
the flavor of old and well-seasoned food more to his taste. All
that can be positively affirmed is that this mse little rodent does,
occasionally at least, thus cache his food supplies.

One of the most curious results of the existence and habits of
this elusive little burrowing rodent is the development of a new
and peculiar breed of Felis domestica, called " salamander " cats.
Ordinary tabbys do not understand or admire the ways of Geomys
iursarius, or, for some other good and sufficient feline reason, do
not include him in their game list. The variety of cats in question,
which, so far as the author knows, is confined to Florida, appears
to have been developed spontaneously and with very little if any
human agency, and is noted for its special skill in catching " sala-
manders," as well as a decided liking for the sport. Any Mrs.
Tabby of this breed, especially if she has a family to provide for,
is up betimes in the morning. The particular object of her pur-
suit is a remarkably early riser, and finishes his day's work before
most people have begun theirs. So if there is a convenient fence
around the grounds she proposes to hunt she mounts it with the
first peep of day, and, with a sharp eye to landward, starts on
her tour of observation. Any fresh pile of sand is closely scru-
tinized. The slightest movement there brings her to the mound
with a spring, and she is at once crouching behind it; so when Mr.
Geomys comes up in a big hurry with his next load of sand he finds
somebody to meet him that is in a bigger hurry still, and so the
unsuspecting victim is borne off in triumph.

An estimable lady of the writer's acquaintance who owned one
of these " salamander " cats, with a single juvenile pussy to provide
for, kept an accurate account of the number of these rodents which
she saw this industrious mother cat bring to her offspring in a
single month. The number was thirty, and as the month hap-

'^ SALAMANDERS'' AND ''SALAMANDER'' CATS. 563

pened to be February this gave, of course, two more than a " sala-
mander " a day.

One other curious observed feature of this new variety of cats
is their want of fecundity. The mother tabby seldom has more
than one kitten at a birth. The writer once owned a fine female
of this breed that scrupulously adhered to the traditional habits
of her race.

This particular pussy, like the rest of us, had her family trou-
bles. Her one kitten — probably from its mixed parentage — was
always inclined to rebel at the " salamander " diet. There was
something amusing to a degree and suggestively human in the old
cat's methods of discipline. When she had succeeded in catching
a salamander she would always first bring it and lay it down be-
fore her mistress, to make sure of the praise and the petting.
Then, with a motherly " meow,^^ she would call her kitten. That
frisky little youngster was always quite ready for his breakfast,
but showed a decided preference for the " maternal font." Then
the old cat would give him a " cuff " that would send him spin-
ning. Then she would take up the " salamander " and put it down
before her hopeful offspring with an air that said as j^lainly as
words could do: "There, now! Eat that or go hungry! " Then
her mother love would get the better of her and she would go to
licking and petting her disobedient baby, and it would usually end
in the kitten's having its own way and satisfying its hunger with
milk from the " original package." By persistence and the force
of example the old cat finally succeeded in accustoming her off-
spring to what she evidently thought the orthodox diet of her race.

The writer is quite well aware of the intrinsic difficulties in-
volved in the spontaneous development of any new variety of cats.
Still, such branching of types has occurred in the past, and of course
is possible now. When his attention was first called to the matter
he was inclined to consider it merely an instance of animal educa-
tion. A fact that came under his personal observation seems,
however, hard' to reconcile with this or any theory that does
not concede the hereditary transmission of acquired habits and
tastes.

A kitten of the breed of cats in question was taken when very
young and reared nearly a mile away from its mother. When
grown it developed the same skill in hunting " salamanders," and
the same love for the sport as that for which its mother was cele-
brated.

Dogs, of course, have long been noted for the readiness with
which acquired knowledge, habits, and tastes manifest and per-
petuate themselves in hereditary forms. The setter, pointer, col-

564 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

lie, St. Bernard, and other well-known breeds will occur to every-
one as illustrating this psychic plasticity. Doubtless the cat brain
is somewhat less impressible, but there would seem to be good rea-
sons for including it among the educably variable types.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

By WILLIAM BAXTER, Jk., C. E.

III.

A LTHOUGH the electric railway has been introduced through-
-^^-*- out the civilized world with the most remarkable rapidity,
replacing cable as well as horse roads, there has always been a strong
opposition to the use of the overhead trolley, and in some places,
as, for instance, the city of Kew York, this opposition has been so
strong as to prevent the introduction of the system until some
other means of conveying the current to the moving cars was de-
vised. Many attempts have been made to solve this problem, and
the patents taken out on such devices can be numbered by the hun-
dred and possibly by the thousand. Inventors in this field, how-
ever, have not met with all the encouragement they could desire,
owing to the fact that, notwithstanding opposition, the overhead
trolley has been permitted in all but about three or four of the
larger cities of this country, and the greater portion of those of
other countries. The principal well-founded objection that can be
raised against the trolley is that it is unsightly and destroys the
appearance of the street, but those who are opposed to it also claim
that it is dangerous, and that underground or surface systems would
not be. As a matter of fact it is not dangerous, and there is noth-
ing on record to show that it is. Many persons have been run over
by trolley cars, but this is no fault of the overhead trolley; it is due
to the fact that street railroads are permitted to run cars through
crowded streets at a speed that is too great for safety. Under-
ground conduit cars running at the same speed would run over
just as many people. In accusing the trolley of being dangerous
it is sought to prove that the current flowing in the wire can do
harm; but the history of the numerous roads in existence shows
that, so far as human beings are concerned, the trolley current is
not fatal, although it can give a decidedly unpleasant shock, such
as one would not care to experience the second time. There is

Note. — Figs. 28 and 32 are reproductions of photographs kindly furnished by the Gen-
eral Electric Company, while for the view of car, Fig. 30, we are iiidelited to Colonel N. H.
Heft, chief electrical engineer of the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO. 565

just as great, if not greater, liability of obtaining shocks from
underground systems as from the trolley, therefore the only real
gain that can bie made by their use is in the artistic sense. From
a financial point of \'iew no underground system so far devised
can compare with the overhead trolley; but if any one should de-
vise anything hereafter that can be constructed at the same expense
and will not cost more for maintenance it will undoubtedly find
an extensive application. Until such a perfect solution of the
problem makes its appearance the field for these devices will be
confined to cities like Xew York and Washington, where the over-
head trolley is not permitted.

Every system of conductors that dispenses with the overhead
wire is called by the layman an underground trolley, but, properly
speaking, these systems may be divided into surface and subsurface
conductors. Both of these may again be divided into exposed and
inclosed conductors, and also into continuous and sectional con-
ductors. Finally, we may designate the various modifications as
mechanical, electrical, and magnetic, the mechanical being those
that accomplish the result by purely mechanical means, the elec-
trical being those that employ electrical devices, and the magnetic
those that depend for their action upon the attraction of magnets.
The principal difficulties that the inventors in this field have to
contend with are the cost of construction and the effective insula-
tion of conductors. With the overhead trolley the current flows
out from the power house to the cars through wires carried on poles,
and the poles are themselves good insulators; but to make the
work doubly sure the conductors are secured to glass insulators,
which are practically perfect. The current returns to the power
house through the ground and the track rails. As it is easier for
the current to circulate in a short path than in a long one, there is
a continual tendency for it to jump from the overhead wire through
the insulation to the ground, but this is effectually prevented by
the very perfect character of the insulation. When the outgoing
and incoming wires are both placed upon or underground the strain
upon the insulation is very much increased, for then instead of the
two lines being separated by fifteen or twenty feet of pole, which
is a very fair insulator, they are separated by only a few inches of
earth or perhaps metal, the first of which is a fairly good con-
ductor, while the last is a nearly perfect one. It is evident, there-
fore, that the insulation proper in an underground or surface sys-
tem must be of the highest order. If the conduits in which the
wires are located could be kept perfectly dry, there would be no
difficulty in obtaining insulation tjiat would withstand the strain
it is subjected to; but rain. in summer and snow in winter will at

566

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

times cover the tracks and fill the conduits, hence the securing of
perfect insulation presents great difficulties. The manner in which
inventors have sought to surmount the obstacles can be made clear
bj the aid of a few illustrations of typical designs.

riG. 25. — UNnEUGRoirND Conddit with Protecting Shield for the Conpttctor.

Fig. 25 shows one of the forms of a class of underground con-
duits belonging to the inclosed conductor type. The track rails
are supported upon the outer ends of large castings, F F, com-
monly called yokes. These are made of such size that the portion
below the opening which incloses the conduit may be of sufficient
depth to afford the requisite strength to properly support the track.
The conductor that carries the current is located at / and is insu-
lated from the casing ;, which forms the lower half of the conduit,
by the stands g. From the car a bar, P, which is called a plow,
projects downward through the slot between the rails, 1c h, and on
its end is spread out into a fork, d, which carries a pulley, e. Wlien
this pulley is in contact with the conductor f the current passes
through the plow P to the motors upon the car, and thence to
the track rails and back to the power house.

As the yokes F F and the conduit casing j are made of iron
and are in metallic connection with the track rails, it is evident
that if the conduits should fill with water to the depth of the wire
/ the current would pass directly to the rails, and thus would avoid
the longer path through the motors. To prevent this occurrence,
the sides of the conduit are inclosed with the sheet-iron covers c c,
which nominally are in the position shown by the dotted lines i i.

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

567

The plow is also provided with the arms h h, upon the ends of which
are mounted small wheels a a, and these run upon tracks attached
to the covers c c. As is shown in the figure, the wheels a a, run-
ning upon the tracks attached to the covers c c, cause the latter to
spread out to the position in which they are shown. This spread-
ing, as can be readily understood, only takes place for a short dis-
tance ahead and behind the plow, but at all other parts of the con-
duit the sides assume the position i i, and thus close the conduit
and exclude the water.

It can be easily seen that some difficulty would be encountered
in making a tight joint at h h, and also that the opening and closing
of the sides might not operate as perfectly in practice as upon
paper, but it does not follow from these facts that the design is not
practical; it simply illustrates that there are many minor difficul-
ties to be overcome in order that complete success may be attained.
Many designs operating upon this principle have been patented,
and in some of them a great amount of ingenuity is displayed.

Fig. 26 illustrates another type of inclosed conductor which
at a first glance appears to be far superior to that just described,
but upon closer investigation it is found to be not wholly free from
objections that are difficult to overcome. The yoke F F, as in the

Fig. 26. — Underground Conduit with Inclosed Conductor.

design just described, is made wide enough to support upon its
outer ends the track rails R R, and is cut away in the middle to
an outline conforming with the shape of the conduit. The con-
ductor that carries the current is located at d, being supported by
the stands e. An elastic tube / is provided, which is water-tight
and thus excludes moisture from its interior, within which the con-

568 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ductor d is located. On tlie top of tube / a flexible rail & is secured,
and this connects with studs c, wbicli are within the tube, as clearly
shown in the drawing, and so situated that they may be forced
down into contact with d. Normally these studs are separated
from d, but when the car comes along, the wheel a, mounted upon
the end of plow P, flattens the tube f and thus forces one or more
of the studs c into contact with d. The distance between the studs
c is such that at least two will always be in contact with d, thus
insuring a continuous electrical connection with the motors so long
as the plow is depressed.

The first impression upon looking at this design would be that
it is entirely free from objections; for if we assume that the tube
/ is made of rubber, we can see it in our mind's eye springing up
after the plow passes by and thus separating the contacts c from d,
and at the same time yielding freely to the pressure of the wheel a.
All of this is true, but rubber is not very durable when under such
exposed conditions, and to maintain a length of several miles of it
in a perfect state for even two or three years could not reasonably
be expected; and if it became necessary to renew the tube oftener
than this the cost of maintenance would be entirely too great.
There is another objection, however, which is more serious, and
that is that the conduit will gradually fill up with dirt, and this
pressing against the rubber tube would force it out of shape, and
thus cause the contacts c to bear permanently upon d, or else to
become so far displaced that they would not touch it when depressed
by the plow.

As the rubber tube can not be depended upon, inventors have
sought to improve the construction by using sheet steel and mak-
ing the tube flatter and much wider, so that a section of it would
present an outline much resembling an elliptic carriage spring.
Such a construction will meet the requirements as to strength and
the retention of the contacts c in their proper position; but steel
expands when warm and contracts when cooled, therefore a long
tube would be stretched so much in winter that it might pull apart,
while in summer it would be compressed and tend to buckle up
and thus be forced out of place. These difficulties can be over-
come by providing expansion joints at suitable intervals, so that
they are not necessarily proof of the impracticability of devices
based upon the principles involved in this design; they simply serve
to forcibly bring to mind the fact that the path of the inventor of
underground systems is not strewn with roses, no matter in what
direction he may turn to find a solution of the problem.

The object in the designs Figs. 25 and 26 is to shield the con-
ductor so that it will remain dry should the conduit be filled or par-

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.

;6g

tially filled with water. If water could be excluded from the con-
duit, the casing ; c c, in the first figure, and the tube f, in the second
one, would not be required, for there is no difficulty in providing an
insulating support that will hold the conductor firmly in place and
at the same time prevent the escape of the current; but as soon
as moisture collects upon the surfaces of the insulating supports it
acts as a conductor, and thus renders the insulation of little value.

k

FlQ. 27. — UXDERGE'IUND CoXDUIT WITH EXPOSED CONDUCTORS.

If water runs into the conduit in such quantities as to come in con-
tact with the conductor, then the effect of the insulation is entirely
destroyed; the aim of the inventors, therefore, is to provide means
for preventing the accumulation of water or moisture around the
conducting wire. It can be readily seen that the shorter the con-
ductor the easier it is to protect it, and this fact has given rise to
the development of a great number of designs classified as sec-
tional conductors. In these, two conductors are used, one of which

VOL. LVI. — 46

570

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

is contiimous and so situated and insulated that it can not under
any conditions be reached by either moisture or water. The other
conductor is made in lengths that vary all the way from fifteen to
two or three hundred feet. ISTormally, these short sections are not

Fig. 28. — View of Stkekt Railway Lines in Washington .operated bt Underground
CoNDCcTOR OK Type shown in Fig. 27.

connected with the circuit — they are dead, as it is called — but when
the car comes along, the plow, by acting upon suitable mechanism,
establishes a connection between the continuous conductor and the
portion of the sectional conductor that is directly under it, and in
this way the current passes to the car. As soon as the car passes
beyond a section of the sectional conductor, the connection between
it and the continuous wire is broken automatically. Some of these
arrangements depend upon mechanical devices, such as levers that
are struck by the plow and thereby move a switch that closes a con-
nection between the section and the continuous conductor, but in
most instances the switch is operated by a magnet, which may be
carried by the car or may be arranged so as to be energized as the
car approaches it. Designs of this last type come under the head
of electrically operated sectional conductor systems. There are
other arrangements in which a magnet carried by the car attracts
iron levers suitably disposed along the conduit, and these levers
close switches that connect the section of conductor under the
car with the continuous one. As the levers are actuated by the
magnet, they only hold the switch closed while the latter passes over

WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO. 571

them; thus the electrical connection is made and broken as the car
moves along.

Most of the designs in which sectional conductors are used can
be placed much nearer to the surface of the street than the types
illustrated in Figs. 25 and 26, and this is a decided advantage, as it
greatly reduces the cost of construction. Any system that requires
an underground conduit, with the yokes F F to support the track,
can only be used by roads upon which the traffic is very great, for
the cost of construction would be such as to prohibit its use under
any other conditions, no matter how successful its operation might
be. For small roads with moderate traffic the question of first cost
is of paramount importance, and the only system that can offer a
satisfactory solution of the problem for these is one that does not
require an underground conduit.

Although many patents have been taken out for systems simi-
lar to those described in the foregoing, nothing has been done prac-
tically with any of them except in an experimental way. Some are
in operation on small roads in out-of-the-way places, being intended
principally to illustrate the practicability of the system and thus
assist in promoting its introduction elsewhere, but the system that
has been adopted in a commercial way is one in which no attempt
is made to shield the conductor from moisture and water, and for
its successful operation dependence is placed entirely upon, the
proper drainage of the conduit. This system is well illustrated in
Fig. 27. The plow P carries upon its end two brushes, h h, which
are insulated from each other. These brushes rub against the con-

e's:. ^-:^-: r^C^\'^.^r^?"t C .rv^^--^^ ^S>, . I^^-f^-r

Fio. 29. — Ceoss-skction of Kailway Track provided with Third-rail Condtjotor.

ductors a a, which are made of bars of channel iron and are well
insulated from the yokes F F and the conduit casing to which they
are attached by means of the supports c c. In the construction
shown in the figure the current comes from the generator through
one of the a bars and returns through the other, but both bars
can be used to conduct the current from the generator, in which
case the return can be effected through the track rails, just as in
the designs already considered. If both the bars a a are used to
convey the current from the power house the insulation between

572 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTH I. Y.

the brushes h b is not required. To avoid the accumulation of
water in the conduit the drain G is provided with outlets d, located
at suitable points.

Although this system is the simplest that can be devised for use
in streets or public highways its construction is very costly, so much
so that it can only be used in cities where the traffic is so great
as to require the running of cars on short headway; and, further-
more, it can not be operated with any degree of success except in
municipalities where there is a good sewage system. During the
summer months it is liable to be more or less impaired by heavy
showers, but the trouble in such cases is only temporary. In
winter time snowstorms are liable to affect it in the same way,
especially if, after a heavy fall, a warm wave comes along and
produces a rapid thaw.

From the fact that no attempt whatever is made to protect the
conductors, one would naturally suppose that every time there is
a rain the road would be compelled to shut down; for, as the slot
through which the plow travels is open, water can enter the con-
duit with the greatest freedom, and, in trickling down the sides,
would be caught to some extent upon the brackets c c, and thus
make its way over to the channel bars a a, and thereby destroy the
insulation. Practice, however, shows that this action does not take
place, at least not so often as to produce any serious trouble. The
roads that are operated by electricity in New York, and also the
lines of the Capital Traction Company, of Washington, D. C,
employ this system, and they have been in operation a sufficient
length of time to fully demonstrate that the difficulties actually
developed by the action of the elements are not of a formidable
character. On one occasion the Sixth Avenue road, in New York,
was compelled to stop its cars for a short time just after a severe
snowstorm, but the failure was not due to impairment of the
insulation, according to the statements of the officials of the com-
pany, but to the fact that the melted snow froze upon the track
and caused the wheels to slip around without sending the car ahead.
The fact that other roads in New York, belonging to the same com-
pany, are being ((piippod with the system, is proof that, upon the
whole, its practical operation is regarded as satisfactory; but it is
very evident that it is not the final solution of the problem. A
system to be a decided success must cost very little more than the
ordinary overhead trolley, and its construction must be such that
it will not easily get out of order. If it is not inexpensive it will
not come into use except in places where the authorities will not
permit the overhead wires. A surface or underground system
ought to be more durable than the overhead, as the wires are not

WHAT MAKJ^S THE TROLLEY CAR GO. 573

liable to be injured by high winds or the accumulation of ice and
snow; and, furthermore, as the conductors are below the ground the
danger of burning out motors and generators by lightning would
be eliminated, and this is a serious matter with all trolley roads,
especially in cities. Country roads do not suffer so much from light-
ning, because when there is a heavy thunderstorm the generators
are stopped and the trolley poles are pulled away from the wire,
the cars remaining stalled on the track until the storm passes over.
This course can not be pursued by city roads, for the passengers
feel that, lightning or no lightning, they must reach their destina-
tion, therefore the cars must continue to run and take their chances.

Fig. 30. — View of a Section of the New York. New Haven and Hartford Railroad,

EQUIPPED WITH THE ThIRD-RAIL SySTEM.

Lightning, however, does not strike trolley lines as often in cities
as in the open country, owing to the fact that there are so many
iron buildings and roofs to attract it in other directions.

Fig. 28 shows the appearance of the street surface when an
underground system such as is illustrated in Fig. 27 is used. This
figure is a photograph of the Capital Traction Company's lines in
Washington. After looking at this picture one can not deny that
the appearance of the streets of a city is greatly improved when
the overhead wires are removed, but underground systems which
require a plow to run in a groove are not without objection, for the
groove forms a dangerous trap into which the narrow-tired wheels
of light wagons can readily drop, and the toes and heels of horse-

574 POPULAR SCIJ^JNCE MONTHLY.

shoes can be caught. Thus, unless the slot can be dispensed with
the greater beauty overhead is obtained at the expense of increased
danger on the street surface. There are quite a number of under-
ground conductor systems in which the slot is not used, the current
being conveyed to the car by contact made with plates set at suit-
able intervals between or along the sides of the tracks, and on a
level with the street surface. Many of these arrangements appear
to be quite practical, but none of them can attract the attention
of railroad managers unless it can be constructed at a reasonable
cost.

About two years ago the New York, New Haven, and Hartford
Railroad published a report of the performance of a branch line
that was equipped with electric motors, the current being conveyed
to them by means of a third rail. Some of the sensational dailies
at once took the matter up and heralded the third rail to the public
as something entirely new and sure to supersede the trolley. Now,
as a matter of fact, the third rail is one of the oldest

f" arrangements that have been used, and Avas in daily opera-
tion in Baltimore in 1886. It is a very cheap system and

well adapted to roads owning
the right of way or running
upon elevated tracks, but could
not be used on public high-

FiG. 31.— Cross-section of Railway Track, WayS Or Streets. The third-rail
SHOWING A Modification of the Thihi.- gygtem in itS simplest form is
RAIL System. "! . -n. i • i

shown m Fig. 29, which repre-
sents a section through the roadbed. The log A represents a tie
or sleeper, and c c are the track rails, while h is the third rail
through which the current passes to the motors. "Between the rail
h and the tie A is placed a piece of insulating material, a, of such
dimensions as may be necessary. If the track is high above the
surrounding ground, so as to not be submerged when there is a
heavy fall of rain, a may be thin, but otherwise it must be of suffi-
cient thickness to raise the rail above the high-water mark. The
car is provided with a wheel or brush to bear upon the rail h.

This is the construction used upon the New York, New Haven,
and Hartford Railroad, as can be seen from Fig. 30, which is a
photograph of a section of the road. The third rail, it will be
seen, is raised but slightly from the ties, just about as sho^vn in
Fig. 29. One objection to this construction is that persons and
animals can receive shocks by touching the center rail and one of
the side ones at the same time, as, for example, by standing with
one foot on each. Such shocks would not prove fatal to men, as
the currents used for railway work are not of a sufficiently liigh

,_ ,^^ _ , , _ ,>(

i^.

5 76 POPULAR SCIEXCE MONTHLY.

electro-motive force to produce death, but the shock is nevertheless
very severe. Horses and cattle would be killed outright, as these
animals are not able to withstand as strong a shock as human beings.
To render the third-rail system safer, and also to improve the insu-
hition of the conducting rail, the construction illustrated in Fig. 31
has been devised. The only dilference between it and Fig. 29
is that the rail h, instead of resting upon the ties between the tracks,
is carried upon a side support c c and is housed in with boards a a.
To take the current from it a wheel is mounted upon a shaft pro-
jecting from the side of the car truck.

From the foregoing brief descrij^tion of the essential features
of the several systems devised for conveying current to the moving
car by means of conductors placed underground or upon the sur-
face, it can be seen tliat while the result can be accomplished in
many ways, and is actually accomplished in a number of instances,
nothing has been brought forward so far that is as free from objec-
tion as the simple trolley, if we disregard the unsightliness of the
latter. It is this unsightliness that has created a demand for some-
thing else, but the substitutes, while capable of doing the work, are
far more costly and can not be said to be as reliable under all con-
ditions of weather.

The sphere of action of the electric-railway motor is not con-
fined to street railways or suburban transit, but extends to the
legitimate domain of the steam locomotive. In many places elec-
tric locomotives are used to move freight trains made up of cars
of the largest capacity, this same work having been done formerly
by steam locomotives. In the city of Baltimore, the Baltimore
and Ohio Kailroad uses electric locomotives, of greater capacity
than any steam locomotives so far made, to draw trains through the
tunnel that passes under the city. The general appearance of an
electric locomotive can be judged from Fig. 32, which shows an
engine of average size at the head of a long freight train.

MM. Bertaux and G. Yver are quoted, in La Nature, as relating in
their travels in Italy that between Benevento and Foggia, where the
railway passes through a tract of wheat fields, a falcon was observed closely
accompanying the train. He would graze the windows, fly over the roofs
of the cars and turn, and keep constantly dashing down to the ground
by the side of the track. A habitual traveler on the road remarked that
he had obsei-ved this habit of the bird several times a week. The crafty
hawk had observed that the eddy made by the train as it rushed through
the air overcame the small birds and made them an easy prey, and it had
learned to take advantage of the fact. It was also remarked that this
particular train, wliich was the "fast train," was the only one the bird
thus pursued.

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY. 577
A SURVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY.

By Professor E. P. EVANS.

OXE of the crassest and most impudent and yet most successful
frauds of modern times is that recently practiced by Leo Taxil
and his associates on the papal hierarchy in their pretended expos-
ures of the Freemasons and the Satanic rites performed by this
secret fraternity. On April 20, 1884, Leo XIII issued an encyclical
letter in which he divides the human race " into two diverse and
adverse classes " {in partes duas diversas adversasque): "the king-
dom of God on earth — namely, the true Church of Jesus Christ "
— and " the realm of Satan." All who are not members of the
former belong to the latter, so that there is no alternative between
being a good Catholic or a worshiper of the devil. His Holiness
then proceeds to show that the headquarters of Satanism are the
lodges of the Freemasons, a fact, he adds, fully recognized by his
predecessors, who have never ceased to expose and denounce the
diabolical character and flagitious aims of these archenemies of
the Christian faith. The detailed description of the organization
of this order, its devilish purposes, and the horrible crimes com-
mitted in order to accomplish them are very queer reading in an offi-
cial document emanating from an infallible ecclesiastical authority
at the close of the nineteenth century. On August 20, 1894, Leo
Xm published a decree of the Inquisition putting under ban " Odd
Fellows, Sons of Temperance, and Knights of Pythias " as " syna-
gogues of Satan," and excluding them from the sacraments of the
Church.

It is no wonder that such an exhibition of credulity, which ex-
cited the astonishment of many a Romanist and made all intelli-
gent and unprejudiced persons smile and shrug their shoulders,
should have suggested to an arrant wag and incorrigible player of
practical jokes like Leo Taxil (pseudonym of Gabriel Jogand) the
idea of appealing to this peculiar passion on a grand scale and see-
ing to what extent the " mother Church " could be led into fraud,
as Milton says, like "Eve, our credulous mother." In tracing the
development of this audacious plot through all its stages and per-
ceiving by what silly tales and transparent deceptions the Holy
Father permitted himself to be duped, one can hardly refrain from
exclaiming, in the words of Ben Jonson :

" Had you no quirk
To avoid gullage, sir, by such a creature ? "

Leo Taxil was born at Marseilles on March 21, 1854, and was
therefore thirty years of age when he entered upon this career of

VOL. LYI. — 47

578 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

intrigue and mystification. From his childhood he had been edu-
cated in strictly Roman Catholic schools, and everything was done
by his pious parents and teachers to render him sound in the faith.
Long before arriving at man's estate he had thrown off these influ-
ences and cast in his lot with unbelievers, although he continued to
go to mass, confession, and communion. "While a pupil in the Cath-
olic College of St. Louis, at Marseilles, he was strongly attracted
to the political views of the radical party as set forth in Roche-
fort's Lanterne, and soon began to write for the press; in 1871
he joined the editorial staff of Egalite, and published for two years
a humoristic journal — La Marotte (Fool's Bauble). It is not neces-
sary to give a detailed sketch of this man's life. Suffice it to say
that he was violently anticlerical, and was repeatedly fined and im-
prisoned for articles insulting to the Church and to ecclesiastical
dignitaries. On December 29, 1881, at Montpellier, he was con-
demned to pay a fine of sixty-five thousand francs for publishing
a book entitled The Secret Amours of Pius IX. He appealed from
this decision, and, after repeated efforts, succeeded in having the
indictment quashed. A new edition appeared in 1885, and was
announced by large placards, in the center of which was a medallion
of the Pope's head, encircled with the heads of a bevy of beautiful
women, forming, according to the author, a fitting halo for his
Holiness. "We may add that the sensational revelations contained
in this book, as well as in the Scandalous Llistory of the Orleans
and similar works, are for the most part mere figments of the
imagination recorded as facts, for the purpose of mystifying a cred-
ulous public. In 1880 he founded a " Society of Freethinkers,"
which, with its numerous branches, numbered in a few years about
seventeen thousand members. The remarkable success of this
movement was due in a great measure to the energy with which
he advocated it in the columns of the Repuhlique Anti-Clericale, of
which he was the editor.

Perhaps the most comical episode in his strange career is his
pretended repentance, resulting in the return of this black sheep
to the fold of the Catholic Church. In his Confessions the arrant
renegade relates how, on April 3, 1885 (April 1st would have been
a more appropriate date), while engaged in writing a book on Joan
of Arc designed to excite animosity against the clergy, his fell pur-
pose was suddenly shaken by strong compunctions, and soon a fear-
ful agitation convulsed his whole being. His description of his
contrition and self-reproaches is quite sensational and thrilling,
and shows rare talent as an actor, if we only bear in mind that
the whole thing was a farce. " I burst into sobs. ' Pardon
me, 0 God! ' I cried out in a voice choked with tears. 'Pardon

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY. 579

mj many blasphemies! Pardon all the evil I have wrought! ' I
passed the night in prayer, and resolved on the next day to seek
absolution for my sins." He retired from the editorship of the
Republique Anti-Clericale, and handed in his resignation at a meet-
ing of the " Anti-Clerical League," of which he was the founder
and hitherto the most active member, when he had the satisfaction
of being denounced by the presiding officer as a comedian and scoun-
drel. 1^0 one of his former colleagues believed in his sincerity,
and yet every one was puzzled to understand the strategic pur-
pose of this retrograde movement. The general impression was
that he had been bribed. " You can't fool us by your abjuration! "
they exclaimed. " The fact is, you have received a large sum of
money from the Vatican." He does not seem to have attempted
to refute these charges, nor did he permit them to divert him from
the execution of his deep-laid plot. With hypocritical humility,
he made full confession to the papal nuncio in Paris, Monsignore
Di Rende, who, after subjecting him to several days' penance, em-
braced him with joy and released him from all excommunications
and ecclesiastical censures.

Taxil now began to issue his Complete Revelations concerning
Freemasonry, in four volumes, the ostensible object of which was
to expose the secret and sacrilegious rites of this order as an or-
ganized system of devil-worship, thus confirming by the testimony
of an eyewitness the assertions of the Popes, and proving that their
decrees and decisions on this point had been bulls in the ecclesias-
tical and not in the Irish sense of the term. This work, although
a mere tissue of fabrications, was greeted by the Catholic press
and priesthood with exultation, as an authentic narration contain-
ing positive and irrefutable proofs of the diabolic character of the
Masonic mysteries. The members of this fraternity, says Taxil,
regard the God of the Catholics as an evil principle — a crafty, jeal-
ous, and cruel genius, a supernal tyrant, and archenemy of human
happiness. Opposed to him is Lucifer, the good genius, the peren-
nial source of virtue and wisdom, the spirit of freedom, and the
friend of mankind. Por this reason, in the high-grade lodges Luci-
fer, the reputed father of Cain, Canaan, and Hiram, is adored,
under different names indicative of the Supreme Being, as the God
of Nature, and the great architect of the universe. In short, while
modern freethinking is atheistic and begets a skepticism which,
even when not denying God, does not care for him. Freemasonry is
essentially a Satanic cult. These words give the sum and substance
of the supposititious disclosures which excited such intense joy in
the clerical camp. In 1887, when Taxil was received in solemn
audience by Leo XIII, " My son," asked the Pope, " what dost thou

58o POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

desire? " ^' Holy Father, to die this moment at thy feet were for
me the highest bliss," replied the kneeling penitent. " iSTot so,"
was the benignant response of the successor of St. Peter; " thy life
is still very useful in combats for the faith." His Holiness then
pointed to Taxil's writings on the shelves of his library, declaring
that he had read them all through with extreme satisfaction, and
encouraged him to continue his exposures of these satellites of
Satan and their abominations. Taxil left the Vatican with the
papal benediction and with the firm conviction that he could de-
vise no better means of currjnng favor with the Apostolic See than
by inventing tales about the homage paid by the Freemasons to
the devil, and determined to work this rich vein to its utmost ca-
pacity. He also came to the conclusion that he could imagine noth-
ing so absurd that it would not be received in Catholic circles as
authentic and indorsed by infallible authority.

His work had an immense pecuniary success, and thus at-
tained the chief object which he had in view. More than one
hundred thousand copies of the original French edition were
sold, and it was translated into English, German, Italian, and
Spanish. This result is not so surprising, if we remember that
nearly all the bishops and other clergy of the Catholic Church
acted as voluntary and extremely zealous agents for the diffu-
sion of these Kevelations, which they seemed to regard as a
new apocalypse designed to unveil the mysteries of Babylon
and disclose the present doings of Satan and dominion of anti-
christ. Of the utterly apocryphal character of the Revelations
they do not appear to have entertained the slightest suspicion, al-
though the hoax was clearly perceptible to every unprejudiced
mind. The German translation by the Jesuit Father Gruber,
which appeared at Freiburg, in Switzerland, and at Paderborn, in
Westphalia, omitted the volume entitled The Masonic Sisters, on
account of the indecency of its contents, although accepted as true
and deemed especially damaging to the Masonic fraternity. How-
ever desirable it might be to tear away the mask of philanthropy
from the face of Freemasonry and let the world see its devilish
features, it was thought best not to outrage the moral sense of the
community by uncovering " the filthiness of the hellish crew."

In 1892 Taxil's coadjutor. Dr. Bataille (a pseudonym of Dr.
Karl Hacks, a German from the Phineland), began to issue a serial
publication, entitled The Devil in the Nineteenth Century, pur-
porting to embody the results of his observations as ship's surgeon
during his travels in various countries, and especially in the Orient,
where he had opportunities of studying Satanism in its diverse
manifestations. He begins by referring to the encyclical letter

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIAEVAL CREDULITY. 581

Humanum genus, already cited, in which Leo XIII divides the
human race into worshipers of God and worshipers of Satan, and
then proceeds to adduce facts proving the correctness of this clas-
sification. It is, in reality, a bold burlesque of the papal circular,
as, indeed, it was intended to be, and would doubtless have been
laughed at for a time as a clever persiflage, if the dignitaries of the
Church had not taken it seriously, as they were expected to do.
Dr. Hacks confessed to an " interviewer," in 1897, that no sooner
had he read the pontifical circular in question than he saw in it
" a rare opportunity to coin money out of the crass credulity and
boundless stupidity of the Catholics. It needed only a Jules
Yerne to clothe these extravagant fancies in an attractive garb.
I resolved to play the part of this Jules Verne. Strangely enough,
the same idea occurred to others. I therefore joined forces with
Leo Taxil and a few friends, and began to publish The Devil in
the Nineteenth Century, the success of which is well known. . . .
I had traversed many lands and got up marvelous stories, the
scenes of which were laid in remote regions, which I was sure no
one would visit in order to test the truth of my assertions." Be-
sides, he counted on the silliness of the persons with whom he had
to deal, and felt certain that if he should tell them he had been
fooling them they would not believe him, but would remain con-
vinced that all his inventions were strictly true. He could not
conceive of a body of ecclesiastics as ready to discard a belief which
served their turn, however evident its absurdity might be to other
minds. " Sometimes I fabricated the most incredible stories, as,
for example, that of the serpent inditing prophecies with its tail
on the back of Sophia "VValder, or that of the demon, who, in order
to marry a Freemason, transformed himself into a young lady, and
played the piano evenings in the form of a crocodile. My col-
leagues were aghast, and exclaimed, ' You'll spoil the whole joke
with your nonsense.' ' Bah! ' I replied. ' Let me be, and you will
see! ' " And they did see how eagerly such gross falsehoods were
accepted as positive facts. Protestants without exception are de-
nounced as godless apostates. Every Lutheran is a Luciferian in
disguise. Singapore, he says, like every British colony, is settled
by knaves, footpads, and all sorts of criminals. The Protestant
Englishman is, at the bottom, an embodiment of scoundrelism
coupled with Satanism. There is a strangely infernal element in
the social life at Singapore. " The British matrons and even the
maidens are incarnations of vice and godlessness. The young Eng-
lish woman dedicates all her charms and intelligence to the service
of Satan, whose apostle and agent she is; cursed by God, she is
the dearly beloved paramour of Lucifer; a woman only in name,

582 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

slie is in fact absolutely infernal — an actual deviless," Hacks
asserts that in a Presbyterian church at Singapore he discovered a
secret tabernacle for the worship of Satan. The pastor opened the
door, and there was a Baphomet, with all the Palladistic (Satanic)
apparatus — goblet, host, and dagger — standing before his eyes.

Albert Pike, Grand Master of the Freemasons in Charleston,
S. C, is called the " Satanic Pope," and is said to have a telephone
invented and operated by devils, whereby instantaneous commu-
nication is possible between the seven principal directorates at
Charleston, Rome, Berlin, "Washington, Montevideo, Naples, and
Calcutta. He has also a magic bracelet, by means of which he can
summon Lucifer at any moment. " One day Satan took Pike
gently in his arms and made a trip with him to Sirius, traversing
the whole distance in a few minutes. After exploring the fixed
star, he was brought back safe and sound to his room in Washing-
ton." Whether he found the star as hot and scorching as its name
implies is not stated. Hacks discovered, under the cliffs of Gi-
braltar, mysterious caverns with laboratories in which devils pre-
pared microbes for generating and diffusing epidemics. He was
politely received by Tubal-Cain, the director of the establishment,
who addressed him in pure Parisian French, from which we may
infer that this is the language of the lower regions. On his de-
parture Hacks was presented with a small vial, the contents of
which would suffice to produce a fearful epidemic of cholera. No
less an authority than Professor Bautz, of the Prussian Academy
at Miinster, tells us that the volcanoes are the flues of hell, and
it was probably this contribution to the topography of Tartarus
that led Hacks to look for the devil's workshop in the cavities of
mountains, which, however, being used for infernal purposes, would
hardly be what Milton calls " umbrageous grots and caves of cool
recess. *

The following may be cited as a specimen of the manner in
which historical events were perverted by Hacks to subserve his
purpose: Before the capture of Rome by the Italian troops in 1870,
a secret meeting of Freemasons was held in Milan, at which Riboli,
Cucchi, and General Cadorna were present, and the revolution-

* Views similar to those of Professor Bautz have been advocated by a French Jesuit,
Pfere F. H. Schouppe, in a work entitled The Doctrine of Purgatory elucidated by Facts and
Private Revelations. The " facts " consist of the visions of saints, and the " private revela-
tions " prove to be apparitions of souls in purgatory to hysterical women and other persons
" blasted with ecstasy." The book has been translated into German by a Tyrolese priest,
G. Pletl, and just published at Brixen, " with the api)robation of the Prince Bishop." An
Austrian journal, the Ostdeutsche Rundschau, printed extracts from the volume with appro-
priate comments, and was confiscated by the Government in Vienna for " offense to re-
ligion,"

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY. 583

ary deliberations were rendered piquant by dreadful blasphemies.
Thus General Cadorna, a renegade priest, parodied the consecra-
tion of the host with a piece of bread, which he finally threw into
the fire with the words, " In honor of Lucifer ! " Thereupon Luci-
fer rose up in person through the floor, gazed benignantly for a
moment on his faithful followers, and said, " The moment is come
for firing the third salvo of cannon." A month later General
Cadorna entered Rome through the breach of the Porta Via. La
Luciferian lingo, the first salvo was the Reformation and the second
the French Revolution, while the third victory of Satan was the
overthrow of the Pope's temporal power.

Hacks relates that in Freiburg, Switzerland, there was a Ma-
sonic temple of Satan hewn in a rock and provided with altars and
all the paraphernalia of this cult. There men and women assem-
bled in the costume worn by our first parents before the fall. At-
tached to the lodge was a brothel, the scene of the most disgusting
debaucheries. One altar, in the form of a triangle with an image
of the demon Baphomet, was used for stabbing the body of Christ,
in the form of consecrated wafers, with a dagger. At this altar,
too, was said the so-called " black mass," an invention of the Grand
Master Holebrook and Albert Pike, of Charleston. During this
service hymns were sung to Satan. The consecrated wafers were
procured by Miss Lucia Claraz, of Freiburg, who stole them while
pretending to partake of the communion, and passed the night be-
fore committing the theft in the wildest orgies. This incredibly
foolish story was published in the Moniteur de Rome, against which
Miss Claraz, a lady " piously inclined and morally irreproachable,"
according to the testimony of the Bishop of Freiburg, brought suit
for defamation. The court sentenced the editor, Monsignore
Voglin, to a fine of twenty-five thousand lire and four years' im-
prisonment.

These examples suffice to show the wretched stuff which Hacks
hashed up for the edification of the clerical and the entertainment
of the carnal-minded public. Even the silly statement that he saw
a gigantic tree bow down before Sophia TValder, the predestined
great-grandmother of antichrist, and present her with a bouquet,
did not shake the faith of the true believers. The editor of
the Revue Mensuelle declared, in 1894, that Dr. Bataille had really
made all these discoveries on his travels, and that his honesty and
sincerity were beyond question. This was the attitude of the whole
clerical press almost without exception, as well as of abbots, bish-
ops, cardinals, and the highest dignitaries of the Church. Even as
late as July, 1897, when the impos.ture had been exposed and con-
fessed, a Parisian Catholic .journal continued to regard " the mys-

584 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

tification as more apparent than actual, and the documents adduced
as chiefly authentic " ; so difficult is it for minds thus constituted,
with the rational faculties dwarfed and stunted by being constantly
kept in the leading strings of credulity, to recognize the falsity of
what they wish or are told to believe.

Another of Taxil's confederates was Domenico Margiotta, ac-
cording to his o\vn account a native of Palmi, in southern Italy,
and professor of literature and philosophy. His principal work,
Adriano Lemmi, Supreme Head of the Freemasons, published in
French in 1894, gives a long list of his titles, designed to impress
the public by indicating his high position in the Masonic order.
Hacks calls him a " Member of the Sovereign Sanctuary of the
Oriental Rite of Memphis and Mizraim," a purely fictitious desig-
nation. This cunning device was also crowned with complete suc-
cess, and caused the fabricated disclosures to be hailed with enthu-
siasm. Here, exclaimed the clerical journals, we have '" not an
apprentice or novice like Taxil, but one of the highest dignitaries
of universal Freemasonry and Luciferianism, who is initiated and
instructed in all its mysteries and occult observances," being appar-
ently ignorant of the fact that Taxil was in the main the real
author of the book.

One of the most common accusations brought against the Free-
masons is that of desecrating the host by stabbing it with a dagger.
A German Catholic journal, The Pelican,* affirms that not only
Masonic devil worshipers, but also Jews, infidels, and heretics in
general commit this sacrilege in order to show their deadly hatred
of Christianity. In proof of this charge, the following " historical
fact" is published in the number for July, 1897: Several con-
secrated wafers were once stolen by Jews from a church at
Langenses, in Silesia, and, after being pierced through with
knives, were hidden in the forest. They were discovered by a
Polish nobleman, whose four horses, as he was driving by, sud-
denly kneeled down and refused to go on, although he beat them

* The manner in which The Pelican makes piety profitable is most extraordinary and
should win the admiration and excite the envy of the " yellow press." The editor informs
the public that he entered into a compact with St. Joseph, promising; to distribute fifty
books in which this holy person is glorified, provided the journal receives two thousand
suVjscribers. In less than a year the number of subscribers was twenty-five hundred. A
promise to distribute one hundred books of this kind, if St. Joseph would procure eight
thousand subscribers, raised the list of subscribers to twelve thousand ; and this barter
went on until The Pelican could boast of ninety thousand subscribers. The editor also
announces that he has engaged two hundred and eighty priests to say masses for the readers
of his i>aper and to pray for and bless their children, and concludes this astounding piece
of i)uffcry as follows : " Experience teaches us that the benediction of a single priest is
effective. What, then, can not be obtained if two hundred and eighty priests unite in
blessing us 1 "

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY. 585

with his wliip. He then descended from the carriage, and soon
found the wafers covered with blood. They were carried back
with solemn ceremony to the church, which became a place of pil-
grimage with a wonder-working pyx. What a hardened and hope-
less skeptic a man must be, who is not convinced by conclusive evi-
dence of this kind, when even horses bear witness to the truth by
their genuflections!

Still more sensational was the part played in this spicy comedy
by Miss Diana Vaughan, whom Taxil introduced to the public as
a descendant of the Rosicrucian alchemist and Oxford professor
Thomas Vaughan, and who was said to have in her possession a copy
of the written pact with Satan, signed by her ancestor on March
25, 1645. The young lady claimed to have been born in Paris on
February 29, 1874. The fact that there was no February 29th in
the year 1874 would make this date an impossible natal day for
ordinary mortals, but a person with Luciferian blood in her veins
would naturally take no note of the divisions of time as recorded
in human calendars; for, according to Taxil, her forbear was
the goddess Astarte, who appeared to Thomas Yaughan on a sum-
mer night in 1646, while he was sojourning among the American
Indians, in all her marvelous beauty, bringing with her a bed sur-
rounded with flames and attended by little demons bearing flowers.
She approached Vaughan and put a wedding ring on his finger,
and eleven days later gave birth to a daughter named Diana, from
whom the Miss Diana Vaughan in question traced her descent.
Several instances of similar commerce with incarnate demons are
said to have occurred in the history of her family, so that she in-
herited a strong Satanic taint; even her own mother was guilty of
the same criminal conduct. Her inherited qualities were carefully
fostered by education, inasmuch as she was brought up by her
father and uncle on strictly Luciferian principles. One day, when
her instructors were praising Cain and Judas as ideals of excellence,
she expressed some doubt of the superior worthiness of the fratri-
cide and venal traitor. This dangerous unbelief was attributed to
angelical possession, and it was soon ascertained that the archangel
Kaphael was the cause of the lapse from Luciferianism. Recourse
was had to exorcism, the whole process of which, as described by
Taxil, is a clever travesty of the ceremonial prescribed by the
Romish Church for the expulsion of evil spirits. The dance per-
formed by the father and uncle on this occasion consisted of the
same saltatory movements that are executed by the " procession of
jumpers " every year at the grave of St. Willibord, in Echternach,
Luxemburg.* Devil's ointment took the place of holy oil, and the

* Cf. Popular Sci'ence Monthly, November, 1 895, p. 83.
vol.. Lvi. — 48

,86 POPULAR SCIENCE AfOiVTHLY.

exorcism ended with the sacrifice of a black hen; thereupon " Ka-
phael " went ont of her, and simultaneously with his exit all the
panes of glass in the house were broken into fragments and fell to
the ground with a tremendous crash. The marvel is that bishops
and priests accepted this ridiculous story as an authentic and edi-
fying narration, instead of rejecting it with horror and disgust as
a palpable burlesque of their own approved methods of casting out
demons, and particularly of the Exorcismus in Satanam et Angelas
Apostatas, composed by Leo XIII and issued by him November
19, 1890. It is evident that Taxil had this document in his eye,
and intended to hold it up to derision; to calm the fears of the
simple-minded, who were puzzled and perplexed by the striking
resemblance of diabolic orgies to divine ordinances, he explained
it ou the general principle that " Satan is the ape of God."

After being freed from the influence of Raphael, Diana was
placed under the tutelage of Asmodeus, who, as her guardian devil,
watched over her, shielding her from bodily harm and helping her
to resist the wiles of angels. One day when she was wandering in
the woods she was attacked by negroes, but Asmodeus came to her
rescue, and bore her safely to her home through the air. Another
time he caught her mettlesome courser by the bridle as he was run-
ning away, and when the chief of Garibaldi's staff, Bordone, in-
sulted her, Asmodeus twisted his neck so that his face looked back-
ward. For three weeks he was obliged to take a retrospective view
of life and of his own conduct, when Diana, in the kindness of her
heart, set his head right again. On these occasions the tutelar
demon usually appeared in the form of a fine young gentleman,
and emitted an aroma of balsam, which seems to have been as in-
separable from him as is the scent of musk from a modern dude or
modish dame. He spoke of her as his bride, and often took her
on pleasure trips to paradise, purgatory, and other remote regions;
once when she was greatly depressed, because her Luciferian rival,
Sophia Walder, had got the better of her, he consoled her by
making an excursion with her to Mars, where they rode on Schia-
parelli's canals, sailed on the Sea of the Sirens, and strolled like
pygmies among the gigantic inhabitants of that planet.

[To he conrl iiffrd .^

Contrary to the common supposition that the astronomy of the an-
cients was based exclusively on the geocentric hypothesis, Mr. G. H. Bryan
says in Nature: " Schiaparelli has shown that Heraclitus Ponticus, a dis-
ciple of Plato, had already accepted the theory that the sun is the center
of the orbit of the planets, while tlie earth is the center of the universe
and of the lunar and solar rotations — a theory substantially that of Tycho."

^^RIBBOiY LIGHTNlNGr 587

"RIBBOK LIGHTNING."

Ky orangk cook.

IN the summer of 1898, W. H. Osborne, of Chardon, Ohio, an
amateur photographer of some experience, secured the accom-
panying photograph of a lightning flash which seemed to us to show
certain peculiarities that entitle it to a public notice and a perma-
nent record. The picture shows three flashes, of which the distant
and faint one at the right and the bright one at the left were
simultaneous, while the center one occurred a few seconds earlier.
Nothing about the thunder that followed the last and bright flash
suggested that it was specially near, but an examination of the
picture when developed and a comparison with the features of the
landscape showed that it .had come to earth about fifteen rods from
the place where Mr. Osborne stood with his camera. Mr. Osborne

and myself carefully searched the locality indicated, but failed to
find even the slightest mark caused by the discharge upon any
object or in the .earth.

^ileasurements at this place give the width of the ribbon of
light, if it stood at right angles with the line of sight, about eight
feet. This ribbon of light is seen to consist of six lines, approxi-
mately parallel, of unequal brightness, a pair being at each edge
and a pair near the center. The space between these pairs is
crossed by many nearly horizontal lines and a few oblique ones,
while that between the right-hand pair is crossed by oblique
lines only. The horizontal lines at the right of the center become
curved downward, which, with th§ increased brightness of the whole
toward that side, suggests to us that the ribbon of light did not

588 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

lie ill a plane, but was concave toward a point at the observer's
left. That the ribbon did not stand at right angles with the line
of sight, bnt was nearer the observer at the right-hand edge, is also
shown by the inequality of the lower termination of the six vertical
lines referred to above. The ones at the left either rest upon or
are hidden behind a rise of ground, whose crest can be traced for
a little distance each side of the flash, while those at the right come
lower, falling between the observer and the ground at that point.
Probably, when measured upon this diagonal and curved line, the
width of the Hash was fifteen or twenty feet.

Mention has already been made of the fact that the accom-
panying thunder was comparatively light, and not at all like that
ordinarily heard when lightning occurs within so short a distance.
Possibly this, as well as the absence of marks at the point where
it reached the earth, might have been because the discharge was
of very low tension.

[A very similar lightning flash was described and pictured in
the issue of the Electrical World and Engineer for October 28,
1899, by A. E. Kennelly, who suggested the following explanation:
A lightning flash passed through the air on the left-hand side of
the ribbon of lightning (the wind was blowing from right to left)
and broke a hole in the air along that line. This discharge may
have been oscillatory, and may have lasted in. all any time up to
about y^o" of a second. The discharge then ceased for lack of
electricity, but a fresh charge from the cloud being gathered imme-
diately afterward, or in about ^^ of a second from the first rup-
ture, a new discharge passed through the same hole in the air,
which had not had time to seal up. There might thus be fourteen
successive flashes (this Avas the number of distinct flashes making
up the ribbon in the photograph), each averaging about ^^ of a
second apart, through the same hole, owing to the imperfect con-
ducting qualities of the clouds overhead, meanwhile the hole hav-
ing been carried from left to right in the picture, across the line
of sight (by the wind), and thus producing the appearance of a
broad ribbonlike flash. Professor Trowbridge, of Cambridge, has
suggested the possibility that many of these apparently curious
electrical phenomena may be of purely optical or physiological
origin — that is, may arise through the abnormal behavior of the
eye or the camera lens toward intense lines of light, such as light-
ning flashes. — Ed.]

CROSS-El) UCA TION.

;89

CROSS-EDUCATION.

By E. W. scripture,

director of the psychological laboratory, yale fxiversity.

SOME years ago I made the following simple experiment: I
arranged a rubber bulb, like that used for releasing a pbo-
tograpber's shutter, to connect with a bottle, from which rose a
long, vertical glass tube. The bottle contained mercury, and the
long tube reached nearly to the bottom. Every part was air-tight,
so that when anybody squeezed the bulb the mercury was forced
up the vertical tube. It was what is known as a mercury-dyna-
mometer.

During experiments with this dynamometer, what was more
natural than to think of trying what would happen if one hand
were practiced daily in squeezing the bulb? So one of our gradu-
ate students. Miss E. M. Brown, was set to work in the following
manner: On the first day she squeezed the bulb as hard as possible
with the left hand, while an assistant noted the height of the mer-
cury; this was repeated ten times, and the results were averaged.
Immediately thereafter she took ten records Avith the right hand.
Then, on the following days, with some intermissions, she prac-
ticed the right hand by squeezing ten times on each occasion. On
the last day she again tested the left hand, which had not been
practiced in the meantime. The records ran as follows:

1 DAT.

First. Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth.

1 1

Sixth. Seventh

Eighth.

Ninth.

Right hand ....
Left hand

Inches;. Inches.

28.8 33.7

29.6

Inches.
35.6

Inches.
36.6

Inches.
40.9

Inches. Inches.
44.7 47.0

Inches.

48.8

Inches.
48.6
42.3

Thus the left hand had gained about fifty per cent in strength
through practice of the right hand. This peculiar phenomenon
of transference of the effects of practice from one side to the other
I have ventured to call " cross-education."

The phenomenon was curious enough to suggest other experi-
ments. Another student. Miss T. L. Smith, was set to trying to
insert the point of a needle at the end of a rod into a small hole
in a drill-gauge without touching the sides. The first experiment
consisted of twenty trials with the left hand, with a success of fifty
per cent. Immediately thereafter twenty trials were made with
the right hand, with a success of sixty per cent. On the following
day and on each succeeding day two hundred experiments were
made with the right hand, with successes of 61, 64, 65, 75, 74, 75,

590 POPULAH SCIENCE MOSTHLY.

82, 79, 78, and 88 per cent. On the last day the left hand, which
had not been practiced in the meantime, was again tried, with a
success of seventy-six per cent.

These last experiments remind us of certain familiar phenom-
ena. It has frequently been noticed that persons taught to write
with the right hand become able to write backward, but not for-
ward, with the left hand. This is the so-called " mirror writing,"
which appears correct if seen in a mirror. The first published
observation of this fact exists in a letter from H. F. Weber to
Fechner, the founder of experimental psychology. Fechner, more-
over, noticed that with the left hand he could make the figure 9
backward better than in the regular way.

Curiously enough, the principle of cross-education has been put
to practical use. A letter (with permission to publish) has been
received from Oscar Raif, Professor of Music i-n the Berlin Hoch-
schule :

" In the spring of 1898 I made an experiment with twenty of
my pupils. I began by taking the average speed of each hand with
the metronome. The average of the right hand was J = 116
( = four times 116 in the minute) [464 beats], and for the left
hand 112 [448 beats]. I gave them exercises for the right hand
only (finger exercises, scales, and broken accords) to develop rapid-
ity. After one week the average of the right hand was 120 [480] ;
after two weeks, 126 [604]; three weeks, 132 [528], etc. After
two months the right hand yielded 176 [604]. Then I had them
try the left hand, which averaged 152 [608], whereas in i^ovember
the average was only 112 [448]. In two months' time, absolutely
without practice, the left hand had risen from 112 [448] to 152
I 608]. A few of my pupils had some difficulty in playing the scales
in parallel motion, but were able to play them in contrary motion.

" The tenor of my work is that in piano playing the chief re-
quirement is not that each single finger should move rapidly, but
that each movement should come at exactly the right time, and
we do not work only to get limber fingers, but, more than that, to
get perfect control over each finger. The source of what in Ger-
man is called Fingerferiiglceit is the center of our nervous system —
the brain."

These facts, however, require further investigation, for it is
evident that we must begin with the fact of cross-education and pro-
ceed to more complicated cases. Indeed, cross-education has shown
itself to be one step of a ladder up which we must climb even if
there were no other motive except that of curiosity as to what we
could find at the top. If practice of one hand educates the other
hand, will it not also educate the foot? Again, if practice of one

\

CROSS-ED UCA TION.

591

hand in squeezing a dynamometer develops the strength of the
other members of the body, will it not also develop their dexterity
or their advance? Again, if the development of voluntary power
— let us say, frankly, " will power " — in one direction brings about
a development in other directions, why should we limit the trans-
ference to muscular activity? Why can we not expect that the
development should be extended to the higher forms of will power
that go to make up character? The outlook begins to be stirring
on account of its vastness. If the last principle be admitted, there
seems no argument against the claim that some forms of manual
training, such as lathe work and forge work, are just the things
to develop moral character. By the same reasoning we would be
obliged to admit the often-made argument that training in Latin,
Greek, and mathematics furnishes a means of general mental de-
velopment. If we admit the principle, we find ourselves at once
involved in important educational controversies. However we
may think in respect to these questions, it is plain that it is worth
while to climb a ladder which has such an outlook at the top.
Let us begin.

In the first place, the fact of cross-education is established.
Let us ask in what this education consists. On this point some
curious observations have been made by Prof. W. W. Davis,*
now of Iowa College. The subject of the experiment began by
raising a five-pound dumb-bell by flexing the arm at the elbow;
this called into play chiefly the biceps muscle for lifting and the
forearm muscles for grasping. This was done as many times as
possible with the right arm, and then, after a rest, with the left
arm. The subject then entered upon a practice extending from
two to four weeks ; this consisted in lifting the weight with the right
arm only. At the end both arms were tested as at the start.

The results were strange enough. The unpracticed left arm
gained in power as we expected, but it also gained in size. Care-
ful measurements were made by Dr. J. W. Seaver, of the Yale
Gymnasium, on the girths of both upper arm and forearm. Let
us compare the gains in girth with the gains in power :

GAIKS IN GIRTH.

GAINS IN POWER.

Subject.

Right biceps.

Left biceps.

Right arm.

Left arm.

G

5 mm.

2 "

4 "

13 "

6 "

8 "

— 5 mm.

0 "

2 "
6 "

11 "

3 \

820 flexions.

400 "
724 "
950 "
900
750 "

200 flexions

J

225 "

K

H

514 "
30 •'

B

I

75 "
75 "

* Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. vi.

592

POPULAR SCIi^NCE MONTHLY

All subjects had gained power in the unpracticed left arm, three
of them largely and three slightly. All but one had gained in the
size of the unpracticed left biceps. Strangely enough, those who
had gained most in power had gained least in size. The case was
quite similar in regard to the girth of the forearm. The gains in
power were unquestionably mostly central — that is, in the nerve
centers — and not in the muscles. Yet there was also a strange but
unquestionable gain in the size of the muscles at the same time.

We have arrived at the second step of the ladder, which is: The
gain by practice which shows itself in cross-education consists in a
development of higher nerve centers connected with the two sides

Fig. 1.

of the body. We must next ask: Is this effect of practice confined
to the symmetrical organ, or does it extend to other organs? This
question was answered by a peculiar experiment.

The experiment consisted in testing the effect of educating one
of the feet to tap as rapidly as possible on a telegraph key. The
apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. The clocklike instrument is really
a piece of clockwork actuated by a magnet, so that it counts up
one point every time the electric circuit is closed. The electric cir-
cuit is comprised of a battery and two keys. Any form of battery
will do; the one in the figure is a "lamp battery" — that is, an
arrangement of lamps in series and in shunt, such that the ordinary
high-voltage city current is conveniently transformed into a low-
voltage current. The key to the left is the experimenter's key,
and that to the right the subject's key. When the subject is set
to tapping on the latter key the counter will register whenever the
experimenter keeps his key closed.

For the actual experiments by Professor Davis the subject's

CROSS-EDUCATION. 593

key was removed to a distant room. Here there were three keys
of this kind, any one of which would register. One key each was
arranged for tapping with the big toes; the third key could bo
tapped by either right or left index finger.

On the first day all four digits — right and left index fingers
and right and left large toes — were carefully tested in tapping as
rapidly as possible. Thereafter the right large toe was practiced
daily in tapping for several weeks, the other digits being left un-
practiced. At the end all four digits were again tested. Four
of the six persons experimented upon showed a gain for the right
large toe — that is, for the digit practiced; the other two showed
a slight loss, due unquestionably to " over-practice," or " over-
training."

All of those who gained for the right large toe gained for the
other digits also. Their average gains were: Right foot, thirty-
three per cent; left foot, thirty-one per cent; right hand, twenty-
one per cent; left hand, thirty-one per cent. Even both of the
" over-trained " men gained for the left foot and one of them
gained for the left hand. Thus we have reached the third step —
the effects of practice are extended to various parts of the body.

Beyond the third step the experimental investigations have not
yet advanced, but I believe that sooner or later we shall be able to
establish the fact that development of those forms of the. will in-
volved in simple muscular activities does also develop the more
complicated forms that express themselves in acts of a mental
nature.

It has long been claimed that sports, games, and manual occu-
pations are among the best developers of character. Tootball de-
velops solidarity of feeling and action; running rapids or cross-
country hunting develop coolness in danger and promptness and
firmness of judgment; wood-turning requires boldness and fore-
sight; forge work requires regulation and reserve of power, and
so on. This is no place for an account of the psychology of sports
and occupations, but if the reader has ever tried any of these things
and failed he will easily recognize the lacking mental quality.

Yet there has never been but one attempt, as far as I can learn,
to organize a system of manual occupations on the basis of this
principle. The success of the attempt furnishes, I believe, the still-
lacking laboratory proof of the principle itself. I refer to the
remarkable experiment of Mr. Z. R. Brockway, Superintendent of
the Elmira Reformatory.

Most of the young felons sent to the Elmira Reformatory are
set to learning trades, by which they can support themselves on
leaving. Those, however, who are too stupid to even learn the sim-

VOL. LVI. — 50

594 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

plest trade are put into a manual-training school, in the hope that
their brains can be sufficiently developed to enable them to keep
out of the prison or the asylum. Those who are so stupid that
they have difficulty in learning the alphabet or in counting their
fingers are put into a kindergarten, where they practice on letter
blocks and sticks and straws.

Those who are too stupid to learn a trade are the ones of inter-
est here. Three main lines of defect are recognized in Superin-
tendent Brockway's classification of them. Those who are intel-
lectually weak, but of fair power of self-control, are classed as
Group I; those who are reasonably bright, but are unable to get
along because they can not control their impulses, are classed as
Group II; those who fail on both sides are classed as Group III.

Group II is composed of those who are for the most part devoid
of moral sense — those who fight, swear, assault officers, are licen-
tious, and generally unresponsive to the usual reformatory meas-
ures. To this class belong some of the most intellectual inmates
of the reformatory, but this intellectuality runs riot on account
of weakness of character. How are their characters to be built
up? They are required to devote most of their waking hours to
athletics and calisthenics, wood-turning, making wooden patterns
for castings, mechanical drawing, sloyd, clay modeling, and chip-
ping and filing metal. These exercises have been selected on ac-
count of their character-building qualities.

The work is a great success. ISTearly all inmates subjected to
this building-up process finally graduate with sufficient self-control
from the manual-training department into the trades school. A
concrete example will give an idea of the change produced in the
pupil. The record of No. 6,361 is instructive. The account is
taken from a report by the manual-training instructor, R. C. Bates:

" The pupil, previous to his assignment to manual training, had
earned for himself the sobriquet of ' dangerous man ' among the
officers and inmates. His offenses have been mostly threatening
language, lying, contraband articles, talking, fooling, assaulting
officers, and institutional crimes of that nature.

" We begin his record in September, 1895, when he was reduced
to the second grade for fighting. October and November he lost
three marks each for lying and threatening language, and, by the
influence of September markings, caused his reduction to the third
grade, or incorrigibles, a closely defined group. He was in the third
grade two months and three days, when he was placed in the foun-
dry, where, amid blinding smoke, stifling air, and the task system,
it was thought he would tone down, upon the theory that the mus-
cular demands of such a place on a 124-pound body would vitiate

CROSS-ED UCA TION. 595

sufficiently to weaken the will and curb the disposition to riot-
ous acts.

" From January 15th to February 15th he was on modified
treatment. On February 18th he was unconditionally restored to
the second grade. February and March he did fairly well, losing
one mark each month, but in April his period of passably well-doing
was checked by his committing an assault, along with assumption of
authority, and on the 27th of April he was returned to the third
grade for the second time, remaining in the same two months and
three days, when he was again placed on modified treatment, and
did well for three months, when he fell again, this time for fighting,
losing six marks in October. In November he made a perfect
month, securing promotion to second grade.

" On December 15, 1896, he was assigned to manual training.
Group II; object, development of self-control, with subjects as
follows: Athletics, drawing, sloyd, woodwork, chipping and filing,
molding. Each subject one hour and a half per day, five days per
week. The influence of the new environment sustained the effort
made in ISTovember to improve, and, by securing a perfect month in
December, all his past was blotted out and he was restored to the
lower first grade again, through ' amnesty,' on December 25, 1896.

" Thus, on December 25, 1896, he was where he was institution-
ally classed at the time of his admittance two years and three months
ago — ^viz., lower first grade, from which all who are committed
begin the reformatory course of treatment, additionally thereto in
the manual-training department. His development now begins.
In January, 1897, he lost two marks as a result of school failures,
but in February he secured a perfect demeanor record; in March
he lost two marks; April and May were perfect months in all re-
spects, and he was graduated from manual training in May, re-
turned to institutional life, and assigned to the exercise squad in
the morning and stone masonry in the afternoon. Later his daily
assignment was changed, placing him in the molding class of the
technological department to complete trade. His development was
complete and permanent. He was returned to the manual train-
ing as assistant instructor in the molding class, and is now doing
well in all departments, having been promoted to the upper first
grade in August and ranking as sergeant in ^ I ' company."

This record is only one example of many.

Wlien manual-training schools organize their courses on the
principle of adapting the exercise to the ability to be developed, we
shall have abundance of similar proof. When these facts have
been incontestably established, there will be a means of satisfying
the complaints of those who are constantly attacking our schools

596 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

because they develop intellect and ruin character. " What is the
use," say they, " of teaching children to read and think if you do
not make them honest and truthful? How is it better for the com-
munity to educate liars and thieves merely that they may lie and
steal successfully in business and politics, where they can not be
caught, rather than to leave them in the slums, where the police
can get them? " The accusation is bitterly unjust in many ways,
but its force can be met by introducing a system of character build-
ing based on a careful study of the means of developing truth-
fulness, honesty, carefulness, persistence, bravery, courage under
defeat, and the other qualities that go to make up a true man. The
foundation of this system is to be found, I believe, in the principle
of character-building by motor activity.

The ladder of cross-education will be slowly climbed by psycho-
logical investigators; if they find at the top a principle of such
value and wide application, surely the climb will have been worth
the time and trouble.

THE MOKBID " SE^'SE OF mJURY,"

By W. F. BECKER, M. D.

AS a fog about a ship removes it from exact relations to sur-
-^^^ roundings, so, from the standpoint of morbid psychology, we
may fancy the mind peering through a more or less misty envelope
to the true adjustment to things — the "glass " through which we see
" darkly." "Were all action and reaction of the mind to surround-
ings perfectly adapted, there could be such . a thing as absolute
sanity. So long, however, as evolution with continuous readapta-
tion and the processes of dissolution with attempted adaptations
continue, so long can there be but groping, imperfect relations to
surroundings, so long must there be defective or morbid mental
action, and sanity and insanity therefore but relative terms. Thus
many symptoms of the insane appear to be but varying degrees of
the morbid mental manifestations of health, and we may assume
a priori that they have a common genesis and can be identified
for study. If we take, for example, one of the commonest of
these — viz., the idea of persecution among the insane — we may
safely identify it with the " sense of injury " equally common
among the sane.

By this " sense of injury " is meant that vague sense which
afflicts many of us at times of being the object of hostile feelings
on the part of others. No doubt we often are, for, in the stress
of necessary rivalry and conflict upon which progress depends,_jWe

THE MORBID ''SENSE OF INJURY^ 597

give and take injuries. But there remains a large excess of this
" injured " feeling which can not be so explained, or which is dis-
proportionate to its cause or entirely gratuitous, and is thus shifted
into the field of morbid psychology. This only is here treated —
the morbid sense of injury.

It seems to find an easy entrance to the mind from a mere
feeling of being ill used or stinted in sympathy to the entertain-
ment of serious grievances or persecutory ideas. In certain tem-
peraments it is marked. On so-called " blue " days we are con-
stantly moved to a " sense of injury " from fancied aloofness of
our friends. Madam Lofty slights us, and our jaundiced imagi-
nation has it that she has heard something detrimental and dislikes
us. But lo! to-day, when the liver is released, madam smiles
sweetly, and never heard a thing.

So in suspicious people. They entertain a chronic state of
mind, by which the acts of others are given an invidious construc-
tion. They anticipate ill will, carrying the chi'p on the shoulder.
Of two constructions of a given situation, they leap to the more
offending. Some take on the vindictive attitude as a result, ap-
proaching that type of insanity known as paranoia, of which Gui-
teau and Prendergast were conspicuous examples; others are
humiliated, as a consequeiice approaching the melancholia type
of insanity, each illustrating again how the sane and insane states
are paralleled. Many come to bear the outward marks — the stig-
mata of this mental attitude, approaching sometimes the " asylum "
face, like that of the insanely suspicious Rousseau. We all know
such faces, with their hard, set expressions, as if forever sealed
against any tender of good will.

By a curious fact, those who invite ill will seem often to get
it. Society, based on a reciprocity of faith, seems to have no smiles
to bestow upon the misanthrope. It bids him, " Laugh, and the
world laughs with you." It so comes to pass that many of them
acquire some real ground for their " sense of injury," and in the
long run that real quarrels are precipitated from this atmosphere
of suspiciousness. Indeed, this is the psychology of most quarrels.
The effect of imaginary grievances comes in turn to be the cause
of real ones. Thus into an incident between two persons, one of
them mistakenly reads an affront to himself. He retaliates, and
the other person, unconscious of having done anything to evoke
any hostility, finds himself affronted, and in his turn retaliates.
By this time real grievances have come, and the quarrel is on.
Balzac, that master analyst, in alluding to friendship, in one of
his stories, says: "It died " (the friendship) "like other great pas-
sions— by a misunderstanding. Both sides imagine treachery.

5y8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

pride prevents an nnderstanding, and the rupture comes." Just
as the malevolent feelings may arise de novo, so it is with the
benevolent ones. Nordau shows how the nondescript state of
being " in love " often arises. Some incident between John and
Mary leads one of them — we will say John — to think mistakenly
that Mary has been attracted to him. Pleased with the fact, he
reciprocates. Mary, altogether unconscious of the reciprocal na-
ture of John's attention, finds pleasure in it, and in her turn recip-
rocates. Mutual reciprocity then follows.

In irritable persons we find the morbid sense of injury coupled
with resentment. Quickly interpreting anything disagreeable to
them as an affront by another, their first impulse is to resent it,
which they do more or less violently, according to circumstances,
their second thought often recognizing the irrational nature of the
outbreak. This suggests the feral instinct. Examples are com-
mon in the lower animals, while in pain attacking those about
them as if they were the cause of it. No doubt this resentment
is a survival from evolutionary ancestry. It has probably served
a necessary purpose in the conservation of animal life by causing
the animal to attack what may, in the jealousy of self-preservation
and its feeble discrimination, even be suspected of being inimical
to its welfare. Blind and unjust, perhaps, but Nature hesitates
at no apparent injustice to accomplish this. When we go higher,
to the tribal relation of man, we find the same blind resentment.
The Australian aborigines have no conception of death, except as
vaguely associated with homicidal causes, and when a member of
a tribe dies a most natural death a member of a hostile tribe is
killed to avenge the supposed murder. The. Africans, too, read
homicidal forces into natural deaths. In civilized social rela-
tions it appears again in the very popular and usually irrational
demand for a scapegoat when matters go wrong. The idea of
religious sacrifice, too, is a practice by which the anthropomorphic
God is credited with being aggrieved by human conduct and of
wishing to be appeased therefor. Though the exercise of this
indiscriminate resentment was probably greater and more neces-
sary in the pre-social stage of human evolution, there is still ground
for its activity to-day in the struggle for existence which has but
changed its arena. Under a veneer of amity, laudable enough,
there are till the suspicion and resentment of the tribal relation,
as we may often see unveiled in a posse of boys, and that this
resentment is yet of the blind kind, we still have proof if we have
seen an enlightened man deliberately kick a harmless chair because
he stumbled on it in the dark.

Phylogenetically, then, we see this morbid " sense of injury "

THE MORBID ''SENSE OF INJURY:' 599

to be reversional. Tliis is in harmony with the ataric theory of
insanity. In the individual it is a delusion, and, like other delu-
sions, an attempt by the reason to explain a disordered feeling; in
this case a painful feeling, having its origin broadly in some im-
perfect adaptation of the organism. This attempt to explain a
feeling or sensation seems a human necessity. However wide of
the truth such explanations usually are, we seem forced to attempt
them. In the case of this painful feeling, with which we are here
concerned, we are either unwilling or unable to explain it in its
true way, and are prone to attribute it to malevolent agencies,
often personal — perhaps the " bogy-man " remnant of the child
and race. Such explanation is often an easy escape from truths
unwelcome to our ego — truths which, if recognized, would wound
pride or conscience beyond easy endurance. It requires a man
of rare courage and mental clarity to recognize his particular pain
from failure in adaptation as autogenetic, and to lay it to natural
and unflattering causes. We prefer, of the two, to accuse the
environment rather than the organism, especially when the organ-
ism happens to be our own. We take refuge in a grievance rather
than impugn the supremacy of our ego. Indeed, it seems to be
necessary for healthy subjective activity, so to speak, that a sort
of imperialism of the ego, however circumscribed, be maintained.
It is the condition sine qua non of the necessary measure of well-
being of the individual. It is most reluctantly relinquished, and
we constantly see the plainest truths immolated that it be retained.
Only in the great self-effacement of melancholia and in those rare
characters who recognize and bear complacently naked truths —
the WeltscJimerz of Goethe — is this well-being renounced. Even
those who are willing to father their own wounded ego still seek
the necessary approbation by reducing its future pretensions or
claims so that they may not be again pained by their failure to
achieve them. They unhitch their wagon from the star. Pro-
fessor James has illustrated this by a fraction showing that our
approbation is determined by our success divided by our preten-

success
sions. Thus, -. = approbation (self-esteem). The quo-
pretensions

tient may be increased by diminishing the pretensions or by in-
creasing the success. James's fraction is as applicable to the moral
conduct as to the intellectual side.

When we look for the physical equivalent of the mental state
which evokes the " sense of injury " we fipd it in dynamic and
toxic states of the nervous system and their correlation. Certain
conditions of the individual or environment bring these into spe-
cial relief. Old age is one. The querulousness, the sense of abuse

6oo POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

or persecution which afflict the aged and often lead them to take
refuge in the martyr-spirit, are sad examples. The state of fatigue
or exhaustion is another, and " neurasthenic " insanity is only an
expression in greater degree of the morbid mental action found in
fatigue and exhausted states.

