Ai a, ‘ (bp Py ne iy ia Tale “ ais an Ke 2 he ee JOURNAL BOMBAY — Hatural Pistory Society. Vol. XVI. BOMBAY. No, 44 A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN i ” SNAKES ILLUSTRATED By CoLOURED PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. By Captain F, Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.S. Part L—With Plate I and Diagrams I, IT and ITT. This and the succeeding articles with their accompanying plates and diagrams are designed to acquaint our readers with the common snakes of India. There is no book on the subject written in popular language and the few that show coloured plates are very expensive, while accur- acy of detail seems to have been largely sacrificed for pictorial effect. If our object can be achieved, and normal specimens easily recog- nized, we hope that many lovers of natural history may be encouraged to make and record observations on the habits of these creatures, for the letter-press will, I fear, only too soon reveal the dearth of know- ledge in this direction even with regard to the commonest kinds. The descriptive parts of the best works are couched in terse and scientific language, and though excellently written by experts in mu- seums the authors have had no facilities for observing the habits of crea- tures they only see in spirit on museum shelves. We must, therefore, rely upon those who actually come into contact with living snakes to supply such information. It will be my aim to word these articles in unscientific language, espe- cially with reference to the important matter of identification. Here, if technical terms must be used, they will be explained by outline drawings. The final description cannot be so treated, and being incorporated for the sake of completeness, is intended for those conversant with the subject, hi 534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, X4V7, I shall not attempt to treat the subject exhaustively, as it seems to me a more useful purpose will be served by dealing with the commonest and most widely distributed species. Where a resemblance exists be- tween two or more species, especially where one is poisonous and the others harmless, they will be shown together and an attempt will be made to frame éasy rules whereby they may be distinguished, but here I must repeat what I have said in previous papers in this Journal, viz., that of all fallacious methods of identifying snakes, the usual one adopt- ed with relation to colour and markings is the most unreliable. Atten- tion must be given to the arrangement of the scales and shields.»* We must again appeal to our readers to render every assistance by procur- ing living specimens without which the true colouring@annot be shown by our artists. The plates will show only a few inches in the middle of the body, in preference to a full-length drawing which would necessarily be on too small a scale in many cases to show the detail required for identification, Our first plate represents the common green pit viper (Lachesis grami- neus), and the common green whip snake (Dryophis mycterizans). Before describing our first snake I think it advisable to make a few remarks on vipers in general so as to indicate their position in the snake world, and the relationship of this to’ other vipers. The word viper is derived from the Latin vévus alive and paro I bring forth, in reference to a method of birth unusual among ophidians, but not peculiar to this family. Among our Indian representatives the true fresh water snakes (Homalopsida) and the sea snakes (Hydrophiide) also produce young. It is probably this viviparous habit which has led to the belief still hard to dispel from credulous minds, that vipers protect their young by swallowing them. A pregnant mother approaching parturition is killed, and living young found within her, or observed to escape from her : the erroneous conclusion is drawn that these must have been swallowed, especially as it is popularly understood that snakes produce eggs. * Every scale of sufficient size and constancy to deserve a special name is called a shield technically, The word scale is used technically to designate small and numerous forms such as those on the back, t The rule that vipers are viviparous is not absolute. Two African species are known to be oviparous, viz., Atractaspis irregularis and Causus rhombeatus, and one South American species, viz., Lachesis mutus, It is quite possible, too, that some Indian representatives may evince a similarhabit, (Since writing the above Mr, G, A. Miller has conclusively shown that Lachesis monticola is oviparous in habit,—Vide B, N. H.S. Journal, Vo]. XV, p. 729.) A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 538 i am not infrequently asked what is a viperine and what a colubrine snake.* The distinc- c A. tion lies in the shape A.—Maxillary of Naia tripudians supporting solid — of the maxillaries, or : SNWUUREaUURANS upper jaw bones, which CG. in all vipers are shorter in their antero-post- tooth behind fangs erior than in their ver- B.—Maxillary of Vipera russell. tical direction. They C.—Maxillary of Coluber radiatus. thus resemble short stumpy pillars set up on end in the front of the mouth on each side (see fig. B) and form.part of an arrangement, governed by simple and beauti- fully devised muscular apparatus which permits the maxillary and fangs as a whole to be swept forwards and backwards. The fangs of vipers which like all fangs are situated in the maxillary only, are long and pierced by a minute canal which opens anteriorly near the tip. They are curved backwards, and when the jaws are closed, the maxillaries are inclined backwards, so that the fangs tie along the plate with their points sloping upwards. In the act of striking, the jaws are widely opened, and the maxillary isswung so far forwards that the fang or fangs (for they may be multiple) fixed in it may assume a forward direction. It will easily be seen how this range of movement augments the facility with which a penetrating wound is inflicted. In addition to these peculiarities in shape and mobility, a third point may be men- tioned, viz., that the viperine maxillary supports fangs only, and never any ordinary solid teeth. In all colubrine snakes, 2e., all snakes non- viperine, the maxillary is firstly so shaped that the antero-posterior axis (or in the blind snakes 7’phlopide the transverse axis) is much longer than the vertical (see figs. A and C), secondly it is immovable, and thirdly in the poisonous colubrine snakes (cobras, kraits, ete.) its armament is supplemented with one or more solid teeth.t All vipers are poisonous, but not to an equal degree, for though some inflict 2 wound which is usually fatal, others do not cause death, and in some the effects of the poison are trifling. There are at least 105 kinds of vipers known to science which are grouped together into one large family (Viperide). This is divided int@ . eae gee. : * Gray in his work Snakes of the British Museum, 1849, divided snakes into two subordera xiperine and colubrine, and these terms have remained in use, t Except in the two genera Callophis and Doliophis. 536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVI, two sub-families distinguished by the presence or absence of a pit in the side of the face between the eye and nostril, a trait in the physiognomy too conspicuous to overlook, though the casual observer may mistake it for the nostril, which latter should be sought for as a minute orifice on the side of the snout in advance of the pit. This opening is called the loreal pit owing to its being located in that region which in birds and other creatures is called the lore. It leads into a blind rounded chamber in the maxillary, and is lined with the same covering which overlies the scales on the face, so that when the creature sheds its skin, a perfect cast of the chamber is thrown off with the slough, Its function has not yet been determined. Vipers having no such pit are classed under a separate sub-family, Viperine, and may be called pitless vipers in contradistinction to the Crotaline or pit vipers. This latter sub-family derives its name from the Greek word “krotalun,’’a ratile, its prototypes being the world-renowned rattlesnakes of the American continent. It comprises four genera, two of which are peculiar to America, and two Lachesis and Ancistrodon, though not peculiar to, are well presented in India and its dependencies. Lachesis, to which our first snake belongs, is separated from Ancistrodon by having on the head mainly small shields similar to those on the ereature’s back. THE COMMON GREEN PIT VIPER. Lachests gramineus. + The genus Lacheszs is a large one comprising forty-one known species which inhabit Asia and America. Of these eighteen are peculiar to Asia, and ten come within our Indian limits. Nomenclature (a) Scientific. Lachesis, from whom the generic name originated, was one of the Parce or Fates of Grecian mythology who with Clotho and Atropos controlled man’s destiny. Our readers who are conversant with ophiclogy may be more familiar with the genus under its older title Trimeresurus,* * This name was introduced by Laeéptde. He divided Jand snakes into three groups, according to the arrangement of the shields beneath the tail, In some these pass uvinter- ruptedly from side to side exactly like those on the belly. In the majority of snakes, how- ever, they are divided in the median line by oblique alternately directed sutures so as to form a zigzag line. Rarely it happens that some of the first and some of the last shields are divided, whilst some intervening ones are undivided, To this category he applied the name trimeresurus from the Greek words “ treis ” three, “ meros” part,“ oura”.tail, The name once created Was perpetuated, and as time went on, and snakes were classified differently, it became applied to this genus to which it is quite inappropriate, for the shields beneath the tail are divided throughout, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. é TWO TREES NAKES. Lachesis grammeus (poisonous).N*? 1] to4. Dryophys mycterizans (harmless).N°° 5 too. Plates d.Green ,Chromo. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 537 Gramineus, the specific name, is derived from the Latin “ gramen” grass, in reference to its verdant coloration. (6) English.—The common green pit viper is, I think, the best English name for it, but bamboo snake as used in Hongkong, and i. believe in Assam, seems to me very appropriate. (c) Vernacular.*—Russell makes mention of it under the name of “bodroo pam’? which natives at Vizagapatam on the East Coast of India call it. The Burmese call it “mywé sein,’ meaning “ green snake.” Mr. 8.8. Flowert says it is called in Siam “ngu kheeyo,” which means “ green snake,’’ and Cantor says the Malays know it as “ular daun”’ “ leaf snake.” ; Dimensions.—The largest specimen is, I believe, that recorded by Veterinary Captain (now Veterinary Major) Evans and myself from Burma. It taped three feet eight inches but was quite a phenomenal specimen. Average adults vary from about two to two and-a-half feet. Bodily configuration—The head is flattened, and appears unduly broad behind owing to the pronounced constriction of the neck.? The body is stouter than in most snakes, and the tail tapering rather rapidly is short and prehensile, measuring usually about one-sixth to one-fifth of the total length. The females, as is the rule with snakes, have shorter tails and fewor shields beneath (sub-caudals), Colour.—This is usually a dull uniform verdant green above, rather darker on the head and in old specimens. Underparts glossy white, yellow or green. Upper lips, chin, and throat enamel white, or bluish, or buff, or yellow, or greenish, these colours variously distributed in different individuals, and in different parts of the same individual. A well-defined white or bluish or yellow narrow line runs along flanks from neck ending some distance along the tail. Tail yellowish or reddish often mottled with darker hues, The eye, which is lateral and has a very slight inclination forwards, exhibits a beautifully golden iris, in the centre of which is a black vertical pupil. Sometimes there are black or blackish markings on the back with a tendency to arrange themselves into indistinct crossbars. Sometimes the prevailing colour is yellowish or olivaceous rather than:green. Mr, W.S. Millard in a letter to me mentions one such specimen from the vicinity of Darjeeling. “ It was warm, yellowish, olive-brown above, and bright yellow beneath.”’ * Ind. Ser., Vol. 1, p, 13, plate IX, ¢ Proc, Zool. Soc., Lond., May 16th, 1899, page 695, 538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVI. It was sent to the British Museum, and identified by Mr. Boulenger asa colour variety of this species.> Sometimes the flank line is inconspicuous or even wanting, The green colour is imparted to the spirit in which specimens are preserved, and accounis probably for the change of colour which they undergo in this medium, approaching blue rather than green. Identification.—This is easy. Any grass green snake with a vertical pupil like the domestic cat’s must be either Lachesis gramineus or L. purpureomaculatus or L. macrolepis. The loreal pit will confirm this diagnosis. To distinguish between these snakes count the rows of scales over the back in the posterior part of the body. In gramzeus they number fifteen normally, sometimes seventeen ; in purpureoma- culatus they are nineteen normally ; and in macrolepis eleven or ten. (To do this, turn the creature on its back, and seek for the vent, a transverse aperture in the hinder parts. This marks the junction of the body and tail, Count at a spot two heads lengths in front of this.)* Haunts.—It usually frequents low vegetation, selecting a hedgerow or tangle of bush, but shows a marked preference for bamboo in locali- ties where this flourishes. Sometimes it is encountered in grass, and Theobald mentions having found one in the caves near Moulmein in Lower Burma, and another on limestone rocks on the ground. Mr. S. S. Flower* records one coming into a house, and Captain Evans and I have known a similar intrusion in Burma where one was killed found lying, along a beam in a native hut baving swallowed a sn all rat. Giinther ¢ mentions it hanging from branches of trees, but I think it is more usually to be seen reclining among’ branches close to the ground (say nearer four than eight feet). Mr. Hampton tells me that in captivity they spend most of their time on the branches provided for them, and seldom descend except at night. During the winter a few retired under blankets, but the majority remained huddled together on branches. Whether in grass or in bush its colour harmonises so perfectly with its environment that it is usually not discovered until seen to move. Disposition —Giinther { speaking of the genus alludes to their sluggish habits, and says they sometimes make no attempt to move out of one’s way. Later the same author says: ‘‘ When roused these snakes are extremely fierce, striking at everything within their reach.” Mr. Gerhardt in a letter to me writes: “ They are very sluggish, and allow * Proc, Zool, Soc,, Lond,, May 16th, 1899, page 696. + Rept., Brit. India,p, 336(1868-64), 0 ee ” ” p. 384. DIAGRAM Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. l. Sg Internasal q. e Sublingual Subocular So, lalatials ra Nasal Inf Te aocular Supr Su. N. Praeoculars a.b.e. IAI 1. Rostral R. Supralabials Supraloreal Sl. LACHESIS GRAMINEUS. THE COMMON GREEN PIT-VIPER. x1} Cortez @ CO. LITH. BOMBAY. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 539 one to take them off the bush with a stick,’ Russell* says of one brought in to him “it looked fresh, and lively, and was very alert, hissed and snapped at everything opposed to it.” Mr. Hampton says ina letter : “I consider it to be a very sluggish, harmless poisonous snake.” He continues: ‘ When a match is struck in front of the cage at night, or a lamp is suddenly brought in front of the cage, they will strike at it, They seem to be very hardy in captivity ; some presented to the Zoolo- gical Society in 1886 by Mr. Bligh of the P. W. D., Burma, are still alive and well, I hear from two sources.” Stoliczka says, speaking of specimens he had encountered near Moulmein: “ All were very sluggish and did not make the slightest attempt to escape when approached, and even allowed themselves to be removed from the top of the plant. Neither did they offer to bite unless when pressed to the ground with a stick; but when thoroughly aroused they turned round and bit furiously.” Food.—Its diet consists of small vertebrates, but some partiality is shown towards mammals. Giinthert. observes that it feeds on small birds and frogs. Mr. 8.8. Flower { mentions lizards, and Cantor says it preys on small birds and tree frogs, but occasionally descends to the ground in search of frogs and toads. Mr. Gerhardt writes to me he has only known them eat musk rats (#e. Crocidure). Major Evans, A. V.D., in a letter to me says he has known them eat a musk rat or shrew, a field mouse, a field rat and a lizard (Calotes mystaceus). Mr. Hampton writes to me: “ Rats are its principal food in captivity,” but he has known them eat a tree shrew ( Tupaia), and on one occasion two moles. When hard up,he says, they eat frogs, and he has known a snake (Lycodon fasciatus) to have been eaten on two occasions, Ihave records of a musk rat being ingested once, also a rat, and I saw a specimen in the Hongkong Museum in the act of swallowing a small bird, Mr. Millard writes to me: “ We find tham feed readily in confinement on small rats, mice, birds, and lizards, ”” Breeding.—The only information I can get in this direction is from Mr. Hampton, who says they produce from seven to twelve young at atime. I have examined a specimen which contained 11 eggs, 6 in one ovary and 5in the other, They were immature, showing no trace of embryos, and were closely packed so that their longest diameters lay vertically.® * Ind, Serp., Vol. 1, p. 13. ¢ Rept., Brit, India, p, 386. } Proc, Zool, Soc., Lond., Pt, III, 1899, p. 696. 540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVI. Striking.— When provoked to strike this viper attaches itself firmly by wrapping its tailand hinder body round a branch, and then with retract- ed head, the forebody freed, and thrown into a broad § it thrusts. vehemently forward with open jaws as’ far as the straightening of the body permits, Mr. Millard ina letter says: “They always retain a hold of their prey after once striking it.” Mr. Hampton writes to me that in captivity they wait until their prey passes beneath them, then strike and hold it in the air until dead, or haul it on to the branch and then swallow it. Mr. Millard in another letter writes : “I cannot find any one who has ever heard them hiss.” Possibly the hiss is too subdued to attract much attention, for Russell in a passage already quoted mentions this snake hissing, and Gunther speaking of the genus says “ that they vibrate the tail, and utter a faint hissing sound.” Poison.—Accounts of the virulence of its poison all agree in ascribing to it a decidedly feeble action on man. Gunther*speaking of the genus says: ‘ Numerous cases are on record which show that the symptoms indicating a general effect on the system were of short duration extending only over the space of from two to forty-eight hours, and confined to vomiting, nausea and fever. After the pain and swelling of the bitten member or spot have subsided, the vicinity round the wound be- comes discolored, mortifies, and is finally thrown off as a black, circular slough, after which hoalth is speedily restored. The bite of larger specimens from 2 to 3 feet long is more dangerous and has occasionally proved fatal.”” Nicholsonf says of the genus “their bite produces local pain and swelling, but no toxic symptoms.” Russell ¢ says the peasants who brought it in, affirmed that its power of killing extended only to the smaller animals, not to dogs or sheep ; and that to man its bite caused various disorders, but never death. He substantiates this by experiment : a chicken died, but a dog and a pig, though very ill, did not succumb. Mr. Millard told me that the Revd. F, Dreckman, S.J., who is well acquainted with these snakes, was bitten in the finger by one, and suffered very little pain and inconveni- ence, Major Evans, A.V.D., gives me three instances in his knowledge where men were bitten, and in all cases they recovered. The Burmans, too, assured him when he narrowly escaped being bitten by one in jungle, that its bite would not have proved fatal. Mr. Hampton has also * Rept., Brit, Ind., p. 384. + Ind, Snakes, pp, 144-5. t Ind, Serp,, Vol. 1, p. 14. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 541 ikknown cases of men bitten by this snake, but never a death in conse- quence. On making enquiries at the Civil Hospital in Hongkong in 1901 I ascertained that ne case of snake-bite had ever been treated in that institution, and as this snake is quite one of the commonest in that locali- ty, this circumstance adds weight to the accuracy of the above remarks. Distribution : (a) (Geographical).—Its range of distribution is a large one, extending from the Western Ghats of India through Burma, the Malay Peninsula (including Siam and Cochin China), the whole Mala- yan Archipelago to Southern China and Formosa on the one hand, and from the Himalayas through the peninsula of India as far South as the Cauvery river, The most southern record I can find is the Wynad (Madmailey). It is not recorded from Ceylon, and Mr. Ferguson, whe has collected reptiles for fifteen years in Travancore, writes to me that it is unknown in that territory, I can find no record of its occurrence in the Nilgiris, Anamallay, and Palneys. (6) (Loeal).—In India it is, I believe, not found in the actual plains, except in the Sunderbunds, but always at some altitude about 1,500 feet and upwards, and is generally regarded asa hill snake in the Peninsula. In Burma and Further Hast it is met with frequently at or near sea level, as well as being found in upland regions, (c) (Numerical).—Though it cannot be considered a common snake in the sense that the dhaman (Zamenis mucosus) and paddy-field snake ( Tropidonotus piscator) are, it is by no means wncommon in many localities. From Mr. Millard and Mr. Gerhardt I gather it is plentiful on the Western Ghats near Bombay (Karli and Khandalla), and Mr. Millard remarks that though common thereabouts up to the end of October, they are not seen after the middle of November. Anderson* says: ‘It appears to be a common snake in the tropical valleys below Darjeeling, where it is usually found at an elevation of 2,000 feet.” Stoliczka says it appears common in the Khasi Hills and Assam, and also near Moulmein in Lower Burmah. He mentions he never observed it in the interior of the North-West Himalayas. Mr. Hampton, writing from Burma, says he has had scores of them. Out of 694 snakes collected by Captain Evans and myself from all parts of Burma in 1899- 1900, 18 were of this species. Mr. Flower describes it as being fairly numerous about Bangkok, and both heand Stoliczka record it as the com- monest Lachests in Penang andthe Province Wellesley, but say it is rare * Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond., 1871, p. 194. 2 542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVI. at Singapore. I found it a common snake about Hongkong, but it appears to be a rare snake as far north as the Yangtse Valley in China. Deseription.— Rostral in contact with 5-7 shields, the sutures made with the nasals being three to four times those made with the first supralabials. Internasals one pair, sometimes in contact behind the rostral, sometimes separated in front by one or two scales. Supra- ocular a single well developed shield each side. Nasal normally undivided ; frequently more or less confluent with the first supralabial ; frequently more or less separated from second supralabial by one or more minute intercalary scales. Swpradoreals usually single, and not in contact with the internasals. Pre@oculars three. The two lowest, divergent forwards, bound the loreal pit. Suboculars crescentic, may or may not touch the third supralabial, one or two rows of scales between it and fourth supralabial. Temporal smooth or shaped like the carapace of a tortoise, never truly keeled. Supralabials nine to twelve; the second with a groove in the upper half sloping into the loreal pit ; none touch the eye. Sublznguals one pair. Infralahials.— The first form a suture behind the mental ; first, second, and usually the third also, touch the sublinguals. Scales two heads lengths behind the head 21 (rarely 20—19); midbody 21 (rarely 23 or 19) ; two heads lengths in front of vent 15 (rarely 17 or 13). Apices very acuminate. Last row much largest. Keels narrow towards tips of scales, and present in all the rows, except the last, for a variable extent anteriorly. Supracaudalsin even numbers of rows, keels faint till lost in the sixes. Ventrals 145—175 (Boulenger). Anal entire. Subcaudals 53—75 (Boulenger) divided.* THE COMMON GREEN WHIPSNAKE. Dryophis mycterizans. Nearly all the snakes that enjoy an arboreal existence are conspicu- ous for their beauty. Their graceful bearing, shapely proportions, and the richness and combination of the colours that adorn them combine to amply justify their being ranked among the most beautiful of living creatures. The common green whipsnake, which may be takenas the type of the genus, forms no exception to this rule. In colour and markings it very closely resembles the green pit viper, and is on this account shown with it in the first plate ; however in most other characteristics the two ee * Stoliczka in J. A, S,, Ben, Vol. XX XIX, (3), 1870, p. 217, mentions a specimen with the 5th and 6th entire, and another in game paper, p. 221, with 3rd and 7th entire. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 543 ate widely different, and if proper attention is directed to the arrangement of the shields and scales no confusion of the two is likely to be made. Nomenclature : (a) Sctentific—The generic name is derived from the Greek ‘“ drus,” a bush, and “ ophis,” snake. The specific designation is from the Greek “ muctertzo,” I turn up the nose, and refers to the character of its snout. (6) Englzsh.---The common green whipsnake is the name it is familiarly known by, and is very appropriate. (c) Vernacwlar.—In India it is known by the Tamils as “kankittee pamboo,”’ meaning “eye-poking snake’ ; and ‘‘pachai pamboo”’ or “ oreen snake,” On the Malabar Coast it is called “pachola pambu,” which means cocoanut leaf snake. In Telegu it is called “ pasarika pamoo,” meaning green snake, “ botla pasarika,”’ spotted green snake, and “ pastiletti’’ (Russell), In Ceylon the Singhalese call it “ehetula” or “ esgulla,” which Mr, E, E. Green writes me means eye-plucker, ie, “ ehe,” plural “es”? = eye, and “ ugulanawa” = to pluck out. In Burma it is known as “ mywé sein,” z.¢., green snake, and “mywé sein myé she,” -long-tailed green snake. Mr. Flower says it is called “nga kee-o pah-king-kop” by the Siamese. Both Burmese and Siamese apply these names equally to Dryophis prastnus, and the Burmese also to Coluber prasinus and Lachesis gramineus. Dimensions.—-My largest specimen taped 5 feet 74 inches, but a more usual length for adults is between 4 and 5 feet. Gunther and Theobald say it grows to more than 6 feet. Giinther* says it appears to remain smaller in Ceylon, and mentions 40 inches as the largest measurement known to him from that island. The young when born, according to a note by Mr. Ferguson + at Travancore, taped 17 inches. Mr. FE. E. Green, however, speaking of a Ceylon specimen, said that its young were 350 mm. (ze, 13%”) at birth. These measurements seem to substantiate Giinther’s observation. Bodily configuration —The head, which is long and narrow, endsin a fleshy pointed snout, and a prominent elevated ridge extends from this to the eyebrow. The eye, which is set laterally, has also a decided inclination forwards, The iris is a beautiful bright golden colour throughout. The pupil is horizontal and elongate in outline with a ES eT * Rept. Brit, Ind., p. 306, f Bom. N. H. Soc. Jour., Vol, X, p. 6. t Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. I, Pt. II, June 1893, p. 1, 544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XV?, slight constriction near its middle. This horizontal outline endows this snake with a very remarkable range of vision. The forward setting of the eye, together with its elongate pupil, and the pronounced farrow in the face in front permit an unrestrieted range of vision anteriorly, and the elongation forward of the pupil also admits of rays of light impinging upon the retina from a point far behind the eye. Proxi- mately I estimate the range of vision as extending through an are of 330°. The neck is markedly contracted, and the body, which is very slender throughout, exhibits a maximum calibre about its middle, and attenuates in both directions. Itis smaller in its Jateral than in its vertical measure- ment (.e., compressed), The tail tapers very gradually, and is longer relatively in this snake and its allies than in any other varieties, . Measuring more than a third of the totallength. The whole snake in its tenuity of outline resembles the lash of an English carriage whip ; hence its familiar name. Colour.—The upper parts of head, body, and tail are bright verdant green, the surface of the scales dull. The ridge from the eyebrow to the snout is usually pale-green or yellow. Under ordinary circum- stances no other colouration is apparent, but when under excitement the creature expands its body it brings into view alternate streaks of black and white (bluish in young specimens), which are directed obliquely downwards and backwards from the vertebral region, These are most apparent in the anterior two-thirds or so of the body, and upon close inspection are seen to be mainly produced by the colour of the skin between the scales ; however the lower borders of the scales themselves are also narrowly tipped. A well defined narrow white or yellow line runs along the entire body flank on the sides of the ventrals, and ends at a variable distance along the tail. The chin and throat are white or blue, sometimes mottled yellow to a variable extent. The belly is an intensely brilliant green, of a hue distinctly lighter than on the back, and resembles the delicate shade seen in some freshly opened foliage, suchas the mango or bamboo. A greenish colour is imparted to the spirit in which the specimen is preserved. Very rarely specimens are met with in which the colour is khaki, or olive brown. Another rare colour variety is mentioned, and figured by Russell,* in which the belly is cinereous grey between the flank lines, the rest of the snake being RUN, 9 Se FS aT > > yim Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. DIAGRAM {I A,S. Anterior sublinguals. Pr. Pracoculars. yo Frontal. Pate Praefrontals. LI, Internasals. PS. Posterior Sublinguals. M. Mental. ive Rostral. N. Nasal. S. Supraoculars, P. Pentagenal infralabial. de Temporals, Pa. Parietals. 1-8. Supralabials, Po. Postoculars. I.VITI. Infralabials. DRYOPHIS MYCTERIZANS. THE COMMON GREEN WHIP-SNAKE. x 2 CORTEZ & CO LITH BOMBAY. Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Fig: 2 os ae See ae eee Se DRYOPHIS MYCTERIZANS. THE COMMON GREEN WHIP-SNAKE. 52) DIAGRAM Il! ca. er ee an 4 a 7 ; iad 7 ioe a A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 545 a normal green. I procured one such specimen some years ago in Trichinopoly. Identification.—This snake belongs to a genus comprising six mem- bers, all bearing singularly pronounced features which readily distinguish them from all other snakes. Of these it is only necessary here to mention the pupil, which is horizontal in direction. A fleshy elongated nasal appendage is peculiar to two only of the six, viz., D. mycterizans and D. pulverulentus, and these are easily distinguished. The former is a common snake widely distributed, green with very rare exceptions, and marked with a white or yellow flank line always; whereas the latter is a rare snake peculiar to Ceylon and the Anamallay Hills in Southern India, brown in color, and with no flank line. To sum up, any snake with a horizontal pupil, an elongated fleshy appendage at tip of snout, and a white or yellow flank line must be Dryophis mycterizans. Habits—Haunts.—It may be met with in high grass, but far more frequently on bushes, and will climb occasionally to a considerable height. I have known toddy collectors encounter it among the foliage of lofty cocoanut trees in Colombo on more than one occasion. Disposition.—It is commonly reputed to be a very gentle snake (Boulenger, Flower, etc.) and Mr. Ferguson* implies the same thing when he says that in Travancore it is the only snake the ordinary native is not afraid to handle. His next sentence, however, runs as follows : ‘‘ Boys often bring them in, having first taken the precaution to tie up the head ina bundle of rags,” and my experience compels me to think that the boys fully understand the vicious nature of this creature. Iam very familiar with this snake, and have at the present time nearly one dozen specimens in captivity. It is very frequently brought in to me alive, and in the manner described by Mr, Ferguson, I do not find it, when freshly caught, at all the gentle, docile creature I have been taught to believe. When moderately alarmed it emits the tongue (which is a pale yellowish or pinkish organ) with closed jaws, keeping it out for a second or two or longer. If watched closely the two points are often seen to vibrate tremu- lously. The tongue is rarely protruded, and retracted repeatedly in the manner so Common in other snakes, Whilst the tongue is maintained rigidly protruded in a forward direction the snake rears its head and * Bom. Nat. Hist. Journ., Vol. X., p. 6. 546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVI, forebody, and dilates the body so that the black and white interstitial skin becomes plainly apparent. If further excited it opens the jaws widely, and by a peculiar power widely separates the lower jaws, stretch- ing the intervening skin very considerably, even so much as to double the lateral expense of the floor of the mouth and make it shovel-shaped. The tongue is in the meantime kept retracted and invisible, but the opening of the windpipe is made conspicuous by the alternate dilatation and contraction of its orifice. Seen under these conditions with head retracted and upper body thrown into sigmoid curves, the snake pre- sents a most formidable aspect. Even a small specimen will not hesitate to bite viciously, and will draw blood as I have oceasion to know. I have been struck at most vehemently when my face has been opposed to the windows of the vivarium, and the act has been repeated several times by the same specimen after a lengthy term of captivity. Mr, Green says when pressed it will strike out blindly, often in the direction of the face ofits opponent. Mr. Millard writestome: ‘“ It is when freshly caught, very fierce and bites freely.’ It is certainly true that in captivity a very few days will serve to materially alter this pugna- cious spirit in some specimens and then ihe snake will frequently per- mit itself to be handled with impunity. Natives in India and Ceylon believe that it strikes at the eyes of persons and cattle : hence the Tamil and Singhalese names for it. This idea has received support from the experience of Mr. Finn,* who whilst holding two specimens in this hand, was bitten by one which darted at his eye. Two punctures were sub- sequently observed on the upper and one on the lower lid, and in rub- bing his eye he removed a tooth from the wound in the lower lid. Among foliage it can move with great alacrity, but on the ground its movements are tardy. At rest it is always seen lying more or less extended on the branches, never coiled like members of the D)ipsado- morphus. Its body is so slender and so light that by distributing its trifling weight, it is capable of moving among the minutest twigs. Food.—Giinthert says it feeds on birds and lizards. Green{ says it feeds readily upon young lizards of the genus Calotes and Geckonide. Mr. Millard tells me geckoes, blood-sucker lizards, sparrows and mice have been eaten by specimens in captivity. I have known one in * Reported in the Jour. As, Soc, Ben., Vol. LXVIL., 1898, pp. 66-67, + Rept. Brit. Ind, p. 306. { Spolia Zeylanica, Vol, I., Pt. II., Jane 1903, p.2 A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 547 captivity eat a frog, but in its native haunts my observations show that lizards of the genus Calotes are preferred to any other creature. Mr. Primross* mentions a case of cannibalism practised by this snake, the victim being Tropzdonotus stolatus, On investigating the dung of specimens I have frequently found it contain the scales of what were probably lizards, since no vestige of ventral shields were found such as would result from snakes being ingested. There have been frequently fragments of the cases of insects, such as cockroaches, and once I re- covered a large black ant almost intact. After one in captivity had eaten a Calotes versicolor I isolated it, and examined the resultant excrement. From this I extracted, by softening the mass in water, the scales of the lizard which floated up, and also fragments of insects. In this case, I think, I am justified in supposing the insect remains to have emanated from the alimentary system of the lizard, as I never saw insects in the vivarium. Giinthert and Boulenger{ mention insects as the food of young Dryophis prasinus, a very closely allied member of the genus, and | wonder whether these observations were the result of direct experiment, or if conjectured from the examination of the dejecta. Green§ remarks: ‘Its manner of capturing its prey is invariable. When a lizard is introduced into the cage, the snake slowly frees the fore part of its body and coils itself in a zigzag fashion, Then suddenly darting forward, it seizes the victim unerringly just behind the head, drags it from ils support, and keeps it dangling without shifting its hold, but gradually tightening its grip, until the lizard is suffocated. 4 * * The snake never commences to swallow its prey until all signs of life have ceased.” The Revd. F, Bertram, S., || says : “Tt does not even always wait for its prey to be paralysed before eating it.” And I agree with this remark, though it certainly does hold on to its victim till its struggles are of little avail. In this respect it differs from the dhdman and cobra, which commence to swallow as soon as their prey is seized. When the victim has passed through the jaws, the snakes rears itself vertically for nearly or quite half its body length, and then practises a series of contortions during which the * Bom. N. H. Journ., Vol, XV., p. 347. + Rept. Brit, Ind., p. 303. t Faun. Brit, Ind, Rept. & Batrach., p. 399. § Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. I, Pt. I1, June 1903, p. 1, | Snakes and their Venom, Trichinopoly, 1897, p, 11. 548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVI. forebody is thrown into shallow lateral undulations. The curves of the undulations are rhythmically reversed, and by this manceuvre car- ried out with much muscular effort the mass is propelled onwards to the stomach in a surprisingly brief interval of time. Breeding.—This is one of the very few snakes whose breeding habits have been observed. The young are bornalive, having previously burst their egg envelope within the mcther’s abdomen (ovoviviparous), Ferguson * records one giving birth to twelve young on September 27th, 1891, in the public gardens at Trevandrum in Travancore. It had been in captivity since June 30th of the same year, so that the period of gestation was, at the very least, 59 days. I suspect it will prove to be much longer, for a specimen of an allied species(D, prasinus) which had been received in the London Zoological Gardens from Java on the 15th of August 1885, gave birth to eight young on January 9th, 1888, having had no male companionship during this whole period.t Green { mentions another instance from Ceylon when one in captivity gave birth to. five young on the 16th and 17th April 1903. The fifth hampered by its egg envelope, succumbed two days later. All the brood sloughed on the eighth day after birth. A specimen received by Captain Evans and myself from Tadoungoo, Lower Burma, on the 23rd of May 1900 (with other snakes recently collected) contained three young with no vestige of egg envelope to be discovered within the mother. Evans has recorded Dentition of Dryophis mycterizans another specimen in this Journal, (after Boulenger). Vol. XVL, p. 169, killed (Ran- goon?) on the 4th May containing five young, and Blanford (J. A. 8. B., Vol. XXXIX., p. 373) mentions a specimen from Korba (Bilaspur ©. P.) containing four large eggs. Poison.—This species for practical purposes is usually considered to be innocuous. It is furnished with grooved fangs situated at the hinder extremity of the maxillary. Its bite is reputed to be quite harmless to man, as the following quotation will exemplify. The Revd. F. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 3 Tdentification.—Any grass-green snake which has 17 rows of scales in the hind body (2e., twe heads lengths in front of the vent), and has a frontal shield in contact with 6 shields only must be Macropisthodon plumbicolor. With a very little attention to scale characteristics and shape of pupil it could never be confounded with either of the fore- going snakes discussed in this series. The round pupil serves to dis- tinguish it as readily from all the Green Pit-Vipers, as it does to separate it from all the Green Whip-Snakes. The appended remarks at the con- clusion of this paper will serve to differentiate this from all other green snakes in which the pupil is round, Habits— Haunts—Its prasinous coloration indicates a foliaceous environment, but it is not in the foliage of either bushes or trees that it is met with, but among low terrestrial vegetation, and especially grass. It not infrequently, however, strays from the kindly protection which verdure offers it. Mr. Kinlock says that about Kotagiri (Nilgiri Hills, 5,700!) he usually finds it in grass among scrub jungle, and not necessarily in a marshy vicinity. Mr. Gray tells me that at Coonoor (Nilgiri Hills, 6,000’) he has now and then known it wander into his rooms, and has frequently seen it about habitations. Giinther,* too, remarks that it frequently enters houses, Disposition.—The formidable armature of its upper jaws (see Fig. 1) belies its disposition, for not only is it a perfectly harmless snake, but it possesses a singularly gentle and inoffensive nature. Mr. Kinloch remarks on its gentleness, and says it never attempts to bite, A remarkable feature in the behaviour of this snake and cne hardly likely to escape observation is its habit of crouching on the ground when molested, The whole body down to the vent is involved in this flattening effort, the object of which does not seem clear. It appears to bea mani- festation indicative of fear. I have noticed the same behaviour to an equal degree in the Himalayan Viper (Ancéstrodon himalayanus), the common Chinese Viper (A. blomhoffiz) and to a lesser degree in Siebold’s Water-Snake (Hypstrhina steboldi) and the common Burrow- ing Snake (Hryx conicus), In several other snakes a muscular effort akin to this is evinced locally but whilst the creature is in an attitude of menace with the forebody erect. The cobra displays this peculiarity in a very pronounced degree, in the production of its so-called hood and the hamadryad does too, to a lesser degree. Many others behave * Rept., Brit. Ind., 1864, p, 272. 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVII, similarly to these last two under excitement, but the flattening is far less pronounced. Among these may be enumerated the common Pond Snake ( Tropidenotus piscator), the common Buff-stripes or Robed Snake ( Tropidonotus stolatus), and several others of this genus, also Helicops schistosus, and Pseudoxenodon macrops which last Ginther has figured” so as to emphasise this peculiarity. Food,—Both Mr. Phipson and Mr. Kinloch tell me it feeds on toads. Mr. Gray mentions frogs, and says he knew one eat a small earth-snake on one occasion. Breeding.—My, Phipson tells me it breeds during the §.-W. monsoon about Nasik (Deccan), and produces eges which he has found, and kept till they hatehed out, Distribution.—Geographieal.—It is found throughout the Peninsula of India, including Ceylon, Its northern boundary may be taken roughly as the 380th parallel, and its western and eastern limits are comprised roughly between the 70th and 85th meridians. Local and numerical.—tlt is not nearly so abundant in the plains as in certain uplands, in fact my own experience teaches me to regard it as an uncommon snake in the plains. Russell’s work, which may be taken as dealing with a fairly representative collection of the common snakes of India, makes no allusion to this species. Mr. Kinloch and Mr, Gray tell me it is quite a common snake in the Nilgiris (Kotagiri and Coonoor 5,700-6,000'), Mr. Phipson says it is perhaps the commonest snake about Nasik in the Deccan (1,900'). Col. Light mentions it as fairly common around Poona ( 1,800’). Nichol- sont says it is a very common snake about Bangalore (38,000'), and Ferguson mentions it as fairly common in Travancore both on the hills and in the plains. Description.—Rostral contact with six shields, of which the anterior nasals form the longest sutures (see Fig. 5b). Internasals a pair. Suture between them subequal to, or rather shorter than the suture between the prefrontal pair, subequal to or rather shorter than the suture between the internasal and prefrontal of each side. Prefrontals a pair, In contact with the internasal, postnasal, loreal, upper preocular, supraocular, and frontal, on each side, Suture between them subequal to or rather less than the suture * Rept,, Brit. Ind., Pl. XXII.,C. t Indian Snakes, p. 94, A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 4) between the prefrontal, and frontal on each side, Frontal in contact with six other shields of which the supraoculars form the largest sutures. Length subequal to the supraoculars, Breadth opposite centres of eyes twice or nearly twice each supraocular. Parzetals apair. Hach in contact with one postocular. Nasals two placed laterally on each side, and completely divided by a suture in which the nostril occupies the upper two-thirds to three-fourths. In contact with the 1st and 2nd supralabials, Loreal single. Sometimes con- tinued backwards to touch the eye, more usually not. Preoculars two, Postoculars three or four. Temporals two, The lower in contact with the 5th and 6th supralabials, the suture made with the 5th being about 2 that with the 6th. Supralabials 7 of which the 3rd and 4th touch the eye. IJnfralabials. The first meet behind the mental to form a suture about half the length of that between the anterior sublin- guals. 6 (rarely 7) come into contact with the sublingual shields, 4 or 5 with the anterior pair, the rest with the posterior pair. The pentagonal is usually the 6th (rarely the 7th) of the series. It is about as broad as the posterior sublinguals of the same side,and touches 3 scales behind.* Posterior sublinguals are longer than the anterior, and are quite separated by one or two small scales succeeded by a pair. Dorsals anteriorly in 23-25 rows; midbody 25-27; posteriorly 17.+ The vertebral row is similar to its contiguous rows in size and form, The last row is largest. The scales are longer than broad, have straight margins, rather acute apices set pointing directly backwards, and are keeled} and facetted. Lines drawn across the apices of alternate rows are about vertical. The keels are pronounced in all rows except the last where they aro absent for a variable extent anteriorly. They extend completely from base to apex of each scale, Apical facets are present in pairs, but often are difficult to see. Supracaudals are in even numbers of rows numbering six in the middle of the tail, and ending ina very few twos. Keels are present in all rows from base to tip of tail, also apical facets as in dorsals, Ventrals 144—160 * This does not appear so in Fig, 3, as the posterior sublinguals are overlapping the inner part of the pentagonal. + Wherever reference is made to anterior and posterior parts of the body in this paper it is to be understood that the former refers to a point two heads lengths behind the head, and the latter to a point two heads lengths infront of the vent. Midbody is to be reckoned exclusive of the tail. . |The presence of a ridge on the seale similar tothe midrib on the underside of a leaf is technically called a keel, 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII. (Boulenger). Kvonly rounded from side to side and so broad that when the snake is laid on its back, only part of the last dorsal row is visible on each side simultaneously. Anal usually divided. Subcaudals 85—50 (Boulenger) are in pairs. Dentitivn, The maxillary supports 12—13 small teeth anteriorly which are succeeded after an interval by a pair of large teeth behind. Mandibular teeth subequal (Boulenger). The grass-green snakes that inhabit India and its Dependencies are thirtesn in number. Three of the commonest of these have been dis- cussed, and figured in this, and a preceding paper. A few remarks will now be made about the remainder so as to facilitate their recogniticn. Three of this number are pit-vipers and differ from all the rest in having a loreal pit, a vertical pupil, no labial touching the eye, and only one pair of sublingual shields which touch 38 infralabials. In two of these (viz., Purpureomaculatus and Gramineus) the head is covered in front with small scales about the same size as those on the body and in the third (Macrolepis, see Fig. 13) the enlarged shields are a modifica- tion of the arrangement normally s3en in colubrine -snakes. Should, however, a specimen be brought with the head so mutilated that none of these characters can be discerned, the following additional points mentioned with each will differentiate them. (1) Lachesis gramineus has been described in a preceding paper. The arrangement of the dorsal scales which number 21 normally (rarely 19) in the anterior and middle parts of the body, and 15 in the pos- terior part of the body will sudice to distinguish this from the rest. (2) Lachesis purpurcomaculatus.—The green variety of this snake (bicolor) is extremely like gramineus, in fact it is probable the two have been frequently confounded. The arrangement of the dorsal scales which number normally 25 (rarely 23 or 27) in the anterior and middle parts of the body, 4nd 19 in the posterior part will distinguish this from the rest. This snake is as far as 1 know similar to the last in habits, rarely exceeds three feet in length, and within our limits has beon recorded trom the Himalayas, Bengal, Assam and Burma. (38) Lachests macrolepis.—In this the scales number 18-15 anterior- ly, 14-12 in mid-body, and 11-10 posteriorly, The ultimate (or lowest) row is much the smallest, and this feature alone will, I believe, distinguish this from every other snake in India, It is arboreal in habit, grows to two feet, and inhabits hills in Travancore (Ferguson), Malabar, and §S. India, %.e,, Anamallays and Pulneys, Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. DIAGRAM vy Fig: 9 Dryophis dispar ( x 2.) INCIAN SNAKES (WALL ) CORTEZ & CO. LITH. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 7 Of the remaining ten, five are Whip-Snakes, and distinguished from all other snakes by their horizontal pupil (see Figs. 7, 8 and 9). Their tails are extremely long and slender, measuring more than a quarter and in some species (mycterizans and prasinus) even more than a third of the total length of the snake. Should the head be damaged, the dorsal scales which number 15 in the anterior, and middle parts of the body, and 18 to 11 in the posterior part will suffice to proclaim the specimen a whip-snake, and the species may often be guessed at from the habitat, (4) Dryophis mycterizans.—Has been already described. (5) , Dryophis fronticinctus (see Fig. 8).—Has like the last only one labial (the 5th or 6th) touching the eye, but has 3 or 4 loreals, and no nasal appendage. It grows to about 8 feet, takes readily to water, and is found on trees and bushes about rivers in Assam and Burma where it is often locally abundant (Moulmein and Rangoon rivers). (6) D. dispar (seo Fig. 9).—Resembles the preceding in having only one labial (the 5th usually) touching the eye, but differs in the absence of a nasal appendage and in having one or two loreals, It grows little more than two feet and has been recorded from hills in Travancore (Ferguson), and the Anamallays in 8. India. (7) D. perroteti—ls distinguished from the rest of the Whip-Snakes in that two labials (the 4th and 5th) touch the eye. It grows to about 2 feet, and inhabits the Nilgiri Hills and N. Canara. (8) D. prasinus (see Figs. 6 and 7).—This differs from the other Whip-Snakes in having three labials (the 4th, 5th and 6th) in contact with the eye. Its length exceeds 5 feet, and it is found in the Eastern Himalayas, Hills of Assam, and also in Burma where it is more abundant in the upper than the lower part of the Province, and is not confined to uplands, The remaining five snakes agree in having the pupil rounded in con- tour, they are— (9) Macropisthodon plumbicolor (see Figs. 8, 4, 5) which has been dealt with in this article. Ifthe head is intact the labials which num- ber 7, of which the 3rd and 4th touch the eye, will suffice to separate this from all the rest. The frontal is in contact with6 shields. Should the head be too mutilated to observe these, the dorsal scales must be counted and will be found to number 23 to 25 in the anterior and middlo parts of the body, and 19 to 17 posteriorly. Ifin addition the median 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVII, rows of scales in the anterior part of the body are boldly keeled, its identity will be established. (10) Coluber oxycephalus (see Figs. 10 and 11) has 8-10 upper labials, three of which usually (rarely two) touch the eye, and a frontal in contact with 8 other shields. It may be identified by the eo-existence of two characters which are (i) the dorsal scales number 28-27 anteriorly, 23-25 in the middle of the body, and 17-15 posteriorly ; (ii) the median scales in the anterior part of the body are not keeled. It grows to 7 feet, and is known from the Eastern Himalayas, Tenas- serim, Burma, Andamans and Nicobars, extending into the Malayan region. It is, says Dr. Stoliczka, generally seen on bushes near brackish water creeks, and is always ready to take to water, (11) Coluber frenatus (see Fig, 12) is peculiar in having no loreal, its place being occupied by the extension of the prefrontal so as to meet the 2nd or 2nd and 3rd Jabials. This in itself would distinguish this from all the other snakes, but if the head is mutilated the dorsal scales should be counted, and will be found to number 19 in the anterior, and middle parts of the body, and 15 posteriorly, It grows to 3 feet, appears to be rare, and is peculiar to the Khasi Hills in Assam. (12) Coluber prasinus—Like the last two, has three labials touch- ing the eye, usually the 4th, 5th and 6th, and has a frontal which is usually in contact with 8 other shields. The dorsal scales number 19 in the anterior and middle parts of the body, and 15 posteriorly. It appears to be uncommon, grows to 8 feet, and has been recorded from the Eastern Himalayas, Khasi Hills and Burma. (13) Ablabes dorie is easily distinguished from all the rest by the dorsal scales numbering 15 throughout the body. This is a rare snake, until recently only recorded from the Kachin Hills in Burma. I dis- covered a young specimen in 19¢1 in a Museum in Shanghai, which has extended its known habitat into China (Yangtse Valley). It grows to 3 feet, (To be continued.) gournal Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Sits : as CS e te Ce igs 1d ce aera oleh Oy = Fig: 12 Fig: 13 Lachesis macrolepis ( x 2) After Gunther.) INDIAN SNAKES ‘WALL Conve* & CO. UTH. BOmaay, DIAGRAM Vi A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. EXPLANATION OF THE ABBREVIATIONS USED IN DIAGRAMS IV, V anv VI. A.S. Anterior sublinguals. By. Frontal, In. Internasals, Lor. Loreal. M. Mental. Na, Nasals. Pa. Parietals. Pe. _Pentagonal. Po, _—_- Postoculars. Pra, Preoculars. Prf. Prefrontals. P.S. Posterior sublinguals. R. Rostral, 8. Supraoculars. Su. Suboculars. rT. Temporals. 1, 2, 3, etc. Supralabials. f, 11, ILI, ete. Infralabials. JOURNAL OF TAH ey ais Ne Alatural Aistory Society. Vol. XVII. BOMBAY. ; No. 2, A POPULAR TREATISE ON 1HE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLusrRATED BY CoLouRED PLatTes AND DraGrams. By Captain F, Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.S. Part T1I—Wih Piate ITT and Diagram VIT,. (Continued from page 9 of this Volume.) Tae DoamMaN ork Common RatTSNskE (Zamenis mucosus). Nomenclature. (a) Scientific —The generic name is from th Greek ¢z “oreat” and «evs “strength,” and the specific from the Laty,, mucusus, “ slimy,” which I need hardly remark this snake no more deserves than any other of the suborder Ophidia. It appears to be a popular notion that a snake is slimy, and even in these enlightened days writers of travels, etc., frequently expose their ignorance by using this inappropriate adjective to them. Some of our readers may ba more familiar with its older generic title Ptyas, also a calumnious * spitter.”’ epithet derived from the Greek, vrs: a (4) Enjlish.—The name by whch it is generally known is the “ com- mon ratsnake,”” but ‘ dhaman,” a name borrowed from the vernacular, is almost as frequently in use. (ce) Vernacular.—In Bengali, Hindi, and Marathi, all languages derived from Sanskrit, it is cxllod “‘ dhaman,”’ the Sanskrit word being “dhaiana.” It isalso ca'lsd somotimes ‘*dameen.’ Russell makes mention of this latter name*, and [ have heard it often. Woodrow in Lis * Ind. Serp,, Vol, L plate XXV. 260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII. book on botany mentions both these names “‘dhaman ”’ and “‘ dameen”’ as being applied toatree, the Grewia tiliefolia, which is commonly grown by the natives in Southern India about their habitations, Mr. A, M. Jackson tells me “ dharmani”’ is the Sanskrit name for this tree and the Cyclopadia of India (Vol. 11, page 14) gives ‘damoni”’ as the Ooriah name for it. From its wood, hafts are derived for various tools, and the iner bark furnishes bast which Birdwood says is used in Bombay for aaking ropes. The connection between the tree and the snake has been suggestedto me by Father Dreckman, who says in Sanskrit “dharma” neans a “ binding’, either in the sense of duty or of wrapping one thing round another. Those of us who have handled living specimens, must frequently have experienced the foree with which this snake wreathes itself round one’s legs, or arms. Onthe Malabar Coast it is called ‘“‘ghayra.”? The Tamils in 8. India call it ‘‘ Sarey pamboo,” but a Tamil of the Tigala caste in Mysore told me locally (Bangalore) they called it “ Jair potoo,’’ which I am informed signifies “centipede animal.” This appears to be the same as the “ Jeri potoo”’ of Russell.* Ricet says the Canareso name for it is “‘ Kere.”” The Burmese call it ‘‘ Mywe’ let pat,” which is literally “‘hand-coiling snake,” and according to Theobaldt ‘* Tim-bwi.”’ Dimensions. —The great majority of adults vary from 5% to 64 feet, ‘ut much larger specimens are to be met with. Evans and I obtained cwo in Burmah measuring 7 feet 4% inches, and 7 feet 8% inches re- epactively. One specimen brought to me in Trichinopoly was the largest I ever saw in the flesh, v/z., 8 feet 2 inches. I measured the slough of one just cast in the Bangalore Museum which was 9 feet 13 inches. Mr. Millard tells me of one killed near Mahim Station which was 11 feet 9 inches. This was a veritable Goliath of its kind. I have measurements in my notes of 54 specimens, and only 8 of these exceed 7 feet. Ihave notes of a host of others where the measurement is not recorded, but it is certain that had they been large this would not have been omitted.§ Physiognomy, and bodily configuration—The head is rather elongate. The eye, large and lustrous, exhibits an iris speckled with gold, especially densely at the pupillary margin and a pupil which is slightly ovate hori- * Ind. Serp., Vol. I, plate XXXIV. t+ Mysore, Vol, I, p. 188, t Jour. As. Soc., Bengal, 1868, p. 46. S Mr, Pearless has in a recent letter reported that he has cn four occasions killed this snake in Ceylon exceeding 10 feet in length. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 26] zontally. The nostril is large, and placed laterally. The neck is slightly constricted. The body of somewhat robust proportions is flattened in a lateral direction (z.e. compressed), and is from 34 to 4 times the length of the slowly tapering, and cylindrical tail. Colour.—The prevailing hue on the head and body, including the tail, is dorsally an olivaceous-green or olivaceous-brown. In-the anterior half or three-fifths of the body length this is uniform or nearly so, but in the posterior part many scales are irregularly margined with black, so as to form a reticulate pattern witha tendency to form crossbars. Individuals differ in colour: I have seen some as yellow as a batter pudding, and others of a hue as dark as sepia. The shields bordering the lips, the scales at the side of the throat, and the scales beneath the body, and tail are more or less margined posteriorly with black ; in fact, these marks form a very characteristic trait in the physiognomy. On the belly the regularity of these marks forci- bly reminds one of a tape measure, but in individuals, they may he absent in whole or in part. The belly is greyish-white, dirty-white or yellowish, the latter hue often more pronounced about the throat. The skin is blackish, mottled with fawn or whitish in irregularly transverse streaks, but is usually not seen owing to the overlapping of the scales. The overlapped margins of the scales, however, partake of this cutaneous coloration, and in young specimens light bluish-grey irregular crossbars are usually conspicuous, especially anteriorly. In young the prevailing colour is often more greyish or bluish than one sees in the adult, but the markings and general appearance are very closely similar. Identification—Here I must digress, to emphasise a very interest- ing and important peculiarity in this snake. The scales of snakes counted across the back will be found, with very few exceptions, to be arranged in odd rows varying from 13 in the Callophids, etc., to as many as 75 in Python reticulatus. The exceptions to this rule which concern us are Zaocys dhumnades and Z, nigromarginaius in which they number 16 in the middle of the body, and Stolzczkara khasiensis where they are 30.* Further, in some snakes the same number of rows is maintained in the whole length of the body, but in others they * In the two families Typhlopidaz and Glauconude where the scales appear to be in even numbers, if the median row onthe belly (which in these snakes is not specialised, but is exactly like the rows of scales on the back and sides) is considered in its true light, viz,, as the analogue of the belly scutes, then the scales are in reality odd in number, 262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII, reduce by 2, 4, 6 or even more rows from before backwards, but the odd number is preserved on the body—(Caution—! do not include the tail), — with one notable exception, vzz., the species under discussion, Zamenis mucosus. In this the scales number 17 in the front of the body, but reduce to 14 or 12 posteriorly, This point in itself is suffi- cient to distinguish this from all other snakes in ovr region.* Another featury characteristic of this snake is the trivle loreal. (Nee |, fig. 1 B). In almo t all snakes possessing a loreal, this is a single shield inter- posed between the preocular, and the nasals. In a few species there are two, but in this there are three normally, one anterior, and two superposed behind, Occasional aberrant specimens may be seen with only 2 loreals, or even with 4 or 5. In colour, and markings which | have already represented as faulty guides in the identification of all snakes, both the species of Zaocys al- ready referred to, as well as Nenelaphis heaayovotus and Zaments korros, closely resemble it, and all are of very similar proportions, Haunts. —Thora is scarealy a situation, whether in hill or dale, forest or maidan, arid, swampy or cultivated tract, tree, bush, or habitaticn in which it may not take up its abode. It is quite at hcme in the prex- imity of man, and is to be met with in the gardens of populated areas within our largest cities almost as plentifully as in the mere trerquil quarters of the Cantonment. In such local:ties, in defercnce to man’s hostile inclinations, it is forced to retire during the day into scne se- curs retreat, commonly taking up its abode in an ant-hill, drain or other convenient hole in the compound, or even in the out-hcuses, cr Lurga- low itself. Like other snakes it loves old masonry, and is often flush- ed from or seen retiring into the crevices and crypts furnished by old alls or brick wells. In Rangoon with the aid ofa bicycle lamp to illuminate the gloom of th» little galleries left for drainage purposes in the tacos of the fort walls I frequently found one coiled up, and pro- voked it to a speedy exit. In the bungalow it may tenant the Lase- ment, but not infrequently finds its way up into the roof where it may reside above the ceiling cloth, and though few may derm it as such it is certainly entitled to the cons‘deration of a welcome friend. The late Chaplain of Cannanore, the Reverend R. B. Redding, told me that once when in conversation with a lady, upon whom he was calling, a sermyring was heard overhead on the cciling eluth, and a rat fell * Jn Zaocys the scales reduce, but they are maintained in even rows. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 268 thronch a hole on to the floor, It was closely followed by the head and much of the body of a large snake, which, however, managed to withdraw itself. It is more than probable that this was a rat-snake. Removed from man’s immediate environment I believe it realises there is no occasion for such prison accommodation as populous Iceali- ties thrast upon it, and here it has free scope to indulge its diurnal inclinations. In Cannanore snipe-shooting I very frequently encoun- tered it in broad daylight leisurely pursuing its quest for luncheon, and when not actually on the move I often found it coiled asleep in the paludal vegetation, or beneath a bush. Again, on two or three occa- sions when stepping into paddy fields at dawn I have seen it coiled on tho heaps of decaying vegetable matter which represent the remnants of last year’s crop, and weeds, suggesting that it had taken up these quarters over-night. It shows a decided partiality for the vicinity of water for reasons very obvious when we cume to consider its diet. 1t will take readily to water should occasion demand, and swims vigorously, and well, earrymg its head above the surface for choice, but diving when the necessity is urgent. I have seen it at some height in a tree (ten or fifteen feet), also on the roofs of houses, so that its scansorial abilities are not inferior to those of most of its kind.* It appears to be very fleet in its movements, but its speed is deceptive, for on one occasion, when I chased one using its full endeavours to escape, I found I had traversed 38 yards while the reptile covered 15. 1t measured 5 feet 94 inches. Here I may remark that this snake enters into the dietary of several natives of India, who hold it in great esteem. A Tamil of the Tigala caste in Bangalore told me his caste while despising all other snakes as food. or medicine, relished the flesh of the dhaman which when cocked was white, and fish like. The taste he compared to that of chicken. It appears to enjoy a reputation in wasting diseases. In Fyzabad recently a cooly came, ard begged the body of one that had been sent in to me dead to eat. The Burmese and Karens eat it with avidity, but are by no means bigoted with regard to the species of snake they eat. The Chinese use it in medicine among other ophidian brethren, and | doubt not eat it too. I saw many preserved on the shelves of the local medicine men in Hongkong. * See addenda (1). 264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII. Sloughing.—Miss Hopley* mentions one casting its skin about once a month on an average. This specimen was caged in Regent’s Park, London, I believe. Disposition.—It is undoubtedly when provoked a very fierce snake, and if brought to bay will assume the offensive with great courage and determination ; but this side of its nature is’ rarely exhibited, as, like other snakes, it prefers to acknowledge man’s supremacy by secking swift escape when this offers. I have many times jumped into the middle of its coils when I have seen it enjoying a siesta, but have never been menaced, or struck at once, the reptile’s acknowledgment of the rude awakening being manifested by speedy disappearance. On ocea- sion, however, and especially if reasonable chances of escape are denied it, it will attack with great malice. Father Dreckman once chased a specimen nearly eight feet long, and managed to place his foot over the hole it was making for. Baulked in its attempt to escape, it coiled itself up and jumped straight at his face. Luckily Father Dreckman drew back his head in time to evade a blow in the face, but the reptile fastened itself on to his shoulder with such purpose that its teeth penetrated not only his clothes, but actually lacerated the skin beneath. On another occasion when the same observer was rendering assistance to a hatchling which was trying to emerge from its egg, the vicious little creature resenting interference bit him in the finger, and actually drew blood, Mr, Hampton tells me that once when attempting to cap- ture one he found in a drain it struck viciously at him, and inflicted a wound beneath one of his eyes. In Bangalore I saw one belonging to a sampwallah, strike most vehemently at, and bite a mongoose, also one of the stock-in-trade. Mr. Millard tells me it is a difficult snake to tame when fairly grown, and will attack freely when cornered.t+ Nicholson{ remarks how it will fight for its freedom, and says it is always a little uncertain to handle in captivity. Gunther§ says: “ It is of fierce habits, always ready to bite, and old examples brought to Europe never become tame.” In Rangoon I had one brought to me which, it was reported, was attacking a full-grown fowl. The few specimens I have had caged, *« Snakes, ’’ p, 332, + See addenda (2). t Ind, Snakes, p, 133. § Rept., Brit. Ind,, p, 249. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 265 exhibited a very nasty temper, and struck out most maliciously at me whenever I approached the glass of the cage: often two or three strokes were delivered in rapid succession, and with such force that the creature must have hurt itself considerably. The stroke is delivered upwards, as though to wound the face, a peculiarity also noticed by Mr. Millard. When infuriated, prior to delivering its stroke, it retracts the head and forebody into an 8, slightly erecis itself and gives vent to a peculiar sound which I have heard no other snake produce, and which reminds me of a cat at bay. Cantor likens it to the sound of a vibrating tuning-fork. During the production of this warning note the snake compresses itself anteriorly (z.¢., flattens itself in « direction contrary to that manifested by the cobra), the spine being arched about the neck, and the throat markedly pouched. Food.—The dhaman is very catholic in its tastes, devouring almost anything that chance brings within its reach, but it displays a very marked partiality to a batrachian diet, doubtless because toads, and more especially frogs, are extremely plentitul, easily captured, and too defenceless to offer much resistance. The possibility of taste influenc- ing its selection may be dismissed, since flesh, however toothsome, must fail to impart its relish when clothed in feathers, fur, or integuments, Perhaps though, the texture of these vestments may gratify the mouth or gullet as keenly as the flesh may conciliate the peptic glands. When hunger presses it is stimulated to make full use of its courage, vigour, and speed in shikaring the object of its gastric affections. The incident of the rat falling through the ceiling cloth demonstrates this. Blanford* mentions one he saw pursuing a lizard (Calotes ver- sicolor) at full speed, which it caught, and then throwing its body over its victim speedily devoured. This practice of holding down its prey when troublesome to manage, or seized in a position unfavourable for swallowing, is characteristic, and it can exert a very considerable strength in this manner, Mr. Hampton tells me he has seen it hold a rat down with its body, pressing it tightly on the ground, and Mr, Millard gives me a very striking example of this behaviour. He says: “One of these which we were keeping in the same cage as our python recently caught a rat (which was put in for food) by the tail. The rat turned, and bit the dhaman severely, and the dhaman killed it by holding on to the tail, and pressing the rat against the body * Jour. As, Soc,, Bengal, Vol, XX XIX, p. 372. 266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII, of the python and the floor of the cage. Severe pressure must have been brought to boar, as the rat—a full-sized one—was dead in 3 or 4 minutes.” Here I may draw attention to the frontispiece of Lyddeker’s Royal Natural History, Volume V., which shows this snake entwined ina most unnatural manner round a perpendicular bamboo stem, a large part of its body free, and holding a large rat with a serenity and facility very unreal. I doubt whether this acrobatic performance is possible for more than a few seconds apart from the manner in which it is shown bolting its meal. It is regrettable that the inaccuracies of a skilled artist should pass the censorship of so great a naturalist. The quarry once captured is swallowed at once, so that in the case of inoffensive creatures, such as frogs, it is no unusual circumstance for them to reach the stomach sufficiently altve for their suppressed cries to be distinctly audible; and moreover remarkable as it may seem, when rescued from their engulfment it isa fairly common event for them, after the lapse of some minutes, to recover sufficiently to hop away. I have witnessed this on several occasions, and Kelsail has recorded such an experience in this Journal. Rats, though sometimes preyed upon, are not nearly so staple an article of diet as suggested by its name. Mr. Hampton tells me thatin captivity in Regent’s Park, London, he was familiar with this snake and saw it seizing, and devouring good-sized rats with avidity, but that his speciuens in Burmah, far from liking rats, seem to be afraid of them, preferring an exclusively batrachian fare. Lizards, birds and other small vertebrates form a welcome supplement to its voracity. Recently, in Fyzabad, a three-footer was found in a shrub attacking a nest of young birds. It had already swallowed a gecko (/emidactylus gleadoviz), and was in the act of devouring one fledgling. That it must be considered both gourmand and gourmet may be inferred from the following bills of fare. A specimen brought to me in Cannanore had eaten a large frog (Rana tigrina), a large toad (Bufo melanostictus), and a half- grown lizard (Calotes versicolor) ; another lately acquired in Fyzabad with a very tight-fitting waistcoat was found to contain a large toad (Bufo andersoni), a lizard of the skink family (Malwa dissimilis), and a young tortoise (Trionyx), and as though dissatisfied with this 3-course luncheon, had endeavoured to include a large lizard | probably of the genus Calotes, since some 5 inches or more of its A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 267 tail had been devoured. The specimen alluded to above which bit Mr. Hampton subsequently disgorged six frogs. Ferguson* comments upon the gluttony of this species, and says its favourite food is a medium-sized frog, of which a fair-sized snake will eat about twenty- two ata meal. Mr, Hampton says if at all hungry it will not disdain the meal afforded by another snake, including even iis cwn species, This I know to be true. and quite a common event in captivity, which is vouched for by Mr. Millard, Ferguson and others, but I think it is a rare exhibi- tion of depravity in its natural staie ; however, Assistant Surgeon Robertson told me he once cut open a large dhaman, and fovnd it con- tained another dhaman, 3 feet 11 inches in length, in its stomach. Flowert mentions one eating a snake (Chrysopelea ornata), Mr. Green tells me of one which disgorged several snakes of the genus Rhinophis in its death throes, and Lightfoot{ has lately presented a specimen to the Bombay Natural Histury Scciety preserved in the act of swallowing a Psammophis condanarus, The stomach, as will be seen if distended with a meal, lies more in front of the middle point of the body, than in some other snakes, notably the Krait, and Hemibungarus, where it lies wholly behind this point. Breedin;.—It is the rule with snakes that the female exceeds the male in length. Darwin, on the authority of Gunther, makes this state- ment.§ Whilst fully agreeing with this remark, in this species I have no doubt that the converse obtains. An average taken from the largest males and females my notes record shows a disparity decidedly in favour of the male. Again, of specimens over 6 feet 6 inches, twelve are mules and only two females. The longest female is 6 feet 74 inches. || Though usually met with singly, they are sometimes found in pairs at times other than the breeding season. On January 5th, 1900, in Rangoon, a male and female were found coiled together beneath a flooring. This date is one later than the normal hatching season. The male was 6 feet 14 inches and the female 5 feet 84 inches. Again, in Fyzibad a pair was found disporting themselves in a small pvol of water some three or four yards across. The female, 6 feet 74 inches in * Bombay Natural History Journal, Vol. X, p. 4. + Proc. Zool Soc, 1-99, p. 684, + Pombay Natural History Journal, Vol. XVI, p. 530. § Descent of Man, p. 438, || See addend a (3). 268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Voir. XV 11. length, contained eggs far advanced towards maturity. The male measured 6 feet 9} inches. This lattor incident implies a conjugal attachment ona par with that of the higher animals, since sexual gratification had not dissolved the marital tie.* The following is a list of the breeding notes I have been able to collect, arranged in tabular form :— Peas Eggs, | a | | * ae | | egree of | ae | . > a | mate eles | Locality, | Authority. | Reference, Date. a Size. sof ee linea re 4 May 9 ? In abdomina ? |Bangalore .. |Nicholson .. ** Indian £na- ‘ kes”’p. 127, May ene a} ? WD oe ? IX coe) ~ IDOE ae Do. 20thJune’05} 14 | 12" long Do, ...| 6 8" |Fyzabad__ ...|Self ... Not recorded, Do. So) ui WN e DY, Gaal | 1B Yo}. aio So: Do. 6th July 05) 14 jai, Dios en oateae Do, ...|Do, re Do, 11th July ’05 Oe its IDYe, Soph IDYoy. (Do: el Do. 19th July ’00| 19 2 Do. .../6/33 [Rangoon ..(Evans ard) Do. Self ist Aug. 704.) 13 |1.3/’to 145! Do. ...|5‘ 93” |Cannanore ..|Self rales le lel, se = Jourl, Vol, XVLp.301 14th Nov.’05.| 11 |Nearly ma- IBY “oes ? Do. ...|Do. spies IN[s JE Siz ture, Jourl. Vol, XVI,p. 8U0 September. 12 2x11” |Hatched ..| ... {Bangalore .,.|Nicholson ,,.)‘ Indian Sna- | kes” sp, 127. Di oe || TB ? Do, cod) oct ? Dreckman ...|Private letter 9th Dec. 795) 18 {1 to 12%] Do. t| 2.) (Rangoon ».. vane) sand |BaeNem ron: long. Self. Jourl. Vol. XIII,p.189, From the above it appears that the mating season is during the hot weather, and that eggs are voided in August and September, and hatch between September and December. The periods of gestation and incubation are unknown to me. The most juvenile mother, if one is to judge from measurement I have records of, was 5 feet 8 inches, and I believe, therefore, that the female is sexually mature at about 44 years of age.t Both sexes appear * sec a.idenda (4). F See addenda (5). A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 269 to grow about a foot a year, but as usual I have to regret gaps in my notes that prevent me speaking more positively, The eggs are laid in adherent clusters, and deposited, I believe, in holes in the earth. They are white, glossy, and parchment-like, with the poles equally domed. In the clutch recorded by .Nicholson one ego measured 2" x 14 The eggs from which young hatched in Rangoon observed by Hvans and me measured from 13 to 13" in length, Tho youngsters we witnessed hatching in Rangoon measured from 144 to 15 inches. They found exit at any convenient spot, and some, even when they had broken the shell sufficiently to admit of easy exit, appeared to quit their cradles reluctantly, as they often peeped out, or extended themselves to a considerable length, and then retired sometimes for hours before evacuating them, They were very active even at this early age, and seemed to know instinctively whom to regard as enemies, for they exhibited anger when molested ; and that they can make good use of their teeth, Father Dreckman’s experience related above seems to exemplify. Those observed by Evans and me had tne navel perforate, and through this I passed a bristle into the abdominal cavity, Nicholson,* however, says they emerge from the egg with the navel closed. We found two ventral shields usually perforate, and from 21 to 24 ventral shields intervened between these and the anal shield. Legends.