The primary and secondary effects of alcohol or other narcotic
indulgence is another soil in which the " sense of injury " easily
grows. The habitue is notoriously suspicious and irritable, and
full of fictitious grievances and unwarranted persecutory ideas.
His attitude toward them is that of the paranoiac, vindictive, rather
than that of the melancholiac, humiliated. They swell the army
of so-called " borderland " cases of insanity, fretting their friends
and puzzling the doctor with conduct alternately interpreted as
" cussed " or " crazy."

AYhere there is bodily disease, acute or chronic, the morbid
" sense of injury " is much in play. An intelligent patient, on re-
covery from a stomach disorder, admitted that whenever her stom-
ach had ached she was taken with -a violent hatred of her com-
panion with whom she was in affectionate relation. An ignorant
Southern colored woman, who had rheumatism in her ankle, be-
lieved that she had been "hoodooed," and explained the pain in
her ankle by the presence of a snake, which she believed had been
put there by a " hoodoo." She was not insane, the idea being con-
sistent with her degree of intelligence, training, and early environ-
ment. Another patient, a sensible, cultivated woman, while
suffering from a non-nervous illness, in which she had received
all the consideration that love and money could furnish, be-
lieved herself to have been constantly and deliberately abused.
After her recovery, now some years, she still maintains the belief.
Instances could be multiplied, for doctors continually meet this
atmosphere in the sick-room, from ugly little grievances to delu-
sions of persecution. They are not surprised when a patient tells
them in mingled confidence and complaint that he is hungry and
neglected, that " they " will give him nothing to eat, etc., to find
that his wife has been most attentive, has been pressing him to
eat, and has stocked the pantry in anticipation. Dr. Johnson had
plenty of ground for saying that a sick man is a rascal, though the
modern doctor has reversed the formula.

Persons who suffer from actual trouble or ill treatment easily
develop a morbid sense of injury, just as under similar conditions
they may become insane. Unable to estimate the precise amount
of their real grievance, there is an easy mental overflow into the
fictitious ones. It is for this reason that the narrative of a real
trouble or quarrel is so fraught with calumnious arraignment of

THE MORBID ''SENSE OF INJURY r 601

others that it is unreliable until we have heard the " other side
of the story/' and that when disputants meet and explanations
follow they often find that they have no casus helli. In the ex-
amination of the alleged insane for commitment we have constantly

to separate the real from the imaginary troubles. Mr. F was

the subject of such examination. He was suffering from heart
disease, and thereby compelled to remain at home idle. His wife
was supporting the family by keeping boarders, and he began to
develop a morbid jealousy of her. He annoyed her by a constant
surveillance and suspicion of her every act, which amounted at
times to the delusion that she was unfaithful to him, and which
culminated one night in an outbreak in which the police figured.
It was difficult to separate his real from his imaginary grievances,
for his wife had ceased to have any affection for him, though his
delusion in regard to her unfaithfulness was unfounded and had
been grafted upon his real trouble. Sent to a general hospital, he
improved, and was reported " not insane." Circumstances requir-
ing a hard struggle for existence, disappointment without apparent
cause, coupled with a certain sentimental cast of mind, often pre-
vent the correct estimation of the wrongs suffered and the proper
relation of undoubted misfortunes.

In the insane the sense of injury or its analogue — delusions of
persecution — appears in numerous shapes. Thus patients are de-
frauded, or conspired against, or acted upon by T\dtchcraft, mag-
netism, electricity, or poisoned, or preached against, or subjected
to disagreeable odors. Sometimes the delusions are but ill-defined
and vague. Often it is possible to trace them to their underlying
disordered sense impression or the particular environment or to
vestiges of outgrown beliefs. They appear in depressed states of
melancholia as well as in the exalted states of mania and paranoia.
In melancholia they accompany a feeling of worthlessness which
is the patient's explanation of his persecution — i. e., he is unworthy
of better treatment. In paranoia the patient believes the perse--
cution to be prompted by fear or envy of him, and there is conse-
quently a feeling of self-importance — a morbid egotism which is
in direct proportion to the magnitude or complexity of the ideas
of persecution. Indeed, it is probable that these ideas of perse-
cution, acting on a potentially melancholic or a potentially para-
noiac mind, whatever these may be, determine the type that these
mental diseases take.

The difference between the " injured " sense in the sane and
insane states we must from our view point, without essaying to
bridge all the terra incognita which' lies between sanity and insanity,
regard as largely but one of degree. And so with the underlying

6o2 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

mental and physical states. We find the morbid ideas more fixed
in the sane than in the insane, frequent repetitions of the morbid
impression tending to its final organization, so to speak. We also
find that the morbid idea is usually more elaborated in the insane
than in the sane state, although instances of the greatest elabora-
tion are sometimes met with, especially where the element of some
external foundation is large. It is probable, however, that the
elements of fixity and elaboration of the persecutory idea are after
all dependent upon and in proportion to the intensity of the under-
lying brain and mind states. In other words, that to increase a
given intensity of these states is to increase the fixity and elabo-
rateness of the " sense of injury," is to prevent the correction of
the morbid idea, until finally exploited in conduct, which is the
debut of the insanity.

Thus the relativity of insanity which has all along been main-
tained is clear on the line here pursued. It would be equally so
in following other lines of morbid psychology. It has, though,
received but little general recognition, and writers still treat in-
sanity as an entity apart from its bearings on the average mind
and its evolutionary history. The word " insanity," or " lunatic,"
is no doubt largely responsible for this, suggesting popularly, as
it does, a distinct class of persons — a type of being as unlike our-
selves as a Martian might be fancied to be. Nature or science,
however, has set no line between the morbid mental manifesta-
tions which constitute sanity and those which constitute insanity,
that being an arbitrary, however practical, distinction which sci-
ence has had rather to descend to meet. Nothing so stands in the
way of the best welfare of the insane than this abysmal ignorance
which still prevails in regard to them — an ignorance which still
clings to the mediaeval idea of insanity, the classical portraiture,
as in the pictures of Hogarth, or on the stage, or in fiction; an igno-
rance which is ever hearkening for the maniac's shriek or the clank-
ing of his fetters, which recog-nizes nothing short of " furious mad-
ness " as sufficient ground for committing a brain-sick man to the
tender therapy of the hospital ward.

But those who know best tell us that the insane are very much
like other people, that there is wonderfully little difference be-
tween them and ourselves; and sometimes but a slight circum-
stance, a mere accident of environment, determines which side of
the hospital wall we shall be on.

EARLY EXPERIMENTS IN AIR FLIGHT. 603

EAELY EXPEKIMENTS m AIK FLIGHT.

By M. BANET rivet.

MAN^ has souglit in all times and at all places to find means
of leaving the earth's surface, in imitation of the birds, and
rising into the air. Ancient legendary lore furnishes many stories,
like those of Daedalus and his son Icarus, of attempts of this sort.
In the fourth century b. c, Archytas of Tarentum, a learned
Pythagorean, who has been credited with the invention of the
screw, the pulley, and the kite, according to Aulus Gellius, con-
structed a wooden dove which could rise and sustain itself in the
air by some mechanism the arrangement of which is not known.
Credible accounts exist of an English Benedictine monk, Oliver of
Malmesbury, in the eleventh century, having tried to fly by pre-
cipitating himself from the height of a tower, with the assistance
of wings attached to his arms and his feet. It is said that, after
having gone along a little way, he fell and broke his legs. He
attributed his accident to failure to provide his apparatus with a
tail, which would have helped preserve his equilibrium and made
the descent a gentler one.

In the sixteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci first demonstrated
that a bird, which is heavier than the air, sustains itself, advances
in the air, " by rendering the fluid denser where it passes than
where it does not pass." In order to fly it has to fix its point
of support on the air; its wing in the descending stroke exerts a
pressure from above down, the reaction of which from below up
forces the center of gravity of its body to ascend at each instant
to the height at which the bird wishes to maintain it. Some
sketches that have come down to us prove that Leonardo occupied
himself, like Oliver of Malmesbury, with giving man power to
fly by the aid of mngs suitably fixed to his body. We owe to
Leonardo also the invention of the parachute, which he described
in the following terms: "If a man had a pavilion, each side of
which was fifteen braces mde and twelve braces high, he might
cast himseK from any height whatever, without fear of danger."
It may be said, too, of Leonardo da Vinci, that he was the first
to suggest the idea of the screw propeller. " If," he said, " this
instrument in the form of a screw is properly made — that is, made
of linen cloth, the interstices of which have been filled with starch
— and if we turn it rapidly, such a screw will make a bearing nut
for itself through the air and rise. This can be proved by mov-
ing a broad, thin rule rapidly thl-ough the air, when it will be
found that the arm is forced to follow in the direction of the edge

6o4 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of the board. The frame for the cloth of which I have been
speaking should be made of long, stout reeds. A model of it might
be made in paper, with, for its axis, a thin strip of iron which we
twist forcibly. When the strip is left free it will turn the screw."

In 1G80 Borelli published some studies of a remarkably correct
character on the flight of birds. According to his view, the wing
acts upon the air in the phase of beating down, in the manner of
an inclined plane, so as, by virtue of the resistance opposed by the
air, to push the body of the animal upward at first and then onward.
The action of the ascending wing was compared to that of a kite,
and it would consequently continue to sustain the body of the
bird while Avaiting the following stroke. But Borelli never thought
of turning his observations to advantage, so as to supply man with
the means of flying. Attention was much engaged in 1742 with
the attempt of the Marquis de Bacqueville, substantially repeat-
ing that of Oliver of Malmesbury, which was terminated by a
similar accident. Mention should also be made of Paucton, who
in 1768 drafted a plan for a screw machine. In 1784 Launoy and
Bienvenu exhibited and operated, before the Academy of Sciences
in Paris, a screw which was moved by a strong spring. Before
this, however, Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier had filled the world
with the noise of their discovery of the air balloon, and the in-
genious machine of these aeronauts failed to receive the attention
it deserved.

It has been known since the days of Archimedes that every
body partly or wholly submerged in a liquid in equilibrium suffers
a vertical push upward from the fluid equal to the weight of liquid
it displaces.

Let us consider the case of a body entirely plunged in a liquid
— water, for example. If its weight exceeds the thrust it suffers
it will fall to the bottom of the water under the action of a de-
scensional force equal, at each instant, to the difference between
the weight of the body, which is invariable, and the thrust, which
is invariable also, and thus constant in direction and also in amount.
If the weight of the body is less than the thrust, the latter over-
comes it, and, contrary to the usual laws of weight, the body will
rise under the action of an ascensional force, which will evidently
be likewise constant in amount as well as in direction. A cork
held down at the bottom of a vessel of water and then left to itself
will supply an example of this ascensional movement.

A third case may be presented — that in which the weight of
the body is equal to the thrust of the water. Weight and thrust
are then in mutual equilibrium. No force invites the body either
to descend or to rise, and it remains balanced in the midst of the

-EARLY EXPERIMENTS IN AIR FLIGHT. bQ<^

liquid, wherever it happens to have been placed. This state of
indifferent equilibrium is, however, possible only if the weight of
the body remains rigorously constant. The slightest augmentation
of the weight immediately causes the body to descend, while the
slightest diminution sends it up. From this source arise the diffi-
culties that are met in the construction of submarine boats, when
their ascent or descent is obtained by means of air chambers, which
are filled with water or emptied of it according to the requirements.
The equilibrium of these engines is always precarious, and this ex-
plains why none of them, from that of Van Drebbel in 1620 to the
experiments of Goubet in 1895, have given really practical results
in the matter of stability of immersion.

When Galileo, following Aristotle, had demonstrated the pon-
derability of the air, and Torricelli had proved that atmospheric
pressure was a result of that property, it was immediately thought
that the principle discovered by Archimedes might be extended
to the air, and Otto von Guericke gave an experimental demon-
stration of it by the invention of the baroscope.

From this period it seems, then, that the discovery of aeronautics
was possible. If the weight of the volume of air displaced is
greater than that of the body, the latter should take an ascensional
movement in the atmosphere, as a cork does when plunged into
water; and it is evident that for a body to satisfy such conditions
we have only to fill a very light envelope with a gas less dense
than the ambient air. But the study of gases was still in its in-
fancy in the seventeenth century, and it required the labors of
Mortrel d'Element and Hales, at the beginning of the following
century, to teach physicists how to collect and retain them.

The history of the progress of the human mind shows, further,
that the pure and simple acceptance of a scientific discovery is not
enough to make it produce all the consequences we have a right
to expect from it. It must, further, impregnating the mind with
itself, pass, v/e might say, into the condition of an innate idea.
Chemistry, in this very matter of the discovery of the weight of
the air and of the gases, presents a striking example of the accu-
racy of our proposition. The ponderability of the air had been
accepted by physicists for a long time, while chemists continued
to take no account of it, although, as Mendeleef has remarked,
no exact idea could be conceived, under such conditions, concerning
most chemical phenomena. It is to the glory of Lavoisier that
he first took account of this ponderability and of that of all the
gases as well. When we reflect that it was not till about 1775, or
a hundred and fifty years after Galileo, that this illustrious French-
man began to set forth those ideas, it is not any wonder that the

6o6 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

discovery of aerostats was not made till toward the end of the
eighteenth century. Lalande was therefore much in the wrong
when he said " it was so simple ! why was it not done before ? "

It would not be just, however, to refer the discovery of aero-
stats solely to the efforts of the Montgolfiers. Like all inventors,
like Lavoisier himself, these brothers, as Figuier has remarked, had
the benefit of a long series of isolated labors, carried on often with-
out special purpose, by which the elements of their invention had
been gathered up.

Pere Lana, of Brescia, conceived a plan in 1670 for construct-
ing a ship which should sustain itself in the air and move by the
aid of sails. Four copper globes, in which a vacuum had been pro-
duced in order to render them lighter than the volume of air dis-
placed, were to support the ship while the sails propelled it. The
scientific conception of the empty globes was correct, but Pere
Lana did not think of the enormous collapsing force which the
atmospheric pressure would exercise upon them. The idea of a sail
which would give his aerial boat a resemblance to a vessel driven
by the winds was wholly erroneous.

Sixty-five years later, in 1735, Pere Galien, of Avignon, gave
a fairly clear expression to the theory of aerostats. Resting on
the principle of Archimedes, he maintained that if he could fill a
globe made of light cloth with a sufficiently rarefied air the globe
would necessarily possess an ascensional force, which would permit
it to lift itself up in the air with a ship and all its cargo. He
proposed to draw this rarefied air from out of the upper regions
of the atmosphere, down from the summits of high mountain?,
forgetting that the air, when brought down to the level of the
ground, would contract in volume and assume the density of the
ambient atmosphere.

In the condition of ignorance of the properties of gases that
existed in that age, it did not occur, and could not have occurred,
to Pere Galien to use other gases than air; no more could he
have thought of employing heat to rarefy the air, for the first not
very precise notions on the decrease in densities of gases by heat
only date from Priestley. But when Cavendish, in 1765, had
fully studied hydrogen gas, and shown that as it was prepared then
it was seven times lighter than air. Black was enabled to suggest
that by filling a light bag with hydrogen the bag would be able
to raise a certain weight in the air. The labors of Cavendish,
Black, and the discoveries of oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases by
Priestley, were described by Priestley a few years afterward in
the celebrated book on The Different Kinds of Air — a book
which Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier had in their possession.

SKETCH OF EDWARD ORTON. 607

The two brothers evidently found the germ of their inven-
tion in it.

It is fair to say that the Montgolfiers, who were already known
in the learned world by their discoveries in the mechanical sciences,
had thought, before they knew of Priestley's book, of a way of imi-
tating Nature by inclosing vapor of water, a gas lighter than air, in
a paper bag, which would be lifted up, the vapor contained in the
bag being sustained in the air like a cloud. But the vapor con-
densed, and the weighted balloon shortly fell to the ground. The
smoke produced by burning wood inclosed in a bag gave no better
results. After seeing Priestley's book, they substituted hydrogen
for vapor and for smoke, but the gas passed through the paper bag,
and they gave up this attempt.

They then fancied that electricity was one of the causes of the
rise of clouds, and sought for a gas that had electrical properties.
They thought they could obtain it by burning wet straw and wool
together. A box made of silk was filled with this gas, and they
had the great satisfaction of seeing it rise to the ceiling of their
room, and, in a second experiment, into the air. This was in
November, 1782.

Five months previously, Tiberius Cavallo, in England, had
repeated Black's experiment of filling a paper sack with hydrogen;
but, as the Montgolfiers had found, the hydrogen leaked through
the paper. Cavallo had better success with soap bubbles, which
held the gas. His experiments stopped here, while the Montgol-
fiers carried theirs on to practical success. — Translated for the
Popular Science Monthly from the Revue Scientifique.

SKETCH OF EDWARD ORTON,

LATE STATE GEOLOGIST OF OHIO ; LATE PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOE THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

A LL persons interested in American science were surprised and
-^^^ shocked at learning of the death, from heart trouble, on
October 16, 1899, of Prof. Edward Orton, of the Ohio State Uni-
versity. The event occurred only little less than two months after
Professor Orton had presided, with a simplicity of manner that did
not hide but rather heightened the traits of vigor in his character,
over the meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science at his home in Columbus, Ohio. The services he
rendered to geology, his long and honorable career as an educator,
and his continual and consistent insistence upon the faithful use of

6o8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the scientific method well entitle him to be remembered as one of
the most meritorious of American scientific workers.

Edward Orton was born in Deposit, Delaware County, N. Y.,
March 9, 1829. He was descended from Thomas Orton, who, born
in England in 1613, was one of the fifty-three original settlers and
owners of Earmington, Conn., was of the stock from which most of
the Ortons in the United States are derived, and represented his
town in the General Court in 1784. Another ancestor, a grand-
son of Thomas Orton, was one of the original purchasers and set-
tlers of Litchfield, Conn., where he owned a square mile of land
known as Orton Hill, on the south side of Bantam Lake. Two of
the maternal ancestors of the subject of this sketch fought in the
colonial wars, and ten Ortons were soldiers in the Revolution.

Young Edward Orton was taught by his father, the Rev. Samuel
G. Orton, D. D., and received further training preparatory for col-
lege in the academies of Westfield and Fredonia, IST. Y. He en-
tered Hamilton College, whence his father had been graduated in
1822, in 1845 as a sophomore, and was graduated in 1848 in a class
among the other members of which were the Rev. Dr. Thomas S.
Hastings, President of Union Theological Seminary, New York,
and the Hon. E. J. Van Alstyne, afterward Mayor of Albany, N. Y.,
and member of Congress. After his graduation he taught for a
number of years in academies at Erie, Pa., Eranklin, 'S. Y., and
Chester, IST. Y., and became, in 1856, Professor of Natural Science
in the State Normal School at Albany, N. Y. He pursued post-
graduate studies in chemistry, botany, and other subjects at the
Lawrence Scientific School, with Professors Horsford, Cooke, and
Gray as his teachers, and studied theology for a time under Dr.
Lyman Beecher, at Lane, and Dr. Edwards A. Park, at Andover
Seminaries. While teaching at Chester, N. Y., he was called to
Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio, where he took charge of
the preparatory department in 1865; was made Professor of Natu-
ral History shortly afterward, and was made president of the col-
lege in 1872, but retained the office for only one year, at the end
of which he went to occupy a similar position in the State Univer-
sity at Columbus.

"When the second Geological Survey of Ohio was undertaken
in 1869 under the charge of Prof. J. S. Newberry, Professor Orton
was appointed an assistant by Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, and
was continued by reappointment by Governor E. E. Noyes. When
Professor Newberry withdrew from the survey in 1881, Professor
Orton was appointed State Geologist by Governor Charles Poster,
and he was afterward reappointed to the position successively by
Governors Hoadley, Eoraker, Campbell, and Bushnell. He re-

SKETCH OF EDWARD ORTON. 609

tained the title of State Geologist till his death, although he had
not been engaged in any active public work on the survey for a
considerable time.

The Ohio State University having been established on the basis
of the grants of land made to the States for colleges under the Mor-
rill Land-Grant Act, Professor Orton was appointed its president
and Professor of Geology. He discharged the duties of this office
for eight years, or till 1881. But the executive work of the presi-
dent's office was irksome to him, since it grew constantly heavier
as the young college expanded, and therefore left him less and less
time for teaching and research in geology. Being in a measure
compelled to make a choice between the two fields of activity, he
chose the less ambitious position, resigning the presidency, and
assuming the position of Professor of Geology, which he retained
for the remainder of his life. The geological building of the uni-
versity is named after him — Orton Hall. Besides his work on the
Geological Survey of Ohio and his participation in the composition
of its reports. Professor Orton prepared, for the Eighth Annual
Report of the United States Geological Survey, a paper on the New
Oil and Gas Fields of Ohio and Indiana, and another, only recently
published in the jSTineteenth Annual Report of the United States
Survey, on the Rock Waters of Ohio; a volume for the Geological
Survey of Kentucky on the Petroliferous Production of the West-
ern Part of the State, published in 1891; and a report on petro-
liferous productions which is in process of publication by the Geo-
logical Survey of jSTew York.

In the paper on the Oil and Gas Fields of Ohio and Indiana the
discovery of the supply of those materials, the great value of which
was only realized in 1884 and afterward, is spoken of as being more
surprising and anomalous than any similar discovery that had pre-
ceded it, and as a development which experts were hardly more
prepared for than others. The oil and gas derived from the Tren-
ton limestone in certain parts of these States were found to differ
from the oil and gas in the Pennsylvania wells in chemical compo-
sition and physical properties, in the horizons from which they were
obtained, in the structural features of the rocks associated with their
production, and, most of all, in the kind of rock that produced them.
" ISTo facts more unexpected have ever been brought to light in con-
nection with the geology of this country than those with which we
are now becoming acquainted." Professor Orton's paper, which
fills one hundred and eighty of the large pages of the report of
the Geological Survey, includes a sketch of the history of the dis-
covery to July, 1887, when it was prepared; a designation of what
was known in regard to the geological scale and geological struc-

TOL. LTI. 19

6io POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

ture of the regions within which the new fields are embraced,
and the tracing of the chief factors that influence or control the
productiveness of the oil rock, with the description of the special
features and boundaries of the several fields and the setting forth
of the leading facts and present development of these lately found
sources of power. Two principal conditions under which the new
oil rock had proved petroliferous on a large scale were found to be
porosity, connected with and apparently dependent on the chemical
transformation of the upper portion of the limestone, for a number
of feet in thickness, into a highly crystalline dolomite; and a relief
resulting from slight warping of the strata, whereby the common
contents of the porous portions of the Trenton limestone had been
differentiated by gravity, the gas and oil seeking the highest levels,
and the salt water maintaining a lower but definite elevation in
every field. Professor Orton found nothing in the new experience
to make it safe to count the Trenton limestone an oil rock or a
gas rock in any locality, unless it could be shown to have under-
gone the dolomitic replacement by which its porosity was assured;
and even in case it had suffered this transformation it would not
be found a reservoir of gas or oil in an important sense unless
some parts of it had acquired the relief essential to the due separa-
tion of its liquid and gaseous contents. X

The report on the Rock Waters of Ohio concerns, first, those
waters, chiefly in the northwestern and western part of the State,
that are obtained from a considerable depth as compared with ordi-
nary wells, the knowledge of which was almost wholly derived from
wells drilled in the search for oil and gas, and was necessarily frag-
mentary and incomplete; because water was not included among
the objects of search, but was considered a hindrance and obstruc-
tion to be got out of the way as well as possible; and, second, flow-
ing wells, including only those having considerable head of pres-
sure and those occurring in considerable areas, all of which belong
entirely to the drift. Further, a brief review is given of some facts
of unusual interest that were developed in the deep drillings con-
cerning the preglacial drainage system of the part of the State
in question. Indications of old river channels, one of which seems
to have been extensive, were found at several points. Among the
curious results of these studies was the conclusion, " seeming to
be already established," " that the Ohio River, as we now know
the stream, is of recent origin, and that the main volume of water
gathered in it at the present time originally flowed across the
State to the northward at least as far as Auglaize and Mercer
Counties, where it turned to the westward toward the present lines
of Wabash drainage in Indiana." Professor Orton seems to have

SKETCH OF EDWARD ORTON. 6ii

placed considerable emphasis on the value of a study of the rocky
floor of the State, concerning which all we know at present is de-
rived from the revelations of deep drillings at haphazard; and he
thought it would be a good work for the State to make use of all
accessible data of this kind at once in constructing a model of the
rocky floor of the region under review. The care and fidelity mth
which he studied the underground geology are exemplified in a
map attached to the paper on the oil and gas fields, in which the
horizons of the Trenton limestone are indicated and approximately
bounded as they occur by gradations ranging from fifty to two hun-
dred and fifty feet, from elevations above the ocean level to one
thousand and more feet below. Another contribution of Professor
Orton's which may appropriately be given special notice is his part
of the article on Ohio in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in which a
succinct, clear, and comprehensive account of the geology of the
whole State is given, with its salient features delineated so sharply
that one may almost conceive from it a definite geological picture
of the region.

Of all his scientific work, however. Professor Orton regarded
the fijsing of the order of the coal measures of Ohio as the most
important; and he considered the determination of the order of the
subcarboniferous strata, and particularly of the Berea Grit, as con-
stituting a large permanent service to the study of the geology of
the State.

At the recent meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science Professor Orton contributed a special paper
on the local geology of Columbus, the place of the meeting, in
which he dwelt largely on the origin of the drift that marks the
superficial geology of the vicinity.

Of the work he has done for the increase and advancement of
knowledge, the extent of a part of w^hich we have only faintly indi-
cated by the mention of a few particular researches. Professor Orton
put the highest value on his labors as a teacher, a calling to which
he was devoted for more than half a qentury. He found peculiar
pleasure in instructing the children of the old pupils whom he had
taught in his younger days. He was actively concerned in the pro-
motion and extension of sanitary science, his addresses in that field
having been one of the factors that led to the establishment of the
Ohio State Board of Health. He was also greatly interested in
the advancement of agriculture.

A theme on which Professor Orton was fond of dwelling in his
public addresses was the amount and value of what has been accom-
plished within a comparatively short time in the world's history by
the use of the methods of science. In an address delivered before

6i2 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the alumni of Hamilton College in 1888 he maintained that we
were living in a revolutionary period, which is marked by a great
advance in knowledge and a vastly larger control of the forces of
Nature; by a large increase in freedom of thought and action; by
a sudden and remarkable addition to the mobility of man, accom-
panied by an unexampled growth of great cities; and by an incalcu-
lable addition to the wealth of the world. Accompanying these
great changes in the material and intellectual world were certain
moral transformations appearing to grow out of them. All these
advances were ascribed to a movement — a new method of investi-
gating Xature — that began, so far as its particular and continuous
development is concerned, about three hundred years ago, but to
which no date or founder's name could be attached. This new
philosophy thoroughly respected Nature, was humble, patient in
the accumulation of facts and the trial of its theories, comprehen-
sive, progressive, and hopeful. It has given us the maiwelous
increase of knowledge which especially marks the nineteenth cen-
tury; it has impressed its influence upon all branches of study, and
has wrought great improvements in methods and results; and has
rendered an immense and inestimable service to Christian theology,
and done much to broaden and rationalize it and thus to perpetuate
and strengthen its hold on the world. Finally, the method of sci-
ence was pronounced " the best gift that God has given to the
mind of man." A similar train of thought as to the material as-
pects is apparent, though in a somewhat different form, in an address
on The Stored (or Fossil) Power of the World, delivered in 1894.
A considerable part of Professor Orton's presidential address
at the last meeting of the American Association was devoted to a
summary of the conclusions derived from Alfred Russell Wallace's
book, The Wonderful Century, that the progress accomplished in
the present century far outweighs the entire progress of the human
race from the beginning up to 1800. In this address, also, the
author felicitously spoke of the scope of the American Association
as possibly including the wltole continent, and its object as the ad-
vancement of science, the discovery of new truth. " It is possible
that we could make ourselves more interesting to the general pub-
lic if we occasionally forswore our loyalty to our name and spent
a portion of our time in restating established truths." But the dis-
coveries recorded, though often fragmentary and devoid of special
interest to the outside world, all had a place in the great temple of
knowledge; and the speaker hoped that although no great discov-
eries should be reported this time, the meeting might still be a
memorable one through the inspiration it would give to the multi-
tude of workers in the several fields of science.

SKETCH OF EDWARD ORTON. 613

Professor Orton was a member of several learned societies; was
President of the Sanitary Association of Ohio in 1884 and 1885;
received the degree of Ph. D. from Hamilton College in 1876, and
that of LL. D. from the Ohio State University in 1881; was elected
President of the Geological Society of America in 1896; and was
designated at the Boston meeting of the American Association,
1898, as president for the Columbus meeting, 1899.

In addition to his interests in science and theology, Professor
Orton was keenly alive to everything that bore on the history of
man on this planet. He was long a member of the Ohio State
Archaeological and Historical Society, and had recently been made
a member of its board of trustees. He was a prominent member
of the Old ISTorthwest Genealogical Society, and was the author of
a volume, published in 1896, on the Genealogy of the Orton Fam-
ily in America. The absolute freedom of his character from any
desire for display or self-aggrandizement is well shown by the fact
that in this volume, compiled, with enormous labor, in the spare
minutes of a busy life, he cuts himself off with one paragraph of a
hundred words, while devoting pages to contemporaneous mem-
bers of the family of whom the world has never elsewhere heard.

He was stricken mth hemiplegia in December, 1891, but was
able to do a considerable amount of work in his profession after-
ward. A few days before his death he said, in a note, that he felt
that he had lived out his allotted time, and that his work was done.
He never met his classes again, though he continued able to be up
and about his home till the hour of his death. He seemed to feel
tliat the solemn event was drawing close, during the last two days
of his life, and his mind was always busy with the great question,
" If a man die, shall he live again ? " He had formed an affirma-
tive answer apparently, as he read Browning's Prospice repeatedly
in his last hours, and seemed to find in it the gTeatest pleasure and
solace. His death was a quiet and painless one — a fitting end to
a beautiful life.

Statistics of cremation, presented by M. Bourneville at the recent an-
nual meeting of the society in Paris, show that the number of incinera-
tions at the Pere Lachaise crematory has almost steadily increased since
1889, and that the whole number last year was 4,513, making 37,068 from
the beginning. A fair proportion of the number were women. There are
now in Europe and America seventy crematories, twenty-seven of which
are in Italy and twenty in the United States. Cremation is making good
progress in England, where four crematories are reported from, and two
are in course of erection. Germany has six, where 423 incinerations took
place in 1898 ; Switzerland and Sweden have two each, Denmark one, and
one has been authorized in Norway.

6i.

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

;ditoic^s %Mlt^

A COMMISSION IX DIFFICULTIES.

rilllE synopsis which has been
-L given to the press of the Thir-
teenth Annual Report of the Inter-
state Commerce Commission is not
encouraging reading for those who
like to believe in legislation as an
infallible panacea for all public and
social ills. The tone of the docu-
ment indeed is very far from being
one of triumph. The note struck
in the very first paragraph is the
need for more legislation to save the
copious legislation already passed
from proving ineffectual and abor-
tive. "Whether it is that Congress
does not vrish to make the vrork
of the commission successful, or
whether it has begun to have a wise
distrust of its own powers, we can
not say ; but the commissioners com-
plain bitterly of its inaction. We
can not do better than quote their
own words : " The reasons for the
failure of the law to accomplish the
puii50ses for which it was enacted
have been so frequently and fully set
forth that repetition can not add to
their force or make them better un-
derstood. It is sufficient to say that
the existing situation and the de-
velopments of the past year render
more imperative than ever before
the necessity for speedy and suit-
able legislation. We therefore re-
new the recommendations hereto-
fore made, and earnestly urge their
early consideration and adoption."

As the document proceeds, we
see the good commissioners at war
with the wicked railways, and it is
impossible to resist the conclusion
that, on the whole, the wicked rail-
ways have the best of it. The com-
missioners admit that certain cases
which have come before the courts
have been decided against them, and
in favor of the railways; but they

are far from disclosing the full ex-
tent of the discouragement, not to
say mortification, they receive. The
business of the commission is to in-
terfere between the railways and
their customers — the public — in the
interest of the latter. The railways
naturally consider this a rather one-
sided function, and are not extreme-
ly zealous to aid in its performance.
They have their own troubles with
the public, and have no commission
to come to their assistance. Every-
body is after cheap railway rates,
just as everybody is after cheap
goods; and the means sometimes
resorted to to get reductions would
at least hold their own for astute-
ness with any that could be con-
cocted in a traffic office for the rais-
ing of rates. We give the commis-
sioners full credit for doing their
best to protect the interests of the
public, but we can not help doubt-
ing whether, on the whole, the pub-
lic has derived much benefit from
their efforts. In fact, we are strong-
ly inclined to the opinion that the
whole idea of the commission is
simply a legislative blunder.

The railways undoubtedly pos-
sess great powers which theoretic-
ally there is nothing to prevent
their abusing to almost any extent.
But what is theoretically possible is
not always practically possible. The
President of the United States pos-
sesses great powers, which theoret-
ically he might abuse to any extent ;
so does the Queen of England; so
do many other potentates. But of
all the evil that is theoretically pos-
sible, how much is carried out in
practice ? All kinds of things might
happen if people were fools enough
to do all the harm that it is in their
power to do. The great saving fact
is that it is not possible to go very

EDITOR'S TABLE.

615

far in doing harm to others with-
out doing it to yourself. It is this
fact which the insatiable legisla-
tion-monger ignores. He has an in-
finite faith in the mischief that will
happen if things are left alone. He
can not bear to think that somebody
is not looking after everybody. He
has no faith whatever in natural
law or natural actions and reac-
tions, and would hoot the idea of
what the poet Wordsworth calls a
" wise passiveness." Such people
have little conception of the mis-
chief they do, and of the good that
fails of realization through their
pestilent activity. The readers of
Dickens will perhaps remember Mrs.
Pardiggle and the admirable system
of education she applied to her nu-
merous family of children. The un-
happy youngsters were under orders
every hour of the day; they were
marched round the country with
their mother when she went on vis-
its of charity, and compelled to con-
tribute out of their own (nominal)
pocket money to all kinds of reli-
gious and benevolent schemes. How
they kicked and rebelled, and what
distressing passions were roused in
their youthful breasts, the great
novelist has told us; and we think
we may take his woi-d for it. The
fussy legislator is a Pardiggle. If
he would leave things alone, oppos-
ing interests would find a modus
Vivendi, and practical justice would
more and more assert itself. The
more interference there is between
parties who in the last resort are
dependent on one another's good
will, the less likely they are to rec-
ognize their substantial identity of
interest. If the interference is
wholly in the interest of one of the
parties, the other is sure to be
forced into an undesirable attitude;
while the one whose protection is
the object in view will not unnatu-
rally take all the protection he can
get, and look for something more.
What is wanted to put the rela-

tions between the railways and the
public upon the most satisfactory
footing possible is, in the first place,
less legislative interference; and, in
the second, a higher tone of busi-
ness morality throughout the com-
munity. We place this second not
as underrating its importance, but
because we believe it would to some
extent flow from the first. It is
when the public transfers its right
of eminent domain to a railway cor-
poration that it should take ade-
quate measures to protect its own
interests; but how can this be done
when legislation is sold — when char-
ters are given or withheld, accord-
ing to the amount of money avail-
able for purposes of persuasion?
With honest legislators and honest
courts there would be very little
trouble between the railways and
the public, and such as arose could
be easily remedied. Commerce com-
missions are a testimony to the ex-
istence of low standards of business
morality; and, unfortunately, they
tend to keep them low, if not to
make them lower.

The sooner we make up our
minds to trust more to moral influ-
ences freely acting in the inter-
course of man with man and of in-
terest with interest, and less to legal
compulsion, the better it will be for
us in every department of our na-
tional life. The Thirteenth Annual
Report of the Interstate Commerce
Commission is a virtual confession
of the failure of legislation to ac-
complish a purpose which was sup-
posed to be easily within its field of
action. The confession is coupled
with a demand for more legislation,
but, were the demand conceded, who
can guarantee that more still would
not be wanted? The railways are
not at the end of their resources,
and new laws would, we fear, be
only too likely to suggest new means
of evasion. ISTo ; the remedy lies
elsewhere, and if Congress is wise
it will give that remedy a trial by

6i6

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

allowing the railways and the public
a chance to arrange terms between
them, with public opinion as the
I)rincipal court of appeal.

THE FUNCTION OF THE PUBLIC
• •• LIBRARY.

A PAPER that was read by Mr.
Lindsay Swift, of the Boston Pub-
lic Library, at a meeting of the
Massachusetts Library Club, on the
subject of Paternalism in Public
Libraries, and which we find in
the Library Journal for November
last, is one which, in our opinion,
deserves to be separately printed
and widely circulated. It abounds
in good sense, and preaches a doc-
trine of self-help and self-reliance
which is much needed in these days.

A question which the author of
the paper does not discuss, but
which, it seems to us, lies at the
threshold of the whole subject, is
whether the very existence of a pub-
lic library — if we understand by the
term a library supported by public
taxes — is not in itself an exempli-
fication of paternalism. Mr. Swift
strikes us as a benevolent bureau-
crat who w^ants to give the people at
large a wider liberty in the matter
•of reading than the ruling influ-
ences of time and place are disposed
to allow. He sees that liberty is
good, that leading strings belong to
infancy, and he raises his protest
against a paternalism in the man-
agement of public libraries which,
under the plea of providing only
the most approved reading for all
classes, would tend to the repres-
sion of individuality in the reader
and the establishment of the su-
premacy of commonplace. But what
if commonplace insists on being su-
preme and shutting out whatever is
not of one complexion with itself?
How are we to resist its demand
in the administration of a State-
supported, and therefore majority-
ruled, institution? "You offer us,"
say its representatives, " a liberty

we do not want for ourselves, and
are not prepared to concede to
others, as we are sure it can not be
for their good. We are not going
to consult the tastes of cranks,
criminals, intellectual aristocrats,
or social mugwumps of any kind.
For all practical purposes we are
the public, and we mean to run this
public library." To the objection
that a portion, at least, of the taxes
is paid by those whose views and
tastes are not going to be consulted,
the answer would be ready : " It is
for the majority to say how taxes
shall be applied." We recognize the
excellence of Mr. Swift's intentions
and sympathize with his way of
looking at things, but we feel that
his objections to " paternalism " in
connection with public libraries are
delivered from a somewhat shaky
platform. We observe that a peri-
odical quoted in the Library Jour-
nal— the Overland Monthly — makes
the remark that " there is nothing
to be said for free books that could
not be urged in favor of free beef-
steaks and free overcoats."

Some of the points, however,
that are made by Mr. Swift are de-
serving of attention. The several
professions — law, medicine, theol-
ogy, etc. — would more or less like to
have only such books placed upon
the shelves of a public library as
represent what may be called their
respective orthodoxies. But, as Mr.
Swift observes, " libraries are as
much the depositories of the folly
as of the wisdom of the ages." A
library, therefore, should tell us
what men have thought and at-
tempted in the past, and what they
are thinking and attempting now.
It is for schools and colleges, for
newspapers and reviews, to afford
guidance in the wilderness of opin-
ions, not for the library to make
a point of putting out of people's
reach everything that is not in line
with the scientific, literaiy, or other
orthodoxy of the hour.

EDITOR'S TABLE.

6jy

" A subtle form, of paternalism
is the deliberate inculcation of the
patriotic spirit, especially in chil-
dren." Mr. Swift is a brave man to
attempt to stem this particular tor-
rent. He thinks there are times
when one who loves his country
would feel shame for it rather than
pride, and that the motto " My
country right or wrong " is not the
most wholesome sentiment that can
be impressed on the mind of youth.
" To fill a child with the consum-
mate virtues of Washington, Jeffer-
son, and other of our immortals,
and to leave him ignorant of the
greatness of Cromvrell and of Wil-
liam the Silent, is a serious injus-
tice to the child and to the cause
of education." Not only is this
done, but, in the domain of litera-
ture as well, it seems as if the only
names with which public-school
pupils obtain any acquaintance are
those of national authors. So far
as poetry is concerned, Mr. Swift
says that almost the only name he
hears from the lips of children
frequenting the Public Library is
" Longfellow." He can not remem-
ber ever having had a call from a
child for. Tennyson, while Words-
worth in the school region is equally
unknown.

Apart from the studied inculca-
tion of a narrow patriotism, the
author of the paper we are consid-
ering thinks that there is altogether
too much paternalism shown in the
choice of children's reading. He
has only a limited and feeble faith
in " children's rooms " in public
libraries. They are very much, he
thinks, like Sunday schools — con-
venient places for parents to unload
their offspring. The aim of the cen-
sorship is to eliminate everything
that is not in accord with the most
approved canons of juvenile life
and thought, leaving only what is
ready for immediate acceptance and
assimilation. Such a policy, Mr.
Swift holds, is not favorable either

to individuality or to intellectual
growth. "We must," he says, " take
books, like life, as we find them, and
learn to distinguish good and bad;
learn, as we ought, that the good is
not so good as we have been told
it is, and that the bad Gontains'.-'a'
strong infusion of good. No wrecks
are so fearful as those which come
to the young who have up to a point
led ' sheltered lives.' "

It is not, however, children only
who get the benefit of a benevolent
protective policy. Selecting com-
mittees are quite prepared to look
after grown-up people as well, and
keep out of their way books which
might prove too exciting, which
might reveal depths of passion such
as persons leading decorous lives
are not supposed to know anything
about, or otherwise agitate the tran-
quil mill pond of their existence. It
does not occur to them that thus the
salt and savor of human life are ex-
pelled, and that, instead of the free
play of vital forces, there super-
venes a dreaiy mechanic round of
semi-automatic activities unvisited
by enthusiasm, untouched by strong
desire, without dream or vision or
any quickening of the heart or the
imagination. Some good people
are excessively particular not only
as to what may threaten moral dis-
turbance, but as to anything that
may encourage departures from
conventional modes of speech and
deportment. They do not like to
admit books that they regard as vul-
gar, and a great mark of vulgarity
in their opinion is the use of slang.
Yet so accomplished a litterateur as
Mr. William Archer told us lately
that he pleads guilty to " an unholy
relish " for the talk of " Chimmie
Fadden " and his Chicago contem-
porary " Artie." To him. as to Mr.
Swift, the books in which these
worthies disport themselves mean
sojnething, and something deserv-
ing of attention. That being the
case, the vulgarity, which is part of

6i8

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the picture, becomes in proportion
to its truth an element of value.
Mr. Swift, very bold and like the an-
cient prophet, says plainly : " Harm-
less books in general are mediocre
books; if a new note in morals or
society is struck, the suggestion of
a possible iujuriousness at once
arises."

Taken as a whole, Mr. Swift's
paper is a strong plea for individ-
ualism and liberty. As such we have
felt it a duty to call attention to it,
and we trust that it will in some
way obtain a more general circula-
tion than can be afforded by the
useful, but somewhat technical, col-
umns of the Library Journal.

"^XKQnxtnts xrt ^cijetxj:je.

Longevity of Whales. — Some light
was tluown, a few years ago, upon the
subject of the vitality of whales by find-
ing one of these animals in Bering Sea,
in 1890, with a "toggle" harpoon head in
its body bearing the mark of the Ameri-
can whaler Montezuma. That vessel was
engaged in whaling in Bering Sea about
ten years, but not later than 1854. She
was afterward sold to the Government,
and was sunk in Charleston Harbor
during the civil war to serve as an ob-
struction. Hence, it is estimated, the
whale must have carried the harpoon
not less than thirty-six years. In con-
nection with this fact, Mr. William H.
Dall gives an account, in the National
Geographic Magazine, of a discussion
with Captain E. P. Herendeen, of the
United States National Museum, of
cases of whales that have been supposed
to have made their way from Greenland
waters to Bering Strait, and to have
been identified by the harpoons they
carried. While it is very likely that
the whale really makes the passage, an
uncertainty must always be allowed, foi-
ships were often changing ownership and
their tools were sold and put on board
of other vessels, and harpoon irons were
sometimes given or traded to Eskimos.
It therefore becomes possible that the
animal was struck with a second-hand
iron.

Solidification of Hydrogen. — As
soon as he was able to obtain liquid
hydrogen in manageable quantities, in
the fall of 1S98, Mr. James Dewar began
experiments for its solidification. The
apparatus he used was like that em-
ployed in other solidification experi-

ments, consisting of a small vacuum test-
tube, containing the hydrogen, placed in
a larger vessel of the same kind, with
excess of the hydrogen partly filling the
circular space between the two tubes. No
solidification was produced, and the ef-
fort was suspended for a time, while the
author attacked other problems. The
experiments were renewed in 1899,
with the advantage of more knowledge
concerning reductions of temperature
brought about by reduction of pressure.
A slight leak of air in the apparatus
was observed, which was frozen into an
air snow when it met the cold vapor of
hydrogen coming off, and this leak at a
particular point of pressure caused a
sudden solidification of the liquid hydro-
gen into a mass like frozen foam. An
apparatus was then arranged that could
be overturned, so' that if any of the hy-
drogen was still liquid it would run out.
None ran out, but by the aid of a strong
light on the side of the apparatus oppo-
site the ej'e the hydrogen was seen as
a solid ice in the lower part, while the
surface looked frothy. The melting
point of hydrogen ice was determined
at about 16° or 17° absolute (-257° or
—256° C). The solid seemed to possess
the properties of the non-metallic ele-
ments rather than of the metals, among
which it has been usual to class hy-
drogen.

The Gegenschein. — ]\Inch interest
prevails among astronomers at present
concerning the question of the nature of
the Oenctiftchcin. This German word,
which means " opposite shine," is ap-
plied to designate a small, somewhat
oblong, bright spot which is sometimes

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

619

seen in the sky at night, nearly oppo-
site the point wliich is at the time occu-
pied by the sun on the opposite side of
the globe. It is near the ecliptic, but
appears two or three degrees away from
exact opposition to the sun. It seems
agreed that the Ge(/enscJiein is not at-
mospheric, but rather meteoric, being a
reflection fi-om some collection of me-
teors. The problem set before astrono-
mei-s is to identify the meteors. A the-
ory that they are connected with the
asteroidal zone, or mass of meteors of
which the known and numbered aster-
oids are conspicuous examples, has, ac-
cording to Professor Barnard, " much in
its favor, but there are objections to the
theory which can not easily be recon-
ciled with the observed facts." Mr. J.
Evershed, of Kenley, England, assumes
the Gcgcnscliein to be a tail to the earth,
produced by the escape of molecules of
hydrogen and helium away from the
globe in a direction opposite to the sun
— much as a comet's tail is formed.
Other observers suppose it to be con-
nected with the zodiacal light or band,
which is regarded as a body of meteors
connected with the earth and accom-
panying it, and is plainly visible in the
western sky after sunset in the spring,
rising from the place of the sun toward
the zenith; and Mr. William Anderson,
of Madeira, publishes a figure mth a
demonstration, in The Observatory, to
show how its place and appearance may
be accounted for on this supposition.
The Gegcnscliein has been compared in
a homely way to the radiance which
may be seen around the shadows of
our heads cast by the sun upon the
dewy grass early on a bright summer
morning.

Literature for Children. — Mr.
Richard le Gallienne, in an article pub-
lished in the Boston Transcript, laments
the flood of rubbish that is poured out
under the guise of children's books. The
subject of literature for children is dis-
cussed in the Studies of the Colorado
Scientific Society by Prof. E. S. Parsons,
who remarks that three of the greatest
classics of childhood were not written
for children at all. " Pilgrim's Progress
was a new type of sermon written by
the tinker preacher in his prison cell at
Bedford ; Robinson Crusoe was a. pseudo-
history from the pen of one of the first

great English realists; Gulliver's Trav-
els was a political satire by the greatest
of English satirists. The same thing is
true of the stories of the Bible, of the
Arabian Nights, of the folklore which
strikes a syTiipathctic chord at once in
the child's nature. . . . Child study,
then, reveals the fact that the child na-
ture is the counterpart of what is best
in books — that children can appreciate
literature." A friend of Professor Par-
sons wrote him of her daughter, nine
years old, being very fond of her fa-
ther's library, and ""simply devoted " to
the Bible and the plays of Shakespeare.
Harriet Martineau, when a child, " de-
voured oil of Shakespeare," sitting on a
footstool and reading by firelight, and
making shirts, with Goldsmith or Thom-
son or Milton where she could glance at
tliem occasionally. Another of Professor
Parsons's friends read " all of Goethe's
Faust with his little thirteen-year-old
girl, to her great enjoyment," and the
little girl afterward read alone all of
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. " Many
teachers have found young children de-
lighted with Dante." These incidents
and others point to the inference that
it is not necessary to go outside of the
world's great literature for fit material
for a child's imaginative and emotional
nature. One of Mr. Le Gallienne's main
conclusions is that it is very hard to
guess beforehand what the child will
like.

Geography and Exploration in
1899. — No great geographical discover-
ies were recorded during 1899, but much
good work was done in exploration.
Considerable interest has been taken in
preparing expeditions of antarctic re-
search, of which a Belgian expedition
has returned with some important re-
sults, and Mr. Borchgrevink has begun
work at Cape Adar, on the antarctic
mainland. The search for Andree has
helped increase our knowledge of parts
of the arctic coast. In Asia, Captain
Deasy has laid down the whole of the
before unknown course of the Yarkand
River, and has furnished other informa-
tion concerning little-known regions;
and other surveys and explorations have
been diligently prosecuted- About as
much may be said of Africa, where " the
want of adequate exploration of the
mountainous regions on the borders of

620

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Cape Colony and Natal has been only
too forcibly brought home " to the Eng-
lish. Expeditions sent out by Canadian
surveys are constantly opening up new
countries and producing maps of great
geographical and industrial value. Mr.
A. P. Low finds Labrador not quite so
bleak and hopeless a country as had
been generally believed. Sir Martin
Conway has done some very creditable
exploration in the Andes and in Tierra
del Fuego, the scientific results of which
are of considerable value. In Chile, Dr.
StafTcr and his colleagues have been ex-
ploring the wonderful fiords of the coast
and the rivers that come down to them
from the Andean range. Dr. Moreno
has described the results of twenty-five
years' exploration of the great Pata-
gonian plains, and of the lakes and gla-
ciers and mountains on the eastern face
of the Andes. One of the most impor-
tant scientific enterprises during the
year, the London Times says, was the
German oceanographical expedition in
the Valdivia, under Professor Chum,
which went south through the Atlantic
to the edge of the antarctic ice, and
north through the Indian Ocean to Su-
matra, and home through the Red Sea.

Royal Society Medalists. — The
Copley medal was conferred, at the re-
cent anniversary meeting of the Royal
Society, upon Lord Rayleigh for his
splendid service to physics, his investi-
gations, the president said in presenting
the award, having increased our knowl-
edge in almost every department of
physical science, covering the experi-
mental as well as the mathematical
parts of the subject. " His researches,
from the range of subjects they cover,
their abundance, and their importance,
have rarely been paralleled in the his-
tory of physical science." A summary
account of the principal ones was given
in the sketch of him published in the
twenty-fifth volume of the Popular Sci-
ence Monthly (October, 18S4). At the
same meeting of the Royal Society the
Royal medals were conferred upon Prof.
G. F. Fitzgerald, for his brilliant contri-
butions to physics, and Prof. William C.
Mcintosh, for his very important labors
as a zoologist. Professor Fitzgerald's
investigations have been in the field of
radiation and electrical theory, and in
a manner complementary to those of J.

Clerke Maxwell. Among his works is
a memoir presenting a dynamic formu-
lation of the electric theory of light on
the basis of the principle of least action,
which concludes with a remark upon
the advantage of " emancipating our
minds from the thraldom of a material
ether." Professor IVIcIntosh was spoken
of as " one of a distinguished succession
of monographers of the British fauna,
who, beginning with Edward Forbes,
have, during the last fifty years, done
work highly creditable to British zool-
ogy." He is author of a great mono-
graph of the British Annelids, which is
still in progress of publication by the
Royal Society, and of an important con-
tribution to the Challenger reports, and
was the founder of the first marine bio-
logical station in Great Britain — the
Catty Marine Laboratory at St. An-
drews. The Davy medal was bestowed
upon Edward Schunek for researches of
very high importance in organic chem-
istry. These works include a remark-
able series of contributions to the chem-
istry of the organic coloring matters,
particularly those relating to the indigo
plant and to the madder plant. Of late
years he has studied, with distinguished
success, the chemistry of chlorophyll.

Anglo-Saxon Superiority. — The
question of the superiority of the Anglo-
Saxon race is at present interesting
economists of other stocks, especially of
the supposed Latin races. The fact of
superiority seems -to be conceded. The
problem is to account for it. A French
writer, M. Dumoulins, attributes it to
the superiority of Anglo-Saxon educa-
tional institutions. Signor G. Sergi,
the distinguished Italian anthropologist,
thinks it is a result of the mi.xture
of ethnic elements of which the Eng-
lish people are made up, and he goes
over the history of the colonizations
which have overtaken Britain, to show
how upon the first neolithic settlers of
the Mediterranean stocks came a small
emigration of the Asiatic Aryan or In-
do-European peoples. Caesar's conquest
brought in a Roman infusion with some
African elements, which did not last
long, but left their mark. Next the An-
glo-Saxon tribes of northern Germany
made the principal contribution to the
formation of the English people. A por-
tion of Scandinavian blood was added to

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

621

the composition, and on top of all came
the Normans. These elements, none of
which Avere extremely discordant with
the others, became thoroughly mixed in
the course of time, and matured into the
English people as it is. The English
resemble the Romans in their methods
of colonization, political tact, practical
sense, persistence, religious tolerance,
the magnitude of their works and the
boldness of their undertakings, and in
their egotism working together with the
principle of social solidarity. Both read-
ily established themselves in new colo-
nies, carrying there the civilization of
the mother country and their systems
of administration. The great roads and
wonderful bridges constructed by the
Romans are paralleled by the great
Anglo-Saxon railway systems. As the
Latin language became almost univer-
sal, so the English language is diffusing
itself everywhere. But Signor Sergi fails
to show why, if the English have taken
so much from the Romans, the Italians,
their direct descendants, have lost so
much of what they once had. He re-
serves that question, after raising it, for
future consideration.

Carbonic Acid and Climate. — The
great importance of the carbonic acid
in the atmosphere as a factor in deter-
mining the climate of the earth has
been confirmed by the researches of a
considerable number of investigators.
Its work appears to be that of an ab-
sorbent of the sun's radiant heat, retain-
ing it and preventing its passing by us
and leaving us in the cold temperature
of space. Tyndall computes that it has
in this capacity a power eighty times
that of oxygen or nitrogen, while it is
excelled by water vapor with ninety-
two times that of those gases. Lecher
and Pretner, on the other hand, believe
that carbonic acid is the only agent
concerned in the service. Mr. Cyrus F.
Talman, Jr., in view of the fact that
carbonic acid is an important factor
among geological agencies, has pub-
lished, in the Journal of Geology, a
study of the conditions of the content
of that gas in the ocean, a study that
leads to the consideration of the chem-
istry of the ocean. It seems to be clear
that with falling temperature the ocean
will dissolve carbonic acid from the air.
Dr. T. C. Charaberliu has shown that

the amount of carbonic acid in the at-
mosphere at any one time, and therefore
the climate of the earth at that time,
depends upon the value of the ratio of
the supply of the gas to its depletion.
Besides the continuous supply that the
atmosphere receives from the interior of
the earth and from planetary space and
the continuous depletion due to the for-
mation of carbonates in place of the
igneous alkali earth silicates, there are
variations in the ratio of supply to de-
pletion dependent upon the attitude of
the land and the water. A large expos-
ure of land surface is correlated with a
rapid solution of calcium and magne-
sium carbonates, which, becoming bicar-
bonates, represent a loss of carbonic
acid to the atmosphere. On the other
hand, the formation of the normal car-
bonate by lime-secreting animals causes
a direct liberation of the second equiva-
lent of the bicarbonate. Therefore ex-
tensive oceans and abundant marine
life are correlated with warm climate.
After a somewhat more minute discus-
sion of the action, Mr. Talman con-
cludes that the ocean very greatly in-
tensifies the secular variation of the
earth's temperature, although acting as
a moderating agent in the minor cycles.

Pearl Mussels. — In his report to
the United States Fish Commission on
the Pearly Fresh-Water Mussels of the
United States, Mr. Charles T. Simpson
speaks of the great variety of conditions
under which they live. Thej' show
great capacity for adaptation. Most of
them are found in shallow water, but
certain forms live at considerable
depths. Some bury themselves among
the fibrous roots of trees, some in the
muddy, sandy banks just below the sur-
face of the water, and some, as in Lake
Tiberias (Palestine) and Lake Tangan-
yika (Africa), under six hundred or
more feet of water. Ordinarily they die
in a very short time if taken out of the
water — in from twentj^-four to forty-
eight hours, as a rule — and they gener-
ally die in a few hours when exposed to
the sun. But many species, thus ten-
der in the open air, will lie buried in
dried mud for a long time. In June,
1850, a li^^ng pond mussel was sent to
London, from Australia, which had been
out of water for more than a year.
Along a small stream near Braidentown,

POPULAR SCIEKCE MONTHLY.

Fla., which runs only during about
three months in summer and is dry the
rest of the year, thousands of a large
colony of Lnio ohcaus may be found
just buried in the sandy banks or
among the flags and rushes of the bot-
tom, where there is very little moisture,
all in healthy condition. Mr. Simpson
has laid these mussels in the sun for
months without killing them. The
specimens which live in perennial watei
seem to die soon if removed from it.

while those which inhabit streams or
ponds that often dry up will live a long
time out of water. Some species in
rocky streams live in the crevices of the
rocks. In the Big Vermilion River, in
La Salle County, Illinois, a swift, rocky
stream, the author has found living
mussels that had been so washed about
that nearly all the epidermis was de-
stroyed. The shells in such streams are
usually heavier than those in more
quiet water.

MINOR PAEAGRAPHS.

Prof. Frederick Starr, of the
University of Chicago, has made two ex-
cursions to Mexico for the purpose of es-
tablishing the physical types of the abo-
rigines by means of measurements, pho-
tographs, and casts. He studied twelve
tribes, half of which were almost un-
known to science, and made measure-
ments of more than eleven hundred and
fifty men and three hundred women.
On his last trip he rode one thousand
miles among the mountains on horse-
back. In a recent paper in the Open
Court he takes notice of frequent and
curious survivals of pagan belief to be
remarked among these peoples, although
they are all supposed to be devout Chris-
tians. In one instance, which is spe-
cially described, an idol bearing some
resemblance to those found among the
ruins of the ancient cities occupied a
station in the church by the side of the
crucifix, sharing the honors with the
statue of the Virgin on the other side.
Grief and consternation prevailed among
the Indians when the idol was taken
away by the ecclesiastical authorities.

The question of the increase of in-
sanity in England during the last few
years is regarded as assuming a serious
aspect, and the report of the Commis-
sioners of Lunacy for 1898, showing the
largest annual increase yet recorded,
the Lancet says, reveals the gravity of
the situation. Other collateral facts
given in the report " add to the serious-
ness of the outlook." The increase in
the number of inmates in institutions
for lunatics is attended with a falling
off in the recovery rate, which is lower
for 1898 than that of the previous year,
and even than the average of the last
ten years. A steady diminution in the
recovery rate has appeared also during

each period of five years since 1873.
The attempt to account for the increase
of lunatics in public and private asy-
lums by supposing that it is made up
by removals thither from workhouses or
from the care of relatives fails, for it is
shown that this class of insane is in-
creasing too, though slowly. The sub-
ject is regarded as of so much impor-
tance that it was considered and dis-
cussed in the Psychological Section of
the British Association at its Bristol
meeting in 1899.

A process by which calcium car-
bide can be continuously produced more
cheaply than by the process at present
in use is reported, in Industries and
Iron, to have been discovered by Pro-
fessor Freeman, of Chicago. In the new
process a huge arc lamp inclosed in
brickwork in the interior of a furnace
is employed. The upper electrode of
the lamp is hollow, and through it is
fed a powder composed of common lime
and coke. This powder, being carried
through the upper carbon directly into
the electric flame, is melted by the in-
tense heat, and molten calcium carbide
runs away from the furnace. It is esti-
mated that the carbide is produced at a
cost of half a cent per pound.

NOTES.

A new method of securing more per-
fect combustion, described by Mr. Paul
J. Schlicht before the Franklin Insti-
tute, is based on the fact, described by
the inventor, that if a current of air is
properly introduced into a chimney flue
through which hot products of combus-
tion are escaping, it will flow in a direc-
tion contrary to theirs, and, becoming
heated in contact with them, will reach

FRAGMENTS OF SCIFNCF.

623

the center of the fire in a condition high-
ly favorable to the most complete union
of oxygen with the combustible elements
of tlie fuel. Suggestions are made in
Mr. Schlicht's paper for the construc-
tion and regulation of furnaces, so as to
secure the condition described.

Mr. Edward Ortox, Jr., has been
appointed State Geologist of Ohio, to
succeed his father, the late Dr. Edward
Orton. He has been connected, as an
assistant, with the survey, in which he
studied the distribution of the coal
measures, and has also prepared reports
on the clay and clay industries of the
State.

" From a moral if not from a scien-
tific and industrial point of view, incon-
testably superior to that of the Euro-
pean peoples," is the characterization a
book reviewer in the Revue Scientifique
gives to Chinese civilization.

Sir WiLLiAii Turner is the presi-
dent-elect for the Bradford meeting of
the British Association, 1900. He is
head of the great medical school at
Edinburgh, and President of the Gen-
eral Medical Council, and was pro-
nounced by Lord Lister, in nominating
him, the foremost human anatomist in
the British Islands, and also a great an-
thropologist.

A GOLD medal is offered by the So-
ciety of Agricultural Industry and Com-
merce of Milan to the inventor of the
best apparatus or the person who will
make known the best method for pro-
tecting working electricians against the
accidents of their profession. The com-
petition is open to all nations.

The statue of Lavoisier, called by
the French " the founder of chemistry,"
is to be erected, during the Universal
Exposition in Paris, on the square 01
the Madeleine, at the intersection of the
Rue Tronchet. The work is in charge
of the sculptor Barrias. The sum ot
ninety-eight thousand francs, or nine-
teen thousand six hundred dollars, has
been subscribed to pay for it.

The death list of the last few weeks
of men known in science includes a con-
siderable proportion of important names.
Among the number are John B. Stallo.
formerly of Cincinnati, author of Gen-
eral Principles of the Philosophy of
Nature, The Concepts and Theories of

Modern Science, and numerous contri-
butions to scientific publications, recent-
ly United States minister to Italy, in
Florence, December 30th, in his seventy-
fifth year; Sir James Paget, for many
years the leading surgeon in England,
and author of books relating to surgery,
in London, December 30th, in his eighty-
sixth year; Dr. Thomas C. Egleston,
Emeritus Professor of Mineralogy and
Metallurgy in Columbia University, in
New York, January 15th; Prof. Henry
Allen Hazen, one of the chief forecasters
of the United States Weather Bureau,
and author of improvements in the
methods employed there, in Washing-
ton, from the results of a bicycle colli-
sion, January 22d, in his fifty-first year;
Dr. Wilhelm Zenker, a distinguished
physicist, at Berlin, October 21st, aged
seventy years; Augustus Doerflinger,
an engineer who was engaged in the
work of the removal of Hell Gate in
New York Harbor, at Brooklyn, No-
vember 24th, in his fifty-eighth year;
Johann Carl Wilhelm Ferdinand Tie-
mann. Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Berlin and late editor of
the Reports of the German Chemical So-
ciety, at Meran, Tyrol, November 17th,
in his fifty-second year; he was distin-
guished for his researches upon the con-
stitution of odoriferous principles, in-
cluding works on vanillin, the aroma of
the violet, terpenes, and camphor, and
the synthesis of amido-acids ; Dr. Birch-
Ilirschfeld, Professor of Pathology in the
University of Berlin, aged fifty-seven
years; Sir Richard Thorne Thorne, prin-
cipal medical officer to the Local Gov-
ernment Board, in London, December
ISth, aged fifty-eight years; author of
many official reports relating to the
public health, of works on the progress
of preventive medicine during the Vic-
torian era, and of lectures on diphtheria
and the administrative control of tuber-
culosis; Dr. John Frederick Hodges,
Professor of Agriculture and lecturer on
medical jurisprudence in Queen's Col-
lege, Belfast, Ireland, and author of two
elementarj-^ books on chemistry, The
Structure and Physiology of the Ani-
mals of the Farm, and of several papers
published in the Proceedings of Scien-
tific Societies; E. C. C. Stanford, a prac-
tical chemist, distinguished for the in-
troduction of several original methods
of manufacture, and for the preparation

)24

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of several new substances, such as algin | man of science in the strict sense of the

and thyroglandin; he was the author of
the monograph on the iodine industry
in Tiiorpe's Dictionary of Chemistry;
and John lluskin, who, though not a

term, did his full share for the advance-
ment of knowledge and comfort among
men, at Coniston Lake, England, Janu-
ary 20th, in his eighty-first year.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Agricultural Experiment Stations.
Bulletins and Reports. Summary of
Feeding-Stuffs Law in Force in New
York after December 1, 1899. P. 1.
Bulletin No. 159. A Pest of Woodland
and Grove. (The Forest Tent Cater-
pillar). By F. IL Hail and V. H. Lowe.
Pp. 5; No. 160. Keport of Analyses of
Commercial Fertilizers for the Fall of
1S99. By L. S. Van Slyke. Pp. 102;
No. IGl. Popular Edition. Gooseberry
Mildew held in Check. By' F. H. Hall
and C. P. Close. Pp. 4 ; Newspaper Sum-
maries of these Three Bulletins. P. 1.

Carter, Oscar C. S. Coastal Topog-
raphy of the United States. Pp. 30.

Connecticut, State of. Fifteenth An-
nual Eeport of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics for the Year ending Septem-
ber 30, 1899. Pp. 2G6.

Densmore, Emmet, M. D. Consump-
tion and Kindred Diseases. (Open-air
Treatment.) Brooklyn, N. Y.: The Still-
mann Publishing Company. Pp. 138.

Douglas, James, New York City.
American Transcontinental Lines. Pp.
56.

Fry, the Right Hon. Sir Edward,
and Agnes. The Mycetozoa and some
Questions which they Suggest. Lon-
don: "Knowledge" Office. Pp. 82. 1
shilling.

Gay, Albert, and Yeaman, C. H. An
Introduction to the Study of Central
Station Electricity Supply. New York:
The Macmillan Company. Pp. 167. $3.

Johnston, Charles. The Memory of
Past Births. New York: The IVIeta-
physical Publishing Company. Pp. 50.
25 cents.

King, F. H. Irrigation and Drainage.
Principles and Practice of their Cultu-
ral Piiases. New York: The Macmillan
Company. Pp. 502. $1.50.

Kunz, George F. The Production of
Precious Stones in 1898. United States
Geological Survey. Pp. 48, witli plate.

Marine Biological Laboratory, at
Woods lloll, Mass. Announcement for
the Thirteenth Season. July 5 to Au-
gust 10, 1900. Pp. 12.

McKay, A. H., Halifax, Nova Sco-
tia. Phenological Observations, Canada,
1898. Pp. 20.

McKim, W. Duncan. Heredity and
Human Progress. New York: G. P.
Putnam's Sons. Pp. 283. $1.50.

Michigan. Thirty-seventh Annual
Report of the Secretary of the State
Board of Agriculture, and Eleventh An-
nual Report of the Agricultural College
Experiment Station. July 1, 1897, to
June 30, 1898. Pp. 740.

New Y'ork State Library Bulletin.
(Legislation No. 11, January, 1900.)
Albany. Pp. 395. 25 cents.

Parker, T. Jaffrey, and Haswell, Wil-
liam A. A Manual of Zoology. Revised
and adapted for the use of American
Schools and Colleges. New York: The
Macmillan Company. Pp. 163. $1.60.

Peet, Stephen Denison. The Cliff-
Dwellers and the Pueblos. Chicago:
Office of the American Antiquarian.
Pp. 398.

Smithsonian Institution. List of
Publications available for Distribution.
December, 1899. Pp. 35.

Sound Currency. October, 1899. De-
posit Currency; the Effective Currency
of Commercial " Communities. Pp. 12.
November, 1899. The Farmer's Interest
in the Banking Question. Pp. 8. Both
by L. Carroll Root.

Spencer, Frank Clarence. Education
of the Pueblo Child. A Study in Ar-
rested Development. (Columbia Uni-
versity Contributions to Philosophy,
Psychology, and Education. Vol. VII,
No. 1.) New York: The Macmillan
Company. Pp. 97. 75 cents.

United States Commissioner of Edu-
cation. Report for the Year 1897-'98.
Vol. II. Containing Parts II and III.
Pp. 2640.

United States Commissioner of Fish
and Fisheries. The Preservation of
Fishery Products for Food. By Charles
II. Stevenson. Pp. 570.

United States Department of Labor.
Bulletin No. 25. November, 1899. For-
eign Labor Laws. Pp. 80.

\^UL

APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE

MONTHLY.

APRIL, 1900. ■

RECENT YEARS OF EGYPTIAN EXPLORATION.

By W. M. flinders PETRIE,
pkofessor of egyptology, university college, london.

Ij^AMILIAR as we are with tlie methods of science — exact ob- -
servation and record, comparison, and the strict weeding out
of hypotheses — yet such methods have only gradually been applied
to various branches of learning.

Geometry became a science long ago, zoology much later, medi-
cine only a generation or two ago, and the history of man is but
just being developed into a science. What was done for other
sciences by the pioneers of the past is now being done in the present
day for archseology. "We now have to devise methods, to form a
notation for recording facts, and to begin to lay out our groundwork
of knowledge. With very few exceptions, it may be said of Egypt
that there is no publication of monimients before this century that
is of the least use, no record or dating of objects before 1860, and
no comparison or study of the history of classes of products before
1890. Thus, the work of recent years in Egyptology is really the
history of the formation of a science.

The great stride that has been made in the last six years is the
opening up of prehistoric Egypt, leading us back some two thou-
sand years before the time of the pyramid builders. Till recently,
nothing was known before the age of the finest art and the greatest
buildings, and it was a familiar puzzle how such a grand civilization
could have left no traces of its rise. This was only a case of blind-
ness on the part of explorers. Upper Egypt teems with prehis-
toric remains, but, as most of what appears is dug up by plunderers
for the market, until there, is a demand for a class of objects, very

VOL. LVI .51

626 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

little is seen of them. Now that the prehistoric has become fash-
ionable, it is everywhere to be seen, . The. earlier diggers were daz-
zled by the polished colossi, the massive buildings, the brilliant
sculptures of the well-known historic times, and they had no eyes
for small graves, containing only a few jars or, at best, a flint knife.

The present position of the prehistory of Egypt is that we can
noAv distinguish two separate cultures before the beginning of the
Egyptian dynasties, and we can clearly trace a sequence of manu-
factures and art throughout long ages before the pyramid builders,
or from say 6000 b. c, giving a continuous history of eight thou-
sand years for man in Egypt. Continuous I say advisedly, for
some of the prehistoric ways are those kept up to the present time.

In the earliest stage of this prehistoric culture metal was al-
ready used and pottery made. Why no ruder stages are found is
perhaps explained by the fact that the alluvial deposits of the Nile
do not seem to be much older than eight thousand years. The
rate of deposit is well known — very closely one metre in a thou-
sand years — and borings show only eight metres thick of Nile mud
in the valley. Before that the country had enough rain to keep
up the volume of the river, and it did not drop its mud. It must
have run as a rapid stream through a barren land of sand and stones,
which could not support any population except paleolithic hunters.
With the further drying of the climate, the river lost so much
velocity that its mud was deposited, and the fertile mud flats made
cultivation and a higher civilization possible. At this point a peo-
ple already using copper came into the country. Their bodies were
buried in shallow, circular pit-graA''es, covered with goat skins,
which were fastened rarely by a copper pin; before the face was
placed a simple bowl of red and black pottery, and some of the
valued malachite was placed in the hands. The body was sharply
contracted, often with the knees almost touching the face, and the
hands were usually in front of the face.

Very soon they developed their pottery into varied and grace-
ful forms, and decorated it with patterns in white clay applied to
the dark-red surface, but it continued to be entirely hand-made,
without the use of the potter's wheel. The patterns, usually copied
from basketwork, show the source of the forms of the cups and
vases. The modern Kabyle, in the highlands of Algeria, has kept
up the same patterns on hand-made pottery, and the same use of
white clay on a red base. It is probably to a Libyan people that
this civilization is first duo, and the skulls of these prehistoric Egyp-
tians are identical with those of the prehistoric Algerians from the
dolmens and the modern Algerians. This first growth of the civi-
lization not only developed pottery, l)ut also the carving of stone

RECENT YEARS OF EGYPTIAN EXPLORATION. 627

vases entirely by hand. The principal type of these is the cylin-
der, with many smalj variations. Figures were carved in alabaster
and bone, and modeled in clay and paste; these are rude, but show
that the type of the race was fine, with a high forehead and pointed
beard. The use of marks denoting property was common, and
such marks seem to be the earliest stages of the system of signs
which developed later into the alphabet. This civilization had ap-
parently passed its best time, decoration had ceased on the pottery,
when a change came over all classes of work.

The second prehistoric civilization seems to have belonged to
a people kindred to that of the first age, as much of the pottery
continued unchanged, and only gradually faded away. But a new
style arose of a hard, buff pottery, painted with patterns and sub-
jects in red outline. Ships are represented with cabins on them,
and rowed by a long bank of oars. The use of copper became more
general, and gold and silver appear also. Spoons of ivory, and
rarely of precious metals, were made, but hair combs, which were
common before, ceased to be worn. Stone vases were commonly
carved in a variety of hard and ornamental stones, but always
of the barrel outline and not the early c^dinder shapes. Flint-
working reached the highest stage ever known in any country,
the most perfect mastery of the material having been acquired.
Though this civilization was in many respects higher than that
which preceded it, yet it was lower artistically, the figures being
ruder and always flat, instead of in the round. Also the use of
signs was driven out, and disappeared in the later stage of this
second period. The separation of these two different ages has been
entirely reached by the classification of many hundreds of tombs,
the original order of which could be traced bj^the relation of their
contents. In this way a scale of sequence has been formed, which
enables the range of any form of pottery or other object to be
exactly stated, and every fact of connection discovered can be at
once reduced to a numerical scale as definite as a scale of years.
For the first time a regular system of notation has been devised
for prehistoric remains, and future research in each country will
be able to deal with such ages in as definite a manner as with his-
toric times. The material for this study has come entirely from
excavations of my own party at ISTagada (IS 9 5), Abadiyeh, and
Hu (1899); but great numbers of tombs of these same ages have
been opened without record by M. de Morgan (1896-97), and by
French and Arab speculators in antiquities.

The connection between these prehistoric ages and the early
historic times of the dynastic kings of Egypt is yet obscure. The
cemeteries which would have cleared this have unhappily been

628 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

looted in the last few years without any record, and it is only the
chance of some new discoveries that can be looked to for filling
up the history. We can at least say that the pottery of the early
kings is clearly derived from the later prehistoric types, and that
much of the civilization was in common. But it is clear that the
second prehistoric civilization was degrading and losing its artistic
taste for fine work before the new wave of the dynastic or historic
Egyptians came in upon it.

These early historic people are mainly known by the remains of
the tombs of the early kings, found by M. Amelineau at Abydos
(1896-'99), and probably the first stage of the same race is seen
in the rude colossi of the god Min, which I found at Koptos (1894).
Unhappily, the work at Abydos was not recorded, and it is not
known now out of which of many kings' tombs, nor even out of
which cemeteries, the objects have come. Hence scientific results
are impossible, unless enough material has escaped the careless and
ignorant workmen to reward more accurate reworking of the same
ground. We can at present only glean a general picture of the
early royal civilization from Abydos, supplemented by some splen-
did carvings of two reigns found at Hierakonpolis (1897-'98) by
Mr. Quibell.