—There are various legends connected with this snake. In some parts it is addicted to sucking cows, and apropos of this it is very remarkable that a feat so manifestly impossible when the snake’s mouth is examined, should have received credence in many countries in relation to several species of snakes. It would be impossible for a grasp to be maintained upon the teat without driving home many of the needle-pointed teeth, and inflicting an amount of pain no animal could passively tolerate upon so sensitive a structure. Others attribute to it the curious practice of putting its tail up the cow’s nostril, and suddenly withdrawing it. What originated this strange belief, and what possible end it might fulfil, is hard even to speculate upon. Again, it is very generally believed among natives that the ratsnake mates with the cobra, and is in fact the male cobra, and it is surprising to ma that even some educated English people seriously contemplate such an ahsurdity, and still further so firmly believe it, as to attempt «6 Tndian Snakes ”, p. 128. 270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XV. to indicate the truth of their assertions. I have more than once engaged ina heated discussion on this subject, but afier listening to many assurances, the confession has been invariably elicited that the sexes of the supposad engaging parties had never been investigated ! I think the most convincing argument in disproof of this fable lies in the fact that there are beyond dispute both male and female cobras, and both male and female dhamans. One may assume they breed true, since no hybrid, as faras I am aware, has ever been recorded. Tho possibility of a hybrid Iam not prepared tu doubt in face of the fact that hybrids have been produced in captivity, the progeny of parents of diff.rant ophidian genera, but if the outrageous attachment between Mr. Dhaman and Mrs. Cobra were true, pur museums should be well stock xd with evidences of their guilt. It is satisfactory to note, when reflecting upon this alleged flagrant laxity of morals, that one never bears even a whispered imputation breathed by these scandalmongers against tha characters of Mr. Cobra and Mrs. Dhaman. The Rovd. Mr. John appears to have originated the idea of an attach- ment between the cobra and the dhaman, for Russell says, Mr. John told him, speaking of the dhaman, that it was often found in company with the cobra. The fact is these snakes are of similar habit, and seek out similar quarters, but companionship is merely a matter of accident. Russeli* says: The natives say it is not dangerous, but assert that its bite occasions blindness in persons over forty! Avain he says the Revd. Mr. John tells him that the sharpness of its scales sometimes does harm to rice grounds! Distribution.—lts range of distribution is very extensive. It is found throughout the whole Indian Peninsula, from Ceylon in the south to the Himalayas in the north. On the west it extends through MNajputana, and Sind to Afghanistan, and Transeaspia, In the east it ranges through Burma, and the whole Malayan Continent to Southern China and Formosa. In the Archipelago it has only been recorded from Java. In almost every locality it is to be reckoned as one of the commonest shakes, at any rate in the plains. In upland regions it becomes scarcer as one ascends. It iscommon at moderate elevations (5,500 ft.), and has been found up to 7,000 ft. (Sutlej Valley ¢) but is probably rarely met with much above this altitude. Hs Ina, Serp., > Val: Il. p. PA ft Stoliczka “ Jourl. As, Soc,, Bengal, ’? XXXIX, p. 185. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Diagram VII. C MM 1“ Ventral A. §. Anterior sublinguals. Prf. Praefrontal. F. Frontal. Po. Postoeular. i Internasal. P. S. Posterior sublinguals. L. Loreals. R. Rostral. M, Mental. 5. Supraocular. N. Nasal. Is Temporal, Pa. Parietal. 1to8 Supraiabials. Pra. Praeocular. I to VI Infralabials. ZAMENIS MUCOSUS. (nar sizF) INDIAN SNAKES. (WALL) A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 271 Blanford* remarks that it appears much less common in the Deccan proper, west of Nagpur, than it is to the eastward. Mescription.—Rostral, touches 6 shields, of which the anterior nasal sutures are largest, and about 4 greater than the internasals. Internasals,—A pair. The suture between them 4 to 2 that be- tweon the prefrontal fellows ; { the internaso-prefrontal suture, Prejrontals.—The suture between them rather greater than the prefronto-frontal suture. In contact with the internasal, posterior nasal, two loreals, preocular, supraocular, and frontal. F'ro.tal—In contact with 6 shields, of which the supraocular sutures are the largest, and twice or more than twice the parietal sutures. Length subequal to supraoculars. Breadth suboqual to or rather greater than the supra- oculars. Parietals in contact with one postocular usually (rarely two). Nusals.—Two, lateral, completely divided. In contact with the Ist and 2nd supralabials. The nostril occupies the full depth of the suture, and is situated almost entirely in the posterior shield, Loreals.—Three, normally 1+4. (rarely 2 4, or 5). Preorudars.— Two normally (rarely one), the lower wedged between the 3rd and 4th supralabials. Josto- culars.—Two. Temporals.—Two; the lower touching the 6th and 7th supralabials (sometimes the 5th also), Supralub als 8, the 4th and Sth touching the eye normally (sometimes 9 with the Sth and 6th touch- ing tho eya). Infralaheuls 5 touch the anterior sublinguals (rarely 6), tho first forming a suture together about hilf the length of that between the anterior sublinguals. The Sth and 6th touch the posterior sublincuals. The 6th is the largest of the series, and is as broad or broader than the posterior sublinguals, and in contact with 2 scales bohind. Scales.—Two heads lengths behind the head 17 ; midbody 17 or 16; two heads lengths before the vent 14 or 12. All subequal except the last row which is largest. A pair of apical facets at the apex of each scale, Kvels anteriorly (two heads lengths behind head) none ; midbody in from 0 to 6 or 7 rows ; posteriorly (two heads lengths before vent) in 2 to 10 rows. Absorption t—In this snake two steps occur, the first in which the scales reduce from 17 to 16, and this is brought * Jourl. As. Soc, WVengal, Vol) XX XIX, p. 372. + I have already referred to the fact t'\at in some snakes the same number of rows of scales rersists throuvhout the body lengih; whilst in others it decreases Now the manner in which this reduction is effected is one of much int-rest from its variation in different species, and it is surprising to me that this feature should have Leen altozether overlooked by othet herpetologists, 272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII, about by the absorption of the vertebral row into that adjacent to it on the left side. This occurs about the middle of the body, usually behind the midpoint, sometimes however in front of it, Very shortly afterwards a further reduction takes place to14, and this is brought about by the absorption of the 8rd row above the ventrals on both sides, into one of the adjacent rows (ze, the 2nd or 4th). Should another reduction take place, as sometimes happens in the posterior part of the body, the 3rd row is again absorbed into the one above or below, and 12 rows are established. It rarely happens that the first two steps occurring closely together es they do are reversed. Supracaudals are ineven numbers. 6 rows in the middle of the tail, and dwindling to 2 at the tip. Theabsorption of these rows follows the rule, and the two uppermost or each side, keep on coalescing at each step. Keels end where the rows count Gor 8. Apical facets are present in all rows to the tail tip. Ventrals.—190 to 208 (Boulenger), somewhat angulate laterally. Only a part of the last row of scales visible on each side when the specimen is laid on its back. Anal divided. Subcaudals 95 to 135 (Boulenger), divided throughout. Our plate is excellent. The only remark I have to make is that the chin is shown too receding, and is probably to be explained Ly some distortion from pressure against the glass in the specimen selected in the Museum. ADDENDA. Since writing the above I have acquired some additional information with which I can supplement my original remarks. (1) Mr. Millard tells me he once saw a large dhaman up a wild date palm tree on Malabar Hill, Bombay, and from the excitement shown by the small palm squirrels there was no doubt what it was after. Recently in Fyzabad a specimen 6 feet 8 inches was brought. me which was discovered high up in a tree, the attention of a passer-by having been called to it, by the noisy demonstrations of several birds. I found it contained two large chicks each 34 inches long in the stomach, and a larger one 4 inches long in the gullet. They were partially enveloped in their shells, which were of a uniform bright blue colour, They appeared to me to be much too large for crowchicks, and the colour of the eggs was not corvine. Journ. Bombay Nat.Iist.Soc. Plate IL ya oS Ae Rok ara aaa Sh J.G.del. d.Green ,Chromo THE DHAMAN OR INDIAN RAT-SNAKE (Harmless) Zamenis mucosus. A PUPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 273 (2) Mr. Millard further tells me that in the Society’s cages in Bombay large specimens are so restless when captive, and strike so frequently at the wire netting, that they do not live long. (3) This receives abundant confirmation from this year’s specimens. I find from my notes that whilst I have had 14 males measuring 6 feet 6 inches and over, my largest female was only 6 feet 3 inches. In fact only 4 females reached the limit of 6 feet. (4) Another instance of this kind occurred this year. The baboo at the Fyzabad Club on the 2nd July sent me word there were two snakes in the garden close by. I went to investigate, but unfortunately a hue and cry had been raised among the tennis chokras, and they had taken shelter in some brushwood. The baboo told me that for many minutes he had been watching two large snakes, which, as he expressed it, ‘‘ were > He described them as facing one another, and playing very nicely.’ swaying their erected bodies toand fro. I made no doubt that this was a little love passage I had unfortunately missed, and I instituted a search with the result that 1 observed one dhaman glide from the spot indicated, and killed the other before it could escape me in ihe same spot. This proved to be a male 6 feet 9 inches long. Tho next day at the same spot the female was killed and brought to me, and I found she contained 12 large eggs, one typical of the rest, measuring 14 inches, and therefore nearly mature. She was 6 feet 1 inch in length. This again seems to show cohabitation long after impregnation, and if so establishes a bond of union one would hardly expect to find among reptiles. Another possible solution to this episode, however, may be that the male was pressing attentions upon the female, which her condition forbade her reciprocating and that in consequence she was really fight- ing, and not playing. This was suggested to me recently by a similar incident on the part of two buff-striped Keelbacks ( Tropidonotus stolatus). : (5) Ihave had two gravid females this vear, 5 feet 25 inches, ana 5 feet 54 inches, respectively. (To be continued.) 4 5 , “> 4 Ae he Sy 4. use . ans ‘ ~ oY, rT ea 2 , LOI hae eth ee i> “Sg id Nene arse at bye 7 US Searcy, i ‘ os V4 a 1 Cx x ~ , : i Fi Wed ne one bere a . lé } —- : pi44 » - é ’ ‘ : ‘“ er oo ry ail ++ t—~—* o am CP ok 2 y aye Fre t wahy sere yes thie , “ er ht to) gy: fab His ty, wt Dugas ' il eee yf peti 3 2 ae ho) ay a che fon apse i 5 oegeaeetises | jt es eae JOURNAL OF THE OQ ANVE Es AS Natural History Society, Vol. XVII. BOMBAY. No. 4. A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLUSTRATED BY CoLOURED PLATES AND D1iaGRams, By Masor F. Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.S. Part IV—With Plate IV. (Continued from page 273 of this Volume.) TROPIDONOTUS PISCATOR, THE COMMON POND SNAKE OR CHEQUERED KEELBACK. Nomenclature. (a) Sctentijic.—The generic name is from the Greek “ tropis”” a keel, and ‘‘notos” the back, in allusion to the ridges formed by the keels on the costal scales which, though a very character- istic feature, is by no means one peculiar to this snake and its allies. ” of Latin origin is not to my mind The specific name ‘“* pescator appropriate, since it seems to imply the practice of some art by which it is able to capture fish. Though aquatic in habit, its diet is usually batrachian ; and though it does evince piscivorous tastes sometimes, it is in no way better endowed with the capability to catch fish than is any other water-snake. It is difficult therefore to see in what respect it resembles the fisherman. It certainly prefers the exercise of its nata- tory powers to imitating the patient inaction at the water’s brink so commonly manifested by those who favour the piscatorial art. Its older and better known name ‘* 1 quincunciatus ” from the Latin “ quincunx ” 858 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII. is more fitting, for the commonest varieties bear spots or blotches arranged in longitudinal lines, so that those of one series alternate with those of the adjacent rows. The creature is thus beset with quincunxes (like the 5 on dice), and when the spots and intervals are alike in size, a veritable chess board pattern is the result. Vernacular.—The more I strive to acquire the native names for snakes, the more hopeless it becomes. It is rarely that any two members of a crowd will give the same name toa snake, and it is almost as certain that the professional snake-catcher, with a huge local reputation, will call a snake by one name to-day and another to-morrow. In Cannanore the common types of this snake were called ‘‘ Neer Kolee” and “Neer Mandallee’’, the former meaning ‘ water-fowl”’ and the latter “‘ water spotted snake’; but I was never able to discover by what means the one was discriminated from the other, ‘The former was usually applied to small specimens, and the latter to large examples, especially the boldly spotted ones. In most languages it is simply called water-snake, as, for example, the Burmese ‘‘ Yé mywé’’, the Tamil “‘Thanee pamboo ”’, the Canarese ‘‘ Neeru havu ” and the Hindi “ Pani ka samp’. Doubtless, these names are applied also to many of the.Homalopsids. The Canarese also call it ‘‘holay havu” or stream-snake, and Russell’s various colour varieties are ‘* Dooblee”’, ‘S Paragoodoo”’, ‘“Naugealled Keaka”’, ‘‘ Neeli Kea”, “ Dora”, and “Ourdia”’. (See addenda.) Dimensiwons.—Nicholson* records a specimen 4 feet 3 inches, and Blanford+ another of the same length. These are exceptional, for I have the measurements of 55 specimens, and the largest taped 3 feet 104 inches. My notes refer to a host of other specimens in which the length is not noted on account of their meagre proportions, Of the 55 specimens referred to above, only 10 exceed 3 feet in length. Physiognomy and bodily configuration.—The head is ovate, rounded from side to side, and the front narrow. The nostrils by their slitlike form and superior position approximate to those of the true fresh-water snakes (Homalopsids) and marine snakes (Hydrophids), as do also the eyes which are set with a decided inclination upwards ; but the tail has not peen modified to a corresponding degree towards the true « “ Indian Snakes, ” page 90. + Jourl., Asiat. Soc., Bengal, XX XIX, page 371. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 859 aquatic type as one might expect, in adaptation to its natatory pro- clivities, but preserves the rounded contour typical of the terrestrial forms. The eye is moderately large, the iris flecked with gold or golden green, and a dense zone of gold demarcates the pupillary margin, and reveals the rotund conformation of the pupil. The neck is constricted sufficiently to be evident. The body closely ridged by the carination of the costal scales, is robust, rounded, and reduces in girth decidedly before the vent. The tail is ample in both sexes, being one-fourth to one-third the total length, and tapers gradually, the dorsal ridges being preserved almost to its extreme tip. Colour.—The colour and markings of this snake are exceedingly variable, as a glance at our plate will, in some measure, serve to indicate. The ground colour may be dull green, olive-green, olive-brown or brown of almost any shade, light or dark. Some specimens are uniform, or almost uniform, in colour, but the majority show some chequering, and usually of black which may occur in specks, spots, or blotches, and vary from a few marks confined to the sides of the neck and forebody, to a wholesale distribution chequering the entire body and tail. These marks are usually arranged quincuncially in 5 or 6 longitudinal rows, and the blotches in some examples are confluent, and so large that black becomes the prevailing colour, Some specimens are decorated with a similar draught board pattern, but sombre hues replace the black, and sometimes buff or whitish tints form the most conspicuous chequering. Again, some are specked, spotted, or blotched with red which may vary from salmon or rose pink to a brilliant scarlet like sealing- wax, This lively ornamentation is as capricious in its distribution as the black above alluded to, and may vary from a few marks on the side of the neck and forebody to a profuse adornment of the whole dorsum. All these decorative hues are almost entirely confined to the basal half of each scale, and especially to their margins, where the scales overlap one another, so that they are seen to their best advantage when the snake under excitement dilates itself. The crown of the head is similar to the dorsal ground colour and two black oblique streaks are almost always in evidence proceeding 860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII: from the eye (Giinther says they are inconspicuous or absent in some specimens from Nepaul and Coylon). The anterior passes as a subocular between the 5th and 6th or 6th and 7th supralabials to the margin of the lip, The posterior crosses the temporals, and the 8th supralabial to the gape or beyond. A more or less distinct black chevron, or a modification of such, is usually borne upon the nape. Ventrally the colour is usually uniformly dull white or yellow, but many specimens, and especially those heavily blotched with black dorsally, bear black subterminal transverse bars, more or less complete on each scale. Where the ventrals meet the ultimate costal row in the flanks, may be seen a black, pink, or brilliant crimson streak. The throat and forebody are sometimes bright yellow or orange. These brilliant colours are not seasonal, though Stoliczka * inclines to this belief, nor are they the prerogative of either sex. 1 have satisfied myself that they are present in the hatchling. To the best of my belief, I have only met with these gaudily attired specimens on the Malabar Coast of India and in Burmah. Our artist has shown the markings in the two bottom figures too regular, so that they are more suggestive of the conventional or wall-paper style of decoration than that bestowed by Nature. So numerous are the colour varieties of this species that it is most perplexing to know how best to describe and group them, Russell + figured no less than 7 examples, all of which he named differently and evidently considered distinct. Similarly, Daudin described as 5 different snakes, specimens which at the present day are merely considered varieties of a single species. Boulenger { recognises % varieties, but includes all those from our Indian Region under one heading, At the time he wrote (1893) the British Museum collection contained only 17 specimens of this snake, and it is not surprising: therefore that our most notable varieties escape mention, I have seen and examined, at the lowest computation, fully 200 of this species, and from many and distant parts of the Empire, and propose the following grouping of our numerous varieties :— (a) Unicolor.—Without dorsal marks, Blanford § mentions such a specimen from Ajmere which he described as uniform olive-grey. * Jourl., Asiat, Soc., Bengal, Vol. XL,, page 431, + Indian Serpents. t Cat., Snakes, Brit, Mus., Vol. I, page 28). § Jourl., Asiat. Soc,, Bengal, Vol. XLVIII, p. 126. Journ.Bombay Nat.Hist.Soc. J. G. del TRE GHECKERED-WATER SNAKE (Harmless): Tropidonotus piscator. eo). Green,Chromo A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 861 I would place Boie’s Melanozostus* here which he describes as “ olivaceo pallide fuscus,’’? making no allusion to dorsal marks or spots. This cognomen has reference to the black ventral bands, which may or may not be present in this type. I have seen many uniformly coloured, and think such specimens are to be found everywhere. (6) Lateralis—— Without marks in mid-dorsum, but variously mottled, marbled, or spotted in the flanks. Fig. 2 of our plate shows such a specimen. Blanford f alludes to two males he obtained in the Central Provinces, which he describes as ‘‘ olive without any dark mark, but with a row of well-marked buff spots down the sides.’ It is in my experience a common variety which, I believe, is to be found everywhere. (c) Punctatus—With small black or blackish spots, Russell t figures one such specimen, but I have usually seen them with the spots arranged quincuncially, and not irregularly scattered as in his specimen. Giinther’s § variety ° would, I think, come into this category. It is common everywhere, (d) Quéncunciatus (Schlegel).— With large black spots, often as large as the interspaces, or even larger, but arranged quincuncially so as to form a regular chess-board pattern. Fig. 1 in our plate shows a good example. Nicholson’s { variety ‘‘* ”’ and his figure on Plate XIV refer to this type. It is one of the commonest varieties and to be found, I think, everywhere. (e) Anastomosatus (Daudin).—Marked with a network pattern. Daudin |] thus describes it: ‘‘ Supra cinereo flavescens, maculis parvis rotundis ingris lineis obliquis junctis, et reticulatus.” With this I would unite the ‘‘ braminus ” of the same author, the only difference being that in the latter the spots are contained within the meshes of the reticulation, whereas in the former the spots are at the junction of the lines, and leave empty spaces. Russell ** shows both these types in his large volume. Giinther ++ describes it under his variety ° as * Isis, p. 206. + Jourl., Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Vol, XXXIX, p. 871. { Indisn Serpents, Plate X Va, Vol. II. § Rept. of Brit. Ind., p. 261, {| Indian Snakes, p. 90. || Nat. Hist. Rept., VIL, p. 140. ** Loc, cit., Plates XX and XXXIII, Vol. I, tt Loc. cit., p.261, 862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XV11, follows :—‘ The spots are, as it were, dissolved into a network of black lines with intermixed white dots.” (f) Obscurus.—Obscurely spotted, dappled, or chequered with sombre hues. Blanford * thus describes a specimen I refer to this type : ** Almost uniform brown, having the dark spots nearly quite obsolete.’ I feel disposed, too, to place Giinther’s + fluvipunctata here. It is a common form. (9) Mortuarius (Daudin).—Quincuncially marked with sagittate black and cinereous grey marks, I am not sure that I have seen this type, but Russell { figures a good illustration, (h) Umbratus (Daudin).-—Heavily blotched with black without quincuncial arrangement. Daudin thus describes it :—‘* Colare atro maculis dorsalibus obsolete flavescentibus.” With this ] would include the same author’s dora. I see no difference between them. Russell § gives three good examples of the type. Blanford @ alludes to a female he captured in the Central Provinces which wasevidently of this variety. I think Ginther’s || variety 7 from Ceylon should be included here, as it only differs in the tendency to form transverse bands. The type isa common one. (¢) Ornata.—Specked, spotted, or blotched with pink, orange, or vermilion, A good example is shown in Fig. 3 of our plate. Giinther** mentions it as his variety *. Nicholson ff alludes to it as his variety 6. Anderson {{ mentions it from Yunnan. Stoliczka §§ refers to it too, as does also Theobald 414, Giinther says it occurs in almost every part of India, but I think I have only met with it on the Malabar Coast and in Burma, and Theobald remarks that the bright colouring, he thinks, is more developed in Burmese specimens than in these from Bengal. I obtained a modified example in Cannanore which demands special remark as the adornment was not in spots. ‘The specimen was uniform * Jourl., Asiat, Soc,, Bengal, Vol. XXXIX, p. 191. t Loe. cit., p, 270. } Loe, cit., Plate XXVIII, Vo!. I. § Loe. cit., Plates II], V and XIV, Vol. II. 4] Jourl., Asiat, Soc,, Bengal, Vol. XX XIX, p. 371 || Loc. cit , p. 260. a ares tety sap PAR tt Indian Snakes, p, 90, t{ Ann, Zool, Yunnan, p. 821. §§ Jourl., Asiat. Soc,, Bengal, Vol. XL, p, 481. {4 Cat., Rept., Brit. Burma, 1868, p, 47. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 863 olive-green in the median dorsal region, but the flanks were ornamented with a deep continuous band of brilliant sunset crimson. These lively hues fade so rapidly in spirit that it does not surprise me that Boulenger makes no special reference to them. Gj) Tytleri—Distinguished by longitudinal white, black-edged lines anteriorly, Both Blyth * and Theobald + allude to it, the latter under the title Séréolatus. It appears to be peculiar to the Andamans. Distribution. (a) Geographical.—I am not aware of any locality in our Indian Dominions below, say, 3,000 feet, except Sind, where it does not exist plentifully, and in most parts it must be conceded the distine- tion of being the commonest of all species. To the East it extends throughout the whole Malayan region, continental and insular, to Southern China, and Formosa. To the West its range appears to cease before Sind, since Murray does not mention it in his Vertebrate Zoology of that region, Local,—It frequents the neighbourhood of water, and abounds in rivers, jheels, marshes and pools. During the hot weather, or in localities where the nature of the soil is arid and open, it is little in evidence, but clings to its favoured element. As soon as the rains burst, it becomes disseminated broadcast, and may be found wherever the vegetation offers convenient hiding at some distance from water, and it occasionally strays into the bungalow. Breeding.— The Sewes.—Females average a greater length, and have shorter tails than males. The shortest female to demonstrate her fertility, of which my notes bear record, was 2 feet 7% inches, and was obtained in Cannanore. This length, I think, establishes the sexual maturity of this species at 4 years of age. This agrees with the age I have estimated in some other Indian snakes, but the observations of Lenz on snakes in Hurope led him to suppose they were sexually matured at 3 years of age. As this is an interesting point, I furnish my reasons for this statement. Taking the month of July, which I select because my notes in this month furnish me with the largest material upon which to make deduc- tions, it will be seen from the annexed table that the lengths of many specimens which are closely approximate, leave gaps which seem clearly to demarcate the broods of successive years. * Jourl., Asiat. Soc., Bengal, 1863, p. 88. + Cat., Rept. Asiat, Soc. Mus., 1868, p. 55, 864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII, Table showing length of specimens collected in July. (See Addenda.) Number, Length. Locality. Year. 6 83” to 103” Fyzabad 1905, 2 1'-3"” to 1/-4}" Burma 1899. 3 1/-32" to 1/-5" | Cannanore | 1904, 2 1/-83” to 1103” Burma 1899, 1 1/-9! | Fyzabad | 1905, 1 og" hi Burma 1899. 1 2!-5a! | Cannanore 1904, 1 2! 3a! Fyzabad 1905, 4 2'.74" to 2'-93" Burma 1899. | The rate of growth will thus be seen to be about 4 to 6 inches a year. Season.—The sexes seek one another’s society for mating purposes during the cool season, Father Dreckman wrote to me of a pair he found “in copula’ in the month of October at Khandalla, and my own female was captured under similar circumstances on the 3rd of January in Rangoon. The period of gestation in this specimen proved to be 55 days, the eggs being deposited at intervals between the 9th and 23rd of March; 14 of the 24 eggs, however, were voided between 9 and 11 a.m, on the 55th day (March 9). The protracted period of deposition I attribute to the enfesbled health of the parent consequent upon her saptivity. Another specimen I captured at Cannanore close upon term discharged all her 57 eggs within a few hours, On both occasions the eggs were extruded into water, and sunk in that element. The females were both found coiled above them, and Nicholson* mentions having noticed the same behaviour, but repudiates any idea that this was an attempt to incubate them, for the parent continued to remain so after the ova had shrivelled. I am of opinion that the mother probably incubates her eggs in a state of nature. Begbiet found 24 eggs of this snake in a big grass nest at the end of an adit bored in a canal bank, but I think the nest was prob- * “Indian Snakes,” p, 128. + Bombay Nat. Hist. Jourl., Vol. XVI, p. 516. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 865 ably a water rat’s which the reptile chanced upon, and appropriated to her own use. Notes of this character are of the utmost interest and importance. Information on the habits of snakes is extremely hard to elucidate. Figgs.—Those I obtained in Cannanore were all much alike in size, shape, and tension, but those I acquired in Rangoon varied consider- ably. Some were tense, others flaccid, and they varied much in size, as may be inferred from their weights, which ranged from 1 drachm 28 grains to 2 drachms 37 grains. These variations were probably the result of impoverished health. Normally they are soft and white without gloss. When voided they are evidently surrounded with a glutinous pellicle, for they adhere firmly at any points where chance has placed them in apposition. The poles are isomorphous, the shape elliptical, and tension much like that of a ripe grape. In length they vary from 13, to 131 inches, and in breadth from 3% to 1 inch. Period of incubation—How long these eggs take to hatch I have been unable to ascertain, as all attempts to incubate them have proved futile. Deposttion.—They are laid in the months of January, February and March usually, but Major Evans tells me he has killed some examples ege-bound as late as April in Burma, (See Addenda.) Young.—When hatched, the young measure about 73 to 8 inches, or about one-sixth the length of a large adult. This is one of the most prolific snakes I know, and ranks with the pythons and the Russell’s viper in this respect. Blanford describes a pair which he dislodged from beneath a large stone ina stream. They had evidently made their home there, and he remarks that they showed a disinclination to quit the spot. It is re- markable that though they were evidently cohabiting, the female was =I in an advanced state of egg-bearing, and this is on a par with the case of the two rat snakes alluded to in my last paper. This with other cases of a similar kind Jeads me to think that snakes possess a mutual love and attachment in no way inferior to that exhibited by many warm-blooded animals which preserye their conjugal relationship long past the term of sexual gratification. A history of the events known to me relative to the breeding of this snake is herewith appended in tabular form. 9 « 866 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII, T'able of Breeding Events. (See Addenda.) | Stage of Development. | No. Date, | Locality. | Authority. Sexes “in copula”...| ... | October ...| Khandalla (West- | Dreckman.” | ern Ghats). 5 2 Ico 3-1-00 ... | Rangoon vee | OLE, Impregnated follicles, | .., | 14-11-03... | Cannanore a ae Dis Do, Sy celal BSI Ie OS saan Do, sa.) Dos Do, acetates 24-11-03... | Do, a, Doz Ova “in abdomina”... | 85 ? Central Provinces. Blanford. + Do. eye a0} 4-1-04 ... | Cannanore | Self, Do. ... | 61 |S 29-1-00 ... | Rangoon ... | Evans and self, Do. eee 1-2-00 ... | Do. en) | Do. Do. --» | 36 | 1 to 16-3-00 | Mandalay nel Do. Do, .. | 47 | ~20-2-06 ... | Fyzabad ... | Self. Ova deposited --- | 20 2. ee, | Ceylon . | Lennent, + Do, ... | 24 | 9 to 23-3-00 | Rangoon See DOLE. Do. son | DE 14-1-04 ... | Cannanore 500 | Do. Young hatching... | 24 14-5-05 ... Cawnpore ... | Begbie. § Hatchling killed ...| ... | 23-3-04 ... | Cannanore | Self, Do. — ?-6-99 ... | Rangoon ... | Evans and self, Tdentification.—The foregoing remarks on colour should convince one that this will not aid the identification of this snake, especially too when it is a fact that several of the other species of the genus are singularly like some of the many colour varieties of this species. There is no single scale characteristic peculiar to this snake upon which to rely in determining its identity, so that a combination of features must be looked for to indicate the species. First of all the rows of scales at midbody must number 19; next 2 supralabial shields must touch the eye; the anal shield must be divided, and there must be a pair of internasal shields. Should these 4 points co-exist, its identity may be considered established. Disposition. —With the exception of the /chzs, I think it is the most vicious snake I know. It is ever ready to bite, and strikes with great determination and rapidity, fastening itself with such tenacity that I have known it necessary to prize apart the jaws to disengage its hold. Even hatchlings exhibit this ill-temper, and I remember well on one occasion being bitten several times before I effected the capture of an 8-inch baby. (See Addenda.) * In epistola, + Jourl., Asiat. Soc,, Bengal, Vol. XX XIX, p, 371. J ‘* Ceylon,” p. 197. § Jourl., Bombay Nat. Hist, Soc., Vol. XVI, p, 516. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 867 Sometimes, but by no means always, this snake, when irritated, erects itself, and while dilating its body, very markedly flattens its forepart in cobra fashion. It is strong and active, and its movements brisk and rapid on land and in water. This is one of the snakes that I have seen actually jump clean off the ground. Apropos of this remarkable feat, I interrogated a Bangalore sampwallah with a view to ascertaining the identity of a snake made mention of in a Canarese Dictionary as “ Haramandalatha havu’” or jumping snake, which I thought might prove to be the hamadryad. To my surprise and satisfaction, however, the next day he reproduced a ‘“ piscator” which he assured me was the jumping snake, and he was most assiduous in provoking the snake to exhibit its saltatory powers for my benefit, but though I have seen this snake jump and actually clear the ground, I cannot say that I did so on this occasion. However, it erected itself in an amazing manner, and, literally, threw itself forward in a manner that could only be described as a series of jumps. Food.—l\ts main diet is batrachian, usually frogs being ingested, doubtless because they are so plentiful and so easy of capture. Fish, however, are frequently taken. (See Addenda.) I have found as many as 8 or 9 tadpoles in the stomach of a young specimen. They seem to feed voraciously, and in Cannanore on several occasions one was brought to me wriggling at the end of a fish hook which had been baited with afrog by native urchins. I have never seen one attempt to constrict its victim, nor does it wait till they are dead ; but if advantageously seized, it commences to swallow at once, so that the frog, when this happens to be the unfortunate, continues to squeal piteously for some time after engulfment.”’ Description —Rostral.—Touches 6 shields, making 6 sutures, of which those formed by the anterior nasals are twice or nearly twice the length of those made by the internasals, Jnternasals. (See Addenda.)— A pair. The suture between them equal to or nearly equal to that between the prefrontal fellows ; subequal to the internaso-pre- frontal suture. Prefrontals. (See Addenda.)—A pair. The suture between them rather larger than the prefronto-frontal. In contact with internasals, pustnasal, loreal, preocular, supraocular, and frontal. Frontal-—Touches 6 shields, of which the supraoculars make sutures fully twice those formed with the parietals ; breadth subequal to the supraoculars; length rather more than supra- 868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII, ocular. Nasals two, the slitlike nostril meets the dividing suture at an angle to form a, and is thus contained wholly in the anterior shield. In contact with the 1st and 2nd supralabials. Loreal one, as high as broad. Preoculars one. Postoculars 3 normally (rarely 2 to 5), Temporals—Two anterior, the inferior touching the 7th and 8th supra- labials. Supralabials 9. The 4th and 5th touching the eye. Anterior sublinguals smaller than the posterior, Infralabzals 7. 5 touch the anterior sublinguals; the 5th, 6th and 7th touch the posterior. The 6th is the largest; the 7th pentagonal, and in contact with 3 scales behind; the suture between the Ist is one-third to one-fourth that between the anterior sublinguals. Scales—2 heads lengths from head 19, midbody 19, 2 heads lengths before vent 17. The step where the 19 becomes 17 occurs behind the midpoint of the body, and the 4th row from the ventrals disappears, being absorbed into the row above or below. Keels are present on all scales but the lowest 2 to 5 rows anteriorly, and 1 to 2 rows posteriorly, and end after the supracaudals have become four. They are present in all the supracaudals at the hase of the tail, Apical facets present in pairs. The last row is the largest, and the vertebral row is not enlarged. Ventrals—Rounded 125 to 150 (Boulenger). Anal divided. Subcaudals 70 to 90 (Boulenger), paired. Dentition.—In a specimen recently acquired this is as fullows ;— Right side—Maxillary 22. Palato-pterygoid 12 + 26. Mandibular 25. Left side.—Maxillary 23. Palato-pterygoid 13 + 27. Mandibular 24, These numbers include, of course, the gaps in the various arrays, which are seldom perfect at any onetime. This is the only correct way of numbering the teeth, for as one drops out, its place is soon re-occupied by another from the reserve tracts. These are very interesting. One runs along the base of each row, and contains a very large number of teeth of various sizes lying loosely attached in the mucous membrane, the largest closest to the teeth they are destined to replace. The maxillary and mandibular tracts lie along the inside of their dental series, but the palato-pterygoid along the outer aspect. The teeth are all vertically compressed and convex on two faces, which meet to form ridges, so that in section they are exactly like a deep lens. The ridges lie laterally in all the teeth excepting those situated at the back of the maxillary and mandibular arrays where the teeth are turned A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 869 on their own axes so that the ridges lie anteriorly and posteriorly. The teeth in the maxillary series are directed backwards, and present « slight inclination inwards. The palato-pterygoid are directed straight backwards, and the mandibular at first directed backwards, gradually acquire a strong inclination inwards. Further, the maxillary array is isodont in its greater length (2.¢., has teeth of equal size). A few ot the most anterior are, however, progressively smaller, and the two last occurring after an interval are very much enlarged. These enlarged teeth have been already figured in the second of these papers (Vol. XVII, facing page 2), and are in this species intermediate between those shown in figs. 1 and 2 of that paper. The palato-pterygoid series are isodont, as are also the mandibular, excepting a very few in the extreme forefront, which are shorter. (To be continued.) ADDENDA, Since writing the above I have the following remarks to add :— > in Ceylon (Spol. (1) Willey says it is called “ Diya polonga’ Zeylan. April 1906, p. 233). (2) My notes in Fyzabad last year are wonderfully similar for this month. Of specimens actually measured, 1 had 16 varying from 94 to 124 inches, 2 measured respectively J!-3" and 1'-58", 2 others were 1'-93" and 2!-02", and 1 was 2'-44", (3) Iam able to confirm this so far as Assam is concerned, for I have had 6 females heavily eggbound this month (April) containing re- spectively in abdomina 39, 44, 51, 53, 21 and 34 eggs of dimensions showing that they would very shortly have been discharged. (4) In the administration report of the Government Museum, Madras, for 1896-7 I notice a female laid 36 eggs in captivity on the 26th of February 1897. (5) Apropos this remark I quote from last year’s experiences in my note-book 19th July 1906—‘ I have had two hatchlings to-day, and both moved very rapidly, did their utmost to escape me, struck out viciously and repeatedly at a stick, and both literally jumped so as to clear the ground without doubt more than once.” Again 20th July 1906— “Another hatchling to-day jumped, and was most ferocious, I got badly bitten in my endeavours to grasp it. Its incessant contortions, 870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII, great activity, and the antics it indulged in to avoid capture, including jumping, made it a most difficult snake to manage.” (6) I notice Annandale (in Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 1, No. 10, p. 195) says: ‘Their food consists wholly or chiefly of fish, and they do not, asa rule, molest the large tank frogs (Rana tigrina) which may sometimes be seen sitting side by side with them on stones in the water.’ This statement has caused me to refer tomy notes again. I find 5 specimens last year in Fyzabad had fed : two of these contained a single frog each, another a single toad, another two frogs (Rana tigrina), and another one frog and three toads, so that these records support my former observations. (7) Mr. E. E. Green writes to me that he recently obtained a specimen with the internasals confluent into one shield. (8) Ihave once seen four prefrontals in a single row across tho snout. JOURNAL BOMBAY Natural History Society. Vol. XVIII. BOMBAY. No. 1, A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLUSTRATEP BY CoLouRED PLares AND DiaGRams. ay Mazon I. War, 1.M.S., “©:M.Z.8,. Part V. with Plate V. ( Continued from page 870 of Vol. XVIT.) Toe Russgry’s Viper (Vipera russellii). * Nomenclature.— Scientific.—The generic name is from the latin vivus alive, and parte I bring forth. It was first used scientifically by Laurentiin his work published in 1768. Dabvia, another generic name for along time in use, and perhaps more familiar to many of an older generation, was introduced by Count De La Cépéde in his work published in 1789.* The name ‘“ Le Daboie’’ was applied by him to a West African viper of uncertain identity marked somewhat similarly to Rus- sell’s viper, in that it had 3 series of large oval spots. ‘‘ Daboie’’ was, I believe, the local vernacular name for thissnake. Later, Gray in 1842 applied the same term, only latinised, to Russell’s viper, which, it may be remarked, does not occur in Africa. Spectfic—This title commemorates the. name and fame of Dr. Patrick Russell, a distinguished savant, and the pioneer of all snake Plee2oae 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII). research work in India, both in its zoological and toxicological aspects. He was born in Edinburgh in 1726, and came out to India in 1781, Four years later the Honourable the East India Company appointed him their naturalist. He is responsible for a monumental work on the Indian snakes with excellent coloured plates, in two volumes published in 1796 and 1801. The association of his name with this common snake, renowned as much for the beauty of its colour and ornamentation as for the deadly character of its bite, is a fitting tribute to his classical work.* English. -The usual name among the Anglo-Indians is Russell’s viper, but Daboia is almost as frequently in use. It is also occasionally called the Chain viper. Vernacular.—It would be a matter of surprise if so well known, and justly dreaded, a creature had not been christened in almost every vernacular. That mysterious creature the ‘“‘Cobra monil”’ of the natives, whose indentity, if ever appreciated by them, has become obscured by the lapse of time, is probably this snake as suggested by Jerdon.t The name probably originated with the Portuguese, “monil’’ or ‘rer uulla” in their tongue signifying a necklace, and “ cobra” or “ copra’’ a snake. In Ceylon it is universally known as ‘‘ Tic polonga,’’ which means, [am informed, “spotted snake.” In Southern India it is known as “ Mandalli ”? and * Kanardi virian.’”? The former, Nicholson says, im- plies a ringed or decorated pattern. The latter, which I have heard used chiefly about Madras, is from “ Kanardi,” glass, and the allusion, I think, is to the spots which suggest to the fanciful native mind the appearance of the small mirrors used by them in their tawdry de- corations, and frequently seen attached to cloths used as curtains, ete. On the Malabar Coast (Cannanore) ‘‘ Mandali’” and ‘* Rutheram mandalli”’ are in use, the former being also applied to the sand snake (Ery«e conicus), and the latter used to discriminate between these b species. ** Rutheram ’? meaning ‘ bloody’? emphasises one of the most obvious effects of its bite, viz., bloody discharges, * Tt ma» be of inter: st to note here that an elder brother of his, Alexander, has also left his name in this country to be hanced down to posterity, The beautiful little garden shrnb, Russellia juncea, with its curions foliage like casuarira and its vermilion flowers, which scarcely any I:.dian garden is without, is named in his honour, + Journal, Asiatic ~cciety, Bengal, Vol. XXII, p, 524. A POPULAR TREATISE ON.INDIAN SNAKES. 3 In Mysore a Canarese Dictionary I referred to gives ‘‘ Mandalatha havu’? as the local name. ‘‘Hayu” means snake. Rice in his work on Mysore * gives the Canarese name for it as ‘‘ Kolaku Mandala.” On the Coromandel Coast about Vizagapatam Russell gives its local name as ‘* Katuka rekula poda,” which I am told is Telugu, an: refers to blackish spots. About Bombay and in the Konkan it is known as the “ Ghanas,’’ In Guzerat Mosse says it is called ‘‘ Chitar,” and Fenton in the Dantra District ‘‘ Khad chitra.” ‘ Khad, ” according to the latter, signifies “ grass’ and ‘“‘Chitar”? or ** Chitra’? recalls to mind other native names for spotted creatures.t In Sind [ am told it is called “ Koraile.” In Bengal it is known as “‘ Bora,” ‘‘ Chandra bora,” “ Uloo bora,’ “ Jessur,” and “ Siah chandra amaiter ”’ according to Fayrer. “ Bora” probably implies spotted. ‘* Chandra” =moon, and refers as usual to the spots. ‘‘Uloo” is the name for ‘ grass.’ The Burmese call it ‘‘Mwé bwé,’”’ meaning ringworm snake, its marks suggesting a skin disease. Dimensions.—The largest specimen | have measured was a stuffed one in Trichinopoly 5 feet 3 inches in length. Lieut.-Colonel Fenton recorded one in this Journal] 5 feet 45 inches long, and Mr. Brook Fox§ two measuring 5 feet 6 inches each. This is the largest record known to me. Specimens exceeding 5 feet are exceptional. Bodily configuration.—The girth is remarkable. I think _ this viper is of stouter build than any other Indian snake, and its capability of inflating itself under excitement, premonitory to its violent. hiss, accentuates this peculiarity. The head is flat, and broadens considerably posteriorly so as to make a moderate neck appear unduly small. A pronounced ridge (canthus rostralis) runs from the supercilium to the top of the snout. The eye is moderate in size, the iris golden, and the pupil vertical, The nostril * Vol. I., p. 188. + Blanford in his Fauna of British India, Mammalia, gives “Chita” and “ Chitra” as local native names for the hunting Leopard (Cynalurus jubatus), Again he mentions native synonyms as “ Chital ” and * Chitra” for the spotted deer (Cervus axis), “Chita” is also applied to the Leopard (Helis pardus), t I notice the spotted deer, according to Blanford, is called in Bengal * Boro khotiya”. q Vol. XVI, page 173. § Vol, VIII, page 565. 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII, is remarkably large and open, larger than in any other Indian snake. The tail is relatively short, and unusually apparent, owing to the rapid decrease in girth which occurs about the region of the vent. The whole snake is remarkably rough, owing to the pronounced ridges (keels) on its seales. Colour.—The ground colour is brown of varying shades, most speci- mens being a sandy, or cocvatina tint. The markings vary much in detail and intensity as well as in hue. Sometimes they are so obscure as to attract little attention, and this is especially so just before desqua- mation. The sloughing process over however, the same snake may reveal a definition of adornment, and brilliancy of colour, which may renovate it as completely as a mess uniform transforms an officer when exchanged for his khaki. The head has a more or less distinct dark patch on each side behind, a dark streak sometimes picked out with white, pink, or buff, behind the eye, aud a dark stripe from the eye to the lip. A conspicuous light line, sometimes white, buff, or pink, runs from above the gape, through the temporal region to the supercilium on to the ridge just referred to on the snout. These lines converge, and sometimes meet on the snout to forma V. The lips are white, whitish, or pink variegated with spots, specks, or streaks. The dorsal adornment consists of a triple series of large ovate spots, forming a vertebral, and two costal necklaces or chains, hence the term ‘Chain viper.” Davy remarks*: ‘“ In some specimens the marks are oval, and in some more pointed, and rather trapezoidal ; in others surrounded by a white margin; in a fourth lightest in the middle.”’ It is not infrequent to see some of these spots more or less confluent, in fact, it is rarely one sees a perfect rosary. The costal spots are frequently interrupted at their lower margins, and sometimes taper, reminding one of a balloon.t Each spot may be of uniform colour throughout, but more often exhibits a light central zone, similar ta the ground colour, which merges into a deep Lincoln-green, purple, or black, around which again may be seen a narrow zone of buff or pure white, the latter *¢ An Account of the Interior of Ceylon,” p. 85. + Since writing this | have seen a specimen sent to this Society by Mr. Kinloch from Kotaciri (5,700 ft.) in the Nilghiris in which the three series of spots are completely confluent into bands, The sinuous outlines of these bands indicate the number of spots, which how- ever are broadly blended, in the entire length of the snake. It is the only one I have seen so marked. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 5 especially enhancing the beauty of the specimen, as may be judged from our plate. Mr. Millard tells me that about Bombay adult specimens do not have this white definition to the spots, and he is in- clined to regard it as a distinct variety. I have satistied myself that specimens are to be met with in most parts, including Bombay, with and without this white adornment. To begin with, I found in some hatchlings of the same brood born in this Society’s Museum, and preserved in spirit, some individuals with and some without the white delincament. Davy, already quoted, remarks that white margins, lo the spots may or may not be evident in Ceylov specimens. In a mother | referred to in a note in this Journal* from Saugor, the spots had no light margins, though the single embryo had spots picked out with pale buff. Again, a specimen figured by Russellt obtained from Bombay has no suspicion of a light outline to the spots. The belly is white, whitish, or yellowish, with darkish semilunes distributed sparsely, and disposed at the margins of the ventrals, espe- ei ly in the fore body. Ident: fica ion.— Consideration must be given to the following points, all of which must coexist: :— (1) Head covered above with small scales throughout, similar to those on the back. (2) No aperture between the eye and the nostril. (8) Subcaudals divided. (4). No ridges on the ventrals. (5) 3 series of large dorsal spots. It may seem unnecessary to many to insist on this method of identi- fisation, Many I know who consider themselves knowledgeable on snake matters, would take it as a reproach to their intelligence to suppose they cannot rely on colour and marks alone; however | have known mis- takes occur, and very positive opinions expressed erroneously with regard to this species. More than one officer in China was very positive that they had captured Russell’s viper in their camp at Shanghai, pub- lishing letters with some heat in the local paper when their opinions were repudiated. The specimen which I subsequently examined proved to ba the common Chinese Viper (Ancéstrodon blomho ft). I have seen a young pvthon (mo/vrus) identified as a daboia, and failed to convince WO 2OVi5 19, Bee f in’. Serp,, Vol. Il, pate XXX1i. 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XV111, another positive gentleman of his mistake. The sandsnake Eryx conicus I have several times known taken for this viper, and, incredible as it may seem, the Burmese tree snake Dipsadomorphus multi- maculatus. This latter is a very slender little snake which has two series of ocelli, or ovate spots costally, these latter misleading its captor. Many specimens of Zamenis diadema are marked somewhat like the Daboia. Habits, haunts.—It may be met with almost anywhere except, I believe, in dense jungle, but it prefers open country into which the sun can penetrate and shed its agreeable warmth. Here it lies by day amongst the vegetation, in lazy apathy, apparently oblivious to its surroundings, but never, however, relaxing a vigil, which has for its reward the capture of the incautious animal that chances to stray within reach. In the evening it bestirs itself, and roams abroad whilst darkness prevails. Its movements are slow, and consistent with its corpulent habit. When disturbed it prefers usually to maintain its ground, and frequently will contest the right of way with heaving sides, and angry hiss. When it does retire, it does so in a leisurely manner befitting its dignity and figure. Fayrer* remarks on the authority of his snakeman that it will take to water, and Haly+ mentions one swimming in the middle of a back- water. These are exceptional instances. Tennent says that it will climb trees, and I can confirm this as a rare event, having known one in a low hedge. Its ungainly proportions, however, do not favour scansorial achievements. It is no uncommon event to find it in close proximity to and even in habitations, and its partiality to a murine diet sufficiently explains such intrusions. I remember one -captured in Rangoon beneath the steps of the Cantonment Magistrate’s Court during the day, with crowds of natives all about. Bassett-Smith § mentions it as frequently coming into the precincts, and into the Naval Hospital at Trincomalee, and Tennent ™ says the Judge’s house at this same station became so infested with this species, that the family had to quit. Disposition—No observer can speak with greater authority than * Loc. cit., p. 15. * + First report on the collection of snakes in the Colombo Museum, 1886, p, 18. t Loc. cit., p. 306. § Jour,, Bom, Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XI, v, 546. { Loc. cit., p. 296. Journ. Bombay Nat.Hist.Soc. iF late Vv. P. Girhardt del. dJ.Green Chromo lith. Lie PABOlA]GuALN-VIPER soCR©LONGA, ORGRUSSELL’S VIPERS Vipera russelli. (poisonous). A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 7 Fayrer, and he says of the Daboia: ‘‘ In confinement it is sluggish, and does not readily strike unless roused, and irritated, when it bites with great force, and determination, When disturbed it hisses fiercely, and when it strikes does so with much vigour.” This is entirely my own experience. It is a creature slow to wrath, contenting itself under moderate provocation, with a loud sustained and warning hiss, reminding one of a leaking foot-ball bladder. It will not strike till considerably irritated, when it hurls itself at the offending object with determined malice. I have known one spring with such a powerful muscular effort that I believe it actually left the ground in its endea- vour to strike me. The hiss once heard is not easily forgotten ; no other snake emits such a volume of sound, to the production of which two factors contribute. Firstly the size of the lung which is developed to a degree commensu- rate with the remarkable body girth, and secondly the large size of the nostril, for it is through this aperture that the sound is produced. In Bangalore I experimented with a large adult belonging to a snakecatcher. Among his stock in trade he carried the familiar gourd pipe used by this fraternity. This was sealed up in places with cobbler’s wax which I removed, rendered pliable by heat, and packed into the Daboia’s nostrils. This done the snake was unhanded, and irritated. It was then noticed that the lung expanded with difficulty, and very imperfectly, and hissing was no long feasible. A good example of its disinclination to bite is related by Blanford* ; a friend of his once carrying one home under the belief that it was a python until undeceived by its biting, and killing one of his dogs. It made no attempt to bite or injure him, though apparently he did not take any precautions in his manner of handling it. Again Fayrer f says he always during his experiments had the greatest difficulty to get this snake to bite voluntarily. I can fully confirm this; frequently rats put in as food into its cage remain there alive and unmolested for days. In making these remarks, however, I think one must expect many exceptions to this attitude of indifference. Young specimens especially seem more on the alert, more easily alarmed, and are correspondingly more easily provoked to bite than many adults. The bite is sometimes inflicted by a snap, the creature relaxing its hold * Jourl., Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Vol. XX XIX, p. 874. t+ Thanatoph, Ind., p. 64. 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII. at once. On the other hand it is not unusual for Russell’s viper to bite, and maintain a tenacious grasp for many seconds In the case of a gunner who succumbed to the bite of this snake at Thayetmyo (Burma) in 1862, Nicholson* mentions that it was with difficulty shaken off. Elliott mentions a dog bitten by one. dragging the snake many yards before disengaging it, and one might quote many more similar experiences, Poison apparatus.— The fangs——These attain their maximum deve- lopment in this the largest of the Indian vipers. There may bea single one in each maxilla, or two fixed side by side. In a depression at its b..a, and on the outer side, as many as 5 or 6 reserve fangs may be seen lying loosely in the mucous membrane, progressively diminishing in size from within outwards. When one of the fixed fangs is shed, the reserve fang best developed, and lying nearest to it, becomes cemented in a few days into the jaw. The fang is tubular, being formed by the folding over of two lateral expansions of the tooth, which blend on its anterior face, in the major part of its length. A groove which is feebly discernible, but always present, marks the line of junction of these two expansions. At its base the expansions fail to meet, and the imperfect blending is marked by aa aperture. The canal terminates near the point of the tooth in a mir.ute opening. The fangs in vipers are very mobile or to speak more correctly, the maxille are, for the fangs are fixed \ into these bones. Russell’s viper, like } other vipers, when it yawns, fre- A \ quently rocks its maxillee forwards A. B. ¢. and backwards. A, Inner aspect of fang (life size’ the lower orifice of the canxl is inelin- ed slightly inwa ds, the cobra’s are small, and present a B Anterior aspect (life size) showing seam where the two elges have been welded, smooth retort-shaped glands of the GC. Tip enlarged) show ine lower orifice”. "cobras (p Eloneebtmed + ll drops ani point, closely resembling tip of hypodermic needle. from the 2 glands of an adult. Wallf eee * Ind. Snakes, p. 146. } Trans Brit. Med. Association, S. Ind. br. 189, p. 7 $ Loc. cit.. p. 33. 4 Indian Snake Poisons, p. 118. Glands.—These sacs compared with corrugated appearance unlike the re A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES. 9 (A. J.) mentions a supplementary gland in this viper, globular in form, which completely surrounds, and empties itself into the ducts draining the major sac. Poison.— Physical qualitzes.— Lamb* tells us that this venom is clear, with a small quantity of undissolved material in suspension. Its reaction is acid. The taste resembles gum acacia. In drying it cracks into longitudinal fissures yielding needie-shaped fragments. The dried product retains its toxic properties indefinitely, and is reacily soluble in water. Efects internally.—When swallowed, daboia venom has no more de- leterious effect on the system than cobra poison, but of courge one must postulate a healthy and unbroken surface in the mouth, and further passages. Hlliott gave 11 drops to a goat, and a lurger quantity to a dog without noticing any ili effects. To.wicity.— As every one in this country is doubtless fully aware, Russell's viper ranks among our deadliest snakes. The action of its poison is so different from that of cobra venom, that one can hardly compare their relative degrees of virulence. The poison appears to be as fatal in the doses usually injected during a bite, but death, except experimentally, is not so rapidly produced in large animals including man. Russell saw a fowl die in 36 seconds, Fayrer a fowl in 34 seconds, and Millard a rat die in 35 seconds. J.amb, however, has shown that these cases of precipitate death are attributable to relatively very large doses, and that in the case of large animals the dose necessary to pro- duce such rapid death is larger than a Russell’s viper could inject at one bite. A dog mentioned by Davy died 58 minutes after a bite in the leg. The dog Elliot saw succumb to a bite, died in less than 38 hours. Another dog which Traill saw bitten in four places died in 8 hours. The gunner referred to by Nicholson succumbed in 27 hours. In a case cited by Fayrer, an adult man died in 7 hours. As in the case of other poisonous snakes it does not, however, in the least follow, that a serious bite will cause death if left untreated. There is abundant evidence to show that a percentage of cases, hard to determine, do not die even though the iocal injuries are such as to warrant the gravest apprehension. No more instructive record on * Jour., Bom. Nat. Hist, Soc., Vol. XIV., p. 222, t Loe, cit., p. 33. 2 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIL1, this score is to be found in snake literature than that quoted by Elliot*. He says: “1 myself saw a large powerful daboia (3 feet 8 in. long) ‘strike fairly at a dog, hold it, shake it, and only let go when the dog ‘had fled yelping several yards, drageing the snake along the ground. “ The part bitten was soft, and fleshy, the bite was apparently a fair ‘one, the glands of the snake when dissected, though emptier than “usual, both proved to contain poison. From one gland alone I ‘“‘ obtained more poison than another daboia emitted through a ‘‘ leaf in a vigorous bite. Add to all this that there was a well marked ‘* subcutaneous extravasation round the bite, and the case seems perfect, “oo. . ~~) though it became rather ill, did not die.” ‘‘ Kight “days later the same animal was fairly struck by a vicious daboia “(3 feet 4 in. long), the bite being almost instantaneous in its short- ‘¢ ness, and this time the victim died in less than three hours.” Haly+ mentions a bite from this snake, from which the man suffered no ill effects. In a recent number of this Journal{ Colonel Bannerman expresses the belief that the young daboia is not provided with poison in its earliest days, or at any rate that the poison if secreted is too weak to kill even small creatures. This does not accord with my own observa- tions, which convince me that they enter the world with a sufficiently abundant and active poison to thoroughly equip them in their struggle for existence. In confirmation of my own opinion I find that Dr. Shortt§ had a gravid daboia in captivity. On the production of its brood, a young one, measuring only 84 inches when 6 hours old, killed a young partridge weighing 94 tolas in 10 seconds! The failure of Jolonel Bannerman’s experiments must be attributed to the uncertainty of the effects of the bite already alluded to. Further comments upon the poison of this snake are beyond the scope of this paper. Food.— All my observations go to show that small mammals, and especially rats, constitute the main diet of the daboia. but it is not so bigoted in gastronomic matters as to be disdainful of other fare. Mr. E. 4. Green found one that had eaten a green lizard (Calotes * Loc. cit., pp. 7 and 36. + First report on the Collection of Snakes in the Colombo Museum, 1886, p. 18. f Vol. XVIL, p.811. § Cyclopzedia of India, Vol. V., p. 433. A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 11 ophiomachus) as well as a rat. Major Evans knew one in captivity eat two frogs, and a specimen in captivity in the Madras Museum* ate during its incarceration 5 squirrels besides 27 rats, whilst the young ate 67 mice, 5 squirrels, 4 frogs and 2 small rats. In captivity as a rule they refuse food, and it is surprising how they can keep health and vigour after months of deprivation from food and drink. Davyt had a specimen he kept for 146 days without food, and then allowed to bite a fowl which succumbed in a few seconds. Fayrer§ had one which lived for a whole year without food or water, and it was ‘‘ vigorous and venomous to the last.’? I know of no snake-eating tendencies in adults, but cannibalism seems a common offence among the young. Major Dawson writes to me that on one occasion when young daboias were born in the gardens at Trevandrum, “the young commenced to devour each other,” and on another occasion in the same place “‘one of the young swallowed one of its fellows, and in about a quarter of an hour disgorged it,” and both at the time of writing were alive, and well. Father Dreckmann, too, told me of a simiiar experience among a brood born in captivity ; he says ‘‘ when I inspect- ed the young family one morning, I found one of its members dead, and another one missing, and on examining the dead one I found the missing one inside him,”’ Breeding.—The literature on this snake affords more records of breeding than any other snake, I might almost say than all other Indian snakes taken together. In spite of Colonel Bannerman’s opinions expressed in a recent article in this Journal, and already referred to by me here, I think there can be no question that the daboia is viviparous in habit. as applied to the offspring I am of opinion that the word “ egg ” and their envelope by this observer is misleading. The term “‘ egg ”’ is, it is true, a very indefinite one, which strictly speaking might be applied even to the human infant born in a caul. Its use, however, is restricted, at any rate in the popular mind, to the female cell impreg- nated or otherwise contained within a maternal envelope of chitinous, * Administration Report of Madras Govt. Mus., 1896-7, t Mr. Spence, however, informs me that in his 7 years’ experience in the Bombay Societ: 's rooms this snake has fed better than any other species, t Loc. cit., p. 85. § Loe, cit., p. 15 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII, coriaceous, or cretaceous material. Ata certain stage of embryonic development in viviparous snakes, eggs in the sense just referred to are to be found within the mother, invested with a leathery covering simil.r to that which is characteristic of the eges in oviparous snakes. In viviparous snakes, however, the egg undergoes a metamorphosis never seen in the eges of an ovipara. Ata certain stage the kathery investment disappears, and the embryo as it approaches full term is found to be suspended in 2 limpid oily fluid, contained within a delicate, transparent sac, which L take to be the amnion, a feetal not a maternal structure. At this stage it appears to me to be exactly comparabls to the condition of a» human infant born in caul. Even supposing that a snake discharges tertile ova, it by no means follows that it is to be considered oviparous. Emotional and other causes are known to cperate upon many gravid animals so as to cause in some cases the premature discharge of the fruits of generation. and it is no unrvasonable assumption to suppose that similar causes may operate in the same direction in snakes. That they are susceptible to nervous influences is certain, or how otherwise can ove explain the disagreeable habit so frequently evinced Ly captured snakes even when quite unscathed, of disgorging the contents of their stomaclis, even when the rejectamenta are so far digested as to be unrecog- nisable. Period of gestation.— From one of Colonel Bannerman’s interesting domestic occurrences at Parel, it appears that the period from concep- tion to discharge of the young exceeds six months. Breeding season.—From this last statement it appoars that these vipers are mating in the cold months. This receives confirmation by a note of mine dated Cannanore 28th December 1903: a male specimen was brought me said to have been in copula; the female escaped capture. In cold climates this implies that they mate during the season of hibernation. This, if true, appears most remarkable for at this season a snake’s vitalities are at their lowest ebb and not one would think favorable to the consummation of so important a function. Fecundity.—It is a prolific snake producing sometimes more than 60 young atatims. Some mothers, however, are more modest in their estimate of matrimonial duty. contenting themselves with a family of less than 20. One recorded by me in this Journal contained but one A POPULAR TREATISE ON INDIAN SNAKES, 13 solitary foetus. I am inclined to think from observations on other snakes that the oldest mothers are the most fecund. On two oceasions at Trevandrum Major Dawson tells me that the mother died on the 3rd day after parturition, but this must be con- sidered a coincidence. It is certain that the mother usually survives the advent of her brood, and one may presume lives to produce others. Genital organs.—The ovaries are long, and the follicles loosely strung together. In one mother 4 feet 9 inches in length the ovaries were 6% inches long. The male genitals are peculiar. The clasper on each side is bifid, a character I believe to be found in all vipers. I have also observed the same condition in the sea-snakes, but not in any other colubrines, In a male 3 feet 7 inches in length, the main stem of each clasper was about half an inch long. Hatchlings.—The young at birth vary from about 84 to 11 inches. I very much suspect that the living embryos referred to by Stoliczka as 3 or 4 inches lony* were not actually measured by him but their length guessed at. The young usually rupture the sacs in which they are developed, before birth, that is, whilst still within the maternal abdomen. They then enter the world perfectly free. It is not unusual, however, for some or all of a brood to be burn in cauls which they subsequently rupture. Ina case alluded to by Mr. Phipson the hatchlings did not effect their escape till the day after deposition, a circumstance extremely remarkable, and to me inexplicable. Drowning would appear the inevitable consequence of any delay in such cases. Accord ng to Colonel Bannerman under these conditions the sac is split into 2 halves like a mussel shell. The young frequently cast their skins shortly after birth, often within a few hours. After birth they congre- gate, and lie together in a confused hcap in captivity, but in nature very soon disperse. Their food is probably the same as adults, A young one J caught in Cannanore on a pot plant in a verandah, 10} inches in length, had just swallowed a mouse. I have collected 21 breeding notes from various sources which | append in tabular form. * See accompanying schedule of breeding events. 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII. 1g ‘d ‘omqrioqy uosiog exvug fo sylvmpurry ‘ser vd ‘A ‘OA ‘Bipuy jo vipadojota Total *v[oistdgy uy “gep ‘d ‘,, soyeug ,, "808 ‘d TAK “e ce ve "PEL “d “AX ‘IOA “[In0g ‘wog od ‘sojou ATW ‘NUIT AY Raa ““sirejep ou { uloq Sunox < *s[TRiep | loqyAIny Ou: Suopsoyour $g usoq Sunox "e5v9 JO 1OOY UO puNo; souraqmout perngdna owog ‘ouviqmoeu Aq poredmey prap \Saq 04} ‘ o0dj puv oale utoq Sunok ¢ “OURIQWOU UT O'TOS ‘oory OWLOg ‘uopuory “yavg sjuesey ul uioq Sunox “paprodea jou 4soa jo AqMAezF S ouvcquout ul oA1ye utog » "S830 a[lqaj-uou g ‘Suol sayour ¢ mMoqe Sunok ! ouvaqmew ur oare uao0g F ‘op OC ms ‘op ‘oq *ofiqure fO 90VI OU RIM vuIMOpqe ut sBsq_ “syIeuay ‘poqisodep Sunox | | | E “ oe spavyory AY urWIduU Rs PALIT Aa[doy sstyy ‘oq uUvOLIOUUeG assoyy “ Kpodouryor J, werewe aes | TIN | BBO AN “ev OTe pa Peorpal Iy Mitel, 9 ry ele ~~ ‘ P d 2 , : innin = ne wh F s =D ‘ 7 = ; r are. ia tog 7a a i ; pike Lage » hte rT viesbot typos Wea §- a . } ‘ divi \ ea i») ie ‘aie ea Ve ~” ; if ah | we of oly, ae alee ’ : : ‘ / ‘if An «. ie @ rat - 7 dia ck algae ce] 3 = ‘ : yt = iene ae . p iT * Juneau” — ena | Rane ' Pr ivy: hae : Diane -_ — & f a } ~ | 4 rte wi - ’ | ‘ ¢ Ss. ‘ » fits VRC A ie e dole ire Li pusle oS iui ios aan aaa ee a “he prai chop ike - “ hh wus: > eles OR ss ape CL Jpop, POR a : ; he 27S agent eet Shee balou? tH : v8 i A >» + Se : PPL LEE: wl yient Guy eye Aca WIE ; . : a: “iss ‘Sint: 4 as Ae hie the Ye Putey® Yi 7 i. ‘ . s alge <9 Lites AePirdy u Spi ‘ei y) . i ova o\F tne wii2, Tht P SeRbo rs y , of: ” “Py i, tee oe pea 2 ae umigiiolag, tii me oo coe SO Ore Tae Tite Haste ae i) :* inga bb i fh ey ihe een yet ar Heaney? Se & 7 5 ao - on aan my st * JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY BOMBAY. Nooo A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOURED PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. BY Masor F, Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.S. Part VI., with Plate VI., Diagram and Map. (Continued from page 17 of this Volume.) THE GOLDEN TREE-SNAKE ( Chrysopelea ornata). Nomenclature.—WScientific—The generic name is from the Greek chrysos gold, and peleios black. The specific is from the Latin ornatus adorned. English—The golden tree-snake or the gold and black tree-snake. Vernacular. Kalla Jin” the name given by Russell for a speci- men, probably obtained in Bengal, is probably Urdu implying “ black saddles ”? with reference to the black cross bars. Its name in Ceylon according to Ferguson is ‘‘ pol mal karawala.”’ Dimensions—The largest specimen I know of is the one obtained by Evans and me in Rangoon, which taped 4 feet 53 inches. Speci- mens over 4 feet are unusual. Phystognomy and bodily configuration.—The snout is broad, blunt, and rounded, the head flattened and the neck moderately constricted. A moderately well developed eye with golden iris (Cantor says black) 2 228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVI1i. gives a vivacious expression to a not unpleasing countenance. The pupil is round. The nostril is moderate in size, and placed entirely or almost entirely in the anterior nasal shield. The body though rather slender is far less so than in other tree snakes, notably Dendrophis, Dendrelaphis and Dryophis. It is rather depressed. The belly is peculiar in the ridges on the lateral aspect of the ventral shields. The tail is long, and tapers very gradually. It is about one-fourth the total body length and it is ridged beneath on either side similarly to the belly. Colour.—Mr. Boulenger* divides this species into eight colour varieties, many of which I have not seen. I quote therefore from him, supplementing the habitats he records, from my notes, and other sources. Many of the references of other authors, however, to this snake make it impossible to refer the specimen to any of these varie- ties, for want of precise information regarding the colour. ‘““ 4.—Black above, each scale with a round greenish-yellow spot ; usually with larger coral-red spots on the back, resembling a series of tetrapetalous flowers ; ventrals greenish-yellow, edged with black.” South India (Anamallays), Malay Peninsula, Malay Archipelago (Sumatra, Borneo). Stoliczkat mentions this as common at Penang, and Flower} alludes to it from Penang and Singapore. Annandale§ records it from Narcondam Island. ‘‘ B.—Like the preceding, but ventrals not black edged.” S. India (Malabar), Malay Archipelago (Java, Sooloos, Philippines). I examined one in the Siccawei Museum, Shanghai, from the Yangtse Valley, S. China. “(,—Like the preceding, but vertebral spots confluent into a stripe, at least on the anterior part of the body.” Borneo. ‘“* D.—Greenish-yellow or pale green above, each scale edged, and mesially streaked with black, with more or less distinct black cross-bars ; ventrals yellow, with a small black spot on each side.” S. India (Anamallays), Burma, Assam, Siam, Lao Mountains. * Catalogue, Brit. Mus., Vol. III, 1896, p. 197. + Jourl, Asiat. Soc. Bengal, Vol. XX XIX, p, 104. ¢ Proc, Zool. Soc, Lond,, 1899, p. 682, § Jourl, As, Soc. Bengal, 1905, p. 176. ‘(ssspmsey) eyeuuo vajedoskayy ; oR ee SINS =a se NaG) 1 OOman YI] CmoalZy Esa “~ e\2" ca) 1) a ey si ‘é SS fe; " . ~ : i ‘é et it od TUN Sel 00G 4SIW’ yeN Aequiog uanop ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 229 Flower mentions it as fairly abundant in Siam and _ records it as far south as Kedah in the Malay Peninsula, where he says it is replaced by variety A. “* H.—Like the preceding, but with a series of large coral-red, or orange blotches along the back.”’ Ceylon, Bengal. The plate in Russell’s work is evidently this colour variety. Evans and I met with this in Burma, but it is decidedly scarcer than type D, which is the common one in that Province. The orange spots are not nearly so brilliant as I have seen in Ceylon specimens. Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 are taken from a good example from Kulhatty. (Nilgiri Hill).* “ F'.—Pale olive above, with regular black cross-bars ; some of the black scales with yellow shafts; whitish olive beneath, with a small black spot on the side of each ventral.” Ceylon. “ G.—Black above, with narrow yellowish cross-bars ; whitish olive beneath, with a small black spot on each side of each ventral.’’ Philippines. ‘* H,—Olive above, with the markings much effaced ; pale yellowish beneath.” Celebes, Philippines. To these I would add another— I—Similar to variety E, but differing in the vertebral spots being yellow instead of red, and in the absence of cross-bars. This variety is figured in our plate figs. 5and 6. The specimen was captured at Barisal in the Gangetic Delta, and is in our Soeiety’s collection in Bombay. Identificatton.—-This is an easy matter if attention be directed to scale characters. The ridged (keeled) condition of the ventral shields taken with a vertebral row of scales in no way different from ts adjacent rows, establishes the diagnosis. The ridged character of the ventral shields demands some qualifying remarks. It must be impressed upon the student that the keels in Chrysopelea are sharp and pronounced, * Fioure 4 is represented unduly broad in order to show the whole breadth of the ventrals with their keels ; these latter however are not made conspicuous enough, The outline drawing shows them better, 230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII. with a minute notch on the free edge of the ventral corresponding to the keel. This character of keel is only seen in two other genera, w7z., Dendrophis and Dendrelaphis, both of which are tree snakes also. In both these genera however the vertebral row of scales 1s enlarged, and hexagonal as in the kraits (Bungarus). It is to be noted that several other snakes have what may be called false keels on their ventrals, that is, the ventrals are laterally angulated. False keels are rather rounded (obtuse), and have no notch at the free edge of the ventral. The outlines in section may be compared roughly to those of a punt, and a dinghy (see Diagram I, fig. 1, A and B). It is interesting to note that these false keels are to be seen chiefly in those snakes which manifest a climbing habit. For instance, in the genus Lycodon, witness the species aulicus. In the genus Zamenis, observe the ventrals in mucosus. In the genus Coluber are notably the arboreal species prasinus, frenatus, and oaycephalus. In some other snakes however not conspicuous climbers the same may be seen, as for instance, many of the genus Szmotes. In addition obtuse ventral keels are to be seen in the water snake Hépistes hydrinus. In McMahon’s viper (Eristocophis memahoni) the ventrals are rather acutely keeled, but there is no enlargement of the vertebral row. The only snake I know at all like Chrysopelea is Jerdon’s pit viper (Lachesis jerdonz). In this the colouration is very similar, but any resemblance between these two snakes ends here. They are substantially different in almost every scale character. We do not give a plate of Jerdon’s viper owing to its rarity, and restricted Indian distribution, viz: Khasya Hills (Assam.) Haunts.—Very opposite opinions prevail as to its haunts. Cantor says it is seldom seen in trees, but more frequently on the ground in the grass. Stoliczka supports this observation, and says though he caught several specimeus in the grass, or between low bushes, he but once saw one actually on a bush. Flower on the other hand says his experiences are very different in this as in other matters from those related by Cantor, and he agrees with Ginther’s suggestion that the reason it is not more often seen in trees is because it makes a too rapid retreat. Journ. Bomeary Nar Hist. Socy. Diacrnam | eee teese . - ote Keel : Vern fral b Subcaudal ; Keel Heel | Fig. I A. Punt like ventrals of Chrys opelea B. Boat like ventrals of Lycodon aullous C. Rounded ventrals of Cobra ‘oD Fig 2 Chrysopelea ornala. (x13) INDIAN SNAKES (Wadd) ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 231 I am able to support both parties, for I have seen it high in a tree ona naked limb, and on several occasions on bushes, or on the trellis work about tennis courts and verandahs. I never met it on the ground myself, but many of the specimens brought me were reported on the ground. I have not the least doubt that the species is essentially arboreal in habit, but this does not prevent it making frequent excursions to the ground either in search of a fresh feeding area, or in the pursuit of the incautious quarry which its keen vision has detected from its exalted station amid the branches overhead. It is only natural that it should be more frequently encountered on the ground, because the eyes of the pedestrian are directed below the level of his head, even at his feet. Men other than birds-nesters, fern and orchid hunters, and such like do not gaze much aloft, and the snake reclining along a branch or on the top of a trelliswork even about one’s own height, will frequently escape detection though but a few feet or even inches away. The very fact that Cantor and Stoliczka in unison with other obser- vers mention that geckoes are the principal food seems to me to refute their suggestion that Chrysopelea is terrestrial in habit, for geckoes are eminently arboreal. It is te be noted also that all the food partaken of, other than geckoes, is of a nature to be obtained by climbing only. Cantor’s inclusion of frogs in their dietary does not vitiate this remark, for though he does not say so, the species taken may have been arboreal forms only. Chrysopelea is not infrequently found about, and actually inside habitations. Flower mentions this, and Evans and I had similar experiences in Burma. I well remember in Colombo, too, one that had taken up its quarters in an old packing case which was full of straw and other packing material. A cooly was ordered to clear this out, and stepped into the box to carry out his orders. His exit reminded one of an incautious bather who has stepped into over- hot water. The alacrity of movement so foreign to the cooly’s nature was explained by the subsequent discovery of a snake of this species. Disposition—Very divergent views again have been expressed on this point. Cantor remarks on the gentleness of the species, whilst Flower on the other hand says ‘‘ Chrysopelea ornata is the fiercest snake I have met. Under circumstances when most snakes, harmless 232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII. and poisonous alike, would try to glide away quietly, this one will turn ‘o attack the person who disturbs it, and will attempt to resist capture to the uttermost, striking, and biting ferociously. * * * Individuals I have at various times tried to keep in captivity showed no signs of becoming tamer, and would always bite my hand when I put it in the vivarium, and being also an annoyance to the other inmates of the cage, I have only kept them for a few days at a time.” I must say I can abundantly confirm Flower’s experiences. There is no doubt that this snake is decidedly plucky, and on occasions fierce, but I would not suggest that all are equally vicious. I think that snakes, like other creatures, exhibit individual character. I well remember my servant in Rangoon trying to effect the capture of a large specimen ina hedge adjoining my compound. I arrived on the scene when the excitement was at its height and discovered that all the menial establishment amounting to ten or more had been pressed into service. The snake had fought most cour- ageously to elude capture, and struck at any.one who ventured to attempt to grasp it. My boy, confident of master’s solatium in the form of a rupee if the creature was captured alive, had been struck at and bitten, and I hardly knew which to admire most, the seryant’s determination and courage or the snake’s vigorous endeay- ours to retain its liberty. : Flower mentions one in a fit of rage biting itself with such vigour that its teeth were fixed into the side of its body, and I can remem- ber recapturing one which had escaped from my vivarium and had taken refuge between some hoards in my house. When extricated after some difficulty, and with the employment of some force, it struck at and buried its teeth in its own body. The fact that this snake will even face, much less try conclusions with a tuctoo (Gecko verticillatus) is eloquent proof of its intrepidity. Flower says : ‘I have known it eat Hemiédactylus frenatus and Gecko verticillatus; the latter may give battle to the snake for some hours before being finally swallowed.’ In a recent issue of this Journal I gave two instances of the indomitable courage of this giant gecko. In one instance it was clearly the aggressor, and not only confronted but actually drove back a large rat snake (Zaments mucosus), 2 Species whose courage is well established, and actually during the retreat snapped and bit off part of its tail. In the other ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 23 Oo instance witnessed and recounted to me by Captain Lloyd, I.M.S., on Sandoway Island when this gecko was in conflict on the ground with a Chrysopelea ornata, it would be difficult to say which was the aggressor, but it is probable that the snake engaged the lizard, not expecting to meet a foeman of* such prowess. Food.— Chryso pelea, whilst showing a decided partiality towards lizards of the family Geckonide, accepts with avidity many other creatures that chance has to offer. Members of the genus Hemédaetylus are most frequently found to have furnished the meal, obviously from the relative abundance of the species in this genus and the numerical strength in individuals of many of the species which frequent trees. Many other lizards, however, fall victims to its voracity. Cantor mentions frogs as_ well, but J have never known one taken, have known them retused in captivity where lizards were accepted, and Mr. Millard tells me also he found frogs were not acceptable. Among other lizards Cantor found Piychozoon homalocephalum taken once, and Evans one of the flying lizards (Draco teniopterus). I have known Calotes versicolor taken, and Flower the giant gecko or tuctoo of Burma (Gecko verticllatus). Evans and I reported one in this Journal that had eaten a bat ( Taphozous longimanus), and Evans has since recorded two instances where bats were devoured. Mr. Millard tells me that in captivity it “‘feeds freely on bloodsuckers, sparrows, geckoes, and mice, but never eats frogs.” He also says it kills by crushing in its folds. It is interesting to note that Richards* mentions one of his boys having a pet Chrysopelea ornata which he fed with milk out of a saucer. He heid the snake near the head and put the saucer to it, when it readily drank the milk, and in comparatively large quantities. Habits—The striking beauty of this snake, whether seen reclining or moving in its native haunt, could hardly fail to arouse the keenest admiration in the breast of the most unappreciative and phleg- matic disposition. I watched with admiration recently the adroit, though stealthy, manner in which one in eaptivity in the Colombo Museum balanced itself, and moved along my walking stick though this was more siender than the snake itself. * Landmarks of Snake poison, p. 14. 234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII, Dillwyn describes this snake clinging to the-trunk of a tree, head downwards, in a very extraordinary manner, and I have seen it under almost exactly similar circumstances. My specimen was stationary, clinging (one could not say reclining) head downwards, about 30 feet from the ground, toa large bare trunk, which rose almost perpendicularly. 1 marvelled at the tenacity of its grip in such a situation. It had thrown its body into a very wide 8 across the limb, and it strikes me now very forcibly, after reading Flower’s and Shel- ford’s observations, that it may have been ‘“ gathering itself” for a leap. The enraptured observer will be even more captivated with the grace and agility attending its movements from branch to branch, and the consummate ease with which it will scale a perpendicular trunk. Its flash-like disappearance aloft without apparent effort must be witnessed to be fully appreciated. I very much doubt whether any snake moving along the ilat displays greater speed than this species in its arboreal environment. But its marvellous attainments do not end here, for ihis snake is endowed with the capability to spring, or “ fly ”’ as some prefer to call this jactatory effort. Here one is forcibly reminded of the eulogistic terms in which the late Professor Owen summed up the athletic performances of these limbless creatures. He says: ‘They can outclimb the monkey, outswim the fish, out- leap the jerboa, and suddenly loosing the coils of their crouching spiral, they can spring into the air and seize the bird upon the wing.” One has only to be acquainted with Chrysopelea to realise that Owen’s words convey no fulsome flattery. That it actually can spring is vouched for by more than one reli- ‘“a small one, able observer. Flower* in 1899 reported having seen. about 24 feet long, take a flying leap, from an upstairs window, downward and outward on to a branch of a tree and then crawl away among the foliage. The distance it had jumped was measured, and found to be nearly 8 feet.’ Curiously enough in the very month (May) and year (1899) when this record of Flower’s was published, Mahon Daly wrote from Siam reporting his having witnessed a similar feat. His letter appeared in Vol. XII, page 589, of this Journal, and though he could not * Proc, Zool. Soc, Lond., 1899, p. 684. ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 235 identify the snake he said that he and his Kareen interpreter saw a snake, ‘‘ about 24 feet long, sail from a very high tree on one side of the road to a lower one the opposite side.”’ In confirmation of these very extraordinary acrobatic feats which I have no doubt many might be inclined to disbelieve is the report made by Shelford of similar performances * This observer relates that three native witnesses in Sarawak made a similar statement on three different occasions independently of one another, and aft considerable intervals of time. This was to the effect in each case that the snake had been seen to ‘ily’ from some height to the ground beneath. In all cases the snake was reported to have kept its body rigid during this feat, and to have met the ground at an oblique angle. In one case the snake proved to be Chrysopelea ornata, in the second instance a snake of the same genus, viz., C. chrysochlora, and in the third Dendrophis prctus. Shelford calls attention to the fact that all these snakes are alike in the peculiar ridged condition of their belly shields, and he made experiments to ascertain the truth of these reports. He says: ‘‘ A speci- men of Chrysopelea ornata was-taken to a height of fifteen to twenty feet, and allowed to fall several times; after one or two false starts the snake was felt to glide from the experimenter’s hands, straighten- ing itself out, and hollowing in the ventral surface as it moved, and it fell not in a direct line to the ground, but at an angle, the body being kept rigid the whole time * * *, Ifthe snake was thrown up into the air, it seemed unable to straighten itself out ; it had to be launched, so to speak, from the hands in order to induce it to assume the rigid position.” He implies therefore that these “ flights ’’ are not accidental falls but deliberate voluntary efforts, and suggests that the hollowing of the belly between the two ventral ridges may act mechanically after the manner of a parachute, impeding the action of gravity, and buoying up the creature so as to reduce the momentum with-which it would strike the ground. He illustrates this point by comparing the fall _of a piece of bamboo bisected longitudinally, and the concave face downwards, with that of a piece of bamboo in its cylindrical form. * Proc, Zool, Suc. Lond., 1906, p, 227, 236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XV Iii. In the former case the descent is retarded. I prefer the use of the term “‘ springing ”’ to that of ‘ flying ”’ in describing these feats. Its only rivals in acrobatic and scansorial achievements are the tree snakes of the genera Dendrophis and Dryophis.* Breeding.— Our information on this point is scanty. Evans and | obtained one in May with ovarian follicles impregnated, one in June with 9 eggs in the abdomen, and a small specimen, length not noted, believed to be a hatchling in June. These were all obtained in Rangoon. Since these specimens were recorded in this Journal, Evans acquired a specimen from Hanthawaddy, Lower Burma, in June containing 11 eggs; and a brood of 6 young in June in Rangoon. It is clearly from the above notes not a very prolific species. The measurements of the eggs were not recorded. The young inthe brood recorded by Evans{ measured trom 4% to 6 inches in length. It is not known whether this snake is oviparous or viviparous. Without being too positive Iam inclined to think that the eggs I extracted “ex abdomina ”’ contained embryos in a very early stage of development. This snake grows 9 or more inches each year, so that the specimens reported by Evans 134 and 14 inches long in August were the previ- ous year’s production. My smallest prospective mother was 3 feet 7 inches long in June and therefore in her 5th year. Distribution.—This is very extensive, ranging as it does between the western shores of India on the extreme West, through the Malayan regions (continental and insular), South China to the Philippines in the extreme Hast. So far as the Indian Peninsula is concerned its distribution is peculiar, and very interesting. It is only found in a small tract oi country in the southern part of the Malabar Coast, and in Eastern Bengal. The accompanying maps show the exact localities where it has been met with. In Ceylon it is not yery uncommon, I met with more than one spe- cimen in a four years’ residence though not at that time a collector of * For further remas} son fying enikes se2 post-script. t+ Vol, XIII, p, 614. Vol. XVI, p. 170. ‘SLIWIT. NVIGNI NIHLIM (PLFNYO VATAdOSAYHO) SXVNS-33YUL N3Q109 SHL 4O NOILNGIYLSIG —=— LNIOg 3stVa7 Ney AWA A OA ROT ‘ % of, if : 44 41 at ‘ ol 2 SA ANNAN RS net’ OTe aOR CAT 2 BET tne ee MN. ao ¥ ANN rm Aaebrgangntnnee Fe NEUSE eh a : cu oN ier o : neltdPany PNA % aint , Sb Nea! ant? [WMA appt arama Any "Al yy A vy 7 VI H ah fen te) ais TITAX TOA “90S “JSIH} (WBN Avquiog ‘ usnor ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 237 snakes, It is referred to by Ferguson, Haly, and Willey from the plains. Mr. E. E. Green tells me he has never heard of it in the hills in that Island, @ e. above about 1,500 feet. It is a fairly abundant species throughout the Malayan Region, and extends throughout Burma. In many parts of Lower Burma it is a common snake (Rangoon, Pegu, etc.). In the extreme south of this Province it has been recorded from Mergui and Tavoy Island (Sclater). Captain Lloyd, 1.M.s., captured a specimen on Sandoway Island which I have already referred to. To the east of this Province Sclater has recorded it from Moulmein, and Evans and I had speci- mens sent to us by Colonel Bingham from the Southern Shan States. The British Museum has a specimen from the same donor from the Ruby Mines, but it appears to be uncommon in that part, for- at Mogok Mr. Hampton tells me he has had no specimen in a 9-years’ residence. From Burma it extends to the North, through Assam, and across the Brahmaputra into the Hastern Himalayas, and ina westerly direction into Hastern Bengal, where its exact limits are somewhat uncertain. It occurs within the Gangetic Delta (Calcutta and Barisal) and it is probable that its western boundary is defined by the Hoogly and Teesta rivers. It has not as yet been recorded from the Andamans or Nicobars, but Annandale refers to a specimen taken on Narcondam Island by Major Anderson.* Explanation of Map. 1, Karwar.—Phipson. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Collection. 2. Malabar.—British Museum and Jerdon. (Jourl., Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Vol. XXII, p. 529.) 3. Travancore.—Ferguson. Plains and Hills. (Jourl., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. X, p. 74.) Millard. Courtallan in the Hills. (In epistola.) Sclater. List, Snakes, Ind. Mus., Calcutta, 1891. 4. Nilgiri Hills—Kinloch. Kotagiri, 5,700 feet, rare ; Kulhatty,t 5,400 feet. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe. Collection. * Jourl,, As. Soe. Bengal, Vol. XL, p. 422, + Mr, Kinloch tells me there are two places called Kulhatty in the Nilgiris—one near Kotagiri, 6,500 feet; another, 5,400 feet, 238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII. Je ~t . Anamallay Hills—Thurston. In Madras Museum. (In epistola.) Beddome. In British Museum Collection. 6. Ceylon.—Haly, Ferguson, Willey. British Museum Collection. 7. Caleutta—Selater. In Indian Museum, Calcutta. 8. Barisal—Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Collection. 9, Garo Hills—Selater. Indian Museum, Calcutta. 10. Khasya Hills.—Sclater. Indian Museum, Calcutta. 11. North Cachar.—Annandale. Indian Museum, Calcutta. 12. Naga Hills—Sclater. Samaguting, 2,000 feet. Indian Museum, Calcutta. 13. Nazira.—Sclater. Indian Museum, Calcutta. 14. The Dooars.—Millar. (In epistola.) Specimens in St. Joseph’s College Museum, Darjeeling. 15. Darjeeling. —Stoliczka. (Jourl., As. Soc., Bengal, Vol. XL, p. 422.) Description. —Rostral. Touches 6 shields ; the sutures formed with the anterior nasals are twice or nearly twice those formed with the internasals. IJnternasals—A pair; the suture between them about two-thirds the suture between the pretrontal fellows ; subequal to or rather less than the internaso-prefrontal suture. Prefrontals—A pair; the suture between them subequal to, or rather greater than the przfronto-frontal suture ; in contact with internasal, postnasal, loreal, preocular, supraocular (usually) and frontal. Frontal.—Touches 6 shields; the supraocular sutures about three times the fronto- parietals, and about twice the fronto-prefrontals. Supraoculars.— Length equal to, or nearly equal to frontal ; breadth one-third or more greater than the frontal, at a point opposite middle of eyes. Nasals.—Divided ; in contact with the 1st and 2nd_ supralabials. Loreal.—One ; longer than broad. Preoculars.—One ; sometimes touching the frontal. Postoewlars—Two. Temporals—Two small anteriorly ; the lower in contact with the 7th and 8th supralabials (sometimes 6th also). Supralabials—9 or 10; the 5th and 6th touching the eye usually (in Burmese specimens), sometimes the 4th also. Sublinguals——Two pairs ; the posterior rather larger, and in contact with the 5th and 6th infralabials usually. Infrala- bials—The first meet to form a suture, half or less than half that between the anterior sublinguals; the 6th largest usually (rarely 5th or 7th) broader than the posterior sublinguals and ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 239 in contact with two scales behind. Scales.—Two heads lengths behind head 17; midbody 17; two heads lengths before vent 13. Absorption from 17 to 15, the 4th row above the ventrals is absorbed into the adjacent row above or below: from 15 to 13 the two rows below the vertebral coalesce. Vertebral row not enlarged, or modified. Costals not oblique. The last row en- larged. Keels absent, or very faint in a few median rows at back of body only ; when present cease in the sixes or fours of the supracau- dals. Apical pits present. Ventrals——200 to 238 (Boulenger), broad, the last costal row only partially seen on each side when specimen laid on its back. A sharp keel on each side and corresponding notch in the free edge of the shield. The last ventral divided like the anal (Boulenger says sometimes, but I have never seen an exception), and occasionally the penultimate also. Subcaudals—97 to 144. Keeled and notched similarly to the ventrals. Anal.—Divided. Dentition—Maxillary teeth 20 to 22, subequal, the last three a little longer, and grooved; anterior mandibular teeth longest. (Boulenger.) FLYING SNAKES. A Postscript—At the present day there is a great tendency to discredit any strange stories handed down to us from our forefathers. A certain section of the public, not without some reason however, openly scoffs at improbable stories, especially in connection with snakes, the size of tigers, and other game, fish, etc., knowing the tendency of men to exaggerate. Many a truth is repudiated, mentally if not verbally, tacitly scoft- ed at and relegated to the level of a “ good story”’ ora “ traveller’s yarn”, Certainly many travellers in the past and sportsmen of to-day are to blame for this incredulity. There is no doubt, however, that Nature is abundantly more subtle, and prolific in manifestations which are little short of miraculous than is man’s inventive genius, which is dwarfed by comparison. Many of the incredulous school upon enlarging their minds have to acknowledge themselves in error. A quotation such as that I have 240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII made use of in my paper from the late Professor Owen, emanatin ¢ from a less worthy source, would, I feel sure, evoke scepticism, and derision from many. The fact that we must acknowledge that there are such creatures as “ flying snakes ”’ at the present day will doubtless make many who learn this for the first time recall allusions to such beings in the Bible, and it may interest them to discuss the belief in such among the ancients, and subsequently. The two allusions to “flying serpents’? in the Bible occur in Isaiah. In the original the Hebrew word used is “‘ saraph ” in both plaees, and it is translated as “ fiery flying serpent’. The same word occurs in Numbers* (Chap. X XI, verse 6) in its plural form ‘seraphim,”’ but is here translated simply as ‘ fiery serpent.” The first allusion (Chap. XIV, verse 29) reads as follows :—‘ Re- joice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod of him that smote thee is broken: for out of the serpent’s root shall come forth a cock- atrice, and his fruit shall be a fiery ilying serpent.” The second reference (Chap. XXX, verse 6) reads as follows: —“The burden of the beasts of the South: into the land of trouble and anguish, from whence come the young and old lion, the viper and fiery lying serpent, they will carry their riches upon the shoulders of young asses, and their treasures upon the hunches of camels, to a people that shall not profit them.” Isaiah describes the seraphim as follows (Chap. VI, verse 2 ):— ‘‘ Each one had six wings ; with twain he covered his face, and with twain he covered his feet, and with twain he did fly.” Chamber’s Encyclopedia says of them that they were ‘ celestial beings on either side of the throne of Jehovah, seen in prophetic vision by Isaiah, and by him alone.” The first allusion (Chap. XIV) refers obviously to these mythical celestial beings, in association with and in fact the progeny of another fabulous being, the cockatrice which the late Canon Tristram says was a creature supposed to be hatched by a cock from serpent’s eggs-and so represented as a dragon with a cock’s head. It was called also “ basilisk,” or crested serpent. The second reference (Chap. XXX) has far greater interest to the * Encyclopedia Britta nica. ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 241 naturalist, because the passage refers to other creatures known to exist, which have been identified with familiar present day forms. The context (viz. the first 7 verses of Chapter XXX) shows that the country referred to as “the land of trouble,” ete., is Egypt. The lion (Felis leo) isa typically African animal, and doubtless occurred in Egypt in the days when Isaiah wrote. The viper referred to, there is little doubt, is the Zchzs carinata, so common in India, and ranging into Egypt among other parts of Northern Africa. The Hebrew word in the original is ‘‘ Epheh ” which the late Canon Tristram identified as Eehis arenicola of the present day, an earlier name for /. carinata. The resemblance between this Hebrew word and ‘ Ate ’’, which is in common use in parts of India for the same snake (Delhi), is note- worthy. The “ Saraph ” used in a passage, which clearly refers to present- day well-known forms like the lion, and the echis, leads one to infer that the creature made reference to was an equally well-known inhabitant of Egypt. Now the fact that the word “ Saraph ”’ in both references in Isaiah is translated in the present version of the Bible as “fiery flying serpent,’ whilst the same word in Numbers is translated as “ fiery serpent,” raises the question which of these two renderings is correct. The Encyclopedia Brittanica says if it has a Hebrew etymology it must signify “ burning ones”’ (‘“ consuming ”’ not “ fiery’), and again ‘‘in Num, XXI, 6, the word ‘‘ Seraphim” is used of a kind * but burning, @e., “ poisonous ones.” of serpents not “ fiery serpents From this it appears that there is no confirmatory evidence of the existence of flying snakes in the Hebrew version of the Bible. It appears probable that the fiery serpent referred to was a poison- ous snake so called from the burning pain attending its bite. It is extremely interesting in the discussion of ilying snakes to read what Herodotus wrote nearly 500 years betore Christ. Herodotus (born between 490 and 480 B.C.) wrote: ‘‘ Arabia is the last inhabited country lying to the southward, and the only region which produces frankincense, myrrh, cassia, and redenum, All those things the Arabians gather with some difficulty, myrrh only excepted, + I notice that the Cyclopsdia of India (Vol. V., page 227) vives * Aphah” as Hebrew and “ Afa” and “ Afai” as Arabic words for a “snake” without specifying further, 242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII. They collect the frankincense by burning styrax, which the Pheeni- cians export into Greece, for flying serpents, small of body and with variegated skins, guard the trees which bear the frankincense, a great number round each tree ; as for vipers they are found in all parts of the world, but flying serpents are found in thick swarms in Arabia, and nowhere else, and therefore they appear to be very numerous.” Pliny the Elder (born A.D. 23, died 79) mentions serpents that twirl themselves by the tail to a branch of one date tree, and so spring to the branches of another; and says the Arabs call them ‘flying serpents.” This seems to me quite likely in the face of what we know at the present day, if we allow for a certain inaccuracy in the observation. A snake that jumped to another branch would largely depend upon its tail to secure its hold. It would certainly wreath it round the branch upon which it alighted, if in any danger of falling, pending having regained its “ foothold.” This use of the tail might easily have been misunderstood, and conceived in the light of a spring, and its recoil. Calmet (Augustine) the Benedictine (born 1672, died 1757) refers to the ‘‘ Seraph” a “ flying serpent, the only one that has wings.’ ‘Its wings are not feathers, like the wings of birds, but rather like those of bats”, and he says ‘‘ when the Arabian goes to gather the aromatic reed, or cassia, of which these serpents are very fond, they cover all their heads, except their eyes, with skin, to secure themselves from the bite of the serpent, which is very dangerous.” This reads very like a distortion of the truth in a zealous attempt to reconcile fact with dogma. The detailed anatomical peculiarities given by Calmet refer to some creature obviously not a snake, though it might be a flying lizard. It is to be noted, however, that the flying lizards (Draco) do not occur as far West as Arabia. Admiral Lord Anson (born 1697, died 1762) mentions “ flying serpents in the Island of Quibo, which darted themselves from the boughs of trees upon man and beast but were without wings.” Niebuhr (born 1733, died 1815), who published the Natural History notes of his friend and fellow-traveller P. Forskal, refers to ‘“ flying snakes” in a strain similar to that of Pliny ; and Parkhurst, the great biblical scholar (born 1728, died 1797) suggested that the snakes alluded to by these authorities might be the same, or allied forms to ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 243 those mentioned in the Bible in Isaiah. I think however my forego- ing remarks show the first reference purely metaphorical, and the second though obviously literal, a hyperbolic and unwarrantable misinterpretation. What the snakes are or were which were known te the Arabians as flying snakes must remain a matter of speculation. None of the genera which furnish the “ flying snakes” of the present day that are known as such, occur in Arabia, but I see no reason why similar saltatory feats should not be performed by other tree snakes known to inhabit that region. a ay. vice .e iat MOOPCE it mets it hay A/T TH re SLL ae aes Oy QUIS ; ROLLA MED RE VaCrERGae RD RORET Sn are? Dre OR riT yt CA: OR ALS Oe oer *s Ou wee ew COTE Pe » ais seats book ioolulatn tian at bo) sath ae Or Vor Ce es ’ Dy ae wees “ wef wi ? 1 7 4 Ath i ; ; VOTH op ign y in te, (oi an j : ; ) a Lae (og fh aheay: oY ; Rei bi White or | ‘h : D | — eat atl, (ob Ona i oa runk ene bé i * . io el jeotter” te iia - : t 4 -_ : ; » thy » Lau ve ‘ah wi vy 7 { as x: ) ‘\ , . 7 Hiisl iy} ql is ’ ‘ ery iv ; Ly ee : ; bi? ; se ; if ; . . ee ae Mae a ht hale es ame hie . - i valley) DAD ene ian is UJ , is i \ Ly An Ld AY RT eae i fi - ’ ’ tea : ‘ piri ALTE Pie ipa - , noumiitely Qik angme taser i eo ee | Oo ee aye evil a is celica ea a) >: Vigor ’ : “LT paid! hives diel oe pba ine ip ORs, ' choot tele! oon Heian lore, online ee ee ee ae wy age eel ’; ; 7 oe LA, Ve ee ; fs ae > ae ne , uP ay oy Veron. pal . i> . 7 a wil wie 629 she St ta : Ree mS | hs A ; a a fae is ar rt Ate . Gere: 7 Dy iv \h ae a i [ ee eee ee ae ie et i) JOURNAL BOMBAY Natural Mristory Society. BOMBAY. No. 3. Vol. XVII. A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOURED PLATES AND DIAGRAMS, BY Masor F. Watt, I.M.S., C.M.ZS. Part VIT with Plate VII, with 3 Maps and 2 Diagrams. (Continued from page 248 of this Volume.) THE SAW-SCALED VIPER or Ecuts (Eehis carinata). Nomenclature.—(a) Screntific.—The generic name is from the Greek eas an adder, and was introduced by Merrem in 1820. Carinata is from the Latin carina a keel, and was applied originally by Schneider in 1801 on account of the ridged (keeled) condition of the scales. (b) English—One rarely hears an English name. It is usually spoken of as “the Hchis”. In many parts, however, the English population have adopted the local native name for it as ‘“ phoorsa’’, ‘““afai”’, ete. It might be appropriately called the ‘“‘ common saw- ’ in reference to the serrate condition of the keels on scaled viper ’ the oblique scales referred to hereafter, which when rubbed across one another produce a hissing sound. (¢) Vernacular.—tIn Southern India it is called ‘“ viriyan pamboo ” by the Tamils, but I have also heard it called “ soorootai pamboo ” which I understand means “ coiling snake ’”’, and about Trichinopoly ‘“ratta pamboo”’, Russell * gives the local name for a specimen he acquired from Arni near Vellore as “ horatta pam”. Perhaps the * Ind. Serp., 1796, Plate IL, p. 2, 1 526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII. c word is “ korattai’”’, the Tamil for ‘‘ snoring ”’ I am told, but which might also be applied to the hissing sound made by the scales rub- bing against one another. In Mysore according to Rice* it is called ‘“kallu havu’’. In the Bombay Presidency it is almost universally known as the “ phoorsa”’. In and about Delhiit is the ‘“afai’’, a word apparently closely connected with the Arabic names for snake, vic. “ afa’’, and ‘‘afai’, and possibly to the ‘“epheh” + of the Hebrew Scriptures. It is the “ kuppur”’ of Sind, and according to Mountford t known as ‘‘janndi”’ in the northern part of that Province. Sir A. H. McMahon tells me it is called “ phissi ” on the North-West Frontier. Dr. J. Anderson § says it is known to the natives of Egypt as “ ghariba”, but Lyddeker || gives the name ec in that country as “eja”’. * Mysore, Vol. I, p. 188, + The word “ epheh” I believe occurs only three times in ithe Hebrew version of the Bible, twice in the book of Isaiah, and oncein Job, The passages are translated as follows in the present Engliso Bible :—(1) Isaiah xxx—6, ‘t The burden of the beasts of the south : into the land of trouble, and anguish from whence come the young, and old lion, the viper (epheh) and fiery flying serpent.” (2) Isaiah nix—5. “They hatch cockatrice eggs, and weave the spider’s web: he that eateth of their eggs dieth, and that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper” (epheh). (5) Job xx—16, ‘‘ He shall suck the poison of asps, the viper’s (epheh) tongue shall slay bim’’. The late Canon Tristram identified the ‘‘epheh” in the first passage as Eciis arenicola of Boie which is now considered identical with the Echis carinata of Schneider, bat the accuracy of his opinion is vitiate@ by his identification of “ epheh” in the other two passages just quoted with Dadvia xanthina of Gray, a viper now recognised as identical with Vipera libetina of Linné. In the two last passages it appears tome that “epheh” is used in a general sense, and is not intended to allude to a distinct species of snake. On the other hand the first passage which refers to Egyptas ‘‘the land of trouble and anguish” seems to refer to some special kind of snake, and one may infer a very well known one characteristic of the country in the same way that the lion was among mam- mals, Although the Echis occurs in Egypt it is evidently not common there, for Mr, S. S, Flower has favoured me with valuable information on this score. He writes: “ Person- ally I have spent over 9 yearsin Egypt and the Sudan, but have never seen /. carinatus alive, nor met any natives who knew of it, It is probably, therefore, of local distribution, In the collection under my charge (Egyptian Government Zoological Gardens) I have had only two specimens of /, ca rinatus, one from Khartoum and the other from west of Mazrub. Kordofan, both collected and preserved in spirit by Mr, A.L. Butler. These specimens are now in Vienna, having been sent to Dr. Franz Werner * * Dr. Werner and [constantly exchange herpetological notes, and to the best of my recollection he has never been able to obtain E. carinatus himself in the Nile Valley, though he has made three collecting expeditions here on behalf of the Vienna University.” Canon Tristram’s association of the Echis with the Epheh of the Scriptures is, it must be admitted, open to serious objections. { Bomb, Nat. Hist. Journal, Vcl. XJ, p. 74. § Zool. of Egypt, Vol. I. || Royal Nat. Hist. 1896, Vol. V, p. 288. ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 527 Dimensions. —Adults vary from about 18 inches to two feet in length, but larger specimens are sometimes met with. Dr. Imlach* speaking of Sind says the average length of the kuppur is 15 inches. Elliott in Madras says he has not seen a specimen larger than 16 inches. J am certain I have seen them larger than this in Southern India. Colonel R. Light has written to our Society of examples he has seen in Bhuj (Cutch) which measured 264, 274, and 272 inches. The late Mr. L. C. H. Youngt recorded a specimen in this Journal from Andheri near Bombay 2 feet 6 inches long. These are the largest measurements known to me. Bodily configuration, etc.—Its figure is typically viperine, that is to say, the body compared with that of colubrine snakes is relatively stout for its length, and reduces perceptibly anteriorly and posteri- orly. The anterior attenuation makes the neck conspicuous behind the broader head. Dorsally the whole body is rough from the keeled condition of the scales, especially so laterally, where the keels are serrated. The roughness and lustreless character of the scales on the back and flanks are in marked contrast to the beautifully smooth and polished surfaces of the ventral shields, and both doubtless greatly assist colouration in rendering the creature inconspicuous amid its desert environment. The head is subovate or roughly pear- shaped seen from above, and the snout rounded. The muzzle is rounded from side to side unlike many of the pit vipers in which a more or less sharp ridge (canthus rostralis) separates the face from the crown. The nostril is placed rather high, and between two shields, and is notably small in comparison with Russell’s viper. The eye is large, the iris golden yellow, and the pupil vertical in shape as in all other vipers. The commissure of the mouth is truly viperine, the upper lip presenting a downward rounded prominence situated below the anterior margin of the eye, and corresponding with the position of the fang as placed when the mouth is shut. Our plate shows this very well in figure 6, which should be com- pared with figure 2. The tail is very evident owing to the great attenuation in calibre which occurs at the anal region, and it tapers very rapidly as in other vipers. It is short, being about one-tenth to * Trans. Medl. and Phys, Soc. of Bombay, 1855 to 1856, p. 80. + Trans. S, Ind. Br, of Brit, Medl. Assoetn., 1895, p, 13, t Vol. xvi. p, 504, 528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII. one-eleventh the total length of the snake and is about equally short in both sexes. Colour.—As in nearly all the vipers the colouration and markings are very variable. Mr. Boulenger* speaking of another viper ( Vipera ursiniz) says ‘I must observe that vipers generally vary so much, both individually and according to localities, that little reliance is to be placed for specific distinction on that character.” Usually the ground colour in Lchis carinata is a light shade of brown, buff, or tawny, and the markings are darker brown, or even blackish. In sandy places, where I have usually met with it, it harmonises wonderfully with its surroundings. Sir A. H. McMahon writes to me: ‘The Echis adapts itself to the colouring of the locality. I have found them of all shades of colour, from the light- est fawn in sand to almost black in dark rocky country.” The body dorsally is more or less mottled or blotched with darker shades some- times with a decided regularity of pattern as in our plate, more fre- quently I think irregularly distributed with no special arrangement. These marks may be so obscure as to be hardly noticeable in light specimens, or so heavily abundant that they form the predominating colour when the specimen appears umbery or blackish. A light undulatory line in the flanks is nearly always more or less evident. The head often bears a light patch on the middle of the crown, which is frequently shaped like a dagger, a broad arrow, or the imprint of a bird’s foot and there is often a more or less conspicuous streak behind the eye. The belly is light, often whitish, and is more orless sparsely or profusely specked, mottled, or spotted with darker, and often rufous, bistre, or ruddy tints. I have sometimes seen a pinkish band down the middle of the belly. Identification.—The undivided condition of the subcaudal shields, taken with (2) the small scales on the whole of the top of the head and (3) broad ventrals stretching right across the belly, distinguish this from all other Indian snakes, These characters are shared by the only other member of this genus, vz. Kchis colorata, a auch scarcer and more local species inhabiting Arabia, and Palestine, and also recorded trom Socotra. The two are separated chieily on the nasal shield which in carinata touches the rostral, but in colorata is separat- ed from it by small seales. * Proc. Zool, Soc., Lond,, 1893, p, 598. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Diagram 1. Sube. An. KF Echis canlitara: To show broad ventrals and stbcaudals Eryx conicus To show narrow ventrals cand sibcaudals Z K/ { / is CRG Dipsadomorphus trigonatus. To show broad ventrals and divided subcaudats. Vi. = Ventrals. An- = Anal. Subce-. = Swuwbcaudals. ‘'NDIAN S§S NAKES.(Wai?) ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 529 Attention to the points above mentioned should admit of no con- fusion between this and other forms that bear some superficial resem- blance to it, Among these may be mentioned Eryx conicus and Dipsadomorphus trigonatus. 1 have seen a very old and faded spirit specimen of the former which bore a marked resemblance to E. cariata. This species possesses the first two points mentioned above, but the ventrals are peculiarly narrow, several rows of costals (instead of the last only) being visible on either side simultaneously when the specimen is laid on its back. Asa matter of fact, there is very little resemblance between the two in colouration in life though I have known the two confused. As regards Dipsadomorphus trigonatus which I have also known confused with the Echis, the resemblance is, I consider, extremely superficial, affecting colour and markings only, the relatively slender and elongate body being very markedly in contrast, and the first two shield characters noted above absent. Haunts.