The burials continued to be in tombs of the same form — rectan-
gular pits lined with brickwork and roofed over with beams and
brushwood. But they were made larger, and, in the case of the
royal tombs, great halls were formed about fifty by thirty-five feet,
roofed with beams eighteen or twenty feet long. In these royal
tombs were placed a profusion of vases of hard and beautiful stones,
bowls of slate, and immense jars of alabaster; these contained the
more valuable offerings of precious ointments and other funereal
treasures. Besides these, there were hundreds of great jars of pot-
tery, containing provision of bread, meats, dried fruits, water, beer,
and wine. Doubtless there were many vases of metals, but these
have been almost always robbed from the tomb anciently. Around
the tomb were the small graves of the retainers of the king, each
with a lesser store like that of their master. The royal tomb was
denoted by a great tablet bearing the king's spiritual name by
which he would be known in the future world. The private tombs
had small tablets, about a foot and a half high, with the names
of their occupants. As all these tablets show considerable weather-
ing, it seems that they were placed visible above the tomb. Tombs
of the subsequent kings were elaborated with small chambers
around the great one, to contain the offerings, and even a long
passage was formed with dozens of chambers along each side of it,
each chamber containing a separate kind of offering.

RECENT YEARS OF EGYPTIAN EXPLORATION. 629

Turning now to some of the remains of these kings during their
life, we learn that they were occupied with frequent wars — the
gradual consolidation of the kingdom of Egypt. One king will
record the myriads of slain enemies, another gives a picture of a
captive king brought before him with over a million living captives,
the regular Egyptian notation for such large numbers being al-
ready complete. Another king shows his triumphal entry to the
temple, with the slain enemies laid out before him. On other
sculptures are shown the peaceful triumphs of canalization and
reclamation of land, which are alluded to in the traditions of the
early dynasties preserved by Greek historians. All these scenes
are given us on the slate carvings and great mace heads covered
with sculpture from Hierakonpolis.

Thus in these great discoveries of the last few years we can
trace at least three successive peoples, and see the gradual rise of
the arts, from the man who ^vas buried in his goat skins, with one
plain cup by him, up to the king who built great monuments and
was surrounded by most sumptuous handiwork. We see the rise
of the art of exquisite flint flaking, and the decline of that as cop-
per came more commonly into use. We see at first the use of signs,
later on disused by a second race, and then superseded by the
elaborate hieroglyph system of the dynastic race.

The mixture of various races was surmised long ago from the
varied portraiture of the early times. It is now shown more plainly
than ever on these early monuments. We see represented the
king of the dynastic type, a scribe with long, wavy hair, a chief of
the dynastic shaven-headed type, another with long, lank hair, and
another with a beard, while the enemies are shown with curly
hair and narrow beards like Bedouin. Four different peoples are
here in union against a fifth. And this diversity of peoples lasts
on long into the historic times. After several centuries of a united
Egypt, under the pyramid builders, we find that some people buried
in the old contracted position, others cut up the body and wrapped
every bone separately in cloth, while others embalmed the body
whole. Thus great diversity of belief and custom still prevailed
for perhaps a thousand years after the unification of Egypt. So
useless is it to think of " the ancient Egyptians " as an unmixed
race gradually rising into "a consciousness of nationality."

The excavations at Deshasheh in 1897, which first showed me
the diversity of burials, also showed that the type of the race had
already become unified by intermixture, and that, strange to say,
four thousand years later, after untold crossings with many in-
vaders, the type was unchanged. Later work at Dendereh and
elsewhere has pointed to the conclusion that a mixture of a new

630 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

race is subdued to the type of the country by the effect of climate
and surroundings witliin a few centuries.

Turning now to the purely classical Egyptian work, the prin-
cipal discoveries of the last few years have given us new leading
examples in every line. The great copper statue of King Pepy,
with his son, dates from before 3000 b. c. It is over life size, and
entirely wrought in hammered copper, showing a complete mastery
in metal work of the highest artistic power. Probably of the same
age is a head of a figure of the sacred hawk, wrought hollow in a
single mass of hammered gold, weighing over a pound; this again
shows work of noble dignity and power. Both of these were found
at Ilierakonpolis in 1898, and are now in the Cairo Museum.

Some centuries later was made the exquisite jewelry found at
Dahshur in the graves of three princesses. This is a revelation of
the delicacy possible in goldsmith's work. The soldering of the
minute parts of the gold is absolutely invisible. The figures of
hawks are made up of dozens of microscopic pieces of colored stone
— lazuli, turquoise, carnelian — every one cut to the forms of the
feathers, and every piece having a tiny cell of soldered gold strip to
hold it in place, yet the whole bird only about half an inch high.
The finest colored enameling ever made would be child's play com-
pared with a piece of this early jewelry. The exquisite grace of
form, harmony of coloring, and sense of perfection leave the mind
richer by a fresh emotion, after seeing such a new world of skill.
Coming down to about 1500 b. c, a large work has been done in the
last six years in clearing the temple of Queen Hatshepsut at Deir
el Bahri, on the western side of Thebes. That great ruler had
there commemorated the events of her reign, particularly the expe-
dition to the south of the Red Sea to obtain the plants of the sacred
incense and other valued products. The attention shown to exact
figuring of plants and animals makes this valuable as a record of
natural history. This clearance has been made by Dr. JSTaville for
the English fund. Meanwhile, Franco-Egyptian officials have been
clearing out the Temple of Karnak, on the opposite bank, but with
disastrous effect. The huge columns, built poorly of small blocks
by Rameses IT, stand now below the level of the inundation, and,
after removing the earth accumulated around them, the Nile water
lias free circulation. This has dissolved the mortar so much that
nine of these Titanic columns of the Great Hall fell last year, and
three more threaten to follow them.

The Valley of the Tombs of the Kings has been prohibited
ground to foreign explorers for over forty years, although the
official department never did any work there. The native plun-
derers, however, turned up many years ago the beautiful chair

RECENT YEARS OF EGYPTIAN EXPLORATION. 631

of Queen Hatsliepsiit, .and lately they found the entry to still un-
opened royal tombs. The secret passed — for a consideration — to
the Department of Antiquities, and two royal tombs were opened.
These contained the bodies of several kings of the eighteenth and
nineteenth dynasties — one undisturbed, the others moved from else-
where. With these was a crowd of objects of funereal furniture.
Unhappily, nothing is published in detail of any official discoveries;
with the exception of the first find of the Dahshur jewelry, there
has never been any full account issued of the great discoveries in
the most important sites, which are reserved to the Government.
The great group of kings found at Deir el Bahri, the great necropo-
lis of the priests of Amen, the second find of Dahshur jewelry, the
second group of royal mummies, of all these we know nothing but
what has appeared in newspapers, or some partial account of one
branch of the subject. Hardly any publication has ever appeared,
such as the English societies issue every year about the produce
of their excavations.

Many of the royal temples of the nineteenth dynasty at Thebes
were explored by the English in 1896. The Ramesseum was com-
pletely examined, through all the maze of stone chambers around
it. But the most important result was the magnificent tablet of
black granite, about ten feet high and five wide, covered on one
side with an inscription of Amen Hotep III, and on the other side
with an inscription of Merenptah. The latter account, of about
1200 B. c, mentions the war with the " People of Israel "; this is
the only naming of Israel on Egyptian records, and is several cen-
turies earlier than any Assyrian record of the Hebrews. It has,
of course, given rise to much discussion, which is too lengthy to
state here.

One of the most important results of historical Egyptian times
is the light thrown on prehistoric Greek ages. The pottery known
as " Mykentean " since the discoveries of Schliemann in the Pelo-
ponnesus was first dated in Egypt at Gurob in 1889; next were
found hundreds of vase fragments at Tell el Amarna in 1892; and
since then several Egyptian kings' names have been found on
objects in Greece, along with such pottery. The whole of this evi-
dence shows that the grand age of prehistoric Greece, which can
well compare with the art of classical Greece, began about 1600
B. c, was at its highest point about 1400 b. c, and became decadent
about 1200 B. c, before its overthrow by the Dorian invasion.

Besides this dating, Greece is indebted to Egypt for the preser-
vation of the oldest texts of its classics. Fragments of Plato almost
contemporary with his lifetime, pages of Thucydides, whole books
of the Iliad, and the celebrated recent publications of Bacchylides

632 r OVULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

and Herondas, all are due to Egypt. Moreover, of Christian times
we Lave a leaf of an early collection of Sayings of Jesus, a leaf of
gospel about two centuries older than any other biblical manu-
script, and a host of documents bearing on early Christianity, such
as the Gospel of Peter and other apocryphal writings which were
later banned by the Church.

Now it may be asked how all these discoveries are made — in-
deed, many people take for granted that some government kindly
pays for it all. On the contrary, the only official influences are a
severe check on such scientific work. While a native Egyptian
can plunder tombs with but little hindrance, any one desiring to
preserve objects and promote knowledge must (after obtaining the
permission of the Egyptian Government for the exact place he
wants to work) be officially inspected at his own expense (a matter
of twenty or thirty pounds a season), and then, after all, give up to
the Government half of all he finds, without any recompense. The
English Government long ago gave up all claim for British subjects
to occupy any post in the Cairo Museum, thus putting a decisive bar
on the hopes of would-be students and hindering the object very
effectually.

In face of all these disadvantages, work has yet been carried
on by the Egypt Exploration Fund and by the Egyptian Research
Account; both rely on English and American support, and the latter
body is intended expressly to help students in training. Besides
these, private work has been carried on during several years by
two or three other explorers, partly at their own cost, partly helped
by friends. The two societies above named have kept to the prin-
ciples that everything shall be published as soon as possible, and
that all the antiquities removed from Egypt shall be divided among
public museums as gifts in return for the support from various
places, nothing ever being sold publicly or privately. In this way
several centers in America send large annual contributions, have
representatives on the London Committee of the Exploration Fund,
and receive their share for museums every year.

Besides this organizing of w^ays and means, there is quite as
important organization needed in the excavations. At present
most of the above-named work is done by a corps of men who have
been engaged at it for many years. They leave their homes and
assemble as soon as the winter begins; any dealing in antiquities or
misconduct since the last season excludes them from rejoining.
They each know their work, what to preserve, how to leave every-
thing intact in the ground where found, and how best to manage
different kinds of excavating. With such men it is always pos-
sible to screw more information out of a site, however much it mav

THE GOLD SANDS OF CAPE NOME. 633

have been already wrecked in ancient or modern times. And it
is far safer to leave such men unwatched, with the certainty that
they will receive a fair value for all they find, than it is to drive
a gang under the lash, on bare wages, without rewards to keep
them from pilfering. The English system means mutual confi-
dence and good faith; the native and French system of force means
the destruction of both information and antiquities.

And yet besides this there is the essential business of observing
and recording. Every hole dug must have a meaning and be under-
stood, as to the date of the ground at different levels and the
nature of the place. Everything must be spelled out as the work
advances; any diflaculties that can not be explained must be tried
with all possible hypotheses; each detail must either fall into place
as agreeing with what is known, or be built in as a new piece of
knowledge.

Twenty years ago nothing was known of the date of any Egyp-
tian manufactures, not even of pottery or beads, which are the com-
monest. Now, at present it is seldom that anything is found which
can not be dated tolerably near by, and in some classes of remains
the century or even the reign can be stated at once, without a single
word to show it. The science of Egyptian archaeology is now in
being.

In this, therefore, as in many other matters, the Anglo-Saxon
taste for private enterprise is the ruling power, and in spite of
political obstacles and of taxation, which are happily unknown in
other sciences, the private work of individuals has quietly traced
out the foundations of one of the earliest civilizations of mankind.

THE GOLD SANDS OF CAPE NOME.

By Prof. ANGELO HEILPRIN,
late president of the philadelphia geographical society.

ONE of the most interesting contributions to the history of
gold and gold mining has undoubtedly been discovered in the
region of Cape Nome, Alaska, during the past summer. Vague
reports have from time to time, for a period of a year or more,
been sent out from the bleak and inhospitable shores of Bering Sea
of the discovery there of rich deposits of placer gold, and of almost
fabulous wealth acquired by a few fortunate prospectors — a new
Klondike on American soil — but these gained little credence be-
yond the portals of transportation companies and the organizers of
" boom " enterprises. A few of the more credulous and those
unmindful of adventure and hardship took practical action on the

^34

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

receipt of the reports, and prepared to buffet the still ice-bound
waters of the Pacific to gain early access to the new land of promise.
In a brief period the fame of Golovnin Bay had been spread broad-
cast, only to be again dimmed by the later announcements that the
earlier reports of finds were only " fakes." Making and unmaking

An Off-Siioke View of Nome.

are a part of all new mining centers, and in an incredibly short
time all manner of conclusions are arrived at regarding the possi-
bilities of a location.

New reports of finds made along the coast of Bering Sea, about
fifty miles west of Golovnin Bay, called renewed attention to the
region, and those who in the early summer of the past year (1899)
timidly ventured their fortunes to share in a possible discovery,
found, on their arrival at the tundra-bound shores about Cape
iSTome, that miles of territory had already been located as claim
sites, that sluice-boxes were in full operation, and that sackfuls of
gold dust and nuggets had been carefully laid to one side, repre-
senting " outputs " of tens of thousands of dollars. At this time
many of the journals of civilization in the East, repeating the warn-
ings that they persistently threw out following the discovery of
gold in the Klondike, jealously guarded the secrets of the earth
by doubting, or even denying, the claims to discovery, but, withal,
wisely counseling against that haphazard and purseless rush which
is one of the invariable accompaniments of gold announcements.
A new mining district had suddenly sprung into existence, and
before two months had passed — i. e., by the early days of Sep-

THE GOLD SANDS OF CAPE NOME.

63:

tember — a full front of tents and frame houses took possession
of what continues to remain a dreary and desolate expanse of ocean
beach — sufficiently pleasant in the quiet, balmy days of summer
and autumn, but wofully exposed to the hurricane blasts of the
arctic winter — and gave shelter to from three to four thousand
adventurers, where formerly a few Indians and Eskimos from the
still farther northwest and King's Island constituted a straggling
and accidental population. This, in brief, is the initial history of
the Nome or Anvil City mining region, which will almost cer-
tanly call to it in the coming spring fifteen to twenty thousand addi-
tional inhabitants.

Far more interesting to the one who has not been properly
rewarded in his search for placer claims than the placer deposits
themselves are the gold-bearing beach sands, whose productivity
will mainly be responsible for the influx of population to the new
region. From them, by crude and simple methods, has been taken,
in barely more than two months, gold to the value of more than
a million dollars, and what the possibilities for the future may be

A Street in jS'ome.

no one is wise enough to tell. So clearly exaggerated did the
accounts of the free-sand rocking appear, even those coming from
reputable miners who were personally known to me, that I could
hardly bring myself to take -them at their full value, but, being acci-
dentally drifted in the course of a summer's wanderings to St.

636 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Michael, above the mouth of the Yukon River, I had easy oppor-
tunity to verify for myself the accuracy of the statements that had
been sent out, and to cast a geological glance at the situation.
My examination of the region was confined to a few of the later
days of September and to early October.

The geographical position of the Nome region is the southern
face of the peninsular projection of Alaska which separates Kotze-
bue Sound on the north from Bering Sea on the south, and ter-
minates westward in Cape Prince of Wales the extent of the North
American continent. In a direct line of navigation, it lies about
twenty-five hundred miles northwest of Seattle and one hundred
and seventy miles southeast of Siberia. The nearest settlement
of consequence to it prior to 1899 was St. Michael, a hundred miles
to the southeast, the starting point of the steamers for the Yukon
River; but during the year various aggregations of mining popula-
tion had built themselves up in closer range, and reduced the isola-
tion from the civilized world by some sixty miles. The Nome dis-
trict as settled centers about the lower course of the Snake River, an
exceedingly tortuous stream in its tundra course, which emerges
from a badly degraded line of limestone, slaty, and schistose moun-
tain spurs generally not over seven hundred to twelve hundred feet
elevation, but backed by loftier granitic heights, and discharges into
the sea at a position thirteen miles west of Cape Nome proper.
Three miles east of this mouth is the discharge of Nome River.
Both streams have a tidal course of several miles. Nome, or, as it
was first called. Anvil City — named from a giant anvil-like protru-
sion of slate rock near to the summit of the first line of hills — occu-
pies in greater part the tundra and ocean beach of the eastern or
left bank of Snake River, but many habitations, mainly of a tempo-
rary character, have been placed on the bar beach which has been
thrown up by the sea against the mouth of the stream, and de-
flected its course for some distance parallel with the ocean front.
A number of river steamers (one even of considerable size) and
dredges have found a suitable anchorage or " harbor " in the bar-
rier-bound waters, and much driftwood passes into them at times
of storms and higher waters, when the greatly constricted and
shallow mouth is made passable. The entire region is treeless, and
the nearest approach to woodland is in the timber tract of Golovnin
Bay and its tributaries, about forty miles to the northeast. A
fairly dense growth of scrub willow, three to five feet in height,
with elms and alders, forms a fringe or delimiting line to parts
of the courses of the streams in the tundra, which greatly undu-
lates in the direction of the foothills and incloses tarnlike bodies
of fresh and slightly brackish waters. Tt is covered merely with a

THE GOLD SANDS OF CAPE NOME.

637

low growth of flowering herbaceous phints, grass, and moss, with
a somewhat scantier admixture of the dwarf birch, arctic willow,
and erowberry. The surface is pre-eminently swampy during the
warmer periods of the year, gnd walking over it means either wad-
ing through the water or risking continuous jumps to and from the
individual clumps of matted grass and moss — the so-called " nig-
ger-heads." The greater part of the tundra seems to rest on
gravel and sand — doubtless of both marine and fluviatile origin
— and ordinarily the frozen stratum is already reached at a

A >i'ativk 'ji iiiL Laxu of 2so.me.

depth of two or three feet, sometimes less. In early October
of the past year it was still too " open " to permit of easy walk-
ing over it, but in quite early hours of the morning the sur-
face afforded fair lodg-ment to moderate weights. Fragmentary
parts of the skeleton of the mammoth have been found here and
there, even loose on the top grass, but where found in such situa-
tions it is by no means certain that they had not been redeposited
by high tidal wash. A large fragment of thigh bone, with shoulder
blade, which I found about" an eighth of a mile inland and perhaps

638 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

fifteen feet above the water, was associated with one of the man-
dibular bones of the whale. I could obtain no information as to
their having been possibly carried to their present position by
man, bnt it may have been the case. A large skull, which I owe to
the kindness of Mr. Inglestadt and to Mr. Louis Sloss, Jr., man-
ager of the Alaska Commercial Company, was obtained, as nearly
as I could determine through inquiry on the spot, from about the
same locality. Where it abuts upon the sea the tundra stands
from eight to twenty feet above it, at places descending to even
lower levels. The sea face is almost everywhere an abrupt one,
showing undercutting by high water, and it is continued by a broad,
rapidly sloping sand and shingle beach, which packs firmly, and
almost immediately beneath the surface exhibits a distinctly strati-
fied construction — the alternate layers of fine, flat gravel, coarse,
clayey sand, and finer " ruby " (fragmented garnet) sand sloping
like the surface, although generally with a milder pitch, to the sea.
The open sea front, Avith inland tundra, is continued for a dis-
tance of about fourteen miles westward of ISTome, where it is inter-
rupted by the mountains, in a west-southwest course, reaching the
sea; flat-topped Sledge Island, so much recalling in aspect some of
the islands lying off AVhale Sound, in the northwest of Greenland, is
their oceanic continuation for some distance, with, sharp breaks on
both the oceanic and inner sides. It is probable that much of the
debris that has resulted from the disruption of the mountain masses
has been distributed littorally by the sea, with an eastward wash,
to form the bars and shallows which for some distance stretch
along the coast; nor is it impossible that some of the giant bowlders
of limestone, marble, granite, and syenite which are found on the
margin of the beach about four or five miles west of ISTome, some
of them measuring eight and twelve feet or more in diameter,
and all of them smoothly rounded and evenly polished, represent a
part of this destruction. At the same time, there is good reason to
suspect that they may have been deposited by ice action, either as
erratics of floe ice coming from the northwest, or of glacial distri-
bution from the region of the mountains. Whatever may have
been the final stage in the history of the amphitheater of Nome
(the region included between Cape Nome and Sledge Island), which
my limited observation did not permit me to determine to full satis-
faction, it is almost certain, even in the absence of the ordinary gla-
cial testimony, that the region is one of past glaciation, and that
much of the gravel and bowlder material of the ocean front is of
morainic origin, so modified and altered in position by readjust-
ments of the land and water ns to have lost its proper physiographic
contours. The aspect of tlie hills aiul valleys is almost precisely

THE GOLD SANDS OF CAPE NOME. 639

that of some of the regions of Greenland which have only quite
recently been vacated by the glaciers, while the composition of the
shingle — the inclusion over so long a front of bowlders from beyond
the first line of mountain heights, many of them most markedly
grooved and polished — is also highly suggestive of glacial deposition.
The gold sands, or sands that are worked for gold, are merely
the ordinary materials of the beach, loose and incoherent like mqst
seashore sands, and particularly defining horizons three to six feet
below the surface. In regular stratified layers, with fine and mod-.
erately coarse gravel, they embrace four or five distinct layers of
f rag-mented garnets (the components of the so-called " ruby sand "),
and it is from these, and at this time almost exclusively from the

The Harbor of Snake Eiver (Nome).

bottom layer of three to five inches thickness, which is popularly
described as lying on " bed rock " — in most places merely a hard-pan
of arenaceous clay or argillaceous sand, with no true rock to define
it — that most of the gold is obtained. Each ruby band nearer to
the top seems to contain less and less gold, and there is no ques-
tion that the different layers are merely reformations by the sea
from those of earlier deposition, just as surface shingle deposits
generally are in part reconstructions of underlying beds. That
the ocean is to-day depositing the ruby sand is unmistakably shown
by the great patches of this sand lying on the surface and its in-
coming in the path of nearly every storm. Even these surface
sands are mildly gold-bearing, sho\ying that the gold, despite its
high specific gravity, may be buoyed up and wafted in by such a

6+0 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

light niediiim as water when it has been reduced to sufficiently
minute particles or scalelike forms. It is little wonder that a gen-
eral belief has gained currency with the more enthusiastic locators
that the sand gold is a deposition or precipitate from the sea.

The gold itself occurs in an exceedingly fine state of subdi-
vision, too fine in most cases to be caught without mercury or the
best arrangement of " blanketings." Much of it is really in the
condition of colors dissected nearly to their finest particles, and it
is hardly surprising that it should have so long escaped detection.
Occasionally pieces to the value of three to six cents are obtained
in the pans, and I was witness to the finding of a scale with the value
of perhaps nearly twenty cents. The usual magnetitic particles are
associated with the gold, and their origin can clearly be traced to
the magnetite which is so abundantly found in some of the schists
(micaceous, chloritic, and talcose schists), which, judged by the
fragments and bowlders that everywhere lie in the path of the
streams of the tundra, must be closely similar to the series of
schists of the Klondike region. The particles of fragmented gar-
net, which by their astonishing abundance give so distinctive a
coloring to the layers which they compose or constitute, are of
about the ordinary fineness of seashore sand, perhaps a trifle
coarser, but occasionally much coarser particles or masses of par-
ticles are found; and in the placer deposits of Anvil Creek, as in
the bunch of claims around " Discovery " — about five miles due
north of Nome — fragments of the size of lentils are not uncommon.
I have seen full garnets obtained from the wash here which were
of the size of small peas. Nodules of manganese (manganite, pyro-
lusite) are at intervals found with them, and some stream-tin (cas-
fiiterite), as in the Klondike region, also appears to be present.
Apart from the evidence that is brought down by the magnetite
and garnet, it would naturally be assumed that the gold had its
primal source in the mountains back of the coast. These, as has
already been stated, have undergone exhaustive degradation, and
the materials resulting from their destruction, in whatever way
brought about, have been thrown into the sea, and there adjusted
and readjusted — or, so far as the gold particles are concerned, one
might say " concentrated." Latterly, and perhaps this is also true
to-day, the land has undergone elevation, and exposed much that
until recently properly belonged to the sea. The tundra is a part
of this ocean floor, and it too doubtless contains much gold, per-
haps even very much.

The length of the sea strip that was worked during the past
summer, and so far in autumn as the clemency of the weather per-
mitted, covered a nearly continuous thirty or thirty-five miles,

THE GOLD SANDS OF CAFE NOME. 641

extending beyond Sjnrock on the west and, with interruptions, to
Nome Kiver on the east. The full extent of the auriferous sands
remains unknown, however, and report claims for them reappear-
ances throughout the entire coast as far as Cape Prince of Wales.
The season's work gave easy and lucrative employment to perhaps
fifteen hundred, mostly needy, prospectors, who realized on an aver-
age certainly not less than fifteen dollars per day, and many as much
as sixty, seventy, and eighty dollars. It is claimed, and I have little
reason to doubt the truthfulness of the statement, that from a
single rocker, although operated by two men, one hundred and
fifty dollars had been taken out in the course of nine hours' work.
It is also asserted that two men realized a fortune of thirteen

L

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liMlriliir'-- .. .

^.-.^..^L^

-■^■i?^---'-''^

^;c^Eij^>'^'^-^'-

•-'i^Vi . BBH^^SBfrSt;

'm

K

Erecting a Steam Pump ^A'ome).

thousand dollars as the result of their combined season's work, and
two others are said to have rocked out forty-five hundred dollars
in the period of a month. Women have, to an extent, shared
with men the pleasures of " rocking gold from the sea," and their
application in the toils of the sea plow, with booted forms, rolled-
up sleeves, and sunbonnets, was certainly an interesting variation
on the borders of the Arctic Circle from the scenes one has grown
accustomed to at Atlantic City or Newport.

The placer deposits of the Nome district are in the form of
shallow, largely or mostly unfrozen gravels, which occupy vary-
ing heights, partly in disrupted or overhanging benches, of the
valleys and gulches which trench the slate and limestone moun-
tains. Perhaps the most favored ones are those of Anvil and

TOL. LVI — 52

642 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Glacier Creeks (with Snow Gulch as an affluent of the latter),
tributaries of Snake River, and Dexter Creek, a tributary of Nome
River. My time and the conditions of weather permitted only of
a visit to Anvil Creek, and an examination mainly of the proper-
ties about " Discovery." The diggings here are all shallow, from
four to seven feet, when bed-rock, a steeply pitching and highly
fissile slate, is reached. As before remarked, the gravels are not
frozen, and thereby present a marked contrast to the condition
that prevails in the Klondike region, and one, it is hardly necessary
to state, which is eminently to the favor of economy in mining. A
layer of ice, about eight inches in thickness, covers one side of the
layers in claim " No. 1 below," but beneath this the matrix is

"Digging" the Seasiioue Sands fou Gold.

again open. In all these claims the pay-streak was at first reported
to be very broad, but it seems that the later work has narrowed
down the probabilities of extension very measurably — at any rate,
in the condition of a rich producer. Of the wealth contained in
these claims there is no question, but it would probably be strain-
ing the truth to say that it is the equal of that of the best or even
the better claims of the Klondike region. A two days' clean-up
from " No. 1 below " is reported to have yielded thirteen thousand
dollars, while the entire product of that claim from July 26th,
when the first wash was made, to September 21st, was placed at
one hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars. Claim " No. 1
above " appears to be equally good, and " Discovery " falls perhaps
not very far below either. A nugget of the value of three hun-

THE GOLD SANDS OF CAPE NOME. 643

dred and twelve dollars — a magnificent specimen, measuring up-
ward of four inches in length — was obtained from the tailings of
"No. 1 below"; a larger one, of the value of four hundred and
thirty-four dollars, is to the credit of " Xo. 1 above." It is inter-
esting to note that these rich claims are located at the very issu-
ance of Anvil Creek from the mountains — i. e., at the contact with
the upper rise of the tundra — and other good properties are found
still lower down, a condition which makes it certain that the inner
reaches of the tundra, whatever the whole tundra may be, must
yield largely in gold.

The city of Nome itself might properly be termed a model of
production. Before the end of June, 1899, there was practically
nothing on its present site; in early July it w^as still a place of
tents, but by the middle of September it had blossomed out into
a constructed town of three to four tliousand inhabitants, more
than one half of whom were properly housed in well-built cabins,
the lumber for which was in part brought from a distance of two
thousand miles, and none of it from less than one hundred miles.
Numerous stores and saloons had arranged themselves on both
sides of a well-defined street (which was here and there centrally
interrupted by building transgressions), the familiar signs of danc-
ing and boxing bouts were displayed in front of more than com-
fortably filled faro and roulette establishments, and in a general
way the site wore the aspect of riding a boom swell. And indeed
there was plenty of activity, for the final weeks of fine weather
warned of the impending wintry snows and blasts, and much had to
be done individually to shield one from these and other discom-
forts. There was at that time a threatening shortage in building
material, and fears were expressed for those who seemingly would
be obliged to spend the winter months — a dreary expanse of nearly
one half the year, with hurricane blasts of icy wind blowing with a
velocity of fifty to eighty miles an hour, and under the not very
comfortable temperature of —40° to —60° F. — in the frail shel-
ter of tents. How many, if any, remained in this condition can
not now be known. Much driftwood and some coal had been
secured by many of the more fortunate inhabitants, and it is pos-
sible that some provision has been made by which everybody of
the two or three thousand wintering inhabitants will receive
a proper measure of heating substance, without which the utmost
discomfort must prevail. The last coal before my departure sold
for seventy-five dollars per ton, but I suspect that later importa-
tions must have realized the better part of double this amount.
In early October flour could still be purchased for seven to eight
dollars per sack, and meat for a dollar a pound, but these prices

644 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

were rim up very materially in the period of the next two weeks.
Good meals were only a dollar, and fractions of meals could be
had for twenty-five and fifty cents. Magnificent oranges were
only a quarter apiece, and watermelons four and five dollars. All
these prices were, at the least, doubled before the first week in
i^ovember, when the locality was finally cut off from contact with
the rest of the civilized world. The principal commercial houses
doing trade in Alaska — as the Alaska Commercial Company, the
iSTorth American Trading and Transportation Company, the Alaska
Exploration Company, all of which, besides others, have their
agencies in Dawson and at various stations on the Yukon River —
have well-constructed, iron-sheathed warehouses, and carry large
lines of goods. The energy which in so short a period has planted
these interests here, and in so substantial a manner, is certainly
astonishing. Who a year ago could have expected that the needs
of a resident population situated close under the Arctic Circle, and
along the inhospitable shores of Bering Sea, would have demanded
depots of sale of the size of those that one finds in cities of impor-
tance in the civilized South?

Nome prints to-day three newspapers, the first issue of the first
journal, the Nome News, appearing about the 10th of October.
Its selling price was twenty-five cents. Up to the time of my leav-
ing, there were no serious disturbances of any kind, but indications
of trouble, resulting from the disputed rights of possession, whether
in the form of squatter sovereignty or of purchase, were ominously
in the air, and it was feared that should serious trouble of any kind
arise, neither the military nor civil authorities would be in a position
to properly cope with it. It was freely admitted that the commu-
nity was not under the law that so strongly forces order in Dawson
and the Klondike region. Much more to be feared than disturb-
ance, for at least the first season, is the possibility of conflagration;
closely packed as are the tents and shacks, with no available water
supply for combating flames, a headway of fire can not but be a
serious menace to the entire location, and one which is in no way
lessened through the general indraught of hurricane winds. The
experiences of Dawson should have furnished a lesson, but they
have seemingly not done so, nor has apparently the average in-
habitant profited in any effort to ward off the malignant influences
arising from hard living, unnecessary exposure to the inclemencies
of the weather, and a non-hygienic diet. Hence, typhoid or typho-
malarial disease, even if not in a very pronounced form, has already
sown its seeds of destruction, and warns of the dangers which here,
as in Dawson, man brings to himself in his customary contempt
for the working of Nature's laws.

A STATU OFFICIAL ON EXCESSIVE TAXATION. 645
A STATE OFFICIAL ON EXCESSIVE TAXATION.

By FEAiS'KLIX SMITH.

IT is not to government reports that a student of social science
looks for warnings against the perils lurking in the enormous
expenditures and the extraordinary enlargement of the duties of
the state. Officials are usually so deeply impressed with the im-
portance of their positions and so anxious to magnify the worth of
their labors that they are prone to take the rosiest view of any part
of the great clanking machine intrusted to their care. With the
keenest pride they point to their achievements in furthering the
work of human welfare. If modesty does not restrain them, they
are certain to paint, with an artless faith in their own abilities,
the still greater work that could be done with a slight increase
of funds and a little more assistance. Not all officials, however,
permit themselves to indulge in the natural vanity of bureaucrats.
They refuse either to be blinded to the perpetual failure of state-
made civilization, or to deceive the impoverished victims of the
same costly system of modern magic. Of the very few of this class
Mr. James H. Roberts, for five years Comptroller of the State of
New York,* is perhaps the most conspicuous. Astray as he is on
the question of a graded inheritance tax, and trustful as he is in
the virtue of State supervision, he puts himself beyond criticism
in his opposition to the policy of State socialism, now the rage at
home and abroad. Indeed, no one could hold it up to graver
reproach.

Whenever an observer of the signs of the times in the United
States ventures to say that they offer little food for hope, he is
branded as pessimistic or unpatriotic. He is told that if he had
the confidence in democratic institutions of a man with a good
digestion and a fair intelligence, he would know that they possess
a vitality, a power of rejuvenation, that does not belong to an
autocracy nor an aristocracy. If he is particularly despondent, and
seeks to justify himself with fact and argument, he is denounced
as a dangerous agitator, or, what is a shade more odious, as an
absurd doctrinaire. But Mr. Roberts has not been consigned to
any such depths of contempt. He is known as a '^ hard-headed
business man," a title of honor that always frees the most ridicu-
lous optimist from any suspicion of the theorist or sentimentalist.
Yet, as the supervisor of the finances of a great State, he was
brought in contact with a mass of phenomena that forced upon
him the conviction that something is wrong, and that if it is not

* He was in office from January 1, 1894, to January 1, 1899.

646 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

righted it will bring disaster. Indeed, I do*not recall a pessimist,
however dyspeptic, nor a doctrinaire, however visionary, that has
struck a more melancholy note than he. In all his reports much
will be foimd that indicates anything but a belief that a democ-
racy that plunders and enslaves a people is any better than any
other despotism guilty of the same offense, or that the practice
in the one case will be productive of greater prosperity and happi-
ness than in the other.

It is, however, in the report for 1897 that Mr. Roberts gives
the fullest expression to his apprehensions. " This country," he
says in an elaborate argument for a graded inheritance tax, which
he believed would bring some relief to the poor and discontented,
" has just passed through the most threatening political campaign
in its history. The portents in 1896 were vastly more dangerous
than those of 1860, when peace and internecine war hung in the
balance. Issues were advanced last year, and vigorously supported
by a large element of the American electorate, which, if adopted,
would have undermined the very foundations of American institu-
tions. These issues were largely the outgrowth of discontent
among the people. The farmer, as a class, the work people, and
the small trade folk were in distress. . . . Hundreds of thousands
of industrious people were out of employment, the best efforts of
the farmer had been attended with poor results, and the small
tradesman and business man were worse off than if they had been
doing nothing." In the report for the following year he spoke
again of the " public discontent and dissatisfaction with existing
conditions in this State." Instead of joining the comfortable and
contented in a denunciation of them as a delusion, born of envy or
criminal instincts, he expressed the opinion that they had a very
substantial basis. " My four years of close official study of the
State finances," he says, " compels me to say there is serious ground
for complaint." After giving an impressive summary in another
place of the enormous increase of public expenditures within re-
cent years he is moved to ask, ""Whither are we drifting?"

The answer commonly given to this question is one quite flat-
tering to American vanity. It is that we are drifting away from
" parochial " things and taking our proper place as a great " world
power." Having solved all the petty problems that have absorbed
our thoughts and energies for a hundred years, we have gone forth
to " take up the white man's burden," and to solve the greater prob-
lems that a discriminating Providence has so wisely confided to
our ability and philanthropy. At the same time we are going to
have our say as to how the affairs of the world outside of our
narrow and cramping borders shall be managed. Mr. Roberts,

(

A STATE OFFICIAL ON EXCESSIVE TAXATION. 647

however, does not appear to take any such pleasant view of the
future. He has none of the blood of Don Quixote flowing in his
veins. The bestowal of the blessings of a Christian civilization
with machine guns upon breech-clouted savages has no attractions
for him. He sees that we have made such a disgraceful failure
of the management of the contemptible things in which we have
been so ignobly absorbed that we are threatened with national
decadence! "While the contests against unjust and oppressive
taxation," he says in his report for 1899, " have been the contests
of freedom and civil and religious liberty in the world, it must not
be forgotten that unjust and burdensome taxation has been in all
ages the most prolific cause of national decadence as well. There
are nations in Europe, once great and prosperous," he adds, thus
recalling the warnings of Lord Salisbury's famous speech on the
same subject, " which to-day seem dying of dry rot because, to meet
their immense expenses and to pay interest on their great bonded
debts, taxation has been increased beyond the safe limit, and the
very sources of national prosperity have been taxed so that they
run dry, or send down a rill where it should be a river. Few
national diseases are more dangerous or harder to cure than bur-
densome taxation. Caji any one charged with the responsibility
of making tax laws," he asks, profoundly stirred by the startling
facts that have come under his observation, " afford to ignore the
undoubted lessons of history or the manifest tendency of the times
in the matter of revenue raising and expending? "

Obvious as is the fitting answer to this question, it is one that
few people stop to give. Both the lessons of history and the tend-
ency of the times are willfully and incessantly ignored. Not only
are they ignored by demagogues, who thrive most when public dis-
tress is greatest, and by misguided philanthropists, who seek to
relieve it in ways that only intensify it. Even publicists, whose
studies in history ought to make them more familiar with the signs
of social decadence than a man of affairs with vision less extended,
ignore them also.' They seem to be as insensible to the real sig-
nificance of what is going on before their eyes as the wooden totems
of a burning tepee. But to minds more alert and penetrating, even
if less congested wdth musty lore and fine intentions, the flight of
the farming population to the cities is something besides " a great
natural movement toward urban life that accompanies an advance
in civilization " — it is a desperate but futile attempt to escape
conditions that have become too hard to be borne. The swarms
of impoverished and degraded humanity that crowd the slums to
suffocation are not altogether the product of willful sloth and inca-
pacity; they are due, in a measure, to the growing taxation that has

648 POPULAR SCIEXCE MONTHLY.

wiped out the narrow margin that separates independence from de-
pendence— self-support and self-respect from destitution and pau-
perism. The hatred of the rich, the denunciation of capital, the
contempt for the Church, the bloody insurrections of labor, the
general feeling of rancor, accompanied by an increase of the tyr-
anny of trades unions and government regulations, are not the
inevitable manifestations of envy, ignorance, and criminal instincts;
they are the inevitable fruits of the perpetual aggressions in a
thousand forms that spring from politics and war. But instead of
acting upon this natural interpretation of the signs of the times and
seeking to solve the social problem in the only way that it can be
solved, the " new " reformers tormenting the world are engaged
in the invention of schemes that add to the public bi^rdens and
hasten the nation's decay.

The reckless expenditure of public money in the United States
has not been confined to any particular political division nor to
any particular geographical section. The national. State, and mu-
nicipal governments have seemed to vie with one another in the
plunder of the taxpayer. From the North, the South, the East, and
the West have come the same complaints of excessive burdens.*
But figures are needed to give these statements the vividness of
reality. Beginning with national expenditures, Mr. Roberts says
that during the decade from 1820 to 1830 they were $1.07 per
capita; from 1851 to 1861, they were $2.06; and for the year
1894, $6.08. " In a word," he adds, " the per capita expense of
the national Government in 1894 was nearly six times as great as
it was in 1820, and nearly three times as great as it was in the
decade before our great civil war." The per capita expenditures
of the State of New York in 1830 were $1.30, thirty years later

* From the mass of proofs of this statement in my possession I will select only one. In
a call for a convention at Portland, Me., on the 10th of June last, of all persons " interested
in the revision of the present system of State taxation and a more economical management
of the State affairs," it is stated that " the expenses of the State have increased fifty per
cent in ten vears, while the wealth and population of the State have steadily declined."
The object of the convention was " to protest against the course of extravagance that is
rapidlv bringing reproach upon the government of the State and reducing the farmers and
taxpavers to automatons to grind out revenue to be absorbed by a rapacious and ever-
multiplving horde of office-holders, who devour the people's substance as fast as they pro-
duce it." After showing how " once prosperous farming towns and townships have been
reduced to but little better than a howling wilderness, the call says in conclusion : " These
once prosperous farming communities were redeemed from the native wilderness by men
who were no more temperate, industrious, or economical than the farmers of to-day, and
the prices they received for their products were as low as, and in some instances lower
than, to-day, but the fruits of their honest toil were not drawn from them as fast as ac-
quired by national, State, county, and, in many instances, by municipal extravagance, as it
is to-day." The plundered peasantry of Spain, Italy, or Russia, army ridden as they are,
coidil not have made a more just complaint.

A STATE OFFICIAL ON EXCESSIVE TAXATION. 649

they were $1.89, in 1890 they were $2.15, and " in 1897 the esti-
mated per capita expenditure reached the alarming amount of
$4.95." That is to say, the combined expenditures of the State
and national governments gave a rate as high as that prevailing
in France before the outbreak of the Revolution. " The tendency
to increase," says Mr. Roberts, commenting on these figures, " is
a persistent one. In 1881 the amount expended by the State was
$9,878,214.59; in 1884, $10,479,517.31; in 1887, $14,301,102.48;
in 1890, $13,076,881.86; in 1893, $17,367,335.98; and in 1896,
$20,020,022.47." Coming to municipal expenditures, where the
hand of the prodigal has been most lavish, Mr. Roberts says that
" between 1860 and 1880 the municipal debts of our Union increased
from $100,000,000 to $682,000,000, and in fifteen cities, believed
to represent the average, the increase in taxation was 362.2 per
cent, while the increase in taxable valuation was but 156.9 per cent,
and of population but 70 per cent. In the year 1860 the direct
taxes for State, county, town, and city purposes in New York were
$4.90 per capita, in 1880 it was $8.20, and in 1896 it had reached
$10.43, an increase in thirty-six years of 213 per cent." It should
be added that the bonded debt — State, county, city, town, village,
and school district — in the State is estimated by Mr. Roberts to be
$450,000,000. Is it any wonder that people so mercilessly plun-
dered feel that the times are out of joint? Is it any wonder, either,
that in 1896 Mr. Roberts was moved to say that, without the dis-
covery of new sources of revenue, " a low tax rate would never
again be enjoyed in this State"? Is it any wonder, finally, that
he declared again that if " we have not yet passed the danger limit
of taxation," we have reached " a point where there is a deep feel-
ing of unrest and dissatisfaction, and where a halt should be called
or there will be danger "?

The stock explanation of this growth of expenditure is that
with the advance of civilization the cost of government must in-
crease in like degree; there must be more regulation and supervi-
sion of the activities becoming more numerous and complex. But
this means, if it means anything, that the more enlightened and
humane people are, the more difficult it is to maintain order and
enforce justice, the more inclined are they to attack and plunder
one another — in a word, the more barbarous they are. Prepos-
terous as this theory of civilization is, it is precisely the one upon
which the American people are acting with unparalleled eijergy.
While we should naturally think them moving toward a point where
they could get along without government, they are moving toward
a point where they will have nothing but government. Referring
to the increase of expenditures already mentioned, Mr. Roberts

650 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

says it " corresponds almost exactly with the increase of the num-
ber of commissions and departments. . . . These departments and
commissions," he continues, " are largely for the purpose of ex-
tending social supervision and regulation over many things which,
in the earlier days of our Commonwealth, were left to the locali-
ties or to self -regulation," Again he says: " The amount of State
inspection has become very great, reaching out constantly over new
fields, and employing in the aggregate an army of inspectors. . . .
The system of laissez faire, which wa.& the rallying cry of democ-
racy and free government at the beginning of the century, has
yielded gradually to a system of supervision and control which
monarchies never attempted. . . . What our State has done in this
line can not probably be undone," he says in a repetition of his
warning, " but this tendency to expand and multiply and differen-
tiate and segregate State supervision and regulation must cease, or
the burden will soon become too grievous to be borne."

But there is no warrant for the assumption that the more civi-
lized we are — that is, the greater our self-control — the more are
we in need of inspection and regulation. Such an explanation of
the enormous increase in public expenditure is worthless. The
true explanation lies in the greed of politicians and the delusion of
social reformers. To both of these causes must be attributed the
evils that Mr. Roberts deplores. " The truth of history," he says,
referring to the thirty-six new offices and commissions created since
1880, " compels the statement that it looks as if many of these
creations were made not so much to satisfy a public want as to
relieve a political situation." That is to say, they were designed
to provide spoils for the insatiable maw of politicians. One of
the most flagrant examples of this popular method of forwarding
the beneficent work of civilization and hastening the dawn of the
millennium is the State Board of Mediation and Arbitration, cre-
ated in 1886. Up to the present year it has cost the taxpayers
$195,828.57. For this expenditure little can be shown but a shelf
full of reports seldom read, and a pigeon hole of vouchers for sala-
ries never earned. With one of the former members of this board,
who served thirteen years and received $39,000 for his able services,
I am personally acquainted. Of my own knowledge, I can say that
for nearly three years at least his duties as commissioner never
interfered perceptibly with his duties as editor. That most of the
other offices and commissions are equally worthless there can be
no doubt. Altogether they have cost the State the startling sum
of $31,768,899.85, and are increasing the public burdens at the
rate of more than $1,000,000 a year. But their true character
as asylums for decayed politicians, or as stepping stones for ambi-

A STATE OFFICIAL ON EXCESSIVE TAXATION. 651

tioiis young ones, and at all times as centers of political intrigue
and personal profit, is gradually dawning upon the public. Al-
ready several Governors have demanded, in their annual mes-
sages to the Legislature, that they be consolidated or abolished.
As yet, however, it has been impossible to relax their grip on the
taxpayer. Obedient to the instincts of their kind, they are invent-
ing new arguments to establish their claims to the confidence and
gratitude of the victims of their greed and incompetency.

But the creation of new and needless offices is not the only
manifestation of what Mr. Roberts fitly calls " the vicious tenden-
cies 'of legislation." More demoralizing are the laws that actually
encourage the robbery of one class of people for the benefit of
another. A familiar example is the bounty law for the destruction
of fishing nets. Almost as soon as passed it produced a new in-
dustry— namely, the manufacture of cheap nets, which were depos-
ited in fishing waters, subsequently discovered and seized by a pre-
arrangement, and made the basis of demands upon the public treas-
ury out of proportion to their value. So great have been the
frauds perpetrated under it that the cry for its repeal comes from
every quarter. Another law even worse morally was passed to
meet the clamor of the bicyclists and bicycle manufacturers. It
provides that twenty-five per cent of the cost of so-called good
roads to be built under it shall be paid by the State. As cities and
villages are exempt from its provisions, this sum, which comes out
of the pockets of all taxpayers, urban as well as rural, is, as Mr.
Roberts says, simply " a gratuity to the towns for the benefit of
country roads." As a sign of the moral decadence of the times, I
ought to add that one of the most powerful and effective argu-
ments in favor of the law was this very discrimination. Still more
shameless was one of the chief arguments in favor of the Raines
liquor law. AVith a moral callousness truly astounding, its advo-
cates framed tables of figures to show how great a percentage of
taxation it would shift from the country to the city districts. In
the heated political campaign that followed, these tables were made
to do service again to save from defeat the party responsible for
the enactment. To indicate, finally, how legislation may encour-
age vice, I must not omit to mention the provision that created the
Raines hotel. Under it assignation houses have multiplied to a
degree that Satan himself could not have foreseen nor have been
more enchanted ^vith.

But the greatest inroads on the pockets of the taxpayer have
been made under the pretense of charity. I say " pretense " be-
cause it is a gross misuse of language to decorate with so fine a
word the seizure of a man's property under the forms of law and

652 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

to devote it to the ostensible relief of want and suffering. It is
the infliction of an aggression that has no more warrant in a court
of sound morals than the seizure of his property in disregard of
the forms of law. Yet this evil has reached such vast proportions
that Mr. lloberts was moved to protest against it. After speaking
of " the tendency of the State in building up a gigantic system "
that " will call for an enormous and ever-increasing annual ex-
penditure for maintenance," he expressed the belief in 1896 that
" the time has come to call a halt before this burden of taxation
becomes too heavy." He then mentioned the significant fact that
while the State spent $6,000,000 for charity, $4,800,000 for public
schools, $800,000 for the militia, it spent only $500,000 for judges'
salaries! He pointed out also that the expenditures under the
head of charity had increased from $1,468,471.58 in 1887 to
$5,888,193.74 in 1897, or over four hundred per cent in ten years.
He added the prophecy that it would be " a matter of a short time
only when the annual expenditures for charity alone in this State
will reach $10,000,000." At that time five large State charitable
institutions were in process of construction, and were soon to be
thrown open to the public. In the following year he reverted to
the subject in still stronger terms. " God forbid," he says, " that
I should put a straw in the way of charity rationally directed;
but my four years' experience as comptroller . . . compels me
to say that charity is dispensed in this State with an almost lavish
hand, and in my judgment it is in many cases unwisely dispensed."
In his last report to the Legislature the aggregate cost of the
fourteen great institutions in operation, with a population of 6,621,
is put at $6,898,304.52.

That this enormous largess, wrested from the taxpayers with-
out the slightest consideration for their own wants and sufferings,
is unwisely dispensed in many eases Mr. Roberts furnishes the
amplest proof. The charges that he brings against this form of
State activity are most serious. They reveal the same odious
traits that characterize the management of public affairs in no
wise connected with the love of humanity. " I^early every local-
ity," says Mr. Roberts, "having a State charitable institution
deals with it as though it were established to afford that locality
an avenue through which to reach the State treasury, and in most
cases, where a majority of the managers live under or are domi-
nated by local influence, the avenue has been profitably traveled.
The result of such predominance is combination among local deal-
ers, a division of the furnishing of the supplies among them at
greatly advanced prices, the pahning off upon the institution of
inferior articles which would find no sale in the m.arket, a row with

A STATE OFFICIAL ON EXCESSIVE TAXATION. 653

tlie superintendent if he undertakes to expend money outside of
the locality, and, through friction and disturbance, the work of
the institution is more or less demoralized." He charges that
" the only aim " of some institutions " seems to be the expenditure
of their entire appropriation, irrespective of the number of in-
mates provided for or the results obtained." Putting the same
charge in another way, he says that '"' the cost of an institution is
more frequently based upon the amount of the appropriation
granted by the Legislature than upon its real or apparent necessi-
ties." When it is remembered that the managers of the institu-
tions against whom these astonishing charges are brought are
picked people, representing much more than the average character
and ability, the conclusion is not unnatural that ward heelers and
caucus packers have no monopoly of the rotten ethics of politics.

If we look a little further into the management of the institu-
tions, all the familiar footprints of the unscrupulous politician
become visible. Money appropriated for specific purposes is di-
verted from them. Over fifty-five per cent of the amount ex-
pended in 189S under special appropriations was used for the bene-
fit of two institutions, leaving less than forty-five per cent for the
remaining fourteen. Plans for new buildings or the improvement
of old are so changed as to require an expenditure considerably in
excess of the money appropriated for the purpose. Not infre-
quently the excess ranges from twenty-five to fifty per cent, and
thus the way is paved for further appeals to the Legislature to
meet the dishonest deficits. A more reprehensible use of public
money is appropriations for new buildings and improvements of
old ones belonging to private institutions. As examples, Mr. Rob-
erts cites the expenditure of $77,473 upon the private property
of the Malone Institute for Deaf-Mutes, and $457,556 upon that
of the Randall's Island Reformatory. " In my judgment," he says,
expressing an opinion that every fair-minded person will approve,
" this is a mistaken public policy. If these institutions are to be
steady recipients of State aid for permanent improvements, the title
of the property should be transferred to the State." Otherwise
any philanthropist might found a charitable institution to provide
himself with congenial employment, and, availing himself of the
courtesy of the State to thrust his hands into the pockets of his
neighbors, make additions to it and keep it in repair.

But these are by no means the only ways that money picked
from the pockets of taxpayers is poured into the bottomless pit of
State philanthropy. One of the most common and most expensive
is the unjustifiable increase of salaries. In 1894 and 1895, when
the country was still in the throes of the great panic of 1893 and

654 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

when hundreds of thousands of people were glad to get work at
almost any pay, the salary list of nine charitable institutions was
increased forty thousand dollars a year. Indefensible variations in
the per capita cost of practically the same service discloses another
mode of waste. Mr. Roberts gives elaborate tables in exposure
of this evil. While the per capita cost of the inmates of the
Western House of Eefuge for Women at Albion is $254.27, that
of the inmates of the House of Refuge for Women at Hudson is
$217.63. Again, while the per capita cost of the inmates of the
State Industrial School at Rochester is $219.49, that of the in-
mates of the Reformatory on Randall's Island is $210.59. Still
again, while the per capita cost of the inmates of the State School
for the Blind at Batavia is $313.74, that of the inmates of the
Northern New York Institute for Deaf-Mutes at Malone is $258.36.
If it be remembered that the institutions on Randall's Island and
at Malone are under private management, the lower rate prevail-
ing there, compared with the higher rate at the Batavia and Roches-
ter institutions, suggest a fact of no slight significance. " Private
institutions," says ^[r. Roberts, calling attention to it, " are only
* paid in some instances $110 per annum for the care and support
of inmates, . . . while the cost in State institutions is more than
$200 per annum." Yet, despite the possible indefinite multipli-
cation of such facts, the " new " reformer pins his faith to the
State as a fit agent for the regeneration of his fellows.

Before leaving these institutions I must call attention to an-
other characteristic form of waste. I refer to the delicacies fur-
nished to the officials and inmates. " It has not seemed exactly
right," says Mr. Roberts, setting forth the scandal in very mod-
erate terms, " that the taxpayers of the State should be required
to pay for Blue Points, lobster, terrapin, frogs' legs, partridge,
quail, venison, and most of the delicacies of the season to supply
the tables of officials already well paid and well housed by the
State." But solicitude about table economies was never known to
be a trait of bureaucratic parasites. They never trouble them-
selves to prolong their vision to the meager tables of the poor
and suffering robbed of the necessaries of life to load theirs with
luxuries. The same limited vision is exhibited on holidays in their
generosity at other people's expense. " Is it fair," says Mr. Rob-
erts, protesting against this touching display of human goodness,
" that the average workingman should wear poor clothes and live
on plain fare in order that he may bring up his family decently
and honestly, while the inmates of State institutions are indulged
with turkey at eighteen cents a pound, footballs at $4.83 each,
oranges, candy, nuts, ice cream., and expensive luxuries? ... It

A STATE OFFICIAL ON EXCESSIVE TAXATION. 655

must not be forgotten," lie adds, mentioning a trutli commonly for-
gotten even by people that have reached a higher civilization than
that of the average State official, " that the money spent for these
inmates is not voluntary contribution, but is the product of en-
forced taxation." *

Resistance to aggression is one of the fundamental instincts
of the human race. It has been enforced during countless ages by

* But I ought to add that this mismanagement of State charitable institutions is dupli-
cated in the management of other State departments that came under Mr. Roberts's obser-
vation. Although more than $24,000,000 have been spent on the new Capitol, it proves to
be too small for the purposes it was designed to meet. Mr. Roberts recommends the con-
version of the old State Hall into a finance building. The State Library has become so large
that it will soon require a separate building. The racing tax law was so bunglingly framed
that the collections under it in 1896 were attended with "more difficulty and expense than
usual." As the forest-preserve law stood in 1896, it permitted people purchasing State
lands to strip them of lumber, and then, owing to certain irregularities connected
with the sale, making it illegal, to recover the money originally paid with interest at
six and seven per cent added. Because of the absence of any law covering the personal
expenditures of members of legislative investigating committees, claims for seven and eight
dollars a day are rendered, although four or five dollars a day are believed to be ample. Let
me add that these investigations, which, during the period from 1879 to 1896 inclusive,
cost $823,534.51, reveal another source of waste from State management. Still another
source of waste is State printing. Pointing out the " growing expenses of State printing,"
Mr. Roberts shows that they have increased from $95,029.51 in 1887 to $315,585.81 in
1896. At one time the law was so defective that it was impossible to frame specifications
for bids that would allow for printing of different kinds. For example, blanks varying
from two to three inches square to two and three feet had to be classed in the same sched-
ule and price. A needless quantity of reports is printed. Some of them are printed in the
highest style of the art and richly embellished with expensive plates and engravings. One
report for 1 895 cost $42,000, and others cost as high as $20;000 and $30,000. " It does
not seem logical," says Mr. Roberts, commenting on this extravagance, " to spend as much
on the illustration of a report as it costs for clerk hire in many departments." Another
evil is the failure of the Legislature to appropriate money enough to meet the printing bills
each year, thus making it necessary either to borrow money to pay them or to compel the
printer to wait for his pay at a loss of interest on the amount due him. In this connection
attention must be called to the failure of the Legislature to provide money enough to cover
expenditures during the period intervening before funds are available from taxation. Al-
though Mr. Roberts recommended repeatedly legislation for the avoidance of this difiBculty,
which causes waste, no attention was paid to him. The management of court and trust
funds by county treasurers has been particularly scandalous. In disregard of the express
direction of the courts, thousands of dollars were retained by parties or their attorneys for
their own personal benefit. Money has been paid out by county treasurers without certified
orders of the courts merely upon the assurance of attorneys that the payments were proper.
The rules framed by the comptroller in regard to this matter were constantly disregarded.
Excessive allowances were made for costs of attorneys. In the case of one estate of $750,
thus robbed, only $60 remained for the payment of the debts against it. By the defalca-
tions of county treasurers, court and trust funds are often depleted, and the beneficiaries,
often widows, orphans, and unfortunate litigants, are robbed. Mr. Roberts has recom-
mended legislation on this subject, but no attention, as far as I know, has been paid to it.
It is one of those " parochial " questions that the American people appear to have no taste
for. But it would seem as if the protection of citizens, especially the poor and weak, was
the first duty of the State.

656 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the penalty of extermination. Only the people that refuse to be
killed, or robbed and enslaved, which are modified forms of the
same crime, can respond to a scriptural injunction; they alone can
be fruitful, multiply, and replenish the earth. All others must
succumb to the pitiless law of the survival of the fittest. Efforts
to escape taxation not sanctioned by justice, so common through-
out the United States, are not, therefore, exhibitions of hopeless
depravity; they are exhibitions of the natural desire for self-pres-
ervation that demands study and heed.

In New York State the efforts of taxpayers to escape this
increasing aggression have had a deplorable effect. To still the
voice of discontent and complaint, legislators have tried to lay
on their burdens as lightly as possible. Acting upon a familiar
definition of taxation, they have tried to pluck the goose so as
to get the most feathers with the least squawk. But in their
observance of the principles of humanity they have shown but
slight regard for the principles of economics or justice. Mr. Rob-
erts characterizes their enactments as " confused, illogical, and con-
flicting "; he adds that they are " nearly all legislative makeshifts,
and many of them blunders." The moral effect of the aggression
has, however, been more disastrous than either the economic or
statutory. To escape it, the owners of every class of property, no
matter what their intelligence, their religious professions, or their
social standing, resort to every possible subterfuge. With the
cries of the tortured fowl ringing in sympathetic ears, complaisant
officials refuse to assess real estate, as required by law, at its full
value. " The assessor," says Mr. Roberts, describing this form
of evasion and its evil consequences, " undertakes, by reducing valu-
ations on his own responsibility and in defiance of law, to protect
his own county or town from paying more than its fair proportion of
tax, and self-interest lulls the moral sense of the community into
support of his action." The same law of assessment applies to the
whole State, yet there are twenty-five rates of assessment in the
sixty counties, and these rates range from fifty to ninety-two per
cent of the value of the land. The owners of personal property
avoid their obligations in a manner still more reprehensible. They
either conceal it or lie about it. While its amount during the past
forty years has reached the enormous total of $18,000,000,000,
or more than four times the value of the real estate, its assessed
value has not increased. It is Mr. Roberts's conviction, based upon
" study and observation," that not " more than three per cent " of
it is assessed. The result is that, although real estate pays a reve-
nue of over $9,000,000 a year, personal property pays one of only
about $1,000,000. As to the corporations, they are equally alert in

A STATU OFFICIAL ON EXCESSIVE TAXATION. 657

avoiding their obligations. Before the enactment of a recent law
they did it by watering their stocks and issuing bonds, thus creat-
ing an indebtedness equal to their capital. They do it now by
incorporating in other States and carrying on business in this State.
They do it also by neglecting for a certain time to make the re-
ports required by law, and then taking refuge behind the statute
of limitations. If the burdens thrust upon them can not be shirked
or borne, they fly to other States, where the aggressions of the tax
collector are less ruinous.

To compel officials to do their duty, countless expedients have
been invented from time immemorial. In the face of proof moun-
tains high that no legislative or administrative device can uproot
the selfishness imbedded in human nature or reshape the conduct
molded to this immutable fact, social quacks still continue to spawn
their schemes to work the miracle. Slight as is Mr. Roberts's sym-
pathy with them, he is no exception. As a panacea for the dis-
honesty and incompetency of the county treasurers that mismanage
court and trust funds, he recommends the substitution of State for
local inspection. By a similar application of hocus-pocus, he
would transmute the extravagance of the managers of charitable
institutions into exemplary economy. Disgusted with the charla-
tans in charge of certain duties connected with these institutions
requiring special skill and knowledge, he thinks " it would be well
to provide a corps of enthusiastic scientists , . . who have more
than a pecuniary interest '*' in their work. But another recom-
mendation of his is a direct assault on this simple faith in the
honor and integrity of specialists. Already many of the depart-
ments of the State are in the hands of men supposed to have a spe-
cial aptitude and liking for their duties. But Mr. Roberts finds
that '' leaving the department to expend the money as it deems
best," instead of appropriating it for a specific purpose, " is not in
the interest of economy." He says that " it absolutely deprives
the Legislature of that judicial scrutiny of the necessity of appro-
priations " that " it should always exercise, and leaves to the judg-
ment of one what could often be better decided if considered by
several." Could a deadlier blow be given to a common theory that
under government management we have the same division of labor
and the same perfect adjustment of means to ends that we have
nnder private management? What legislative body, chosen by uni-
versal suffrage, the most perfect instrument ever invented for the
selection of incompetents, would enable it to exercise the super-
vision over the thousand activities of life that Mr. Roberts rec-
ommends?

The same futile ingenuity exhibited in making officials do their

VOL. LVI. — 53

658 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

duty is exhibited in making- taxpayers do theirs. One of the mul-
titude of phans suggested is a single tax on land; but that does
not seem promising, for it woiild not prevent the discriminations
that assessors make — discriminations that Mr. Koberts himself be-
lieves to be beyond the reach of even State supervision. Another
is a more rigid enforcement of the personal-property tax; but this
is equally unpromising. " The fact is," says Mr. Roberts, " that
from the dawn of civilization the wit of man has failed to dis-
cover a plan by which intangible personal property could be made
to pay its share of taxation, and it will never be made to pay on
the ordinary assessment plan." Besides the increase of taxes on
corporations, the taxation of franchises, which has just been author-
ized, and a general revision and simplification of tax laws, it has
been proposed that a graded inheritance tax be adopted. Mr. Rob-
erts is particularly enamored of this idea. But his advocacy of it
betrays the same disregard of the rights of others, and leads to the
same appeals to specious facts and arguments that always accom-
pany the commission of aggression in politics as well as in war.
His reasoning is that since " special privileges conferred by gov-
ernment," such as tariif laws, corporation laws, public franchises,
etc., are '' the foundation of most of the great fortunes of the coun-
try to-day " ; since these fortunes are, to a considerable extent,
" composed of personal property " that " very largely escapes taxa-
tion"; since the decedent has been "allowed the use and enjoy-
ment of his fortune during life," and the beneficiary simply pays
" a fee for the privilege of receiving an estate in the creation of
which he had little or no hand "; and, finally, since he can make
no just complaint against the payment of such a fee, as his right
to receive his fortune " comes from the State — is by the grace of
the State " — the seizure at death of a certain percentage of all
estates beyond a prescribed amount would be only justice to " the
mass of small landowners and taxpayers who have from year to
year borne more than their equitable share of the burden of taxa-
tion." But the fallacies of such an argument are easily exposed.
The moral ownership of property does not lie in the State; it lies
in the labor and skill of the man that accumulated the property.
The moral title to a bequest does not lie in that fiction either; it
lies in the right of the decedent to do whatever he pleases with
his owm. If gi'eat fortunes have been unjustly acquired in conse-
quence of special privileges a great wrong has been committed,
and it is not righted by the commission of another wrong. The
only reparation that can be made is to abolish the privileges. So
obvious a suggestion does not, however, appear to have occurred to
Mr. Roberts.

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE X RAYS. 659

But even if all the reforms in taxation that could be imagined
were put in operation they would not meet the situation; they
would not deliver the American people from the great and alarm-
ing evil of over-legislation and excessive taxation. An increase
of revenue, like an increase of supervision, is almost certain
to increase the injustice that it was designed to abate. The
first year's operation of the Raines law contributed more than
$3,500,000 to the State treasury, yet the addition to the public
expenditures that accompanied its enactment made a high tax rate
necessary. What the situation requires, therefore, is not more
but less social regulation and taxation. We need also a gradual
restriction of the duties of the State to the limits laid down by
Mr. Spencer— to the preservation of order and the enforcement of
justice. Although not apparently a disciple of that philosopher,
Mr. lioberts himself virtually subscribes to this view. In his last
report he demands " far greater economy and care in public ex-
penditures, and no further excursions in the field of social super-
vision and regulation."

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE X RAYS.

By Peof. JOHN TROWBEIDGE,

DIRECTOR OF THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UXIVERSITY.

~\TT~E have become accustomed to seeing photographs of the
' V bones of our hands, and we no longer stop at shop windows
to look at X-ray photographs. Indeed, they are rarely displayed,
and the lecturer who once gazed on a sea of faces as he endeavored
to explain the most marvelous electrical sensation of this century
now addresses a mere handful of listeners. Such patient hearers
continuing to the end may still hear of marvelous performances
of this strange light of which the great public are even now igno-
rant, and in this paper I shall take my readers into a physical labora-
tory and endeavor to make the generally unknown manifestation
of the new rays plain and free from technical language. I am
sure that we shall all leave the laboratory with our imagination full
of thoughts of unknown movements in the air about us — thoughts
of possible telepathic waves through space, conceptions of new
ranges of nerve excitations, hopes of new lights, conceptions of
the vastness of the electrical whirls in that elevated region where
the molecules of the air, in their endeavor to fly into the abyss
of space, are controlled by the earth's forces and are endowed with
electrical energy by the sun.

In the first place, what -is the present state of our knowledge
of the X rays? Have we more efficient methods of producing

66o POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

them, and can we see farther into the recesses of the human body?
In regard to the first question, we can say that, although we may
not be able to answer dogmatically that we know w^hat these rays
are, we have valuable hints in regard to their character, and our
knowledge of their manifestations and their relation to light waves
and magnetic waves has greatly increased during the four years
which have elapsed since their discovery. They are now believed
by the best authorities to be magnetic and electrical pulses, or
waves of extremely short length. In the spectrum of sunlight
formed by sending a beam through a prism of quartz the X-ray
pulses or waves are to be found, according to this hypothesis, be-
yond the violet color of this spectrum — far into the dark region
invisible to the eye, and only brought into view at present by the
aid of photography. In this invisible region reside many singular
manifestations of energy closely analogous to those of the X rays.
The ultra-violet rays invisible to the eye have the property of
refraction. They can be bent out of their course by prisms made
of quartz. The X rays, however, can not be directed from a
straight course. This is their greatest peculiarity, and many at-
tempts, both mathematical and experimental, have been made to
elucidate it. It is not a fatal objection to the X rays being classed
with light waves, for, under certain conditions, even light waves
can be made to lose the power of being bent aside.

Leaving for the present a further discussion of the question
What are the X rays? let us examine what the actual condition
of the art of using the rays is. Many attempts have been made
to improve the Crooke's tube, in which the rays are produced, but,
like the hand telephone, its form has remained -substantially unal-
tered since the first flush of discovery. Its present form consists
of a bulb of thin glass, exhausted of air, containing a little concave
mirror of ahmiinum, and opposite to this, separated by a gap of
several inches, is an inclined sheet of thin platinum, called the
focus plane, or anticathode. The electrical discharge passes be-
tween this plane and the mirror, and the X rays are thrown ofl"
from the inclined sheet of platinum. They are not reflected in
the ordinary sense of the term, but the electric rays converge from
the mirror to a spot on the platinum which glows with a red heat,
and the X rays emanate from the heated spot as if it were their
source. Thousands of investigators have endeavored to improve the
form of tube, but, with several important minor appendages, it still
maintains the principal features of an aluminum concave mirror and
an inclined plane of platinum. Aluminum is found to be the best
metal for the mirror from which the raj'S are generated, largely
because its metallic particles are not torn off by the discharge, as

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS WITH TILE X RAYS. 661

would be the case if it were made of platinum. It is also light,
and can be easily fixed to a platinum w^ire. Among the important
modifications of the tube are those which enable the operator to
control the degree of vacuum in the tube. This is accomplished
by sealing to the main tube an appendage containing certain chem-
icals which, on being heated, give off a small amount of vapor, and
which take it up again on cooling. This modification is made neces-
sary by the singular fact that after a Crooke's tube is submitted to
an electrical discharge for some time the vacuum becomes more
and more complete, and a higher and higher electro-motive force
or pressure is needed to produce the discharge in the tube. It
prefers in time to jump over the surface. Thus, at the very begin-
ning of our use of the X rays we meet with a mystery. Where do

Fig. 1. — The evolution of the Crooke's tube.

the remaining particles of air go? It is surmised that they disap-
pear in the platinum terminals.

The manufacture of the X-ray tubes tests technical skill and
the patience of the experimenter more highly, perhaps, than the
preparation of any apparatus used in science. Glass working is a
difiicult art, and requires an absolute devotion to it. There is only
one metal known which will enable an electrical discharge to pass
into and out of a rarefied space inclosed by glass. This is plati-
num. A wire of this metal can be sealed into glass so that no air
can leak into an exhausted space around the joints. All electric
lamps, so commonly used in electric lighting, have little wires of
platinum at their bases, by means of which the electric current
enters and leaves the bulb. The Crooke's tube is in principle an
Edison lamp with the filament broken. The maker of Crooke's
tubes should complete the "making of the tube at one sitting, for

662 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

relieatino- of the tube is very apt to lead to a disastrous cracking
of the o-lass. He must take the utmost precautions against un-
equal heating and sudden cooling, and he must, above all, have
phenomenal patience.

Fig. 1 shows the evolution of the Crooke's tube which is used
to produce the X rays. The first form of tube was barely larger
than a goose's egg. The size has been gradually increased, and at
present it is three or four times larger than the original form.
The interior arrangement has not been materially changed, and
consists, as we have said, of a concave mirror, which constitutes
the negative electrode, and an inclined sheet of platinum, from
which the X rays seem to emanate.

The later forms of tube have accessory chambers, filled with
certain chemicals, which, on being slightly heated, reduce the
vacuum to the desired point. Certain forms of tubes have merely
an additional chamber which, on being heated, reduces the vacuum
in the main vessel. The latest form of tube, devised by Dr. Wil-
liam Kollins, of Boston, has a hollow anode tube {B C, Fig. 1),
through which a current of water can circulate in order to save the
tube from breaking. The end of this anode tube is small, in order
to form a sharp radiant point of light. One of the platinum wires
(P) inserted in the tube projects outside some distance. When the
vacuum becomes too high in the tube, this platinum wire is slightly
heated in a gas flame; then the flame is blown out and the hydro-
gen is allowed to flow against the heated wire. A sufficient amount
of the gas is absorbed by the heated wire to reduce the vacuum in
the tube. This tube stands very powerful electrical discharges, and
is the most scientifically designed tube at the command of the
experimenter.

There are three methods of generating the electrical discharge
which produces the rays. The commonest method is that in which
the Ruhmkorf coil is used. This coil is what is now known as a
transformer, and consists of one coil of a few turns of coarse wire,
which is connected to a battery or other source of electricity, and
of another coil surrounding the first of a great number of turns
of fine wire. Any sudden change of the battery current produces
an electric pressure or electro-motive force at the ends of the fine
coil of wire. By this simple arrangement of two coils we can thus
exalt a current of low pressure to one of high electro-motive force.
A battery current which can barely produce an electric spark of
one hundredth of an inch at the ends of the coarse coil can cause
a spark of eight inches or more at the terminals of a fine coil.

In the second method one uses an ordinary electrical machine
in which the glass plates are supplanted by rubber ones, which are

LATEST DF.VELOPMENT& WITH THE X RAYS. 663

run at a high rate of speed. Both of these methods have their
advocates. The use of the Ruhmkorf coil is the most universaL

The third method consists in charging a number of Leyden jars
by a storage battery and in discharging these one after another, so
as to obtain a high electro-motive force. This method is a very
flexible one. I can experiment with my apparatus over a range
of electric pressure extending from twenty thousand units to three
million. The electrical discharge produced by three million units
or volts is over six feet in length.

The apparatus for discharging the Leyden jars or condensers
in series is represented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. — Apparatus for produeinj^ electrical sparks six feet in length.

A fourth method, first used by Professors Xorton and Goodwin,
•of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, consists in discharg-
ing a quantity of electricity through the coarse coil of a Ruhmkorf
coil. This method obviates the necessity of a mechanical break
to interrupt the battery current which is employed to excite the
current in the coarse coil of this apparatus.

I have experimented with more powerful quantities of elec-
tricity than have been hitherto used. The accompanying photo-
graph gives an idea of the magnitude of the quantity which I can
use to excite the X rays.

It represents the discharge, burning a fine iron wire, and it

664 POPULAR SCIENCE MOXTHLl.

makes a noise resembling the crack of a pistol. Kow, this dis-
charge can be used in a variety of ways to excite various trans-
formers in order to produce the best conditions for exciting the X
rays. The method of using this powerful discharge to excite a
transformer seems at present the most promising one in seeking
the best conditions for obtaining rays of high penetrating power.

There is still another method of obtaining the rays yet in
its infancy — the simplest method of all, for no apparatus is
required.

It has been discovered that certain substances, like the salts of
uranium, have the power of emitting rays which have all the prop-
erties of the X rays. The list of such substances is constantly
increasing, and they arc called radio-active substances. It is pos-

FiG. 3. — The burniriL,' of an iron wire l»y the nmst powerful electric discharge yet produced.

sible to take a shadow picture of the hand through a board by
placing the hand on a covered sensitive plate, resting the board on
the back of the hand, and strewing the board with one of these
radio-active substances in the form of a powder. Can it be that
all the skill and industry which has been employed to perfect X-ray
apparatus is to be supplanted by a powder? The peculiar prop-
erty shown by the radio-active substances leads investigators to
surmise that we have evidence of new substances, and we have the
waves radium and polonium.