—It is essentially a desert snake, but occurs plentifully in semi-desert tracts where the soil, though sandy and poor, supports some sparse vegetation, so long as open patches intervene. In Delhi it appeared to be most plentiful on the Ridge where the broken and rocky nature of the ground afforded special facilities for conceal- ment, or retirement in the face of danger, but there are many waste sandy tracts where rocks do not occur where it thrives in great num- bers. Blanford* obtained 2 or 3 specimens in thin jungle about Kllore, and expressed surprise at finding a desert form like the Hchis in wooded country. It is not found in dense jungle, for the reason I suppose that its colouration in such an environment would no longer be protective, added to which it does not appear to need shade, enjoying as it does the fiercest rays of the tropical sun, and at the hottest seasons of the year. It may be seen lying in the sand exposed to the full force of the sun, or may retire beneath stones, or into clefts and crannies of rock so baked with the sun’s rays that the hand cannot bear contact with them. Yet even under such conditions it seems to rely solely on the juices of the animals it eats for the moisture necessary to assuage its thirst. It sometimes takes refuge in holes in the ground as I have good reason to know when digging along the burrows leading to the nests of the green bee-eater (Merops viridis). * Jourl, Asiat. Soc,, Bengal, Vol. xlviii, p, 116. 530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVII. The sudden and unexpected introduction to this or any other snake under such circumstances detracts much from the pleasures of birds’ nesting in this country. I have occasionally known it come into the house. The late Mr. L. C. H. Young reported one in this Journal* which he found moving round his dinner table, and in Trichinopoly I once found one which had climbed on to the top of my verandah chick. Mr. Millard writes to me: ‘ It moves very rapidly when it wishes to escape by almost throwing itself from its tail.’ I have not seen the Echis manifest such activity, but believe that most snakes can do so when making their utmost endeavours to escape. I have certainly seen the Russell’s viper do so, and many other snakes. I can find no better way of describing the muscular effort than as a jump. | VO e< | L, < YS enya Se in enim - Pees * Pere any 2 Ss ae ongal 5 PUA Pe ES ye ae ete ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 541 the ultimate keeled, the penultimate faintly, and in the 4 to 7 oblique rows above this the keeis are serrate, The ultimate row is the largest, the penultimate rather smaller, the oblique rows narrow, and remaining dorsal rows subequal and small. Supracaudals. Keeled to tail tip. Ventrals 132 to 192 (Boulenger) : broad, stretching right across belly, so that when the specimen is laid on its back, only part of each ultimate costal row can be seen on each side; not keeled. Anal. Entire. Subcaudals. 21 to 48 (Boulenger) ; entire. DEraILs oF Map 2, Distribution of Echis carinata. 1. Mullaitivu.—Ferguson. Rept. Faun. Ceylon, 1877, p. 25. Haly. First Report Snakes. Colombo Mus., 1886, p. 18. 2. Ramnad.—Dr. Annandale. Indian Museum. 3. Tinnevelly.—Millard. Bombay Collection. 4, Anamallays—Boulenger. British Museum. 5. Trichinopoly.— Wall. 6. Arni—Russell. Ind. Serp., Vol. 1, p. 3. 7. Madras.—Boulenger. British Museum, 8. Bangalore.—Nicholson. Ind. Snakes p, 173. Selater, List 1891. Indian Museum. 9. Karwar—Millard. Bombay Collection, 10. Deogad.—Candy. Bombay Jourl., Vol. V, p. 85. Liston. Parel Laboratory (In epistola), 11. Ratnagiri—Vidal. Bombay Jourl., Vol. V, p. 70. 12, Mahableshwar.—Boulenger. British Museum. 13. Poona.—Millard. Bombay Collection. 14, Andherii—Young. Bombay Jourl., Vol. XVI, p. 504. 15. Deccan.—Boulenger. British Museum. 16. Ellore.—Blanford. Jourl. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Vol. XLVIII, p. 116. 17. Singbhum.—Anderson. Jourl. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Vol. XL, Paede Sclater. Ind. Museum, 18. Rajmahal. 19, Nowgong.— 20. Allahabad.— ”) ”? ”? 9) 3 ?) 542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII. 21, 22, 23. 24, 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Agra.—Sclater. Ind. Museum. Delhii—Wall. Fayrer. Thanatoph., 1872, p. 125. Mhow.—Millard. Bombay Collection. Rutlam.—Heath. Bombay Jourl., Vol. XII, p. 785. Guzerat.— ,, a . Vol. XIII, p. 340. Ajmere.—Blanford. Jourl. Asiat, Soc., Bengal, Vol. XLVITI, p. 127. Mount Abu.—Selater. Ind. Museum. Deesa.—Boulenger. British Museum. Bhuj.—Col. Light (In epistola). Shikarpur.—Dr, Imlach. Trans, Medl. and Phys. Soc. of Bombay, 1855, No. LILI, p. 80. Karachi.—Sclater. indian Museum. Dasht.—Sclater. Indian Museum. Jask.—Boulenger. British Museum. West of Bampur.—Boulenger. British Museum. (Persia not Baluchistan as given by Boulenger, Cat. Vol. ILL, 1896, p. 507.) Ashkabad,—Boulenger. British Museum. Tirphui.—Sclater. Indian Museum, Seistan—Boulenger. British Museum, Annandale. Indian Museum. Perso-Baluch Frontier—Alcock and Finn, Jour!, Asiat. Soe., Bengal, Vol. XLV, p. 565. Quetta—Mec Mahon (In epistola). Rajanpur.—Scelater. Indian Museum. Multan. Major Smith (In epistola). N.-W. Frontier, Malakand—Wall. Parachinar, Whitehead (In epistola.) ‘Common throughout’, McMahon (In Kpistola). Chilas——MecMahon (In epistola). Salt Range.—Selater. Indian Museum. Between Nuskhi and River Helmand.—Boulenger. British Museum. I have not been able to exactly locate the following :— Patchia in Rajputana. Sclater. Ind. Museum. Chilgez in Afghanistan. Boulenger. British Museum. Muckerabad in Persia. Boulenger. British Museum. Kalagan in Baluchistan. Sclater. Ind. Museum. hth. Plate VII. Chromo Tmt ib} 8 SNAKE. TRE BROWN TREE I—4:. Dipsas trigonata. dourn.Bombay Nat Hist.Soc. d.G.del. less) rm OR“KUPPER (ha: bP) THE“ PHOORSA ©—8. Echis carmata. Se \pOis Om f ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 545 THE Gamma, or Common Brown TREE-SNAKE. (Dipsadomorphus trigonatus.) (Dipsas trigonata), Nomenclature.—( a) Sctentific—The generic name is from the Greek “‘ Dipsas”’, a species of snake, and ‘‘ morphe’’ form, implying a similitude in form to that of the Dipsas. Under the name Dipsas* many snakes were included by the older writers, which modern her- petologists consider separable into many distinet genera, The name is now retained to designate the genus of the original snake to which it was applied by Laurenti in 1768, a South American species, wiz., Dipsas bucephala, The other forms now considered distinct have had to be rechristened, and among them the genus to which the species under discussion belongs. The title now retained for it by Mr. Boulenger originated with Fitzinger in 18438, and was applied by him to this species. It is very doubtful, however, whether this name will stand, as the same authority gave. the name Bo/ga to the species crregularis of this genus in 1826 as shown by Stejneger + recently. There seems litile doubt that the name of the genus will have to be changed to Bozga, but | refrain from doing so here, as I follow in Mr. Boulenger’s footsteps in nomenclature in these papers. The specific name trigonatus is from the Greek “ tri’ three, “gomia ” angle, and is applied to the peculiar markings on the body, which often very obscure appear to me to much more resemble the Greek letter * than triangles. The name was introduced by Schneider for this species in 1802. * This name was evidently borrowed from the ancients who applied it to some snake, the identity of which is at the present day probably not known. It was reputed to be venomous and according to some, one of the effects of its bite was an insatiable thirst (Gr. “ Dipsa” thirst), though Lucan makes it appear that it was the creature itself that was afflicte’ with thirst. Thus in his Pharsalia written in the first century A.D. he alludes to it on the occasion when Cato was leading his army across the cesert. The passage has been thus transiated : And now with fiercer heat the desert glows, And midday gleanings aggravate their woes, When, lo! a spring amid the sandy plain Shows its clear mouth to cheer the fai: ting train. But round the guarded bank in thick array Dire agpics rolld their congregated way, And thirsting in the midst the Dipsas lay. + Proc. Biol. Soc, Washington, XV.,1902 p. 16. 544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XV 111, (b) English—tI know of no English name in general use but have seen it alluded to as the Common brown Tree-Snake in some books. This title is too long and it is doubtful whether it might not be equally applicable to its larger brother species D. forstent. I would suggest the name Gamma snake, the markings on the body in a typical specimen are very like the Greek letter « and specially those on the left side. On the right, however, the long stroke of the letter is sloped the wrong way. (c) Vernacular.—The name quoted for it by Russell* about Viza- gapatam is “Tar tutta’. In Malabar it was frequently called “¢ Choorta’’. Dimensions.—It grows to two-and-a-half feet.+ The longest of some 25 measurements made by me were 2'-7", 2'-63", 2'-63" and 2'-6", and all of these specimens were females. The largest @ of some 20 examples in which I have recorded the sex was 2'-13", I had another ¢ 2'-0%", Physiognomy and Bodily Conjfiguration.—The head is subcordate or subtriangular in shape, being widest at a point about midway between the eyes and the neck, and is flattened (7.c., depressed). The snout is rounded; the laterally placed nostrils occupy the second and third-fifths from above downwards of the suture between the nasals and are wholly or almost wholly contained in the anterior of these shields. The eye is large, the iris copiously flecked with mustard yellow, and the pupil vertical. The neck is very constricted, prob- ably (incommon with others of this genus) more so than in any other colubrine snake within our limits. The body is slender throughout : it increases gradually in girth from the slender neck, and as grad- ually attenuates towards the vent. Its vertical markedly exceeds its lateral measurement (2.e., the body is compressed). The tail is evident, especially so in females, a considerable reduction in girth occurring at the vent. It is of moderate length, varying from rather more than one-seventh to one-fifth the total length, and is distinctly ionger in females than males, a peculiarity I have not noted in the * Ind. Serp., 1796, p. 20,and Plate XV. + Blyth (Journal Asiatic Soc., Bengal, Vol. XXIII, p, 294, footnote) says that it attains to about 6 feet, but this is obviously a mistake, probably a printer’s error, for his record of the length of the young, wiz,, about 9 inches, is in accord with my «wn supposition. and in con- sonance with the proportions of hatchlings in other snakes of dimensions similar to that given by me for this species, viz,, two-and-a-half feet. ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 545 species of any other genus, but which will probably be found to be the same in others of this genus. In all other snakes where a sexual disparity is noticeable ! have found the length greater in the males. JT may here remark upon the very striking resemblance this snake with others of this genus bears to some vipers. The shape of the head, the vertical pupil, and the constricted neck are typically viperine, to which may be added the method of striking, to which [ shall refer hereafter, On the other hand, it is noticeably different from vipers in the large plaque-like shields of the head, in the profile outline of the commissure of the mouth which does not show that marked downward curve corresponding with the position of the viperine fang, and in the slenderness, length, and compression of the body. The tail, too, is relatively longer in Dipsadomorphus. The viperine similarities affect the very features which most readily attract the eye ; the dissimilarities on the other hand are far less noticeable to one unfamiliar with these creatures. Colour and Markings—The ground colour is usually of a light yellowish-brown, sandy, or fawn hue which may be uniform, or, more or less mottled with darker shades, specially low in the flanks or sparsely scattered with black spots. Dorsally a series of dark more or less distinct ¥ shaped marks occur on each side, which fade posteriorly, ending at or before the vent. The shade between the arms of each x is lighter, often indeed whitish. Where the series of one side exactly meets the fellows of the other on the spine, as frequently happens in part if not the whole length of the body, these marks resemble arrowheads. Blyth* says the very young are pale with but slight traces of the adult marks, but I cannot say that my young specimen was much, if at all, different from adults. I have noticed that the skin between the scales is dun, and somewhat darker in the gamma marks, and in sloughs these marks are obscurely traceable. A specimen [ got in Delhi was much the colour of tea and milk, and was copiously specked with very fine punctiform dark spots, the gamma marks being very obscure. The head bears a pair of large lung-shaped brown patches, often delineated with black, and a narrow dark streak passes from behind the eye towards the gape. Annandale + mentions a variety from the * Loe, cit. + Jourl, Asiat. Soc, Bengal, Vol, LX XIII, p. 209. 546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII. Perso-Baluch frontier many specimens of which were collected by Sir A. H. McMahon in which the head was sooty black, especially in the young, and suggested the name melanocephalus for it. Breeding.—My own notes supply all the information on this point, and though the incidents within my experience are few, a good deal may be inferred from the scanty material available. My smallest prospective mother was 1 foot 82 inches in length in June. This length would be attained in the third year of age, and from an ophidian point of view the age is an unusually early one for breeding. My other gravid specimens were four years old at least. Tt is fairly obvious that the species is not a very prolific one from the snake stand point. 10 was the Jargest number of eggs found in abdomina, and in three other cases there were 3, 5 and 6 respect- ively. The eggs are probably discharged as such in August and September. I am fairly certain the species is ovoviviparous, and have good reason to believe that at the time of deposition the eggs contain embryos ina very early stage of development, but of this I cannot speak positively yet. The eggsare long white ovals, the poles of each equally domed, the shell white and leathery. {i have measured them in one case Z inch long by 4 inch broad, in a Bangalore 8 specimen ; date of capture not known. In another killed in August they were 37 of an inch, and ina third in August $5 of an inch. Both the last were obtained in Fyzabad. In the Bangalore specimen, which had been preserved in spirit, the 10 eggs lay in a single string, which occupied 8} inches of a body 2 feet and ? of an inch long (7. e., exclusive of tail). The poles of each were flattened against one another from pressure. The young it may be presumed from analogy emerge from the egg two months or so after deposition, but of this I can only speak hypothetically. If I am correct in my belief that the embryo is partly developed when the eggs are extruded, the usual term of incubation may be curtailed. Hatchlingsare, I believe, about 9 inches in length. Blyth, too, gives this measurement for the young. It is perhaps remarkable that of more than 30 specimens collected by me [ have only bad one young one. This measured 93 inches on the 13th March in Trichinopoly. My next largest specimen was 1 foot 34 inches. The young appear to grow about 6 inches a year. ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 547 Tdentification.— Attention must be directed to the following. The scales are in 21 rows anteriorly, 7.c., two heads lengths behind the head, 21 in mid body, and 15 posteriorly, ¢.e., two heads lengths before the vent. This arrangement is only to be found in certain species of this genus and some pitvipers, Lachesis gramineus, etc. The enlarged plates on the head will eliminate all the vipers which share the scale peculiarities just noted, and thin the diagnosis down to 5 species of Dipsadomorphus,* viz., trigonatus, hexagonotus, ceylonensis, cyaneus and multifasciatus. Trigonatus has the vertebral row of scales feebly enlarged in the middle of the body, and fewer subcaudal shields, viz., 75 to 92. In the rest, excepting multzjasczatus, the vertebrals are as broad as long in the middle of the body, and in multzfasczatus the subcaudals vary from 96 to 114. To sum up diagnosis rests on— (1) The scales being 21, 21, 15. (2) The head covered with large plates. (3) The feeble development of the vertebrals in midbody, (4) The subcaudals 75 to 92. Disposition—This with others of its genus is one of the most intrepid snakes | know. Often with no further provocation than being suddenly disturbed or confronted, it will assume an attitude of defiance and with little hesitation boldly act on the offensive. The attitude it adopts at these times is very characteristic. The head and forebody are erected well off the ground, and the latter thrown into loops of which two overlapping one another are thrown to one side and one on the other, the head being poised in the middle of the figure of 8 so formed. The rest of the body lies variably disposed im sinuous extension. Prior to its hasty stroke the erected part is swayed slightly forwards and backwards, whilst the body is inflated and deflated with agitation, and the tail briskly vibrated with emotion. Poised thus, intently watching the object of its alarm for a favorable a * Many of the species in this genus are so closely alike in scale characters that it is diffi- cult to separate them, consequently some have been much confused by some authors, After the number of scale rows, the development of the vertebrals,and the number of the subeaudals, the next most important point to demand attention appears to be the posterior sublinguals the fellows of which are in contact in some of the species, separated completely by small scales in others, Whether this will be found quite constant in the various species remains open to question. The reflection of the preocu!ar on to the top of the head or otherwise, appears to me of uncertain value, heing subject to variation in individuals of some species. The actual contact of this shield with the frontal is also variable, 548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XV1I1. opportunity to deliver its thrust, the little creature reminds one of the behaviour of a wrestler seeking with the utmost vigilance to engage his adversary advantageously. The stroke is delivered with great malice, the jaws opening widely in the act of striking, and the forward thrust is no sooner accomplished than the creature retracts itself to reassume its former attitude, and strikes again and again—in fact, will sometimes do so till its energies are spent. During the thrust the loops are straightened to their utmost, and a two-foot snake may dart at and strike an object six inches or even more in front of it. A. D. trigon alus seen from bove pased before sfriktng- VEE do Seen fron in front pos ed before strikin g- I have several times tried to get this and others of this genus photographed in the peculiar attitude just referred to. The last occasion was in Fyzabad, but in my attempts to get the right pose I was struck at again and again until the specimen lay over on its side completely exhausted, and I picked it up with no more fight in it ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 549 and restored it to its box. The next day it repeated the same per- formance with a similar climax. Such determination and courage in so small a creature are worthy of the greatest admiration. Its attitude before striking is very similar to that displayed by the pit vipers Laches’s gramineus and L. anamallensis. I have tried to show this in the accompanying diagrams. Food.—Like other ophidians the Gamma snake takes almost any- thing it can get, but it shows a strong partiality in its natural haunts for lizards, especially those of the genus Calotes and other A gamoid forms. (unther* says it feeds on mice, but J have knownit do so on only one occasion. In captivity Mr. Millard tells me ‘‘it feeds freely on small birds, lizards, and mammals, killing them by constriction in the same manner as the Python.” It would appear to be capable of utilising its tail to some purpose in the same direction, for Russell + relates the following experience :—‘“‘ In the month of December, a vigorous subject of this species was made to bite a chicken which he did very fiercely and repeatedly in different parts * * *, The chicken at first fluttered, and screamed with pain, but soon became quiet. In about half a minute, greatly to my surprise, she let fall her head, and shut her eyes as if dead. The position of the wing prevented the cause of this being at first discovered. The snake imperceivedly had wreathed its tail round the chicken’s neck, and the bird, had it not been rescued, would inevitably have been strangled. Soon after beimg disengaged, it recovered perfectly.” Distribution.—(a) Geographical—The distribution of this species is very similar to that of the Hehis, as will be seen by the accompanying map. In India it will be noted that it inhabits that little tract of territory on the Malabar Coast in which the Hchis appears to be absent, and also extends to the north of the river Ganges unlike Kehis. It probably reaches the base of the Eastern Himalayas, but its exact limits to the Hast beyond Assam are unknown. Anderson} records it from Assam and the Naga Hills, and there are two speci- mens in the Indian Museum from the Khasi Hills (Shillong). Compared with the range of Hchis its more extensive eastern distribution is compensated for by a more restricted habitat to the west. Jn the Mediterranean sub-region it extends like Hechis into Transeaspia, but its limits to the west are doubtful. I can find no *Rept. Brit. Ind., 1864, p, 312, t Ind. Serp., Vol. 1, p. 21. } Jourl, Asiatic Soc., Bengal, Vol. XL., p. 35. 4 550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII, record west of the Perso-Baluch frontier. There appears to me no doubt that it occurs in Ceylon, though Boulenger* does not mention this locality, and Wuiileyt does not include it among the ophifauna of that island. Ferguson}, however, says ‘of specimens sent to be named by Dr. Gunther, he is returning one named /ipsas trigonata, Boie.’ It is possible that like Kchis it may be confined to the north-eastern part of the island. Were it universally dis- tributed one would expect the Colombo Museum to have — repre- sentatives on their shelves. The specimen referred to by Fer- guson has been apparently lost sight of. (b) Local.—it appears to be essentially arboreal in habit, frequent- ing bushes, scrub, or trees usually in close proximity to the ground, though it will climb to considerable elevations at times. I have frequently come across its sloughs low down in lantana and simi- jar tangled vegetation, It often descends to the ground, and I have several times met with it at night in the open, on the road, or a garden path. At this time it always appeared to be on the move, but I have had several examples brought to me found coiled up on the ground beneath a bush during the day time apparently asleep. In bushes it coils itself into a little heap, unlike the tree snakes of other genera which recline with the body extended in graceful curves distributing their weight on many points, unless they are actually resting in their major or full length along a suitable branch, In this Journal § Nurse reports having frequently seen it in Guzerat, where it appears to be very abundant, curled up on the top of cactus hedges. It sometimes takes up its abode (perhaps for the deposition ot eggs) ina hole in a tree trunk, and in one instance one had evidently recently tenanted a crypt in the crevices of a wall, as its slough was seen partly issuing from a hole in the face of the brickwork. After the foregoing observations it will appear remarkable that such a creature can adapt itself completely to a desert environment, but such is undoubtedly the case, for Blanford | records one from Gwadar in Baluchistan which he says is merely a fishing village on a barren spit of sand between a rocky promontory and the mainland where there is not a single tree and scarcely a bush to be found. { Reptile Fauna of Ceylon, 1877, p, 21. § Vol, XIU, p. 340, || Jourl,, Asiatic. Soc., Bengal,Vol. XLVLIII, p. 13). ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 551 It appears to be a particularly common snake about Vizagapatam according to Russell,* as many as half a dozen being found in a night crossing the road. At Berhampur a little to the north of this I met with it fairly often, but never in such numbers, nor have [ found it as common in any other part -of India as Russell reports it from Vizagapatam. Description of lepidosis.—Rostral.—Touches 6 shields, the sutures it makes with the anterior nasals twice or three times those made with the internasals, Jnternasals.— A pair ; the suture between the fellows from three-fifths to two-thirds that between the prefrontal fellows and about two-thirds to three-fourths the internaso-prefrontal sutures. Prefrontals.—A pair; the suture between the fellows, subequal to the prefronto-frontal sutures: touching the internasal,postnasal, loreal, preocular, supraocular, and frontal. /rontal.— Length subequal to the supraoculars, breadth in a line connecting the centres of the eyes about one-third to one-fourth greater than supraoculars ; touching six shields, the fronto-supraocular sutures about one fourth longer than the rest. Nasals—Completely divided ; touching the Ist and 2nd supralabials. Loreal small, squarish. Preoeulars.—One just reaching the top of the head but not meeting the frontal. Postoculars——Two. Temporals.—Small, scale-like, anteriorly usually two, sometimes one or three. Supratabials normally 8 with the 3rd, 4th and 5th touch- ing the eye. Infralabials— Usually 7, the last 3 or 4 touching the pos- terior sublinguals ; the 1st meeting to make a suture subequal to that between the anterior sublingual fellows; the 7th much the largest, and in contact with three scales behind. Suwblinguals——Two pairs of subequal size or the posterior rather longer ; the posterior fellows in contact anteriorly usually. Costals.—Two heads lengths behind the head 21, midbedy 21, two heads lengths before the vent 15. The absorption of rows is peculiar ; at the step from 21 to 19, which occurs shortly after the midpoint of the body, the uppermost lateral row dis- appears and is almost always absorbed into the vertebral, with the result that at this spot the vertebral becomes suddenly larger, and especially so if the absorption occurs on both sides simultaneously. I have known it absorbed into the row below. At the second step from 19 to 17, which occurs very close to the first, the 4th row above * Ind, Serp., Vol. I, p .21. 552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVJ11, the ventrals fuses with either the 3rd or the 5th. At the third step from 17 to 15 the uppermost lateral row is absorbed into the verte- bral, and again a sudden enlargement in the vertebral row results. Steps one and two are occasionally reversed. The vertebral row is enlarged throughout, but anterior to the first absorption the shield are but slightly enlarged whereas later they are relatively much broader. This enlargement ceases above the yent where the rows of scales reduce, and become redisposed, even numbers of rows replac- ing the odd number seen in the body, This arrangement is in strong contrast to that seen in the Kraits (Bungarus) where the vertebral row also enlarged is continued as such along the whole of the tail. The last three rows above the ventrals are all enlarged, the ultimate most so, This isa peculiarity I have only seen in members of this genus. The outline of the transverse series of scales is as a result characteristic as shown by the thick lines in figure 2A. Keels are absent everywhere, but each scale bears a single apical pit. Where the vertebral row is but feebly enlarged, a single pit is in evidence, but where through absorption it becomes broad, two or rarely three pits may be seen. Ventrals 206 to 238, rounded, and reflected un- usually high in the flanks, to about one-third the body depth. Anal entire. Subcaudals 75 to 96 divided, Explanation of abbreviations used in lepidosis, fig. 1, Diagram T1, (D. trigonatus). A.S. Anterior sublingual. F. Frontal. Int. Internasal. L_ Loreal. M. Mental. N. Nasal. Pa. Parietals. Po. Postecular. Prf. Prefrontal. R. Rostral. S. Supraocular. T. Temporal. V. Ventrals, Lto 8. Supralabials. Ito VIL. Infralabials. Diagram II Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Journ., | : & 3S ~N Ss my SS ee fe seh 8 oS Sas QI.8 8K WS ~N GVcd Ss S Ante V at ine Vertebhrals Dipsadomorphus trigonatis. ( x 3) : INDIAN SNAKES (wix/2). ee S| a ae nd ne nes pens Pate cle ae joss eae : ; - = 7 7 ao - ; os ‘ MY % Nota e we - a a ” ha ; oo 2 em . “ saat? a anf i =T7 Seti aoe sil eee ASLO = items) Ip aaa eae wes ren Rcerwenlaren SA tN - ; ~ : Le ake | : ; ‘ ( a ‘Non: tte Sh d : : t { # p : , : a) ¢ | igs aay ; - ion PI eis porta si: é 7 ee Aya ¥ ’ 2 ? , . i] A ¥ ; ; ; : i ¥ 1 é sa t < = ae P) & F a oe = ¥ eri ee 9 , Lo Ute e ee + pec eietenny Sheer ae v - mate =e ya i : a ; “ts, 5 ay Fy on . re ae Ms, ey ae Sth a oe NES i] er ee ce i > 2 ‘ AREY ra fee! =e ’ : , ry * tt BS f 4 aa act ens = ‘ 4 . ae si 2 5 ; wie! be oe i oy as pats. * eo Se ise cR™ _ : P woe Section © be ie ae _,' Py : i H ake “4 ee Sey oe. ee ay a . ~~ { . + a ae a - Ay 9 i Ae ed As a 4 ae aa ’ ‘ =" 6 sist - . [? , ow) a 2 ‘ a ba 3 3 ee Nee y J ee a ee p : i J i ee ee ee er ey ee ee Teeny Te = us A Poe W a Journ Bomeay Nar. Hist. Soc. r LZ Utrera A Se el Maps — Distribution Sf Dipscitomnorp his rigomanas. ee eS ee ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, Key to Distribution Map of Dipsadomorphus trigonatus. Ceylon.—Exact locality not specified. Ferguson Fauna, Ceylon, 1877, p. 21. Trevandrum.—Ferguson. Bomb. Jourl., Vol. X, p. 73. Anamallays.—Boulenger. British Museum, Trichinopoly.— Wall. Cannanore.— Wall. Bangalore.—Sclater. Indian Museum. Pondicherry.—Boulenger. British Museum, Madras.— 9 on Rept. Ellore.—Blanford. Jour]. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Vol. XLVIII, p. 115. Vizagapatam.—Russell. Ind. Serp., Vol. I, p. 21. Sholapur.—Millard. Bombay Collection. Poona.— 25) ” ” Khandala. 3) bib) Di) Bombay.— __,, » ” Teatpuri.— 9 9? ? Nasik,.— 9? ? Guzerat,—Bombay Jourl., Vol. XIII, p. 340. Karaghora.—Millard. Bombay Collection. Ahmedabad.— Nowgong.—Sclater. Indian Museum, ? 9 ) Berhampore.—Wall. Aska.— Sclater. Indian Museum. Balasor— ,, ss ” Manbhum.— ,, ie 5 ts Calcutta.— __,, x 3 Chakardapur.—Annandale. Indian Museum. Purnea.—Sclater. Indian Museum. West of Barakhar.—Anderson. Jourl. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Vole cles p. 35: Shillong. —Annandale. Indian Museum, Naga Hills —Anderson. Loe, cit. Fyzabad.— Wall. Ajmere.—Sclater. Indian Museum. Jaipur— —,, Me a 554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII. 34, Delhi.—-Wall. 35. Kumaon.—Boulenger. British Museum. 36. Mussoorie.—Wall. 7. Sabathu.—Sclater. Indian Museum. 38. Sehwan.— Murray. Rept. of Sind, p. 51. 9 3 e Kotri.— ol ” ? bi) 40. Karachi.—_,, . Boulenger. British Museum. 41. Gwadar.— Ae ‘ » 42. Perso-Baluch Frontier—Annandale. Jndian Museum. 43. Puli Hatun. Transeaspia.—Boulenger. British Museum, ( Fo be continued.) JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY Aatural History Society. Vol. XVIII. BOMBAY. No. 4 A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOURED PLATES AND DIAGRAMS, BY Mason F. Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.S. Part VIIT with Plate VIIT and Diagram 1. (Contenued from page 554 of this Volume.) The genus Bungarus as considered by Professor Boulenger in his Catalogue* includes but six species. Since the publication of this work he has added another to the list entitled stndanus, and I have added one to which I attached my own name. I have for a long time tacitly dissented from Mr. Boulenger’s views with regard to the forms he describes under the name candidus, believing that under that title at least three well marked species are included. To two of these he has conceded the minor rank of > under the names ce@ruleus and multicinctus. Another “variety ” very distinct form is that to which Evans and I applied the name magnimaculatust and recorded as a variety of cwruleus. Now all of these forms are very distinctive in colour and markings, are not connected by intermediate forms, inhabit very definite geogra- phical areas, and show differences in lepidosis, so that 1 feel there is every justification for each being recognised as a distinct: species. My recent collections in Assam and Darjeeling have further revealed to me the occurrence of two distinct kinds of black krait which hitherto have been included under the title lividus. * Snakes in the British Museum, 1893 to 1896, + Journal, Bombay Natural History Society, Vol, XIII., p. 611, 712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVII. The total number of recognisable species now amounting to twelve, J think a brief review of the different forms is called for before dis- cussing the common Indian form ceruleus with which this paper deals. The easiest way to approach the subject is I feel by appending a table indicating at a glance the main points made use of in differen- tiation. The key which follows is added to still further simplify the process of identification. Some brief remarks on each of the species follow. 2 heads lengths behind head, Name of species. Midbody, Vertebrals in midbody broader than long. 2 heads lengths before vent. Ventrals. Some subeaudals at end of tail 2nd supralabial decidedly nar- Number of bands on body. Number of bands on tail. Habitat. ry ow flavtceps oe bungarotdes ..} 15 lividus .. elude ceruleus ee} Lo ceylonicus eo) 15 fasctatus eo} 15 magntmaculatus,} 15 multictnectus ..| 15 niger =: «| 15 candtdus eo LO Sindanus e.| 19 ~ oo 13 |Yes 15 v5 15 | No 15 | Yes 15 ” LDN 15 a Ty een 11) oes 15 4 17} No 17 | Yes 193-226 | 42-55 |Yes 220-238 209-215 200-218 219-235 200-234 218-229 194-218 216-231 210-222 218237 192-207 S| | w & Ss . & C3) Si = i=) = bo] vey g s = | So S Ss o| o = PIS El] mp 2 a ols 3 See eS 2 isa) ? ? None. Malay Archipelago and Peninsula, Cochin China and Tenasserim, 44-51] ,,|/Yes| No| Many equidis- jE, Himalaya s, 3542} No] 4] > 38-50} ,, | No] ,, 33-40} ,,)Yes] ,, 23-39] 9)] 9, ] 95 42-49) lo] y AS-6B Neo EVO MME) |p || cy 0-80 12 | Gs 48-52 | Yes| No} 48-55 | No,| Yes} Yes tant white lines.| Khasi Hills, Belly white. N. Gachar. None. The Brabmaputra Basin South of the Himalayas, Many white {Indus and Ganges lines in pairs. Basins, Peninsu- lar India and Ceylon. 15 to 20] 2to5 |Ceylon. bands surround- ing belly, 16to27 2to 3 |Brahmaputra Ba- complete yellow] sin South of the and black bands,| Himalayas, Ma- hanadi Basin, Trrawaddy-S al - ween Basins, ll tol4! 2 to 3 |[rrawaddy Basin, Bands not sur- rounding belly. 81 to 45 11 to13 |From S&S. China to Bands not sur- | the Irrawaddy- rounding belly. | Salween Basins and Andamans. None. BrahmaputraBagin South of the Hi- malayas. 20 to 25! 7to9 |Malay Peninsula Bands not sur- | and Archipelago, rounding belly. Many white |Sind. lines in pairs. Many equidis-|Ganges Basin, tant white bead- ed lines, ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 713 KEY TO THE KRAITS (Bungarus). SCALES IN 13 ROWS IN MIDBODY..........:.-s.-ccrseeesee flaviceps, SCALES IN 15 ROWS IN MIDBODY. Aohelds at tipo tail divided... 51.c02.sssecsess-senccsaessse bungaroides. B. Shields at tip of tail entire. (a) Vertebrals narrow, longer than broad, not as broad as last TOW Wai mMIdbOdY..c.cctccccesscscerscerescdecscces« lividus. (b) Vertebrals as broad or broader than long in midbody. (a?) 2nd supralabial as broad as 1st and 3rd ......... ceruleus. (b1) 2nd supralabial decidedly narrower than 3rd and often than 1st also. (a?) Belly banded with black. Subcaudals 23 to 40. (a*) Tail tapering to a point. Banded with black and white. Peculiar to Weytonths Sey a ie os, ctetseaaesaaces ceylonicus, (b*) Tail blunt and fingerlike at end. Banded with yellow and black ...... Fasciatus, (b?) Belly not banded. Subcaudals 40 to 57. (a*) 11 to 14 streaked white bands on body2.2/t0 Sionjtail, 2.5.2.2 sccs.e0cecese magnimaculatus. (b*) 20 to 25 pure white bands on body, NtOrQonpiaill chau catsstecoctescceractne candidus. (c*) 31 to 45 pure white bands on body, Ui Wows com tall oo icccc= oh) Oo _—_—_—_— SCO OOO | 2| B 13! 73" to 3/93" ] ggan | 4 g [ror AVASH |) At ey 4! OA" to 4! 12" A #08" | 2 bo Oy Identification.—It is a matter of surprise to me and worthy of special remark how very few of the Huropean population in this country are able to identify the krait in spite of its wide distribution, numerical strength, its extremely deadly nature, and the fact that it possesses exceptionally distinctive and easily recognisable characters. With the exception of a very few medical officers, and a still smaller number of naturalists, ] have scarcely met a soul who has any idea what the krait looks like, with the result that I get almost every variety of common harmless snakes sent in to me as such, It is difficult to account for such lack of interest in a country where poisonous snakes abound. The popular idea is that the krait is a small snake which haunts our habitations, and any small snake has merely to enter a house to be set down forthwith as a krait. The first essen- tial in diagnosis is the enlargement of the vertebral row of scales. This peculiarity is found in only a few other snakes besides the genus Bungarus notably the genera Dipsadomorphus, Dendrophis, and Dendrelaphis, some species of Amblycephalus, Xenelaphis hexagonotus and lachistodon westermanni. The second point to look for concerns the shields under the base of the tail (subcaudals), These shields in most snakes are divided by oblique sutures into pairs, but in most kraits they resemble the shields beneath the belly in that they pass right across the tail. These two points taken together are suffi- cient to declare the snake a krait. 11 of the 12 known species can be ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 725 thus distinguished.* So it only remains to separate the species under discussicn from its closely allied forms, Attention must be paid to the following points:—(1) The costals are arranged in 15 rows. This excludes flaviceps, sindanus and walli. Cceruleus is the only one of the remaining species in which the 2nd supralabial is as broad as the 3rd. The number and character of the white arches is distinctive, and its distribution will assist where any doubt may arise. It is to be noted that it is the only krait inhabiting the Indian Peninsula South of the Ganges if we exclude fasceatus which occurs in the basin of the Mahanadi only. In Sind it is associated with sindanus and north of the Ganges with walli. It does not occur in the Brahmaputra Basin where it is replaced by bungarotdes, lividus and niger. In Ceylon it is associated with ceylonicus. It does not occur in Burmah but is replaced by magnimaculatus and multicinctus. There should be no difficulty in recognising any snake as a krait, however mangled the specimen may be. Several snakes bear some superficial resemblance to the krait, and these we are figuring in our next two Plates. | reserve comment upon the resemblances, and the further characters to be relied upon in distinguishing between them, till discussing each form sepa- rately, but it is to be noted that none of them share either of the peculiarities affecting the vertebral row of scales, and the subcaudals given above as characteristic of the kraits, Disposition—tThe krait is one of the most inoffensive snakes I know. I have had numerous living examples brought to me, and have kept several in captivity, so that my opportunities for studying its nature have been abundant. Time after time I have recorded the singular timidity of this snake in my notebooks, often under the greatest provocation, and only once have I seen one bite at anything in anger. This specimen had been impaled through and through by a trident and could only * In one rare species inhabiting the Eastern Himalayas and Assam Hills, viz., bungaroides, some specimens have all the subcaudal shields divided, so that the diag- nosis here given for ceruleus though holding good for nearly all the kraits, breaks down as an absolute generic test. I have therefore in a previous paper (Vol. XVII, P Pp. 57-68) had recourse to additional points when dealing with the kraits as a group. 