The methods by which the X rays are detected in practical em-
ployment in surgery have not been essentially changed. The ordi-
nary photographic plate, shielded in a plate holder, is still used to
receive the shadow cast by the bones, and salts of barium or of
calcinm strewn on pastel)oard serve as fluorescent screens to receive

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE X RAYS. 665

on their luminous surfaces these shadoAvs and to make them evi-
dent to the eye. An interesting use of flexible sensitive films in-
stead of glass plates has been made in dentistry. The films are
put in the mouth, and the Crooke's tube placed outside in such a
position that the rays can pass through the jaw. In this way the
accompanying photographs were taken (Fig. 4).*

The use of photographic films in the application of the X rays
in surgery will doubtless extend; we can easily imagine cases

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Fig. 4.— 1. Mule patient, aged ten years. Temporary incisors in position with the permanent
incisors nearly ready to erupt. The roots ot the temporary teeth nearly absorbed. Right
temporary central cut incisor destroyed by a blow five years previous, showing gutta-
percha filling put in at the time which, with the dead root, has been absorbed (same as
the live I'oot of the other central). It is taught in the text- books that teeth with dead
nerves are not absorbed. 2. Temporary molars in position with no signs of the perma-
nent bicuspid which should take its place. 3. Patient, aged ten years. Shows the open
ends of the incisor roots. 4. Shows one bicuspid and two molar teeth. The roots of tlie
teeth pass through the floor of and into the cavity of the antrum. The spongy character
of the bone is shown. 5 and 6. Superior jaw, right and left sides, showing temporary
cuspid teeth in place, with the permanent cuspids imbedded in the jaw entirely covered.

where the necessity of the use of the knife may be avoided by the
information which a carefully placed film might afford. In gen-
eral, X-ray photographs convey more information to the skilled
eye of the specialist than to the untrained inspector of them. They
should be studied from the negatives themselves, for the delicate
details can not be reproduced in a print. It is remarkable that
shadow pictures can show go much definition. Here is a photo-

* Kindness of Dr. Dwight M. Clapp, Boston.

666 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

graph of an elbow joint whicli shows the texture of the bones
(Fig. 5).*

The use of the fluorescent screen, too, has been greatly ex-
tended. Dr. Francis H. Williams, of Boston, has used it as a valu-
able instrument in medical diagnosis, especially in studying lung
diseases. It has been used at the Harvard Medical School to fol-
low the processes of digestion. To accomplish this, in one instance
a goose was fed with food mixed with subnitrate of bismuth, a
salt which absorbs X rays.

The passage of the dark mass down the long neck of the bird
could be traced on the fluorescent screen, and the peculiarities of
its motion in tlie erullct could be studied. A cat was also fed with

Fig. 5. — Plioto^niph of an (.'lliow joint. sJiowing the texture of the hones

the same substance, and the movements of its stomach noted.
These movements were analogous to those of the heart — in other
words, were rhythmical when the processes of digestion were going
on normally and uninterruptedly. When, however, the cat was
irritated, it may be by the sight of a dog, these pulsations instantly
ceased. As soon as the source of vexation was removed and the
purring of the animal showed a contented frame of mind, the
stomach resumed its rhythmical movements. The dependence of
the digestive apparatus on the state of the nervous system was thus
clearly shown. The fomnle cat was much more tractable under
these experiments than the male.

The use of the X rays is accompanied with some danger if the
Crooke's tube is not properly used. A long exposure to the X rays
is apt to produce bad burns which are like sunburns, and lead in
certain cases to bad ulcerations. They are long in healing and are
characterized by a peculiar red glow, especially on exposure to a
cold wind. To prevent them one should place a sheet of thin
aluminum between the Crooke's tube and the part of the body

* Tiiken bv Professor Goodspeecl, University of Pennsylvania.

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE X RAYS. 667

submitted to the rays. This sheet should be connected to the
earth. This fact should be borne in mind when we come to speak
of the electrical region outside a Crooke's tube.

Many investigators, reflecting upon the singular fact that the
rays pass so freely through thin aluminum and that, on the con-
trary, glass absorbs such a large percentage, concluded that Crooke's
tubes provided with aluminum windows would be an improvement
upon the thin incandescent lamplike bulbs now used. The glass
of these bulbs is very thin, not more than one thousandth of an
inch in thickness, where the rays emerge, not thicker than a sheet
of ordinary note paper, and the absorption of such a sheet of glass
is so small that it can not be detected by photography. Thus a
sliver of glass of this thickness in the hand would not appear on
the X-r.'ay photograph of this member, and would not cast a shadow
in the fluoroscope. There does not seem, therefore, any advantage
in supplying a Crooke's tube with an aluminum window. The
mechanical difficulties, too, in accomplishing this are very great.
There is no way of joining the thin aluminum disk to the glass so
that an air-tight joint can be made. In the process of exhausting
the Crooke's tube, the tube must be heated to a comparativel}' high
temperature in order to drive off the air which clings to the inside
of the glass. The rise of temperature would soften or melt any
current which might be used to mftke the aluminum adhere to
the glass.

We can not expect, therefore, any improvement in the direc-
tion of aluminum windows. At one time, I suppose that the rays
were highly absorbed in passing through atmospheric air, and that
it would be an improvement in the application of the rays to sur-
gery to interpose, so to speak, a vacuum chamber between the body
and the source of the X rays. The experiment led to some inter-
esting results, but not in the direction anticipated.

The vacuum chamber consisted of a glass cylinder three feet
long and about eight inches in diameter. The two ends were
closed by sheets of aluminum, and it could be exhausted through
a side tube. The reader will immediately ask, in view of what
has been said. How could the glass tube be hermetically closed
with sheets of aluminum? This was indeed a difiicult matter, but
less difiicult than in the case of the Crooke's tube, for the ends of
the glass cylinder were provided with heavy brass flanges, which
were perfectly flat, and the sheets of aluminum lying smoothly
could be confined by many bolts betAveen the fiange and suitable
brass heads. This cylinder, having been exhausted, was placed
between the Crooke's tube and the 'arm, for instance, in the hope
that a greater depth of human flesh and tissue might be penetrated

668 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

by the rays. It was speedily seen that the absorption of the layer
of air three feet thick could not be detected either by photographs
or the fluorescent screen. The glass cylinder was then filled with
rarefied hydrogen, but no advantage was apparent. If the photo-
graphs of the human hand were taken, one through the rarefied
cylinder and the other through an equivalent thickness of air, no
diil'erence in clearness or depth of definition could be perceived.
The amount of absorption by a colunm of air three feet in length
is less than ten per cent. This result interested me greatly, for
it shows the remarkable difference between the X rays and the
cathode rays, which had been investigated by Crooke, Hittorf, and
Tenard; for the cathode rays are greatly absorbed by atmospheric
air, being reduced in passing through five or six inches of air to
one four-hundredth part of their value.

The small amount of absorption of the X rays lifts them into
the realm of very short wave lengths of light, for their behavior
in regard to the absorption by air is very analogous to that of
ultra-violet rays. Although the vacuum chamber, by which I
looked, showed no absorption of the X rays, it disclosed a beau-
tiful phenomenon. In a dark room this large tube, three feet
long and eight inches wide, was filled with a roseate light, which
wavered like the northern lights when the Crooke's tube was emit-
ting the X rays. If the finger was brought near the glass walls
of the cylinder a stream of light apparently erhanated from a point
on the inside wall of the cylinder. The hand thus had ghostly
streamers giving an image of it, although the hand itself was in-
visible. These banners of light could be diverted in any direction
by the hand or by any conducting body brought near, and gave a
vivid conception of how the streaming of the aurora can be brought
about by this flitting of conducting clonds or the drifting of moist-
ure-laden strata of air below the rarefied space in which the beams
of the northern light dart back and forth. Both in the case of
the Crooke's tube and the aurora these streamers are produced
by electrical discharges through rarefied air. The experiments
show that outside the Crooke's tube there is a strong electrical
attraction and repulsion, which is only revealed in darkness and in
a cold, lifeless, airless space, such as exists between us and the sim.
Can we not extend our thoughts from the contemplation of this
laboratory experiment to that of the immensely greater play of
electrical forces between the earth and the sun across the immense
vacant space ninety millions of miles in distance?

The mysterious effects of the X rays on the molecules in the
air form a great subject of inquiry, and the investigation of it
promises to extend our knowledge of electricity and light and heat.

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE X RAYS. 669

When the Crooke's tube is excited we are conscious of a mysterious
activity within it, for its glass walls glow with a phosphorescent
light, and if certain crystals, like the diamond or the ruby, are
placed in the tube, this phosphorescent light is vivid. Outside the
tube, in free air, these luminescent effects are also present. The
air is under an electrical strain, which is shown by the auroral
streamers when this air is rarefied, and an electrical charge can not
be maintained on a pith ball — it is dissipated in some strange man-
ner. Still stranger, an electrical current is greatly aided by the
X rays in its endeavor to pass through air — they make for the time
being air a conductor. Furthermore, these rays separate the air
into positively laden and negatively laden particles.

The electrical discharge in the Crooke's tube is many-sided in
its manifestations. Its energy seems all-pervading in the room
where it occurs. Before the discharge passes through the rare-
fied space in the tube its energy manifests itself by a crackling
spark, a miniature lightning discharge. This spark, five or six
inches in length, can send out inagnetic waves which extend far
beyond the narrow limits of the room. They can be detected, by
the methods of wireless telegraphy, fifty miles. "Wlien the same
amount of energy is developed in a Crooke's tube the magnetic
waves hardly pass beyond the walls of the room, and the phenome-
non of phosphorescence and fluorescence and the strange molec-
ular eifccts outside the Crooke's tube spring into prominence.
The crackling spark outside the tube is far-reaching in its effect,
yet it shows no signs of the X rays, its light can not penetrate the
human body, it excites only a feeble phosphorescence at a distance
of even two or three feet, while the same energy excited in the
Crooke's tube can cause luminescence at a distance of twenty feet.
The crackling spark, however, can be seen much farther than the
light of the Crooke's tube, and it can also impress a photographic
plate at much greater distance. The following experiments will
illustrate the different manifestations of energy of which an elec-
trical discharge is capable. I produced an electrical spark about
six inches in length and exposed a photographic plate for six sec-
onds, at a distance of two, ten, and twenty feet, to its light, A
thin strip of tin, with a circular hole cut in it, served as a shutter.
The sensitive plate was thus protected, except in front of this aper-
ture. The images exhibit the decrease in light with the increase
of distance. Another portion of the sensitive plate was exposed
in the same manner during the same length of time to the light
of a Crooke's tube which was excited by this same spark. No
image was obtained at a distance 'of ten feet, and barely one at
three feet. The spark in "air, therefore, was far more energetic

670 POPULAR SCIEiYCE MONTHLY.

photogTaphically than the X rays, but it could not penetrate solid
materials. This ]U'operty was given to it by its passage through
rarefied space. I then covered a screen with a phosphorescent sub-
stance, and exposed it to the spark in air. The phosphorescent
light could barely be detected at a distance of three feet, while
with a spark in rarefied air it could be seen at a distance of twenty
feet.

"When we consider these experiments we see that the X rays
act toward phosphorescent matter much as the spark in air behaves
toward the photographic plate. Now, these results, taken in con-
nection with the strong electrical effects in the neighborhood of an
excited Crooke's tube, points to a certain connection between phos-
phorescence and electricity. Can it be that the strange light is
excited by very short electrical waves sent out from the tube, which
can not travel far but are very active in producing molecular
effects? This activity, indeed, may prevent their extending to great
distances. "Wireless telegraphy evidently depends upon one set of
waves sent out by a spark, and X-ray photographs upon another
set developed only in rarefied air. Phosphorescence can not be
produced with ease by the spark in air. On the contrary, it is
developed to a remarkable degree and at comparatively great dis-
tances by the discharge in rarefied air. It has been shown by Mr.
Burbank and myself that electrical force can develop phosphores-
cent light in certain crystals. The sunlight can do the same. Is
sunlight an electrical phenomenon? That it is constitutes the
greatest hypothesis in physics of this century. W^hen we reflect,
too, that the phosphorescence of the firefly is excited by some mani-
festation of a living organism — nerve force or some related force
— shall we not include nerve force in the electrical category?

The X rays, therefore, bring into prominence strange lights
which had heretofore been noticed chiefly by keen-eyed investi-
gators, and which, with their names, phosphorescence and fluores-
cence, were unknown to the bulk of mankind. The fluorescent
screen, by means of which siirgeons observe the skeleton of the
body, has now taken its place in medical practice with the stetho-
scope, by which the mechanism of the lungs is studied, and hopes
have been excited that the blind may yet use the X rays in detect-
ing objects and in regaining a sense of vision, even though this
sense may be only partial. It is a curious fact that the retina of
the eye is phosphorescent and fluorescent, and that one can see
the shadow of certain objects in the dark when one stands so that
the feeble X rays fall upon the eye. In other words, the retina
acts as a fluorescent screen. The eye at present recognizes only
a limited number of the waves that are surging about us. We can

LATEST DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE X RAYS. 671

see the colors from red to violet, bnt the dark colors, so to speak,
formed by waves longer than ^o-oTo of an inch and shorter than
fOTuiro of an inch make no recognizable impress upon our retina,
unless, indeed, thev constitute telepathic signals which apparently
stir our consciousness and make us believe that friends are commu-
nicating from a distance. The electrical discharge has lifted, so to
speak, a realm of short waves of energy out of the darkness and
made them visible. Can the human brain be made conscious of
other waves which fill space?

But we have not by any means exhausted the protean manifes-
tations of the X rays. Besides the photographic, the phosphores-
cent, and fluorescent effects, there are still more singular proper-
ties of these rays. One of the most striking consists in their open-
ing a path for a current of electricity. The electrical discharge,
feeble in itself, not capable of lifting by means of a motor a pound
weight a foot from the floor, is yet competent to open a path for
a current which can set all the trolley cars of a great city in motion.
To exhibit this mysterious effect we bring the ends of the electrical
current which we wish to excite near each other, but not touching,
in a glass tube with thin walls, from which the air has been ex-
hausted. When the X rays fall on the gap between the wires the
electrical current immediately jumps across the gap with a vivid
light. We have here the mechanism of an electrical relay — the
feeble energy of the electric discharge can call into play a giant
energy. By what energy does it accomplish this? Is it by com-
pelling molecules to put themselves in line, so that the electrical
current can bridge the gap? Is it by breaking down this myste-
rious ether of space, as if we threw a stone at a turbid bull's eye
in a prison chamber and let in a flood of sunlight? How the im-
agination is stirred by this process, what seems dead and lifeless
can, by a physical agency, be stirred to endless activity! The
rays are like the touch of Ithuriel's spear.

The electrical discharge can accomplish all this, but the story
of its activity is not yet told. It can not be told, for each year
adds information in regard to these activities, for there are thou-
sands of investigators at work. Another far-reaching manifesta-
tion is this: the rays can separate the air or a gas into its constitu-
ent particles, much as a strong electrical current separates water
into oxygen and hydrogen. They can communicate electrical
charges to these particles — positive and negative charges. The
charged air-particles, when forced through partitions of spun glass,
does not give up their electricity as they do when they are charged
by an electrical machine. This ciu'ious manifestation leads me to
suspect that the electricity- and magnetism of the earth may be

672 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

caused by_ an X-ray effect on our atmosphere. The sun and the
earth are separated like the terminals of a Crooke's tube — two con-
ductors with a vacuum between. An electrical excitation from
the sun may cause an electrical discharge between it and the earth.
This discharge might consist of an X-ray effect which could separate
the upper layers of the atmosphere into positive and negative
charges. The velocity of the negatively charged particles is greater
than that of the positively charged ones, and the revolution of
the earth may cause such a movement of these electrified particles
that electrical currents may be generated which in circulation
around the earth could produce the observed magnetism of the
north and south poles, together with the auroral lights character-
istic of those regions. This, I am well aware, is an audacious
theory. It is certainly a vast extension of the laboratory experi-
ments I have described, but the electrical radiations developed in
electrical discharges are as competent to produce powerful mag-
netic whirls as the heat radiations in our atmosphere to develop
cyclones. In the lower regions of our atmosphere the air is an
insulator like glass to the passage of an electrical current. A layer
a foot thick can prevent the circulation of the most powerful cur-
rent which is now used to generate horse power. When this air
space is rarefied at a certain degree of rarefaction the electrical
current passes, especially, as we have seen, if it is illuminated by
the X rays. When, therefore, we ascend to a height of ten or
twenty miles the rarefied air becomes an excellent conductor of
electricity of high electro-motive force. To my mind the condi-
tions exist for developing an electrical state in the earth's cover-
ing of air, which is competent to explain the electrical manifesta-
tions of the air, the auroral gleam, and the mysterious effect on
the magnetic needle which keeps it directed to the magnetic north.
Can not we conclude that the study of the X rays bids fair to
greatly extend our conceptions of the constitution of matter and
of the action and interaction of Nature's forces?

A Himalayan explorer reported, a few years ago, that he had seen, from
one of the lofty summits of the Mount Everesfdistrict, a peak which, be-
held in the same view with Mount Everest, was evidently higher than it.
Nothing has been heard of the matter since then till the recent appearance
of Major L. A. Waddell's book, Among the Himalayas. This author, who
has explored the same region, represents that the Tibetans there say there
is another mountain, due north of Mount Everest, that exceeds that peak
in height, thus confirming the story of the former Alpinist. It appears
that Mount Everest is not called Gaurisankar or Deodunga, as some affirm,
but that the Tibetan name of the culminating peak of the group is Jomo-
kang-har—" The Lady White Glacier."

A HUNDRED YEARS, OF CHEMISTRY. 673

A HUNDRED YEARS OF CHEMISTRY.

By F. W. CLARKE,

CHIEF CHEMIST, UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY.

IT is hardly an exaggeration to say that chemistry, as a science,
is the creation of the nineteenth century. Chemical facts, in-
deed, were known even in remote antiquity; some principles were
dimly anticipated long before the century began; Boyle had given
the first rational definition of an element; the principal gases had
been discovered; great foundations were laid, ready for the super-
structure. But the making of bricks is not architecture, nor does
the accumulation of details constitute a science. The scattered
facts are needful preliminaries, but only with the discovery of laws
and the development of broad generalizations does true science
begin.

That truth can be born from error may seem paradoxical, but,
nevertheless, the statement is exact. False hypotheses stimulate
investigation, and so truth comes at last to light. In the history
of chemistry this principle is clearly illustrated. During the eight-
eenth century the doctrine of phlogiston was generally accepted;
this led to exhaustive researches upon combustion, and from these
the science of chemistry received its present shape. Becher and
Stahl had taught that every combustible substance contained a com-
bustible principle — phlogiston — -and that to the elimination of this
principle the phenomena of combustion were due. According to
this theory, a metal was regarded as a compound of its calx, or
oxide, with phlogiston; hydrogen became a compound of water
with phlogiston, and so the truth was curiously inverted. The doc-
trine was vigorously and ingeniously defended, and, although it
was overthrown by Lavoisier, it had persistent supporters even
after the present century began.

The weak point of the phlogistic theory was its practical dis-
regard of the phenomena of weight. That the calx weighed more
than the metal was well known, but quantitative considerations
were subordinated to those of quality, and the form of matter was
studied rather than its mass.

In 1770 the scientific career of Lavoisier began, and the balance
became a chief instrument in chemical research. The constancy
of weight during chemical change was experimentally established,
and what had been a philosophical speculation — the increatability
and indestructibility of matter — became a doctrine of science, a
datum of knowledge instead of a hypothetical belief. In 1774
Priestley and Scheele independently discovered oxygen, and with

VOL. LVI. — 54

6/4 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

the aid of the balance the plienomena of combustion were rendered
intelligible. The foundations of chemistry were laid, and upon
them the nineteenth centuiy has built. Lavoisier, the greatest of
the founders, fell a victim to the guillotine; the judge who con-
demned him refused all appeals for mercy, saying " the republic
has no need for savants," but the necessity which judicial ignorance
could not foresee presently made itself felt. France, at war with
all Europe, her ports closed to supplies from without, fell back
upon her own resources. Saltpeter was needed for her guns, alkali
for her industries, and the chemist was called upon for help. The
stress of continued warfare stimulated intellectual activity, and
one result was the creation of chemical processes which revolution-
ized more than one industry. The dependence of modern civiliza-
tion upon science then began to be recognized — a dependence which
is, perhaps, the chief characteristic of the present century.

With the opening of the new century a period of great activity
began. The constancy of matter was well established, and the
fundamental distinction between elements and compounds was
clearly recognized; two starting points for exact research had been
gained. Only a small number of elements, however, had been
identified as such; of some substances it was doubtful whether they
were elementary or not, but the mine was open and a rich body of
ore was in sight. Furthermore, the utility of research had become
evident, so that intellectual curiosity received a new stimulus and
a new direction. Theory and practice became partners, and have
worked together to this day.

Between the years 1803 and 1808 one of the greatest advances
in scientific chemistry was made, when John Dalton announced and
developed his famous atomic theory. In this we find a notable
illustration of the difference between metaphysics and science.
The conception of matter as made up of atoms, as discrete rather
than continuous, was a commonplace of philosophical speculation.
It had been taught by Democritus and Lucretius; it was the theme
of wordy wrangles during centuries; Swedenborg, Higgins, and
other writers had sought to apply it to the discussion of chemical
phenomena; but it remained only a speculation, unfruitful for dis-
covery. Up to the time of Dalton it had led to nothing but intel-
lectual gymnastics.

A good scientific theory is never a product of the unaided
imagination; it must serve some purpose in the correlation of phe-
nomena which suggest it to the mind. This was the case with
Dalton's discovery, which grew out of his observations upon definite
and multiple proportions. That every chemical compound has a
fixed and definite composition was recognized by Lavoisier, and by

A HUNDRED YEARS OF CHEMISTRY. 675

other chemists before him; but the fact was disputed by B^-thollet,
and its verity was not established until 1S08. Dalton went a step
further, and found that to every element a definite combining num-
ber could be assigned, and that when two elements united in more
than one proportion even multiples of that number appeared.
Thus, taking the hydrogen weight as unity, oxygen always combines
with other elements in the proportion of eight parts or some simple
multiple thereof, and so on through the entjre list of elementary
bodies. Each one has its own combining weight, and this was the
law for which Dalton sought an adequate explanation. Fractions
of the weights did not appear, fractional atoms could not exist;
the two thoughts were connected by Dalton. Chemical union, to
his mind, became a juxtaposition of atoms, whose relative weights
were indicated by their combining numbers, and so the atomic con-
ception for the first time was given quantitative expression. The
facts were co-ordinated, the special laws were combined in one
general theory, and the mere suppositions of other men were sup-
planted by a precise statement, which is a corner stone of chemistry
to-day. The doctrine led at once to investigations, it rendered pos-
sible the discovery of new truth, chemical formulae and chemical
equations were developed from it; without its aid the growth of
chemical science would probably have been slow. The nature of
the atoms may be in doubt, they may be divisible or indivisible, but
the value of the theory is independent of such considerations. It
gives adequate expression to known laws, and it can only be set
aside, if ever, by absorption into some wider and deeper generali-
zation.

The same year w^hich saw the completion of Dalton's theory
(1807) was also signalized by the remarkable discoveries of Sir
Humphry Davy, who decomposed the alkalies and proved them
to be compounds of metals. In 1810 chlorine, which was pre-
viously thought to be a compound, was proved to be elementary,
and this fact was emphasized a year later by the discovery of
iodine. These researches gave precision to the conception of an
element, and prepared the way for later investigations upon many
other oxides. All the so-called " earths " — lime, magnesia, alu-
mina, and so on — were now seen to be oxy-compounds of metals,
and an intelligent interpretation of all forms of inorganic matter
became possible. The first step in the chain of research was the
discovery of oxygen itself; from that, and from the teachings of
Lavoisier, the later discoveries logically followed.

"While the investigations of Dalton and of Davy were still in-
complete, other chemists were actively studying the properties of
gases and exploring the fertile border-land between chemistrv and

676 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

physics. ' In 1805 Gay-Lussac and Humboldt determined the com-
position of water by volume; in 1808 Gay-Lussac extended these
observations, and found that in all compound gases simple volumet-
ric relations existed; and in 1811 the entire subject was general-
ized into Avogadro's law. Avogadro showed that equal volumes
of gases, compared under equivalent conditions, must contain equal
numbers of molecules, and although the force of his discovery
was not fully appreciated until much later, it is now recognized as
one of the fundamental propositions of both physics and chemistry.
For the first time the distinction between atoms and molecules was
clearly stated, and from the density of a gas the relative weight
of its molecule could be calculated. Avogadro's law rounded out
and completed the atomic theory, and to its application much of
the advance in organic chemistry is due. Equally striking, but
less far-reaching in its consequences, was the discovery announced
by Dulong and Petit in 1819, when it was shown that the specific
heat of an element was inversely proportional to its atomic weight.
Otherwise stated, this law asserts that the atoms of all the elements
have the same capacity for heat, and an important check upon
determinations of atomic weight was thus provided.

The next twenty years in the history of chemistry were years
of detail rather than of permanent generalizations. The multi-
tudinous verification of known laws, the development of experi-
mental methods, especially methods of analysis, the discovery of
new elements, the preparation of numberless new compounds, occu-
pied the attention of most workers. This period, which may be
called the Berzelian period, was enormously fruitful in results,
although but few of the theories then proposed have survived to
the present day. During this period the name and influence of
Berzelius overshadowed all others, and his marvelous researches,
carried out in a laboratory which was hardly more than a kitchen,
were of almost incredible variety. For the crude symbols of Dal-
ton, Berzelius substituted a system of chemical formulae which
could be used in chemical equations; in 1818 and 1826 he published
tables of atomic weights, determined with far greater exactness than
ever before; he discovered five new elements and a multitude of
compounds, devised methods of research, and proposed theories
which, though later to be overthrown, for many years dominated
chemical science. His electro-chemical experiments led him to his
dualistic theory of compounds, which interpreted each compound
as made up of two parts — one positive, the other negative. The
electro-positive oxides were basic, the electro-negative groups were
acid; chemical affinity was electrical attraction between the two
opposites; chomioal union implied a neutralization of one by the

A HUNDRED YEARS OF CHEMISTRY. 677

other. These ideas were more than speculation, for they rested
upon experiment and led to further experimental research; but they
went too far, and therefore could not last. The theory, however,
contained much that was true, and the formulae developed by it
gave the first general suggestion of what is now known as chemical
structure or constitution. The later study of organic compounds
led up to the modern views.

Although Berzelius and many other chemists did some work
upon organic compounds, their era was chiefly identified with inor-
ganic researches. Mineral chemistry received a great deal of atten-
tion, the relatively simple acids, bases, and salts were studied, but
the compounds of carbon were thought to be more complex and
received less consideration. To-day, at the close of the century,
nearly seventy thousand organic compounds are known, and of
these comparatively few were discovered before the year 1830.
Since then organic chemistry has been the dominant line of inves-
tigation.

Among the earlier chemists of the nineteenth century it was
commonly supposed that organic and inorganic matter were radi-
cally different, and that the former could only be produced by the
operation of a peculiar vital force. To this view there were some
dissentients, Berzelius among them, but experimental proof for their
contention was lacking. In 1827, however, Wohler succeeded in
transforming the inorganic ammonium cyanate into the organic
urea, and the barrier was broken down. The era of synthetic chem-
istry had begun. Still earlier, in 1823, Liebig had found that sil-
ver cyanate and silver fulminate possessed the same percentage
composition; in 1825 Faraday discovered an isomer of ethylene;
and Wohler's research now gave a third example of the same kind.
Two different substances could contain the same elements in the
same proportions, and to explain this fact Berzelius inferred differ-
ent arrangements of atoms within the molecule, and suggested that
their mode of union might be determined. A working theory,
however, was still lacking, and without it progress was necessarily
slow. The dualistic hypothesis explained the phenomena only in
part, and as the known facts increased in number it had to be
abandoned.

Two important investigations paved the way for an advance.
In 1832 Liebig and Wohler, studying benzoic acid, found that it
and its derivatives contained in common a group of atoms, not iso-
lable by itself, to which they gave the name of benzoyl. The con-
ception of such a group, a compound radicle, already existed, but
it lacked clearness, and now for t"he first time it became truly a
scientific idea. The search for, and the identification of, compound

678 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

radicles began to occupy the attention of chemists, and a definite
line of attack upon organic matter was recognized.

Two years later the second great step was taken. Dumas,
studying the action of chlorine upon acetic acid, showed that the
chlorine could replace hydrogen atom for atom, or volume for vol-
ume, and that his observations explained other reactions which had
been unintelligible hitherto. This research led him to the famous
theory of substitutions, which at first was received with ridicule,
but soon found general acceptance. Electro-chemical conceptions,
the Berzelian doctrines, were then in vogue, and it seemed strange,
even absurd, to suppose that electro-negative chlorine could be sub-
stituted for electro-positive hydrogen. But the facts were stronger
than the preconceived ideas, and the latter soon gave way. In
this discovery by Dumas the first germs of the modern theory of
valence are to be found.

For the study of inorganic substances, however, the dualistic
theory was long retained, with the result that inorganic chemistry
degenerated to a great extent into analysis and compound making,
without any general conceptions which could stimulate scientific
advance. It became a science of details rather than of principles,
and was soon overshadowed by the organic branch. In the latter,
theory after theory sprang up,, flourished, and died aAvay, each one
having partial truth, but none being exhaustive and final. Still,
the intellectual activity led to discoveries, and the warfare between
doctrines, unlike the warfare between men, was productive of good
instead of destruction. From the conflict of ideas the truth gradu-
ally emerged, and a new system of chemical philosophy was devel-
oped. The theory of compound radicles, the nucleus theory, the
theory of types, the conception of conjugated compounds, followed
rapidly one after the other, until in the discovery of valence all
discrepancies were reconciled, structural chemistry came into exist-
ence, and a single doctrine, applicable alike to organic and inor-
ganic substances, had possession of the field.

The theory of valence was a logical outgro\vth from its prede-
cessors, whose valuable features it included in a wider generaliza-
tion, but it was the work of no one master mind. Many chemists
contributed to its up-building, Frankland and Ivekule being among
the leaders; but its foundations are to be detected in the atomic
theory itself, from which it is legitimately derived. To under-
stand its full significance we must take a step backward in history,
and trace the change in atomic weights from their first form to the
modern system.

In the early days of the atomic theory, in the determinations
by Wollaston, Berzelius, and others, attention Avas chiefly paid to

A HUNDRED YEARS OF CHEMISTRY. 679

the atomic weights in their aspect of combining numbers. They
were j)rimarily of nse as factors in chemical calculations, and chem-
ists naturally sought for their simplest expressions, with little re-
gard to theoretical considerations. The laws of Avogadro, of Du-
long and Petit, had, indeed, been announced, but the adjustment
of the atomic weights to meet their requirements was long neg-
lected. The importance of the adjustment was not realized, for
it was obscured by the prevailing dualistic theory, but without it
the deeper general relations of the atoms could not appear. Ac-
cordingly, a system of chemical formulae grew up Avhich was based
upon a deceptive apparent simplicity of ratios, and by which the
theory of valence could not be even suggested. The old formula
for Avater, HO, expressed only its composition by weight, ignoring
its composition by volume; it failed, therefore, to accord with
Avogadro's law or to give the slightest hint as to the relations which
are now covered by the conception of chemical structure. A part
of the existing knowledge was accurately symbolized, but the larger
part was ignored, a state of affairs which could not last, although
the change came about but slowly.

The incentive to reform came from two sources. Physics, in
the kinetic theory of gases, gave a new demonstration of the truth
of Avogadro's law, and led chemists to realize more clearly than
before the distinction between atoms and molecules. Soon it was
seen that the molecule was the smallest particle of matter which
could exist as such, while the atom was the smallest particle which
could take part in any chemical change. The metaphysical atom
was really the modern molecule; the chemical atom was a new
conception, due to the discoveries of chemistry alone. This dis-
tinction was found to hold good even for elementary bodies, and
it became evident that free hydrogen or oxygen must contain two
atoms to the molecule, while phosphorus and arsenic contained
four. "With mercury the atom and the molecule are identical, but
in most cases the greater complexity exists, and the elements as
we see them are compounds of like atoms with each other. That
hydrogen can unite with hydrogen, oxygen with oxygen, carbon
with carbon, is a conception to which the early chemists never
attained, but which is a necessary consequence of Avogadro's law
in its application to observed phenomena.

The second impulse toward change originated in the study of
organic compounds, and gained its force from the struggle between
contending theories. The advocates of each theory sought for
evidence in its favor, and so innumerable discoveries were made,
compound radicles were recognized in great numbers, and the mass
of data became so overwhelming that for a while chaos reigned.

68o POPULAR SCIA'NCE MONTHLY.

Classification of compounds became imperatively necessary, and to
that all speculation was subordinated. In 1842 Schiel found tliat
the alcohols formed a regular series, with progressive variation in
their properties; Dumas observed a similar relation among the
fatty acids, and so something like order began to appear.

In 1843 Charles Gerhardt proposed to use the law of Avogadro
as a basis for the determination of atomic weights. This involved
the doubling of many existing values, especially the atomic weights
assigned to oxygen, carbon, and sulphur. At first the proposition
was violently opposed, and even ridiculed, but by slow degrees it
managed to make its way, although it was not until after 1858 that
it began to find anything like general acceptance. In that year
Cannizzaro put forth his revision of the atomic weights, adjusted
to accord with physical laws, and a new era in chemistry began.
The modern theories of chemistry became possible, and the many
researches in which they had been foreshadowed received a clearer
meaning. Cannizzaro did not stand alone; his work was but the
capstone of a structure which had long been growing; Liebig,
Dumas, Laurent, Gerhardt, Wurtz, Graham, Williamson, and
Frankland were among the builders. But at last chemical and
physical evidence were brought into full convergence, and each
gave emphasis to the other.

During the formative period of the new doctrines, between
1840 and 1858, many discoveries were made which helped toward
the final consummation. Even earlier than this the researches of
Graham upon the phosphoric acids had familiarized chemists with
the idea that different substances might have very different com-
bining powers, and other polybasic acids were found to exist among
organic compounds. The discovery by Wurtz, in 1849, that the
hydrogen of ammonia was replaceable by organic radicles, forming
the compound ammonias or amines, was a logical extension of the
theory of substitutions; and the recognition at about the same
time, by Hofmann, of ammonia as a distinct type upon which many
other substances could be modeled, w^as another long step forward.
In 1851 Williamson argued that nearly all inorganic and many
organic molecules could be represented as analogous in structure to
water, and a year later, as a result of his researches upon the
organo-metallic bodies — zinc ethyl, tin ethyl, etc. — Frankland ex-
pressed the belief that every elementary atom has a definite com-
bining power which limits the number of other atoms capable of
direct union with it. This was the theory of valence in its first
and simplest form, undeveloped to its consequences, but unmistak-
ably clear. To carbon compounds in general it was yet to be
applied.

A HUNDRED YEARS OF CHEMISTRY. 681

In 1858 the work of Cannizzaro appeared, and a general revi-
sion of chemical formulae became necessary. The advanced views
which a few chemists had held began to find a more general accept-
ance, and the significance of the change was gradually realized.
In the same year Kekule showed that the atom of carbon, had a
combining capacity of four, and furthermore that in many organic
compounds the carbon atoms were in part united with each other,
and even linked, as it were, into chains. Still later, studying ben-
zene, he found that its six carbon atoms were best regarded as
joined together in the form of a closed ring, and with this concep-
tion the idea of chemical structure received at last a definite form.
These linkages of atoms, these rings and their derivatives, could
all be represented graphically to the eye, in accordance with the
combining power of the several elements, and so the structural
formulae of modern chemistry came into vogue. Types, substi-
tutions, compound radicles, were all covered by and included in
the new generalization, and each of the older theories was seen
to be but an expression of special cases, rather than of any gen-
eral law. ISTo truth was set aside, but all were co-ordinated.

To the non-chemical reader the foregoing passages may seem
vague and abstruse, but in an essay of this scope greater elabora-
tion is inadmissible. It is clear, however, that each forward step
has been a logical development of the atomic theory, which, as we
shall see later, does not end even here.

Thus, then, the chemical formulae and atomic weights of Ber-
zelius grew by slow degrees into the modern system, with its repre-
sentations of structure and atomic linking. The internal archi-
tecture of the molecule was now revealed not to the imagination
only, but to the eye of reason, and, speculative as the new concep-
tions may seem at first, they have led to astonishing practical con-
sequences. The new formulae at once indicated lines of research,
and with their aid synthetic chemistry was greatly stimulated.
True, many syntheses of organic compounds had already been
made, but progress became more rapid and the work of discovery
was systematized to a wonderful degree. In 185G Perkin discov-
ered the first of the coal-tar dyes, creating a new industry which
has been assisted beyond measure by the structural symbols that
came into use only a few years later. In 1868 alizarin, the color-
ing principle of madder, was made artificially from the hydrocarbon
anthracene; a host of other colors, a veritable chemical rainbow,
have been discovered; the synthesis of indigo has been effected;
and within twenty years we have seen medicine enriched by a great
variety of drugs, all prepared by purely chemical processes from
the former waste material — coal tar. To most of this work, at

682 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

least since 1865, Kekule's conception of the benzene ring lias been
the guiding clew, and it is certain that without the theory the
practice would have advanced much more slowly. Out of research
for its own sake has come an enrichment of the world, -which in
any previous age would have been inconceivable.

The atomic theory, while replacing speculation in one sense,
stimulated it in another. The human mind is always striving to
get back of the known, to see what lies beyond the limits of visi-
bility, and the conception of an element with its atomic weight
opened up a field for the exercise of the imagination. What is an
element ultimately? was an early question to ask. Are the ele-
ments really diverse, or do they manifest but one fundamental kind
of matter? To such queries the atomic weights offered a promis-
ing line for investigation, and more than one mind began traveling
along it. In 1815 Prout put forth the supposition that all atomic
weights were even multiples of that assigned to hydrogen, and over
this hypothesis a long warfare has raged. To-day it is practically
abandoned by chemists, but the controversy which it provoked
led to some of the most accurate investigations in the history
of science, and so served to give precision to our knowledge.
"Without the instigation of Front's hypothesis, which hinted at
hydrogen as the ultimate form of matter, we might have been con-
tent with inferior determinations of atomic weight, and chemistry,
as an exact science, would have suffered.

In due time, however, it was perceived that the elements could
be arranged in groups, the members of each group having similar
properties and forming similar compounds. Serial relations, analo-
gous to those discovered among organic compounds, became mani-
fest, and much thought was expended in seeking to trace out their
meaning. The classification of the elements was more and more
seen to be important, and regularities' came to light which at first
were unsuspected. Still, no general law, no one guiding principle,
could be found so long as the old system of weights and formulae
was retained in common usage.

The adoption of Cannizzaro's atomic weights and the establish-
ment of the theory of valence made possible a new attack upon
the problem of classification. In 18G4 Newlands arranged the
elements in the order of their atomic weights, and showed that at
regular intervals there was a periodic recurrence of certain char-
acteristics. This observation, which foreshadowed the periodic law,
was received with indifference and, to some extent, with ridicule,
l)ut the path had been found which soon led to a great discovery.
In 1869 Mendelejeff published his celebrated memoir, and the
periodic law took its place as a distinct addition to science. Almost

A HUNDRED YEARS OF CHEMISTRY. 683

siiniiltaneoiislv Lothar Meyer annoimced similar views, but inde-
pendently, and controversy soon arose as to the relative merits of
tlie two philosopliers. With, that controversy we have nothing to
do, but the law itself deserves our fuller attention.

According to the periodic law, all the properties of the elements
are periodic functions of their atomic weights, varying from sub-
stance to substance in a perfectly regular manner. The elements
thus fall into periods, or octaves, as i^ewlands called them, of a
very striking character. If, for example, we start with univalent
lithium, the next higher element has a valence of two, the next of
three, and then comes carbon, whose atom is quadrivalent. Fol-
lowing carbon, the combining power of successive elements decreases
until we reach sodium, in which something like the properties of
lithium recur. Above sodium the same rise goes on to the fourth
element higher, silicon, which resembles carbon, and then follows
the regular step-by-step falling away, to end with chlorine, the last
member of the second period. This periodic rising and falling is
characteristic of all the elements, and they were so tabulated by
Mendelejeff as to be perfectly clear, with a clearness which is not to
be given by words. In Mendelejeff's table certain gaps appeared,
which he ascribed to the existence of undiscovered metals. Tor
three of these he predicted the properties, starting out from the
properties of their neighbors. This was a rash thing to do, but
the venture has been fully vindicated. In 1875 Lecoq de Bois-
bandram discovered gallium, which filled one of the gaps; scandium
and germanium filled the other two later. The predictions of Men-
delejeff were fulfilled; atomic weight, specific gravity, fusibility,
the character of the compounds to be formed, were all foreseen
for each of the three new elements; and, so far as experiment has
yet gone, his anticipations have been perfectly realized. Every
good theory is prophetic; but few generalizations have been so
strikingly verified in this respect as has the periodic law. In spite
of some outstanding difficulties, yet to be explained, the law has
served to great advantage in the classification of the elements, and
it has had much to do with the late revival of inorganic chemistry.
The latter branch of science, long comparatively neglected, has
now gained new interest, and for it, in the near future, a great
growth can be prophesied.

The immediate effect of the periodic law was to prove that the
elements are connected with one another by general relations, and
so to stimulate the belief in their possibly common origin. This
view has many upholders, although it is also strongly opposed, but
the weight of argument seems to b^ in its favor. On philosophic
grounds it is at least more' probable than the opposite opinion,

684 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

which can not account in any way for the regularities which have
been observed. From another source, partly physical and partly
chemical, the theory of the unity of matter has received strong
support, and this statement brings us to another of the greatest
discoveries made during the nineteenth century — that of the spec-
troscope and spectrum analysis.

It was in 1860 that Kirchhoff and Bunsen added this new
weapon to the arsenal of scientific research. The spectroscope
itself, as an instrument, was an invention in the department of
optics, but its applications to chemistry were among the most ob-
vious and the most startling of its achievements. With its aid
new elements were discovered — rubidium, csesium, thallium, in-
dium, and gallium; in many lines of investigation it found imme-
diate use; but, more than all, it made possible the analysis of the
heavenly bodies, and proved that the same kinds of matter exist
throughout the visible universe. Before the day of the spectro-
scope all speculation upon the chemistry of the stars was in vain;
with its advent the material unity of planets, suns, and nebulae was
made clear. To the astronomer, a new eye was given; to the
chemist, a new laboratory. Three sciences were brought to a
single focus, and each one gained in power thereby.

In its application to what may be called chemical astronomy^
one achievement of the spectroscope was particularly notable —
namely, the rehabilitation of the nebular hypothesis. When the
gigantic telescope of Lord Rosse had resolved some nebula3 into-
clusters of stars, it was thought that all other nebulae might be of
the same character; the visible basis of the hypothesis was gone.
But the spectroscope soon found among these celestial objects some
which were truly clouds of incandescent gas, and so the nebular
hypothesis received a new standing, becoming stronger than ever
before. One point, however, was strange: these gaseous clouds
were of the simplest composition; hydrogen and nitrogen were
their chief constituents; how, then, could a world like ours origi-
nate from them?

Further investigation, to which Iluggins and Secchi were the
chief contributors, showed, however, that from nebula to planet
there is a regular, progressive order of chemical complexity. The
nebula3 are simple; in the hotter stars a few more elements ap-
pear; more still can be detected in colored stars and the sun; but
the planets, represented by our earth, are most complex of all. So
far the facts; the scientific imagination now comes into play. If
suns and planets were derived -by a process of condensation from
such nebula3 as exist to-day, perhaps the process of evolution was
attended by an evolution of the chemical elements themselves.

THE SCIENCE OF ART FORM. 685

Upon that supposition the facts become intelligible; without it the
evidence is not easily co-ordinated. This hint, together with the
suggestions offered by the periodic law, has made chemists more
ready to consider the probable unity of matter, even though actual
proof for or against the conception has not yet been attained.
That the chemical elements are absolute and final few thinkers
of to-day believe; the drift of opinion is mainly in one direction,
but no element has yet been decomposed or transmuted into an-
other. Some mathematical relations have been found connecting
the atomic weights of certain elements with the wave lengths of
their spectral lines, and this field of investigation is a promising
one for the future. That the atomic weights are connected hardly
admits of doubt; to the mass of the atom its rate of vibration must
be related; to that vibration the lines in the spectrum are due.
The clews are obvious, and it will be strange if they do not lead
to important discoveries ere long.

\To he concluded .^

THE SCIENCE OF AUT FORM.

By D. CADY EATON.

TASTE is so free and so subjective, so largely a matter of per-
sonal feeling, that any selection or limitation of attractive
objects would be met by plausible objection. Every honest and
unprejudiced investigator must, however, admit nowadays that his
individual taste may be informed and purified, and that he is under
obligations to be ever ready to explain and to justify it. The day
for the mere proclaiming of preference has passed. The procla-
mation must be accompanied by explanations which w^ill satisfy
others, if they do not convince them, and which will be clear to
one's own understanding. The authoritative explanation, " I like
this, I dislike that," will no more pass current nor carry weight.
Science has sufficiently studied the sentiments and emotions to
know that they, too, are subject to laws which must be acknowl-
edged and obeyed. Excitations for which there is no reasonable
accounting, no justifiable source, must be relegated to the domain
of folly. The reason for everything that appertains to thought
and emotion, if not apparent, must be exposed and presented. Art-
ists must explain their works to vulgar understanding. Writers
must make their criticisms plain to the humble intellect. The age
in which we live takes nothing for granted, accepts no man's iyse
dixit, hates shams, is intolerant of secrecy, hypocrisy, and fraud.

686

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

I propose in this article, by contrasting good and bad examples,
to put before readers a few of the simplest elements of decoration.
You can hardly fail to note the differences, and when once the eye
has acquired the habit of discriminating there is no reason why
there should not follow a growth in perception which will result
in delightful and augmenting artistic enjoyment. No attempt is
to be made to develop a system, nor, of course, to cover the whole
ground of the subject. The object is simply to start perceptions
in the right direction.

Almost all the ideas and the illustrations of this article are
taken from a little work by Henri Mayeux, called La Composition
Decorative. Henri Mayeux is Professor of Decorative Art in the
Ecole des Beaux- Arts in Paris. His work is one of the series of
the Bibliotheque de V Enseignemeni des Beaux-Arts, a series which

should be among the
very first works to be
found in the library of
every student of art.

The very first of Ma-
yeux's illustrations (Fig.
1) introduces the style
of the teaching of the
volume and of this arti-
cle. Let me translate
his accompanying de-
scription: "Here are two
recipients of the same
height, made of the same
material, and with about
equal care. Each has two handles and is decorated by the same
number of fillets. The one marked A is the work of an ordinary
potter, without artistic instinct or education. The other, B, is a
Greek vase of fine and delicate taste. No one can fail to appre-
ciate the superiority of J5 to ^4. The purity of its profile, the grace-
ful manner in which the handles are attached, the calculated divi-
sion of the fillets, establish at once a considerable difference of
artistic value between the two objects." If Mayeux were address-
ing beginners he might add that one reason why all jugs and vases
are round is that the shape is the easiest to make. The potter's
wheel must have been one of the very earliest inventions of semi-
civilized races. Besides, as a drop of water is globular, it seems
appropriate that liquids should be contained in round receptacles.
A square jug would not only seem inappropriate, but it would be
ugly and perhaps difficult to handle. Notice in B hoAV much better

Fig. 1.

THE SCIENCE OF ART FORM.

687

-Prof a-

£1- j\ac<.orlb Co-n.\'m.\xS
O-Acucorcis contraitc's

the different parts are distinguished: the neck from the body of
the vessel, and the body of the
vessel from the foot. Two fil-
lets are also very appropriately
put where the vessel is largest,
and where they seem to convey
a sense of increased strength
exactly where the pressure is
greatest. You will find all the
way through the study of orna-
ment that utility, or use, is a
fundamental principle which
can not be violated without im-
pairing beauty.

Before presenting objects
for comparison it may be well
to pass in review the elements
which compose all objects.
Decoration is the application of ornament to form. It therefore
presupposes knowledge of both form and ornament, for form must
be understood by itself, and or-
nament by itself, before the
proper ornament may be se-
lected for the given form. The
elements of form are length,
breadth, and thickness. A math-
ematical point is conceived to
have no dimensions, a mathe-
matical line but one, and a math-
ematical plane but two. But in
actuality there is no tangible ob-
ject without the third dimension
— thickness. Still, where two
dimensions are very much more
prominent than the third — as,
for instance, in a plaque, in the
side of a room, in a single eleva-
tion of a building, or whenever
merely the surface of an object
is viewed — the third dimension
may be left out of considera-
tion. Lines and the surfaces
they bound — that is, length and breadth
form which play the chief part in decoration.

Fict.

-are the two elements of

688

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

If the two vases which are represented in the view by vertical
and horizontal, straight and curved lines, were actually before us
you would have difficulty in finding any vertical lines, and the hori-
zontal lines would turn out to be circles. The lines in the view
mark the apparent terminations of the surfaces. For purposes of
study, however, you must regard objects of three dimensions as
bounded by lines, just as they appear in photographs, drawings, or
other flat representations, geometric or perspective. In regarding
objects from the point of view of decoration there is still another
element to be considered; that is, the element of material, the sub-
stance of which objects consist, for it is evident that the ornament

which would be appropriate to
wood, for instance, might not
be appropriate to metal or to
stone. The element of mate-
rial is of great importance in
practical decoration, but of less
importance in theoretical deco-
ration. Lines and surfaces are
therefore the two chief ele-
ments of decoration to be con-
sidered at present. Color, be-
ing an element of an entirely
independent nature, will not
be considered at all.

First, lines. The lines
down one side of an object
may be called the profile of
the object, while the lines sur-
rounding the object may be
called the contour or outline
of the object.

Profiles and outlines are made up of any number of straight
and curved lines connected at any and every variety of angle.
The view (Fig. 2) shows a few possibilities of combination of lines
into profiles. The particular thing to be observed in these pro-
files is that individual curves are preceded or followed by curves
which curve in the same direction or in the opposite direction —
that is, regarding the curves as concave or convex from a given
side of the profile, sometimes a concave curve meets a concave
curve, sometimes it meets a convex curve. In these particular pro-
files the straight lines which unite the curves are so small and so
insignificant that they appear as mere connections. Where the
adjoining curves are homogeneous the connection is called con-

FiG. 4.

THE SCIENCE OF ART FORM.

689

tinuous — raccords continus, as Mayeux puts it. When the adjoin-
ing curves are different, the connection is called contrasted —
raccords contrastes. In the view all continuous connections are
marked a; all contrasted connections are marked h. Now follow
these lines up and down slowly and deliberately — not once or twice,
but a number of times. See exactly where the connections occur,

Fig. 5.

and where the connections are continuous, and where they are con-
trasted. In these profiles are shown forth and made evident two
of the most important and general laws not only of ornament, but
of all artistic composition: First, that connected curves of the same
kind must run substantially in the same direction; and, second, that
for purposes of strong contrast curves of different kinds must be

VOL. LVI. — 55

690

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

joined — that is to say, that where contrasted connection is de-
sired, the difference in direction must be abruptly and sharply indi-
cated. In the profiles in the view the various curves have been
continued in dotted lines beyond the profiles, so as to bring out

Fi.i. t;.

and make clear these two laws. You see that wherever there is
a h. the dotted lines cross at, or nearly at, right angles, and that
wherever there is an a. there is no crossing at all of the dotted lines.
The essence of these two laws is of such importance in all artistic
and decorative composition that beginners might well be put to
drawing profiles until the principles involved have been absorbed
and made a part of artistic apprehension. The profiles in the
view are all pleasing, because the laws are observed. Try your
hand at drawing profiles in which the laws are not observed, and
you will quickly perceive the difference. The most beautiful of
pure profiles are those presented by Greek entablatures. The most
beautiful of Greek outlines are those presented by Greek vases.
The beauties of Greek sculpture and of renaissance design belong

so strictly to the domain of
^y^ H^ )\^ j5 pure art that they may not

be used for comparison in
an article on ornament.

As outlines are com-
posed of profiles, the same
laws govern. That the
curved line is the line of
beauty stands out most evi-
dently in the study of an-
tique designs. Vertical
lines and horizontal lines
are the lines of support and
strength, and must always
have proper consideration;
hut in pure ornament the office of straight lines seems to be con-
fined to connecting curves and to emphasizing their contrasts.

The next view (Fig. 3) is to illustrate the progress already
made. On the upper line are the three rough outline sketches for

THE SCIENCE OF ART FORM.

691

modern articles, of which the final use and destination are shown
on the lower line. In the sketch to the left the fine effect is pro-
duced bj a few curves, of which the connections are boldly and
finely contrasted. In the second sketch an equally pleasing effect
is produced by curves, of which the principal ones are continuously
connected, while in the third sketch there is a pleasing exhibition
of both kinds of connections. The lower line gives you your first

Contours bdtards et indecis.

V\u. s.

notion of the use of ornament in marking and embellishing the
lines of form.

The next view (Fig. 4) exposes forms in which the above laws
are violated, and by whose ugliness you can not fail to be impressed.
On the top line are objects of which the curves are so weak and
undecided that it would be difficult to state whether the connec-
tions are continuous or contrasted. In the second line is shown
how ugly is the effect when straight lines are substituted for curved
lines, and in the third line is shown how ugly effects may be pro-

Tnauvais

duced even by curved lines when not used in obedience to some
accepted and apprehended principle.

There is another presentation of form which is in reality but
a modification of profile, but which, because it looks as if it had
been separately applied, and also because it is separately treated
in books, must be considered by itself. The term " molding " has
been given to variations in surfaces which have both useful and

692

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

ornamental uses. Moldings are as old as architecture, and vary
with schools of architecture.

In the next view (Fig. 5), taken from Mayeux's work, are given
the most ordinary Greek moldings with their French names. How-
ever necessary it must be for the architect, and however admirable
it may be for the art student, to know the names of all moldings
by heart and to be able to describe each one accurately, such pro-
ficiency is not required at present and is not necessary for the

Avii'

understanding of the present theme. Some moldings have square
edges, some round. The curved edges of some are simple, of
others complex. Each has its name, and of some the name is
descriptive. The term molding would seem to indicate that mold-
ings were made apart and subsequently applied to the main object.
Whatever be the origin of moldings, the same rules apply to them
which apply to other profiles, with the additional rule that mold-
ings must always be kept subordinate to the principal object. For

THE SCIENCE OF ART FORM.

693

instance, in the view (Fig. 6) the pedestal marked hon is good,
because the body of the pedestal is the principal object and it
is clearly seen that the moldings at the base and at the top are
subordinate and merely ornamental, while the pedestal marked
mauvais is decidedly bad, because more vertical space is given
to the moldings than to the shaft, confusing outline, weaken-
ing the shaft, and destroying the sense of strong and steady
support.

Readers may at once make use of the information already ac-
quired by seeing how these rules apply to their own lamps, candle-
sticks, pieces of furniture, etc.

The next view (Fig. 7) shows incidentally how much better it
is under all circumstances to mark with fillets and lines the changes

.-IP)

Fig. n.

from one curve to another, for you certainly see how much more
substantial character and beauty has B than A.

Finally, let it be said, and said emphatically, that though there
are profiles which require the use of the compass to draw them,
and though all architectural details must be worked out with mathe-
matical accuracy, those profiles and outlines are the most beautiful
where it is evident that artistic skill governing a free hand has
controlled and where mechanicaL assistance is so subordinate as to
be overlooked.

There is very little to be said about surfaces or forms of two

694

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

/J^

dimensions. The principal requirement is that outlines should be
agreeable and must be well defined. In fact, the two qualities tire
inseparable, for a well-defined outline is agreeable and a badly
defined one is sure to be disagreeable. By well-defined is meant
that its particular shape should easily appear and be clearly dis-
tinguishable. For instance, a square should appear with sides dis-
tinctly equal; a circle should have but one center. In an archi-
tectural opening either arch or entablature should prevail, and the
character of the arch should be evident. In the examples pre-
sented (Fig. 8) in the view these
principles are violated. The first
figure is so clearly a square that at
first, and before you have examined
it closely, you think it is a square.
It leaves an indefinite and conse-
quently disagreeable impression. The
same criticism applies to the second
object, apparently a mirror. The
glass is round, but the frame is so
irregular that the impress of the cir-
cle is destroyed, and there is left an
undecided and therefore uncomfort-
able sensation. In the third example
the arch is so poorly defined and so
weak, while the entablature above it
is so strong and so prominent, that
the result is a composition that fails
to give pleasure, because no distinct
idea is conveyed. In the last exam-
])le the outlines of the arch are so in-
definite that its character is indistinguishable. You can not "see
which prevails, the rotmd arch or the pointed arch.

The same principles apply to smaller objects and to details,
as seen in the next view (Fig. 9). To the left the date plate on
top is bad in comparison with the one beneath it, because its
direction is not so well marked and its corner projections are
too large. In the lambrequins on the right, those are good in
which the general direction is properly marked, and in which
subdivisions are kept properly subordinated. Lambrequins have
so entirely gone out of use nowadays that it is difficult to re-
call the time M'hen they were regarded as indispensable parts of
furniture.

There is one other point to which your attention should be
called — that is, stability. If an object be intended to stand, its

Fig. 12.

THE SCIENCE OF ART FORM. 695

center of gravity should be so well within its base that there will be
no danger of its being upset by the ordinary uses to which it is
exposed. Pots and pans, pitchers, lamps, and candlesticks, of gen-
eral and daily household use, should have bases so broad and weight
so low that the accidental bump of the inexperienced " help " will
not be inevitably fatal.

When utensils are made more for show than for use, as those
in Fig. 10, and are to occupy places of comparative security, beauty
more than utility may be considered in the proportions of their
supports. Where utility has disappeared altogether and the sug-
gested outline of a vase, for instance, is used for purely ornamen-
tal purpose, supports may be done away with altogether, as appears
in these drawings of Italian tapestries of the seventeenth century
(Fig. 11).

The stability of pendant objects must also be considered. It
is evident that the perpendicular line of suspension must be the line
of equilibrium, and that these two must correspond with the de-
sign (Fig. 12). Whether any objects should under any circum-
stances be exposed to the real and apparent danger of falling is a
question. We have got so into the habit of hanging pictures, en-
gravings, and other works of art in our houses, and of seeing them
hung in galleries, that we have lost sight of the incongruity of the
custom. Pictures should be impaneled, and be permanent parts of
the walls on which they appear. But, then, how could they be
moved when owners tire of them, or tire of their houses, or how
could they be gathered together in museums for purposes of study
and public enjoyment? Picture frames are of comparatively mod-
ern invention. The idea of buying a picture for the purpose of sell-
ing it again was not entertained before the fifteenth century. Pic-
tures were as substantial parts of churches and houses as were
shrines and fireplaces.

Having very cursively reviewed the elements of form, we are
in a position to understand decoration, which is simply the appli-
cation to form of ornament.

The highest authenticated points at which flowering plants have here-
tofore been found growing upon the Andes are at about 17,000 feet, al-
though the Kew Herbarium contains several specimens labeled as having
been found at altitudes of from 17,000 to 18,000 feet. Sir Martin Con-
way has brought back from his recent explorations in the Bolivian moun-
tains at least half a dozen species from 18,000 feet and upward, the high-
est being from about 18,500 feet. They include a saxifrage, a mallow, a
valerian, and several Compositoe. Compositce likewise attain the upper
limit of phanerogamous vegetation in Thibet, where, in latitudes from
30° to 34°, one was found by Dr. Thorold at 19,000 feet.

696 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

STEAM TURBINES ^ND HIGH-SPEED VESSELS.*

Bv THE Hon. CHARLES A. TAKSONS, F. R. S.

A LL heat engines at present in use take in heat from a source
-^^ at a high temperature and discharge most of it at a lower
temperature, the disappearance of heat in the process being the
equivalent of the work done by the engine. In all cases at the
present time the source of heat is from fuel of some kind, and
after working the engine the residue \s, discharged in the case of
the steam engine either to the condenser or in the exhaust steam
.when non-condensing. In the gas engine it is discharged in the
waste gases and into the water jacket around the cylinder.

The earliest records of heat engines are found in the Pneu-
matics of Hero of Alexandria, about 200 b. c. He describes a
reaction steam turbine, a spherical vessel mounted on axes supplied
with steam through one of the trunnions from a boiler beneath;
the steam escaping through two nozzles diametrically opposite to
each other and tangential to the sphere, causing the sphere to
rotate by the reaction or momentum of the issuing steam, and anal-
ogous to a Barker's water wheel.

Thus, the first engine deriving its motive power from fuel was
a crude form of steam turbine, and though it could have been ap-
plied to useful work, and could easily have been made sufficiently
economical to replace manual and horse power in many instances,
yet it lay dormant till 1629 a. d., when Bianca suggested the same
principle in a different form. Bianca's stearn turbine consisted
simply of a steam jet fed from a boiler impinging against vanes or
paddles attached to the rim of a wheel which was blown round by
the momentum of the steam issuing from the jet.

The piston engine is, however, of comparatively modern origin,
and dates from about the year 1700 a. d. Engines of this class
are so well known that it suffices to say that they have been prac-
tically the sole motive-power engines from fuel in use from 1700
up to 1845, and have constituted one of the most important factors
in the development of modern engineering enterprise.

Air engines were introduced about the year 1845, and although
the larger engines of the Stirling type were very economical in fuel,
yet, on account of the inherent difficulty of heating largo volumes
of air within metal chambers or pipes — a difficulty arising from the
low conductibility of air and consequently the overheating and

* Abstract of the Presidential Address to the Institution of Junior Engineers, November
3, 1899.

6y8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

burning of the metal — they have only come into commercial use for
very small powers.

During the last thirty-five years gas engines have been per-
fected, and more recently oil engines, and in point of efficiency
both convert a somewhat larger percentage of the heat energy of
the fuel into mechanical energy than the best steam engines. All
successful oil and gas engines are at present internal-combustion
engines, the fuel being burned in a gaseous form inside the working
cylinder.

Very numerous attempts have, however, been made to construct
internal-combustion engines to burn solid fuel instead of gas.
Some have been so far successful as to work with good economy in
fuel, but the bar to their commercial success has been the cutting
of the cylinder and valves by fine particles of fuel. This difficulty
is not present when the fuel is introduced in the gaseous or liquid
form, and hence the success of gas and oil engines; but could this
difficulty be overcome, the solid fuel would be the cheaper to use.

Internal-combustion engines, gas engines, oil engines, cannon,
etc., owe their superior economy in fuel to the very high tem-
perature at which the heat is transferred from the fuel to the work-
ing substance of the engine, and consequently the great range of
temperature in the working substance of the engine. In steam
engines the temperature is limited by the practical difficulties of
deterioration of metal and materials involved in the construction.

About fifteen years ago I was led by circumstances to investi-
gate the subject of improving the steam turbine. In recent times
several attempts had been made to apply steam turbine wheels of
the Hero and Bianca types to the driving of circular saws and fans.
The velocity of rotation with either of these types must necessarily
be very high in order to obtain a reasonable efficiency from the
steam, a velocity much in excess of that suitable for the direct
driving of almost all classes of machinery; gearing was considered
objectionable, and it therefore appeared desirable to adopt some
form of turbine in which the steam should be gradually expanded
in small steps or drops in pressure so as to keep the velocity of flow
sufficiently low to allow of a comparatively moderate speed of rota-
tion of the turbine engine.

The method adopted was to gather a number of turbines of the
parallel flow type on to one shaft and contained in one case, the
turbines each consisting of a ring of guide and a ring of moving
blades, the successive rings of blades or turbines being graduated
in size, those nearer the exhaust end being larger than those near
the steam inlet, so as to allow a gradual expansion of the steam
during its passage through the turbines.

STEAM TURBINES AND HIGH-SPEED VESSELS. 699

The form of the turbine was that of a rotating drum, with out-
wardly projecting rings of blades which nearly touched the contain-
ing cylindrical case, and on the case inwardly projecting rings of
guide blades which nearly touched the drum. In the first exam-
ples of the engine there were two groups of turbines right- and
left-handed on each side of the steam inlet, the exhaust taking
place at each end of the turbine case, so as to completely balance
end pressure from the steam. More recently one series of tur-
bines only has been used, those on the other side of the steam inlet
being replaced by packing rings or rotating balance pistons which

•2 SHOWS THE Arraxcement nv Moving Blades and Guide Vanes in a Farsons's
Turbine. The top outer cover has been removed. The cylinder containing the revolving
barrel has, as will be seen, a greater internal diameter than the diameter of the drum.
It is the annular space thus formed through which the steam flows and which contains
the revolving blades and the fl.xed guide blades. Between each two rings of moving
blades there is a ring of guide blades, the latter being keyed into the containing case.
The vanes are set at an angle, so that the steam acts on them as wind on the sails of a
windmill.

balance the end pressure and divert the whole of the steam through
the turbines on the other side.

The steam entering the annular space between the shaft and
the case passes firstly through a ring of guide blades attached to
the case, and is given a rotational direction of flow; it then passes
to the succeeding ring of blades attached to the shaft, by which its
direction of rotation is reversed, thereby impressing the difference
of its rotational momentum in torque to the shaft. The steam
then passes to the second ring of guide blades, and the process is
repeated, and so on, gradually expanding by small increments at
each ring of blades; the succeeding rings of blades get longer and
wider, and at intervals the, diameter of the turbine drums, cylin-
ders, and rings are also increased. In condensing turbine engines

700 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

of the larger size an expansion ratio in the turbines of one hundred-
fold and upward is attained before the steam passes to the exhaust
pipe and condenser.

The loss of power present in engines of the piston class, due to
cylinder condensation arising from the variation of steam pressure
in the cylinder, is not present in the steam turbine, as the steam
pressure remains constant at each turbine ring and each part of the
cylinder and barrel, and the numerous tests of steam consumption
that have been made have shown that compound steam turbine
engines of moderate sizes when working with a condenser are com-
parable in steam consumption per effective horse power with the
best compound or triple condensing steam engines of the piston
type. They have been constructed in sizes up to about one thou-
sand horse power for driving alternators and dynamos, and several
sets of about two thousand horse power are nearing completion.

The application of the compound steam turbine to the propul-
sion of vessels is a subject of considerable general interest, in view
of the possible and probable general adoption of this class of engine
in fast vessels.

In the turbine is found an engine of extremely light weight,
with a perfectly uniform turning moment, and very economical in
steam in proportion to the power developed, and, further, it can be
perfectly balanced so that no perceptible vibration is imparted to
the ship. The problem of proportioning the engine to the screw
propellers and to the ship to be driven has been the subject of
costly experiments extending over several years, with the result
that a satisfactory solution has been found, giving very economical
results in regard to pounds of steam consumed in the engines per
effective horse power developed in propelling the vessel, results
which are equal or superior to those so far obtained with triple-
expansion engines of ordinary type in torpedo boats or torpedo-
boat destroyers. The arrangement adopted may be best described
by saying that instead of placing, as usual, one engine to drive one
screw shaft, the turbine engine is divided into two, three, or some-
times more separate turbines, each driving a separate screw shaft,
the steam passing successively through these turbines; thus when
there are three turbines driving three shafts, the steam from the
boiler passes through the high-pressure turbine, thence through
the intermediate, and lastly through the low, and thence to the
condenser.

As to the propellers, these approach closely to the usual form.
It has, however, been found best to place two propellers of approxi-
mately the same pitch on each shaft at some considerable distance
apart, so that the after one shall not be seriously affected by the

I

702 POPULAR SCIEXCE MONTHLY.

wash of the one in front. The advantage of this arrangement is
that a sufficient blade area is obtained to carry the thrust neces-
sary to drive the vessel with a lesser diameter of propeller, and so
permitting of a higher speed of revolution of the engines.

The problem was complicated by the question of cavitation,
which, though previously anticipated, was first practically found to
exist by Mr. Thornycroft and Mr. Barnaby in 1894, and by them
it was experimentally determined that cavitation, or the hollowing
out of the water into vacuous spaces and vortices by the blades of
the propeller, commences to take place when the mean thrust pres-
sure on the projected area of the blades exceeds eleven pounds and
a quarter per square inch. This limit has since been corroborated
during the trials of the Turbinia.

This phenomenon has also been further investigated in the case
of model propellers working in an oval tank of water, and to per-
mit of cavitation at more moderate speeds than would otherwise
have been necessary, the following arrangement was adopted: The
tank was closed, plate-glass windows being provided on each side,
through which the propeller could be observed, and the atmospheric
pressure was removed from the surface of the water by an air
pump; under this condition the only forces tending to prevent
cavitation were the small head of water above the propeller, and
capillary attraction.

In the case of a propeller of two inches in diameter, cavitation
commenced at about twelve hundred revolutions, and became very
pronounced at fifteen hundred. Had the atmospheric pressure not
been removed, speeds of twelve thousand and fifteen thousand
respectively would have been necessary.

Photographs were taken with a camera made for the purpose,
with a focal plane shutter giving an exposure of about one thou-
sandth of a second, the illumination being by sunlight concentrated
on the propeller from a twenty-four-inch concave mirror.

Photographs were also taken by intermittent illumination of
the propeller from an arc lamp, the arrangement consisting of an
ordinary lantern condenser, which projected the beam on to a
small concave mirror, mounted on a prolongation of the propeller
shaft, the reflected beam being caught by a small stationary con-
cave mirror at a definite position in each revolution and reflected
on to the propeller. By this means the propeller was illuminated
in a definite position at each revolution, and to the eye it appeared
as stationary. The cavities about the blades could also be clearly
seen and traced, the photographs being taken with an ordinary
camera and about ten seconds' exposure.

A series of experiments was also made with model propellers in

STEAM TURBINES AND HIGH-SPEED VESSELS. 703

water at and just below the boiling point, dynamometric measure-
ments being taken of power and thrust with various widths of pro-
peller blade, the conclusion arrived at being that wide and thin
blades are essential for fast speeds at sea, as well as a coarse pitch
ratio of propeller.

The first vessel fitted with steam turbine machinery was the
Turbinia. She was commenced in 1894, and, after many altera-
tions and preliminary trials, was satisfactorily completed in the
spring of 1897. Her principal features are: Length, one hundred
feet; beam, nine feet; five-foot draught of water under the pro-
pellers; forty-four tons and a half displacement on trial; she is
fitted with a water-tube boiler of eleven hundred feet total heating
surface, and forty-two square feet of grate area, with closed stoke-
holds supplied with air from a centrifugal fan mounted on a pro-
longation of the low-pressure turbine shaft. The engines consist
of three compound steam tui*bines, high pressure, intermediate,
and low pressure, each driving one screw shaft; on each of the
shafts are three propellers, making nine in all; the condenser is
of the usual type, and has four thousand square feet of surface.

When officially tested by Professor Ewing, F. R. S., assisted by
Professor Dunkerley, she attained a mean speed on a measured
mile of thirty-two knots and three quarters, and the consumption
of steam for all purposes was computed to be fourteen pounds and
a half per indicated horse power of the main engines. Subse-
quently, after some small alterations to the steam pipe, she was
further pressed, and is estimated to have reached ihe speed of
thirty-four knots and a half. She was, and still is, therefore, the
fastest vessel afloat; she has been out in very rough weather, is
an excellent sea boat, and at all speeds there is an almost complete
absence of vibration.

In the Turbinia the exceptional speed results principally from
two causes: 1. The engines, screws, and shafting are exceptionally
light. 2. The economy of steam in the main engines is greater
than usual.

At full speed the steam pressure in the boiler is two hundred
and ten pounds; at the engines, one hundred and seventy-five; and
the vacuum in the condenser twenty-seven inches, representing an
expansion ratio in the turbines of about one hundred and ten after
allowance has been made for wire-drawing in the exhaust pipe.

The first vessels of larger size than the Turbinia to be fitted
with steam turbine machinery are the torpedo-boat destroyer "Viper
for the British Government, and a similar vessel for Messrs. Sir
W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Company.

These vessels are of approximately the same dimensions as the

STEAM TURBINES AND HIGH-SPEED VESSELS. 70s

thirty-knot destroyers now in her Majesty's service, but have
slightly more displacement. The boilers are about twelve per
cent larger, and it is estimated that upward of ten thousand horse
power will be realized under the usual conditions, as against sixty-
five hundred with reciprocating engines.

The engines of these vessels are in duplicate. Two screw shafts
are placed on each side of the vessel, driven respectively by a high-
and a low-pressure turbine; to each of the low-pressure turbine
shafts a small reversing turbine is permanently coupled for going
astern, the estimated speed astern being fifteen knots and a half,
and ahead thirty-five knots; two propellers are placed on each
shaft.*

The latter of these two vessels has commenced her preliminary
trials, and has already reached a speed of thirty-two knots. The
manipulation of the engines is a comparatively simple matter, as
to reverse it is only necessary to close one valve and open another,
and, owing to there being no dead centers, small graduations of
speed can be easily made.

In regard to the general application of turbine machinery to
large ships, the conditions appear to be more favorable in the case
of the faster class of vessels such as cross-Channel boats, faster
passenger vessels, cruisers, and liners; in such vessels the reduction
in weight of machinery, as w'ell as economy in the consumption of
coal per horse power, are important factors in the case, and in some
vessels the absence of vibration, both as regards the comfort of
passengers, and in the case of ships of war permitting greater accu-
racy in sighting of the guns, is a question of first importance.

As regards cross-Channel boats, the turbine system presents ad-
vantages in speed, absence of vibration, and, owing to the smaller
diameter of the propellers, reduced draught.

As an instance, a boat of two hundred and seventy feet length,
thirty-three feet beam, one thousand tons displacement, and eight
feet six inches draught of water could be constructed with spacious
accommodation for six hundred passengers, and wdth machinery de-
veloping eighteen thousand horse power; she will have a sea speed
of about thirty knots, as compared with the speed of nineteen to
twenty-two knots of the present vessels of similar size and accom-
modation.

It is, perhaps, interesting to examine the possibilities of speed
that might be attained in a special unarmored cruiser, a magnified
torpedo-boat destroyer of light build, w'ith scanty accommo(hition

* On her second trial trip the Viper attainsd a mean speed of 34.8 knots, her fastest
trial being over 35 knot?, or about 41 statute miles per hour, with an indicated horse power
of 11,000. This vessel is of about 350 tons displacement.
VOL. LVI. — 5fi

7o6 POPULAR SCIENCJ^ MONTHLY.

for her large crew, but equipped Avith au armameut of light guns
and torpedoes. Let us assume that her dimensions are about double
those of the thirty-knot destroyers, with plates of double the thick-
ness and specially strengthened to correspond with the increased
size — length, four hundred and twenty feet; beam, forty-two feet;
maximum draught, fourteen feet; displacement, twenty-eight hun-
dred tons; indicated horse power, eighty thousand; there would be
two tiers of water-tube boilers; these, with the engine space, coal
bunkers, etc., would occupy the whole of the lower portion of the
vessel; the crew's quarters and guns would be on the upper decks.
There would be eight propellers of nine feet in diameter revolving
at about four hundred revolutions per minute, and her speed would
be about forty-four knots.

She could carry coal at this speed for about eight hours, but
she would be able to steam at from ten to fourteen knots with a
small section of the boilers more economically than other vessels
of ordinary type and power, and, when required, all the boilers
could be used, and full power exerted in about half an hour.

In the case of an Atlantic liner or a cruiser of large size, tur-
bine engines would appear to present some considerable advantages.
In the first place they would effect a reduction in weight of ma-
chinery and some increase in economy of fuel per horse power
developed, both thus tending either to a saving in coal on the one
hand, or, if preferred, some increase in speed.

The advantages are, however, less pronounced in this class of
vessel on account of the smaller relative power of the machinery
and the large quantity of coal necessary for long voyages, but the
complete absence of vibration at all speeds, not to mention many
minor considerations of saving in cost and reduced engine-room
staff, are questions of considerable importance.

A SUEVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY.

By Pkofessou E. P. EVANS.
[Concltided .'\

IN the seventeenth year of her age Miss Diana Yaughan joined
the Freemasons, entering the lodge (" triangle ") of " The
Eleven Seven," at Louisville, and passing rapidly through the differ-
ent grades until the " Elect Palladistic Knighthood " was conferred
upon her after she had given satisfactory proofs of her Luciferian
orthodoxy. One thing she refused to do — namely, to stab the host
with a dagger — since this act implied a recognition of the sacra-
mental character of the Eucharist. She mnintninod that tliere

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY. 707

would be no sense in piercing the consecrated wafer unless it was
believed to be the real body of Christ; but as she rejected the
doctrine of transubstantiation as a childish superstition, she was
unwilling to make a fool of herseK by assaulting a piece of ordi-
nary bread with a show of wrath. She would not hesitate to com-
mit sacrilege, but did object to being silly. This scruple, or rather
this lively sense of the ridiculous, rendered her unpopular with the
Freemasons, inasmuch as it marred the performance of their most
important and impressive Satanic ceremony, and thus gave her
rival, Sophia Walder, an advantage, which she was quick to im-
prove.

We need not follow the career of Sophia Walder, known to
the infernals as Sophia Sapho. She is said to have been born in
Strasburg, September 29, 1863, as the supposititious daughter of
a Protestant parson, Phiiias Walder, and a Rosicrucian dame, Ida
Jacobsen, with whom the clergyman lived after having murdered
his wife in Copenhagen. Her real father, however, was the devil
Bitru, who declared her to be the predestined great-grandmother
of antichrist. In 1896, while in Jerusalem, she gave birth to a
daughter, the grandmother of antichrist; this child was also of
demoniac paternity. Owing to her uncompromising Luciferian-
ism, she was a favorite of the Freemasons, and excited the jealousy
of Diana Vaughan, who tells with zest of the practical jokes played
on her. Thus, at a banquet of the Freemasons, somebody put a
few drops of Lourdes water in her glass of lemonade, which caused
terrible pain and threw her into spasms, from which she finally
found relief by vomiting fire. This incident is cited by a Catholic
writer. Dr. Michael Germanus,* in his Secrets of Hell (Geheimnisse
der Holle), as conclusive proof that " Sophia was possessed."

Bitru's proclamation
of Sophia Sapho as the
prospective great-grand-
mother of the incarnate
antichrist is given in
full. It was dictated in
Latin by Bitru at a meet-
ing of Freemasons in Italy, and written down by Luigi Revello,
and bears the devil's signature, composed of Satanic signs and
symbols, darts, sword, cords, lightning, bugle-horn, trident, and
crowing cock.

* Michael Germanus (a Latinizatiou of " Der deut^che Miche/" the personification of
the German nation, analogous to the English ".John Bull" and the American "Brother
Jonathan ") is the pseudonym of a priest, Parson Kiiazle, of Feldkirch, in the Tyrolese
Yoralberg.

7o8 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

This climax of absurdity ought to have served to expose the
trickery and trumpery of the whole affair, but it produced the very
opposite effect. Dr. Germanus refers to " Bitru's sign-manual as
highly interesting," and characterizes " the documentary evidence
as thoroughly convincing " ; those who refuse to recognize the truth
in the face of such positive proof he accuses of imitating the ostrich
and willfully shutting their eyes to the light. "'•■

The salvation of Diana Vaughan is described as due to her in-
tense admiration for Joan of Arc, a feeling which was ardently
fostered by the priests with whom she chanced to come in contact.
One day, as she was attended by Asmodeus, Astaroth, Beelzebub,
and Moloch, incarnate in " the counterfeit presentment " of fine
gentlemen, she obeyed a sudden and irresistible impulse to invoke
the Maid of Orleans, when these devils were immediately stripped
of their disguise, and stood before her in their true character as
imps of hell, with hoofs and horns, and emitted an intolerable
stench. Xo sooner did they perceive that they were unmasked
than they vanished with a fearful howl. This miracle made a deep
impression upon her, and led to her conversion. She took refuge
in a Parisian cloister, and, after severe penance and proper instruc-
tion, was received into the bosom of the Catholic Church. Dur-
ing this period of penitential seclusion she wrote her Memoirs,
which produced an immense sensation in clerical circles, and were
pronounced by a high ecclesiastical dignitary to be " worth more
than their weight in gold."

It must be confessed that in weaving this tissue of fabrications
Taxil showed consummate skill as a romancer and a profound knowl-
edge of the possibilities of human credulity. He- made a happy hit
in calling the heroine of his Stygian story Diana, since in the
annals of witchcraft the pagan goddess of the chase is wont to fre-
quent the nocturnal assemblies of demons, and in mediceval theol-
ogy the phrase " congressus Sahathi cum Diana " was a common ex-
pression for intercourse with Satan. Another masterly stroke was
to represent her deliverance from the snares of evil spirits and the
hallucinations of Luciferianism as a miracle of grace wrought
through the mediation of Joan of Arc, thus furnishing an argu-
ment in favor of the canonization of the Maid of Orleans, which
the cleverest advocatus diaholi would be unable to answer. At
this time Taxil prepared also a Catholic prayer book entitled

* A photographic reproduction of this document is given in Diana Vaughan's biography
of the Italian statct^man Crispi, which contains numerous ilhistrations and portraits of
Crispi, Mazzini, Leniini, Garibaldi, Giordano Bruno, and other " Palladists," or ]\Iasonic
worshipers of Satan. The oiiglnal Frencli title of the book is " Le SS* .-. Crispi. Un
Palladiste Homme d'l-^tat domasquc. Biogr.ipliic document6e du Ileros depuis sa Naissance
.jus(iu' h. sa dcu.xiemo Mort. Par Miss Diana VaiiL'lian."

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY. 709

EucliarisUc Novena, published under the name of Diana Vaughan,
and containing forms of supplication against unbelief, worldly in-
difference and lukewarmness, hardness of heart, blasphemy, and
unchastity. The covert sarcasm which pervades the entire manual
of devotion comes out most clearly in the section on the violation
of the seventh commandment. A copy of the work, which had
been approved by the Archbishop of Genoa, was sent to Cardinal
Parocchi, with a letter signed " Your Eminence's most devoted
servant in Jesus, Mary, and Joseph, Diana Vaughan," and five hun-
dred francs, of which two hundred and fifty were to be used for
organizing an international antimasonic congress, and the rest to
be given as Peter's pence to the Pope. The cardinal replied with
great cordiality to his " dear daughter in our Lord," called her con-
version " one of the most glorious triurriphs of grace," and added,
" I am reading at this very moment your Memoirs with burning
interest." He gave her his blessing, and conve-yed " the thanks
and special benediction of his Holiness." jSTumerous letters of a
like character were received from the Vatican. On May 27, 1896,
the General Secretary of the Apostolic See, Verzichi, wrote that
" his Holiness had read her EucJiaristic Novena with extreme pleas-
ure"; two months later the Pope's private secretary, Vincenzo
Sardi, thanked her in the name of Leo XIII for her exposure of
Crispi, and bade her '' continue to write and to unmask the godless
sect," and the Civilta Cattolica, the official organ of the papacy,
praised her " inexhaustibleness in precious revelations, which are
unparalleled for their accuracy and usefulness. Freemasonry is con-
founded, and seeks to evade the blows of the valiant championess
by denying her existence, and treating her as a myth. It is a
pitiable shift, but Preemasonry can find no better refuge." " Your
pen and your piety," wrote Monsignore Villard, October 15, 1896,
" are predestined to demolish the foes of mankind. The good
works of the saints have always met with opposition, and it is no
wonder, therefore, that yours should be combated."

IS^aturally, there was intense curiosity to see this new convert
and powerful defender of the faith. This inquisitiveness was easily
allayed at first by the plea that the cloister to which she had retired
must be kept secret, in order that she might be safe from assassina-
tion by the Freemasons. Meanwhile the medium of correspond-
ence was a bright American girl, employed as copyist in a Parisian
typewriting establishment, who wrote all the letters at Taxil's dic-
tation, and received a monthly salary of one hundred and fifty
francs for her services. After a time he deemed it politic to intro-
duce her privately to select circles of Catholics, who were thereby
enabled to testify to her existence, since they had seen and con-

710 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

versed with her.* The following incident may be mentioned to
illustrate the adroitness with which she played her part: M. Pierre
Lautier states that he once breakfasted with her, and offered to
pour a little Chartreuse into her coffee, but she refused it with a
singular sign of aversion, and took a few drops of old cognac in-
stead. As an ex-Luciferian, she instinctively shrank from a drink
made in a cloister, or what she called " an Adonaic liquor." That
she should have thought of such a feint on the spur of the moment
indicates that she had not only made a thorough study of her role,
but also had been endowed by ISTature with genuine theatrical tal-
ent. A full account of the solemn sham, published in the Ptevue
Mensuelle, served to strengthen the faith of waverers in the reality
of Diana Vaughan, and furnished an admirable opportunity for
discoursing on the difficulty of throwing off" Satanic influences; for
here was a young lady who, although she had received absolution
and tlrus become a child of grace, could not forget the terrible effect
of a few drops of Lourdes water on one of her former demonola-
trous associates, and recoiled with horror from a glass of Char-
treuse. Taxil and his confederates' confess that they often " dou-
bled up with laughter " over the success of their imposture, and
indulged in jokes about it in their writings. Thus Dr. Bataille,
in the ffrst volume of The Devil in the Nineteenth Century, re-
marks, as a peculiarity of Diana Vaughan, that she " is very fond
of wearing male attire," but no allusions of this kind, however
pointed, seemed to have excited any suspicion of guile in minds
predisposed to credulity by Nature and by education.

Taxil's long series of mystifications, extending over a dozen
years, culminated in the convocation of an antimasonic congress
at Trent, on September 26, 1896, to the president of which Leo
XIII addressed an apostolical brief with his benediction, and ex-
pressed the hope that the assembled representatives of the Church
would not rest until the " detestable sect " had been unmasked and
the evil utterly eradicated. A '" central executive committee,"
consisting of a score of Italian papists, issued a circular summoning
all Catholics to join " the new crusade," and declaring that the
Vatican had now raised a war-cry against Freemasonry, " the den
of Satan," as it did eight centuries ago against Islam. Taxil was
received with ovations, and did not hesitate to poke fun at the
venerable prelates to their very faces. "With an assumption of
modesty he reproved them for what might be misplaced enthu-
siasm. " One can never be sure," he said, " of a converted Free-
mason, but must always fear lest he may return to his former
friends. Not until the convert is dead can one be wholly free from
this anxiety. I am well aware that this general principle applies

A SURVIVAL OF MA'VI-^VAL CREDULITY. 711

also to myself." But even this daring dasli of irony, hardly hidden
under the gauzy disguise of self-distrust, did not cool the ardor of
his admirers, who continued to greet the harlequin with " Evviva
Taxil! " His photograph hung among the pictures of the saints,
and the mere mention of his name called forth loud applause, where-
upon the prince of mountebanks rose and bowed. A few Germans
had the good sense and courage to protest against these demonstra-
tions, and to doubt the existence of Diana Vaughan and the sin-
cerity of Taxil, whose sole object, as Dr. Gratzfeld asserted, was
to " lay a snare for Catholics and anti-Freemasons, and scoff at
them when they are caught in it." This skepticism created intense
excitement, and was severely rebuked by an Italian priest and a
Parisian prebendary, who averred that they knew Diana Yaughan
personally, and could vouch for her saintliness. A French monk
used such violent language in his reply to Dr. Gratzfeld that the
presiding officer, although indorsing his views, felt constrained to
call him to order. " Any doubt of Diana Vaughan's existence or
of the genuineness of her revelations," e!S:claimed*the Abbe de Bes-
sonies, " is a sin against the arftimasonic cause ! " The Spanish
delegates introduced a resolution demanding that all Freemasons
should be legally incapacitated to hold any civil office or military
command; the resolution was adopted, with the amendment that
" wherever it may be feasible " such laws should be enacted and
executed. The manner in which Taxil met the allegations of his
opjDonents is highly characteristic. " A priest of the Holy Sacra-
ment, Father Delaporte, had often declared that he would gladly
give his life for the conversion of Diana Vaughan. She attended
mass in the cloister for the first time on Corpus Christi, and left
her sacred retreat on the following Saturday. On the very day
of her departure Father Delaporte died. And yet there are per-
sons who doubt the existence of Miss Vaughan! " The burst of
applause elicited by this irrefragable argument proved his accurate
appreciation of the logical powers of his auditors, whose minds had
been fed on the nutriment which may be wholesome as " milk for
babes," but, when persistently administered to adults, converts
them into intellectual milksops.

Although the congress was attended by many of the chief dig-
nitaries of the papal hierarchy, and the Romish Patriarch of Con-
stantinople sat there in state with a golden crown on his head, Taxil
was its ruling spirit. On his motion, it was resolved to estab-
lish antimasonic associations in every land under the auspices of
the bishops and the direction of national committees, and a com-
mission was appointed to investigate the Diana Vaughan affair.
A few months later, on January 22, 1897, this commission made

712 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

an indecisive and utterly nugatory report, to the effect that " no
thoroughly convincing evidence had been furnished for or against
the existence and conversion of Diana Vaughan and the authen-
ticity of the writings attributed to her." This evasion of the issue,
however, did not shake the confidence of the ultramontane press,
nor prevent its positive affirmation of the points which the com-
mission had discreetly left in doubt. As a reward for this fanat-
ical zeal and steadfast credulity, the editor of The Pelican received
a special apostolical benediction, and was thus encouraged to " re-
sist the raging of Satan." "Stand firm!" he exclaimed. "The
Holy Father is with us, and who is over him? "

With the Congress of Trent the mystification which Taxil had
been playing off on papacy for so many years had reached the acme
of success, and nothing now remained but to wind up the plot with
a drastic denouement. Accordingly, Diana Vaughan issued an in-
vitation to a conference to be held on April 19, 1897, in the great
hall of the Geographical Society of Paris. It was also stated that
other conferences would be held in the principal cities of France,
Italy, England, and the United States. The programme for the
evening was quite elaborate, beginning with a lottery for an Ameri-
can typewriter and ending with a series of fifty-four stereopticon
pictures representing, among other fantastic scenes, Sophia Walder
and her serpents, events in the life of Diana Vaughan, the appari-
tion of the devil Bitru in Rome, Eden and Eve with the fatal apple,
sacrilegious stabbing of the host on a Satanic altar in a Masonic
lodge at Berlin, and finally Leo XIII with the encyclical letter
Ilumanum genus as a flaming sword in his hand, "the archangel
Michael on his right and the apocalyptic St. John on his left tread-
ing the triple-headed dragon of Freemasonry under foot. The
audience consisted chiefly of priests, with a few Protestant clergy-
men and Freemasons, and an unusually large number of news-
paper reporters. The typewriter was won by Ali Kemal, corre-
spondent of the Constantinople journal Ikdam, who only regretted
that it did not write Turkish. Taxil then appeared on the plat-
form, and began his address with the words: " Eeverend sirs, ladies,
and gentlemen! You wish to see Diana Vaughan. Look at me!
I myself am that lady! " After this startling exordium, he pro-
ceeded to relate how from his youth up he had always had an irre-
sistible inclination to play practical jokes. Once he frightened the
inhabitants of ^farseilles by discovering a shoal of sharks in the
harbor, and again he set the arehroologists all agog by announcing
the existence of a city, built on piles, at the bottom of Lake Leman.
But these were " childish thing? " compared with the manner in
which he had humbugged the Catholic clergy for nearly a dozen

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIEVAL CREDULITY. 713

years. We need not report the details of bis discourse; it is suffi-
cient to say that he gave a full account of the deep-laid plot from
its iirst conception to its final consummation at the Congress of
Trent. Each new disclosure called forth cries of " Liar I " '' Scoun-
drel! " " Vilifier! " " Villain! " and similar epithets, but nothing
could disturb the cynical composure of the speaker. As a precau-
tionary measure, all persons had been required to give up their canes
and umbrellas at the entrance, otherwise the angry words would
have been emphasized by blows. The shameless impostor coolly re-
ferred to the numerous presents received, among wdiich was an
Emmen thaler cheese, sent by the Marquis de Mores, with pious
sayings carved in the rind. " It was an excellent cheese," he added,
" and served to strengthen me in my fight against Freemasonry."
The money remitted to Diana Vaughan in ten years amounted to
more than half a million francs, and flowed into the pockets of
Taxil and his confederates. lie expressed his thanks to the clergy
for their aid in carrying out his scheme, and attributed their co-
operation chiefly to ignorance and imbecility, but partly also to
dishonesty, declaring that among the many dupes there were not
a few knaves. As he left the hall he was threatened with violence,
and took refuge in a neighboring cafe,, under the protection of the
police. ^No one thought any longer of the pictures which were
to form such a novel and attractive feature of the entertain-
ment; indeed, this forgetfulness constituted an important although
unprinted part of the programme in the minds of those who ar-
ranged it.

ITow difficult it is for constitutionally credulous persons, in
whom this disposition has been nurtured by education, to take a
rational view of things when a strong appeal is made to their preju-
dices, is evident from a statement published in the Osservatore Cat-
tolico of Milan, in May, 1897, that Leo Taxil was held in durance
vile by the Freemasons, one of whom personated him on the occa-
sion just described. Another Catholic writer asserted that Diana
Vaughan did not appear at the conference because Taxil had been
bribed by the Freemasons to have her shut up in a lunatic asylum.

The history of Taxil's imposture has been circumstantially nar-
rated in a book entitled Leo XIII und der SatanslcuU, by Dr. J.
Ricks (Berlin: Hermann AValther, 1897, pp. xiv-301; price, three
marks). The author, a doctor of divinity and pastor of a Lutheran
church at Olvenstadt, near Magdeburg, has collected his materials
from authentic sources and treated the whole subject with remark-
able thoroughness and impartiality. His work is a valuable contri-
bution to the voluminous annals of religious superstition and cre-
dulity.

714 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

The ease with which Taxil succeeded in duping so many promi-
nent representatives of the papal hierarchy naturally disturbed the
equanimity of the most intelligent Catholics, especially in Ger-
many, and caused them to sound a note of alarm. How is it
possible, they asked themselves, for a large body of educated men,
claiming to be the spiritual guides of the people, to become the
victims of so plump an imposition? Is it not due to radical de-
fects in the development and discipline of the intellectual facul-
ties? Nearly a century ago Madame de Stael remarked that
" since the Reformation the Protestant universities stand unques-
tionably higher than the Catholic, and the whole literary fame of
Germany emanates from these institutions " ; and this opinion has
been quoted and indorsed by the unimpeachable authority of an
eminent Catholic theologian, the late Professor Dollinger,* Re-
cently another Catholic, Dr. Hermann Schell, Professor of Apolo-
getics in the University of Wiirzburg, has called attention to the
latest statistics of religious denominations in Germany, showing
the inferiority of Catholics, as indicated by their comparative lack
of interest in higher education and the smaller percentage of them
in the learned professions. f In this connection he refers to Taxil's
successful exposure of the intellectual deficiencies, which render the
hierophants of Roman Catholicism incapable of resisting the' most
palpable delusions of superstition. His two " tracts for the times,"
as they might fitly be termed, Der Katholicismus ah Princip des
FoHscJiritts and Die neue Zeit und der alte Glauhe, maintain that
Catholicism should be progressive, and that the old faith can remain
a living force in each new era only by adapting itself to every real
advance of mankind in knowledge and thus becoming reanimated
by the spirit of the age. Professor Schell expresses his sympathy

* Cf. Ignaz von Dollinger. Sein Leben auf Grund seines schriftlichen Xachjasses dar-

gestellt von J. Friedrich. Miinchen: Beck, 1899, vol. i, p. 7Y.

\ In confirmation of this statement we may cite the statistical tables of Dr. Von Mayr

for 1896, giving the number in every ten thousand of the different denominations attending

the gymnasia or classical schools, tlie scientific schools with Latin, and the scientific

schools without Latin :

Protestants '27.7 1:5.2 12.5

Catholics 21.4 3.8 6.7

Dissidents 17.7 13.2 18.7

Jews 173.7 65.8 92.7

The Catholic students in the gymnasia are mostly candidates for the priesthood. "Dissi-
dents " are members of free religions associations. A noteworthy feature is the large pro-
portion of Jews, and curiously enough this laudable characteristic is made by anti-Semitic
agitators a ground of crimination and used to prejudice the public mind. Not long since a
demagogue of that ilk in Berlin charged the Jews with putting forth every effort for the
education of their sons, in order that they might more effectually compete with Christians;
" therefore down with the Jews ! "

A SURVIVAL OF MEDIjEVAL CREDULITY. 715

with tlie movement in favor of greater freedom of thought and
independence of research, known as " Americanism " in the Catho-
lic Church, and regards its extension to the Old World as a vital
necessity,*

It is creditable to the Catholic prelates in the United States
that thej were not among the foolish birds caught with the lime
laid by Leo Taxil. Indeed, the Bishop of Charleston went to Rome
for the express purpose of warning Leo XIII against this trickster,
but was sharply reprehended and admonished to be silent. A
similar rebuke was given to the Apostolic Vicar of Gibraltar for
denying the existence there of Tubal-Cain's subterranean labora-
tory for manufacturing microbes.

The Breviarium, Bomanum, the daily use of which, as a manual
of devotion and edification, is enjoined by the Pope on the clergy,
is full of legends which are recorded as historical facts, and quite
equal in absurdity to Taxil's most extravagant and fantastic inven-
tions. The tales there told of the miracles wrought by saints, their
communion with angels, and their combats with devils may have
easily suggested many incidents narrated in The Devil in the ITine-
teenth Century and the Memoirs of Diana Yaughan. It is no
wonder that minds accustomed to accept the marvels of hagiology
as actual events should be readily deceived by a clever caricature
of them, especially when appealing to a prejudice so absurd and
yet so strong as that entertained by the papacy against Freema-
sonry. It would seem from many indications that the Romish
Church, as an ecclesiastical organization, bears about the same rela-
tion to contemporary culture that Roman paganism did to the best
thought of the period when Lucian wrote his sprightly dialogues
and Lucretius his genial and comprehensive didactic poem De
Rerum Natura. Is it doomed to the same fate, or has it, as Pro-
fessor Schell and Dr. Mliller assert, a saving, recuperative power?

Of the geological age of the building stones used in the United States,
George P. Merrill observes, in his report to the Maryland Geological Sur-
vey, that few stones are used to any extent that are of later date than
the Triassic, and few, if any, of our marbles are younger than the Silurian,
while nearly all our granites, as now quarried, belong at least to Palaeozoic
or Archaean times. Stones of later age than Triassic are, so far as re-
lates to the eastern United States, so friable or so poor in color as to have
little value.

* Since these lines were written Professor Schell has been disciplined and threatened
with excommunication by the See of Rome. We regret to be obliged to add that he did
not have the courage to maintain his opinions, but made a public recantation of them. The
cause of progress in the Catholic Church has now found a new and apparently more fearless
advocate in a Bavarian priest, Dr. Miiller, of Munich, whose pamphlet on Reformkatholizis-
mus can hardly escape the interdict of the papal hierarchy.

7i6

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

GENUINE STARCH EACTORIES.

By BYRON D. IIALSTED, Sc. D.,

EUTGEKS COLLEGE.

MUCH in this world is neither npon first nor last analysis true
to name. From the corner grocery we bny a pound of
starch in a rectangular package highly decorated with lithograph
and lettering, setting forth the excellences of the product. " supe-
rior to all others," and manufactured, with the utmost care, by
Messrs. So-and-So. The fact is that the big seven-story establish-
ment did not make a grain of the starch, and the best that can be
claimed is a satisfactory method of bringing the product already
formed into the present acceptable condition.

But it is not the purpose of this paper to decry the refineries,
whether they be of starch, sugar, or this or that of a hundred
natural products, but to direct attention to the source of that very
common and, it may be safely said, indispensable substance known
to the English-speaking people as starch.

It will be no new surprise to state, by way of introduction to
the subject, that starch is the ordinary everyday product of ordi-
nary everyday plants. So humble a vegetable as the potato has

gained its way into all
lands of the more civ-
ilized peoples almost
solely because it has a
habit of storing away,
in large underground
stems, a vast amount
of starch. Let this
provident tendency
disappear in this plant
for a single season,
and the crop growers
would discard it from
their list of remunera-
tive plants, while mil-
lions of people would
turn with dismay to
some other source of
a daily supply of starch. What this change in the nature of a
single kind of plant would mean to the human race words can not
describe. If the famine in Ireland of 1845 and some later years,
induced by a rot in the potato, is any index, the misery would be

Fio. 1. — Starch Grantles of the Potato.

GENUINE STARCH FACTORIES.

717

Fig. 1. — Starch Granules of Corn.

something worse than we should care to even dream of. When
there is a shortage of starch in India, a distress follows that is
felt through the bonds of sympathy, if in no other way, the whole
world round. Let rice fail to
mature its grain, which means,
in short, not to store its starch
in available form for man, and
the dependent race is brought
to the ghostly condition of star-
vation and thrown upon the
charity of those people whose
starch is in their grain eleva-
tors, sacks, and barrels almost
without number.

Starch, it would seem from
this, is the prime food element
of the human family, the chief
factor in the upbuilding of a race, because a fundamental aliment
of our bodies.

If the starch' factories do not make, in the true sense, the
product of their mills, it may be to the point to consider how this
all-important substance comes into existence. The organic chem-
ist tells us that starch is a ternary compound, and this agrees closely
with the definition laid down by the dictionaries, only they add
that it is odorless, tasteless, and insoluble in water. It is one of
the proximate principles of plants, and is stored in the form of
granules wonderfully variable in size and shape, but each kind
having a type that is adhered to with much regularity. For
example, the ordinary potato {Solanum tuberosum L.) produces
a starch granule that is characterized by a form resembling the
shell of the oyster. Tig. 1 is from a camera drawing of a cell
from the center of a potato, with portions of adjoining cells, all
of which were packed full of starch, a few grains only being rep-
re'sented.

Starch is acted upon differently by reagents, one of the leading
tests for it being a solution of iodine. A drop of a very weak solu-
tion will determine the presence of starch in a cuff or shirt front
by leaving a blue spot or streak where the iodine has been applied.
By means of this reagent the student of plant tissues is readily able
to locate starch when present in any slice of tissue he may have
made. He would, for example, find much more starch in the
tuber of the potato than in any other portion of the plant, and
there the grains will be found many times larger than in the stem
or the cells of the green leaves. Of the relation of the starch in

718

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

the leaves to that in the underground stem something may be said
hiter in this paper.

In the corn plant the starch is stored chiefly in the grain, and
not in the subterranean portions, as in the potato. The granules
of the corn starch are much smaller than those of the potato, as
indicated by Fig. 2, which is from a camera drawing of a cell from
a grain of corn and made to the same scale as Fig. 1. The granules
are oval and not much marked with striae or lines, but chemically
the substance is the same in both cases.

Another leading starch is that of wheat, the form of the grains
of which is shown in Fig. 3. "While somewhat larger than the
corn-starch granules, they are not otherwise widely different.

One could scarcely overlook the starch produced b}-^ the rice
plant, for it feeds more people than the potato, corn, or wheat.
The relative size and form of the rice-starch granules are shown in

/

o / 0

Fig. 3. — Staucii Granvles of Wheat.

Fig. 4.— Starch Granules of Rice.

Fig. 4. It is seen that the grains are not large, and with a strong
tendency to break up into small angular pieces.

There are almost as many forms of starch as plants producing
it, some of them being very odd in shape. Thus the tapioca starch
has a characteristic form, as also the sago; but it is not the pur-
pose here to more than call attention to the form in which the sub-
stance under consideration is laid down in plants. The student
of food adulterations is an expert in the detection of starches, and,
with his microscope and skill, is able to decide how much of one
kind of starch and how much of another is offered in the product
under examination. It is a matter of congratulation that Nature
has set herself so strongly against fraud in food stuffs as to record
the origin of each grain of starch in the grain itself.

And that brings us to a consideration of that origin. We must
accord to plants the exalted prerogative of being the exclusive and
universal starch-formers in the world. Whether we note the

GENUINE STARCH FACTORIES. 719

growth of the potato tubers or the plumping out of the grains of
corn, wheat, or rice, the same fact remains that storehouses are
being filled with the same organic compound. There must be many
preliminary steps before this process of storing is complete, and
for these we need to seek elsewhere in the growing plant.

Even the most careless observer can not but be at home with
the fact that the whole port and bearing of ordinary plants is for
sun exposure. They rise from the ground as closely placed stems
of grass or less neighborly orchard or forest trees, and hang out
their leaves to catch the sun. The economy of substance is so
well studied that there is a very large exposure at a minimum of
expenditure of tissue. In short, the leaves are the organs for
association wdth the sunlight. They reach toward the sun where
light is scanty, as in the window, and even turn their faces to
the orb of day, shifting the position hour by hour from sunrise to
nightfall. The rapidity with which we come to the fundamental
fact that leaves are for the sun almost surprises one. The pur-
pose is as easily inferred, but the steps in the process are not so
quickly taken. The facts that leaves are yar excellence the starch
factories and the sunlight the inobtrusive chemist are granted, and
it remains only to show something of the steps of proof that science
may have discovered.

We need, therefore, to consider starch from the standpoint of
its composition, and upon this the chemists are fairly well agreed.
It consists of three elements, with their atoms so arranged that
the molecule of starch has the composition of six parts of carbon,
ten of hydrogen, and five of oxygen, or, to express the formula in
terse chemical terms, it stands C6II10O5. If we can account for
the bringing of these atoms together in the production of a single
molecule of starch the laboratory has been explored and the secret
is ours, even if we can not put it to practical use in our so-called
" starch factories."

The independent plant, beyond serious question, gets its food
from outside itself. There are two sources for these substances —
namely, the soil-water bathing the absorbing roots, and the atmos-
phere, with which the aerial branches and their leaves are con-
stantly surrounded. From the soil come the water and all the
salts, ash constituents, and the like that may be dissolved therein,
while the gases of the atmosphere bring, among its chief contribu-
tions, a constant and, in an always exceedingly diluted form, the
carbon dioxide, or, sometimes called, the carbonic-acid gas. This
compound, familiar to us as a product of combustion, fermenta-
tion, and decay, is composed of carbon and oxygen, and has the
symbol CO2 associated with it by chemists.

720

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

In short, for the formation of our starch the water (HoO) from
the soil and the COo of the atmosphere, when brought together,
may be made to combine with the formation of starch. A single
diagram, while not perhaps an absolute statement of fact, may serve
to represent the final result:

{5H?0 = C^'"'A + 120.

In other words, the six molecules of carbon dioxide and five
of water combine with the formation of one molecule of starch and
the liberation of twelve atoms of oxygen.

This driving off of such a large amount of oxygen, entirely
against the whole tendency of that element, it is assumed, is at the
expenditure of much force. The only one adequate to this work is
solar energy, and this is abundantly at hand. That we need not
seek further for this power is proved by many and conclusive tests.
Vegetable physiologists to-day are able not only to locate the sun
as the chemist, that effects the changes necessary for the produc-

I

'Crude Sap ^ -. ^ \ j / ^/

C a>bo\n| tji 0^ I de
Elaborated /Sap- e^'o^ ^

Fio. 5. — DiAc.KAMMATii; ViKW OF Til?; Process of J'iidto-Synthesis.

tion of starch, but can show in what cells and portions of those
cells the forces effect the synthesis. The chlorophyll granules in
the living cell are the microscopic laboratories in which a silent
chemist, powerful beyond all measurements, builds out of inorganic
materials the food substance of the whole world of animals and
plants.

GENUINE STARCH FACTORIES.

721

n e r

Fig. 0. — PoHTioN OF Leaf Magnified,

ILLUSTKATIKG PiIOTO-SyNTIIESIS.

Fig. 5 is an attempt to present the above statements as to pho-
to-synthesis in plants in such a form that it may appeal to the eye
of the reader. A bit of maple twig is shown with one leaf in posi-
tion. Passing up the stem in the
3'onng wood is the crude sap from
the soil to the leaf. There is a
downward flow of elaborated sap
in the inner bark also repre-
sented. Solar energy is indi-
cated by the wave lines as play-
ing upon the upper side of the
leaf, while the direction of the
carbon dioxide is shown by the
dotted lines entering from both
above and below the leaf. Wa-
ter of transporation is indicated
as being given off, and upon a
dry, hot day this is considerable,
which, as it vaporizes in the tis-
sue, tends to keep the latter cool.
Lastly, with the formation of
starch there is the escape of oxy-
gen set free from the broken molecule of carbon dioxide or water
or both in the formation of the starch.

Fig. 6 is a similar attempt to show the process of starch forma-
tion with the use of a portion of the leaf in section as it might
appear under the microscope. The under portion of the leaf is
seen as having openings in the skin, through which the gases and
vapors pass, and the middle portion above shows the porous nature
of that part that is most active in synthesis. The small oval bodies
in all the cells, except those of the upper and under epidermis,
represent the chlorophyll granules, the special seat of the special
activities which result in the formation of the carbohydrate, famil-
iar to all as starch. To the right is a leaf vein, through which
the crude sap (c. s.) reaches the synthetic cells, and the elaborated
sap (e. s.) descends to places Avhere it is needed for growth or for
storage.

"With the above facts in mind, there is no wonder at the activity
that may reside in a field of corn during a bright day in August.
Starch is being made almost by the ton daily, and, if the conditions
favor, the next month will find a rich harvest for the husbandman
who has assisted in supplying the conditions for the desired output
of the leading carbohydrate.

The genuine starch factories of the world are exceedingly

VOL. LYI.- 57

72 2 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

vSmall and equally numerous, and, with the sunlight as the active
force, each green cell may contribute to the world's gain in
the food substances that enable all creatures to live and move
and enjoy a fairly comfortable existence.

TRADE CORPOEATIONS IN" CHINA.

By M. MAURICE COURANT.

^I^IIE remarkable longevity of a large number of business houses
-*- in China is not due solely to the general conditions of society
or to those which are peculiar to the commercial class, but their
stability and their fame rest upon a special organization, under
which they are united in groups. It is customary for all the houses
possessing the same specialty to form an association which I shall
call a corporation, reserving to myself the privilege of pointing
out a few exceptions to the rule. These corporations, which seem
to date from at least three centuries back, are difficult subjects to
study.' Various in type, formed by the individuals interested,
without the state having had anything to do with their regulations
or even perhaps authorized them, they exist by force of custom
and live conformably to their traditions, while some, I have been
told, have written regulations and even, perhaps, archives — which
they have not thought fit to communicate to the public. What
is to be learned of them has, therefore, to be deduced from their
visible transactions.

The corporation fixes the minimum price of articles of sale,
and has secret agents to watch that no house takes less, thereby
setting bounds to competition and preventing the injurious depre-
ciation of goods. Only the public suffers from the existence of the
minimum, but it does not seem to perceive it, and the Government
never interferes except in respect to the price of grain, for which it
fixes a maximum, and in times of great stress sells from its own
granaries. The corporation, too, as represented in the banks and
loan offices, fixes the rates of interest to be paid or received, and
the kinds of securities and moneys that shall be accepted. In
short, it adjusts the general regulations of business transactions,
and defends the common interests of all those associated in it. If
one of them is implicated in a judicial proceeding of general inter-
est the corporation sustains him with its credit and its funds. It
further takes in hand injuries to the interests of its associates.
In 1883 the tea merchants' corporation of Hankow suspecting
frauds by the agents of certain foreign houses, asked those houses

TRADE CORPORATIONS IN CHINA. jit,

to designate themselves some foreigner to superintend the weigh-
ings. Notwithstanding the good reputation of the corporation and
the moderation of its requests, the foreign houses refused. All
transactions were suspended, and the official in autliority declared
that he could not compel the merchants to sell contrary to their
wish, and the foreign houses were eventually obliged to yield, one
at a time.

The corporations likewise watch the transactions of their mem-
bers, oppose fraud which might harm the good name of the asso-
ciation so far that the silversmiths will not permit one of their
number to sell alloyed jewelry, even when the purchaser knows
it is such. Some see that the taxes and duties on production are
regularly and properly paid. Others, in the interest of the sta-
bility of the houses, forbid all fictitious sales and purchases, and
most of the stock operations and a large number of commercial
transactions which seem very simple to us would not be tolerated
by them. The custom of selling short having been introduced
upon the silver exchange in Peking a few years ago, a censor re-
ported it as a kind of gambling, and the Government interdicted
the operation — a very rare example of official intervention. Under
a similar old-fashioned view, the corporation of bankers inquires
into the total amount of the notes issued by its members. Every
banker and every broker is free to issue notes, and little attention
is paid to the precautions required by the law. But the corpora-
tion has an infallible means of restricting extravagance in the
emission of bills. If a house is going so fast as to be in danger
of compromising its credit and perhaps endangering the capital of
others associated with it, an order is given, all the notes are thrown
before the public, and the imprudent bank has to suspend its pay-
ments and retire.

The corporation further maintains its reputation and keeps on
good terms with public powers by expenditures on ceremonials
and charities. Every year it appropriates a sum for the opening
of the kitchens from which rice and millet broths are distributed
to the poor of Peking. In case of famine or inundation, the quotas
of the corporations do not have to be w-aited for, while the more
prominent comm.ercial men also contribute largely under their own
names. They will subscribe for a testimonial to a mandarin who
has done good service, will help prepare the road over which an
imperial procession is to pass, and will contribute to the pageantry
of popular religious ceremonials.

Each corporation has its patron divinity, who is the object of a
special cult. With one it is the' god of riches; with another Koan
Yu, god of war; with others a spirit of more limited competency,

724 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

like Lou Pan, a famous mechanician of the time of Confucius, now
patron of the cari)entcrs. Adored in every shop by all the patrons
and clerks, the festivals of the protecting genius are celebrated
by the whole corporation at fixed dates. To some divinities a
sacrifice of meats and incense is offered in each warehouse, after
which all the chiefs and the men employed take part, while the
spirit is supposed to be present. To others, more rarely, a more
bountiful sacrifice is made in a temple, and the banquet, held in a
large hall, is enlivened by dramatic entertainments. The patron
is also duly honored in the celebration of the general feasts of
the Chinese people.

The corporations have tribunals of arbitration and a common
treasury, but the method of operation of those departments is
among the things they do not reveal to the public. I have only
learned a few general facts on the subject. The corporations inter-
vene, I have been told, in the disputes of the members and to pre-
vent dishonest dealings and attempts to cheat one another, but I
have not learned that they have any real judiciary authority.
Their treasury is sustained by means of assessments and fines, and
loans may be contracted on its account, for the salt merchants of
Tientsin are still paying interest on a number of debts contracted
by the corporation in the last century.

Great differences might be expected to exist between the cor-
porations in respect to these points and many others. They have
been constituted at different epochs, independently of one another,
and are similar only in their essential features. The minimum
price fixed by the assembly is not equally imperative in all. Thus,
the price fixed by the fur merchants at the beginning of the winter
-does not bind the members. In most branches of commerce all
the houses composing the corporation are on a footing of substan-
tial equality, though, of course, the large banks prevail over the
small brokers, but there is no unlikencss in the business or the
situation. The policy of the tea trade is mainly controlled in
Peking by the houses of the families Fang and Oou. They fix the
price, determine the equivalence of weight (the standard is a pound
of four ounces instead of sixteen), and lead the corporation. In
fact, the retail dealers use their capital in the decoration of their
shops with gilding and sculpture, at a cost of between sixteen hun-
dred and twa thousand dollars, while the goods are lent them by
one of the importers, who holds the decoration as security, so that
the whole corporation is in the hands of these two families. This
is a special condition, and there is nothing else like it, even among
other importers of southern products. "While most branches of
trade are independent of official action, slaughter houses, of which

TRADE CORPORATIONS IN CHINA. 725

there are only five in Peking, have to be authorized by the Gov-
ernment. A religious motive may be at the bottom of this restric-
tion, the large cattle being reserved for the imperial sacrifices.
Moreover, the killing of animals has been interdicted at different
times, and even now the slaughter houses are ordered closed, as
an act of public penitence, in times of drought.

The loan houses also need an ofticial authorization. They pay
a tax on their operations to the local authorities, and are divided
into three classes, according to the importance of their business.
Those of the first class receive deposits from the authorities of
various sums, on which they pay interest, the administration rea-
soning that by helping them increase their capital and enlarge
their business it will be doing a philanthropic work and assisting
the people. These loan offices are not at all like our pawnbrokers'
shops, but are a credit institution, to which the middle class as well
as the poor Chinaman has constant recourse. Being conducted on
equitable terms and serving their convenience in various ways, they
render great services to the Chinese people, and have become neces-
sary to their life, and this explains the departure of the Govern-
ment from its usual policy of non-interference to supervise and
favor them. China has, further, large and small capitalists, and
numerous credit establishments very much like ours. They may
be classified as exchange offices, banks, and banks of discount. The
last are at Peking, where they were founded a few decades ago by
some men from Chan-Si. Their single industry is trading notes
in all China and some of its dependencies. They have no monop-
oly, for some of the larger banks and more important traders were
all doing the same; but they have regulated the business, extended
it to more places, and have almost entirely suppressed the trans-
portation of money in bulk.

The banks of exchange perform a variety of functions on a
restricted scale, charging two per cent for exchanges, issuing notes
without any supervision, and lending money at two per cent a
month in normal times. They are not, however, always able to
pay their notes at sight, and it is well, therefore, not to keep them
too long. In the provinces a bank usually accepts only its own
notes. In Peking some well-known signatures are accepted every-
where after examination by an expert, who places his seal on the
note he declares good, charges a fee for each verification, and is
responsible for his mistakes.

The large banks, by accepting or refusing the notes of any
house or by throwing money or sapiques on the market, rule in the
corporation and have the whole fate of the market in their hands.
The four Hengs, by the amount of their reserve, the solidity of

726 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

tlieir credit, aiul tlie number of their branches or correspondents,
liave no rivals in north China. All exchange operations are car-
ried on in the money market, which is held every day in the south-
eastern part of the city, on the street, near the Tauist Temple,
Avhere all the houses in Peking are represented, and every one takes
care to be so, lest he be thonght in default. "When the rate is
fixed the news is dispatched by couriers, pigeons, etc., to all whom
it concerns. The couriers of the corporation, who communicate
with the brokers and bankers, are also the confidential agents of
the syndics, are acquainted with the amounts of the emissions
of each house, know whether a certain patron is really ill or only
feigning, and by their reports decide who shall be boycotted or
declared insolvent. All this goes on in full liberty, without sur-
veillance by the state, without any tax on the transactions, and
without any other interference than the prohibition of fictitious
dealings. The corn market is in the same way the almost exclu-
sive domain of the corn corporation, the state never interfering
except in the case of a famine in the region.

Besides the merchants' corporations, there exist also corpora-
tions of artisans. The embroiderers, the makers of cloisonne, the
tanners, and the carpenters have theirs. The carriers and the
boatmen, who, before the opening of the railway, had the monop-
oly of transportation between Peking and the provinces without
forming associations, met at their respective inns and established
rules and rates for their business. Informal organizations, vary-
ing among the different towns in their degrees of development,
exist among the barbers — who at Peking meet every year for a
sacrifice and a banquet — the chair-bearers, and the jinrikisha men,
and so every city has its corporations and associations which are
not like those of the next city.

Some branches of trade have no corporations, and the peasants,
when they come to town to sell their produce, trade on their own
account, for the best terms they can get, and have to accept, in
the market, an organization the origin of which is forgotten.
Every year, on the appearance of each sort of crop, the King ki
of the market, having agreed with the dealers, fixes the minimum
price of the commodity for the season. He also polices the mar-
ket. The function of King lei is the property of the person who
exercises it, who has bought it from his predecessor and will sell
it to his successor by private contract, and nobody contests his
right. In the market for azarohs the position is hereditary. The
monopoly of the corporations is often complicated with a provincial
question. The Chinaman regards every man who was born in
another district as a foreigner — still more if he is of another prov-

TRADE CORPORATIONS IN CHINA. 727

ince. Those who are of the same local origin, on the other hand,
etand by one another. Hence it has come to pass that some trades
have been monopolized by the people of some one province. Most
of the bankers were originally from Chan-Si; all the great mer-
chants came from Anhoei. The people of Chan-tung have three
special occupations in Peking. They have the exclusive privilege
of killing pigs and retailing meat. They are the only water car-
riers, each one having his well on the public highway, his water-
ing place for horses and mules, and his district where he sells
water without permitting the people to provide for themselves
elsewhere. Such privileges are consecrated by usage and zealously
defended by their holders, and respect for them is enforced, when
necessary, by the authorities. Associations are formed, also, even
among the coolies who work on the docks.

These details show by how great a variety of forms all the cor-
porations assure the same result — the organization of labor. We
see also how they extend beyond commerce. The Chinaman is
in fact a social being bound closely to his fellows — of the family,
province, trade, or class — by every tie and in every sphere of life.
He is never a man living by himself and for himself, and is not
accustomed to independence. Hence the authority of the corpora-
tion, instead of seeming strange, is a necessity to him. Conse-
quently the corporation has the right, by universal consent, to
exact obedience from its members, and to compel those who would
stay out to come into it. — Translated for the Popular Science
Monthly from the Revue des Deux Mondes.

M. L. AzouLAY suggests, in the Revue Scientifique, that the invitation
given to Senor Eamon y Cajal, the celebrated Spanish neurologist, to
visit the United States and attend the celebration of the tenth anniver-
sary of Clark University, furnishes a good example for France to fol-
low. " It causes grievous chagrin to me to think," he says, " that while
Germany, England, Austria, Switzerland, and the United States are
regularly accustomed to invite to their scientific ceremonials, of which
there are more than one every year, students of other countries who
have illustrated any branch of human knowledge, France, formerly so
hospitable, refuses these international appeals."

At the recent meeting of the British Archfeological Association, at
Buxton, Dr. Brushfield described the prehistoric circle of Arbor Low as,
upon evidence which he cited, the earliest neolithic monument in Britain.
There are thirty-two stones in the circle, all now lying prostrate, but they
must originally have been erect. The dolmen in the center is now level
with the ground. The mound and ditch — the latter being inside, between
the mound and the stone circle — are in a very perfect condition, notwith-
standing the lapse of time. The work has two openings — on the north-
east and southwest.

72J

POPULAR SCIEXCE MONTHLY.

gditotr's SabXje.

SCIENCE AST) DOOM A.

AFTER many uncomfortable
- turnings in his narrow theo-
logical quarters, the eminent biolo-
gist. Professor St. George Mivart,
seems to have made up his mind
that he may as well, before he dies,
know what it is to enjoy the air
of liberty. For many years he
has been pining for this, and al-
most inviting the authorities of
the Church to give him his pass-
ports. The Church was not anx-
ious, however, to quarrel with a
man of recognized ability and wide
knowledge, and therefore writings
which might well have been ex-
pected to give serious umbrage were
allowed to pass unnoticed. The
professor then made a most auda-
cious raid upon the venerable doc-
trine that there remains for the ma-
jority of mankind a place of unut-
terable and eternal misery. He ven-
tured to speak of The Happiness in
Hell, maintaining that, while the
inhabitants of that abode would al-
ways have a profound and harrow-
ing sense of having missed the su-
preme happiness of heaven, they
would still be able to occupy them-
selves in a variety of ways which
would give them a certain amount
of happiness, just as in this world
a man may carry a profoi;nd sorrow
in his heart and yet, under the stim-
ulus of business or society or intel-
lectual study, have his attention
happily diverted for many hours
every day. At this point the au-
thorities drew the line. It is re-
lated of an old Scotch lady that,
referring to the Universalists, she
said, " Those people say that all
men will be saved at .last, but we
hope for better things." Whether
this was the point of view of the
ecclesiastical powers or not, certain

it is that they refused to sanction
the notion of any happiness, of how-
soever humble an order, in the abode
of gloom, and gave a peremptory
order to the professor to take it all
back. "Well, he took it back as a
matter of submission to those whom
he regarded as his lawful spiritual
guides, but the submission did not
give him rest. If ecclesiastical au-
thority was entitled to respect on
one side, science was urging even
stronger claims on the other. In
August last, as we now learn, the
professor wrote to the Prefect of
the Sacred Congregation of the
Index, explaining how he wished
his submission to be understood,
and as he and the prefect could not
come to an agreement about it, he
withdrew the submission altogether.
Then he resolved to relieve his
mind. It took two articles in two
separate magazines to do it — one in
the Fortnightly and one in the
Nineteenth Century — but then it
was done in a manner admitting of
no Recall. No sooner had these
articles appeared than Cardinal
Vaughan drew up an iron-clad dec-
laration affirming the falsity of
every position the writer had taken,
and required him to sign it. Too
late ! The biologist and evolution-
ist in Professor Mivart had finally
trivimphed over the theologian, and
he met the cardinal's demand with
a flat refusal. Thereupon his Emi-
nence issued an order excluding the
recalcitrant savant fi'om the sacra-
ments of the Church.

Mr. Mivart now knows where he
is. He occupies the broad ground
of scientific truth. He breathes the
free air of intellectual and moral
liberty. He still professes loyalty
to the Church according to his own
conception of it, but he will no

EDITOR'S TABLE.

729

longer bow down to an authority
that assumes to prescribe his opin-
ions in matters which he is quite
capable of judging for himself. He
has arrived at the conclusion that
even as regards the interpretation
of Scripture the Church is just as
liable to err as the humble lay-
man. He quotes most persistently
the case of Galileo, in which the
Church, in the most formal and offi-
cial manner, declared that Scripture
taught what for nearly a century
now it has admitted Scripture does
not teach. If the highest organs of
ecclesiastical authority could make
such a blunder in Galileo's day,
what blunders may they not commit
in our day? But if the Church can
err egregiously in what is its own
peculiar province — if anji;hing is —
how great is likely to be its inapti-
tude when it undertakes to deal
with scientific questions !

" God has taught us," says Mr.
Mivart, " through history, that it is
not to ecclesiastical congregations
but to men of science that he has
committed the elucidation of scien-
tific questions, whether such ques-
tions are or are not treated of by
Scripture, the Fathers, the Church's
common teaching, or special congre-
gations or tribunals of ecclesiastics
actually summoned for the pur-
pose. This also applies to all sci-
ence— to Scripture criticism, to bi-
ology, and to all questions concern-
ing evolution, the antiquity of man,
and the origin of either his body or
his soul or of both. For all ecclesias-
tics who know nothing of natural
science it is an act necessarily as
futile as impertinent to express any
opinion on such subjects."

The opposition of the rulers of
the Church to the true theory of the
solar system in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries is paralleled,
according to Mr. Mivart, by their
opposition to the doctrine of evo-
lution to-day. He refers to the fact
that two Catholic professors who

had ventured to give a partial sup-
port to the doctrine in question —
one of them Father Zahm, who con-
tributed an article, as many of our
readers will remember, to this mag-
azine a couple of years ago — had
both been compelled to retract and
disavow what they had published on
the subject. Professor Mivart draws
a distinction, however, between the
rulers of the Church and the
Church. The latter he idealizes —
and we by no means dispute his
right to do so — as a vast organiza-
tion the office of which is to keep
alive man's sense of spiritual things,
and to bear eternal testimony in
favor of those truths of the heart
which do not admit, like intellec-
tual truths, of logical demonstra-
tion. Though cut off by authority
from participation in the rites of
the Church, he feels himself still
one in sympathy with all who in the
Church are aspiring to a higher
life. We look upon his case as a
very instructive one, affording as it
does clear evidence of the absolute
incompatibility between any au-
thoritative system of dogma and the
free pursuit of truth. It has taken
Professor Mivart a long time to ar-
rive at his present standpoint, but
it is well that he has got there at
last. His example, we believe, will
encourage not a few to assert in like
manner their right to think freely
and to utter what they think.

A MORE EXCELLEXr WAY.

When our article of last month,
entitled A Commission in Difficul-
ties, was written Ave had not seen
the paper by Mr. Theodore Dreiser,
in Harper's Magazine for February,
describing the important educa-
tional work which the Western rail-
ways are doing with a view to pro-
moting the prosperity of the agri-
cvdtural regions through which they
pass. In our article we observed
that " the more interference there

730

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

is between parties who, in the last
resort, are dependent upon one an-
other's good will, the less likely they
are to recognize their substantial
identity of interest." What Mr.
Dreiser clearly shows is how great
the community of interest is be-
tween the railroads on the one side
and the farming community on the
other, and how fully that commu-
nity of interest is recognized by the
railways at least. The freight agent
of a given line is charged with the
duty of developing to the utmost —
in the interest, primarily, of his
road, it may readily be granted —
the agricultural resources of the
countiy through which it runs.
He has his assistants, who look
after different branches of the work,
such as crop-raising, cattle-graz-
ing, dairying, poultry-raising, etc.
" Through this department," the
writer says, " the railroads are do-
ing a remarkably broad educational
work, not only of inspecting the
land, but of educating the farmers
and merchants, and helping them to
become wiser and more successful.
They give lectures on soil nutrition
and vegetable growing, explain con-
ditions and trade shipments, teach
poultry-raising and cattle-feeding,
organize creameries for the manu-
facture of cheese and butter, and
explain new business methods to
merchants who are slow and igno-
rant in the matter of conducting
their affairs." An agent of the rail-
way will visit every town along the
line a certain number of times every
year to see what he can do to
quicken trade. Finally, in the great
centers there are special agents who
" look after incoming shipments,
and work for the interests of the
merchants and farmers by finding a
market for their products." Exam-
ples are given showing how the rail-
ways are able to impart, and do im-
part, information of the highest
value to the farmers, such as puts

them in the way of getting greatly
improved returns from their land.

Of course, the railways want
business, but it is eminently satis-
factory when one party who wants
business uses his best efforts on be-
half of another in order that by
making him prosperous he himself
may prosper. When things get into
this shape they are all right, as the
phrase is. The accepted definition
of a perfect action is one which
benefits all who are parties to it.
Things are on a much better foun-
dation when people are mutually
benefiting one another, each pri-
marily in his own interest, than
when it is all philanthropy on one
side and passive acceptance of bene-
fits on the other. Philanthropy is
an uncertain thing, and its effects
are uncertain. Its quality will take,
in general, a good deal of training;
but business, on an honest and re-
ciprocally helpful basis, is good all
through. .

It is a happy circumstance that
there are natural laws and forces
at work which tend to produce a
healthful social equilibrium. The
true statesman is he who is on the
watch to discern these forces and
these laws, resolved that if he can
not aid their operation he shall at
least throw no obstacle in the way
of their activity. The amount of
harm that is done by coming be-
tween people who would be certain
to arrange their business relations
satisfactorily, if they were only left
to do it without interference, can
hardly be estimated. Man is funda-
mentally a social animal, and he
wants, if he can possibly get it, the
good opinion of his fellows. This
is a principle which legislation too
much overlooks, but it is one on
which, as we believe, the future
progress of society depends, and
which, in spite of the blunders of
legislators, will more and more as-
sert itself as the years go on.

FRAOMEXTS OF SCIENCE.

731

fragments ot Science.

Religious Suicides. — Suicides from
relifjious fanaticism, which are still pre-
scribed by some sects, are compared, as
having a common origin, with propi-
tiatory or expiatory human sacrifices,
by Herr Lasch, in an article of which
we find a review in the Rlvista Italiana
di Sociolof/ia. Voluntary sacrifices,
which abound in the history of ancient
peoples, had nearlj' always in view the
removal of perils or the cessation of pub-
lic calamities by appeasing the anger
of the divinity through the offering of
a human victim. Thus Macaria, the
daughter of Herciiles, at Athens during
the Peloponnesian war, and Codrus and
the Athenian youth Cratinus volunta-
rily offered their lives to aid their coun-
try by the sacrifice. The consul Decius
gave himself up to assure victory to his
legions, and Adrian's favorite Antinous
to save his imperial protector. Spon-
taneous offerings of human victims to
appease offended divinities are men-
tioned in the traditions of the ancient
Germans, and it was usually their chief
or king who suffered for the good of
the people. Offerings of this sort are
far from infrequent among barbarous
and half-civilized peoples. Among some
tribes in China a man is sacrificed every
year for the public welfare. Such vol-
untary renunciations of life to acquire
merit with the divinity, to gain favors,
to atone for sins, and fulfill vows are
very common in India, particularly
where IJrahmanisra is most influential.
Special methods were pointed out in the
Hindu laws for performing such sacri-
fices as would be sinful for a Brahman,
but not for a Sutra, who, before aban-
doning life, should make gifts to the
Brahmans. A favorite method was to
drown one's self in the Ganges, and par-
ticular spots in the river were desig-
nated for this act. The sacred books
mention five methods of performing sac-
rifice to assure a better fortune in the
next life: Starving to death, being
burned alive, burial in snow, being
eaten by a crocodile, and cutting the
throat or being drowned at a particular
spot in the Ganges. In fulfillment of
fows, sons would sacrifice themselves

for their mothers by jumping from a
rock. To keep up the courage of the vic-
tim, the Sivaitic rituals promised many
beatitudes to him who courageously
met death for his sins, and threat-
ened eternal punishment to one who
performed the sacrifice in a base man-
ner. And Avhen the suicide had been
decided upon they allowed no retreat or
repentance, but forced its consumma-
tion. A special apparatus for suicide
formerly existed in some of the villages
in central India, consisting of a guillo-
tine which the victim himself set in
action. Casting one's self under the
wheels of the car of Juggernaut was an-
other method of religious suicide. Some
philosophical schools prescribed subjec-
tion of the body to various pains for
the purification of the soul ; and the
books of Manu, which also impose the
destruction of human sensibility, have
contributed much to preserve this idea
in India and spread abroad, especially
in the Malay Archipelago, the usage of
voluntary sacrifice to the divinity. The
aborigines of the Canary Islands have
employed voluntary sacrifices on the
coming of an epidemic, and the ancient
Mexicans and Peruvians observed them
in honor of the divinity.

"Manuring with Brains." — "New
Soil Science " is the name Mr. D. Young
gives, in the Nineteenth Century, to the
results of the studies of soil bacteriology
prosecuted by Mr. John Hunter and
Professor MeAlpine on Lord Roseberry's
estate of Ualmeny, and " manuring with
brains " to the application of them. At-
tention has been called to the value of
the bacteria in the soil as nitrifying
and fertilizing elements by the experi-
ments of Sir John I'cnnet Lawes and
Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert at Rotham-
sted, and more forcibly by experiments
coming after them but suggested by
them. It had also been found that caus-
tic lime used upon the soil is liable to
destroy the nitrifying and other advan-
tageous organisms, Avhile carbonate of
lime is surely useful, and a due propor-
tion of lime compounds is essential to
the best discharge of their functions.

732

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

The discovpry that the bacteria of the
root nodules of leguminous plants pos-
sess the ))o\ver of absorbing the free
nitrogen of the atmosphere and render-
ing it available for the use of the plant
was made by Messrs. Hunter and McAl-
pine, according to Mr. Young, and was
taught by them to their students sev-
eral years before Hellriegel, to whom it
is usually ascribed, fell upon it. They
found that several well-defined sets of
bacteria were concerned in the work of
nitrification, and isolated and cultivated
the nitrous germ, but could accomplish
nothing with the nitric germ till they
used old mortar or some lime dressing
with it. They also found that lime
compounds in the surface soil served a
further important use by preventing the
soluble silicates from being taken up by
the roots of the plant, the lime taking
up those salts and forming insoluble
silicates which were retained in the soil
and did not difTuse into the plant. So
a non-silicated stem, or a cellulose stem,
was formed, which would bend before
the wind without breaking, while the
non-silicated straw was much superior
in value to the silicated straw. Messrs.
Hunter and McAlpine denied that silica
in the plant gave strength and solidity
to the stem, and pointed out that it
rather, like glass, made the straw brit-
tle. They found out, further, that large
quantities of carbonic acid were pro-
duced in the soil through the operation
of the ferments, and found an outlet
through the subsoil drains. They made
other discoveries which threatened to
render it necessary to revise the whole
fabric of agricultural science, and were
called to account by the institutions in
which they were teachers for their here-
sies. They maintained their position
till the opportunity came to them to
make tests of their theories on Lord
Kosebery's Dalmeny farm. Among the
results of the Dalmeny experiments
are proof of the value of a dressing of
ground lime in proportions not large
enough to kill the bacteria, emphasis
of the value of potash for every crop,
and the discovery of a remedial treat-
ment for the finger-and-toe pest in tur-
nips. " When these experiments were
commenced, ground lime for agricultu-
ral purposes had never been heard of,
whereas now there are at least six lime
works where extensive grinding plants

are kept hard at work to supply the ever-
increasing demand for that substance.
Since the principles for the new soil sci-
ence have been put in successful prac-
tice at Dalmeny the scientific author-
ities, who at first had branded these
principles as absurd lieresies, have
changed their tune," and now the chem-
ical advisor of the Highland Society has
declared that he accepts the new doc-
trines.

Plague Antitoxin. — In justifying
his belief in the elTicacy of the inocula-
tion treatment against the plague, Lord
Curzon, the Viceroy of India, said, in a
recent address at Poonah: "If I find,
as I do find, out of one hundred plague
seizures among uninoculated persons,
the average number who die is some-
where about seventy to eighty per cent,
while, in a corresponding number of seiz-
ures among inoculated persons, the pro-
portions aie entirely reversed and sev-
entj' to eighty per cent, if not more, are
saved — and these calculations have been
furnished from more than one respon-
sible quarter — I say figures of that kind
can not fail to carry conviction; and I
altogether fail to see how, in the face of
them, it is possible for any one to argue
that inociilation is not a wise and neces-
sary precaution." He had been person-
ally visiting the plague hospitals and
camps about the city, and had already
supported his advocacy of tliis treat-
ment by having luTuself and his party
inoculated at Simla with the plague an-
titoxin.

Cultivation of India Rubber.^
An article in the Bulletin of the Bureau
of American llepublics represents that
there are lands in Mexico and Central
America equally adapted to the cultiva-
tion of the India-rubber tree with the
Brazilian plantations, and having, in
addition, a salubrious climate. Former-
ly dependence for the supply of India
rubber was placed in the product of
wild trees, but with the increase in the
uses for it, and the consequent rise in
prices, capital is being invested in this
industry, and its profitable cultivation
is being largely engaged in. The trees
do not flourish at an elevation exceed-
ing five hundred feet above sea level,
and low land, moist but not swampy,
is the best. Land suitable for planting

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

733

could be bought for twenty-five cents
an acre in large tracts, but it now brings
from two dollars to five dollars Mexican.
These lands can be used for other crops
while the trees are growing up, and thus
made partly to repay the cost of start-
ing the plantation. So the expense of
clearing the land preparatory to plant-
ing it is largely met, if facilities for
transplantation are at hand, by the sale
of the dyewoods, sandalwood, satin-
wood, ebony, and mahogany that are
cut ofi". The land should be chosen
along the banks of streams, wheie the
soil is rich, deep, and loamy, and the
presence of wild rubber trees is a sure
indication of its suitability. These wild
trees should be left standing, and young
seedlings should be kept and trans-
planted into their proper places. The
densest plantation compatible with good
results is fifteen feet apart, giving about
one hundred and ninety-three trees to
the acre. Once in the ground, the tree
needs no attention or cultivation be-
yond keeping down the undergrowth,
which can be eiTeeted by the aid of a
side crop. The tree propagates itself by
the seeds or nuts, which drop in May
and June. By the sixth or seventh year
the grove will be in bearing, and there-
after should yield from three to five
pounds of India rubber per tree.

The New York Botanical Gar-
den's Museum. — The museum buildinp
of the New York Botanical Garden is
substantially completed, and most of
the works are in an advanced state of
forwardness. The museum cases (for
public inspection) and the herbarium
cases (for students) are in position, and
the herbarium cases are filled. Among
the recent gifts of value to the institu-
tion are the miscellaneous collection of
John J. Crooke, made about thirty
years ago and containing about twenty
'thousand specimens, among which are a
set of the plants obtained by the United
States Pacific Exploring Expedition of
about 1850; the collection of between
twenty and thirty thousand specimens
made by Ur. F. M. Hexamer in Switzer-
land and the United States; a collec-
tion of seven or eight thousand num-
bers, made by Mr. and ]\Irs. A. A. Hel-
ler, representing between twelve and
thirteen hixndred species, some of which
are new to science; and specimens of

crude drugs, for the Economic Museum,
presented by Parke, Davis & Co. A
permanent microscopic exhibition is to
be established by Mr. William E. Dodge,
at his own expense. It will be fur-
nished with at least twenty-five micro-
scopes, and with specimens carefully
prepared and inclosed, to secure them
from injury. A set of more than two
hundred volumes on botany and horti-
culture, which formed a part of the
library of Dr. David Hosack, founder of
the first botanical garden in New York,
has been presented by the New York
Academy of ^ledicine, which received it
from the New York Hospital.

Action of Sea "Water on Cements.
— As the result of examinations of many
masonry structures immersed in sea
water. Dr. Wilhelm Michaelis has found
that Portland cement does not resist the
chemical action of such water so well as
do Eoman cement and the hydraulic ce-
ments. The soluble sulphates in the sea
water appear to enter into a subsLitution
combination with the lime which exists
in the cement in a free state or is liber-
ated in the hardening, and it is con-
verted into a sulphate, while disintegra-
tion ensues. In Roman cement the lime
exists in combination, and there is no
inclination toward the formation of a
sulphate, and hydraulic limes resemble
Roman cement in physical qualities.
Dr. Michaelis suggests that hydraulic
cementing materials containing more
lime than is required for the formation
of stable hydro-silicate and aluminate
may be made suitable for submarine
work by an admixture of trass or puzzo-
lana, whereby the cementing strength
of the mass will be greatly increased,
and it will be enabled to withstand the
disintegrating action of the sea water..

Stories of Amazonian Pygmies.
— Dr. D. G. Brinton subjected the stories
of the existence of pygmy tribes on the
upper tributaries of the Amazon to a
careful examination, and came to the
conclusion that the facts did not show
anything more than that there are un-
dersized tribes in that part of South
America, with occasional individual ex-
aniples of dwarfs, such as occur in all
communities. It is still a question, he
observed, " whether the rumor of a pyg-
my people somewhere in the tropical for-

ll\

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

ests is not to be classed with the stories
wliich tliiew a strange glamour about
those inaccessible regions in the early
dajs of the discovery. There were many
of these, for I am speaking of the part
of the map where was located the El
Dorado, the golden city of Manoa, the
home of the warlike Amazons; where
dwelt the men with tails and the myste-
rious Oyacotdets, warriors with white
skin, blue eyes, and long, blond beards.
All have vanished from history but the
pygmies, and their turn will probably
soon come."

Relief and Pension Funds of
Railroad Men. — In instituting a pen-
sion fund for the men in its employ the
Pennsylvania Railroad established, in
addition and supplementary to the re-
lief fund of which they enjoy the privi-
lege, a special fund for those who are
retired or superannuated, which is ad-
justed according to their length of serv-
ice and the pay they have been receiv-
ing. The relief fund afl'ords every man
employed an opportunity to provide for
himself in case of sickness or disability.
It is co-operative, and is supported joint-
ly by the employed men, its members,
and the company, the expenses of opera-
tion and the deficiencies in it being met
by the company. The additional pension
is the company's own undertaking. Be-
sides the manifestly humane purpose of
this arrangement — to care for the present
and future interests of its men — it prom-
ises to work to increase and improve the
effectiveness of the company's service.
Its tendency will be to give the men
greater heart in their work, and to cause
them to identify themselves more fully
with it. Decent provision being made
for the retirement of old hands, the serv-
ice can be kept manned by a younger
and more robust class. The new fund
will effect the entire force on the lines of
the Pennsylvania system east of Pitts-
burg and Erie, extending over a track-
age of more than forty-one hundred
miles.

The Broom as a Spreader of Dis-
ease.— Dust being now generally recog-
nized as one of the most edicient ve-
hicles of the germs of disease, Dr. Max
Girsdansky finds the broom to be one
of the most active agents in sending
them into air, where it is dilTu.sed by

whatever breezes may be blowing there.
The housewife digs the dust out of her
carpets and stirs it out of the quiet
corners where it has accumulated, wear-
ing an old dress and covering her head
while she leaves her lungs exposed, then
shakes her rugs in the yard, and the
street sweeper transfers the dust he has
charge of from the pavement to the at-
mosphere, where we can breathe our
lill of consumption from day to day.
Therefore, the author holds, the broom,
" far from serving any hygienic pur-
pose, is the cause of the maintenance of
organic dust in the atmosphere of the
large cities of the world, and as such is
the most important cause of the exist-
ence and spread of txiberculosis." Fur-
ther, the carpet is pronounced " an un-
hygienic article, serving as a fine breed-
ing ground for vegetable parasites,
necessitating the use of the broom and
the duster, and thereby becoming a rea-
son for the existence of organic dust."
As the only proper and safe way of
procuring the cleanliness of the floors
and streets of our large cities. Dr. Girs-
dansky advises the free use of water in
the shape of showers, or with sprinkling
wagons, hoes, mops, etc., and that all
floors and floor coverings of the house
and the street be so constructed as to
facilitate the free use of water in these
Nsays.

Alkali Soils in Montana. — Mr. F.

VV. Traphagen, of the Montana Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, ascribes the
origin of the alkali soil in the arid re-
gions to the failure of the elements to
remove the soda salts set free on the
disintegration of the rocks, which in
humid regions are taken up and washed
away by the rains. The soluble salts
are dissolved by the water that falls on
the surface, and are carried down when
it soaks through the ground, to form an
element in the ground water. They re-
turn thence to the soil when water is
brought up by capillary action to
supply the place of that lost by sur-
face evaporation, and accumulate there.
Then, as the water evaporates they are
left on the surface, forming, when in
sudicient quantity, the white crusts
seen in badly alkalied places. The most
efTective remedy for alkali might prob-
ably be Jound in undordrainage, which
would prevent the ground water rising

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

735

to the top, and would carry off the
salts. This being at present impracti-
cable on the large scale tliat would be
required, such expedients as surface
flooding and such cultivation of crops as
would tend to check evaporation are
suggested. The pernicious effects of
" black alkali " or sodium carbonate are
seen when it forms as much as about
one tenth of one per cent of the soil, in
the corrosion and solution of vegetable
matter — the stems of plants — exposed
to it. It also dissolves the humus or
vegetable mold, forming dark-colored
solutions and depositing a black resi-
due upon the evaporation of the water
— whence its name — and it destroys the
tillability of many soils. The " white
alkali " or sodium sulphate can be borne
in much larger proportions in the soil,
and promotes the best crops just before
it completely destroys them. The au-
thor remarks that the foundations of a
number of buildings in Billings, Mon-
tana, are gradually becoming insecure
because of the disintegration of the
rock, due to the absorption of alkali
salts, followed by the evaporation of the
water and the deposit of salts within
the pores of the rock. As the process
continues, the rock particles are forced
apart.

Future of thf New York Canals.
— The Committee on Canals of New
York State recommend decidedly in
their report to the Governor that those
highways should not be abandoned but
maintained, and the principal ones en-
larged, while the others should be kept
up as navigable feeders. Of two proj-
ects for enlarging the Erie Canal, that
undertaken in 1895, with modifications
to be executed at a cost of $21,101,045,
and a larger one to cost $58,894,008, the
committee prefer the larger one, because
it will permanently secure the commer-
cial supremacy of New York, while the
other is " at best only a temporary
makeshift." An important principle
emphasized in the report is that the effi-
ciency of the canals depends upon their
management as well as upon their phys-
ical size. Therefore a policy should be
followed that will encourage transporta-
tion companies to seek the use of them;
mechanical means of traction should be
employed, and mechanical power should
be substituted for hand power in cer-

tain operations; the force engaged upon
them should be organized on a more
permanent basis of fitness, so as to fur-
nish an attractive career to graduate3
of scientific institutions; and efficient
guards should be thrown over the ex-
penditure of money " so as to make im-
possible a repetition of the unfortunate
results of the $9,000,000 appropriation."

rioating Stones. — While engaged
in scientific research in southwest Pat-
agonia, Mr. Erland Nordenskiold ob-
served a considerable number of small
fragments of slate floating upon the
surface, packed together in larger or
smaller clusters. The surface of the
stones was dry, and they sank imme-
diately when it became wet. Their spe-
cific gravity was 2.71, that of the water
being 1.0049. The fragments contained
no air cavities perceptible to the naked
eye, but small, gaseous bubbles could be
seen attached to their under surfaces,
and stones on the very fringe of the
beach which were just beginning to
float were observed to be lightened by
gaseous bubbles. The author was not
able to investigate the phenomenon more
closely, but believes that besides the
visible bubbles they were surrounded by
an envelope of gas, supported by an in-
significant coating of algse, by which
they are enveloped. The greasy surface
of the mineral also prevented the water
from adhering to them, and caused
them to be suri'ounded with a concave
meniscus, which contributed much to
their floating.

The " Periodicity of War." — The

doctrine of " the periodicity of war "
was presented at the Lake Mohonk
Conference on International Arbitration
in May- June, 1899, by General Alfied
C. Barnes, with the introductory re-
mark that " no one deprecates war more
than the soldier who serves from a sense
of duty." The speaker said that " with
all our privileges, and in spite of the
elcA^ated spirit that undeniably prevails
among us, the original savage lurks in
the hearts of men here as elsewhere."
In two hundred and twenty-five years
we have had ten principal wars — five
during the colonial period and five since
our independence was undertaken. The
average interval between wars has been
about twenty years—" an extremely in-

?36

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

teresting periodicity, as it brings into
the arena a new race of fighting young
men. So it seems that for each fresh
generation of our j'outh the temple gates
of Janus have to be opened, that the
furies there confined may rush fortli
and devastate the earth. It looks al-
most like the operation of a natural
law." General Barnes's theory of the
origin of the war that the United States
is still engaged in is the simple one that
we were " spoiling for a fight."

Expert Opinions respecting Food
Preservatives. — At a recent hearing
before an English Ollicial Committee on
Preservatives and Coloring Matters in
Food, the representative of an eminent
firm of preservers said that preserva-
tives were not very generally used with
fruits and jams. His firm regarded
them as quite unnecessary, but he
would not say they ought to be prohib-
ited if used in moderate quantity. Be-
sides coloring matter in vegetables, the
only article used by his firm for color-
ing was an extract of cochineal. Mr.
John Tubb 'J'hornas, a medical officer,
told of cliildren who were injured by
milk containing boracic acid, and said
that in his experiments upon himself
about fifteen grains of that substance a
day had upset his digestive organs and
produced sickness, Avith diarrhoea and
headache. The use of the acid, he said,
should certainly be prohibited in new
milk, which was so largely the food of
invalids and infants. Dr. W. H. Cor-
field said he had found salicylic acid in
the lighter wines and beers. It was
a slightly acrid, irritating substance,
wliich was used externally for the re-
moval of corns and warts, and was a
most undesirable article to put in food.
Mr. Walter CoUingwood Williams, a
public analyst, had found salicylic acid
in a number of temperance, non-alco-
holic drinks. Dr. Kaye, a medical offi-
cer of health, showed that the number
of infant deaths was increasing, while
the general death rate was decreasing,
and attributed the fact, partly at least,
to the growing and excessive use of
preservatives.

Pawnshops in Germany. — Between
half a dozen and a dozen of the state
pawnshops which were common in Ger-
many in the seventeenth and eighteentli

centuries still exist. The United States
vice-consul at Cologne has given a con-
siderable list of municipal pawnshops in
the more important cities of all parts
of Germany. On the whole, the num-
ber of these institutions is larger in Ger-
many than in France, but smaller than
in Belgium, Holland, and Italy. The
business of pawnshops appears, at least
more recently, to depend less upon gen-
eral economic than on special, local
causes. The German law has usually
required private persons doing a pawn-
broking business to take out special
licenses, and has exercised a more or
less strict supervision over them. The
supervision practically lacked efficiency,
and more stringent regulations were im-
posed by a statute enacted in 187J),
which is now the basis of the existing
law of the German Empire. Under this
law license is refused to persons who
are unfitted for the business, and is not
issued at any rate unless a necessity is
shown for the institution. The imperial
law is supplemented by special laws of
the various German states.

Animals of the Ocean Depths. — •
\Vhile plant life in the ocean is limited
to shallow waters. Sir John Murray
says fishes and members of all the in-
vertebrate groups are distributed over
the floor of the ocean at all depths. The
majority of these deep-sea animals live
by eating the mud, clay, or ooze, or by
catching the minute particles of organic
inatter which fall from the surface. It
is probably not far from the truth to
say that three fourths of the deposits
now covering the floor of the ocean have
passed through the alimentary canals
of marine animals. These mud-eating
species, many of which are of gigantic
size when compared with their allies
living in the shallow coastal waters,
become in turn the prey of numerous
rapacious animals armed with peculiar
prehensile and tactile organs. Many
deep-sea animals present archaic charac-
ters; still, the deep sea can not be said
to contain more remnants of fauna
which flourished in remote geological pe-
riods than the shallow and fresh waters
of the continents.

The Site of Ophir. — Dr. Carl Pe-
ters, an African explorer recently re-
turned to London, believes that he has

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

Ill

found the Ophir whence King Solomon's
gold was brought, in the country be-
tween the Zambesi and the Pungwa Riv-
ers, in Portuguese Africa and eastern
Mashonaland. JMany rivers, some quite
extensive, of undetermined origin, and
traces of ancient mining enterprises, are
found in the region, and gold is still
washed there. One site is Fura, on the
Muira Kiver, about fifteen miles south of
the Zambesi. The name Fura is said to
be a native corruption of the word Afur,
by which the Arabs of the sixteenth
century called the district, and that to
be the Saharan or south Arabian form

of the Hebrew Ophir. The natives are
unlike the ordinary Africans, and have
a distinctly Jewish type of face. A
chief informed Dr. Peters concerning
the position of some ancient workings,
and, following his directions, the ex-
plorer found ruins " of an undoubtedly
Semitic tj'pe." Dr. Peters's hypotheses
and evidences must be accepted for
what they are worth. Other explorers
have found Ophir at various points in
Africa and Arabia, and even in India
and elsewhere, and have been as satis-
fied and as sure as he with their identi-
fications.

MINOR PARAGRAPHS.

An instructive address, before the
Iron and Steel Institute of Great Brit-
ain, was recently delivered by Sir W.
Roberts Austen on the progress made
in the ii'on and steel industries during
the past century. The great revolution
which the discovery of steel brought
about is dwelt upon at length, and its
far-reaching importance, not only in the
iron industry itself but in all other in-
dustries and in tlie destinies of England
herself, pointed out. In the early days
of the industry it was held that the dif-
ferent qualities of iron were due to the
different localities from which the ore
Avas obtained, but late in the eighteenth
century the great Swedish chemist, Berg-
man, of Upsala, clearly showed that car-
bon is the element to which steel and
cast iron owe their distinctive proper-
ties. Clouet's celebrated experiment on
the carburization of iron by the dia-
mond followed. " Well might Bergman
express astonishment at the action of
carbon on iron. Startling as the state-
ment may seem, the destinies of Eng-
land throughout the century, and espe-
cially during the latter half of it, have
been mainly influenced by the use of
steel. Hardly a step of our progress or
an incident of our civilization has not
in one way or another been influenced
by the pi'operties of iron and steel. It is
remarkable that these properties have
been determined by the relations sub-
sisting between a mass of iron, itself pro-
tean in its nature, and the few tenths
per cent of carbon it contains." In 1800
the production of pig iron in England
was about 200,000 tons; in 1898 it was
8,769,249 tons.

VOL. LVI —58

A NOTE in Nature describes an in-
genious arrangement for controlling the
direction of torpedoes by means of ether
waves. Two solenoids, into which are
drawn iron cores, are attached to the
rudder head, the core which is drawn in
depending, of course, upon the direction
of the received current. Two rods pro-
jecting above the surface of the water
receive the waves and are in circuit with
a coherer of special type, which affects a
relay in the usual way. The actual pro-
cesses involved in steering and control-
ling a torpedo are somewhat as follows:
The torpedo, containing a suitable com-
bination of the apparatus above men-
tioned, is launched from a vessel contain-
ing the necessary sending apparatus. Sup-
pose the torpedo goes off its course. Then,
by means of a switch, an induction coil
is supplied with an electric current, and
waAes or oscillations are generated.
These, on reaching the torpedo, pass into
the projecting wire and thence reach the
coherer. This operates the relay, clos-
ing the secondaiy circuit. An electric
current now flows through a " selector "
to one of the solenoids, the iron core is
sucked into right or left, and the helm is
thus turned. When the torpedo has at-
tained a proper course the switch is
opened and the waves cease. The vibra-
tion in the neighborhood of the coherer
restores it to the original resistance;
the current passing through it becomes
weaker and ceases to affect the relay
coil, which therefore opens the second-
ary circuit and allows the helm to fly
back to the midship position. A large
model of the apparatus has been con-
structed, and it is said to work with en-

7^^

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

tire success under all kinds of condi-
tions. The inventors are Mr. Walter
Jameson and Mr. John Trotter. It is
stated that Nikola Tesla has American
patents for a somewhat similar device.

In the absence of the author, Pro-
fessor Dewar's paper on the solidifica-
tion of hydrogen Avas read in the Brit-
ish Association by Sir William Crook.
It shows that solid hydrogen presents
the appearance of frozen water, and not,
as had been anticipated by many, of
frozen mercury; hence it is now defi-
nitely decided that it is not metallic.
The temperature of the solid is 16° ab-
solute at thirty-five millimetres pres-
sure, and it melts at 16° or 17° abso-
lute, the practical limit of the tempera-
ture obtainable by its evaporation being
14° or 15° absolute. Thvis the last of
the old gas has been solidified. It
was further mentioned, in connection
Avith these statements, that Professor
Dewar had succeeded in liquefying he-
lium.

The organizing committees of the
Congresses of Aeronautics and Meteor-
ology— these being cognate subjects — of
the Exposition of 1900 have decided to
hold the meetings of these bodies in
such a manner that all members can
attend the sessions of both. The pro-
gramme arranged for the Aeronautical
Congress contemplates the discussion,
under aspects which are set forth in de-
tail, of "problems" relating to free bal-
loons, their management and use; cap-
tive balloons, steerable balloons, and
aviation; and the scientific applications
of balloon observations to problems in
astronomy, meteorology, and physiol-
ogy; also of their use for purposes of
reconnoissance and topographical sur-
veys, and of photography from balloons.
In a difTercnt order of ideas, the con-
gress may occupy itself with questions
of legislation and international law
which concern aeronauts in times of
peace and of Avar.

Three State catalogues of Ohio
plants have heretofore been issued. The
first, by J. S. Xcwbcrry, Avas published
in the State Agricultural Report in
18.5!); the second, by H. C. Beardslee,
Avas published in 1874, and Avas rc-
]>vinted in the Agricultural Report for
1870; and the third, by W. A. Keller-
man and ^\^ C. Werner, AA'as included

in the State Geological Report for 1893.
This Avork contains a bibliography, and
giACS the names of the first known col-
lectors of the less common species. A
fourth catalogue, consisting of a check-
list of the Pteridopltytcs and Spcrmo-
pJiytes, recently published by Prof. W.
A. Kellerman, contains the species and
A'arieties numbered serially, as in the
State Herbarium of nearly ten thousand
sheets, Avith the sequence of groups as
by Engler and Prantl, and the nomen-
clature as used by Britton and BroAvu.

NOTES.

The committee of the St. Peters-
burg Astronomical Society for the revi-
sion of the Russian calendar, to make
it agree Avith the Gregorian, has found
it necessary to move sloAvly. The festi-
vals prove a formidable obstacle to the
desired reform, and the people Avill have
to be prepared for the change before it
can be instituted. The plan noAV is to
use both dates, Russian and Grej^ "n,
together till the ncAV style can be muJe
familiar, and it is proposed to make the
double use compulsory on private as
well as on public documents and papers.

A steamboat company is placing
its little A^essels on the canals of Venice,
and the gondolas, Avhich Avere one of the
charms of the city to travelers, are des-
tined to disappear — unless a fcAV may
be reserved to gratify the curiosity of
tourists.

The Commissioner of Education of
Rhode Island has issued a circular to
teachers, calling attention to the work
of the Audubon Society for the Preser-
A'ation of Birds, and to the incalculable
value, from \'arious points of A'ieAV, of
bird life, and advises them to foster
Nature study as furnishing a natural
channel by means of Avhich instruction
and information on the subject may
readily be brought before the children,
and through them to the people gen-
erally.

Is a paper on The Ultimate Basis
of Time Divisions in Geology, T. C.
Chamberlin accepts it as proved that
there Avere no universal breaks in sedi-
mentation or in the fundamental con-
tinuity of life, no physical cataclysms
attended by uniA'crsal destruction of
life, and that sedimentation has been in
constant progress somcAvhere and life

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.

739

continuous and self-derivative since the
beginning, lie then raises the question
whether this continuity of physical and
vital action proceeded by heterogeneous
impulses or by correlated pulsations.
The author's conclusion is in favor of
the hypothesis of correlated pulsations
involving a rhythmical periodicity.

Nettle fiber is said to be coming
into great favor for the manufacture of
line yarns and tissues. Several facto-
ries in Germany are using it, and the
introduction of the extensive cultiva-
tion of nettles into the African colony
of the Cameroons is contemplated.

There are now, according to the
last annual Report of the Commissioner
of the Genei-al Land Oilice, thirty-six for-
est reservations (exclusive of the Afog-
nak Forest and Fish-Culture Heserve in
Alaska) in the United States, embrac-
ing an estimated area of 40,021,899
acres. This estimate is for the aggre-
gate areas within the boundaries of the
re '^'ations, but the lands reserved are
.y the vacant public lands therein.
The actual reserved area is therefore
somewhat less than the estimate.

Experiments made by Professor
Dewar and Sir W. Thisleton Dyer, and
reported to the British Association,
upon the effect of the temperature of
liquid hydrogen upon the germinative
power of seeds, go to show that life
goes on at a temperature so low that
ordinary chemical action is practically
stopped. Seeds of barley, vegetable
marrow, mustard, and the pea were im-
mersed in liquid hydrogen for six hours,

cooled to a temperature of 4.53° F. below
the temperature of melting ice, and
came out unchanged to tlie eye, and,
when planted, all germinated.

Sir Joiix Lubbock, having been
raised to the peerage, has adopted Lord
Avebury as his title, and will be hence-
forth so known.

In our obituary list of men known
to science are the names of N. E. Green,
F. R. A. S., who was distinguished for
the excellence of his planetary observa-
tions, particularly of Mars, made at
Madeira in 1877, and was the second
President of the British Astronomical
Association, died November 10th, in his
seventy-sixth year; Prof. E. E. Hughes,
inventor of the Hughes printing tele-
graph machine, the microphone, and the
induction balance, I'ellow of the Royal
Society, gold medalist, and Chevalier of
the Legion of Honor, who was born in
London in 1831 and was brought to the
United States at an early age; Mr. J.
R. Gregory, mineralogist; M. Marion,
professor in the Scientific Faculty in
the University of Marseilles and Keeper
of the Natural History Museum there,
who took part in the dredging trips of
the Travailleur and the Talisman, and
contributed to the Anriales of the mu-
seum at Marseilles; Dr. Hans Bruno
Geinitz, geologist and paleontologist, at
Dresden, Saxony, in his eighty-sixth
year; Walter Gotze, botanist, while on
an expedition to German East Africa,
December 9th; and Mr. W. T. Suffolk,
treasurer of the Royal Microscopical So-
ciety of Great Britain.

PUBLTCATIOTs^S RECEIVED.

Agricultural Experiment Stations, i ger. Pp. 28, with maps.— West Vir-
Bulletins and Reports. Connecticut: Iginia: Bulletin No. 61. Sheep-Feeding
Twenty-third Annual Report. Part' Experiments. By J. H. Stewart and
I. Fertilizers. Pp. 92; Bulletin No. Horace Atwood. Pp. 10; No. 62. A
130. Commercial Feeding Stuffs in the Study of the Effect of Incandescent Gas-
Connecticut Market. — North Dakota light on Plant Growth. By L. C. Cor-

Weather and Crop Service, November,
1899, and January, 1900. Pp. 8 each.—
United States Department of Agricul-
ture: Agrostology Circular No. 54.
Smooth Brome-Grass. Pp. 10; No. 57.
Experiments with Forage Plants in On-
tario. Pp. 3; Meteorological Chart of
the Great Lakes. Summary for the
Season of 1899. Vol. II, No. 9. By
Alfred J. H. Henry and Norman B. Con-

bett. Pp. 38, with plates.

American Grocer Publishing Com-
pany. Scientific Testimony against the
use of Alum in Food. (Evidence before
the United States Senate Investigating
Committee.) Pp. 12.

Andrews, William. The Diuturnal
Theory of the Earth, or Nature's Sys-
tem of constructing a Stratified Phys-
ical World. New York: Myra Andrews

740

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

and Ernest G. Stevens, 18 West Forty-
fifth Street.

Picnson, Lawrence Sluter. Principles
of Finite Values in Mathematics. Pp. C.

Bland, Rev. J. P., Cambridge, Mass.
What we Know about God. Pp. 12.

Bulletins, Reports, Announcements,
etc. American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science: Forty-eighth An-
nual Meeting, Columbus, Ohio, 1899.
Proceedings. Pp. 527, with plates of
portraits. — Annals of the Astronomical
Ubservatorj' of Harvard College. Vol.
XXXII, Part II. Visual Observations
of the Moon and Planets. By. W.
H. Pickering, Director. Pp. 212, with
plates; Vol. XXXIII. Miscellaneous
Researches, 1897-1899. Pp. 287, with
plates; Vol. XLII, Port 11. Observations
made at the Blue Hill Meteorological
Observatory, Massachusetts, 1897 and

1898. under the Direction of A. Law-
rence Rotch. Pp. 150. — Columbia Uni-
versity, New York: Summer Session,
1900. Announcement. Pp. 24. — Cuba,
Department of Posts: Annual Report
for the Fiscal Year ending June 30,

1899. Pp. 215. — Interstate Commerce
Commission: Preliminary Report on the
Income Account of Railways in the
United States, to June 30, 1899. Pp. 70.
— Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, Boston: Annual Catalogue, 1899-

1900. Pp. 357. — Michigan: Thirty-
eighth Annual Report of the Secretary
of the State Board of Agriculture, and
Twelfth Annual Report of the Experi-
ment Station. Pp. 465. — Missouri Bo-
tanical Garden: Twelfth Annual Re-
port. By William Trelease. Pp. 151,
with plates. — New York State: Report
of the Committee on Canals, 1899. Pp.
231, with charts; Sixteenth Annual Re-
port of the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
1898. Pp. 1179.— Perkins Institution
and Massachusetts School for the Blind :
Sixty-eiglith Annual Report. Pp. 325.
— United States Department of Labor:
Bulletin No. 26. January, 1900. Pp.
236. — United States Geological Survey:
Nineteenth Annual Report. Part V.
Forest Reserves. Pp. 400, with port-
folio of maps.

Burns, J. J. The Story of English
Kings according to Shakespeare. New
York: D. Appleton and Company.
(Home-Reading Books.) Pp. 272.

Chambers, G. F. The Story of
Eclipses. (Library of Useful Stories.)

New York: D. Appleton and Company.
Pp. 222, with plates. 40 cents.

Citator, The. Ohio Edition. (Register
of Citations in Legal Practice.) Quar-
terly. Lapeer, Mich. Pp. 102.

Clinical Excerpts. Elberfeld Com-
pany, New York, Pp. 20.

Coulter, John M. Plant Structures.
xV Second Book of Botany. New York:
D. Appleton and Company. (Twentieth
Century Text-Books.) Pp. 348. $1.20.

Deniker, J. The Races of Men. An
Outline of Anthropology and Ethnog-
raphy. New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons. (Contemporary Science Series.)
Pp. 611. $1.50.

Echeveria i Reyes, Anibal. Voces
Usadas en Chile. (Errors of Speech.)
Santiago. Pp. 246.

Hannay, P. M. How to gain Health
and Long Life. Chicago: The Hazel
Pure-Food Company. Pp. 114.

I am that I am. A Dialogue of the
Gods. By Sum quod Sum. New York:
Library of Liberal Classics. Pp. 21. 10
cents.

Kent, Rev. Alexander. The Plan of
Salvation. Pp. 16.

La Pouge, G. Vachet de. L'Aryen
Son Role Social. (The Aryan, his So-
cial Office.) Paris: Albert Fontemoing.
Pp. 569. 10 francs.

Macmillan, The, Company. An-
nouncements of New Books, Spring,
1900. Pp. 44.

Mcll wraith, J. N. Canada. (His-
tory for Young Readers.) New York:
D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 252.

Manning, Warren H. A Handbook
for Planning and Planting Small Home
Grounds. Stout Manual - Training
School, Menomonee, Wis. Pp. 76.

Richter, Victor von. Organic Chem-
istry, or Chemistry of the Carbon Com-
pounds. Edited by Prof. R. Anschtitz
and Dr. G. Schroeter. Authorized trans-
lation by Edgar F. Smith. Philadel-
phia: P. Blakiston's Son & Co. Pp.
671. $3.

Richardson, Harriet. A New Spe-
cies of Idotoa, from Hakodate Bay,
Japan. Pp. 4.

Ward, Lester F. Description of a
New Genus and Twenty New Species of
Fossil Cycadcan Trunks from the Ju-
rassic of Wyoming. Pp. 32, with 7
plates.

Wooster, L. C. Educational Value
of the Natural Sciences. Pp. 18.

I ]:^ D E X.

ARTICLES MARKED WITH AN ASTERISK ARE ILLUSTRATED.

PAGE

Aggression, External and Internal. (Table) 386

Agnosticism and Naturalism, Professor Ward on. H. Spencer 349

Agricultural Education in Foreign Countries. W. E. De Riemer .... 218

Agriculture : Alkali Soils in Montana. (Frag.) T34

" Manuring with Brains. (Frag.) 731

" Sea Water, Effect of, on Soil. (Frag.) 508

Air Flight, Early Experiments in. M. B. Eivet 603

Alkali Soils in Montana. (Frag.) 734

Allen, Grant, Death of. (Frag.) 389

Amazonian Pygmies, Stories of. (Frag.) 733

A More Excellent Way. (Table) 729

Anarchist, A Paradoxical. C. Lombroso ■"' 312

Anglo-Saxon Superiority. (Frag.) 620

Animals of the Ocean Depths. (Frag.) 736

" Eeason? Do. Rev. E. E. Young " 105

" " " (Corr.) 122

Annual Flowers. (Frag.) 394

Anthropological Traits, Zola's. (Frag.) 388

Anthropology : Amazonian P.ygmies, Stories of. (Frag.) 733

" Anglo-Saxon Superiority. (Frag.) 620

" A Survival of Mediaeval Credulity. E. P. Evans 577

« Malay Folklore. R. C. Ford 239

" Origins of the American Races, Professor Putnam

on. (Frag.) 507

Appleton, William H., The Late. (Table) 265

Archaeology: Athabascan Indian Lodge, An. (Frag.) 292

" Egyptian Exploration, . Recent Years of. W. M. Flin-
ders Petrie 625

" Ophir, The Site of. (Frag.) 736

" Vinland and its Ruins. C. Horsf ord * 160

Art Form, The Study of. D. Cady Eaton * 685

" Value of the Study of. G. Perrot 204

Artificial India Rubber. (Frag.) 136

Astronomy, Advance of, in the Nineteenth Century. Sir R. S. Ball. 289

" Forenoon and Afternoon. C. F. Dowd 492

" Gegenschein, The. (Frag.) 618

" Scenes on the Planets. G. P. Serviss * 337

Athabascan Indian Lodge, An. (Frag.) 392

Bacteria of the Dairy. (Frag.) 284

Ball, Sir R. S. Advance of Astronomy in the Nineteenth Century. . 289

741

48738

742

INDEX.

PAGE

Baxter, William, Jr. What makes the Trolley Car go * 316, 408, 564

Becker, W. F., M. D. The Morbid Sense of Injury 596

Birds, Busy. (Frag.) 138

Blind Fishes of IsTorth America. C. 11. Eiganmann '^ 473

Books Noticed. , 126, 268

Amhropological Institute of Groat
Britain, Quarterly Journal of, 277.

Astronomy, Elements of Practical.
W. W. Campbell, 129.

— Stars and Telescopes. D. B. Todil,
132.

Barrett, John. The Philippine Is-
lands and American Interests in
the Fur East, lo3.

Becmau, W. W., and Smith, D. E.
New Plane and Solid Geometry,
273.

Binet, Alfred. The Psychology of
Reasoning, 274.

Biology. Living Organism, The. A.
Earl, 131.

Botany. California Plants in their
Homes. A. M. Davidson, 130.

— Plant Relations. J. M. Coulter,
131.

British Race, The Story of the. J.
Munro, 272.

Bucklej-, J. M. Extemporaneous Ora-
tory, 270.

Bullen, F. T. Idylls of the Sea,
271.

Campbell, W. W. Elements of Prac-
tical Astronomy, 129.

Chemical Jurisprudence, Notes on.
H. Huntington, 133.

Cities, Growth of, in the Nineteenth
Centtiry. A. F. Weber, 126.

Civil Engineers, Proceedings of the
American Association of. April,
1S99, 278.

Cope, E. D. Vertebrate Remains
from the Port Kennedy Deposit,
133.

Coulter, John !M. Plant Relations,
131.

Cragin, Belle S. Our Insect Friends
and Foes, 273.

Croko, W. J. D. Architecture, I'aint-
iug, and I'rinling at Subiaco, 134.

Crook, James K. Mineral Waters of
the United States and their Thera-
peutic Uses, 127.

Dalton, D. How to Swim, 277.

Davidson, Alice M. California Plants
in their Homes, 130.

Diet in Illness and Convalescence.
A. W. Winthrop, 271.

Earl, A. The Living Organism, 131.

Economics. Liquor Laws, Central-
ized Administration of. C. M. L.
Sites, 275.

Electricity. Accumulators, Small. P.
Marshall, 276.

Entomology. Butterflies, Everyday.

S. H. Scudder, 128.
— Insect Friends and Foes. B. S.

Cragin, 273.
Erling.sson, T. Ruins of the Saga

Times, 277.
Fish and Fisheries, Report of United

States Commission of, for Year

ending June 30, 1898, 27G.
Fiske, John. Through Nature to

(iod.' 208.
Gardiner, C. A. Our Right to Ac-
quire and Hold Foreign Territory,

134.
Gell6, M. E. L'Audition et ses Or-

ganes, 128.
Gelman, F. H. Elements of Blow-

I)ipe Analysis, 279.
Geological Survey, United States,

Eighteenth Annual Report, 272.
Geometry, New Plane and Solid.

Beeman and Smith, 273.
Heilprin, A. Alaska and the Klon-
dike, 270.
History of the American Nation. A.

C. McLaughlin; 129.
Huntington, H. Notes on Chemical

Jurisprudence, 133.
Idylls of the Sea. F. T. Bullen,

271.
Insect Friends and Foes. B. S. Cra-
gin, 273.
Interstate Commerce Commission,

Tenth Annual Report of, 276.
Jacoby, J. The Object of the Labor

Movement, 279.
Knowledge, Slethods of. W. Smith,

273.
Kruger, F. T. A Step Forward, 27-5.
Labor Movement, The Object of the,

279.
Leonard, J. W. Who's Who in

America, 274.
Lucas, F. A. The Hermit Natural-
ist, 1.'53.
Luquer, L. McI. Minerals in Rock

Sections, 130.
McLaughlin, A. C. History of the

American Nation, 129.
Mai-shall, P. Small Accumulators,

276.
Ma (hematics. Trigonometry, Ele-

niciifs of. H. C. Whilakcr, 130.
Medicine. Transactions Wyoming

State Medical Society. First and

Second Regular Meetings, 279.
Memory, The I'hilosophy of, and
Other Essays, 274.

INDEX.

743

Books l^oticed :

Mineralogy. Blowpipe Analysis, Ele-
ments of. F. H. Gelman, 279.

— Colombia, The Ores of. H. W.
Nichols, 132.

— Crystals, The Characters of. A.
J. Moses, 129.

— Microscopic Identification of Min-
erals in Rock Sections. L. McI.
Luquer, 130.

Mineral Waters of the United States.
James K. Crook, 127.

Montaigne on the Education of Chil-
dren. L. E. Rector, 278.

Moore, J. H. Better World Philoso-
phy, 27G.

Morehouse, G. W. The Wilderness
of Worlds, 131.

Moses, A. J. The Characters of
Crystals, 129.

Munro, John. The Stoi-y of the
British Race, 272.

Naturalist, The Hermit. F. A. Lu-
cas, 133.

Nichols, H. W. The Ores of Colom-
bia, 132.

Oratory, Extemporaneous. J. M.
Buckley, 270.

Philosophy, Better World. J. H.
Moore, 27G.

— Through Nature to God. John
Fiske, 2G8.

Physiology. Hearing and its Or-
gans. M. E. Gelle, 128.

Port Kennedy Deposit, Vertebrate
Remains from. E. D. Cope, 133.

Psychologique, L'Annee. A. Binet,
278.

Psychology of Reasoning, The. A.
Binet, 274.

Railway Statistics in United States,
Tenth Annual Report of Interstate
Commerce Commission, 276.

Reasoning, The Psychology of. A.

Jiinet,.274.
Reason, The Dawn of. J. Weir, Jr.,

27.').
Rector, L. E. IMontaigne on the

Education of Children, 278.
Saga Times, Ruins of the. T. Er-

liiigsson, 277.
Scudder, S. H. Everyday Butter-
flies, 128.
Sites, Clement M. L. Centralized

Administration of the Liquor Laws,

275.
Smith, I). T. The Philosophy of

Memory and Other Essays, 274.
Smith, W. Methods of Knowledge,

273.
Southern Magazine, The, 278.
Subiaco, Architecture, Painting, and

Printing at. W. J. D. Croke, 134.
Swift, M. L. Anti-Imperialism, 134.
Swim, How to. D. Dalton, 277.
Todd, D. B. Stars and Telescopes, 132.
Weber, Adna Ferrin. Growth of

Cities in the Nineteenth Century,

12G.
Weir, J.', Jr. The Dawn of Reason,

275.
Whitaker, H. C. Elements of Trigo-
nometry, 130.
Who's Who in America. J. W. Leon-
ard, 274.
Wilderness of Worlds, The. G. W.

Morehouse, 131.
Wiuthrop, Alice W. Diet in Illness

aud Convalescence, 271.
Witt, H. Fundamental Principles of

Nature, Some Observations on the,

132.
Wyoming State Medical Society,

Transactions of First and Second

Regular Meetings, 279.

Botanical Garden's Museum, New York. (Frag.) VSS

Botany : Annual Flowers. (Frag.) 394

" Genuine Starch Factories. B. D. Halsted * 716

" Plant Is^ames, English. (Frag.) 140

The New Field of. B. D. Halsted 98

Briggs, C A. Is the Christian Religion Declining ? 423

Brooks, W. K The Wonderful Century 25

Broom as a Spreader of Disease, The. (Frag.) 734

Bunsen, Death of. (Frag.) 281

Calcium, Metallic. (Frag.) 283

California, Forestry in. (Frag.) 509

Cambridge University. (An English University.) H. Stotesbury *. 14

Canals, Future of the New York. (Fj-ag.) 735

Carbonic Acid and Climate. .(Frag.) 621

Carrington, James B. Winter Birds in a City Park '"^ 366

Cements, Action of, on Sea Water. (Frag.) 733

744 INDEX.

PAGE

Chemistrj^ : A Hundred Years of. F. W. Clarke 6.73

" Calcium, Metallic. (Frag.) 283

" Hydrogen, The Solidification of. (Frag.) 618

" New Element, Another. (Frag.) 509

Childvcn, Literature for. (Frag.) 618

China, Trade Corporations in. M. Courant 722

Christian Religion Declining? Is the. C. A. Briggs 423

City Roadways, Modern. N. P. Lewis * 524

Civilized and Savage. (Frag.) 141

Clarke, F. W. A Hundred Years of Chemistry 673

" " " The Man of Science in Practical Affairs 487

Climate and Carbonic Acid. (Frag.) 621

Colored Labor, Educated. (Frag.) 141

Columbus, Ohio, Geology of. (Frag.) 141

Commission in Difficulties, A. (Table) 614

Cook, O. " Ribbon Lightning " * 587

Courant, M. Trade Corporations in China 722

Criminal Jurisprudence, Decline of, in America. G. C. Speranza. .. 460

Criminology: Anarchist, A Paradoxical. C. Lombroso * 312

" Typical Criminals. Rev. S. A. Smith * 539

Dairy, Bacteria of the. (Frag.) 284

" Dark Lightning." (Frag.) 505

Dastre, M. A. The Scavengers of the Body 379

Dawson, Sir William, Death of. (Frag.) 390

Democracy, Real Problems of. F. Smith 1

Destruction of the Birds. (Frag.) 393

Development of the American Newspaper. W. L. Hawley "■■' 186

Diamonds, Emigrant, in America. William H. Hobbs * 73

Dover Meeting of the British Association. (Frag.) 135

Dowd, C. F. Forenoon and Afternoon 492

Eaton, D. Cady. The Science of Art Form •• 685

Economics : A More Excellent Way. (Tabic) 729

" Commission in Difficulties, A. (Table) 614

" Monopolies, The War against. (Frag.) 508

" Pawnshops in Gennany. (Frag.) 736

" Pension Funds for Railroad Men. (Frag.) 734

" Taxation, A State Official on Excessive, F. Smith 645

Economy, A Question of. (Frag.) 283

Education : An English University. H. Stotesbury * 14

" Cross-. E. W. Scripture * 589

" Language and Life. (Table) 503

" Liberal, and Democracy. (Table) 385

" Literature for Children. (Frag.) •. 619

" Plantations for Rural School Grounds. (Frag.) 393

" Specialization. (Table) 125

" The Environment in. (Frag.) 391

Egyptian Exploration, Recent Years of. W. M. Flinders Petrie. ... 025

Eigenmann, C. H. Blind Fishes of North America * 473

Electricity : Dark Lightning. (Frag.) 505

" From Thales to Faraday. E. T. Lesueur 242

INDEX. 745

PAGE

Electricity : " Eibbon Lightning." O. Cook * 587

Electrolysis, H. S. Wynkoop * 357

Element, Another New. (Frag.) 509

Emigrant Diamonds in America. William H. Ilobbs * 73

Entomology: Spider Bites and "Kissing Bugs." L. O. Howard*.. 31

Evans, E. P. A Survival of Media3val Credulity 577, 706

Evolutionary Variation in the Past, Kate of. (Frag.) 285

Exploration and Geography in 1899. (Frag.) 619

Explosives, The Applications of. C. E. Munroe * 300, 444

Faith and Knowledge. (Corr.) 497

Fiske's Views Compared. (Corr.) 498

Flinders, Petrie, W. M. Recent Years of Egyptian Exploration 625

Floating Stones. (Frag.) 735

Food Poisoning. V. C. Vaughan 47

" Preservatives, Expert Opinions respecting. (Frag.) 736

Ford, R. C. Malay Folklore 239

Forenoon and Afternoon. C. F. Dowd 492

Forestry, American Advances in. (Frag.) 506

" in California. (Frag.) 509

Fossiliferous Formation below the Cambrian, A. (Frag.) 139

Funafuti Atoll, Constitution of the. (Frag.) 283

Future of the ISTew York Canals. (Frag.) 735

Gegenschein, The. (Frag.) 618

Geography and Exploration in 1899. (Frag.) 619

Geology, A Century of. J. Le Conte 431, 546

" Fossiliferous Formation below the Cambrian. (Frag.) . . . 139

" Funafuti Atoll, Constitution of the. (Frag.) 283

" of Columbus, Ohio. (Frag.) 141

Gerhard, William P. Needed Improvements in Theater Sanitation. . 84

Giddings, F. H. Exact Methods in Sociology 145

Glacial Lakes in New York. (Frag.) 391

Glangeaud, P. Wingless Birds 254

Halsted, B. D. Genuine Starch Factories * 716

" " The New Field of Botany 98

Ilawley, W. L. Bevelopmeut of the American Newspaper * 186

Heat Insulators. (Frag.) 507

Heilprin, A. A Year's Progress in the Klondike * 455

" The Gold Sands of Cape Nome * 633

High Altitudes, Dangers of, for Elderly People. (Frag.) 136

Ilobbs, W. H. Emigrant Diamonds in America * 73

Home Burdens. (Table) 125

Horsford, Cornelia. Vinland and its Ruins * 160

Howard, L. O. Spider Bites and " Kissing Bugs " * 31

Hydrogen, Solidification of. (Frag.) 618

Hygiene : Bacteria of the Dairy. (Frag.) 284

India Rubber, Artificial. (Frag.) 136

" " Cultivation of. (Frag.) 732

746 INDEX.

PAGB

Japanese Paper. (Frag.) 389

Jew, The Dread of the. (Frag.) 280

Jordan, D. S. Old Rattler and the King Snake 371

" " " The Education of the JSTcminist 17G

Jordan's (President) Neminism. A. Pangloss 494

" Kissing Bugs " and Spider Bites. L. O. Howard ■'■ 31

Klondike, A Year's Progress in the. A. Heilprin * 455

Language and Life. (Table) 503

Law: Criminal Jurisprudence, Decline of, in America. G. C. Spe-

ranza 466

Le Conte, Joseph. A Century of Geology 431, 546

Lesquereux and Sullivant, Honors to. (Frag.) 285

Lesueur, E. A. Electricity from Thales to Faradaj' 242

Lewis, N. P. Modern City Roadways * 524

Literature for Children. (Frag.) 619

Lombroso, C. A Paradoxical Anarchist * 312

Malaria, The Mosquito Theory. Major R. Ross 42

Malay Folklore. R. C. Ford 239

Man of Science in Practical Affairs. F. "W. Clarke 487

" Manuring with Brains." (Frag.) 731

Medalists, Royal Society. (Frag.) 620

Medicine : Plague Antitoxin. (Frag.) 732

" Rats and the Plague. (Frag.) 509

Meteorology: Climate and Carbonic Acid. (Frag.) 621

Mexico, Prosperity and Enterprise in. (Frag.) 283

Mineralogy: Emigrant Diamonds in America. William H. Hobbs *. 73

Miracle, A Thirteenth-Century. (Frag.) 394

Monopolies, The War against. (Frag.) 508

Montana, Alkali Soils in. (Frag.) ■. 734

Mosquito Theory of Malaria, The. Major R. Ross 42

Munroe, E. C. The Applications of Explosives * 300, 444

Natural History: " Salamanders " and " Salamander " Cats. K. Rob-
inson * 556

" " Whales, Longevity of. (Frag.) 618

Negro Question: Educated Colored Labor. (Frag.) 141

" " Transplantation of a Race. N. S. Shaler 513

Neminism, President Jordan's. A. Pangloss 494

Neminist, The Education of the. D. S. Jordan 176

New York Botanical Garden's Museum. (Frag.) 733

" " Glacial Lakes in. (Frag.) 391

Nome, The Gold Sands of Cape. Angelo Heilprin * 633

Ocean Depths, Animals of the. (Frag.) 736

" The Deeps of the. (Frag.) 390

Old Rattler and the King Snake. D. S. Jordan 371

Ophir, The Site of. (Frag.) 736

Oregon, Eastern Oyster Culture in. F. L. Washburn * 233

INDEX. j^j

PAGE

Ornithology : Birds, Destruction of the. (Frag.) 393

" Sand Grouse, The. (Frag.) 392

" Wingless Birds. P. Glangeaud 254

" Winter Birds in a City Park. J. B. Carrington* 366

Orton, Edward, Sketch of. (Portrait) ; 607

Outdoor Improvement, For. (Frag.) 284

Oyster Culture, Eastern, in Oregon. F. L. Washburn * 233

Packard, R. L. Remarkable Volcanic Eruptions in the Philippines. 374

Pangloss, A. President Jordan's " feminism " 494

Papei*, Japanese. (Frag.) 389

Paris Exposition in 1900, The, and Congresses. (Frag.) 140

Park-making among the Sand Dunes, (Frag.) 139

Parliamentary Amenities Committee, The. (Frag.) 137

Parsons, C. A. Steam Turbines and High-Speed Vessels* 696

Patrick, Mary M. Woman's Struggle for Liberty in Germany 328

Pawnshops in Germany. (Frag.) 736

Pearl Mussels. (Frag.) 621

Pension Funds for Railroad Men. (Frag.) 734

Periodicity of War. (Frag.) 73.5

Perrot, G. Value of the Study of Art 204

Petrie, W. M. Flinders. Recent Years of Egyptian Exploration 625

Physical Investigation, Where it fails. (Frag.) 284

" Measurements of Asylum Children. (Frag.) 138

Physiology : Scavengers of the Body. M. A. Dastre 379

Plague Antitoxin. (Frag.) 732

" Rats and the. (Frag.) 509

Plantations for Rural School Grounds. (Frag.) 393

Plant Names, English. (Frag.) 140

Pseudo-Science: Neminist, The Education of the. D. S. Jordan. .. 176

Psychology : Animals Reason? Do. Rev. E. R. Young * 105

" A Sui-vival of Mediteval Credulity. E. P. Evans 577

" Morbid Sense of Injury, The. W. F. Becker, M.D.. .. 596

« " Warming Fp." (Frag.) 506

Public Library, The Function of the. (Table) 616

Putnam, Professor, on the Origins of the American Races. (Frag.) . 507

Pygmies, Amazonian, Stories of. (Frag.) 733

Rats and the Plague. (Frag.) 509

Religion, Is the Christian, Declining? C. A. Briggs 423

Religious Suicides. (Frag.) 731

" Ribbon Lightning." O. Cook * 587

Riemer, W. E. De. Agricultural Education in Foreign Countries. . 218

Rivet, M. B. Early Experiments in Air Flight 603

Roberts, Comptroller, on Excessive Taxation. F. Smith 645

Robinson, 1^. " Salamanders " and " Salamander " Cats * 556

Ross, Major R. The Mosquito Theory of Malaria 42

Royal Society Medalists. (Frag.) . .^ 620

" Salamanders " and Salamander " Cats. N, Robinson * 556

Sand Dunes, Park-making among. (Frag.) 139

748 INDEX.

PAGE

Sand Grouse, The. (Frag.) 292

Sanitation : Broom, The, as a Spreader of Disease, (Frag.) V34

Scarengers of the Body. M. A. Dastre 379

Science and Dogma. (Table) Y28

" of Art Form, The. D. Cady Eaton * 685

" South-Sea Bubbles in. J. Trowbridge 401

" The Man of, in Practical Affairs. F. W. Clarke 487

Scripture, E. W. Cross-Education * 589

Sea "Water, Effect of, on Soil. (Frag.) 508

" " on Cements, Action of. (Frag.) 733

Serviss, G. P. Scenes on the Planets * 337

Shaler, 1^. S. The Transplantation of a Eace 513

Simplon Tunnel, The. (Frag.) 388

Smith, Rev. S. G. Typical Criminals * 539

" Franklin. A State OiEcial on Excessive Taxation 645

Sociology: Democracy, Peal Problems of. F. Smith 1

" Exact Methods in. F. H. Giddings 145

South-Sea Bubbles in Science. J. Trowbridge 401

Specialization. (Table) 125

Spencer, H. Professor Ward on Naturalism and Agnosticism 349

Speranza, G. C. Decline of Criminal Jurisprudence in America. .. . 466

Standard Time, How Obtained. T. B. Willson 213

Starch Factories, Genuine. B. D. Halsted " 716

Steamships, Sixty Years' Improvements in. (Frag.) 506

Steam Turbines and High-Speed Vessels. C. A. Parsons * 696

Sternberg, George M., Sketch of. (Portrait) : 116

Stones, Floating. (Frag.) ; 735

Stotesbury, H. An English University * 14

St. Prokopy, A Thirteenth-Century. (Frag.) 394

Suicides, Religious. (Frag.) 731

Survival of Mediaeval Credulity. E. P. Evans 577, 706

Taxation, A State Official on Excessive. F. Smith 645

Theater Sanitation, Needed Improvements in. William P. Gerhard. 84
Trolley Car, What makes the, go? William Baxter, Jr.*. . 316, 408, 564

Trowbridge, John. Latest Developments with the X Rays * 659

" " South-Sea Bubbles in Science 401

" " Wireless Telegraphy * 59

Vagrant Electricity, Destructive Effects of. H. S. Wynkoop * 357

Vaughan, V. C. Food Poisoning 47

Vinland and its Ruins. Cornelia Hofsford * 160

" The Location of. (Corr.) 500

Volcanic Eruptions in the Philippines, Remarkable. R. L. Packard. 374

" Warming Fp." (Frag.) 506

War, Periodicity of. (Frag.) 735

" Spirit, The. (Table) 501

Washburn, F. L. Eastern Oyster Culture in Oregon * 233

Whales, Longevity of. (Frag.) 618

Willson, T. B. How Standard Time is Obtained 213

INDEX. 749

PAGE

Wingless Birds. P. Glangeaud 254

Wireless Telegraphy. John Trowbridge * 59

Woman's Struggle for Liberty in Germany. Mary M. Patrick 328

Wonderful Century, The. W.K.Brooks 25

Wynkoop, H. S. Destructive Effects of Vagrant Electricity* 357

X Bays, Latest Developments ■with. J. Trowbridge * 659

Young, Eev. E. B. Do Animals Beason? * 105

Zola's Anthropological Traits. (Frag.) 388

Zoology: Blind Fishes of North America. C. 11. Eigenmann*. .. . 473

THE END.

Vol. LVL] Established by Edward L. Yocmans. [No. 1.

APPLETONS' V
POPULAR SCIENCE
MONTHLY.

NOVEMBER, 1899. \^A>-

EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMAJ^S.

CONTENTS. PAG.

I. The Real Problems of Democracy. Franklin Smith 1

IL An English University. (Illustrated.) Heebebt Stotesbuey. ... 14

III. The Wonderful Century. Prof. W. K. Brooks 25

IV. Spider Bites and " Kissing Bugs." (Illustrated.) L. O. Howaed. 31
V. The Mosquito Theory of Malaria. Major Ronald Ross 42

VI. Food Poisoning. Prof. Victor C. Vaughan 47

VII. Wireless Telegraphy. (Illustrated.) Prof. John Trowbridge... 59
VIIL Emigrant Diamonds in America. (Illustrated.) Prof. William

Herbert Hobbs 73

IX. Needed Improvements in Theater Sanitation. W. P. Gerhard, C. E. 84

X. The New Field Botany. Byron D. Halsted, Sc. D 98

XI. Do Animals Reason? (Illustrated.) Rev. Egerton R. Young.. 105

XII. Sketch of George M. Sternberg. (With Portrait.) 116

XIII. Correspondence : « Do Animals Reason ? " 122

XIV. Editor's Table : Home Burdens.— Specialization 125

XV. Scientific Literature 126

XVI. Fragments of Science 13r

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No. 274. A Voyage at Anchor.

By W. Clark Russell, author of " The Tragedy of Ida Noble," etc.
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No. 273. The Heiress of the Season.

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No. 272. A Bitter Heritage.

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No. 270. The Strange Story of Hester Wynne.

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No. 269. Dr. Nikola's Experiment.

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17

T

O

m

N

era

a

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PROFESSOR RIPLEY'S p

GREAT WORK NOW READY '^

The Races
of Europe

A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY

BY

WILLIAM Z. RIPLEY, Ph. D.

Assistant Professor of Sociology, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology ; Lecturerin Anthropology at Colum-
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Crown Svo, cloth; 650 pages, with &5 Maps and 235 Por-
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^^uppi

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LAPP. Scandinavia. 1

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E

O

m

A Journey to the New Eldorado. With Hints to the Traveler and Observa-
tions on the Physical History and Geology of the Gold Regions, the Condi-

tion of and Methods of
Placers, and the Laws
ing Mining in the North-

By ANGELO

Professor of Geology at
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graphical Society of Lon-

ALASKA

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1815 to 18 99

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Joseph S. Auerbach,

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Edouard Rod,

Captain A. T. Mahan, U. S. N.,

The Rt. Rev. H. C Potter, D.D.,

Prof. E G. Bourne,

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OCTOBER CONTENTS.

The Peace Conference and the Moral Aspect of
War. C\)pfaiH A. 1 . Mahan, U.S.N.

In the Clutch of the Harpy Powers.

R. M. Johnston.
The Picture Gallery of the Hermitage. — I.

Claude Phillips.
A Transvaal View of the South African Question.

Dr. F. r. Engelenhtirg,
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The Present Literary Situation in France.

Henry James.
The Alaskan Boundary. Pro/. J. B. Moore,

Formrrly Assistant Secretary 0/ State.

Some Social Tendencies in America.

J he Right R,'v. H. C. Potter, D.D.
A Trained Colonial Civil Service. E. G. Bourne,

Professor of '->istory in J 'ale University.

The French Press and the Dreyfus Case.

M. de Bloivitz.

THE ANGLOSAXON RIVALS:
Five Years of American Progress.

.1/. G. Mulhall, F.S.S.

The Decline of British Commerce.

A. Maurice Low.

America and England in the East.

The Right Hon. Sir CharFs IV. Dilke, Bt., M.P.

The Restless Energy of the American People.

Ian MacLaren.

NOVEMBER CONTENTS.

Hawthorn and Lavender: Songs and Madrigals.

IV. E. Henley.

INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION:

A Russian View. F. de Martens,

Delegate /rom Russia to The Hague Conference.

From an American Standpoint. Seth Low,

United States Delegate to The Hague Conference .

France at the Parting of the Ways.

Bernard Lazare.

The "Open Door" Policy in the Philippines.

Frank D. Parley.
The Dramatic Festivals of Orange. Jules Claretie,

Administrator-General of the Cotnidie Pranfazse.

Is Civil Service Reform in Peril?

Professor Joseph F. Johnson,
Of the University of Pennsylvania.

Food Which Fails to Feed. Louis WindmUller.
The Story of a Helpful Queen. Carmen Sylva,

The Queen of Rouinania.

The Picture Gallery of the Hermitage.— H.

Claude Phillips.

THE ANGLICAN CHURCH CRISIS:

The Rebellion Against the Royal Supremacy.

The Earl of I ortsmouth.

How the Ritualists Harm the Church.

The Right Hon. Arthur J. Balfour.

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IN NATURAL COLORS."

.-/ .SVWr of cur Common Buds. By Frank M. Chapman, Assistant
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The Log of a SeaWaif.

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THE LOG OF A
SEA=WAIF i ii i

FRANK TBIIXEN

^^

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By FfiANK T. BULLEN,

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^ A HISTODY OF*.

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From forgotten monographs, the records of societies, from unpublished

*■- W*>«M'

Captine of the Gaspe, from a painting belonging to the Rhode Island Historical Society.

log books, and from descendants of noted privateersmen, he has obtained
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"The history of the United States Navy is so intimately connected
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many of the captains in the navy assumed command of privateers in which
they frequently rendered services of national importance, while the priva-
teersmen furnished the navy with a large number of officers, many of
whom became famous, in our struggle for independence more than sixty
American privateers were commanded by men who had been, or soon be-
came, officers in the regular service, and in more than one instance —
notably that of the officers and men of the Ranger, Captain John Paul
Jones's famous ship, then commanded by Captain William Simpson —
almost the entire ship's company of a Continental cruiser turned to priva-
teering. Many of our most distinguished navy officers have pointed with
pride to their probationary career in privateers. The mere mention of such
names as Truxtun, Porter, Biddle, Decatur, Barney, Talbot, Barry, Perry,
Murray, Rodgers, Cassin, Little, Robinson, Smith, and Hopkins will show
how closely related were the two arms of our maritime service."

3

FOR EARLY PUBLICATION

THE FIFTH VOLUME OF

PROF. JOHN BACH McMASTED'S

History of the
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Austin and his imitators, and on the origin and first temporarv settlement
of the Oregon dispute by the establishment of
the line S4° 40'. It was in connection with this
line that Adams announced to Russia the anti-
colonization part of the Monroe Doctrine.

The second chapter, therefore, under the cap-
tion Growth of the Monroe Doctrine, reviews the
gradual development and assertions of the three
principles of that doctrine from Washington's
day to 1823; the Holy Allies and their work in
Europe, their preparation for interference with
the late Spanish-American colonies, and the
final assertion of the doctrine of Monroe.
4

I

^

m

J

1

John

QriNcv Adams.

After thus reviewing the important foreign relations of Monroe's second
term, Mr. McMaster returns to domestic concerns, and in the next chapter
treats of The Breaking Up of the Republican Party. The economic,

industrial, and political conditions which led
to sectionalism, the rise of the rival can-
didates, and the long presidential campaign
ending in the failure of the colleges to elect,
are given <vith great fullness.

The election of Adams marked the end
of the first half century of the republic.
The next eight chapters are therefore given
up to an examination or review of certain
social, political, literary, and industrial con-
ditions which arose during the period and
paved the way for the triumph of Jackson
and Democracy.

In the chapter on Socialistic and Labor

Reforms we have the story of the entrance

of the workingman into politics; of that curious socialistic movement

of Owen and Fanny Wright; the beginning of the Antimasonic party,

and the early signs of native Americanism.

The next chapter is a full account of The State of the Country from
182^ to 182Q; the rapid growth of cities; early problems in city govern-
ment: the introduction of gas and anthracite coal; the opening of the
Erie Canal and the tremendous struggle for Western trade, etc. Fol-
lowing this is a chapter on The Negro Problem; and the next chapter,
under the title The Industrial Revolution, is an account of the rise and
development of manufactures; of the conditions which led to the tariffs
of 1824 and 1828; their peculiar characters;
the violent opposition of the South, and asser-
tions of the State-Rights Doctrine of Cal-
houn and his party.

This is followed by an account of our early
literary efforts which is singularlv fresh, in-
forming, and interesting. There is a chapter on
The Common Schools during the first half cen-
tury, and another, quite timely now, on British
Criticism of the United States, setting forth very
fully why our fathers hated Great Britain so
heartily. Then follows an elaborate review
of Political Ideas; a chapter on foreign compli-
cations; the Panama Congress; the prevention of the independence of
Cuba by the United States in the interest of the slaveholding States; the
Maine boundary dispute with Great Britain; the Oregon agreement of
1827; and, finally, a chapter on The Triumph of Democracy, detailing the
famous struggle ending in the election of Jackson, and his war on the Bank.

5

Reminiscences
^Of a Very Old Man^

By JOHN SARTAIN.

Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $2.50

MISS KEBliCCA GRATZ

('I'lie Rebecca of " Ivanhoe ").

From a Drawing by John Sartain after the Painting by Thomas Sully.

M

R. SARTAIN was born in London, where as a boy he witnessed
the Peace Jubilee and saw many picturesque phases of old London
and its life which have since disappeared. He studied under Var-
ley and Richter, and began to engrave in Ottley's school. In this country

his associations were literary as well as artis-
tic. He knew Washington Irving and others
of the Knickerbocker literary circle, and his
close relations with Edgar Allan Poe form the
subject of a most interesting chapter. His
"Reminiscences" include personal phases of
the development of American art and letters
for over sixty years, and the unpublished
history which he presents is of most intimate
interest. Mr. Sartain's career as editor of
Sartain's Union Magazine and other periodi-
cals, in addition to his high standing as an
engraver, furnished exceptional opportunities
for a peculiarly rich acquaintanceship with
men and women of distinction. The illustra-
tions include reproductions of rare old prints of London scenes in the
first quarter of the century, together with American portraits and pictures
which have a lasting historical interest.

Wiui^

APPLETONS'

^^Geographical Series^

Edited by H. J. MACKINDEft, M. A.,

Student of Christ Church, Peadcr in Geography in the University of Oxford, Principal

of Keading College.

A COMPLETE ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD.

THE series will consist of twelve volumes, each being an essay descrip-
tive of a great natural region, its marked physical features, and the
life of its people. Together the volumes will give a complete account
of the world, more especially as the field of human activity.

FOR READERS AS WELL AS STUDENTS.

The series is intended for reading rather than for reference, and will
stand removed on the one hand from the monumental work of Reclus,
and on the other from the ordinary text-book, gazetteer, and compendium.

In their presentation of the facts the authors will study above all things
perspective, and will seek to convey right proportions rather than statis-
tical accuracy. Facts will not be presented merely as f^icts, but always in
their causal or graphic relations. Thus, each volume will give a succession
of vivid ideas, to be grasped pictorially, and to remain in the memory.
The reader will be led to visualize a great relief model in color, with its
seas and its lands, its uplands and its lowlands, its rivers and their valleys,
its forests and deserts, and its seasonal changes. Above all, he will think
of it as the stage of human action, and will realize the relations of man—
and especially of his economic and political organizations— to the grand
features of physical geography.

Care will be taken to tell the results of natural and economic science
in language devoid of technicality, and to make each of the books interest-
ing and attractive to every reader, although a solid contribution to geo-
graphical literature.

FOR TEACHERS, STUDENTS, AND BUSINESS MEN.

The series will appeal to teachers, to students, to tourists, to business
men, and to the general reader. The teacher will find suggestions for
salient points in his teaching; the general reader will learn the persistent
factors controlling the passing events chronicled in the newspapers; the

tourist will grasp the real working of the community he visits, and not
merely its curiosities and antiquities ; and the merchant will realize the
varied circumstances of his markets.

MAPS AND DIAGRAMS.

Each volume is to be illustrated by many maps printed in colors and
by diagrams in the text ; and it will be a distinguishing characteristic of
the series that both maps and diagrams will be drawn so that each of them
shall convey some salient idea, and that together they shall constitute a
clear epitome of the writer's argument. With a like object the pictures also
will be chosen so as to illustrate the text, and not merely to decorate it.

When possible, the books will be written from the point of view of
the region described, and every effort will be made to avoid bias, patri-
otic or other.

List of the Subjects and Authors.

1. Britain and the North Atlantic. By the Editor.

2. Scandinavia and the Arctic Ocean. By Sir Clements R Markham, K. C. B.,

P. R. S. , President of the Royal Geographical Society.

3. The Domancc Lands and Barbary. By Elisee Reclus, author of the " Nou-

velle Geographie Universelle."

4. Central Europe. By Dr. Joseph Partsch, Professor of Geography in the

University of Breslau.

5. Africa. By Dr. J. Scott Keltie, Secretary of the Royal Geographical

Society ; Editor of " The Statesman's Year-Book."

•6. The Near East By D. G. Hogarth, M. A., Fellow of Magdalen Col-
lege, Oxford ; Director of the British School at Athens ; Author of
" A Wandering Scholar in the Levant."

7. The Russian Empire. By Prince Krapotkin, author of the articles " Rus-

sia" and "Siberia" in the Encvclopcvdia Britannica.

8. The Far East By Archibald Little.

9. India. By Sir T. Hungerford Holdich, K. C. I. E., C. B., R. E.. Su-

perintendent of Indian Frontier Surveys.

10. Australasia and Antarctica. By Dr. H. O. Forbes, Curator of the Liver-

pool Museum ; late Curator of the Christ Church Museum, N. Z. ;
Author of " A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago."

11. North America. Bv Prof I. C. Russell, University of Michigan.

12. South America. By Prof. John C. Brouner, Vice-President Leland Stan-

ford Junior University.

Maps by J. G. Bartholomew.

The Principles of Taxation^

By the Late DAVID A. WELLS.

12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

THE purpose of the distinguished economist in writing this book was
to describe a science of taxation as the subject presented itself to him.
Believing that the relations of private property to the Government and the

responsibility of the Government to citizens
were susceptible of definite formulation, Dr.
Wells has endeavored in this most important
volume to formulate these relations and to
place the subject of taxation upon a scientific
basis. In his introduction Dr. Wells writes
as follows :

**Thc Records of Experience. «-

"It is the purpose of the writer, in the
chapters which follow, to discuss the prin-
ciples of taxation from a broader basis and
by different methods than have heretofore
been attempted, special consideration being
given to the experience of the United States.
"Such a discussion primarily involves the inquiry, of how far the
varied and curious experience of nations leads up through what may be
regarded as a process of evolution, to a recognition of the underlying
and essential principles of a just and at the same time an efficient system
of taxation. And it also necessitates, for the attainment of correct con-
clusions in the prosecution of such inquiry, that illustrations drawn from
the world's great record of experience should take precedence of theory,
especially in the way of example and exhibit of the many abuses of the
power of taxation which the ignorance of legislators and the cupidity
of designing men have inflicted upon nations.

•♦Adequate Revenue — Sound Finance. «•

"There can be no civilization without government, and no government
without an adequate supply of revenue obtained from the persons and
property of the people governed. There can be no health in the body
politic without sound tinance, and no sound finance without a sound
system of taxation, in fact, taxation is to our body politic what blood is
to the body physical: if healthy, infusing life and warmth; but if un-
healthy, the agent for producing discontent, decrepitude, and paralysis.

-»The Methods of Taxation. «-

" The absence or existence of limitations on the power of a govern-
ment to make compulsory levies on the property or persons of its people
for its use or support, constitutes the dividing line between a despotism
and a free government — a fact most pertinent to legal, economic, and
societary studies which has attracted little attention.

"The methods and scope of what is called taxation regulate more than
all other agencies the distribution of wealth, which is really the great
question of the future to all nations."

AlasKa and the KlondiKe

By ANGELO HEILPRIN,

Professor of Geology at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Fellow of the

Royal Geographical Society of London, Past=President of the

Geographical Society of Philadelphia, etc.

Fully illvstrated from Photographs and with a new Map of the Gold Degions.
12mo. Cloth, $1.75.

A JOURNEY to the New Eldorado. With Hints to the Traveler and
Observations on the Physical History and Geology of the Gold
Regions, the Condition of and Methods of Working the Klondike Placers,
and the Laws Governing and Regulating Mining in the Northwest
Territory of Canada.

" Will take and retain immediate rank as a contribution of essential value not only to the
literature of travel, but to that of American commercial and political development. . . .
Should he in the hands of every person interested either in fad or in prospect in Alaska and
the Klondike.^' — Brooklvn Standard-Union.

Imperial Democracy

By DAVID STARR JORDAN, Ph. D.,

President of Leiand Stanford Junior University.

12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" Dr. Jordan may truly be said to present his case,
and that of those who stand with him, with rare
force, completeness, and fairness. It deals with the
question from the economic and political as well as the
social and ethical point of view, and demonstrates the
author's firm belief that his cause is just. . . . Dr.
Jordan's book is -worthy of the notice of all true Ameri-
cans. He shows himself in its pages a patriot ready to
serve his country with all his heart and soul, with all
his great intellectual gifts. We may not agree with
him, but we can not fail to profit by his book." —
Mail and Express.

" The book probably sums up better than anything
that is in print the arguments of those who oppose
the retention of the Philippines. . . . Recent events
have induced many to doubt the wisdom as well as the expediency of expansion, and they will
find many facts in this volume to strengthen their doubt. . . . Dr. Jordan's book must be re-
garded as the ablest contribution to this literature of dissent." — San Francisco Chronicle.

PROFESSOe DIPLEY'S GREAT WORK

The Races of Europe.

A Sociological Study
^fiy WILLIAM 2. RIPLEY, Ph.D.^

Assistant Professor of Sociology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; Lecturer in Anthro-
pii!oi;y at (lokimbia University, in the city of New York.

Crown 8vo, cloth ; 650 pages, with 85 Maps
and 235 Portrait Types. With a Supplemen-
tary Bibliography of nearly Two Thousand
Titles, separately bound m cloth, issued by
the Boston Public Library. [178 pages.]
Price, $6.00.

' ■ This book is ;i inonumeiit of care-
tul and profound scholarship. There is
nothing about it superficial. Whether
the reader agrees with or dissents from
its arguments and conclusions, he will
carry throughout its perusal a sympa-
thetic and never-abating admiration
for its honesty of purpose and for the
wide learning of its author." — National
Gt og rap // ic " Maga:^!ii e.

" The mere assorting and arranging
of this mass of investigation is one re-
quiring peculiar abilities in selection and perception. The method em-
ployed by Dr. Ripley to bring this large subject to general attention is
admirable, clear, and concise. The text develops the theme in simple,
direct language ; the sketch maps are clear, and tell their story almost at
a glance. . . . The work is a monument of scholarship and accuracy,
and is easily first among similar volumes." — Philadelphia Public Ledger.
"A valuable and an interesting book. . . . Will attract the attention
of all students of anthropology and all its kindred subjects. While it
will most deeply interest advanced scholarly readers, it at the same time
abounds in value for those not among the learned classes. "^C///V(7_^^o Inter-
Ocean.

"This racial geography of Professor Ripley"s will recommend itself to
the consideration of all anthropologists." — Centralblati, Leipsic.

"This is indeed one of the best studies of its kind. ... It is accom-
panied by finely executed maps." — Indicatenr, Paris.

"One of the most important works of the year." — Nei.' York Mail
and Express.

"A contribution of great interest and value to anthropology." — Boston
Literary World.

"This is not only a profound sociological study, but a scholarly con-
tribution to the science of anthropology and ethnology by an eminent
authority." — Philadelphia Press.

^Oom Paul's People^

THE TRUTH ABOUT THE BOERS.

By HOWAPD C. HILLEGAS.

Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

THE first systematic and categorical exposition of tiie whole case and its origins, written
by a disinterested observer. ... An informing booi<, and a well-written one." — New
York Mail and Express.
" A most interesting and timely book." — Boston Herald.

13

*^

ANTHONY HOPE'S NEW NOVEL

THE KING^S MIPftOR^

By ANTHONY HOPE,

Author of " The Chronicles of Count Antonio " and " The God in the Car.'

12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" Mr. Anthony Hope is at his best in this new novel. lie returns in some measure to the color
and atmosphere of ' The Prisoner of Zenda." ... A strong book, charj^ed with close analysis and ex-
qui.-iite irony ; a book full of pathos and moral fiber — in short, a book to be read." — London C/irontcle.

" Subtle, restrained, and delicate workmanship, . . . efftclive in its lij^htncss, and in the complete
but unstrained humor of his character talk." — J^a/l Mall Gazette.

" At once unique and artistic. The book shows deeper thoufjht and a higher grade of skill than
any of his former works." — Chicago Tribune.

" Incisive draughtsmanship of cliaracter. . . . ,A flowing and vivacious narrative, which abounds
in situations of interest. .Anthony Hope has again written a capit.il novel." — London Athenauin.

^The White Terror^

A Domancc. By FELIX 6DAS.

Translated from the Provencal by Mrs. Catharine A. Janvier. Uniform with " The
Reds of the Midi " and » The Terror."

16mo. Cloth, $1.50.

IN "The White Terror" M. Gras paints
with singular vividness the strange
conditions offered in the Midi after the
more familiar events of the French Revolu-
tion in Paris. He shows the alternating
triumphs and reverses of Whites and Reds,
and the lengthening of the shadow cast
by Napoleon, while throughout all these
stormy and adventurous scenes there
passes the appealing figure of Adeline,
daughter of a murdered Royalist. The
story of Adeline's protection by humble
friends from factional hate and from the
murderous Calisto forms a romance ex-
traordinary in its sympathetic quality and dramatic power. Her story
and the tale of her tViend Pascalet's adventures in the Napoleonic wars
make a romance which throbs with life and holds the reader tense with
suspended interest. The enthusiastic reception given to M. Gras's "The
Reds of the Midi" and "The Terror" indicate a great welcome awaiting
his new romance.

OTHER BOOKS BY FELIX GRAS.

The Reds of the Midi. ^^r^Vlt'/rJlX

Catharine A. Janvier. With an Introduction by Thomas A. Janvier. With
Frontispiece. 12mo. Cloth, $L50.

Mr. Gladstone to Mr. Heinemann.

Dear Sir : 1 have read with great and sustained interest "The Reds of the South," which
you were good enough to present to me. Though a work of fiction, it aims at presenting the
historical features, and such works, if faithfully executed, throw more light than many so-called
histories on the true roots and causes of the Revolution which are so widely and so gravely mis-
understood. As a novel it seems to me to be written with great skill.

Yours very faithfully, (signed) W. E. Gladstone. August 13, 1800.

The Terror.

A Romance of the French Revolution.
Janvier. 16mo. Cloth, $1.50.

Translated by Mrs.

" Romantic conditions could iiardly be better presented than in a book of this kind, and,
above all, in a book by Felix Gras. The romance is replete with interest." — New York Times.

A NEW NOVEL OF NEW YOKK Utt.

•^ AVERAGES ^

A NOVEL OF MODERN NEW YORK.

By ELEANOR STUAPT, Author of " Stoncpaslurcs."

12mo. Cloth, $L50.

NOVELS of New York have sometimes failed
through lack of knowledge of the theme,
but the brilliant author of "Averages" and
" Stonepastures " has had every opportunitv to
know her New York well. She has been able,
therefore, to avoid the extremes of " high lite "
and "low life," which have seemed to many
to constitute the only salient phases of New
York, and she paints men and women of everv
day, and sketches the curious interdependence
and association or impingement of differing
circles in New York. It is a story of social life, but of a life exhibitintr
ambitions and efforts, whether wisely or ill directed, which are quite out-
side of purely social functions. There is a suggestion of the adventurer,
a figure not unfamiliar to New-Yorkers, and there are glimpses of profes-
sional life and the existence of idlers. With singularlv acute analysis the
author makes her characters develop themselves in the Unfolding of her
story, and her shrewd discernment is as effective as the witty and epigram-
matic qualitv of her style. " Averages " is not a story of froth or slums,
but a brilliant studv of actualities, and its publication will attract increased
attention to the rare talent of the author.

BY THE SAME AUTHOP.
STONEPASTUfiES. .2mo Cloth 7s c nts

"The st(>ry is strongly written, there being a decided Bronte flavor about its style and
English. It is thoroughly interesting, and extremely vivid in its portrayal of actual life." —
Boston Courier.

" For a heartrending, terribly realistic story of a mining town or settlement ; for a recital of
the risks men will run, the sufferings they will undergo, to make money enough to prolong a
miserable existence, 'Stonepastures,' by Eleanor Stuart (D. Appleton and Company), is as
vivid, thrilling a story as one can read. Yet in the midst of the squalor, sin, and constant
menace of sudden death, lovely characters are developed and pure love can make every sacri-
fice, it is a short story, but is almost painfully intense." — Buffulo Commercial.

16

^By Maartcn Maartcns^

Some Women I have Known.

12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" Maarten Maartens is one of the best novel writers of tinis or any
day. ' ' — Cliicago Times-Herald.

" Maarten Maartens stands head and shoulders above the average
novelist of the dav in intellectual subtlety and imai^nnative power." —
Boston Beacon.

OTHER NOVELS BY MAARTEN MAARTENS.

Each, 12mo, cloth, $1.50. Uniform edition.

HER MEMORY. With Photogravure Portrait.

"Maarten Maartens took us all by storm some time ago with his tuie story christened
'God's Fool.' He established himself at once in our affections as a unique creature who had
something to say and knew how to say it in the most fascinating way. He is a serious story
writer, who sprang into prominence when he first put his pen to paper, and who has ever
since kept his work up to the standard of excellence which he raised in the beginning." — New
York Herald.

THE GREATER GLORY. A Story of High Life.

" It would take several columns to give any adequate idea of the superb way in which th
Dutch novelist has d.eveloped his theme and wrought out one of the most impressive stories c

the period

San Francisco Chronicle.

e

^..... „ „„f,... „... ...^ . ...;pressive stones of

It belongs to the small class of novels which one can not afford to neglect." —

GOD'S FOOL.

" Throughout there is an epigrammatic force which would make palatable a less interest-
ing story of human lives or one less deftly told." — LonJoii SjtnrJaj' Review.

JOOST AVELINGH.

" Aside from the masterly handling of the principal characters and general interest in the
story, the series of pictures of Dutch lite give the book a charm peculiarly its own." — New
York Herald.

By E. F. BENSON.

•s^ Mammon and Co. «-

12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

IN "Mammon and Co." the author returns
to the field wherein he made his great
success. The new story, like "Dodo,"
offers a picture of London society ^md per-
sonages of large social consequences, but the
story is stronger in substance and more bril-
liant in development than any work which
Mr. Benson has done. His personal advan-
tages for an intimate acciuaintance with the
social life of the day in London invest his
novel with a peculiarly graphic realism.
Various phases of stock jobbing as well as
social life are vividly described. The good
genius of the book is an American girl.

DODO. A Detail of the Day. IZmo. Paper, so cents ; cloth, $1.00.
THE RUBICON. IZmo. Paper, 50 cents ; cloth, $1.00.

By GILBEDT PADKEft.

UNIFORM EDITION.

THE SEATS OF THE MIGHTY. $1.50.

Being the Memoirs ol C^aptain Robert Moray, some-
time an Officer in the Virginia Regiment, and after-
wards of Amherst's Regiment. Illustrated.

" Another historical romance of the vividness and intensity
of ' The Seats of the Mighty ' has never come from the pen of
an American." — Chicago Record.

THE TRAIL OF THE SWORD. $1.25.

" Mr. Parker here adds to a reputation already wide, and
anew demonstrates his power of pictorial portrayal and of
strong dramatic situation and cUmax." — Phi la. Bulletin.

THE TRESPASSER. $1.25.

" Interest, pith, force, and charm— Mr. Parker's new story
possesses all these qualities. . . . Almost bare of synthetical
decoration, his paragraphs are stirring because they are real.
We read at times- as we have read the great masters of
romance breathlessly." — The Critic.

THE TRANSLATION OF A SAVAGE. $1.25.

" A book which no one will be satisfied to put down until the end has been matter of certainty
and assurance." — The Nation.

MRS. FALCHION. $1.25.

'' A well-knit story, told in an cxcfrdiiiLcly iiitm-tiiig way, and lioUiing the reader's attention to
the end.'

THE POMP OF THE LAVILETTES. 16mo. Cloth.

" Its sincerity and rugged force will commend it to those who love and seek strong work in
fiction."— The Critic.
i8

*^The Story of a Book«-

THE AUTHOR'S LETTER.

Syracu.sk, N. Y., December 22, 1897.
I have taken the liberty 0/ sending you by the American
Express to-day the type-written manuscript 0/ a story 0/
American life which I have recently compiled, entitled
" DA VI D BARUM." I desire to submit this to you /or
examination, with a view to its publication, and trust you
will find it suited to your requirements.
Very truly yours,

E. N. WESTCOTT.

A LETTER FROM THE PUBLISHERS.

October 13, 1898— (Three weeks after publication).

To readers : Complaints have reached us this week 0/
inability to obtain ''DAVID HARUM.""

While we should not have published this remarkable
book unless we had believed in its success, we did r>ot
anticipate such prompt appreciation on the part of the
reading public. Talk of editions has been cheapened by the mdefiniteness of the term as it is com-
monly used, and we need only say that ivhile the first printing of ' ' DA I 'ID HAR UM " was as large
as three of the ' ' editions " sometimes referred to, our supply of the book was exhausted within two
weeks after publication. We took steps to supply this deficiency immediately, and a new stock of
' ' DA VI D HAR UM " will be ready on Saturday. A considerable part of this stock has been antici-
pated by back orders, but we shall use every effort to tnake the supply of ''DAVID HARUM"
equal to the demand hereafter. Such prompt appreciation of a new and unknozun writer by critics
and the reading public is a fact to be noted with satisfaction.

D. APPLETON A.\D COMPANY.

A YEAR LATER— 310,000 TO OCTOBER 1, 1899.

" The three hundred and tenth thousand of "DA VID HARUM" is now on the press, and the
vitality of this book is shoiun by the fact that on one day in the first week of October the orders
amounted to over 4,000 copies. It is also of interest to note one significant fact regarding the sales,
which is that the actual records show an increase. The average sale of " DA VID HARUM'" for
every business day in August was 1,306 copies, tvhile the average sale in September was 1,521 copies.
It is believed that no book of recent years has approached the record already made by " DA VID
HARUM," and the future, judging from present sales, promises even more remarkable results'" —
New York Times Saturday Review.

THE ENGLISH VERDICT.

London, September 30, 1899.
'• ' DA VID HARUM' has at last ' caught on: Until recently
there has bee?i little demand for it here. Undoubtedly the dialect
in which so much of it is written was a stumbling-block to the
English reader. But the merit of the book has told in spite of its
dialect and the absence of any extensive advertising. Possibly
the large number of Americans who have been in London during
the last three months has had its effect in creating a demand for the
book. When the bookstall keepers found that ' DA VID HARUM'
■a<as constantly called for by Americans, they decided that it was
worth at least as prominent a place as they usually give to the
■cvorks of Marie Corelli. At any rate, ivhatever the cause may be,
the book is now undeniably a popular one, and its sales are con-
st ant Iv increasing." — William S. Alden, in New York Times
Saturday Review.

The 330th thousand of "DAVID HAfiUM" is being printed on October 16th,

when this page goes to press, and the orders show that this number must

be increased before the printing of this page is finished.

19

•^

IMPORTANT NEW NOVELS

/jw

Snow on the
Headlij^ht.

By CY WARMAN, author of

•' The Story of the

Raih'oad," etc.

i2mo. Cloth, §1.2^.

"As a writer of tales ot the modern
rail Mr. Warman is without a peer."
PhiLulelplii.1 Record.

A Dovblc Thread.

Bv ELLEN THORNEYCROFT FOWLER, author of " Concerning Isabel
Carnaby,"' etc. i2mo. Cloth, $i.so.

" Even more gay, clever, and bright than ' Concerning Isabel Carnaby.' " — Boston Herald.

A Duel, with an Occasional Chorvs.

By A. CON AN DOYLE, author of " Uncle Bernac," " Brigadier Gen
etc. i2mo. Cloth, $i.so.

" it is all very sweet and graceful." — London Telegraph.

The Mormon Prophet.

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APPLETONS*
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*^

T IBftADY

SEMIMONTHLY

The Leading

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of Fiction

^^Ewbrachig the best in current
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The Idol of the Blind. By T. Gallon, author of "Tatterly." etc.

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Madame Izan. By Mrs. Campbell-Praed. author of "Nulma," "Mrs.
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*^The Hero oi Manila^

DEWEY

ON THE MISSISSIPPI AND THE PACIFIC.

By DOSSITEB JOHNSON.

A new book in the "Young Heroes of our Navy" Scries.
Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.00.

EVERY American boy knows liow Dewey destroyed the Spanish lleet in Manila Bay,
but comparatively few liave been made familiar with tlie true story of his early years and
his training under Farragut. The author, after careful study, presents a vivid description
of Dewey the schoolboy in Vermont, whicii is followed by a sketch of Dewey the midship-
man, a picture of iiis part in Farragut's campaigns on tiie Mississippi, and finally a graphic
account of Manila and the sequels of the battle. The story of Dewey's share in these exploits
is told with a verve and fire which will absorb the interest of readers young and old. The
numerous illustrations include the medal and sword given by Congress, and the triumphal arch
in New York.

24

•* TH E ^

Story of Magellan.

By HEZEKIAH fiUTTERWORTH.

Illustrated. 12mo. Clolh, $1.50.

Magellan planting the Cro^s in the Philippine Islands.

OF the many dramatic chapters of the romantic decades ot discovery in the tltteenth and
sixteenth centuries, " The Story of Magellan " yields to none in picturesqueness and he-
roic quality. Mr. Butterworth's story of the conditions preceding Magellan's expedition, of the
adventures of the voyage, the discovery of the Philippines, and the completion of the first cir-
cumnavigation of the globe, records the facts of history which are in themselves more wonder-
ful and engrossing than any fiction. Older as well as younger readers will be fascinated by
this vivid account of the first contact between white men and the natives of the Philippines.
An appendix furnishes some modern information regarding those much-discussed islands and
their inhabitants. In addition to the artist's illustrations, various maps, portraits, and pictures
of places increase the historical value of this instructive book.

25

*^The Half-Bacfc«- i

A Story of School, Football, and Golf.

By fiALPH HENDY BABfiOUfi.

12mo. Illuslraled. Cloth, $1.50.

THIS breezy story of outdoor sport will be re;ul witii the most intense interest by every
healthy boy, and by many girls. Mr. Barbour's hero is introduced to the reader at a
preparatory school, where the serious work and discipline are varied by golf and football
matches and a regatta. Later, the young half-back of the school earns a place upon a Varsity
team and distinguishes himself in a great university game, which is sketched in a most brilliant
and stirring chapter. Mr. Barbour's vivid and picturesque sketches of sports are not permitted
to point a false moral. Without obtruding the lesson upon the reader, he shows that the ac-
quisition of knowledge, and not athletics, is the end and aim of school and college life.
26

^ The Treasure Ship ^

A STOCY OF SIB WILLIAM PHIPPS, THE DEGICIDES, AND THE
INTER-CHACTEC PERIOD IN MASSACHUSETTS.

By HEZEKIAH DUTTERWORTH.

niuslrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

IN his vivid story " The Treasure Ship" Mr. Butterworth pictures the dramatic events in the
career of the poor boy who recovered the treasure from the Spanish ship sunk in the Baha-
mas and was knighted by the king. The author sketches striking incidents of his subsequent
career as a soldier, as a firm opponent of the witchcraft delusion, and as Governor of Massa-
chusetts. Together with the tale of Phipps and the vivid sketches of seventeenth-century life
in Boston, the author has interwoven strange incidents of the hidden existence of the regicides
Goffe and Whalley in Massachusetts, and also episodes of Andros's dominion and the inter-
charter period. The story of Phipps and the seventeenth-century movement for justice and
freedom in Massachusetts and Connecticut are among the most thrilling pages of our colonial
history, and they teach lessons which every American youth should learn.

27

A UNIQUE WOBK.

*^

-S**

THE BOOK OF

Knight and Barbara

By DAVID STADB JORDAN, Ph. D.,

President of Leland Stanford Junior University.
Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

THE curious and fascinatiiif? tales and pictures of this unique book
are introduced by Dr. Jordan with the following preface : "The
only apology the author can make in this case is that he never meant
to do it. He had told his own children many stories of many kinds,

some original, some imitative,
some travesties of the work of real
story-tellers. Two students of the
department of education in the
Stanford University — Mrs. Louise
Maitland, of San Jose, and Miss
Harriet Hawley, of Boston — asked
him to repeat these stories before
other children. Miss Hawley, as
a stenographer, took them down for future reference, and while the author
was absent on the Bering Sea Commission of 1896 she wrote them out in
full, thus forming the material of this book. Copies of the stories were
placed by Mrs. Maitland in the hands of hundreds of children. These
drew illustrative pictures, after their fashion; and from the multitude
offered, Mrs. Maitland chose those which are here reproduced. The scenes
in the stories were also subjected to the criticisms of the children, and in
many cases amended to meet their suggestions. . . . These pictures
made by the children have been found to interest deeply other children,
a fact which gives them a detinite value as original documents in the
study of the working of the child-mind. At the end of the volume are
added a few true stories of birds and of beasts, told to a different audience.
With these are a few drawings by university students, which are intended
to assist the imagination of child-readers."
28

Good Books for Young Readers.

YOUNG HEROES OF OUR NAVY ^
SERIES.

Each, illustrated, l2mo, cloth, $1.00.
By ROSSITbR JOHNSON.

The Hero of Manila.

By JAMES BAKNES.

The Hero of Erie.
Commodore Bainbridge.
Midshipman Farragvl.

By MOLLY ELLIOT SEAWELL.

Decatur and Somers.
Paul Jones.
LilUe Jarvis.
Midshipman Pavlding.

Molly Klliot Skaweli..

By HEZEKIAH BUTTERW ORTH.

Llaiform Edition. Each, illustrated, l2mo, cloth, $1.50.

The Story of Magellan. True to his Home. The Boys of Greenway

The Treasure Ship. The Knight of Liberty. Court.

The Pilot of the Mayflower. The Wampum Belt. The Log School-House

The Patriot Schoolmaster. In the Boyhood of Lincoln. on the Columbia.

The Half-Back. a Story of School, Football, and Golf. By Ralph IIenrv Barbour.
l2mo. Illustrated. Cloth, $1.50.

The Book of Knight and Barbara. By David Starr Jordan. Illustrated. i2mo.
Cloth, $1.50.

By WILLIAM O. STODDARD.

Uaiforin Edition. Illustrated, l2nio, cloth, $1.50.

With the Black Prince.
The Red Patriot
Success against Odds.

Paleface and Pedskin.

By F. A.NSTEY.

We AU.

By Octave Thanet.

The Wmdfall.

Chris, the Model-MaKcr.

On the Old Frontier.

Christine's Career.

By Pailine King.
Kmg Tom and the Runaways.

By Louis Pendleton.
Along the Florida PeeL

By Charles F. Holder.
Each, illustrated, l2ino, cloth, $1.50.

Little Smoke.

Crowded Out o' Crofield.

The Battle of New York.

John Boyd's Adventures.

By Thomas \V. Knox.
Englishman's Haven.

Bv W. T- Gordon.

The Exploits of

Myles Standish.

By Henry Johnson. $1.50.

The Story of Sonny Sahib.

By Mrs. E. CoTES. $1.00.

Straight On. $1.50.
Hermine's Triumphs. ,^1.50.

R.'iLPii Henry Bakbour

The Golden Fairy BooK.

Sq. i2mo. Cloth, $2.00.

Bible Stories in Bible Language. By Edward Tuckerman Potter. With an Intro-
duction by the Right Rev. Henry C. Potter, Bishop of New York.

29

Twentieth Century Text-BooKs.

Plant Cclations.

A First Book of Botauv. By John M. Coulter, A. M., Ph. D., Head
of Department of Botany, University of Chicago. i2mo. Cloth, $i.ionet.

" A pretty full and very interesting knowledge
of the general relations of plant life — tJie conditions
under which plants grow, and the way in which
their anatomical and physiological characteristics
testify to tlie circuiristances of their environment
and their needs as regards nutrition and reproduc-
tion. . . . The name and position of the author
certify to the high ciuality of the book." — The Illus-
trated 'Buffalo Express.

" We are accjuainted with no manual of bot-
any that can more usefully serve to supplement
work in the laboratory and the field by organ-
izing the results obtained from investigation and
suggesting explanations of them." — Philadelphia
Press.

"The work is beautifully printed and illus-
tiated, and the subjects are treated in a manner at
once entertaining and instructive. Professor Coul-
ter is an entiuisiast with the rare c]uality of impart-
ing his enthusiasm to his students in class and out
of it." — Chicago Journal.

"A class-room book of great excellence, cal-
culated to give a fair botanical knowledge to a
student in six months' study, or to prepare him for
tlie more detailed studies which Professor Coulter
will embody in a second book. The illustrations
are very numerous and of supreme excellence." —
Chicago Interior.

A History of the American Nation.

By Andrew C. McLaughlin, Professor of American History in the Univer-
sity of Michigan. With many Maps and Illustrations. i2mo. Cloth,
$1.40 net.

"One of the most attractive and com-
plete one-volume histories of America that
has yet appeared." — Boston Beacon.

"Complete enough to find a place in
the library as well as in the school." —
'Denver Republican.

"This excellent work, although in-
tended for school use, is eL|ually good for
general use at home." — Boston Transcript.

" A remarkably good beginning for the
newTwentieth Century Series of text-books.
. . . The illustrative feature, and especially
the maps, have received the most careful
attention, and a minute examination shows
them to be accurate, truthful, and illustra-
tive. " — Thiladelphia Press.

"The volume is eminently worth v of a place in a series destined for the readers of the
coming century. It is highly creditable to the author." — Chicago Evening Post.
30

John Brown's Fort.

THE COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY

AND

MOPPHOLOGY OF ANIMALS.

By Professor JOSEPH LE CONTE.

Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth.

THR work of Darwin on the derivation of species and the
descent of man awakened a new interest in the lower
animals, and furnished additional evidence of their close
kinship with ourselves. A fresh field of study was thus opened
Lip, embracing the likenesses and differences of action as well as
structure found throughout the animal kingdom. In this work
I'rofessor Le Conte gives us, in his well-known clear and simple
>tvle and with the aid of numerous illustrations, an interesting
outline of these similarities and variations of function as displayed
among the various classes of animals from the lowest to the
liighest, man included.

-^EVOLUTION BY ATPOPHY^

By JEAN DEMOOD, JEAN MASSADT, and EMILE VANDEDVELDE.

A New Volume in the International Scientific Series.

12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

THE purpose of this work is twofold. The authors aim to show, first, that an essential
element of the process of evolution as it goes on among plants and animals is the degen-
eration or atrophy of organs or parts at the same time that other parts or organs are being
carried to a higher state of development, these modifications of structure being attended with
corresponding changes of function. The changes that thus take place in the organism, be they
degenerative or progressive, are a part of the process of adaptation that is everywhere forced
upon the living being by environing conditions. Secondly, they point out that what is true
in these respects in the field of life or biology is also true in social phenomena or sociology.
Societies, like individual organisms, are ever changing, ever undergoing modification through
influences that operate both from within and without. The resulting social evolution is attended
by the phenomena of degeneration or atrophy, institutions and customs that were once in the
ascendant declining and giving way to be replaced by more highly specialized forms of activity.

RECENT BOOKS BY DISTINGUISHED SPECIALISTS.

Pnnf Nnt£>« f a FvnllitfATl -^ Series of Popular Addresses on the Evolution of Life. By
1 UUl-llUltO lU l^vuiuuuil. D.wiD Starr Jordan,

f(_jrd Juniur University. i2mo. Cloth, si.50.

Ph. D., President of Leland Stan-.

Outlines Oi the Earth's History, a Popular study m Physiography. By Prof. N.

i2ino. Cloth, Si-50.

S. Shaler, of Harvard University. Illustrated.

Studies of Good and Evil ^>' J"^l,^" Rovce, Professor of the History of Phlloso,

phy in Harvard L niversity. i2mo. Cloth, *i.50.

Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology. \^;,^s^^^r:'S^^cS.

siastical Architecture," etc. i2mo. Cloth, -Si.ys-

Wages and Capital A" Examination of the wages Fund Doctrine By F.W. Taussig

" r • Professor of Political Economy in Harvard L niversity, author of

"Tariff History of the United States" and " The Silver Situation in the United States."

i2m(). Cliith. $1.50.

What is ElCCtricitV ^ ^^ Pmf. John Trowbridge, of Harvard University. i2mo.

Thp D^VPhnlndV nf ^llddPctTnn A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man

XUC I'^iycilUlUgy m OUgge^llOn. ^^^ society. By Boris Sidis, M. A., Ph. D ,

Associate in Psychology at the Pathological Institute of the New York State Hospitals,

With an Introduction by Prof. William James, of Harvard University. Illustrated. i2mo.

Cloth, $1.75.

31

Literatures of the World.

Edited by EDMUND GOSSE,

Hon. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Each, 12mo, clolh, $1.50.

Russian Literature.

By K. WALISZEWSKI. [Rccuiv shortly.)

A History of Bohemian
Literature.

By Francis, Count Lltzow. author of
"Bohemia: An Historical Sketch."

" An erudite and comprehensive exposition. . . .
There is a lack of available information upon this sub-
ject, and Count l.iitzow's volume is of special value
and interest." — PhiLulelphia Ledger.

anese Literature.

By W. G. Aston, C. M. G., L). Lit., late Japanese Secretary, H. M. Lega-
tion, Tokio.

"A volume of unique erudition, wide research, clear discrimination, and excellent design.'' —
Sir Edwin /Untold, in Liter jtiire.

Spanish Literature.

By James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, member ol the Spanish Academy.

" This is an excellent and model handbook. It is treated with perspective and proportion;
it is comprehensive, clear, concise, yet not dry as dust." — London Academj.

Italian Literature.

By Richard Garnett, C. B., LL. L)., formerly Keeper of Printed Books
in the British Museum.

" It is written with insiglit and appreciation, with enthusiasm, yet without lack of poise,
and with a plentiful equipment of sound scholarship." — New York Times.

Ancient Greek Literature.

By Gilbert Mlrrav, M. A., Professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow.

"As an introduction to the study of some considerable portion of Greek literature in English
translations it will be found of the very highest usefulness. " — Boston Herald.

French Literature.

By Edward Dowden. 1). Lit.. LL. 1).. 1). G. L., Professor of English
Literature in the University of Dublin.

" Can be held in the hand and read aloud with pleasure as a literary treat ; by an expert in
style, master of charming words that come and go easily, and of other literatures that serve for
illustrations."— 7/z^ Critic, New Yorl:

Modern Enghsh Literature.

By Edmund Gosse, Hon. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge.

a really useful account of the whole process of evolution in Hnglish letters — an account
based upon a keen sep.se at once of the unity of his subject and of the rhythm of its ebb and
flow, and illumined by an unexampleil felicity in hitting off the leading characteristics ot
individual writers." — London /Ithena'uni.

32

The Story of the West Series.

Edited by RIPLEY HITCHCOCK.

Each, illuslraled, 12mo, clolh, $1.50,

The Story of the Dailroad.

Bv Cy Warman, author of ''The Express Messenger,"
etc. With Maps and many Illustrations by B. West
Clinedinst and from photographs.

" As we understand it, the editor's ruling idea in this series has not
been to present chronology or statistics or set essays on the social and
political development of the great West, but to give to us vivid
pictures of the life and the times in the period of great development,
and to let us see the men at their work, their characters, and their
motives. The choice of an author has been fortunate. In Mr. War-
man's book we are kept constantly reminded of the fortitude, the suftering, the enterprise,
and the endurance of the pioneers. We see the glowing imagination of the promoter, and we
see the engineer scouting the plains and the mountains, fighting the Indians, freezing and
starving, and always full of a keen enthusiasm for his work and of noble devotion to his duty.
The construction train and the Irish boss are not forgotten, and in the stories of their doings
we find not only courage and adventure, but wit and humor." — The Railroad Gazette.

The Story of the Cowboy.

Bv E. HoLGH. author of "The Singing Mouse Sto-
ries," etc. illustrated by William L.Wells and C.
M. Rl'ssell.

" Mr. Hough is to be thanked for having written so excellent a
book. The cowboy story, as this author has told it, will be the
cowboy's fitting eulogy. This volume will be consulted in years to
come as an autliority on past conditions of the far West. For fine
literary work the author is to be highly complimented. Here,
certainly, we have a choice piece of writing." — New York Times.

The Story of the Mine.

As illustrated by the Great Comstock Lode of
Nevada. By Charles Howard Shinn.

" The author has written a book not alone full of informa-
tion, but replete with the true romance of the American mine."
— New York Tunes.

" Mr. Shinn's volume is a fairly complete picture of the min-
ing industries of the Pacific States, and should be read by every
one who desires an accurate idea of this phase of Western his-
tory."— Brooklyn Eagle.

The Story of the Indian.

By George Bird Grinnell, author of "Pawnee
Hero Stories," " Blackfoot Lodge Tales," etc.

" Only an author qualified by personal experience could offer
us a profitable study of a race so alien from our own as is the
Indian in thought, feeling, and culture. Only long association
with Indians can enable a white man measurably to comprehend
their thoughts and enter into their feelings. Such association has
been Mr. Grinnell's."— A^r^> York Sun.

" It must not be supposed that the volume is one for scholars
and libraries of reference. It is far more than that. While it is a
true story, yet it is a story none the less abounding in picturesque
description and charming anecdote. We regard it as a valuable
contribution to American literature." — New York Mai! and
Express.

; i.*'^

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■2§-:''^lm

g.«^

^k

"^'^'WM

1^1

Hjl

fc- ' •

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^^v

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-^THE ROMANCE OF HISTORY

^

A French Volunteer of the War of Inde-
pendence, l-v tlie Chevalier DE PiiNic.i-
liAiD. Translated and edited by Robert
H. Douglas. With Introduction and Fron-
tispiece. l2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

Peter the Great By K. Waliszewski.

Translated by Lady Mary Loyd. With
Portrait. Small Svo. Cloth, f2.0o.

The fiomance of an Empress. Caf/ian'ne li
of Russia. By K. Waliszewski. Uni-
form with " Peter the Great." With Por-
trait. Small Svo. Cloth, $2.00.

New Letters of Napoleon L Omitted from

the Collection published under the auspices
of Napoleon III. Edited by M. Leon
l.ECESTRE, Curator of the French Archives.
Translated by Lady Mary Loyd. With
Portrait. Small Svo. Cloth, .^2.00.

Uniform with tiie " New Letters."
Memoirs illustrating the History of Napo-
leon L from 1802 to 1S15. By Baron
CiAiDK Fran'(;ois de Meneval, Private
Secretary of Napoleon. Edited by his
Clrandson, Baron Napoleon Joseph de Me-
neval. With Portraits and Autograph Letters. In three vols. Small Svo. Cloth, $6.00.

An Aidc-de-Camp of Napoleon. Memoirs of General Count de S^gur, of the French
.\cadcmy, 1S00-1812. Revised by his Grandson, Count LouiS DE Segur. With Por-
trait. Small Svo. Cloth, J;2.oo.

Memoirs of Marshal Oudinol, Duc de Reggio. Compiled from the Hitherto Unpublished
Souvenirs of the Duchesse de Reggio, by Gaston Siieci.er, and now first translated into
1 jiglish liv .Mexantlcr 'Teixeira de .Mattos. With Two Portraits. Small Svo. Cloth, $2.00.

A Friend of the Queen. (Marie Antoinette— Count de Fersen.) By Paul Gaulot. With
Two Portraits. i2mo. Cloth, %i.oo.

NEW EDITION OF PROFESSOR HUXLEY'S ESSAYS.

•^Collected Essays^s-

By Thom.vs H. IIu.XI.ev. New complete edition, with re-
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Frederick the Great and his Court.
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Berlin and Sans-Souci.

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Mohammed Ali and his House.
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The Youth of the Great Elector.

The Reign of the Great Elector.

48

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10

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13

Look these subjects over fi

^ ^ and see if they interest you.

They are the topics thus far discussed by President George Gunton
in the Institute Lecture Course for 1898— '99, and are published
monthly in the

Gunton Institute Bulletin.

THEY ARE AS FOLLOW:
Our Country

How Shall our New Possessions be Governed ?

Need of Political Education

Political Parties and Popular Government

Our Municipal Problems

The State's Relation to Labor

Political Duty The State's Relation to Capital

Taking the Philippines

Lessons of the Election

Western View of the East

Eastern View of the West

The Treaty of Peace

The Open Door in the Philippines

The Path of Progress (H. Hayes Robbins)

The Rights and Wrongs of Trade Unions

America's Opportunity

Of course it is understood that these are merelv the subjects for the
first seventeen lectures. There are nineteen more to
follow, making a total of thirty=six lectures in the course
for the year. The Bulletin contains a verbatim report of them
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Woman's Struggle for Liherty in Germany. Mary M. Patrick, Ph. D. 328

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Professor Ward on ** Naturalism and Agnosticism."

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Winter Birds in a City Park. (Illustrated.) James B. Carrington. 366

Old Rattler and the King Snake. President David Starr Jordan. 371

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add much to its attractivenees and usefulness.

The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers.

Edited by Franklin T. Baker, A. M., Columbia University. Cloth, 60 cents ; boards, 40 cents.

George Eliot's Silas Marner,

Edited by Richard Jones, Ph. D., and J. Rose Colby, Ph. D., Illinois State Normal Univer-
sity. Cloth, 60 cents ; boards, 40 cents.

Selections from Milton's Shorter Poems.

Edited by F. D. NICHOLS, Morgan Park Academy, University of Chicago. Cloth, 60 cents;
boards, 40 cents.

Macaulay's Essays of Milton and Addison.

Edited by George B. Aiton, A. M., Supervisor of High Schools, State of Minnesota. Cloth,
60 cents ; boards, 40 cents.

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APPLETONS'

Town and Country Library.

Each, i2mo, paper, 50 cents ; cloth, $1.00.

"The beauty of Appletons' Town and Countr>' Library series is that one is always sure of being
thornu^lily entertained, no matter how much at random he may make his selection or what season cf
tl e year it may happen to be." — Bos/on Herald.

No. 277. The Story of Ronald Kestrel.

ISy A. J. Dawson.
This brilhant novel of literary life paints the novitiate, the success, and the despair of a genius, and
rescue by a woman's hand. It is a story intensely modern in spirit, glowing with the life of sharply in-
dividualized characters, and admirable in the keenness of its analysis. The novel is full of interest and
active life thmughnut, and its interest is heightened by its graphic pictures of strongly contrasting environ-
ments in Morocco, in the Australian bush, and in London .society. A story so much out of the common
as this will be certain to secure full recognition for the author's rare talent.

No. 276. A Corner of the West.

By Edith IIi;NRii.rTA Fowi.kr.

English critics who have noted the quiet humor, delicate pathos, and fine character drawing of Miss
Edith low'er have sought to institute a comparison with the work of Mrs. Gaskell. Whatever ".school"
this new author may be a'-signed to, there can be no doubt that the welcome which awaits her here will
equal her remarkable success in England.

" There are plenty of clever things in ' A Corner of the West ' said by the characters and the author,
bit they are never too cl ver by half. Her people talk in an interesting way, but they are not forever
trying to score off each other. ... It matters extremely little what happens in a story so well written as
this. .\\\ .Miss Fowler's people are properly individualized. This is a bcok well out of the common
ru . k . " —London C hroniclc.

No. 275. The Idol of the Blind.

By T. Gallon, aullior of " Talteiley," etc.

" Mr. Tom Gallon displays a naturalness, a simplicity, and a pathetic faith in human nature which ^^^
are triumphant against the prejudices of the hardened reviewer." — London Academy. MW

"Those who keep abreast of current fiction know that T. Gallon, a young English writer, turns out
very interesting stories." — Buffalo Lx press.

No. 274. A Voyage at Anchor.

By \V. Clark Russell, author of " The Tragedy of Ida Noble," etc.
This new novel is characterized by these qualities which have won for its author his fame, and withal
has a flavor all its own. Mr. Clark Russell takes his re:ider to spend a two-months' holiday in an old
hulk c.ff the Kentish coast, on the stretch of water between Leal and \\almer on the one .-ide and the
GofKlwin Sands on the other, which is known as the South Downs. The novel ex]:eriences of the holi-
day party are relaied in the delightful style of which Clark Russell is a past master. T he st' ry is full of
capital situations and unhackneyd dialogue, and tinged with a quiet humor which adds to the reader's
relish of the whole. .Moreover, the splendid siglUs of the gateway to the Channel and the [ I'-asant dis-
tractions in the way of gav functions which Deal and Walmer afford, furnish the autlmr with opportu-
nities for delightful de.-^criptions and contrasts. A ver}' striking feature in the story is the burning of a
ship at night.

No. 273. The Heiress of the Season.

By Sir Wu.LtAM Maonay, Bart., author of " The Pride of Life," etc.
This brilliant and incisive study of social and political life in London furnishes effective contrasts of
intrigue and huni-sty, and also of assured sf)cial standing and the struggle for place. The tithd lady
who patriinizes social candidate.-; for a consideration at d secures names for new companies is vividly
presented in company with the enterprising promoter, the heiress, the rising politician of genuine ability,
and tlie political knave. The various characters stand < ut in clear relief against the kaleidoscopic back-
ground of the London season. The cleverness of the book and the writer's evident knowledge sugge.'-t
some comparisons with "Concerning Label Larnaby."

%

By

A NOVEL OF NEIV YORK jIFE.

Averages.

Eleanor Stuart. 121110. Cloth, Si. 50.

"The strength of the book is its entertaining pictures of human nature and its
shrewd, incisive observations upon the social problems, great and small, which present
themselves in the complex life of society in the metropolis. Those who are fond of
dry wit, a subtle humor, and what Emerson calls 'a philosophy of insight and not of
tradition,' will find ' Averages ' a novel to their taste. . . . There are interesting love
episodes and clever, original situations. An author capable of such work is to be
reckoned with. She has in her the root of the matter." — New York Mail and Express.

" The author of ' Averages ' has no need of striving after cleverness. It comes
naturally to her." — Chicago Times-Herald.

BY THE AUTHOR OF "DODO."

Mammon
and Co.

By Edward F. Benson, author of
"Dodo." i2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" A novel of mark. Its character drawing is vigorous,
its dialogue vivacious." — Literature.

E. F. BENSON.

"THE LATEST LONDON SUCCESS."

A Corner of the West.

By Edith Henrietta Fowler. 121110. Cloth, $1.00;
paper, ^o cents. In Appletons' Town and Country Library.

" There are plenty of clever things in ' A Corner of the West ' said by the char-
acters and the author, but they are never too clever by half. Her people talk in an
interesting way, but they are not forever trying to score off each other. ... It
matters extremely little what happens in a story so well written as this. All Miss
Fowler's people are properly individualized. This is a book well out of the com-
mon ruck." — London Chronicle.

These books are for sale by all booksellers ; or they will be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers,

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72 Fifth Avenue, New York.

13

■•A BRILLIANT SUCCESS/' ,

A Double Thread

By Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler, author
of "Concerning Isabel Carnaby," etc. i 2mo.
Cloth, $1.50.

" Even more gay, clever, and bright than ' Concerning
Isabel Carnaby.' The characters are -created by one who
evidently knows all the variations of human nature, and who
is as shrewd as she is keenly observant." — Boston Herald.

" All that the fondest fancy could have painted as a*
successor to ' Isabel Carnaby.' A more brilliant book couldl
not well have been imagined, and withal, the conversations are natural, having none
of that ' shop-made ' character which is so often apparent in the talk of many clever
modern novels. The plot is curious and ingeniously worked out, and the characters
are well drawn, but it is the conversation that utterly enchants. . . . We learn more
concerning human nature from Miss Fowler's book than from most moral treatises,
and there is not a shade of ' decadent ' influence to be found in all her wholesome
pages. . . . Miss Fowler's book is a brilliant success, quite as brilliant as her former
attempt." — Baltitnore Sunday He raid.

M(SS ELLEN T. FOWLER.

•V^ STRIKING AND TIMELY NO^EL.

The Mormon Prophet.

By Lily Doug all, author of "The Mer-
maid," "The Madonna of a Day," and
"The Zeit-Geist." i 2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" A striking story. . . . Immensely interesting and
diverting, and as a romance it certainly has a unique
power." — Boston Herald.

" In ' The Mormon Prophet ' Miss Lily Dougall has
told in strongly dramatic form the story of Joseph
Smith and of the growth of the Church of the Latter-
I)ay Saints, which has again come prominently before
the public through the election of a polygamist to Con-
gress. . . . Miss Dougall has handled her subject with
consummate skill. . . . She has rightly seen that this

man's life contained splendid material for a historical novel. She has taken no un-
warranted liberties with the truth, and has succeeded in furnishing a story whose
scope broadens with each succeeding chapter until the end." — dVero York Mail and
Express.

These books are for sale by all booksellers ; or they will be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers,

D. APPLETON AN!) COMPANY, 12 Fifth Avlnle, New York.

14

LILY DOUGALL.

-MOST ARTISTIC AND MOST ORIGINAL

A. CONAN DOYLE'S NEW NOVEL.

A Duet,

with an Occasional Chorus.

By A. CoNAN. Doyle, author of ** Uncle
Bernac," *' Brigadier Gerard," "Rodney
Stone," etc. Uniform with other books
by Dr. Doyle. i 2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

•^

" Charming is the one word to describe this volume
adequately. Dr. Doyle's crisp style and his rare wit
and refined humor, utilized with cheerful art that is
perfect of its kind, fill these chapters with joy and
gladness for the reader." — Philadelphia Press.

" ' A Duet ' is bright, brave, simple, natural, deli-
cate. It is the most artistic and most original thing
that its author has done. . . . We can heartily recom-
mend ' A Duet' to all classes of readers." — Chicago
Times- Herald.

"It is all very sweet and graceful." — London Telegraph.

"A bright story. All the characters are well drawn." — London Mail.

CONAN UOYLE.

'•A BOOK THAT WILL LlVEr

David Harum.

A Story of American Life. By Edward
NoYEs Westcott. i2mo. Cloth, 31.50.

" * David Harum ' is, first of all, a thoroughly interest-
ing bit of fiction, with a well-defined plot, a slender but
easily followed ' love ' interest, some bold and finely
sketched character drawing, and a perfect gold mine of
shrewd, dialectic philosophy." — San Francisco Call.

" The chapters are few in which one does not hear
the voice of David Harum. His reminiscences, his
horse-trading anecdotes, his home-brewed philosophy,
have their own charm. Nor does he ever, in his most
sustained harangues, 'run to emptins,' though his own experience declares that while
'the's a good many fast quarter horses, them that can keep it up for a full mile is
scurse.' Realism has bored its thousands, but in ' David Harum ' it has joined hands
with delight." — Neiv York Nation.

"The main character ought to become familiar to thousands of readers, and will
probably take his place in time beside Joel Chandler Harris's and Thomas Nelson
Page's and Miss Wilkins's creations." — Chicago Times-Herald.

"Full of wit and sweetness." — Baltimore Herald.

EDWARD Nt

WESTCOTT.

These books are for sale by all booksellers ; or they will be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers,

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,. 72 Fifth Avenue, New York.

15

FELIX GKAS.

''A THRILLING ROMANCE."

The White
Terror.

A Romance. By Felix Gras. Trans-
lated from the Provencal by Mrs.
Catharine A. Janvier. Uniform with
"The Reds of the Midi" and "The
Terror." i6mo. Cloth, $1.50.

In "The White Terror" M. Gras paints with singular vividness the strange con-
ditions offered in the "Midi" after the more familiar events of the French Revolu-
tion in Paris. He shows the alternating triumphs and reverses of Whites and Reds, !|
and the lengthening of the shadow cast by Napoleon, while throughout all these
stormy and adventurous scenes there passes the appealing figure of Adeline, daughter
of a murdered Royalist. The story of Adeline's protection by humble friends from
factional hate and from the murderous Calisto forms a romance extraordinary in its
sympathetic quality and dramatic power. Her story and the tale of her friend
Pascalet's adventures in the Napoleonic wars make a romance which throbs with life
and holds the reader tense with suspended interest. The enthusiastic reception
given to M. Gras's "Reds of the Midi" and "The Terror" indicates the welcome
awaiting his new romance.

ANTHONY HOPE'S NEIV NOVEL.

The King's
Mirror.

By Anthony Hope. 1 2mo. Illustrated.
Cloth, Si. 50.

"Surpasses all his earlier ventures." — London Spectator.

"Animated, graceful, delicate in humor, and perfect in
taste." — A'(^c> York Tribune.

" A strong book, charged with close analysis and exquisite irony ; a book full of
pathos and moral fiber— in short, a book to be read." — Daily Chroniite, London.

ANTHONY HOPE.

m

These books are for sale by all booksellers ; or they will be sent ly mail on receipt of price by the publishers,

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72 1-ikth Avenue, New York.

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17

APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE I

MONTHLY.

PROSPECTUS FOR 1900.

FOR a magazine whose field has no limitations except those of science, it is
quite impossible to make a comprehensive announcement of its contents a
year ahead. Our purpose is primarily to keep its readers in touch with the most
recent advances and discoveries as they are applicable to the promotion of human
welfare and social progress. We believe that science is the force which has
done the most in this direction in the past, and that it is what we must look to
for growth in the future. We take advantage of every opportunity to secure
articles that shall be entertaining as well as instructive without sacrificing accu-
racy, and we especially seek those authors who have the ability to write upon
scientific subjects in a clear and instructive way.

The most characteristic feature of the nineteenth century, and especially of its
latter half, has been the truly wonderful advance of science, both theoretical and
practical. Coincident with this advance, and very largely dependent upon it,
has been the unprecedented development of commerce and manufactures, of
social organization and national wealth. A comparison of the potentiality of an
unskilled laborer of one hundred years ago with that of a like workman of to-day
brings out most strikingly what this scientific advance has accomplished in
solving the problems of life and raising the standard of comfort ; so that the
luxuries of a few years ago are the necessities of to-day, and new pleasures have
been added and even become common which were formerly beyond the reach
of the wealthy, in view, then, of this prominently scientific aspect, the most

18

important and instructive portion of nineteenth-century history will be that of its
scientific achievements, which, as Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer
with Darwin of the great principle of natural selection, has pointed out in his
"Wonderful Century," far exceed in number as well as in importance those
of all the centuries that have preceded it.

A CENTURY OF SCIENCE.

No more appropriate and useful way of signalizing the completion of this
century could be adopted than that of publishing during its closing year a history
of its scientific work. In order to do this in the best manner, we have arranged
for a series of articles on what has been accomplished in their several depart-
ments from leading authorities in their respective subjects — such as Sir Robert
S. Ball in Astronomy; President Arthur T. Hadley in Economics; Prof. Joseph
Le Conte in Geology ; Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie in Archaeology ; M. W. Haff-
kine in Preventive Inoculation ; Prof. W. M. Davis in Meteorology ; Prof. F. W.
Clarke in Chemistry ; and others of like standing in their specialties.

NEW DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS.

The Monthly will continue to give accounts of the course of discovery and of
new developments in pure science; and careful writers familiar with their subjects
will be engaged to describe whatever occurs in this field as soon as it has assumed
definite form. Recognizing that the highest service that can be rendered by
knowledge is in its use for the improvement of man's condition, special attention
will be given to the adaptations of discovery to practical ends in the arts and
industries, in the betterment of social life, and in the development of a wiser
statesmanship for the administration of civil affairs.

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE.

These are the tests by which science, and indeed any other like system, must
be judged ; and not only because the study of these applications is of value in lead-
ing to a general appreciation of the beautiful correlation between pure science and
practical life, but more, perhaps, on account of the actual value of the information,
we have always heretofore, and shall still more in the future, devote a certain
portion of our space to their discussion. Among the earlier papers to appear will
be a series of illustrated articles by William Baxter, Jr., C. E., explaining the theory
of the trolley car and the mechanism on which its propulsion and control depend.
In another department, to which much attention is now being given, Prof. C. E.
Munroe, Dean of the Columbian Uriiversitv at Washington, whose long-continued

19

and exact researches in this subject have given him a world-wide reputation, will
contribute some liberally illustrated articles on The Practical Applications of
Explosives.

RECENT RESEARCH WITH THE X RAYS.

While much has been published about the wonderful qualities of the X rays
and their capacity of adaptation to the wants of man, as yet but little is really
known about them. The study of the phenomena is still going on, and is contin-
ually exhibiting new features and suggesting new objects on which they may
be brought to bear. As a part of the record of these things, Professor Trowbridge,
of Harvard University, will contribute an article describing some remarkable
results of later investigations in the Lawrence Physical Laboratory, of which he
is director.

THE RACE QUESTION.

The question of the adjustment of the relations of the races will be considered
as offering some of the most serious and immediate difficulties our people have to
confront, and one to which the thoughts of the best students of affairs are anxiously
directed. Among the articles bearing upon this subject will be several by Prof.
N. S. Shaler, of Harvard University, dealing with various aspects of the negro
question. Professor Shaler spent his early life in the South, and knows the colored
man well.

SCIENCE AND THE LAW.

Questions concerning methods of dealing with criminals will be discussed as
of no less importance and equally fraught with dangers. The first article bearing
on this subject, to be published in an early number, will be on the decline of our
criminal jurisprudence, by a member of the New York" bar. it will expose the
urgent need of an infusion of scientific ideas into this exceedingly important branch
of legal practice, and will present some facts illustrating the dangerous state into
which it has fallen under the present antiquated systems.

CURIOSITIES OF NATURE.

No subjects more quickly and universally enlist attention or hold it longer than
those of natural history. From the apparently inexhaustible store of novelties it
affords, the curious blind fishes of North America— those remarkable products of
retrograde evolution— are marked for early description in an article, accompanied
by numerous illustrations, from the pen of Prof. Charles Ligenmann, who has
made a special study of these fishes and is the acknowledged authority respect-
ing them.

20

THE ADVANCE OF WOMAN.

Recognizing as one of the most striking social features of the life of the nine-
teenth century the enlargement of woman's sphere and the extension of her privi-
leges, the Popular Science Monthly will endeavor to keep abreast of this move-
ment. Among its most interesting recent phases is the advance in Germany,
one of the latest countries to yield to it, but where women are now gradually
making their way into the universities and active life. The history of this strug-
gle and the deofree of success which has been achieved there will be described in
an early article of rare interest by Mary Mills Patrick, President of the American
College for Girls at Constantinople.

COLONIAL QUESTIONS,

The important political questions arising through our recent acquisition of out-
lying territory will receive considerable attention. Two articles which will appear
in early numbers, under the title Colonies and the Mother Country, take up the
question of their proper relations.

MORALS AND EXPEDIENCY*

The drink evil, and vivisection, two of the most pressing moral questions now
engaging the attention of society, are scheduled for early treatment; and we have
already arranged for several articles taking up important questions connected
with modern religious tendencies.

EDUCATION.

Of equal importance with all these branches of knowledge, and an essential
prerequisite to receiving and rendering them available for use, is education. The
Monthly has in the past given this subject prominent attention and preference,
and will continue to do so. We have always aimed to make the articles in this
field not only of general philosophical interest, but more especially to select
subjects and modes of treatment which should be suggestive and practically
valuable to the working teacher.

21

The North American Review for 1900

THOSE who have followed the course of The North American Review
since it came under the present manag-ement in Ma}- of this year need not
be told what they may confidentl}' expect to find within its covers during-
the coming 3'ear. It is due, however, to the many thousands into whose
hands this circular will come as a first indication of the purposes and accom-
plishments of the magazine, to afford, as nearly as ma^^ be, the same basis of ^
expectation.

Following- is a partial list of the articles which have appeared in the
Review during- the past seven months :

POETRY

A Channel Passage — 1855, Hawthorn and Lavender — Songs and Madrigals,

Algernon Charles Swinburne W. E. Henley

" A Carol of Birds" and Other Poems, Nora Hotper

LITERATURE

The New Poetry, William Dean Howells Girls' Novels in France, Yetta Blaze de Bukv

The Present Literary Situation in France. The Pleasures of Poverty, Max O'Rell

Henry James The Story of a Helpful Queen, Carmen Sylva
The Literary Movement in Ireland, W. B. Yeats

ART

TheTercentenary of Velasquez, Charles Whibley The Picture Gallery of the Hermitage,

A Century of Salons, Elizabeth Robins Pennell Cl.\ude Phillh;^

SQENTIFIC

Wireless Telegraphy, G. Marconi Its Scientific History and Uses, Prof. J. A. Fleming

Automobilism in France, Marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat

THE DRAMA

The Dramatic Festivals of Orange, Censorship of the Stage in England,

Jules Claretie G. Bernard Shaw

RELIGIOUS

The Practice of Confession in the Catholic The Rebellion against the Royal Supremacy,

Church, The Rev. R. F. Clarke, S. J. The Earl of Portsmouih

The Agnostic's Side, Robert G. Ingersoll How the Ritualists Harm the Church,

IngersoH's Influence, Rev. Dr. Henry M. Field The Rt. Hon. Arthur J. Baleoi i;

The Zionist Movement, Prof. Richard Gottheil "Americanism," True and False,
The Religious Situation in England, Ian Maclaren Rev. Dr. Willi.v.m Barry

EDUCATIONAL

Commercial Education, The Curse in Education, Rebecca Hardlng Da\ is

The Rt. Hon. James Bryce, M.P. Our Public Schools, M. G. Van Rensselakk

American Universities, Edouard Rod

WOMEN

The Woman's International Parliament, ..-)•• ' '^HE Countess of Aberdih^.n

( Kassandra Vivaria

The Reverses of P.ritomart, Edmund Gosse East Indian Women, Mrs. F. A. Steel

22

INTERNATIONAL TOPICS

Arbitration and the Conference at The Hague:
From an American Standpoint, Seth Low

The Moral Aspect of War, Capt. A. T. Mahan
A Russian View, F. DE Martens

In the Clutch of the Harpy Powers,

R. M. Johnston
Universal Peace, Baroness Bertha von SOttner

The Peace Conference : Its Possible Practical
Results, A Diplomatist at the Hague

China and the Powers, Lord Charles Beresford
The Imbroglio in Samoa, Henry C. Ide

APleafora Rus'o-Ameri- i Prince E.Ookhtomsky
can Understanding, < Vladimir Holmstrem
Ex Oriente Lux — A Rejoinder, Archibald Little
America and England in the Far East,

The Rt. Hon. Sir Charles Dilke
The Alaskan Boundary, Prof. J. B. Moore

Work of the Joint High Commission,

A Canadian Liberal

THE WAR IN SOUTH AFRICA

Historical Causes of the War,

The Rt. Hon. James Bryce, M.P.

{IVith a Colored Map of Seat of War.)

The War and European Opinion, Karl Blind

Philosophy and Morals of War, Max Nordau
England and the Transvaal, Sydney Brooks

Will the Powers Intervene? Francis Charmes
The South African Question, Andrew Carnegie
A Possible Anti-British Alliance,

Demetrius C. Boulger
A Transvaal View, Dr. F, V. Engelenburg

A Vindication of the Boers, A Diplomat

AMERICAN AND POLITICAL

The War with Spain, Conditions and Needs in Cuba,

Major-General Nelson A. Miles Major-General Leonard Wood

The Foreign Service of the United States, The " Open Door " in the Philippines,

Francis B. Loomis Frank D. Pavey

Aguinaldo's Case against the United States, Is Civil Service Reform in Peril ?

A Filipino P^°^- J- ^- Johnson

The Paramount Power of the Pacific, -^ Trained Colonial Civil Service, E. G. Bourne

John Barrett 'The Restless Energy of the American People,

The Logic of Our Position in Cuba, „, „.,, . ,, ,., ^-^^ Maclaren

° 1 he I' ifty-sixth Congress :

An Army Officer tt r- ^UJ• . j-, t ti

Has Congre&s Abdicated? Joseph Pulitzer

Teffersonian Principles, William J. Bryan ^ ^t. n -j .. j .1. nu-i- •

J ^ ■> Congress, the President and the Philippines,

What Spain Can Teach America, Perry Belmont

Nicolas Estevanez Securing the Gold Standard by Law,

The Nicaragua Canal, Thomas B. Reed John Dalzell

FOREIGN

France at the Parting of the Ways, The Outlook for Carlism,

Bernard Lazare The Hon. James Roche, M.P.

The French Press and the Dreyfus Case, England in Egypt and the Soudan,

AL DE Blowitz Col. Charles Chaille Long

Japan's Entry into the Family of Nations, Present Aspects of the Dreyfus Case,

T. R. Jernigan Joseph Reinach

COMMERCIAL AND FINANCIAL

Condition and Needs of the Treasury, Pig Iron and Prosperity, George H. Hull

Lyman J. Gage The Industrial Commission, S. N. D. North

Anti-Trust Legislation, Gov. Joseph D. Sayers TheDeclineof British Commerce, A. Maurice Low

Legal Aspect of Trusts, Joseph S. Auerbach Five Years of American Progress, M. G. Mulhall

GENERAL

Israel Among the Nations, Max Nordau Food Which Fails to Feed, Louis Windmuller

Social Tendencies in America, The Government of New York,

Bishop Henry C. Potter Comptroller Bird S. Coler

The Case against Christian Science, The "America" Cup Race,

W. A. PuRRiNGTON « Hon. Charles Russell

Taxation of Public Franchises, Senator John Ford Golf from a St. Andrew's Point of View,

Some Consecrated Fallacies, Amos K. Fiske Andrew Lang

Courts-Martial in England and America, The Highways of the People, Hugh H. Lusk

The Rt. Hon. Sir F. H. Jeune After the Yacht Race, Sir Thomas Lipton

Athletics for Politicians, Constitutional Conflict in Finland,

Rt. Hon. Sir Charles W. Dilke, Bt., M.P. A Member of the Finnish Diet

23

^The North' American Review for 1900«-

Of the diversity, interest, and authoritativeness which will characterize the articles in this maga-
zine during- igco, the above is a sufficient indication. More specific announcement is hardly
possible, because of the editor's determination to maintain, first of aU, the quality of t'meliness.
Me is no better informed than the reader, upon the publication of one number, regarding the
contents of iis successor. Events designate the topics. The sole duty of the editor is to obtain
for the reader the most competent and authoritative expressions of fact and opinion. This he
has endeavored to do during the past eight months, and he will continue his efforts on the same
lines, but with greatly increased facilities, due to the recent establishment of editorial offices in
London and Paris, during the year 1900.

The Great
Transvaal Number

OF

The North
American R^eview

FOR DECEMBER.

Edited by GEORGE B. M. HARVEY.

HISTORICAL CAUSES OF THE WAR The Rt. Hon. James Bryce, M. P.

EUROPEAN OPINION - Karl Blind.

WILL THE POWERS INTERVENE? Francis Charmes.

PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS OF WAR Max Nordau.

THE GENERAL QUESTION Andrew Carnegie.

AN ANTI-BRITISH ALLL\NCE Demetrius C. Boulger.

Accompanied by the Most Accurate and
Comprehensive Colored Map Yet Published

OTHER ARTICLES

HAS CONGRESS ABDICATED? .

IN THIS NUMBER:

CONGRESS AND THE PHILIPPINES .
PUTTING THE GOLD STANDARD INTO LAW

Joseph Pulitzer.

Perry Belmont.

John Dalzell.

SIR THOMAS LIPTON ON THE YACHT RACE.
W. B. YEATS ON IRISH LITERATURE.

MRS. F. A. STEEL ON EAST INDL\N WOMEN.
AMOS K. FISKE ON CONSECRATED FALLACIES.

HUGH H. LUSK ON THE HIGHWAYS OF THE PEOPLE,
AND POEMS BY NORA HOPPER.

24

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29

Look these subjects over ^

^ ff and see if they interest you.

They are the topics thus far discussed by President George Gunton
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Gunton Institute Bulletin.

THEY ARE AS FOLLOW:
Our Country

How Shall our New Possessions be Governed ?

Need of Political Education

Political Parties and Popular Government

Our Municipal Problems

The State's Relation to Labor

Political Duty The State's Relation to Capital

Taking the Philippines

Lessons of the Election

Western View of the East

Eastern View of the West

The Treaty of Peace

The Open Door in the Philippines

The Path of Progress (H. Hayes Robbins)

The Rights and Wrongs of Trade Unions

America's Opportunity

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30

A HISTORY OF

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By EDGAR STANTON MACLAY, A. M.,

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31

THE LEADING

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THE SANITARIAN

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Fowler's people are properly individualized. This is a book well out of the com-
mon ruck." — Londoti Chronicle.

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10

FELIX GRAS.

"A THRILLING ROMANCE."

The White
Terror.

A Romance. By Felix Gras. Trans-
lated from the Provencal by Mrs.
Catharine A. Janvier. Uniform with
''The Reds of the Midi" and ''The
Terror." i6mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" M. Gras writes history as well a sfiction. In this and in his love of the people,
the true patriots, M. Gras is perhaps best likened to those admirable fictional his-
torians, Erckmann-Chatrian. He is a far greater artist ; he works in a field they left
mostly untouched, but the analogy holds good. In these three France has a group of
historical novelists of whom she may well be proud, and among them Felix Gras
stands first, because the human interest of his stories is deeper, truer, more universal,
and his grasp of the possibilities of plot, of the handling of intrigue, danger and
escape, of devotion and of gratitude is masterly to the end. Among historical novel-
ists F61ix Gras has won high rank." — Netu York Mail atid Express.

ANTHONY HOPE'S NEIV NOVEL.

The King's
Mirror.

By Anthony Hope. i2mo. Illustrated.
Cloth, $1.50.

" Surpasses all his earlier ventures." — London Spectator.

" Animated, graceful, delicate in humor, and perfect in
taste." — iVeza York Tribune.

" A strong book, charged with close analysis and exquisite irony ; a book full of
pathos and moral fiber — in short, a book to be read." — Dai/v Chronicle, London.

ANTHONV HOPE.

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No. — . The Gentleman Pensioner.

By Albert Lee, author of " The Key of the Holy House."
The scene of this admirable historical romance is laid in the tumultuous England of the sixteenth
century, at the time when the plots of the partisans of Mary Stuart against Elizabeth seemed to be ap-
proaching a culmination. The hero, Queen Elizabeth's confidential messenger, has a trust to execute
which involves a thrilling series of adventures. This stirring romance has been compared to " A Gentle-
man of France," and it is safe to say that no reader will find in its pages any reason for flagging interest
or will relinquish the book untU the last page has been reached.

No, — . Garthowen.

A Welsh Idyl. By Allen Raine, author of " Mifanwy," etc.
"Wales has long waited for her novelist, but he seems to have come at last in the person of Mr.
Allen Raine, who has at once proved himself a worthy interpreter and exponent of the romjintic spirit
of his country." — London Daily Mail.

No. 278. The World's Mercy.

By Maxwell CiRAY, author of " The Silence of Dean Maitland," etc.
" Maxwell Gray is one of the most finished, thoughtful, artistic, and satisfying novelists of the day.
Whatever she does is distinguished by its artistic taste and sense of proportion and by its dignity of
ideas." — Boston Saturday Evening Gazette.

No. 277. The Story of Ronald Kestrel.

By A. J. Dawson.
The novel is full of interest and active life throughout, and its interest is heightened by its graphic
pictures of strongly contrasting environments in Morocco, in the Australian bush, and in London society.
A story so much out of the common as this will be certain to secure full recognition for the author's rare
talent.

No. 276. A Corner of the West.

By Edith Henrietta Fowler.
" There are plenty of clever things in ' A Corner of the West ' said by the characters and the author,
but they are never too clever by half. Her people talk in an interesting way, but they are not forever
trj'ing to score off each other. ... It matters extremely little what happens in a story so well written as
this. All .Miss Fowler's people are properly individualized. This is a book well out of the common
ruck." — London Chronicle.

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275. The Idol of the Blind. |^

By T. Gallon,- author of " Tatterley," etc. ^H^

" Mr. Tom Gallon displays a naturalness, a simplicity, and a pathetic faith in human nature which

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"Those who keep abreast of current fiction know that T. Gallon, a young English writer, turns out

very interesting stories. " — Buffalo Express.

No. 274. A Voyage at Anchor.

By W. Clark Russell, author of " The Tragedy of Ida Noble," etc.

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History of Canada.

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The Story of English Kings according to Shakespeare.

By I)r. J. ]. BiKNS, Superintendent of Schools, Defiance, Ohio. Illustrated. l2mo.

Cloth, $i.o6.
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Dryden's Palamon and Arcite.

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Calculus.

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Some Great Astronomers.

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60 cents.
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maile discoveries that have crowned their names with immortality, is of great value in enabling the mind
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m

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BY FELIX GRAS.

The White Terror.

A Romance. By Felix Gras.

Janvier.

.fi.50.
" No one has done this kind of work with finer poetic grasp or more convincing truthfulness than
F(f-hx Gras. . . . This new volume has the spontaneity, the vividness, the intensity of interest of a great
liislorical romance." — h'hiladelphia Times.

Translated from the Proven9al by Mrs. Catharine A.
Uniform with "The Reds of the Midi" and "The i'error." i6mo. Cloth,

Reminiscences of a Very Old Man. 1808-1897.

By John Sartai.n. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, $2 50.
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" The re.sulting volume is one which will ornament any library in both its appearance and contents."
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MR. BULLEN'S NEW BOOK.

The Log of a Sea- Waif.

Being Recollections of the First Four Years of my Sea Life. By Frank T. Bullen,
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" His new book again bears witness to his admirable gifts as a writer." — Mail and Express Illus-
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The King's Mirror.

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" The True Story of the Boers."

Oom Paul's People.

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The Principles of ^Taxation.

By the Late David A. Wells. i2mo. Cloth, $2.00.
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of taxation upon a scientific basis.

The Comparative Physiology and Morphology of Animals.

By Prof. Joseph Le Conte. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth.
The work of Darwin on the derivation of species and the descent of man awakened a new interest in
the lower animals, and furnished additional evidence of their close kinship with ourselves. A fresh field
of study was thus opened up, embracing the likenesses and differences of action as well as structure
found throughout the animal kingdom. In this work Prnfe.=sor Le Conte gives us, in his well-known
clear and simple style and with the aid of numerous illustrations, an interesting outline of these
similarities and variations of function as displayed among the various classes of animals from the lowest
to the highest, man included. __

" For children, parents, teachers, and all ivho are interested in the psychology of childhood.''''

The Book of Knight and Barbara.

By David Starr Jordan. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth. $1.50.

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NEIV YORK. FEBRUARY, 1900

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The greatest and most scholarly work on the History of the Ancient World.

The Passing of the Empires (Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia,
and Medea), 850 B. C. to 330 B. C.

By Prof. G. Maspkro, author of " The Dawn of Civilization " and " The Struggle of the

Nations." Edited by the Rev. Prof. A. H. Sayce. Translated by M. L. McClure. With

Maps and numerous Illustrations, including Three Colored Plates. Uniform Edition.

Quarto. Cloth, -?7.50.

This monumental work bring^s the history of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and Medea down to

the victories of Alexander the Great, and completes Professor Maspero's fjreat series on the historj' of the

ancient world. Like the preceding volumes, it represents the latest results of the highest scholarship,

and it is magnificently illustrated. Professor Maspero's three volumes constitute a work which is, and

must remain for some time to come, the most comprehensive and trustworthy account of the ancient

Eastern world.

History of the People of the United States.

By Prof. John Bach McMaster. Vol. V. 8vo. Cloth, with Maps, I2.50.
The period in our history from 1822 to 1830 which is described in Professor McMaster's new volume
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tional phases. I'urthermore, the close of Monroe's second term, the administration of John Quincy
Adams, and the opening years of Jackson furnished subjects of the utmost importance, including the
formulation of the .Monroe Doctrine, the social, political, and industrial changes which paved the way
for the triumph of democracy, and the various banking and financial e.xperiments of the time. Many
of the topics treated are of peculiarly timely interest.

The International Geography.

Bv Seventy Authors, including Right Hon. James Bryce, SirW. M. Conway, Prof. W. M.

Davis, Prof. Angelo Heilprin, Prof. Fridtjof Nansen, Dr. J. Scott Keltic, and F. C.

Selous. With 488 Illustrations. Edited by Hugh Robert Mill, D. Sc. 1088 pages.

8vo. Cloth.
The last few years have proved so rich in geographical discoveries that there has been a pressing need
for a resume oi recent e.vplorations and changes which should present in convenient and accurate form
the latest results of geographical work. The additions to our knowledge have not been limited to Africa,
Asia, and the arctic regions, but even on our own continent the gold of the Klondike has led to a better
knowledge of the region, while within a short time we shall have much ^ore exact geographical in-
formation concerning the numerous islands which make up the F'hilippines. The want which is
indicated will be met by "The International Geography," a convenient volume for the intelligent
general reader, and the library which presents expert summaries of the resuRs of geographical science
throughout the world at the present time. The book contains nearly five hundred illustrations and maps
which have been specially prepared. It is designed to present in the compact limits of a single volume
an authoritative conspectus of the science of geography and the conditions of the countries at the end of
the nineteenth century.

A History of American Privateers.

By KiKiAR Stanton Maclav, A. M., author of " A History of the United States Navy."
Uniform with "A History of the United States Navy." One volume. Illustrated. 8vo.
Price, ^3.50.
After several years of research the distinguished historian of .American sea power presents the first
comprehensive account of one of the most picturesque and absorbing phases of our maritime warfare.
The importance of the theme is indicated by the fact that the value of prizes and cargoes taken by priva-
teers in the Revolution was three times that of the prizes and cargoes ^en by naval vessels, while in the
War of 1812 we had 517 privateers and only 2-5 vessels in our navy. The intimate connection between
privateers and the navy, the former serving often as a training school for the latter, is brought out in the
author's narrative. From forgotten monographs, the records of historical societies, from unpublished log
books, and from descendants of noted privateersmen, he has obtained intimate and vivid accounts of the
fitting out of the vessels, the incidents of their voyages, and the thrilling adventures of the brave sailors
who manned them .Mr. Maclay's romantic tale is accompanied by reproductions of contemporary pic-
tures, portraits, and documents, and also by illustrations by Mr. Cieorge Gibbs.

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NOW READY.
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PLANT STRUCTUFIES.

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Macaulay's Essays on Milton and Addison. Edited by George B. Aiton, A. M.,
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GEORGE ELIOT'S SILAS MARNER.

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DRYDEN'S PALAMON AND ARQTE.

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APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE

• MONTHLY.

PROSPECTUS FOR 1900.

FOR a magazine whose field has no limitations except those of science, it is
quite impossible to make a comprehensive announcement of its contents a
year ahead. Our purpose is primarily to keep its readers in touch with the most
recent advances and discoveries as they are applicable to the promotion of human
welfare and social progress. We believe that science is the force which has
done the most in this direction in the past, and that it is what we must look to
for growth in the future. We take advantage of every opportunity to secure
articles that shall be entertaining as well as instructive without sacrificing accu-
racy, and we especially seek those authors who have the ability to write upon
scientific subjects in a clear and instructive way.

The most characteristic feature of the nineteenth century, and especially of its
latter half, has been the truly wonderful advance of science, both theoretical and
practical. Coincident with this advance, and very largely dependent upon it,
has been the unprecedented development of commerce and manufactures, of
social organization and national wealth. A comparison of the potentiality of an
unskilled laborer of one hundred years ago with that of a like workman of to-day
brings out most strikingly what this scientific advance has accomplished in
solving the problems of life and raising the standard of comfort ; so that the
luxuries of a few years ago are the necessities of to-dav, and new pleasures have
been added and even become common which were formerly beyond the reach
of the wealthy. In view, then, of this prominently scientific aspect, the most

18

important and instructive portion of nineteenth-century history will be that of its
scientific achievements, which, as Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer
with Darwin of the great principle of natural selection, has pointed out in his
"Wonderful Century," far exceed in number as well as in importance those
of all the centuries that have preceded it.

A CENTURY OF SCIENCE.

No more appropriate and useful way of signalizing the completion of this
century could be adopted than that of publishing during its closing year a history
of its scientific work. In order to do this in the best manner, we have arranged
for a series of articles on what has been accomplished in their several depart-
ments from leading authorities in their respective subjects — such as Sir Robert
S. Ball in Astronomy; President Arthur T. Hadley in Economics; Prof. Joseph
Le Conte in Geology ; Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie in Archaeology ; M. W. Haff-
kine in Preventive Inoculation ; Prof. W. M. Davis in Meteorology ; Prof. F. W.
Clarke in Chemistry ; and others of like standing in their specialties.

NEW DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS.

The Monthly will continue to give accounts of the course of discovery and of
new developments in pure science; and careful writers familiar with their subjects
will be engaged to describe whatever occurs in this field as soon as it has assumed
definite form. Recognizing that the highest service that can be rendered by
knowledge is in its use for the improvement of man's condition, special attention
will be given to the adaptations of discovery to practical ends in the arts and
industries, in the betterment of social life, and in the development of a wiser
statesmanship for the administration of civil affairs.

THE PRACTICAL AJ^PLICATIONS OF SCIENCE.

These are the tests by which science, and indeed any other like system, must
be judged ; and not only because the study of these applications is of value in lead-
ing to a general appreciation of the beautiful correlation between pure science and
practical life, but more, perhaps, on account of the actual value of the information,
we have always heretofore, and shall still more in the future, devote a certain
portion of our space to their discussion. Among the earlier papers to appear will
be a series of illustrated articles by William Baxter, Jr., C. E., explaining the theory
of the trolley car and the mechanism on which its propulsion and control depend,
in another department, to which much attention is now being given. Prof. C. E.
Munroe, Dean of the Columbian University at Washington, whose long-continued

19

and exact researches in this subject have given him a world-wide reputation, will
contribute some liberally illustrated articles on The Practical Applications of
Explosives.

RECENT RESEARCH WITH THE X RAYS.

While much has been published about the wonderful qualities of the X rays
and their capacity of adaptation to the wants of man, as yet but little is really
known about them. The study of the phenomena is still going on, and is contin-
ually exhibiting new features and suggesting new objects on which they may
be brought to bear. As a part of the record of these things. Professor Trowbridge,
of Harvard University, will contribute an article describing some remarkable

results of later investigations in the Lawrence Physical Laboratory, of which he

*

is director.

THE RACE QUESTION.

The question of the adjustment of the relations of the races will be considered
as offering some of the most serious and immediate difficulties our people have to
confront, and one to which the thoughts of the best students of affairs are anxiously
directed. Among the articles bearing upon this subject will be several by Prof.
N. S. Shaler, of Harvard University, dealing with various aspects of the negro
question. Professor Shaler spent his early life in the South, and knows the colored
man well.

SCIENCE AND THE LAW.

Qtiestions concerning methods of dealing with criminals will be discussed as
of no less importance and equally fraught with dangers. The first article bearing
on this subject, to be published in an early number, will be on the decline of our
criminal jurisprudence, by a member of the New York bar. It will expose the
urgent need of an infusion of scientific ideas into this exceedingly important branch
of legal practice, and will present some facts illustrating the dangerous state into
which it has fallen under the present antiquated systems.

CURIOSITIES OF NATURE.

No subjects more quickly and universally enlist attention or hold it longer than
those of natural history. From the apparently inexhaustible store of novelties it
affords, the curious blind fishes of North America — those remarkable products of
retrograde evolution — are marked for early description in an article, accompanied
by numerous illustrations, from the pen of Prof. Charles Eigenmann, who has
made a special study of these tishes and is the acknowledged authority respect-
ing them.

20

THE ADVANCE OF WOMAN.

Recognizing as one of the most striking social features of the life of the nine-
teenth century the enlargement of woman's sphere and the extension of her privi-
leges, the Popular Science Monthly will endeavor to keep abreast of this move-
ment. Among its most interesting recent phases is the advance in Germany,
one of the latest countries to yield to it, but where women are now gradually
making their way into the universities and active life. The history of this strug-
gle and the degree of success which has been achieved there, will be described in
an early article of rare interest by Mary Mills Patrick, President of the American
College for Girls at Constantinople.

COLONIAL QUESTIONS.

The important political questions arising through our recent acquisition of out-
lying territory will receive considerable attention. Two articles which will appear
in early numbers, under the title Colonies and the Mother Country, take up the
question of their proper relations.

MORALS AND EXPEDIENCY,

The drink evil, and vivisection, two of the most pressing moral questions now
engaging the attention of society, are scheduled for early treatment; and we have
already arranged for several articles taking up important questions connected
with modern religious tendencies.

EDUCATION.

Of equal importance with all these branches of knowledge, and an essential
prerequisite to receiving and rendering them available for use, is education. The
Monthly has in the past given this subject prominent attention and preference,
and will continue to do so. We have always aimed to make the articles in this
field not only of general philosophical interest, but more especially to select
subjects and modes of treatment which should be suggestive and practically
valuable to the working: teacher.

21

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25

Look these subjects over ^

^ ^ and see if they interest you.

They are the topics thus far discussed by President George Gunton
in the Institute Lecture Course for l 898— '99, and are published
monthly in the

Gunton Institute Bulletin.

THEY ARE AS FOLLOW:
Our Country

How Shall our New Possessions be Governed ?

Need of Political Education

Political Parties and Popular Government

Our Municipal Problems

The State's Relation to Labor

Political Duty The State's Relation to Capital

Taking the Philippines

Lessons of the Election

Western View of the East

Eastern View of the West

The Treaty of Peace

The Open Door in the Philippines

The Path of Progress (H. Hayes Robbins)

The Rights and Wrongs of Trade Unions

America's Opportunity

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A HISTORY OF

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By EDGAR STANTON MACLAY, A.M.,

Author of "A History of the United States Navy." Uniform with "A History of
the United States Navy."

One Volume. Dlustralcd. 8vo. Cloth, $3.50.

A FTER several years of research the distinguished historian of American sea power pre-
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/ \ phases of our maritime warfare. The importance of the theme is indicated by the
/ \ fact that the value of prizes and cargoes taken by privateers in the Revolution vvas
■^ -^ three times that of the prizes and cargoes taken by naval vessels, while in the War of
1812 we had five hundred and seventeen privateers and only twcnty-three vessels in our navy.
The intimate connection between privateers and the navy, the former serving often as a training
school for the latter, is brought out in the author's narrative. From forgotten monographs, the
records of historical societies, from unpublished log books, and from descendants of noted priva-
teersmen, he has obtained intimate and vivid accounts of the fitting out of the vessels, the inci-
dents of their voyages, and the thrilling adventures of the brave sailors who manned them.
Mr. Maclay's romantic tale is accompanied by reproductions of contemporary pictures, portraits,
and documents, and also by illustrations by Mr. George Gibbs.

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-ii

TO LEARN SPANISH.

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explained, thus enabling any one to be his own Instructor. Revised edition, with th€ new
orthography conforming to the rules of the Spanish Academy. By AuiEK'lO DE ToRNOS, A. M..
formerly Director of Normal Schools in Spain, and Teacher of Spanish in the New York Mer-
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THE HARHONIC METHOD FOR LEARNING SPANISH.

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28

THE LEADING

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30

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31

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VOL. LVl] ESTABLISHEB BT EPWAHD L. YOOHAM. [NO. 5.

APPLETONS' ^

POPULAR SCIENCE

MONTHLY.

EDITED Br WILLIAM JAT TOUMAXS. ^'^

MARCH, 1900.

J^^-^jh-

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The Transplantation of a Eace. Prof. n. S. Sealer. 513

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Typical Criminals. (Illustrated.) Rev. Samuel G. Smith, LL. D. 539

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A SurylTal of Mediaeval Credulity. Prof. E. P. Evans. 577

"Ribbon Lightning." aHustrated.) Orange Cook. 587

Cross-Education. (Illustrated.) Prof. E. W. Scripture. 589

The Morbid " Sense of Injury." W. P. Becker, M.D. 596

Early Experiments in Air Flight. M. Banet Rivet. 603

Sketch of Edward Orton. (With Portrait.) 607

Editor's Table : A Commission in Difficulties.— The Function of the Public Library. . . 614

Fragments of Science 528

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A Notable Biography of an Eminent Scientist
...THE LIFE OF...

JAMES DWTGHT DANA

SCIENTIFIC EXPLODED, MINEDALOGIST, GEOLOGIST, ZOOLOGIST
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By DANIEL C. GILMAN

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which involves a thrilling series of adventures. This stirring romance has been compared to " A Gentle-
man of France," and it is safe to say that no reader will find in its pages any reason for flagging interest
or will relinquish the book until the last page has been reached.

No. 278. The World's Mercy.

By M.vxwELL Gr.vy, authorof " The Silence of Dean Maitland," etc.
" -Maxwell Gray is one of the most finished, thcughtful, artistic, and satisfying novelists of the day.
Whatever she does is distinguished by its artistic taste and sense of proportion and by its dignity of
ideas." — Boston Saturday Evening Gazette.

No. 277. The Story of Ronald Kestrel.

By -V. J. D.wvsoN.
The novel is full of interest and a^rtive life throughout, and its interest is heightened by its graphic
pictures of strongly contrasting environments ii Morocco, in the Australian bush, and in London society.
A story so much out of the common as this will be certain to secure full recognition for the author's rare
talent.

No. 276. A Corner of the West.

By Edith IIknriett.v Fovvi.er.
" There are plenty of clever things in ' A Corner of the W'e.'-t ' said by the characters and the author,
but they are never too elver by half. Her people talk in an interesting way, but they are not forever
trying to score off each other. ... It matters extremely little what happens in a story so well written as
this. All Miss Fowler's people are properly individualized. This is a b(.ok well out of the common
ruck." — London Chronicle.

No. 275. The Idol of the Blind.

By T. Gai.lo.n, author of " Tatterley," etc.

" Mr. Tom Gallon displays a naturalness, a simplicity, and a pathetic faith in human nature which
are triumphant against the prejudices of the hardened reviewer." — London Academv.

"Those who keep abreast of current fiction know that T. Gallon, a young English writer, turns out
very interesting stories. " — Buffalo Express.

No. 274. A Voyage at Anchor.

By \V. Ci.ARK Russi'.i.i., author of "The Tragedy of Ida Noble," etc.
This new novel is characterized by those qualities which have won for its author his fame, and withal
has a flavor all its own. Mr. Clark Russell takes his reader to spend a two-months' holid.'\y in an old
hulk off the Kentish coast, on th<» stret h of water between Peal and Valmer on the one side and the
Goodwin Sand-; on the other, which is known as t'e Sou h Fowns. The novel experiences of the holi-
day party are related in the delightful style of which Clark I\us>ell is a past master.

By

A NOVEL OF NEir YORK LIFE.

Averages.

Eleanor Stuart. 1 2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" The strength of the book is its entertaining pictures of human nature and its
shrewd, incisive observations upon the social problems, great and small, which present
themselves in the complex life of society in the metropolis. Those who are fond of
dry wit, a subtle humor, and what Emerson calls 'a philosophy of insight and not of
tradition,' will find 'Averages' a novel to their taste. . . . There are interesting love
episodes and clever, original situations. An author capable of such work is to be
reckoned with. She has in her the root of the matter." — JVew York Mail and Express.

" The author of ' Averages ' has no need of striving after cleverness. It comes
naturally to htr. '' — C/iicago Times- Herald.

RY THE AUTHOR OF "DODO."

Mammon
and Co.

By Edward F. Benson, author of
"Dodo." i2mo. Cloth, $1.^0.

" A novel of mark. Its character drawing is vigorous
its dialogue vivacious." — Literature.

-THE LATEST LONDON SUCCESS."

A Corner of the West.

By Edith Henrietta Fowler. i 2mo. Cloth, $1.00;
paper, 50 cents. In Appletons' Town and Country Library.

" There are plenty of clever things in ' A Corner of the West ' said by the char-
acters and the author, but they are never too clever by half. Her people talk in an
interesting way, but they are not forever trying to score off each other. ... It
matters extremely little what happens in a sto'-y so well written as this. All Miss
Fowler's people are properly individualized. This is a book well out of the com-
mon ruck." — London Chronicle.

These books are /or sale by all booksellers ; or they tvill be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers,

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72 Fifth Avenue, New York.

"A BRILLIANT SUCCESS."

A Double Thread

By Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler, author
^ of*'Concerning Isabel Carnaby," etc. i 2mo.

-^ Cloth, $1.50.

"Even more gay, clever, and bright than 'Concerning
Isabel Carnaby.' The characters are created by one vv'ho
evidently knows all the variations of human nature, and who
is as shrewd as she is keenly observant." — Boston Herald.

:r. "All that the fondest fancy could have painted as a

successor to ' Isabel Carnaby.' A more brilliant book could
not well have been imagined, and withal, the conversations are natural, having none
of that ' shop-made ' character which is so often apparent in the talk of many clever
modern novels. The plot is curious and ingeniously worked out, and the characters
are well drawn, but it is the conversation that utterly enchants. . . . We learn more
concerning human nature from Miss Fowler's book than from most moral treatises,
and there is not a shade of 'decadent' influence to be found in all her wholesome
pages. . . . Miss Fowler's book is a brilliant success, quite as brilliant as her former
attempt." — Baltimore Sunday Herald.

MISS ELLEN T. KOWLER.

"e/? STRIKING AND TIMELY NOVEL."

The Mormon Prophet.

By Lily Dougall, author of **The Mer-
maid," **The Madonna of a Day," and
**The Zeit-Geist." i 2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

"A striking story. . . . Immensely interesting and
diverting, and as a romance it certainly has a unique
power." — Boston Herald.

"In 'The Mormon Prophet' Miss Lily Dougall has
told in strongly dramatic form the story of Joseph
Smith and of the growth of the Church of the Latter-
Day Saints, which has again come prominently before
the public through the election of a polygamist to Con-
gress. . . . Miss Dougall has handled her subject with
consummate skill. . . . She has rightly seen that this
man's life contained splendid material for a historical novel. She has taken no un-
warranted liberties with the truth, and has succeeded in furnishing a story whose
scope broadens with each succeeding chapter until the end." — New York Mail and
Express.

These books are /or sale by all booksellers ; or they will be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers,

D. APPLETON AN!) COMPANY, 72 Fifth Avenuf, New York.
10

LILY DOUGALL.

"MOST ARTISTIC AND MOST ORIGINAL."

A. CONAN DOYLE'S NEW NOVEL.

l\ LJiJiQ^Lj with an Occasional Chorus.

By A. CoNAN Doyle, author of "Uncle
Bernac," "Brigadier Gerard," "Rodney
Stone," etc. Uniform with other books
by Dr. Doyle. i 2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

O,

"Charming is the one word to describe this volume
adequately. Dr. Doyle's crisp style and his rare wit
and refined humor, utilized with cheerful ait that i^
perfect of its kind, fill these chapters with joy anvl
gladness for the reader." — Philadelphia Press.

"'A Duet ' is bright, brave, simple, natural, deli-
cate. It is the most artistic and most original thing
that its author has done. . . . We can heartily recom-
mend ' A Duet' to all classes of readers." — Chicago
Times- Herald.

"It is all very sweet and graceful." — Lo?idoii Telegraph.

"A bright story. Ail the characters are well drawn." — London Mail.

A. CONAN DOYLE.

'■A BOOK THAT WILL UVE."

David Harum,

A Story of American Life. By Edward
NoYES Westcott. i2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" ' David Harum ' is, first of all, a thoroughly interest-
ing bit of fiction, with a well-defined plot, a slender but
easily followed ' love ' interest, some bold and finely
sketched character drawing, and a perfect gold mine of
shrewd, dialectic philosophy." — San Francisco Cad.

"The chapters are few in which one does not hear
the voice of David Harum. His reminiscences, his
horse-trading anecdotes, his home brewed philosophy,
have their own charm. Nor does he ever, in his most
sustained harangues, 'run to emptins,' though his own experience declares that while
' the's a good many fast quarter horses, them that can keep it up for a full mile is
scurse.' Realism has bored its thousands, but in ' David Harum ' it has joined hands-
with delight." — New York Nation.

"The main character ought to become familiar to thousands of readers, and will
probably take his place in time beside Joel Chandler Harris's and Thomas Nelson
Page's and Miss Wilkins's creations." — Chicago Titnes-Herald.
"Full of wit and sweetness." — Baltimore Herald.

EDWARD NOYES WESTCOTT.

These books are for sale by all booksellers ; or they ivill be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers,

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72 Fifth Avenue, New York.

'■1

•<^BOOKS ON SOUTH AFDICA^

•^Oom Paul's People «-

By HOWARD C. HILLEGAS. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

" Gives precisely the information necessary to these who desire to follow intelli-
gently the progress of events at the present time."— Comniercial Advertiser.

Men, Mines, and Animals in
South Airiea

By LORD RANDOLPH S. CHURCHILL. IHusti-atcd. Svo. Cloth, $5.C0.

" The letters are readable and lively. They are the work of a shrewd observer."
- London Times.

Actual Afriea; or, The Coming
Continent

A Tour of Exploration. By FRANK VINCENT. With Map and 1C4
full- pale 111 jsti aLons. Svo. Cloth, $5.00.

" It is not only a book of reference upon almost any subject connected with Africa,
but admirably, most admirably, illustrated."- /feiir^ M. Stanley.

Home LiJe on an Ostrieh Farm

By ANNIE MARTIN. 12mo. Cloth, $1.25.

" The most querulous reader w^ill peruse every page with keen enjoyment, and
w^ill feel grateful admiration for the clever, plucky, womanly woman who calls herself
Annie Martin."- JVew York Sun.

-s^A Trooper of the Empress*-

By CLINTON DOSS. 12mo. Cloth, $L00 ; Paper, 50 cents.
In Appletons' Town and Country Library.

"A splendid story froTi start to finish, neither hasty in workmanship nor
inconsiderate of the reader's quickened interest in its swift delineation of facts."
—Boston Herald.

IS THIS CECIL PHODES?

•^Thc God in the Car«-

By ANTHONY HOPE, author of " The King's Mirror," etc. 12mo. Cloth, $1.25.

" The strongest book that Mr. Anthony Hope has written." London Academy.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72 Fifth Avenue, New York.

MR. BULLEN'S JSJEW BOOK

THE LOG OF A SEA=WAIF

Being recollections of the First Four Years
of my Sea Life. By Frank T. Bullen,
F. R. G. S., author of "The Cruise of
the Cachalot" and " Idylls of the Sea."
Illustrated. Uniform Edition. 1 2mo.
Cloth, $1.50.

" So strong, original, and thrilling as to hold captive
the attention of the mature as well as ot the youthful
reader. " — Philadelphia Ledger.

OTHER BOOKS BY MR. BULLED

Frank T. Bullem

IDYLL5 OF THE 5EA. i2mo. Cloth, $1.25.

THE CRUISE OF THE CACHALOT, ROUND THE WORLD AFTER
SPERM WHALES. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NFW YORK.

REMINISCENCES OF
A VERY OLD MAN

^^4^044^

1808- 1897

BY JOHN SARTAIN

Illustrated, 12mo, Cloth, $2,50

A DMIRABLY simple and direct in
'^ style, embellished with copies of
rare old prints, portraits, and reproduc-
tions of Mr. Sartain's best-known engrav-
ings, full of information concerning the
engraver's art, this volume is one of the
most important and delightful books of
the year. '■ — Philadelphia Ledger.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

13

THH RFST BOOK OW PUhRTO RICO.

Puerto Rico

AND ITS
RESOURCES.

IN THE CANE-FIELD.

A book for Travelers, Investors, and others, containing Full Ac-
counts of Natural Features and Resources, Products, People, Oppor-
tunities for Business, etc. By Frederick A. Ober, author of "Camps
in the Caribbees," " Crusoe's Island," etc. With Map and Illustra-
tions. i2mo. Cloth, $1.50.

The Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge writes the author :

"You have brought together in a small space an immense amount of most valuable in-
formation, which it is very important to have within the reach of the American
people at this time."

The New York Evening Post:

" An orderly and into-lligcnt account of the island. Mr. Obcr's book is both timely and trust-
worthy."

The Boston Globe:

" 'I'hc best authoritative and ' eyewitnessing ' book on this subject yet printed. . . . Mr. Ober
describes in a definite, practical way its commercial, strategic, agricultural, financial, political,
and geographical features, and furnishes just the information sought for by intending settlers."

TAis hook is for sale by all booksellers ; or it I'.'iil be sent by mail, on receipt of price, by the publishers,

D. APPLKTON AND COMPANY, 72 Fifth Avenue, New York.

Founded by E. LITTELL in J 844.

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A Short Story

and an instalment of a serial story appear in each issue.

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A JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY,

Physical, Commercial, Political.

EDITOR:

J O H N 1 1 Y D E ,

Statistician of the United States Department of Agriculture.

A SSOCIA IE EDI TORS :

A. W. GRERLY, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army.

\V J McGEB, Ethnologist in Charge, Bureau of Ameri-
can Elhnolo.iy.

UKNk Y (lANNEl'T, Chief Geographer, U. .S. Geologi
cal Survey.

C. HART MERRIAM, Chiefof the Biological Survey,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

DAVID J. HI LI., Assistant Secretary of State.

( HARLES H. ALLEN, Assistant Secretary of the
Navy.

WILLIS L. MOORE, Chiefof the U. S. Weather Bureau.
H. S. PRITCHETI', Superintendent of the U.S. Coast

and Geodetic Survey.
MARCUS BAKER, U. S. Geological Survey.
O. P. AUSTIN, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, U. S.

Treasury Department.
ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE, author of "Java,

the Gnrden of the East," etc.
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School, Washington, D. C.

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type ; (4) the distribution throughout the volume of the laboratory directions." —

[From the Preface.

Atkinson's Lessons in Botany

By GEORGE F. ATKINSON, Professor in Cornell University. i2mo, 366 pp.

$1.12 net.

" This abbreviated and simplified edition of my Elementary Botany has been
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botany are given, or where, for one reason or another, the larger book can not
be adapted to the requirements. A large part of the matter has been rewritten,
only the less technical descriptive portions being retained." — [From the Preface.

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APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE

MONTHLY.

PROSPECTUS FOR 1900.

FOR a magazine whose field has no limitations except those of science, it is
quite impossible to make a comprehensive announcement of its contents a
year ahead. Our purpose is primarily to keep its readers in touch with the most
recent advances and discoveries as they are applicable to the promotion of human
welfare and social progress. We believe that science is the force which has
done the most in this direction in the past, and that it is what we must look to
for growth in the future. We take advantage of every opportunity to secure
articles that shall be entertaining as well as instructive without sacrificing accu-
racy, and we especially seek those authors who have the ability to write upon
scientific subjects in a clear and instructive way.

The most characteristic feature of the nineteenth century, and especially of its
latter half, has been the truly wonderful advance of science, both theoretical and
practical. Coincident with this advance, and very largely dependent upon it,
has been the unprecedented development of commerce and manufactures, of
social organization and national wealth. A comparison of the potentiality of an
unskilled laborer of one hundred years ago with that of a like workman of to-day
brings out most strikingly what this scientific advance has accomplished in
solving the problems of life and raising the standard of comfort ; so that the
luxuries of a few years ago are the necessities of to-day, and new pleasures have
been added and even become common which were formerly beyond the reach
of the wealthy. In view, then, of this prominently scientific aspect, the most

18

important and instructive portion of nineteenth-century history will be that of its
scientific achievements, which, as Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer
with Darwin of the great principle of natural selection, has pointed out in his
"Wonderful Century," far exceed in number as well as in importance those
of all the centuries that have preceded it.

A CENTURY OF SCIENCE,

No more appropriate and useful way of signalizing the completion of this
century could be adopted than that of publishing during its closing year a history
of its scientific work. In order to do this in the best manner, we have arranged
for a series of articles on what has been accomplished in their several depart-
ments from leading authorities in their respective subjects — such as Sir Robert
S. Ball in Astronomy; President Arthur T. Hadley in Economics; Prof. Joseph
Le Conte in Geology ; Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie in Archaeology ; M. W. Haff-
kine in Preventive Inoculation ; Prof. W. M. Davis in Meteorology ; Prof. F. W.
Clarke in Chemistry ; and others of like standing in their specialties.

NEW DISCOVERffiS AND INVENTIONS.

The Monthly will continue to give accounts of the course of discovery and of
new developments in pure science; and careful writers familiar with their subjects
will be engaged to describe whatever occurs in this field as soon as it has assumed
definite form. Recognizing that the highest service that can be rendered by
knowledge is in its use for the improvement of man's condition, special attention
will be given to the adaptations of discovery to practical ends in the arts and
industries, in the betterment of social life, and in the development of a wiser
statesmanship for the administration of civil affairs.

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE.

These are the tests by which science, and indeed any other like system, must
be judged ; and not only because the study of these applications is of value in lead-
ing to a general appreciation of the beautiful correlation between pure science and
practical life, but more, perhaps, on account of the actual value of the information,
we have always heretofore, and shall still more in the future, devote a certain
portion of our space to their discussion. Among the earlier papers to appear will
be a series of illustrated articles by William Baxter, Jr., C. E., explaining the theory
of the trolley car and the mechanism on which its propulsion and control depend.
In another department, to which much attention is now being given. Prof. C. E.
Munroe, Dean of the Columbian University at Washington, whose long-continued

19

and exact researches in this subject have given him a world-wide reputation, will
contribute some liberally illustrated articles on The Practical Applications of
Explosives.

RECENT RESEARCH WITH THE X RAYS.

While much has been published about the wonderful qualities of the X rays
and their capacity of adaptation to the wants of man, as yet but little is really
known about them. The study of the phenomena is still going on, and is contin-
ually exhibiting new features and suggesting new objects on which they may
be brought to bear. As a part of the record of these things, Professor Trowbridge,
of Harvard University, will contribute an article describing some remarkable
results of later investigations in the Lawrence Physical Laboratory, of which he
is director.

THE RACE QUESTION.

The question of the adjustment of the relations of the races will be considered
as offering some of the most serious and immediate difficulties our people have to
confront, and one to which the thoughts of the best students of affairs are anxiously
directed. Among the articles bearing upon this subject will be several by Prof.
N. S. Shaler, of Harvard University, dealing with various aspects of the negro
question. Professor Shaler spent his early life in the South, and knows the colored
man well.

SCIENCE AND THE LAW.

Questions concerning methods of dealing with criminals will be discussed as
of no less importance and equally fraught with dangers. The first article bearing
on this subject, to be published in an early number, will be on the decline of our
criminal jurisprudence, by a member of the New York bar. It will expose the
urgent need of an infusion of scientific ideas into this exceedingly important branch
of legal practice, and will present some facts illustrating the dangerous state into
which it has fallen under the present antiquated systems.

CURIOSITIES OF NATURE.

No subjects more quicklv and universally enlist attention or hold it longer than
those of natural history. From the apparently inexhaustible store of novelties it
affords, the curious blind fishes of North America — those remarkable products of
retrograde evolution — are marked for early description in an article, accompanied
by numerous illustrations, from the pen of Prof. Charles Eigenmann, who has
made a special study of these fishes and is the acknowledged authority respect-
ing them.

20

THE ADVANCE OF WOMAN.

Recognizing as one of the most striking social features of the life of the nine-
teenth century the enlargement of woman's sphere and the extension of her privi-
leges, the Popular Science Monthly will endeavor to keep abreast of this move-
ment. Among its most interesting recent phases is the advance in Germany,
one of the latest countries to yield to it, but where women are now gradually
making their way into the universities and active life. The history of this strug-
gle and the degree of success which has been achieved there will be described in
an early article of rare interest by Mary Mills Patrick, President of the American
College for Girls at Constantinople.

COLONIAL QUESTIONS.

The important political questions arising through our recent acquisition of out-
lying territory will receive considerable attention. Two articles which will appear
in early numbers, under the title Colonies and the Mother Country, take up the
question of their proper relations.

MORALS AND EXPEDIENCY.

The drink evil, and vivisection, two of the most pressing moral questions now
engaging the attention of society, are scheduled for early treatment; and we have
already arranged for several articles taking up important questions connected
with modern religious tendencies.

EDUCATION.

Of equal importance with all these branches of knowledge, and an essential
prerequisite to receiving and rendering them available for use, is education. The
Monthly has in the past given this subject prominent attention and preference,
and will continue to do so. We have always aimed to make the articles in this
field not only of general philosophical interest, but more especially to select
subjects and modes of treatment which should be suggestive and practically
valuable to the working teacher. .

21

^ ^

y

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HVUR^ F'OOD

OR THE SCALP

Itching Scalp, Dandruff, Falling Hair.

THE THREE STEPS TO PREMATURE BALDNESS.

The Cause : A Parasite in the Scalp.

The Cure : Cmnilonic Hair Food.

At 576 West Broadway, New York City, is located the Cranitonic Scalp and Hair Institute.

It is the only institution of its kind in America. It is devoted exclusively to the treatment of diseases of the Scalp
and Hair. Only the ablest specialists are employed— physicians who have devoted years of study to diseases of the
scalp and hair, and whose unusual advantJges for investigation have peculiarly fitted them for their work.

If you are anxious about your hair and can not call at the institute, send a lock of hair, state if you have dandruff,
and mail your letter to the Cranitonic Scalp and Hair Institute, 526 West Broadway, New York Citv, when a micro-
scopical examination of your hair will be made and a report of its condition sent you without any charge being made
for the service. When writing, please mention Appi.etons' Popii-AR Scienxe Monthly.

Over one thousand physicians in New York City have ordered it. .Ml druggists sell it.

THE STORY OF THE
BRITISH RACE.

By John Munro, C. E., author
of " The Story of Electricity." A
new volume in the Library of Use-
ful Stories. Illustrated. i6mo.
Cloth, 40 cents.

EDUCATION BY
DEVELOPMENT.

ffl The Second Part of the Peda-
S gogics of the Kindergarten. By
K Friedrich Froebel. Translated by
^ Josephine Jarvis. (International
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g D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, Publishers,
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25

Look these subjects over f

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They are the topics thus far discussed by President George Gunton

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How Shall our New Possessions be Governed?
Need of Political Education

Political Parties and Popular Government
Our Municipal Problems

The State's Relation to Labor
Political Duty The State's Relation to Capital

Taking the Philippines

Lessons of the Election

Western View of the East
Eastern View of the West
The Treaty of Peace

The Open Door in the Philippines

The Path of Progress (H. Hayes Robbins)

The Rights and Wrongs of Trade Unions

America's Opportunity

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2C

A HISTORY OF

American Privateers.

By EDGAR STANTON MACLAY, A. M.,

Author of "A History of the UNiTtD States Navy." b'nilorin wilh "A History of
the United States Navy."

One Volvmc. Illuslraled. 8vo. Cloth, $3.50.

THE AFFAIR OF THE GASPE,
FROM A PAINTING IN THE POSSE3S.ION OF THc RHODE ISLAND HISTORICAL SOCIETY.

" Every chapter is crowded with incident and adventure that it would be difficult for the novelist
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boy."— 7 he Churc/iman, A'ew York.

" Both in matter and in style the work is of high rank." — Chicago Tribune.

"Coveiis the ground comprehensively, and relates the history of American privateering in vivid
style and with constantly grapnic narrative." — JSiew York Outlook.

"These stories of the privateers as related by Mr. Maclay are as full of romance as anything
imagined by the professional writers of romances." — Philadelphia 1 imes.

" A work that will stand probably forever as the standard, as it is thus far practically the only
book on its subject." — ISIew York Mail and Express.

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BOOKS PUBLISHED DURING 1899 BY

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STANDARD AND 3IISCELLANEOUS.

K'litiiry Iiil)lioi:i-;iiiliy.

Puerto Kico niul its Kesonrces. . .

The (.'ruise ot' the Cuehiilut

The LoiT of a Sea- Wiiif

KlvlU ot'the Sea

A History of .lapanese Literatim

Boheiniali Literature ■ ■

I'raetieal A-rrieulture

Inii>erial Demoeraey

Alaska and the Klondii<e

The luK-es of Kurope, with Supi

Oom I'auTs Teople

Birii-Life. < Teaehei-s' Eilition t

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The New Metropolis. 1,000 Illustrations. (Sold by sub |_
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Letters to a Mother on the Philosophy of Froebel

Education by Development. (Translated)

The Education of Children. ( Montaigne)

TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS.

History of the American Nation

Plant Relations

Shakspere's Macbeth

The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers

Macaulny's Essays on Milton and Addison

Selections from Slilton's Shorter Poems

F. A. Ober

Frank T. Bulleii

Frank T. P,ullen

Frank T. BuUen

W. G. Aston

Francis, Count Lutzow

C. C. James

D. S. Jordan

Angelo Heilprin

William Z. Kipley ... .
Howard C. Hillegas . . .
Frank M. Chapman . . .

FICTION.

W:udyhaugh

The Sea|)egoat. (Revised edition) .
A Duet, with an Occasional Chorus.

The Mormon Prophet

A JJouble Thread

The Pomp of the Laviletles

Snow on the Headlight

Mammon and Co

The King's Mirror

A verases

The White Terror

Equality

Love among the Lions

TOWN AND COUNTRY LIBRARY.

The Key of the Holy House

A Writer of Books

The Knij..'ht of the Crolden Chain . .

Ricroft of Withens

The Procession iif Life

By Berweii lianks

Pharos, the Eiryptian

Paul Carah, Cornishnum

Pursued V)y the Law

Madame Iziin

Fortune's my Foe

A (Cosmopolitan Comedy

The Kinifdom of Hate

The Ciami! and the Candle

Dr. Nikola's Experiment

The Stninire Story of Ilcst'ir Wviuh

Ijody Barliarity

A B'ittir 1 1 erit'aire

The Heiress of the .Season

A Vovaife at .Xnchor

The Idol of the Blin.i

A Corner of the Wi-st ,

The Story of Konnld Kestrel ,

Edited by E. Idell Zeisloft

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Susan E. Blow

Friedrich Froebel

Edited by L. E. Kector. .

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John M. Coulter <

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Edited by F. T. Baker.. . .
Edited by Geo. B. Alton..
Edited bv Fred D. Nichols

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Hall Caino

A. Conan Doyle

Lily Dougall

Ellen Tliorneyerott Fowler

Gilbert Parker

Cy Warnian

E". F. Benson

Anthony noj)e

Eleanor' Stuait

F^lix Gras

Edward Bellaui
F. Anstey

Albert Lee

George Paston

R. I). Chetwode

Halliwell Sutclirte

II. A. Vaehell

Allen Kaine

(Juy Boothl)y

Charles Lee

J. Maclaren Cobban

Mrs. Camjibell-Praed

J. Blonndelle-Burton ....

.\nna Robeson Brown

T. (Jallori

Rho.la BroUL'hton

Guy Boothby

G. Col more

J. C. Snaith

J. BlouiidelU-Burtoii

Sir William MaL'nav, Bart.

W. Clark Russell . ".

T. Gallon

Edith Henrietta Fowler. ..
A. J. Dawson

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Books published during J 899 by D. Appleton and ODmpany. — {Continued,)

SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY.

The Fairv-Land of Science. (Revised edition)

Outlines of Zoolojry. (Third edition, revised and enlarged)
Evolution by Atro'pliy. (International Scientific Series j.

Principles of Psyeiiology. (Revised edition. ) -2 vols

Earthquakes anil Other'Earth Movements. (Rev'd ed.)..

HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY.

General Sherman

Reminiscences of a Very Old Man

A History of American Privateers

The Story of Enj,dish Kings according to Shakespeare . . .

JUVENILE BOOKS.

The Hero of Manila

The Storv of Mafrellan

The Half-Back. .'

The Book of Knight and Barbara

The Treasure Ship

History of Spain. (History for Young Readers;

History of Canada. (History for Young Readers)

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Playtime and Seedtime. (Uncle Robert's Geography)

Volume I

Uncle Sam's Soldiers

Our Navy in Time of War

The Insect World

The Story of the Fishes

About the Weather

The Family of the Sun

HarolcVs Quests. (Nature Study Readers.) Vol. Ill

LIBRARY OF USEFUL STORIES.

The Story of the Cotton Plant

The Story of Geographical Discovery

Tiie Story of the British Race

The Storv of the Living Machine

GUIDE-BOOKS. (Revised editions.)
Appletons' General Guide to the United States. (Complete. )
Appletons' General Guide. Part I. New Ensland and

Middle States :

Appletons' General Guide. Part II. Western and South-
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Appletons' Canadian Guide-Book

Appletons' Guide-Book to Alaska

Appletons' Dictionary of Greater New York

SPANISH.

The Spani.sh Reader and Translator

The Combined Spanish Method and Key. (Revised ed. '

EI Cautivo ^

El Si de las Ninas

Harmonic Spanish Method

Silabario '

La Fonografia Moderna

Cueutos Pintados para Ninos. (Six numbers) per dozen.

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The Care and Feeding of Children. (New edition)

The Nervous System and its Constituent Neurones (Sub'n)

A Treatise on Materia Medica and Therapeutics. (Tenth
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Aphasia and Other Speech Defects.

Operative Surgery. Volume I. (Subscription.) (New

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A. B. Buckley

J. A. Thomson

Jean Demoor et nl . . .

Herbert Spencer ,

Prof. John Milne

SIZE. BINDING. PRICE

General M. F. Force...

John Sartain

Edgar Stanton Maclay.
Dr. J. J. Burns .'.

Rossiter Johnson

Hezekiah Butterworth . . .
Raljih Henry Barliour...

David Starr Jordan

Hezekiah Butterworth. . .

F. A. Ober

J. N. Mclhvraith

( Francis "W. Parker I
1 Nellie L. Helm.... j" •

O. P. Austin

Franklin Matthews

C. M. Weed

James Newton Baskett.

Mark W. Ilan-ington. . .

Edward S. Ilolden

John W. Troeger

F. "Wilkinson.
Joseph Jacobs.
John ^lunro. .
H. W. Conn...

Charles G. D. Roberts
Miss E. R. Scidmore..

Miguel T. Tolon . .
Alberto de Tornos.

Miiruel de Cervantes...
Leandro F. Moratin...

Luis A. Baralt

Manuel A. Ponce

Carlos A. Brockaway. .

L. Emmett Holt, M. D.

Lewellys F. Barker, M. D.

Roberts Bartholow, M. A..

M.D., LL.D

( H. Charlton Bastian,

] M.A., M. D

[ Joseph D. Bryant, M. D.

Edwijird Bradford Dench
M. D

- Dr. Ernest Fuchs

;Ludwig Hirt, M. D

i Alexander J. C. Skene,
I ALD., LL. D

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Circulars or other information con/:erninij any of the above publications sent on request.

29

THE SANITARIAN

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the article is Dr. Stephen Smith, the eminent surgeon and OMthov."— Tennessee
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Based at the outset upon medical knowledge and sanitary service, over an
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80

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Edition of 1899. With numerous Maps
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1900=== 36tli ===1900

Annual Statement

OF THK

TRAVELERS

INSURANCE COMPANY.

Chartered 1863. (Stock.) Life and Accident Insurance.
JAMES G. BATTERSDN, President.

Hartford, Conn., J'anuarif 1, I'HtO.

Paid=up Capital, $1,000,000.

ASSETS.

Eeal Estate ------.__. $2,049 222 72

Cash on hand and in Bunk - - - . 1^810^269 96

Loans on bond and niortirnge, real estate 5,'981,'842 52

Interest accrued but not due - - - _ 245,983 39

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Kailroad stocks and bonds - - - - - 7 819.225 19

Bank stocks ----..-.. l'258,"i74 00

Other stocks and bonds - ----- l,28S,.'?.'J0 00

Total Assets ----- $27,760,511 56

LL\BILITIES.

Eeserve, 33^ per cent. Life Department $20,406,734 00
Eeserve for Re-insurance, Accident De-
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Total Liabilities - - - - $23,739,827 61

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STATISTICS TO DATE.

Life Department.
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New Life Insurance written in 1899 17,165,686 00

Insurance on installment plan at comimiied lulue.
Returned to Policy-holders in 1899 $ 1 ,522,117 06
Returned to Policy-holders since

1364 -.-:---_- 16,039,380 95

Accident Department.

Number Accident Claims paid in

18<)-) --------- 15,386

Whole number Accident Claims

paid - - ------ - 339.636

Returned to Policy-holders in 1899 $1,227,977 34
Returned to Policy-holders since

1S04 --------- 23,695,539 94

Totals.
Returned to Policy-holders in 1809 $2,750,394 40
Returned to Policv-holders since

1864 -------- - 39,73 1,9'iO 89

SYLVESTER V. BFNHAM. Vice-President.
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31

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The Eminent Trauedian.

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Vol. LVL] Established by Edward Ig-^foUHANS. t^o. 6.

r^ POPULAR SCIENCE O

MONTHLY

EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMAJ^S. iuJl ^ I B « * ^

APRIL, 1900. ^s^>

PASS

Recent Tears of Egyptian Exploration. Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie. 625

The Gold Sand» of Cape Nome. (Illustrated.) Prof. Angelo Heilpbin. 633

A State Official on Excessire Taxation. Franklin Smith. 645

Latest DcTelopments witli the X Says. (Illustrated.) Prof. John Trowbridge. 659

A Hundred Tears of Chemistry. Prof. P. W. Clarke. 673

The Science of Art Form. (Illustrated.) D. Cady Eaton. 685

Steam Turbines and High-Speed Vessels. (Illus.) Hon. Chas. A. Parsons, F. R. S. 696

A SurriTal of Mediaeral Credulity. (Concluded.) Prof. E. P. Evans. 706

Genuine Starch Factories. (Illustrated.) Byron D. Halsted, Sc. D. 716

Trade Corporations in China. M. Maurice Courant. 732

Editor's Table : Science- and Dogma. — A More Excellent Way 728

Fragments of Science 731

Index to Yol. LTI 741

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**// is an uncommonly entertaining book, crammed full of interesting
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plenty of admirable suggestions and a great deal of sound truth. In
short, it is an uncommonly fascinating book.'''' — NewYork Evening Sun.

PRIMITIVE LOVE
AND LOVE-STORIES

By henry T. FINCK

AUTHOR OF "ROMANTIC LOVE AND PERSONAL BEAUTY," "LOTOS-TIME IN JAPAN," ETC.

One volume. Octavo, 851 pages, $3*00

TREATING EXHAUSTIVELY OF
History of an Idea Specimens of African Love

How Sentiments Change and Grow Aboriginal Australian Love

What is Romantic Love ? Island Love on the Pacifjc

Sensuality, Sentimentality, and Sen- How American Indians Love

TiMENT India — Wild Tribes and Temple Girls

Mistakes regarding Conjugal Love Does the Bible Ignore Romantic Love?

Obstacles to Romantic Love Greek Love-Stories and Poems

Bibliography and Indexes

SOME REVIEWS

"It is no ordinary book, but rather a literary monument, a contribution to the history of the human
family which will long remain a text-book for all students." — Netv York World.

" Curious, unique, and singularly interesting. ... In many ways Mr. Finck's theory throws new light
on Greek literature and culture, and the stories, which follow one another in quick succession, are valuable
not only as a record of the erolution of love, but also as a study of primitive emotions." — Boston Herald.

" Mr. Finck's style is lucid, elegant, and the book in every chapter reflects the scholar. Not the
least recommendation for the work is that it avoids the didactic, pedagogic manner of the scientific pathol-
ogist, for most of the arguments are supported by quotations from histories and incidents, so the result is a
narrative, a romance almost, which holds the interest as closely as exciting fiction." — Chicago E-vening Post.

" It is a work of really enormous research, yet written in the lightest and most inviting vein. You are
led on from page to page as one whom the changing charms of scenery lead along past one milestone after
another of a winding country road. Astounding truly are some of the scenes Mr. Finck brings to our
view. . . . You have never read another book like this, and I doubt if you ever will. It is an extraordi-
nary book; unique both in substance and mode of presentation." — North ylmerican.

"The present volume, one of some 851 pages, is really a remarkable compendium, and shows unusual
power of research. . . . Mr. Finck has performed a most praiseworthy task, and one that should bring him
the grateful acknowledgment of readers and students. Between the covers of his well-printed and well-
compiled volume one may find a wealth of material, and the results of an examination into the erotic
literature of all climes, lands, and ages, that makes it really worthy of the title, ' infinite riches in a little
room.' " — New York Times.

"Some dozen years ago Mr. Henry T. Finck published a book that stirred up considerable discussion
among sociologists and literary men, and excited the interest even of the general reader. It was entitled
'Romantic Love and Personal Beauty.' . . . He now comes forward with another work. ... It shows
us that, bad as we may be collectively, we are uniformly superior in love affairs, as in everything else, to
those primitive peoples, and thus we are encouraged to hope for further progress in the future in the direc-
tion of purity and altruism. It would be impossible in a brief review to do justice to the immense mosaic-
work of facts which Mr. Finck has put together to prove his theories." — Neiv York Herald.

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later nineteenth century, there are presented a series of peculiar and fascinating literarj- epcchs which
can only be set forth by a writer like M. Waliszewski, who is familiar with the developments of Russian
history and imbued with the. spirit of a people frequently misinterpreted and misunderstood. His study
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A HISTORY OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE.

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there are presented a series of peculiar and fascinating literary epochs whicii can only be set forth by a
writer like M. Waliszewski, who is familiar with tiie developments of Russian history and imbued with
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A HISTORY OF BOHEMIAN LITERATURE.

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Brooklyn, and John F. Woodhull, A. M., Teachers' College, Columbia
Universitv. i amo. Cloth.

APPLETONS' SPRING BULLEIIN

APPLErONS' TIVENTIETH CENTURr TEXT-BOOKS.— (Continued.)

Xhe Elementary Principles of Chemistry.

By Abram Van Eps Young, Ph. B., Northwestern University, Evanston,
111. 1 2mo. Cloth.

Physical Experiments.

A Laboratorv Manual. By John F. Woodhull, Ph. D,, Professor of
Physical Science, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York,
and M. B. Van Arsdale, Instructor in Physical Science in Horace Mann
School and Assistant in Teachers' College.

A Text-Book of Geology.

By Albert Perry Brigham, A. M., Colgate University.

Burke's Speech on Conciliation with America.

Edited by William I. Crane, Steele High School, Dayton, Ohio.
1 2mo. Cloth.

IN JPPLETONS' HOME-READING BOOKS.

The Chronicles of Sir John Froissart.
By Adam Singleton. 1 2mo. Cloth.

The Storied West Indies.

By F. A. Ober. i zmo. Cloth.

Stories of the Great Astronomers.

By Edward S. Holden. i 2mo. Cloth.

JPPLErONS' SPANISH BOOKS.
Mi Ti'o Bernac.

By A. Conan Doyle. i 2mo. Paper, 50 cents.

El Gobierno Municipal de los Estados Unidos.

By Alfred R. Conkling. i 2mo.

El Lector Moderno de Appleton.

By Dr. Juan Garcia Puron. i 2mo. 3 vols. Libro I, Libro II, and
Libro III.

Historia Ilustrada de los Estados Unidos.

New edition. By G. P. Quackenbos. 1 2mo. $1.25.

Diana.

By Mrs. Forrester. 50 cents.

El Gobierno de los Estados Unidos.

By Cocker.

APPLETONS' G UI DE-BOOKS

New Editions of

Appletons' General Guide. App^^tons' Canadian Guide.

Applttons' Dictionary of New York.

A P P L E 1 O N S ' SPRING BULLETIN

FRANK M. CHAPMAN.

The author of Bird Studies zvith a Camera, Mr. Frank M. Chapman, the
Assistant Curator of" Vertebrate Zoology in the American Museum of Natural
History, is known to amateurs and to students and teachers of natural history as
an authoritative and popular writer, as the author of " Handbook of Birds of
Eastern North America" and "Bird-Life," as the
editor of " Bird-Lore," and as a most successful lec-
turer upon ornithological subjects. Mr. Chapman is
also a leader in the movement for the protection of
birds from destruction for commercial purposes. With
the multiplication of books upon birds by inexpert and
half-informed writers there has developed a reaction
and an increasing demand for works like those of Mr.
Chapman, which are absolutely authoritative. His
"Handbook of Birds" has become a standard au-
thority, and his charming "Bird-Life," with the
numerous illustrations by Mr. Ernest Seton Thomp-
son, is one of the rare books which combines exact
knowledge with a faculty of clear and simple exposition. To these books Mr.
Chapman has now added a third which shows his unprecedented success as an
observer of birds with a camera. He develops a new field of Nature study with
astonishing results. Mr. Chapman describes the kind of camera required, and
shows how it can be used in depicting the life histories of birds, and his numer-
ous illustrations present in a most striking manner the value of photography in
graphically recording the haunts, food, nesting sites, nests, eggs, appearance and
development of the young, and other features of bird life.

In the introduction to his delightful and suggestive book Mr. Chapman writes
of the charm of bird photography as follows : " As a one-time sportsman, who
yielded to none in his enjoyment of the chase, I can affirm that there is a fasci-
nation about the hunting of wild animals with a camera as far ahead of the pleas-
ure to be derived from their pursuit with shotgun or rifle as the sport found in
shooting quail is beyond that of shooting clay pigeons. Continuing the comparison
from a sportsman's standpoint, hunting with a camera is the highest development
of man's inherent love of the chase. The killing of a bird with a gun seems
little short of murder after one has attempted to capture its image with a lens.
The demands on the skill and patience of the bird photographer are endless, and
his pleasure is intensified in proportioji to the nature of the difficulties to be over-
come, and in the event of success it is perpetuated by the infinitely more satis-
factory results obtained. He does not rejoice over a bag of mutilated flesh and
feathers, but in the possession of a trophy — an eloquent token of his prowess as a
hunter, a talisman which holds the power of revivifying the circumstances attend-
ing its acquisition. What mental vision of falling birds can be as potent as the
actual picture of living birds in their homes ? And how immeasurably one's
memories are brightened by the fact that this is not a picture of what has been,
but of what is ! The camera thus opens the door to a field of sport previously

AiM^LETONS' SPRING BULLEl'IN

closed to those who love birds too much to find pleasure in killing them ; to whom
Bob-White's ringing whistle does not give rise to murderous speculations as to the
number in his family, but to an echo of the season's joy which his note voices^
They therefore have a new incentive to take them out of doors ; for however
much we love Nature for Nature's sake, there are few of us whose pleasure in an
outing is not intensified by securing some definite, lasting result."

JOHN BACH McMASTER.

In the fifth volume of his History of the
People of the United States Professor McMas-
ter deals with a period of our history between
1 821 and 1830, which in many of its phases
has received but scant attention. The close
of Monroe's term, the administration of John
Quincy Adams, and the stormy opening years
of Jackson, form an epoch of peculiar interest in
view of the development of the democratic
spirit, the manifestations of a new interest in
social problems, the experiments in banking and
finance, the improvements in the conditions of
city life, the changing reladons between the East
and West, and the author's full and striking
presentation of the literary activity of the country at that time.

Professor McMaster's volume opens with a chapter on the Early Settlement of
Texas by Austin and his imitators, and on the origin and first temporary settle-
ment of the Oregon dispute by the establishment of the hnfe 54° 40'. It was in
connection with this line that Adams announced to Russia the anticolonization
part of the Monroe Doctrine.

The second chapter, therefore, under the caption Growth of the Monroe
Doctrine, reviews the gradual development and assertions of the three principles
of that doctrine from Washington's day to 1823 ; the Holy Allies and their work
in Europe, their preparation for interference with the late Spanish-American
colonies, and the final assertion of the doctrine of Monroe. After thus reviewing
the important foreign relations of Monroe's second term, Mr. McMaster returns
to domestic concerns, and in the next chapter treats of The Breaking Up of the
Republican Party. The economic, industrial, and political conditions which led
to sectionalism, the rise of the rival candidates, and the long presidential campaign
ending in the failure of the colleges to elect, are given with great fullness.

The election of Adams marked the end of the first half century ot the repub-
lic. The next eight chapters are therefore given up to an examination or review
of certain social, political, literary, and industrial conditions which arose during
the period and paved the way for the triumph of Jackson and Democracy.

In the chapter on Socialistic and Labor Reforms we have the story of the en-
trance of the workingman into politics ; of that curious socialistic movement of

APPLETONS' SPRING BULLETIN

Owen, and Fanny Wright ; the beginning of the Antimasonic party, and the early
signs of native Americanism.

The next chapter is a full account of The State of the Country from 1825
to 1829 ; the rapid growth of cities ; early problems in city government ; the in-
troduction of gas and anthracite coal ; the opening of the Erie Canal and the
tremendous struggle for Western trade, etc. Following this is a chapter on The
Negro Problem ; and the next chapter, under the title The Industrial Revolution,
is an account of the rise and development of manufactures ; of the conditions
which led to the tariffs of 1824 and 1828 ; their peculiar characters ; the violent
opposition of the South, and asserdons of the State-Rights Doctrine of Calhoun
and his party.

This is followed by an account ot our early literary efforts which is singularly
fresh, informing, and interesting. There is a chapter on The Common Schools
during the first half century, and another, quite dmely now, on British Criticism
of the United States, setting forth very fully why our fathers hated Great Britain
so heartily. Then follows an elaborate review of Political Ideas ; a chapter on
foreign complications ; the Panama Congress ; the prevention of the independence
of Cuba by the United States in the interest of the slaveholding States ; the
Maine boundary dispute with Great Britain; the Oregon agreement of 1827;
and, finally, a chapter on The Triumph of Democracy, detailing the famous
struggle ending in the election of Jackson, the removals from ofKce, and the
attempt to buy Texas.

In the introducdon to his Principles of Taxation
the late Dr. Wells wrote : " It is the purpose of the
writer, in the chapters which follow, to discuss the prin-
ciples of taxation from a broader basis and by different
methods than have heretofore been attempted, special
consideration being given to the experience of the United
States. Such a discussion primarily involves the inquiry,
of how far the varied and curious experience of nations
leads up through what may be regarded as a process of
evoludon, to a recognition of the underlying and essen-
dal principles of a just and at the same dme an efficient
system of taxadon. And it also necessitates, for the at-
tainment of correct conclusions in the prosecudon of such inquiry, that illustra-
tions drawn from the world's great record of experience should take precedence
of theory, especially in the way of example and exhibit of the many abuses of
the power of taxation which the ignorance of legislators and the cupidity of de-
signing men have inflicted upon nations.

" There can be no civilization without government, and no government with-
out an adequate supply of revenue obtained from the persons and property of the
people governed. There can be no health in the body politic without sound

DAVID A. WELLS.

A P P L E TONS' SPRING BULLETIN

finance, and no sound finance without a sound system of taxation. In tact, taxa-
tion is to our body politic what blood is to the body physical : if healthy, infusing
life and warmth ; hut if unhealthy, the agent for producing discontent, decrepi-
tude, and paralysis,

" The absence or existence of limitations on the power of a government to
make compulsory levies on the property or persons of its people for its use or
support, constitutes the dividing line between a despotism and a free government
— a fact most pertinent to legal, economic, and societary studies which has
attracted little attention.

"The methods and scope of what is called taxation regulate more than all
other agencies the distribution of wealth, which is really the great question of the
future to all nations."

N. S. SHALER.

The lucidity and suggestiveness of Prof. N. S.
Shaler's writings, whether they are expositions of sci-
entific themes or discussions which touch upon socio-
logical topics, will induce readers to await with especial
interest his forthcoming book. The Individual: A
Study of Life and Death, which is a striking and
noble presentation of the subject of death from a fresh
point of view. Professor Shaler's book is one of deep
and permanent interest. He points out that while the
problems ot natural selection and evolution have called
attention to the results which come from the temporary
quality of the individual, they have not heretofore led to any extended interest
in the relation of the ephemeral nature of the individual to the other individu-
alities of the universe and to the method of its organization. In his preface he
writes as follows : *' In the following chapters I propose to approach the question
of death from a point of view of its natural history, noting; in the first place, how
the higher organic individuals are related to those of the lower inorganic realm of
the universe. Then, taking up the organic series, I shall trace the progressive
steps in the perfection of death by a determination as to the length of the
individual life and its division into its several stages from the time when the body
of the individual is separated from the general body of the ancestral life to that
when it returns to the common store of the earth. Upon the basis of the knowl-
edge we may thus obtain, I shall endeavor to see what qualifications of the
accepted view of the great accident we mav make — how, in a word, we may
hope to work toward a reconciliation of our death with the order in which we
find ourselves placed. ... In effect this book is a plea for an education as
regards the place of the individual life in the whole of Nature which shall be
consistent with what we know of the universe. It is a plea for an understanding
of the relations of the person with the realm which is, in the fullest sense, his own ;
with his fellow-beings of all degrees which are his kinsmen ; with the past and

A P P L E T C) N S ' SPRING BULLETIN

the future of which he is an integral part. It is a protest against the idea, bred
of many natural misconceptions, that a human being is something apart from its
fellows ; that it is born into the world and dies out of it into the loneliness of a
supernatural realm. It is this sense of isolation which, more than all else, is the
curse of life and the sting of death."

Appletons' World Series, the new Geographical Library edited by H. J. Mac-
kinder, M. A., Reader in the University of Oxford, will consist of twelve
volumes. Each volume will describe a great natural region, its marked physical
features, and the life of its people. Together the volumes will give a complete
account of the world, more especially as the field of human activity. The series
is intended for reading rather than for reference, and will stand removed on the one
hand from the monumental work of Reclus, and on the other from the ordinary
text-book, gazetteer, and compendium. In their presentation of the facts the au-
thors will study above all things perspective, and will seek to convey right propor-
tions rather than statistical accuracy. Facts will not be presented merely as facts,
but always in their causal or graphic relations. Thus, each volume will give a
succession of vivid ideas, to be grasped pictorially, and to remain in the memory.
The reader will be led to visualize a great relief model in color, with its seas and
Its lands, its uplands and its lowlands, its rivers and their valleys, its forests and
deserts, and its seasonal changes. Above all, he will think of it as the stage of
human action, and will realize the relations of man — and especially of his economic
and political organizations — to the grand features of phvsical geographv. Care
will be taken to tell the results of natural and economic science in language devoid
of technicality, and to make each of the books interesting and attractive to every
reader, although a solid contribution to geographical literature. The series will
appeal to teachers, to students, to tourists, to business men, and to the general
reader. The teacher will find suggestions for salient points in his teaching ; the
general reader will learn the persistent factors controlling the passing events chron-
icled in the newspapers ; the tourist will grasp the real working of the community
he visits, and not merelv its curiosities and antiquities ; and the merchant will
realize the varied circumstances of his markets. Each volume is to be illustrated
by manv maps printed in colors and by diagrams in the text ; and it will be a dis-
tinguishing characteristic of the series that both maps and diagrams v\ill be drawn
so that each of them shall convey some salient idea, and that together they shall
constitute a clear epitome of the writer's argument. With a like object the pic-
tures also will be chosen so as to illustrate the text, and not merely to decorate it.
When possible, the books will be written fi-om the point of view of the region de-
scribed, and every effort will be made to avoid bias, patriotic or other.

The Brass Bottle, the forthcoming romance by F. Anstey, the brilliant author
of "Vice Versa" and "The Tinted Venus," shows the author in his happiest
vein. The storv is an imaginative romance full of quaint conceits and deliciously

APPLETONS' SPRING BULLETIN

extravagant situations. His new book is the most important, as regards length,
quality, and sustained interest, which he has given us for some time. The scene
opens in London with the introduction of a struggling architect to whom there
comes an extraordinary experience which furnishes a fair field for the fancy and
humor of the writer. There can be no doubt regarding the popularity of Mr.
Anstey's latest novel.

E. HOUGH.

The author of The Girl at the Halfway House, Mr. E. Hough, gained
general recognition by his remarkable book, " The Story of the Cowboy," pub-
lished by D. Appleton and Company in this country,
and also published in England.

The Girl at the Halfway House has been called
an American epic by critics who have read the manu-
script. The author illustrates the strange life of the
great westward movement which became so marked in
this country after the civil war. A dramatic picture of
the battle of Fredericksburg, which has been compared
to scenes in " The Red Badge of Courage," opens the
story. After this "Day of War," in which the hero
and heroine first meet, there comes ** The Day of the
Buffalo." The reader follows the course of the hero and
his friend, a picturesque old army veteran, to the

frontier, then found on the Western plains. The author, than whom no one can
speak with fuller knowledge, pictures the cowboy on his native range, the wild
life of the buffalo hunters, the coming of the white-topped emigrant wagons,
and the strange days of the early land booms. Into this new world comes the
heroine, whose family finally settles near at hand, illustrating the curious phases
of the formation of a prairie home. The third part of the story, called "The
Day of the Cattle," sketches the wild days when the range cattle covered the
plains and the cowboys owned the towns. The fourth part of the story is called
"The Day of the Plow," and in this we find that the buffalo has passed from
the adopted country of hero and heroine, and the era of towns and land booms
has begun. While this story is a novel with a love motive, it is perhaps most
striking as a romance of the picturesque and dramatic days of early Western life.
It shows the movement westward, and the free play of primitive forces in the
opening of a new country. Nothing has been written on the opening of the
West to excel this romance in epic quality, and its historic interest, as well as
its freshness, vividness, and absorbing interest, should appeal to every American
reader.

The Last Lady of Mulberry \s. the title of a fre>h and charming novel,
whose author, a new writer, Mr. Henry Wilton Thomas, has found an unexploited
field in the Italian quarter of New York. Mr. Thomas is familiar with Italy as
well as New York, and the local color of his vivacious pictures gives his story a

A P P L K 1' O N S ' SPRING BULLETIN

peculiar zest. As a story pure and simple his novel is distinguished by originality
in motive, by a succession of striking and dramatic scenes, and by an understand-
ing of the motives of the characters, and a justness and sympathy in their pres-
entation which imparts a constant glow of human interest to the tale. The au-
thor has a quaint and delightful humor which will be relished by every reader.
While his story deals with actualities, it is neither depressing nor unpleasantly
realistic, like many "stories of low Hfe," and the reader gains a vivid impression
of the sunnier aspects of life in the ItaHan quarter. The book will contain a
series of well-studied and effective illustrations by Mr. Emil Pollak. In order to
obtain accurate material for the illustrations the artist and author together have
visited the scenes of the novel in the neighborhood of Mulberry Park, formerly
known as Mulberry Bend, where they obtained photographs and sketches which
Mr. Pollak has consulted judiciously with a view to the interpretation of the
actual atmosphere of the scenes described.

Three years ago a brilliant and already distinguished clergyman, then of
Boston, published "A Hero in Homespun," a romance of unknown types and
phases of life in the mountains of Tennessee and Kentucky during the civil war.
The success of this fresh and vigorous romance, of which a new edition is to be
published by D. Appleton and Company, has not induced the author. Dr. William
E. Barton, to sacrifice anything to hasty production. He has written no other
novel until the present time, when Messrs. D. Appleton and Company are able
to announce his new romance. Pine Knot, a Story of Kentucky Life, which will
appear in April. Dr. Barton was born in Sublette, Illinois, where he spent his
first twenty years, but he gained his knowledge of the mountain folk of Kentucky
and Tennessee by immediate association, first as a student at Berea College in
Kentucky and afterward as a missionary in the mountains, and later as a visitor
and traveler through the most unfrequented parts. Another journey m the
mountains was made especially in the interests of Pi/ie Knot. The story is flill
of the atmosphere of the quaint mountain hfe with its wealth of amusing
peculiarities, and it also has a historical value, since it pictures conditions attend-
ant upon the antislavery movement and the days of the war. The interest of a
treasure search runs through the tale, since the author has adroitly utihzed a
mountain legend of a lost mine. Pine Knot is a romance "racy of the soil" in
a true sense, a story fresh, strong, and absorbing in its interest throughout. Of
the scenes of this novel the author has said : "A region so beautiful in its scenery
and romantic in its traditions as that which surrounds the Falls of the Cumberland
River deserves to be represented in literature. The plan of a story embodying
these traditions and dealing with the lives of the people in the heroic period of
their history has been maturing in my mind for many years, during which time
material for the work has been accumulating. The legend of the Swift Silver
Mine is in itself so interesting as to require little shaping at the hands of the story-
teller ; and the scheme for its development just before the war, with the brilliant
visions of enormous wealth and the result, are matters of record."

10

A P P L E T O N S ' SPRING BULLETIN

Mr. J. A. Altsheler has earned a reputation by
his novels ot' the French Wars, the Revolution, and
the War of 1812, and in his new romance, to which
he has devoted himself" for a long time, he tells a
thrilling story of the civil war. The scene opens in
Wasliington just before the arrival of Lincoln, whose
coming and inauguration are graphically described.
Later in the story the leading characters are reunited
in the South, and the love story with its dramatic
interruptions and suspended interest runs through the
book. There are vivid pictures of Shiloh and Gettys-
burg, with adventures inside the Confederate lines. In this strong, well-studied,
and absorbing romance the author has produced his most important work. The
title of Mr. Altsheler' s new romance may be changed, but its present name is
/// Circling Camps.

J. A. ALTSHELER.

Mirry-Ann, a Manx story, by Norma Lorimer, is a quaint and charming
novel of life in the Isle of Man, by a \vriter new to American readers. It is a
love story rather than a drama, although there are dramatic episodes. The local
color of the scene is cleverly suggested but not insisted upon, and the tale is one
of universal interest, excellent in its characterization and contrasts of tvpes, enter-
taining in its humorous by-play, thoroughly sympathetic and full of interest from
the first page to the last.

ANNA ROBESON BROWN.

In T/.^c Immoria/ Garland, a striking novel of
American life, by Anna Robeson Brown, the au-
thor develops contrasting careers which have to
do with literature, the stage, and society. Her
treatment of her theme is vigorous and effective,
and no reader of the book will fail to feel the
actuality of her characters and the logic of their
development. The action of the novel passes
largely in New York. The story abounds in
vivid pictures and well-realized situations, and
the phases of American life which it depicts arc
presented with a vigor and power of graphic de-
Hneation which will arrest attention and gain for
this strong novel a high place among contemporary
American fiction.

In A History of American Privateers, Mr. Edgar Stanton Maclay, the
distinguished historian of American sea power, presents the first comprehensive
account of one of the most picturesque and absorbing phases of our maritime war-

11

A P P L E T O N S ' SPRING B U L L K F I N

EDGAR S. MACLAY.

fare. The intimate connection between privateers
and the navy, the former serving often as a training
school for the latter, is brought out in the author's
narrative. From forgotten monographs, the records of
societies, from unpublished log books, and from de-
scendants of noted privateersmen, he has obtained
intimate and vivid accounts of the fitting out of the
vessels, the incidents of their voyages, and the thrilling
adventures of the brave sailors who manned them.
Samuel Reid's desperate fight at Fayal is well known,
but he was only one of many who shared in adven-
tures not dissimilar and faced overwhelming odds
with the splendid courage characteristic of American
sailors. Mr. Maclay's romantic tale is accompanied by reproductions of
contemporary pictures, portraits, and documents, and also by illustrations by
Mr. George Gibbs. In his preface Mr. Maclay says: " The history of the
United States Navy is so intimately connected with that of our privateers
that the story of one would be incomplete without a full record of the
other. In each of our wars with Great Britain many of the captains in the
navy assumed command of privateers in which thev frequently rendered services
of national importance, while the privateersmen furnished the navy with a large
number of officers, many of whom became famous. In our struggle for inde-
pendence more than sixty American privateers were commanded by men who had
been, or soon became, officers in the regular service, and in more than one
instance — notably that of the officers and men of the Ranger, Captain John Paul
Jones's famous ship, then commanded by Captain William Simpson — almost the
entire ship's company of a Continental cruiser turned to privateering. Many of
our most distinguished navy officers have pointed with pride to their probationary
career in privateers. The mere mention of such names as Truxtun, Porter,
Biddle, Decatur, Barney, Talbot, Barry, Perry, Murray, Rodgers, Cassin, Little,
Robinson, Smith, and Hopkins will show how closelv related were the two arms
of our maritime service." Widespread popularity for this volume and apprecia-
tion of its high merit have already been shown. The Philadelphia Public Ledger
says, "Every chapter is crowded with incident and adventure that it would be
difficult for the novelist to surpass in variety and invention ; " while the char-
acterization of the Chicago Evening Post is, *' From beginning to end it is as in-
teresting as a novel." Perhaps the wide range of readers to which this book is
adapted is best indicated by the comment of The Churchman : " It is hard to see
what American this book could fail to interest, from the admiral to the school-
boy."

The White Terror, by Felix Gras, has had the same enthusiastic reception
which was given to this popular French author's other romances, " The Reds
of the Midi" and "The Terror." When "The Reds of the Midi" was

A P P 1. 1: T C) N S ' SPRING BULL K T I N

FJf:LIX tiRAS.

published by the Messrs. Applcton, Felix Gras
was unknown outside of France. In the Midi
he had gained recognition as a poet and writer
of stories, and he had been chosen as the head
of the Felibrige, that society of romancers and
singers of which Mistral and Roumanille were
the earlier chiefs. With the appearance of
"The Reds of the Midi," however, it was
made clear to America and to England that
a new light had appeared in modern litera-
ture. The simplicity, fervor, vividness, and
dramatic force of this romancer of the Midi
drew words of unstinted praise from critics
and readers, and even Gladstone paused in his

labors to read the book and eulogize the author. "The Reds of the Midi" was
followed by " The Terror," another success ; and the author now offers in The
White Terror the concluding volume of his great trilogy of the French Revolution,
which with its splendidly sustained interest, its vitality, and its swift, strong
current of action, comes as the crown of the author's interpretation of the Revo-
lution in fiction. Added to the charms of graphic and often poetic style, keen
appreciation of dramatic effects, and rare power of individualization, his earnestness
of conviction and purpose gives an exceptional value to his stories. He writes
because he has something in his heart to say, and his fervid republican and
patriotic feeling is constantly demonstrated. Himself a Provencal, it is natural
that he should have chosen for his field of historical romance the south of France,
and every chapter of The White Terror shows thorough knowledge of the
country and its people, keen appreciation of their noble virtues and ferocious
vices.

Mr. Richard H. Titherington's History of the Spanish- Awericayi War is
a carefully compiled, comprehensive, and rigidly impartial historic account of the
causes leading to our war with Spain, the war itself, and circumstances incident
to the termination thereof It is to be noted that the author has awaited the
official reports on both sides, and he is therefore able to present a well-founded
and authoritative history. Omitting no detail possessing real importance, it is
necessarily concise, and no space is wasted in descriptive "fine writing" or
extended critical disquisitions. As an authoritative work for reference it will
be found of exceptional merit, and its value is materially enhanced by many
excellent sketch maps and a very thorough index. The long story of Spanish
misgovernment and Cuban revolt, down to the climax of outrage and suffering
under Weyler's rule, is all compressed into the first fifty pages ; an exhaustive
and accurate comparison of the resources of Spain and the United States only
takes up eighteen pages ; and eight pages suffice for the narration of Admiral

13

A P P L E T O N S ' SPRING B U L L 1 : F I N

Dewey's marvelous victory in Manila Bay. Yet nothing of moment is neglected,
or even treated in a manner suggestive of insufficiency. Events that have been
subjects of serious contention and citation of authorities for the fixing of grave
responsibility are dealt with more in extenso, as, for instance, the discovery and
destruction of Cervera's fleet, the inadequacy of our commissary department, as
shown at Santiago, the evil conditions of our hospital transports, and our relations
to the Philippine insurgents.

Prof. G. Maspero's latest volume. The Passing of the Empires (^Egypt,
Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and Medea), 850 b. c. to 330 b. c, brings the
history of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and Medea down to the victories
of Alexander the Great, and completes this historian's remarkable series, which
has been called "the greatest and most scholarly work on the history of the
ancient world." The London Chronicle recently said of it: "With this mag-
nificent volume Professor Maspero completes his great task, which ha^ extended
over nearly seven years, of writing a history of the Oriental world from the
earliest times down to the death of Darius. The work has been great, as the
progress of Oriental research has been so rapid and discoveries so numerous that
to attain any finality seemed impossible ; but the author has neglected nothing,
and indeed the footnotes to these volumes show an almost Herculean labor of re-
search among authorities in every land and every tongue, and add immenselv to
the value of the work. The work is beautifully produced, and the hundreds of
illustrations are in highest style, and drawn fi"om all sources." The New York
Mail and Express calls attention to the fact that "this is not merely a stupen-
dous record for the use of historical students: it is for popular reading as well. It
is history in the best, the widest modem sense, which does not confine itself to
dates and the deeds of great rulers, but deals with the daily activities of peoples,
their religions, superstitions, and literature, their industries and intercourse — ]ji
short, with ancient human life in all its aspects."

Before the close of February, D. Appleton and
Company were able to announce the 435th thou-
sand of David Harum, which continues to be the
most popular and successful book known in this
country for many years. Under the title of
David Harum in Figures the New York Times
Saturday Review of February 17th prints the
following : " ♦ David Harum ' is now selling in
its 42 5Lh thousand. To print that number of
copies 5,000 pounds of ink have been consumed,
about 1,900 miles of thread have been used in the
binding, and 5,865 reams of paper, weighing 87 pounds a ream, have been needed
for the books. The 425,000 copies represent 2,932, 500 papermaker's sheets, each

EDWARD NOYES WESTCOTT.

]4

A l^ 1^ L I : T () N S ' S P R I N G BULLETIN

measuring 30^^ by 41 inches. If placed end to end the books would extend
over a horizontal route for about fifty miles. If placed one upon the other they
would make a tower seven miles high. And so the interesting axioms might be
multiplied. But perhaps the greatest achievement is the part played by the plates
from which the book is being printed. Only one set has been used to print the
425,000 copies. Over a year ago, when certain signs indicated that 'David
Harum ' was fast winning an extraordinary popularity, a second set of electrotype
plates was cast, to be used in case of emergency ; but so well has the printer done
his work that this set has not as yet been pressed into service."

The second volume of Herbert Spencer's The
Principles of Biology, which has been reset and
revised, like the first, recognizes the rapid progress of
biology in recent years. New chapters and three new
appendices, with other addidons, have increased
Volume I to 706 pages. A new chapter and sec-
don, many new notes, and various other changes are
presented in Volume II. This is the final and defini-
tive edidon of The Principles of Biology. The
revision and augmentadon of this second volume have HERBERT spencer.

occupied the last few years of this learned and dis-
tinguished man, who has almost attained the age of fourscore years. It was
in 1867 that this work was first brought out. Mr. Spencer has kept accu-
rate pace with the changes in this great field, and in the preface to his revised edi-
don, written under date of October, 1899, he says, "On now finally leaving
biological studies, it remains only to say that I am glad I have survived long
enough to give this work its finished form." The Brooklyn Eagle, in referring to
the completion of the revision -of this great work, says: "While the publication of
a definitive edition of this great work is the event that will hold the attention of
the student and the scientist, the public, less concerned, perhaps, with the science,
will note with interest and wonder the spectacle of this venerable philosopher and
man of letters persisting, even to the age of fourscore, in that mental activity
which has helped to give him a deathless place on the roll of the world's
savants."

The International Geography, recently published by D. Appleton and Com-
pany, presents the authoritative descriptions and statements of a most remarkable
group of geographical experts. The Right Hon. James Bryce, who writes of the
Boer Republics, Sir W. M. Conway, Prof. W. M. Davis, Prof Argelo Heil-
prin. Prof. Fridtjof Nansen, Dr. J. Scott Keltic, and F. C. Scions are among the
seventy specialists whose contributions make up this important volume. The last
few years have proved so rich in geographical discoveries that there has been a
pressing need f)r a r'sumf of recent explorations and changes which should pre-

A P P L E T O N S ' SPRING BULLETIN

sent in convenient and accurate form the latest results of geographical work. The
additions to our knowledge have not been limited to Africa, Asia, and the arctic
regions, but even on our own continent the gold of the KJondike has led to a
better knowledge of the region. The want which is indicated is met by The Inter-
national Geography, a convenient volume for the intelligent general reader, and the
library which presents expert summaries of the results of geographical science
throughout the world at the present time. The book contains nearly five hundred
illustrations and maps which have been specially prepared. It affords in the com-
pact limits of a single volume an authoritative conspectus of the science of geog-
raphy and the conditions of the countries at the end of the nineteenth century.

BIRD S. COLER.

Municipal Government , as illustrated by the Char-
ter, Finances, and Public Charities of New York,
is a most important and timely work by the Hon. Bird
S. Coler, Comptroller of New York. The broad
scope of the government of modem cities, the magni-
tude of the questions presented in New York since
the extension of its limits, and the distinguished part
taken by the Comptroller of New York in municipal
affairs, commends Mr. Coler' s book to the consider-
ation of all who are interested in questions of municipal
government. Mr. Coler surveys the existing con-
ditions, analyzes the charter, and makes a striking
exposure of abuses of public charities. He deals with
the questions of water supply and franchises, and also discusses the relations of
the individual citizen to the municipality. The importance of such a book for
one who has proved his right to speak with authority will be readily appreciated.
In his preface the author says: "No graver problems of government exist in
civilized countries than those developed during the last quarter of the nineteenth
century in the management of the affairs of American cities. Great principles
of finance, education, charitv, public health, and politics are involved in the
government of large municipalities ; and these questions, where they are pre-
sented on a scale so large, command the attention of all students of public affairs.
During the past ten years the policy of public ownership and control of public
property has developed into an established feature of municipal government, and
valuable franchises are no longer distributed as political rewards or personal
favors without protest. Methods of developing revenue-producing public prop-
erty, and of utilizing the enormous waste of refuse incident to cleanliness and
sanitation, are now studied thoroughly and intelligentlv with encouraging results.
Everywhere there is a promising tendency toward thorough business methods
in the conduct of the affairs of cities. The experiment of extending the Hmits
of the city of New York to include almost one hundred suburban towns and
villages, and the immediate application to the whole of the ordinances and
regulations of a great city, has been watched with unusual interest by students

16

A P P L E T O N S ' SPRING BULLETIN

of municipal government all over the world. It was an act without exact
precedent in any age or country, and while the success of consolidation was
never doubted by its advocates, in almost all matters of detail the great munici-
palitv has not yet passed beyond the stage of experiment. The plan of
government was not perfect. Many errors have been discovered, and some
corrected. Much remains to be done, and for some years to come prog-
ress may be slow ; but valuable lessons have been learned, and there is reason
to believe that the mistakes of the past will not be repeated. A statement of
conditions that exist and reports of progress made in the larger affairs of the
greatest city of the New World may not be devoid of interest to students of
municipal government."

The latest volume in the successful Literatures of the World Series, edited
by Mr. Edmund Gosse, is Russian Literature, by K. Waliszewski. M.
Waliszewski's brilliant work in his "Romance of an Empress" has gained for the
author the favor of American readers. Many of these readers, however, may be
unaware of the extent of M. Waliszewski's attainments, which have been so abun-
dantly demonstrated in his literary criticisms and historical work that his selec-
tion as the historian of Russian literature in the admirably edited Literatures of
the World Series is a pre-eminently fitting one. In this volume he has dealt
with a theme comparatively little known and full of interest. From the biliiii,
or oral literature of Old Russia, and the Ostromir Codex, the earliest specimen
of written Russian literature, down to the poets and novelists of the later nine-
teenth century, there are presented a series of peculiar and fascinating literary
epochs which can only be set forth by a writer like M. Waliszewski, who is familiar
with the developments of Russian history and imbued with the spirit of a people
frequently misinterpreted and misunderstood. His study of Russian culture and
Russian literary expression forms a lucid, significant, and most important critical
history, which derives a peculiar interest from its elucidations of manners, cus-
toms, and life in general.

The multiplication of literary books upon fish and fishing, to say nothing of
semi-scientific works upon the classification and habits of fish, and books upon
tackle and flies, has nevertheless left a place vacant for a practical handbook
which should describe the habits and environment ot the tresh-water game fish
commonly met with in this country, and explain in a simple and easily compre-
hensible way the methods of their capture. Mr. Eugene McCarthy, in his
Familiar Fish and how to Catch Them, has produced an immediately useful and
practical book which will be appreciated bv fishermen, old and young, and by
those who are interested in the simplest phases of outdoor Nature study. Mr.
McCarthy's lifelong experience as a fisherman in this country and in Canada gives
his book the practical value inherent in the work of the man who has himself
tested and applied everything of which he writes. In American scientific nomen-
clature Mr. McCarthy's name is associated with that of the ouananiche of the

17

APPLE IONS' SPRING BULLETIN

Lake St. John country. As one of the most experienced of American fresh-water
fisherman he is able to speak with authority regarding salmon, trout, ouananiche,
bass, pike and pickerel, perch, carp, and other fish which are the object of the
angler's pursuit. His clear and practical counsel as to rods and tackle and their
use, and the various details of camp Hfe, render his book a most useful companion
for all sportsmen and campers. Dr. David Starr Jordan has read the manuscript,
and has lent the weight oi' his approval by writing an introduction. The book
will be profusely illustrated with pictures and useful diagrams.

In the March number of the North American Review "John Oliver Hobbes "
has published an elaborate and interesting review of David Harum, from which the
following extract is quoted : "It would not be presumptuous to say, well remem-
bering the magnificent ability of certain English authors oi the present day, that
not one could create a character which would win the whole English population
as David Harum has won the American public. The reason is plain. With so
many class distinctions, a national figure is out of the question. A national
hero, yes ; but a man for * winterin' and summerin' with,' no. Social equality
and independence of thought, in spite of all abortive attempts to introduce the
manners and traditions of feudal Europe, are in the very air of the United States.
One could not find an American man or woman of the true stock who had not
known intimately, or who did not count among his or her ancestors, connections,
relatives, a David Harum. The type, no doubt, is getting old — becoming more
and more 'removed' from the younger generation. In the course of the next
twenty years it may become so changed as to seem extinct, but it is a national
figure — certainly the most original, probably the purest in blood. And the spirit
of Harum is the undying spirit — no matter how much modified it may eventually
become by refinement, travel, and foreign influence — of the American people.
Individuals may change, but the point of view remains unalterable."

^.^..vi^

Miss Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler, the brilliant
author of " Concerning Isabel Carnaby " and "A
Double Thread," has been engaged for some time
upon a new novel of special interest and impor-
tance, which, however, may not be ready before
the autumn. Meantime Messrs. D. Appleton
and Company have prepared a new edition of her
successfiil book "Concerning Isabel Carnaby,"
with portrait and biographical sketch. It may be
recalled that Miss Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler is
the eldest daughter of the Right Honorable Sir
Henry Fowler, G. C. S. I., M. P., ex-Secretary
of State for India, by Ellen (Imperial Order of
the Crown of India), daughter of the late G. B. Thorneycroft, Esq., of Chapel
House, Wolverhampton and Hadley Park, Salop. Miss Fowler has amused her-
self by writing stories and verses ever since she can remember.

MISS ELLEN T. FOWLER.

18

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The National Geographic Magazine

A JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY,

Physical, Commercial, Political.

EDITOR :

JOHN HYDE,

Statistician of the United States Department of Agriculture.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS:

A. W. GREF.LY, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army.

W J McGEK, Ethnologist in Charge, Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology.

HENRY GANNETT, Chief Geographer, U. S. Geologi
cal Survey.

C. HART .MERRIAM, Chiefof the Biological Survey,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

DAVID J. HILL, Assistant Secretary of State.

CHARLES H. ALLEN, Assistant Secretary of the
Navy.

WILLIS L. MOORE, Chief of the U. S.Weather Bureau.
H. S. PRITCHETT, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast

and Geodetic Survey. .
MARCUS BAKER, U. S. Geological Survey.
O. P. AUSTIN, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, U. S.

Treasury Department.
ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE, author of "Java,

the Garden of the East," etc.
CARL LOUISE GARRISON, Principal of the Phelps

School, Washington, D. C.

ASSISTANT EDITOR:
GH.BERT H. GROSVENOR, Washington. D. C.
The corps of contributors of The National Geojraphic Magazine comprises nearly every United States citizen
whose name has become identified with Arctic exploration, the Bering Sea controversy, the Alaska and Venezuela
boundary disputes, or the commercial and polirical questions arising in connection with the new possessions ol the
United States. Through the cordial co-operation of the diplomatic representati\es of foreign nations at Washington,
It is .iljlc t'l pri-sL-nt the latest and most authentic geographic infnrmntion from other countries.

Annual Subscription, S2.50. 25 Cts. a copy. Three Months' Trial Subscription, 50 Cts.

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CORCORAN BUILDING, = WASHINGTON, D. C.

EMBLEMS OF PURITY

Purity, sweetness, refreshing and delightful
cleanliness are the sensations produced by

the use of
PACKER'S TAR SOAP.

13

APPLETONS'

POPULAR SCIENCE

MONTHLY,

PROSPECTUS FOR 1900.

FOR a magazine whose field has no limitations except those of science, it is quite impossible
to make a comprehensive announcement of its contents a year ahead. The Popular
Science Monthly aims to keep its readers in touch with the most recent advances and dis-
coveries as they are applicable to the promotion of human welfare and social progress. We
believe that science is the force which has done the most in this direction in the past, and that
it is what we must look to for growth in the future. We take advantage of every opportunity to
secure articles that shall be entertaining as well as instructive without sacrificing accuracy, and
we especially seek those authors who have the ability to write upon scientific subjects in a clear
and instructive way.

The most characteristic feat..re of the nineteenth century, and especially of its latter half,
is the truly wonderful advance of science, both -theoretical and practical. Coincident with
this advance, and xtry largely dependent upon it, has been the unprecedented development
of commerce and manufactures, of social organization and national wealth. A comparison of
the potentiality of an unskilled laborer of one hundred years ago with that of a like workman of
to-day brings out most strikingly what this scientific advance has accomplished in solving the
problems of life and raising the standard of comfort ; so that the luxuries of a few years ago are
the necessities of to-day, and new pleasures have been added and even become common which
were formerly beyond the reach of the most wealthy. In view, then, of this prominently
scientific aspect, the most important and instructive portion of nineteenth-century history will be
that of its scientific achievements, which, as Mr. Alfred Russel W^allace has so well pointed out
in his " Wonderful Century," far exceed in number as well as in importance those of all the
centuries that have preceded it.

A CENTURY OF SCIENCE.

Believing that no more appropriate and useful way of signalizing the completion of this cen-
tury could be adopted than that of publishing during its closing year a history of its scientific
work, we have arranged for such a series of articles from the leading scientific writers of the
World: Sir Robert S. Ball in Astronomy; President Arthur T. Hadley in Economics; Prof.
Joseph Le Conte in Geology; the Hon. Andrew D. White in University Education ; Prof. W. M.
Flinders Petrie in Archaeology ; M. W. Haffkine in Preventive Inoculation ; Prof. W. M. Davis in
Meteorology ; Prof. F. W. Clarke in Chemistry ; and others of like standing in their specialties.

NEW DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS,

The Monthly will continue to give accounts of the course of discovery and of new develop-
ments in pure science; and careful writers familiar with their subjects will be engaged to
describe whatever occurs in this field as soon as it has assumed definite form. Recognizing
that the highest service that can be rendered by knowledge is in its use for the improvement of
man's condition, special attention will be given to the adaptations of discovery to practical ends
in the arts and industries, in the betterment of social life, and in the development of a wiser
statesmanship for the administration of civil affairs.
14

J

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE.

These are the tests by which science, and indeed any other Hke system, must be judged;
and not only because the study of these applications is of value in leading to a general appre-
ciation of the beautiful correlation between pure science and practical life, but more, perhaps,
on account of the actual value of the information, we have always heretofore, and shall still
more in the future, devote a certain portion of our space to their discussion. Among the earlier
papers to appear will be a series of illustrated articles by William Baxter, Jr , C. E., giving a
comprehensive account of the automobile in its various forms, including a discussion of the
relative merits of the various types.

THE RACE QUESTION

The question of the adjustment of the relations of the races will be considered as offering
some of the most serious and immediate difficulties our people have to confront, and one to
which the thoughts of the best students of affairs are anxiously directed. Among the articles
bearing upon this subject will be several by Prof. N. S. Shaler, of Harvard University, dealing
with various aspects of the negro question. Professor Shaler, who spent his early life in the
South, throws much new light on its practical aspects.

CURIOSITIES OF NATURE.

No subject more quickly and universally enlists attention or holds it longer than that of natural
history. From the apparently inexhaustible store of novelties it affords, the curious blind fishes
of North America — those remarkable products of retrograde evolution — are marked for early
description in several articles, accompanied by numerous illustrations, from the pen of Prof.
Charles Eigehmann, who has made a special study of these fishes and is the acknowledged
authority respecting them.

THE ADVANCE OF WOMAN

Recognizing as one of the most striking social features of the life of the nineteenth century-
the enlargement of woman's sphere and the extension of her privileges, the Popular Science
Monthly will endeavor to keep abreast of this movement.

COLONIAL QUESTIONS.

The important political questions arising through our recent acquisition of outlying teri-itory
will receive considerable attention. Two articles which will appear in early numbers, under the
title Colonies and the Mother Countr)-, take up the question of their proper relations.

MORALS AND EXPEDIENCY.

The drink evil, and vivisection, two of the most pressing moral questions now engaging the
attention of society, are scheduled for early treatment ; and we have already arranged for sev-
eral articles taking up important questions connected with modern religious tendencies.

EDUCATION

Of equal importance with all these branches of knowledge, and an essential prerequisite to
receiving and rendering them available for use, is education. The Monthly has in the past given
this subject prominent attention and preference, and will continue to do so. We have always
aimed to make the articles in this field not only of general philosophical interest, but more es-
pecially to select subjects and modes of treatment which should be suggestive and practically
valuable to the working teacher.

15

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1900=== 36tli ===1900

Annual Statement

OF THE

TRAVELERS

INSURANCE COMPANY.

Chartered 1863. (Stock.) Life and Accident Insurance.
JAMES G. BATTERSON, President.

Hartford, Conn , Jimuary 1, 1900.

Paid-up Capital, $1,000,000.

ASSETS.

Keal E.state ------.-.. $2,049,222 72

Cash on hand and in Bank - - - . . 1,810,269 96

Loans on bond and niortfrage. real t-statc 5,981,842 52

Interest accrued but not due - . - - .245,983 39

Loans on collateral security - - - - l",497j75 51

Loans on this Conijiany's Policies - - 1,305'307 27

Deferred Life Premiums ----- 340,997 04

Premiums due and unreported on Life

Policies --------- 259 449 36

Government Bonds -------- 789 016 96

County and municipal bonds - - - - 3,114,997 64

Kailroad stocks and bonds - - - - - 7,819^225 19

Bank stocks ------.'-.■ i',258!674 00

Other stocks and bonds- - - - _ _ 1,288,350 00

Total Assets ----- $27,760,511 56

LIABILITIES.

Reserve, 2,}4 per cent, Life Department $20,406,734 00
Eeserve for Ke-insurance, Accident De- '

partment --------- 1,500,369 22

Present value Installment Life Policies 783,193 00
Reserve for Claims against Employers 586,520 26
Losses in process of adjustment - - - 219,833 02
Life Premiums paid in advance - - - 33^178 11

Special Eeserve for unpaid ta.xes, rents,

etc. ---------.. -110,000 00

Special Reserve, Liability Department - 100,000 00

Total Liabilities - - - -$23,739,827 61

Excess Security to Policy-holders - $4,020,683 95

Surplus -------- - $3,020,683 95

STATISTICS TO DATE.

Life Department.
Life Insurance in force - - - $100,334,554 00
New Life Insurance written in 1899 17,165,686 00

Insurance on installment plan at cminnded calm.
Returned to Policy-holders in 1899 $1 ,522,417 06
Returned to Policy-holders since

1864 --------- 16,039,380 95

Accident Department.
Number Accident Claims paid in

1899 -■--------. 15,386

Whole number Accident Claims

paid --------- 339,636

Returned to Policy-holders in 1899 $1,227,977 34
Returned to Policy-holders since

1864 --------- 23,695,539 94

Totals.
Returned to Policy-holders in 1899 $2,750,394 40
Returned to Policv-holders since

1864 --------- 39,734,920 89

SYLVESTER C. Dr~KHAM. Vice-President.
JOHN E. MORRIS. Secretary.
H. J. MESSENGER. Actuary.

EDWARD V. PRFSTON". Sup't of Acencies
J. B. LEWIS, M.D., Surgeon and Adjuster.

27

SIR HENRY IRVING,

The Eminent Trajfedian.

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