726 JOURNAL, BOUBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII. move a few inches of its body behind the head. It must have been enduring the most fearful torture but even in this predicament though alert and lively, moving its head and quivering its tongue, it refused to bite things thrust at, or held up to it. In trying to remove it from the rusty prorgs that pierced its body, it endured the suffering fot some time, but finally buried its teeth into a mass of fat that had escaped from its wounds. When freed it did not repeat the act, or betray any further vice, I noticed that two speci- mens I had caged together used periodically to grasp one another’s bodies in their jaws, one shifting its grasp down the length of the other, as though seeking a favourable spot to commence devouring its mate. Many specimens I played with or teased, simply hid the head beneath coils, and refused to move. Some I noticed flattened the hinder part of the body and inflated and deflated themselves anteriorly like many other snakes under excitement, and it is remarkable how expansive the lung must be, for in one specimen, in which marked inflation was noticeable from the 3rd to the 18th twin white arches, it was found upon subsequent dissection that the lung only reached as far back as the 7th twin arches. It very frequently emits the tongue in a leisurely fashion when provoked. — Its placid disposition banishes all fear, and tempts one to disregard any precautions in handling it, at least this is my experience. [ noticed especially ia Delhi years ago that Kallan the most intrepid snakecatcher [ have ever seen, who collected scores of poisonous snakes every week, treated the krait with supreme indiffer- ence, though he exercised the greatest caution in dealing with Hichides. Fayrer* says: ‘In my experience I had always the greatest difficulty to get the cokra, krait, and daboia to bite voluntarily.” Nicholsont calls it a ‘‘ very inoffensive” suake. Gleadow{ says “} have always found it quiet, and not pugnacious.” Millardt remarks that it is “very shy.” Colonel Dawson f{ says, “ It is a very shy snake, and rarely bites except in self-defence or when hurt,” This is fully exemplified by the behaviour of the snake which * Log. cit., p. 64. + Ind., Snakes, p. 147. { In Kpistola. ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 727 caused the fatality, in the case of the keeper reported herein. The krait was unearthed while the man was digging. He picked it up, and tied a piece of cloth round its head, which the snake got rid of several times on the road from his house to Trivandrum Gardens. Arrived at the gardens the snake again freed its head, and it was whilst trying to bind it on again that the bite was inflicted. Dr, J. R. Henderson writes to me: “I have frequently kept this species living but could make little of it, except that it appeared sluggish, and not easily irritated.”’ The behaviour of a specimen placed by Russell with a cobra bears out the above opinions. He says, ‘The next subject opposed to the cobra, was a Gedi Paragoodoo”’ (common krait) ‘‘ which, in all its movements, was much tamer than either of the former two” (i2., Zamenis fasciolatus and Vipera russelliz), ‘and seemed solely intent on escaping out of the room, or retreating into a dark corner. When pushed roughly on the cobra, and consequently struck by him, he made no resistance, nor snapped in return ; he did not even offer to retreat, but laid himself close to the cobra, whose body he often touched in his convolutions, without any apparent offence being taken.”’ Colonel Dawson tells me that at Trevandrum when given a pot of sand or earth he has seen them trying to bury themselves, Food.—tThis species, like others of this genus, is in the main ophio- phagous in habit, but ina state of nature as well as in captivity will partake of most other things offered. I have on eight occasions found snakes eaten, once Bungarus walli and once Lycodon aulicus and on the other occasions Typhlops braminus. In every case where young examples had fed Typhlops had been taken, Mr, Millard tells me that “those kept in the Society’s Rooms refused all food but snakes.”’ Dr. J. R, Henderson tells me, ‘‘ I have frequently given a captured specimen a living snake to eat, and in most cases the latter was inside the krait by next morning. On one occasion one disposed of a Dryophis longer than itself”’ Father Dreckmann writes to me, “ their food, as far as I can judge, consists exclusively of other snakes, I have never found anything else in their stomachs, and a very fine specimen disgorged three other snakes in different stages of digestion during the first night of its captivity.” There are at least 7 other records reported in this Journal where other snakes had been devoured, 3 728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XVIII. On the other hand I have twice known frogs eaten, and Fayrer * records a similar experience. In the Administration Report of the Madras Museum, 1896 to 1897, one specimen is reported to have eaten 2 frogs, and another 18 frogs during incarceration. I have twice found toads (Bufo andersonz?) in the stomach, and once a monitor lizard ( Varanus flavescens). Small mammals too are oceasional- ly devoured. I once found a muskrat (Croe:dura ceruleus) in gastro, and Assistant Surgeon Robertson told me he found 5 young muskrats taken on one occasion. I have twice seen a brood of young mice which had been swallowed, and in Bannerman’s escaped specimen, when ultimately recovered, the meal consisted of 6 newly born rats. Captain Liston, I.M.S., tells me that at Parel they have lately found that both kraits and Russell’s vipers readily eat the young foetus from rats in an advanced state of pregnancy. Sloughing—The krait casts its skin probably every month. One in captivity in the Madras Museum, captured on the 7th November 1896, sloughed on the 7th December 1%96, the 13th January, and 27th February 1897.+ Haunts—Fayrer says, ‘‘It is found in the fields, grassy plains, rice khets, low scrabby jungle, and among debris of wood and buildings. [t sometimes insinuates itself into houses, in the verandah, bathrooms, on the ledges of doors or jhilmils, into book cases, cupboards, ete.” Millard writes to me, “ It is very fond of living in the roofs of bunga- lows.” Theobold{ speaking of kraits as a group says, ‘‘ They delight in water and its vicinity,’ an observation waich receives support among others from Father Castels, S.J., who writes to me that in Trichinopoly ‘“ small specimens have been brought to me in bundles of 20 or more caught, as they said, in water.”” I have had several specimens brought to me that were captured in water. These were, I think, always cap- tured in the hot weather, which seems to show that they grow very thirsty and for this reason they frequently get into places from which they cannot extricate themselves, such as wells. and the little pukka tanks connected with the irrigation arrangements so commonly seen in Indian Gardens, * Loc. cit. p. 121. + Administration Report, 1896 to 1897. + Jourl. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1868, p. IV. ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 729 They appear to me to be commonest in the precincts of man, and to actually domicile themselves in human habitations for choice. Thus the krait may usually be reckoned as one of the commonest snakes to be found about cantonments and even in the bazaars, and its numerical. strength is probably little dreamt of by even the most nervous residents. In Fyzabad for instance I obtained 47 specimens in June, July, and August 1906, all caught or killed in cantonments. Judging from the weekly bags brought in by the snake-catcher Kallan at Delhi it was probably as common in that station. A very large number of my specimens were encountered inside bungalows, outhouses, bazaars and about jails, As a rule they have been found on the ground, or floors, far less commonly in the roofs, or situations necessitating clam- bering efforts. It appears to be decidedly nocturnal in habit, most of my specimens have been killed at night. Mr. Millard mentions in a letter to me that in captivity it likes to get away from the light, and Colonel Dawson informs me that “‘ in captivity they never move as a rule during the day time but become very active about dusk.” Potson.—Authentic records of krait bite are rare although the species isso abundant in man’s immediate environment. This is partly due no doubt to the inoffensive nature of the snake already remarked upon, but must also be largely attributed to the incom- petency of many medical men to recognise it. There can be no doubt, from what is known of the virulence of krait venom, that a fatal issue usually attends the bite of this snake. Fayrer* quotes the remarkable homicidal case originally reported by Chevers where four credulous men allowed themselves to be bitien by a krait about three feet long under the assurance that no evil effects would follow. They were bitten one after another at night, the sampwallahs goading the snake to fulfil their purpose by administering blows with a cane. The first man bitten died before dawn, having complained of thirst and foamed at the mouth, The second and third died about noon the next day, and the fourth recovered after suffering from giddiness, perspiration, pain in the stomach and unconsciousness, F'ayrert reports another case where a chowkidar died six hours after having been bitten in the forefinger, He suffered burning pain locally, later in the head, and then in the * Loc. cit., p. 51. 7 p. 54. 730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol; X Vii; whole body. He grew weak till he could hardly articulate and a drowsiness supervened which culminated in death, A third case recorded by Fayrer died three hours after a bite in the finger. Here again great pain was experienced locally, and swelling, His respiration became short and hurried, he complained of constriction round the chest, became increasingly drowsy till death. Hlliot records the death of a sepoy thirty-one hours after being bitten on the ankle. No symptoms were recorded. He was treated with ligature, and inci- sion, and 1} grains of strychnia were administered hypodermically. Another case was recorded in the Indian Medial Gazette of February 1874. The subject, a Hindu male, aged about 60, was bitten in the left index finger, at 9 pm. one evening, At 5 a.m. the next morning he was admitted into hospital with giddiness, drowsiness, incoherent speech, difficult breathing and a choking sensa- tion in the throat. He could not walk or sit up unsupported. The hand was livid, swollen, and painful, An hour later his parotid glands were noticed swollen, he vomited, and had severe shooting pain in the left thigh. Later vomiting was repeated, breathing became more oppressed, and he became very restless. At 7 a.m. he was unable to speak or swallow, his eyelids had drooped, and he was constantly putting his hand into the mouth as though to attempt to remove some obstacle. His leg muscles twitched. The symptoms increased, and he died at 9 a.m. in convulsions, He was treated with six intravenous injections of liquor ammonia, amounting in all to three drachms. Iam indebted to Colonel F. W. Dawson for the following :—A keeper in the Trivandrum Museum was bitten on the right index finger by a small krait, one and-a-half feet long, at about 1-30 p.m., 13th August 1907, The bite felt like a pinprick, there was no bleeding, and indeed no mark whatever of a puncture. He went home having declined all persuasions to go to hospital, and ap- parently stayed in his house till about 3 p.m., when he began to feel a burning pain, in the bitten finger. He walked to a hakim’s house without any difficulty, and soon after arriving suffered intense pain in the abdomen, At 5-30 his neck became rigid so that he could not turn his head, and his body became rigid so that he could not stoop. He was unable to talk, His respirations became laborious and coma ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 731 set in. Frothy matter, and a quantity of phlegm-like mucous passed with great difficulty from the mouth and nostrils. Towards the climax he had two convulsive seizures, and he died apparently from suffocation at about 7 p.m. the same day. It was observed that the heart pulsated some time after breathing had ceased. Further Colonel Dawson says, ‘‘ There have been several cases of death from bites of the krait here jately, in ail of which the prominent symptoms were burning pain of the bitten part, rigidity of the neck and pain in the abdomen.’ He was informed by his head-keeper that a neighbour’s boy of 6 or 7 years of age had awaked one morning recently with an intense pain in the abdomen. He was treated in hospital for stomach- ache, and sent home. On moving the mat on which the child had slept a krait was discovered. A train of symptoms very similar to those experienced by the keeper who died followed, and the child died. No mark of a puncture could be found on the body. Lieut-Colonel Dimmock, I.M.S., has Kindly communicated the following interesting case : A Hindu male, aged 35, was bitten on the dorsum of the right foot at 11-p.m. on the 29th November 1907 by a small krait ‘‘about two feet long” identified as such at the Parel Laboratory. At the Railway Hospital, Bombay, two punctures half an inch apart at the seat of the reported bite were slightly incised, and permanganate of potash applied. He was transferred to the Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy Hospital where the punctures were freely incised, and permanganate crystals rubbed in. On admission he was reported as “suffering from fright, pretended to be insensible but is quite con- scious.” . . ‘In the night his pulse became slow and feeble, and respirations shallow, and hurried. Next morning he was quite well and went home at noon.” Internally he was treated with ammonia, and hypodermieally with strychnia. The dose of poison injected may have been small, but whatever the dose it certainly appears as if the permanganate had very completely neutralised its action as no symptoms occurred other than those directly referable to fright. Ammonia and strychnia have both been proved powerless agents in snake bite, though, of course, they are powerful restoratives in combating fright, | Poison apparatus. Fangs.—These structures are relatively small when contrasted with those of vipers, and even perhaps with that of the 732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII, cobra. Ina well grown adult I have measured the fangs one-eighth of an inch along the straight, and I think in the largest specimens they will be found scarcely to exceed this length. They are canaliculate with a very obvious seam on the anterior face where the circumflexed margins of the walls forming the canal meet. Often two fully oper- ative fangs occur side by side in the same jaw. Behind these the maxilla is hollowed to receive the sac in which the reserve fangs develop, and behind this again it gives origin to four small teeth, which are grooved though in no way connected with the poison apparatus. Glands.—These structures, as far as I can judge, are relatively about as well developed as in the cobra. They are smooth, somewhat retort-shaped, and when cut into reveal a cancellous structure similar to the appearance of a sponge. Poison. Physical properties.—I have rarely seen the poison vitro”’ either in the liquid or dried state, and can find no special “in references to its re-action, taste, and appearances, etc, To the naked eye it appears, when fluid, much like cobra venom, a clear fluid, with the consistency and colour of pale salad oil. Quantity.—I have no records of the yield of a single gland nor can I find any in literature, but the yield is, | think, very considerably less than that of a cobra of the same size. or 3 Sh T'S a ue 2 Sas 5 bo & Authority. Reference. ~ sme 3 3 | Bee fs) = = es i= M PS aie [ Krait ...|Pigeon ... 25 |Rogers... ...|) Phil. trans. Royal Soc, London, 1904, Series B., Cobra...:1)' '4; my. mito eS Vol. 197, pp. 137 and 147. Krait ...| Rat aa 1:00 |Elliot, Sillar and |Loe. cit. p. 327. Carmichael, Cobra ..-| 04 to :07 |Lamb ... ... (Scient. Mem. Officers Med ” and Sanitary Department. No. 7, p. 19. » ee] White rat... 25 Eason... ... Nature, 16th April 1896. ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 733 Toxicity.—As will be seen from the annexed table it is impossible from the present available research work to draw a comparison be- tween the relative virulences of krait and cobra venoms, The inves- tigators quoted are all men of the greatest ability, their work when critically studied is convincingly careful and precise, and yet their results vary enormously. Rogers makes it appear that krait venom is about twice as deadly as cobra venom, Fraser’s results compared with Elliot, Sillar and Carmichael’s show that cobra venom is four times as potent as krait venom, and Lamb’s results compared with the same trio’s concedes to cobra venom a toxicity twenty times that of the krait. Lamb,* however, from his own researches with both poisons on rabbits, shows that krait venom is proximately four times as virulent as cobra venom, In considering the question it must be borne in mind that samples of venom from individuals of the same species vary somewhat, thus Lamb fixed the minimal letha] dose of cobra venom for rats with one sample at ‘04 milligrammes per kilogram weight, and with another sample found it was ‘07 milli- grammes.t Again animals vary in their susceptibility to different venoms, thus Lamb found a rat more susceptible to cobra venom than a rabbit, but a rabbit more susceptible than a rat to Enhydrina venom, { It is reasonable to suppose that the quality of the secretion may be affected by health, in fact we know it is, for Lamb has remarked with others on the decrease in quality and quantity of venom in snakes kept in captivity. Doubtless season, and possibly youth, and old age similarly affect the poison secreted, Further there are the conditions affecting the animals experimented upon. Not all individuals of the same species are equally susceptible, and health and age doubtless modify their susceptibility. Again I have shown, I think, good reason to suppose that the snake Bungarus candidus as hitherto understood includes 3 or 4 forms which may be distinct species, If all these forms areimixed up, and their poisons which may be very different in toxi- city, collected together as krait venom, this alone might account for the conflicting results. In future experiments I think every care should be taken to keep the poisons of the various forms apart. * « Snake poison and Snake bite,” p.8. This reference is the same as that appearing in ‘Clifford Allbutt’s System of Medicine (Lamb and Martin), t Memoirs officere, Govt. of India No. 5, p. 14. t Loc. cit., p. 7. 734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XVIII. The possible factors which may contribute to a want of uniformity, other than the supposition that the venom of several species has been mixed, are each taken by itself trifling, and one would.expect a more - proximate agreement in results than that actually obtained. Lepidosis. Rostral—Touches 6 shields; the rostro-nasal sutures longest and about twice the rostro-labial which are shortest. Internasals, —The suture between the tellows about half that between the pree- frontal fellows; two to three-fifths the internaso-prefrontal. Prefrontals.—The suture between them greater than ihe pre- fronto-frontal ; touch the internasal, postnasal, preocular, supra- ocular, and frontal, Frontal.—Touches 6 shields; which are subequal or the fronto-parietals largest. Supraoculars—Breadth about half, length about two-thirds the frontal. Masals—Touch the 1st and 2nd_supra- labials, the suture from the nostril passing to the Ist. Praoculars— One. Postoculars.—Two. Temporals——One anterior touching the 5th and 6th supralabials. Supralabials 7; the 2nd as broad as the 3rd, the 3rd and 4th touching the eye. Jnfralabials,—The 4th is much the largest of the series, and touches 2 scales behind, Sublinguals.— Two pairs; the anterior largest, the posterior touching only the 4th of the infralabial series, Costals—Two heads lengths behind the head 15, midbody 15, two heads lengths before the anus 15, the last row deeper than the rest; keels absent; apical pits absent. Vertebrals.—Broader than long in almost the whole body length, about twice as broad as the uppermost costal.* Ventrals.— 200 to 218. Anal._—entire. Subcaudals.—88 to 50; all entire. Dentition and Jaws.—The maxilla extends forward as far as, and is as long as the palatine. Anteriorly it supports two fangs which are placed side by side. The fangs are canaliculate and the seams where * The enlargement begins gradually in the neck, and usually without a coalescence of scales, In this respect it differs from the species of Dendrophis and Dendrelaphis where the enlargement is due toa fusion of the 3 median rows, and begins therefore suddenly. Posteriorly the enlargement persists along the whole length of the tail, a peculiarity seen in the kraits alone of all the snakes that exhibit enlarged vertebrals. Here the vertebral row gradually reduces in breadth, and suddenly enlarges at intervals owing to an absorption into it of the rows on each side (Fig. E., Diagram I.). In other snakes with enlarged vertebrals the enlargement ceases above the anus (Fig. F., Diagram I). In these as in most other snakes the scales which have been in an odd number of rows become arranged above the anus in even rows, and the absorption of rows is brought about by a fusion of the two uppermost supracaudals on each side, at each step (Fig. G., Diagram I). ee i a a gat -- ee oe Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Diagram 1. INDIAN SNAKES CWALL)- ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 735 the walls of the canal meet on the anterior face are much more apparent than in viperine fangs. Behind the maxilla supports four small subequal teeth which are strongly grooved on their outer faces. Palato-pterygoid.—The palatine bone equals the maxilla in length and supports 10 or 11 subequal teeth all of which are grooved on their inner faces. The pterygoid bone is more than twice as long as the palatine, but bears teeth only anteriorly, in rather more than one-third of its lengih. The teeth numbering about 11 slightly decrease in size posteriorly, and are feebly grooved on their inner faces. The transpalatine bone is rather longer than the tooth-bearing part of the pterygoid. The Mandible equals the skull in length. It bears about 15 teeth in the dentary bone which is about two-fifths the length of the entire mandible, The teeth are subequal in size except the 2nd, 3rd and 4th which are rather the longest. All are grooved on their outer faces. The accompanying figures illustrate these remarks, and show most of the bones of the skull. Our Plate is good. Figures 4 to 7 are all taken at midbody, and from specimens in the British Museum. Figures 1 to 3 are from the specimen whose body marks are represented in Figure 5. EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAM I. A. Skull of Bungarus ceruleus profile. B. Be _ fe basal aspect to show jaws and dentition. C. Maxilla of orofile ae 2 E } enlarged. D, 5 E os from below (a) Articular bone of mandible. (d) Dentary i 3 (f) Frontal, (m) Maxilla, (mn) Mandible, (n) Nasal. (p) Premaxilla, (pa) Palatine, (par) Parietal. (po) Postfrontal, (pr) Prefrontal, (pt) Pterygoid. (gq) Quadrate, (sn) Supratemporal, (t) Transpalatine or Heto- pterygoid, EK. Supracaudals of Bungarus ceruleus. FE, 5 of Dipsadomorphus hexagonotus. G. 5 of Zamenis korros. The dotted lines in figures E., F'., G. show the site of the anus, 4 87 A POPULAR TREATISH ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLUSTRATED BY CoLOURED PLATES AND DIAGRAMS, BY Masor F. Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.8. Part LX with Plate 1X and Diagram J. (Continued from page 735 of Volume XVIII.) THE Common Wo.ur-SNAkE (LYCODON AULICUS). Nomenclature (a) Scientific—The generic name (Gr. avx0s wolf and odevs tooth) originated with Férrusac* in 1826, and has reference to the long teeth in the upper and lower jaws which, from their situation and superior length, resemble the canine teeth of wolves and dogs. It is these long teeth which mislead many who inspect the mouth care- lessly, into supposing the snake a venomous one. As a matter of fact they are solid, nor canaliculate. The specific title (Latin—a house dweller) was introduced by Car! Linné in 1754, and emphasises the fact that it is usually met with inside habitations, (6) English—The Common Wolf-Snake seems to me the best name for it. (ce) Vernacular.—Though so common I know very few names for it. It is frequently confused by natives with the krait, and known by the same name locally as its poisonous relative. Thus Mr. DeAbreu tells me it is called “krait ’’ in Behar, Willey+ says it shares with the Ceylon Krait (B. ceylonicus) the name “tel karawala ” in Ceylon. Baboo Awmoola Ruttum Bysack gives “ kaurialla” as one of the names for the common krait (B. ceruleus), but I think it is more correctly applied to the common wolf-snake. I have heard this name given several times, and it appears to refer to the marks on the back resembling the little cowry shell, ‘‘ kaurialla” or ‘ kauriwalla” implying a wearer of cowries. A Hnropean subordinate with some knowledge of snakes told me that the common name in the Kheri District (U. P.) for it is “ garar’’. In 8. India Father Bertrand tells me it is one of the snakes called “ Soovar pambu” or “ wall * Bull, de Science, Nat., p. 238. + Spol. Zeylan, 1906, p, 229. 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. snake *’, Colonel Dawson informs me that in Travancore, this and L. travancoricus with other species are called ‘‘ shunguvarian,’’ the Malayalam word for conch shell being “shungu” alludes to the marks on the back. I heard it called “ choorta ’’ in Cannanore, but again here the term was loosely applied. Colour and Varieties—I cannot do better than first quote from Boulenger (Cat., Snakes, 1893, Vol. 1, p. 353). ‘““A,—Labials without spots; a triangular whitish blotch on each side of the occiput, the two sometimes confluent and forming a collar ; back with whitish cross bands bifureating on the sides (L. auleus, Linné), B.—Labials without spots: a whitish collar and a few (2—5) whitish cross bands on the anterior part of the body. C.—Labials without spots; no collar ; no dorsal spots or bands. ),—Some or all of the labials with a brown spot ; a whitish collar or a triangular whitish blotch on each side of the occiput ; back with whitish cross bands bifurcating on the sides, or with a dorsal series of quadrangular blotches, or with white lines disposed irregularly or forming a wide-meshed net work (1. capucinus, Boie). E.—Hach upper labial with a brown spot; no collar; no light spots or lines (L. unicolor, Boie).”’ Boulenger’s variety J). includes three varieties the ¢ 8, 4, and 3 10b Giinther*, I cannot see the justification for recognising any of the above varieties, which appear to me completely connected, unless var. B., about which I am not certain, deserves special mention. I find on referring to my note books that I have examined, and re- marked upon 191 specimens from widely separated localities in India, Burma, and Ceylon. Between specimens that have yellow or yel- lowish cross bars in the whole body-length extending often on to the tail, and those with no marks at all I find every degree of variation. In some not even the occipital band is to be seen, in others it alone may be obscure or distinct, in others two, three, four, or many cross bands may be visible, the anterior always most so. Varieties A. to E. therefore appear to me completely connected. I find that the colour of the lips to which Boulenger attaches importance varies too. Often the upper is uniform yellow or yellowish, often * Rept., Brit. Ind, 1864, p, 316 Journ.Bombay Nat Hist Soc. Iiatce, UXe 3 oe . 5 p, - hy : B dU Sy SCoeres AA AA POOP Sos { Seetaroae AA AAA LALZAAA VAAL AAA A A A A A Asia ‘ A SASL EA ee Seas ADAAO ae : Seay are PL Ny ) Ak J.G.dei. THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, (Wall). J.Green ,Chromo Ahee ae Lycodon aulicus,harmless,nat sire. 4. lycodon striatus, harmless, x7 - iT » ~~ ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 89 again more or less mottled with brown especially anteriorly, or some of the labial shields bear a single median brown spot. There appear to me to be but two varieties and these are so mark- ed that I am inclined to think they must breed true “ inter se.”’ In variety typica the brown varies from the light hue seen in figure 1 16 the dark-brown of figure 2. The bars are yellow or yel- lowish never quite white in life, though the yellow becomes white rapidly in spirit; They broaden laterally and dissolve into a net- work pattern in which the scales involved are outlined with yeliow. This reticulation is not clearly shown in figure 3 of our plate. It so often happens that the cross bars fade away posteriorly, that in i large number of specimens one cannot count them in the whole body-length. I have therefore noted in a large series the bars that can be counted in the anterior haif of the body (not including the tail), and find that they usually vary trom 9 to 18. In some un- common examples they may be very few, or even absent, the latter rarities conforming to the types of unicolor (Boie), and hypsi- rhinoides (Theobald), Further, the scales involved in the interval between the first and second bars (not the bar on the back of the head) vary from 5 to 10, and this is of importance in determining the un- common specimens in which but two or three bars are visible. T'ypzca is the common variety distributed throughout Indian and Burmese limits. In the second variety for which I propose the name olzgo- zonatus the ground colour is always dark.as in figure 2 of our plate or darker still approaching black. The bars are white, not yellowish. Laterally they dilate without dissolving into a net-work, They are distinct in the whole body-length numbering from 11 to 19. They are thus about half as numerous as in variety typica. The number of scales involved vertebrally in the interval between the Jst and 2nd bars varies from 12 to 19, The lips are white not yellow. Of this I got several specimens in Cannanore and have seen one from Bellary, but no others. It probably occurs only in S. India where it is far less common than typca. In both varieties the underparts are pearly-white, with in éypzca sometimes a pinkish tinge. Dimensions.—It grows to about two-and-half feet, but specimens over two feet are uncommon. I have records of only 19 over that length, and all my largest are females. My largest @ record is 2 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX, feet 31 inches, and I have had four @ 9 larger, the maximum length being 2 feet 5 inches. Mr. Millard, however, gives me two records in excess of my figures. One is 2 feet 73 inches, and another 2 feet 9 inches, the sex in both cases was not noted. Bodily configuration, phystognomy, ete.—The Wolt-Snake is rather slender in form, the body cylindrical in outline or slightly “flattened ventro-verteLrally and of much the same girth in the whole body length. The head is decidedly flattened, the snout broad, and rounded with an obtuse transverse ridge in front. The neck is sufficiently constricted to be distinctly evident. The nostril is moderate and occupies the full depth of the suture between the nasal shields. The eye is rather small and quite black so that no idea of the shape of the pupil can be discerned in Jife ; but shortly after death when the lens becomes opalescent from post mortem changes, or after immersion in spirit the pupil is seen to be vertical. The tongue is pinkish with white tips. The belly is obtusely keeled on each side, a feature favorable to clambering efforts. In this.snake as in the dhaman, and many other species the “angulation ’’ as it is usually called reminds one in . . . s , e 5 ae a s . P oe ) section of a boat (see figure 1 B, Diagram 1, facing page 23) ot Volume XVIII of this Journal). The tail is rather short being about one-sixth the total length of the snake, The whole snake is glossy owing to the smooth and polished surfaces of the scales; a circumstance which has not escaped the Singhalese whose name for it ‘tel’? karawala, implies “ oily. ”’ Identification.—the first thing to look at is the loreal which in this snake in common with a few others touches the internasal (see figures A and B of Diagram), This relationship of these two shields is only to be seen in 5 of the 11 known species of this Genus, in all the species of the Genera Amblycephalus and Trachischium, in Xylophis perrotete and in certain specimens of some //ypsirhkina. In all the species of Lycodon that concern us the scales are in 17 rows in midbody, whereas this number of rows isnot met with in any other species and genera just referred to. In L. aulicus and siriatus the lst and 2nd Jabials touch the nasal shields in the other three species the Ist only. It now remains to distinguish aulicus from strzatus. In the former there are normally 9 supralabials, in the latter only 7 or 8. In the former the procular frequently but by no means always touches the frontal, in the latter it never does so. In the Diagram I. n., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Jour LYCODON AULICUS (+2).* lar parts L. aulicus (enlarged), COMMON INDIAN SNAKES (W4tr), ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 91 former the belly shields (ventrals) are angulate, in the latter they are not. The former grows to 24 feet, the latter to less than 1}. Whilst both are common in Peninsula India and Ceylon, the former extends East beyond the longitude of Calcutta, the latter does not. To sum up, the essential points in identification are (1) a loreal touching the internasal, (2) scale rows 17 in midbody, (3) nasal touching the Ist and 2nd labials and (4) 9 supralabials. Haunts.—Of all the snakes that seem to seek out, and profit by a human environment the Common Wolf-Snake is the most conspicuous. I should think that fully half the snakes met with inside habita- tions throughout India would prove to be this species, and it certainly is far more frequently encountered inside bungalows, and outhouses than outside them. Not only is it a very frequent tenant of houses such as those occupied by the Huropean population in Cantonments, but it frequently obtrudes itself into densely populated parts, such as bazaars, native towns, jails, etc., and is no rarity in the business quarters of our large Indian cities. [ not in- frequently have one brought in from the regimental lines, bazaars and jails, and have had it from inside regimental and Cantonment hospitals, Mr, Millard tells me he has ‘“ frequently had specimens sent to the Museum which have been killed in houses in the Fort at Bombay.’ Like many other snakes it likes to insinuate itself into the crevices of loose brickwork such as the foundations and walls of buildings. Here it conceals itself during the day emerging at nightfall in quest of food. Along the outer walls skirting the jail at Cannanore [ rarely passed without finding the sloughs of this snake issuing from holes in the face of the masonry, and have often found it in similar situations elsewhere. In houses it very frequently climbs into the roof, and I have several times known or had specimens sent me which had dropped on to the floors of rooms, verandahs, barracks, ete. Disposition—The Common Wolf-Snake is a very lively little customer, which usually en being discovered slips away hastily if circumstances permit. If pursued, or any attempt made to catch it, or obstruct its path it strikes out boldly without hesitation planting its teeth into whatever thwarts its progress, and [have been bitten many times in trying to effect its capture. If in the open, and baulked in its endeavours to escape it will frequently coil itself 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX, intoa heap and remain stationary; and if worried will hide its head beneath its coils. Often too while lying thus it fixes its coils rigidly so that one can toss it into the air without it releasing its folds, as one might do a piece of knotted cane. A_ visit paid to such a specimen in its cage an hour or so later will probably show its courage restored, and it will inflict or endeavour to inflict a wound, Like most other snakes however it soon gets accustomed 10 being handled and will then suffer itself to be withdrawn from its cage without anger though it usually struggles to elude one’s grasp. Mr. F. Gleadow tells me he ‘‘saw one ina climber in his verandah one night, and while examining him to see whether it was a Lycodon ora Bungarus with the aid of a hurricane lamp, he let out at me like lightning, and scratched my nose. It was a very smart stroke indeed. Nobody had touched him.” Gunther* says of it: ‘It is of fierce habits and defends itself vigorously.” Mr, Millard writes to me: ‘It is of a somewhat fierce disposition, and when first caught will usually turn and bite freely.’ Colonel Dawson too in a letter to me remarks on the fierceness of its nature. Mice not infrequently fall victims to this snake, a fact which in itself speaks more eloquently than any remarks can do for the intrepid nature of such a diminutive reptile. Mice or at least individuals amongst them are most formidable antagonists for small creatures to encounter and I have collected several interesting records showing that a single one will not only defend itself against the snake or snakes into whose cage it has been put as food, but will g sometimes actually turn the tables, fight, everpower, and devour the snake. There is no doubt that this snake is responsible tor a large number of cases of snake bite in India every year, a circumstance to which its commonness, courage, irascibility, nocturnal habits, and predilection for man’s environment all contribute, As the snake is nearly always pronounced a krait by Europeans and natives alike it is one of those snakes which has helped most to swell the list of reputed antidotes to snake poison, for anything given internally, or applied locally under the circumstances gets the credit of haying averted the otherwise supposed inevitable fatality. * Rept. Brit. Ind, 1864, p. 316, ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 93° In a nervous subject, such as the native frequently is, a bite even from this harmless wolf-snake may prove fatal. Thus Dr, Willey* records a case in Ceylon of a woman who was bitten on the right forearm by a snake of this species one night, and who died in consequence, no doubt from fright. In the Indian Medical Gazette of November Ist, 1870, Dr. Ewart reports the following case :— “ This morning, August 22nd, on visiting the General Hospital,. I was informed that one of the punkah-coolies had been bitten, about 8-30 the night before, by a krait, whose venom is virulently poisonous. The man, it appears, had been sleeping, and on awaking he found something crawling over the right shoulder, and immediately experienced a stinging sensation about the middle of the acromion process. He was then under the impression that he had been bitten by a snake, and on procuring a light, a very lively snake was captured. “The site of the bite was examined by Mr. Knight, the Assistant Apothecary, who declares he discovered a small puncture, on which there was a small quantity of coagulated blood. He is also positive that the tissues around, to the size of a two-anna piece, were puffed and swollen. Patient’s pulse was irregular, and he was much alarmed and agitated ; the surface of the body was cold ; countenance anxious : pupils normal ; quite conscious and intelligent ; no dimness of vision, or vertigo. ‘“‘ About four minutes after the man had been bitten, the pari was freely searified, and the cupping glass applied. Ammonia was given repeatedly at short intervals. Rum was also freely administered, and means were taken to prevent sleep. ‘“‘ When the patient was presented to (us) as a specimen of snake-bite cured by cupping, ammonia, and rum, I expressed my doubts, after an examination of the seat of scarification, whether he had been bitten at all ; and if he had been bitten, whether the snake was poisonous. “T submitted the snake to Dr, Fayrer, C.S.I., who pronounced it to. be the ‘ Lycodon aulieus’ perfectly innocent. It is something like the Krait (Bungarus ceruleus), and often gets blamed accordingly, ”’ It is in such a case as this that the stimulating remedies which have- * Spolia Zeylan. 1906, p, 228. 94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XIX. enjoyed so great a reputation in the treatment of snake-bite are of real benefit, such for instance as brandy, ammonia, and strychnia. These agents have no influence in reducing or destroying the poison- ous properties of snake venom, they are useless agents in the treat- ment of snake pozsoning, but invaluable remedies in snake bite, a very different condition—where they act by counteracting the depressing influence which fright exerts upon the heart, Habits —The two most obvious traits in its character are its nocturnal habit, and its clambering propensities. It is seldom or never seen abroad in daylight unless disturbed. Mr. E. E. Green from bis experiences writes to me : ‘‘ It is quite nocturnal in its habits. In captivity it sleeps all day and refuses food.’’ When not established in the safe quarters offered by masonry, ora hole in the ground, it coils itself during the day in any convenient dark shelter, beneath the boxes or stores, or among the packages on the shelf in one’s store- room, beneath the discarded bucket or basket behind the stable, beneath one of the flower pots standing im the verandah, in a heap of kunkur beside the road, or stack of bricks or wood, behind or beneath the piles of plant stored in the Supply and Transport godown or the Telegraph Office compound, anywhere in fact that offers a convenient refuge. In such situations, besides enjoying the semi- darkness so grateful to its tastes, it is brought into convenient associa- tion with the very creatures upon which it is wont to prey, the agile, but incautious mouse, the slippery skink, and the defenceless little gecko, At night the wolf-snake emerges from its fastness, and actively pursues its quest for food. The servants are apt to encounter it in the verandah when serving dinner, the inmates of a house in any of its rooms, the sepoy in his lines, the soldier in barracks, and the warder going his rounds in the Jail. Often too it will drop from the root into the verandah amid the family circle, from the covered way to the kitchen, or from the disused punkah-pole, or cross-bar supporting curtains in the drawing-room. Its climbing accomplishments are very remarkable, for it often puzzles one to know how it can have got on to some of the places from which one dislodges it. The top of a window ledge, the jilmils of a door, the top of the lintel of a door which has become loosened from the masonry, a punkah-pole, or curtain rod. I have frequently had opportunities of observing this snake climbing and find that it ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. < on can do so with comparative ease even on a vertical plane, especially if the surface is a little rough. Thus I have many times witnessed it climb up the perpendicular wooden faces of its box, the boards being rough from the saw. It clambers with ease, throwing itself into an S shape, and appearing to balance itself on its tail. As one watches this performance one wonders at the support derived from the tail expecting every moment to see the snake fall, but no! the caudal extremity resting on the horizontal surface grows less and less, and finally follows the rest of the snake which adheres vertically wholly unsupported. Now some observers would have us believe that the force which operates in this acrobatic performance, is brought about by a muscular effort on the part of the snake which retracts its ab- domen in such a way as to create a vacuum in its body-length opposed to the surface it is climbing. This, as in the case of an india-rubber cup which has been pressed to exhaust the air, adheres mechanically by the production of a vacuum, I happen on more than one occasion to have seen Lycodon aulicus moving up the glass face of its cage, it can do so in a wonderful manner till nearly all the body-length has left the floor, but though I have specially looked for it I have never been able to see the slightest indication of the muscular action referred to above, but have noticed that the whole surface of the abdomen lay pressed against the glass. I have never seen the snake succeed in scaling a face of glass except in the case of two hatch- lings that I put into spirit. To my amazement [ found one of these still wet from its immersion lying along the face of the jar above the level of the fluid, and here it maintained a firm attachment, so firm indeed that it almost supported the second one in its endeavours, to reach a similar position, and escape its fate. In this case also I specially noted that there was no attempt at any retraction of the abdomen. The jar in which this scene was exacted is some 5 inches in diameter, so that the curvature of the glass can have been little assistance to a creature little over 7 inches in length. The wolf- snake appears to me to climb by the aid of its ribs, and the free borders of its belly shields, and with these alone. Mr. Sinclair in this Journal (Vol. LV, p, 310) remarked upon one he saw scaling a chick stretched vertically and lashed in position. He says; ‘“ The snake evidently climbed by hitching the edges of the ventral shields on to those of the bamboo lattice of the blind, and not by winding his 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. X1X., body which was entirely on the side of the blind next to me, round the bamboos.” Asalready stated it will frequently climb up into the coofs of houses, but perhaps the most remarkable example of its scansorial achievements is that mentioned by Haly*, a specimen having been caught in the lantern of the Minicoy lighthouse in Ceylon. Food.—L. aulicus whilst showing a preference for lizards of the gecko family accepts with avidity other small creatures that cross its path. I have on 13 occasions known it take geckoes always of the genus Hemidactylus, usually frenatus but also coctaez. On 8 occa- sions a mouse had furnished the meal, and on 6 other occasions skinks had been devoured. In the United Provinces Mahuta dissimialis ?, iv Burma Lygosoma cyanellum, and once another Lygosoma too digested to determine. Mr. HE. E. Green tells me in Ceylon he has known it take a Lygosoma in captivity. Willey says its staple food in Ceylon consists of the brahminy lizard, Mabuta carinata. Foes.—I have known it fall a victim to the common krait, and the habits of the two snakes are so alike that I suspect the wolf-snake very frequently meets an untimely death at the jaws of its ophiopha- gous relative. Breeding. The Seves.—As already remarked the 9 appears to grow to a greater length than the g. The sexes, as regards numbers appear to be equally balanced, thus my note books show that of 73 specimens sexed, 36 were males, 37 females, ' I have known the sexes in company in November in Cannanore by report. In this case the native who brought the ¢ assured me it was united with another which escaped. In January in Fyzabad two were found in company in a bottlekhana, and in Dibrugarh two nairs were killed in company one in June and one in July, The June 9 was heavily egg-bound at the time, but only the anterior half of the July specimen which I assume to have been a @ was brought in, the $ being perfect. It is evident that they do not dissolve partnership after sexual congress for a long time, if they do so at all, but this is a point upon which Iam very uncertain and a very difficult one to elucidate. The smallest gravid females I have known were both 1 foot 64 inches long, a length probably attained at the beginning of the third year of life. * First Report Snakes, Colombo Mus, 1886, p,. 10. ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 97 Anal glimds.—I{ have found these glands which are supposed to be connected with the sexual functions active in both sexes, and at most parts of the year. The secretion is custard-like in colour and consis- tency. The copulatory male organs are beset with many minute recurved spines, In a previous paper dealing with Russell’s Viper (Vol. XVIII, p. 13) 1 remarked that I was inclined to think that the oldest mothers were the most fecund. My notes on the wolf-snake certainly make it appear so, for the smallest females, 1 foot 64 inches in length, contained a] 3 and 4 eggs, and the largest 2 feet 5 inches in length, 11 eggs, Further 5 of the 6 ego-bound specimens over 2 feet in length contained from 7 to 11 eggs, whilst in 8 others where the length is recorded, all less than 2 leet, only from 3 to 6 eggs were found “ in abdomina.” My figures are as follows :— Length of @. No. of Eggs. { Length of Q. No. of Eggs. 1-64" ae 3 1-103" ze 4 1-61" = 4 2!-0!" soe 8 1-53" one 3 | 2'-03" eee 7 15" as 4 2!-24" a 9 1-81" Lun Dis Ce ial A eg! 8 D 2!-4" ses 7 1-101" aa 6 2'-5! seen: Figgs—\ have had many females brought to me gravid all with one exception during the first 7 months of the year. The one exception was egg-bound in Rangoon on the 20th December. Of the rest, one m Cannanore was gravid on the 20th January ; three in Cannanore in February ; one in Cannanore, and two in I yzabad in March ; one in Cannanore, two ir Fyzabad and five in Dibrngarh in April; one in Cannanore and three in Dibrugarh in May ; one in Cannanore, and one in Iyzabad in June, and three in ltyzabad in July. The eggs are deposited in the months from February to July, They vary in number from three to eleven but are usually from four to seven. They are elongate white ovals, equally domed at each pole, and soft to the touch, the shell resembling white kid, until vacated when it dries and hardens into a somewhat crisp parchment- like envelope. When seen ‘in abdom_na” they are frequently but by no means always particoloured grey and white. ‘The grey colour appears to me to be due to absorption of colouing matter 13 98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. X1X, from the intestine, for it is always seen on that part of the shell which lies in contact with the gut, is absent when the gut is empty. and present in some eggs in the string corresponding to a loaled part of the intestine. It may be originally derived from the pigment in the skins of the creatures ingested. When laid the grey cclour is never visible as far as I am aware. When deposited the eggs measure frem rather less than one to one and-a-quarter inches and are rather more than twice as long as their breadth. They contain no trace of an embryo. The periods of gestation and incubation are not known to me. Hatehlings —Toese escape from the egg doubtless by means of the foetal tooth, though I have failed to find it in the many examples 1 have examined. The appe rance of tlhe eggs afier evacuation is sim lar to that seen in other species. A clutch of five was brought to me on the 18th July last year found in a Planter’s bungalow. A single hatchling was present with the eggs, all of which, except a non-fertile one, were empty. I give a drawing of these eggs to show the cuts in the shel s through which the young had gained their liberty. Hach cut was as clean as if done with a sharp knife. The young when they escape trom the egg vary in leneth from 63 to 7% inches, or about one-third the length of a large adult. They are exactly like most adults in colour and markings. I have seen two of the same brood, one with very distinct yellow bars, in the whole body-length, whilst the other had a few rather obscure bars anteriorly only. One of these was very vicious, and bit me more than once when handling it. It attacked, killed, and soon swallowed a young gecko I gave it. 0008] EGGS OF LYCODIN AULICOUS. TYoshow incised apertures of exit made by hatchlings, (nat, size), ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 99 Growth.—It is very difficult to follow the growth after the 2nd year from the figures to hand in my note books. Jt is certain however that whenove year old the young have at least doubled their length being over 1 foot 14 inches long but they hatch over such a long period of the year that the lengths become hopelessly mixed. leaving no gaps to indicate successive broods. An unusual number of specimens between 1 foot 6 inches and 1 foot 8 inches in length at the same period of the year, seems to indicate that this leneth is reached at the end of the znd and beginning of the 3rd year. Again a large number measuring from 1 foot 9 inches to 2 feet, seems. to point to the termination of the third year’s growth. Distribution. (a) Geographical —Its range of habitat is very extensive. It occurs throughout Peninsular India to Ceylon and the Maldives. Westward it extends throughout the Punjab, to the lower slopes of the Himalayas. I can find no record of it from Sind how- ever. ‘To the Hast it ranges through the Bramaputra, and Irrawaddy- Salween Basins (including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands}, to the Eastern limits of Indo-China in the continental part of the Malayan sub-region, and througn the Malayan Archipelago to the Philippines. (6) Locaul.—It is essentially an inhabitant of the Plains. I have known it fairly common on the lower slopes of both Western, and Eastern Himalayas up to about 2,000 feet, but it appears to rarely wander above this altitude. Ferguson* in this Journal says though common in the low country in Travancore he has not recorded a single specimen from the Hills. Flowert remarked on a specimen he obtained at Penang at an altituce of 2200 feet. Willeyt too says that though common in the low country in Ceylon it does not appear to ascend to 3,000 feet. In the Plains it is common everywhere, and hardly a collection of snakes amounting to half a dozen specimens made anywhere will fail to show at least one representative. I cannot recall ever having seen or heard of a specimen in or close to water, or in damp places. Lepidosis. Rostral.—Touches six shields, the rostro-nasal sutures largest. [ternusals.—Two, the suture between them one-half to three- quarters that between the prefrontal fellows. equal to or rather * Vol. X,). 71. tP.Z,8., 1899, p. 664. t Spol., Zeylan,, Vol. yp. liv. 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. greater than the internaso-prefrontals, Prefrontals--Two, the suture between decidedly greater than the prefronto-frontal sutures ; in contact with internasal, loreal, preeocular, ‘sometimes the supraocu- lar) and frontal. Fronta!.—Touches 8 shields usually, (sometimes 6 only, when the preocular fails to meet it) the sutures sometimes sub- equal or more often the supraoculars rather longest. Supraoculurs — About two-thirds the length, and half the breadth of the frontal. Nasals.—Two, subequal, in contact with the Ist and slightly with the 2nd supralabial. Loreal—One, twice as long as high, longer than the two nasals. Preocular —One, usually meeting the frontal. Postoculars.—Two. Temporais——Two, the lower touching the 6th and 7th labials. Supralubials—9, the 3rd, 4th and 5th touching the eye. Sublinguals—Two pairs, subequal or the anterior rather largest, the posterior in contact wth the 5th and 6th infra- labials. nfralabials—6, the suture between the Ist as long as that between the anterior sublinguals; the 6th much the largest, twice as broad as the posterior sublinguals, anl in contact with three scales behind. Costals.—Two heads-lengths after the head 17, midbody 17, two heads-lengths before the vent 15. The reduction from 17 to 15 which occurs well behind the middle of the body is due to an absorption of the 3rd row usually into the 4th, rarely into the 2nd above the ventrals. The vertebrals are not enlarged, and the ultimate row but little ifat all. MKeels absent ; apical pits present, and single (see D, of diagram). Ventrals.~ 177 to 212, Trichinopoly 188 to 202, Cannanore 177 to 202, Burma 180 to 200 Fyzabad 193 to 208, Dibrugarh 197 to 210, E. Himalayas 197 to 212, (175 to 224 Boulenger) ; angulate laterally. Ana/.— Divided usually (rarely entire). Subcaudals.—56 to 80 (Boulenger); divided, Anomalies —Very rarely the loreal is subdivided into two, an anterior and a posterior. Jommonly the preocular fails to meet the frontal. The postoculars and temporals are sometimes three. Not infrequently, the supralabials are abnormal in number, vzz., 8 or 10, and the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th may touch the eye, either two, three, or all four of them, Tarely the nasal fails to touch the 2nd supralabial. Not infrequently the anal is entire, and rarely some of the subcaudals at the base of the tail. I have lately seen one from Tindharia in which the first 2 were entire, and Flower mentions one from Penang with the 4th and 5th entire. ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 101 Freaks are apt to occur among all animals, but that rare condi- tion known as axial bifurcation or dichotomy, which gives rise to dual heads developed forkwise on the same body has been recorded at least three times in this species. I wrote* of one such specimen in this Journal and two others are reported as being in the Indian Museum by Sclatert. Dentition.—The maxilla supports an anterior and a posterior series of teeth. The anterior set number 5, the first 8 progressively increasing in size {, the last 2 about twice the length of the 3rd. An arched toothless gap intervenes between the anterior and posterior sets. The posterior set numbers 10 or 12, the last 2 are about twice the size of the preceding 8 or 10 which are subequal in size. . The palato-pterygozd array form an uninterrupted series of which the palatine numbering 11 to 13 are rather longer, the pterygoid numbering as many as 29 progressively and very gradually diminish in length from before backwards. In preparing a skull the minute teeth at the back are very difficult to preserve. and dissect out intact, so that usually a number consider- ably less than 29 are evident. Mandibular.—Consist of two series, an anterior and a posterior, separated by a short gap. The anterior contains 5 teeth, the 3 first progressively increasing in length, the 4th and 5th equal and about twice as long as the 3rd. The posterior set numbers from 16 to 20. These figures are given from an examination of 4 skulls lying before me. Giinther’s§ statement that ‘Hach maxilla is armed with two fangs in front, placed ina transverse line, the outer being much larger than the inner”’ is incorrect. The two fang-like teeth are subequal, and placed one behind the other. Similarly, the last teo teeth in the posterior maxillary set are enlarged, not only the last as stated by him. Boulenger{] says the maxillary teeti increase in size posteriorly which seems to imply a gradual increase. This does not clearly describe the condition. Itis the last two teeth which are suddenly and distinetly enlarged. * Vol. XVI. p, 387. + List. Snakes, Ind. Mus,, 1891, p. 14. t Only one is seen in my figure, the first two are not noticeable owing to the bending ic wards of the mavilla. § Rept. Brit., Ind, 1864, p. 316. { Cat., Vol, 1, p. 348. 102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. SHaw’s Wo.ur-SnakE (LYCODCGN STRIATOS\, Nomenclature—(a) Scientific —The specific name striatus (Latin = striped) originated with Shaw in 1802, Ilussell hal figured the snake prior to this in his work published in L896.* p (b) Hnglish—The English rendering of the specific title is not dis- tinctive enough as it applies equally well to many others of the genus, so that I think ‘‘Shaw’s Wolf-Snake” the most appropriate name for i. (c) Vernacular —The only names | know of are those given by Russell, vzz., Gajoo Tutta and Karetta the latter in Hyderabad, Deccan. Dimensions —The longest of 14 specimens measured of my own collection was 1 foot 34 inches, and I know of no greater length. Bodily configura'ion, ete —Very similar to aulicus, the main differ- ence being that the belly is not angulated on either side but evenly rounded from flank to flank. Boulenger calls the head of aulicus spatulate but not that of stréatus, I cannot see much difference bet- ween the two, that of aulécus is perhaps rather flatter, and the snout more rounded. The eye is jet-b!ack as in aulicus, the scales as giossy and the tips of the tongue white. Colour.— Varying shades of dark-brown or black above with from 11 to 18 white cross bars on the body (not including tail) usually very distinct in the whole body length, the antericr ones specially so. The anterior ones again are more widely separated than the posterior. These bars are divided more or less distinctly at the sides to include a somewhat deitoid patch of the ground colour, very nicely shown in our plate. The belly is pearly-white, and unspotted. The head is brown or black above except the upper lip which with the lower lip, and chin is pearly-white. Most of the specimens I have seen have been a deep chocolate or pure b'ack, and the cross lar; pure white. Many writers, however, say that the bars or bands are yellow at any rate sometimes. Colonel Light ina letter mentions one caught at Bhuj with bright yellow cross bands, and says several in that locality have yellow bands. He mentions another from the same locality with the bands white. Stoliczka speaks of one from the Lower Hills of Simla with 58 broadish- yellowish cross bands. I have never seen a specimen with anything approaching 58 bands which in itself suggests aulicus rather than strzatus. The ventrals 182and subcaudals 57 would equally —_—_———— * Ind. serp, I., Vol. I, Plates XY und XXVI. ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 103 well agree with anul7cus, Annantale* says that those from the Mala- kand are reported to have yellow marks. Greenf mentions one from Peradeniya, Ceylon, with some of the madian scales in the anterior white bands yellow, and Annandale* speaks of a similar specimen from Pamban in 8. India f{ In 5 Ceylon specimens collected in Peradeniya, { found the bands far less distinct than in Indian forms, the colour being dirty white, and the ground colour brown rather than black. Identification —The remarks on aulicus under this heading apply also here. Attention must le given to the following: (1) a single loreal touching the internasal, (2) scale rows 17 in midhody, (3) nasals touching the Ist and 2nd supralabials and (4) supra'abials 7 or 8. ITaunts——I have known this snake in the house, like its commoner ally au/icaus, one in F'yzabad came into the Cantonment Hospital, and another was encountered in the Officers’ Mess of the 55th K. 8S. L. I. Three or four were unearthed at different times during digging operations. It hides away during the day time in holes in the ground, heaps of debris, crevices of brickwork, stacks of wood, ete. Disposition —All the specimens | have seen alive exhibited a very timid disposition. I never knew one strike no mutter what the provocation. Usually it made no endeavour to escape but coiled itself, and if touched or teased, hid its head Leneath its coils, looking out cautiously from time to time to see if the danger apprehended had disappeared. It sometimes iattens itself to the ground ina remark- able way. Habits.—Like the common wolf-snake it is decide lly nocturnal, I met with two at different times at night on the road between the Mess and my house at Berhampore (Orissa), and on both occasions there was no endeavour to retire from the situation, no attempt at * Mem Asiat. Soc, Bengal, 1.10, p 194, + Spol. Zeylan., D.arch i205, p. 2 5. t L know that aulicus and striatus are frequently confused one with the other, and I have found several specim-ns in various museyms ine rrectly identifisd, !f one tefers to the abnormalities n scaling uhat I have remarked upon in the wo =pecies in this pa, er, it will be apparent how easily a mista.e may ari e, since the points made use of in ihe sep ration of he two species are subject to some variation, Moreover, a mistake, | not infrequently committed in days gone by, may occur with others, 1|t is very easy to miscount the upper lab als in the LycoJjons, and vo omit to count the last which is often not so evidently oae of the series as one sees n other snakes, In all cases the mouth should be opened, and thege shields then counted tu the gape, 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. menace. Except the specimens encountered while digging nearly all were killed at night. Jt does not appear to share the acrobatic attainments of aulicus, at least | have never known one leave the ground, Food.—Three of my specimens contained skinks in Fyzabad, of the species Mubuza dissimilis. I have no knowledge of its gastronomic tastes otherwise. Breeding —All I know of this is from my notes in Fyzabad, The Seves—On two occasions in August pairs were found in company, Ina small heap of kunkur by the side ofa road a gravid female was dislodged one evening, and a male dislodged the next morning when the heap was broken further into. On the other occasion two snakes were seen together (not united) a little way beneath the soil during digging operations. Several coolies vouched for this, one of the snakes escaped in the excitement their discovery aroused, the other the male was captured, and in the hole were 4 eggs. It is remarkable I think that the partnership. had not been dissolved even after the deposition of the eggs. The male organs are beset with numerous minute claw-like appendages, The length of a gravid female of mine was 1 foot and $ an inch, Mr. E. KE. Green wrote to me some years ago of a gravid specimen which he identified as aulicus obtained by him at Peradeniya, Ceylon. I feel pretty certain that the specimen was not a Common Wolf-Snake, but Shaw’s Wolf-Snake, for it was only 12 inches long. a length far more in keeping with what we know of strzatus, and opposed to what we know of aulicus, the smallest gravid record of which is 1 foot 63 inches. Of specimens I have sexed 7 were and 4 Q, the longest. specimen 1 foot 34 inches being a female, The periods of gestation and incubation are not known. Season.—Shaw’s Wolf-Snake breeds at about the same season as the Common Wolf-Snake. [have knowna gravid female with small eggsin July, one gravid with large eggs in August, and the deposit- ed eggs alluded to above were found in August. Mr, Green’s specimen was also gravid on the 30th August. Eggs.—This species is not so prolific as aulicus, the eggs number- ing from 2 to 4. They are very large for the size of the snake, and much elongate, ! think, more so than those of aulaus. They vary from 1 to 12 inches in length, and are about .% of an inch in ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 105 breadth. Otherwise they are just like those of the common wolf- snake. , Distribution—(a) Geographical—this species extends further West than the Common Wolf-Snake, but not nearly so far East, its limit in this direction being proximately the longitude of Calcutta. It occurs throughout Peninsular India and Ceylon. On the West it extends through Sind and the Punjab, Baluchistan, and Persia to Transeaspia. (b) Local.—Appears to be chiefly a snake of the Plains, extending to low hills to about 2,000 feet. (c) Numerical.—Though I think it has claims to be considered one of the common snakes of India, it is not nearly the common snake that its ally aulicus is. In Fyzabad I got 138 specimens out of a total of 704, but whether it is more plentiful there than in other parts, | cannot say. I saw. 3 or 4 specimens in the few months I was stationed at Berhampore (Orissa). Lepidosis. Rostral.—Touches 6 shields; the rostro-nasal suture longest. Internasals.—Two, the suture between them 4 to 2 that bet- ween the prefrontal fellows, about equal to the internaso-prefrontal sutures. Preefrontals—Two, the suture between them distinctly greater than the prefronto-frontal ; touch the internasals, loreal, preocular, supraocular and frontal. Hrontal.—Touches 6 shields, the supraocular sutures longest. Supraoculars.—% the length, 4 or less than } the breadth of the frontal. Masals.—Quite divided by the nostril : touch the Ist and 2nd supralabials. Loreul—One, about as long as the nasals taken together ; in contact with the internasals. Preocuiar—One, not touching the frontal. Postoculars.—Two, Temporals—Two anterior. Supralabials.—& normally, t'.e 3rd, 4th and 5th touching the eye. Sublinguals—Two pairs, the posterior ratner shorter and in contact with the 5th and 6th infralabials, Infralabials—6 ; the 6th largest, twice or nearly twice as broad as the posterior subHnguals, in contact with 3 scales behind ; the suture between the Ist about equal to that between the anterior sublinguals, Costals.—2 heads-lengths from head 17, midbody 17, 2 heads-lengths before vent 15 ; the reduction from 17 to 15 occurs well behind the middle of the body and is due to a coniluence of the 3rd and 4th rows above the ventrals usually, sometimes the 4th and 5th ; keels absent ; apical pits present, single ; the vertebral row not 14 106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. enlarged; the ultimate not or barely enlargel. Ventrals.—Not angulate ; 153 to 178 (Boulenger) one of my Fyzabad examples 179, one in the Indian Museum from Malakand 179, another from the Perso-Baluch Frontier 196. Stoliczka’s specimen from below Simla with 182 I consider an aulicus. Anal —Divided. Subcaudals — Divided, 42 to 66 (Boulenger). In two Ceylon specimens I count 35 and 39. Russell’s two specimens 40 and 41, the latter from Hyderabad, Deccan. An malies.—In a specimen in the Indian Museum from Ma'akand the loreal is dual on both sides, the anterior smal! shield touching the internasal and make these shields appear as four. The nasals occasion- ally touch the Ist only of the supra'abial series. The anterior tem- poral is rarely a single shield. The supra’abia!s are rarely 7 with the 3rd and 4th touching the eye, 8 with the 4th and 5th touching the eye, or 9 with the 3rd, 4th and 5th touching the eye. I have found the anal entire in one Ceylon specimen, and in Russell’s Plate (X XVI) this shield is shown entire. Dentiion.—Very similar to that of aulicus. Mavrilla.—This supports an anterior and a posterior set separated by a considerable edentulous interval. The anterior has 2 (3?) progressively increasing teeth, fol- lowed by two large subequal teeth as in au/icus. The posterior set has 4 subequal small teeth followed by two large subequal ones. Palato-pterygoid —The palatine bone supports 11 teeth, the ptery- goid I cannot give, believing my only skull to be imperfect. Both sets are small and subequal. Mandzhular.—Anteriorly 3 progres- Sive'y increasing small teeth followed by two subequal large ones, then a short gap sufficient to accommodate one tooth, followed by 138 small subequal teeth. In this species the mazdla is distinctly shorter than in aulicus, supporting 4 small teeth in the poste-ior set instead of 8 to 10. The two enlarged posterior teeth are situated beneath the middle of the eye, and ata point well in advance of the optic foramen in the cleaned skull. In aulicus these two large teeth are exactly opposite the optic foramen, and beneath the back of the eye. Im the mandible there are fewer teeth (13) than in aulicus (16 to 20.) ( To be continued). Ete | eee | ot a) Se D ie Irn. B¢ moay INa Sask ( Pleats x& (Oe SSS KATA XK LASS — : = IL IPIPS SF ¢ WN 3 A Vi heen es S . eee < ¢ . - \ a Sal Pee fooed| ea even al eae r ‘ . Ce wie, J.Green,Chromo. THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. (Wall). 2 aa aus . tlydrophobus nympha, harmless, X17. - - x” - ~ + . | b ie “ Z| 1a 1+ . la ) lo o 4 o,0.Ae€nopeltis unicolor. harmless, XT. ERRATA. Vol. XIX, page 130, for “ Andrena punjabensis”’ read “ Andrena argada,” Ms 133, line 18, for ‘VW. albibrous’’ read “ M. albijrens.”’ - 191, tor “ Capra faleonert megaceros’” read “* Capra Falconert jerdont.”’ " 257, line 7, tor “(C. frugdlens) ” read “ (C. frugi- leus).”” wor rie > (pti) o> anion: Tipaach bss “elas i> Pi ra A a jue ae? 2 > ere ee . : . aia Be ss iia, S Da EN ie, Py al OLIGODON SUBGRISE US, A, B, C.—Head shields Ga): D.—Maxilla, E,—Outline of blade of kukri. F.—Dentary (@) and part Ofarticular (@) boncs of mandible (much enlarged), X, Y. Z,—Colour varieties ’ Lf 3 i. : Pa a 7. manly y fe ay “ iQ nw the) if 7 wy | oS ears 4 ° 7 4 City} re = y hee af a a 4 eK. 4 et - ers baat : a e “4 = it i (ram “ ae Meu ’ s t - . ° Ss — eat ~ i a aan » i j om i (as 2 t ea AS LI =t be 7 v ay) bee # a fp - si ! > ve ay if oe = ‘ N of 7 l ¥ ¥ ftom ‘ iy a H " h 7 ’ A 7 Z ' al . . : 4 Va e : — a a A 5 -) , Pia hore & Prete Bh : ea - of Ue ?}. oe POPULAR TREATISE ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 557 and Smotes, because the hindmost maxillary teeth are remarkably flattened (compressed) and their outline and blade-like character remind one forcibly of a goorkhas kukri. (See Figs. D and E of Diagram.) ; (c) Vernacular.—According to Russell wanapa pam’ is the name applied to it by the natives about Vizagapatam. In Cannanore I heard it called ‘‘choorta’? a term under which Lycodon aulicus is also confused, Dimensions.—Adults are usually from 15 to 18 inches in length. The longest 1 know of is 1 foot 94 inches from Hyderabad (Sind). General characters—lIt is rather slender, and graceful in form and noticeable in possessing no indication of a neck. The girth is wonder- fully uniform in the whole body length, the trunk round in section and smooth. The head is short, the muzzle truncate, and the eye small with a golden iris, and round pupil, The tail is short accounting for about one-seventh of the total length of the snake, Identification—lt is the only snake to be found in the Plains of the Indian Peninsula in which the scale rows are 15 in the whole body length, and the anal shield divided with three possible exceptions. In Sind Contza walter? has been recorded a snake in which the subeaudals number irom 73 to 82; in subgriseus they vary from 38 to 56. In the Himalayas from Simla to Darjeeling f 3 e ‘ " j ‘ ; F i * c : it « i _ ’ ¥ 7 f ? yh | - ye u a : 5 a ’ 4 7 if sd Loe t i . -_ oF ‘ . ' -T ¥ . * - Loo ' = va) a i i - 7 eS ’ “i ‘ i — & eo . j g : ’ i wee - ; 7 . v M r S i ry La ap ; r ; o n an ty » 4 7 ° na : - 7 ES i tha : : ‘ ; ares ¢ Sy i ‘ ar = > ‘ ‘ . 7 : : i ; F @ me = ee ew ere meen a ee nee er ere peoaam De areet rertaesiy hak Go ® . : ° = : 4 - “ : I fe Hy re y a i oe Garett i eat rl st + ae | * pet te a x 5 = Bs 5 t } ‘ , =f b A P4 = me. 7 a 7 4 ,’ a ] 7 ‘ B = 7 Z 4 yy i ' = ‘ bed = 7 E .v) -~. af : . ® al b 2] ; ; {jst ; : Sar@) “oe b iL 4 4 - ; : 4 Tk a Sagi fereetee tee a oe fan > a : : _ ee ee eee ee ee - : e es 2 ee = ‘dew (‘Moly UMOTY SI II SOIIITPOOT MOYsS s[ei9TINU YoRTG 9yL) ‘snasiubqns wopobij¢) Jo wornyepsi¢y Dumoys doy voldouqng uekelew a SSOUIUMD Oe Gt 21 03 v1 fezueM0 “ a UEIPU OL 03 Pp ‘z u) ” L vezyoaqius e1 ‘Zs ‘tb 21304810H 40 vorZauqns MEOUEsIOIIPOW 1 i "2984, 4EQOTIN-UeWeEpLYy 6) ‘“ wysosseuos 6's | }OC4L wiwosseuey “Li "30e4y NBdqg ‘91 QOe4, Cwung s0ddn ‘si "p24, wiessy “bp oo ” ry "e1 “POR4L URAL EWI AA Zt Veeqius “ti “S9U4L WI UOIASD “OL O) uolA30 'N © o OI 4EQGeIEW * "pOw4L DIPHUsED - "324, ESSIO-4eYIH * oes, UPODIgG "3284, SIpuy peszuas © ue 1e2u0g ° ” ‘3 °M'N: 3984, Quiund~ “MOG bora NPESINY 0S “JSIH “JEN Avpquiog ‘usnor POPULAR TREATISE ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 561 ing it “savagely attacked ” him twice. It is a quietly disposed crea- ture with sufficient spirit however to resent interference, and prompt it to ma e active attempts to escape when encountered. Habits.—My acquaintance with the species in life is too limited to give any information in this direction, but it appears to be diurnal and ofa retiring habit. Food.—1 have never found anything in the stomach. Breeding.—Ot the specimens I have coilected myself, and sexed only two were @, and in neither case was the subject gravid, My smallest specimen which I believe to have been a hatchling measured 4¢% inches and was obtained at Cannanore in March. I have tad two other small examples one from Dehra Dun measuring 64 inches in July, the other from Cannanore measuring 6;!, inches also in July. These notes seem to indicate that the young appear (probably hatching out from eggs) about March. Distribution—As will be seen from the accompanying map it occurs in Trans-Indus, in the Indus Basin, the whole of Peninsular India up to the base of the Himalayas as far Hast as Purneah, and in Ceylon. Variety A occurs throughout the area noted above, but Variety B appears to be peculiar to the Island of Ceylon, and the hills skirting the Malabar Coast as far North as Matheran. The exact localities are as follows and are numbered in black on the map. 1 Khila Abdullah (1. M.) 2 Malakand (J. M.), 3 Karachi (I. M,and B. M.), and Hydera- bad (F'. W.), 4 Rajanpur (I. M.), 5 Dehra Dun (I. M. and F. W.) and Dhikala (Garhwal Dist.) (F. W.), 6 Delhi(F. W.), 7 Ajmer (B. M.), & Purneah (I. M.), 9 Barrakur (I. M.), 10 N. Godavery District (I. M.), 11 Chota Nagpur (1. M.), 12 Aska (B. M.), 13 Vizagapatam (Russell) and Vizianagram (I, W.), 14 Ellore (Blanford), 15 Madras (B. M_), 16 Trichinopoly (F. W.), 17 Tuticorin (F. W.), 18 Trincomalee (B. M.), 19 Colombo (Haly. Cat. Snakes, Colombo Mus., 1886, p. 8), 20 Trivandrum (Ferguson, Bomb. N. H. Jourl., Vol. X, p. 71), 21 Travancore Hills (Ferguson, Loc, Cit.), and Permade (I. M.), 22 Anamallays (B. M.), 23 Nilgiris (B. M.), 24 Cannanore (F. W.), 25 Bangalore and Koppa (I, M.), 26 Wynad (B. M.), 27 Karwar and Goa Ghats ‘Bo, M.), 28 N. Canara (Jerdon), 29 Matheran (Bo. M.), 30 Poona (Bo. M.) 81 Deolali, Khandalla, Satara (Bo. M.), 32 Bom- bay (Bo. M.), 33 Khandesh (Bo, M.), 34 N.-W. Provinces and Oudh (Murray, Zool., Sind, p. 375). 562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. Nore.—B. M. implies British Museum ; I. M. Indian Museum ;: Bo. M. Bombay Society’s Museum. Lepidosis. Rostral—Touches 6 shields, the rostro-nasal, and rostro- internasal sutures subequal or the latter longest ; the portion visible from above one half (or nearly) the distance from the end of the snout to the frontal. Jnternasals——Two, the suture between them, equal to or nearly one half the suture between the prefrontal fellows ; half or less than half the internaso-prefrontal sutures. Prefrontals—Two, the suture between them half or less than half the prafronto-fronta] sutures ; in contact with internasal, posterior nasal, loreal, preeocular, supraocular, and frontal*. /vrontal.—Touches 6 shields, the supraocular sutures rather the longest. Supraoculars.—Length subequal to frontal, breadth about half that of the frontal. Parzetals.—Touch one or two postoculars. Nasals.— Divided ; in contact with the 1st and 2nd supralabials. Loreal—One, small, as long as high, little longer than half the nasals (rarely confluent with prefrontal, Giinther). Pre- oculars.—One. Postoculars—Two (rarely three), Temporals——One, touching the 5th and 6th supralabials. Supralabcals.—7 (rarely 6 or 8), the 3rd and 4th touching the eye (or 3rd only in rare examples owing to a confluence of two of the normal shields). Rarely the 6th shield just fails to reach the labial margin. IJnfralabials.—4, (rarely 5), the 4th largest, and in contact with two scales behind. Sublinquals.—Two pairs, the posterior about two-thirds the anterior, and in contact with the 4th only of the infralabial series. | Costals-—15 in the whole body length, the last row slightly enlarged ; no keels ; apical pits present, and single. Ventrals—Angulate. In Variety A. g 158 ? to 184, 9 158? to 218.+ In Variety B g 158 to 169, 9 174 to 184. Anal._— Divided (rarely entire), Swbhcaudals—Divided, In Variety A they are 38 to 55 in @, 37 to 52 in @ ; in Variety B 38 to 46 in @, 36 to 40 in Q,. Dentition (a) Mazillary.—Tne maxilla has an edentulous space anteriorly which would accommodate about 8 teeth of the size of the foremost of the series. It supports 6 or 7 very compressed teeth of * In one specimen of Variety B in our Society’s collection these shields are completely separated by the frontal. + The number of the ventrals varies somewhat accordirg to locality. In the Oriental Region they range between 158? and 184 in G, and 158 ? and 204 in ¢, but in the Indus and Trans-Indus tracts a @ has 186, and the range for 4 Y is 200 to 218, POPULAR TREATISE ON COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 563 syneranterian type (ze. rapidly increasing in size trom before back- wards). The palatme bone supports a single small tooth (sometimes none ?) situated about the middle of its length. The »terygord series number 6 to 10 *, and are preceded by a long edentulous space. The mandibular series number about 12, which are compressed, rather small and subequal. A short edentulous space that would accommo- date about one tooth precedes the dental array. (See Figs. D and F of Diagram), * Boulenger says (Cat, Vol. IL., p. 233) that there are no pterygoid teeth in the Oligodon- tides, but he is mistaken. In the three species of which I have skulls (subgrisews, dorsalis and venustus) pterygoid teeth are present, (To be continued.) PUMP LAS tA Agora ae ‘rt By ; : Wate e | ae FON Cia be Te ‘ TIT, Fes. ti-tl Wine 4 ys ag ‘A = r ae, Dee Pil: : ah ang Dy Wopl: sia Hiei /aeme »? began ig ouge Pe a slag weilnet o tbe a rd ig DA ce eae ate w abe 4 Ba 4 ‘oe 6 Tae ; 7 UL Pe ie qa nan Oe ite A>! = Be | ae ee ni Pare ; Oo Teal.” She f wre) « Gali ea f iD Tine itis’ ee, 2Xt ra field fair A hg : ” i PLP ot Wit iw fie Pw miwy pat alee: Q i - Cee wes iias | y1y COCOMORIT te ha aad, tii Oo ir aes the wid tl RR ~ { ; th MEE MOR ee mom a ys gl eG Lae IG heed hed Mabe ete lish Ti sins gtiin Pre Plate Xll. at = \bav Nat.Hist.Soc | Bam aD OO VOUT en, Chromo THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES,(Wall). JOURNAL OF’ THE Bombay Natural History Society. Fes. 1910. Vions SLX. No. 4. A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOURED PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. BY Magsor F. Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.S. Part XII with Plate XII and Diagram and Map. (Continued from page 563 of this Volume.) The genus Dendrophis as now understood comprises at least 11 species, distributed in Southern Asia between India and Indo- China, through the Malayan Archipelago to Eastern Australia. Of these species 6 occur within our Indian limits, viz., (1) pictus (Eastern Bengal, Hastern Himalayas, Irrawaddy-Salween basin, and Tenasserim and further Hast to Indo-China), (2) grandoculis (Hills of Southern India), (3) bifrenalis (Ceylon and Travancore Hills, Ferguson), (4) caudolineatus (Ceylon), (5) and (6) gorev,* and proarchost (Brahmaputra basin). Until 1890 several other species were included which have now been grouped together on characters affecting dentition under a separate genus called Dendrelaphis by Mr. Boulenger. ‘This genus includes 3 species found in Indian Territory, viz., (1) tristis (Penin- sular India, Eastern Himalayas, Brahmaputra Valley and Ceylon) ; (2) subocularis (Hills of Upper Burma); and (3) biloreatus t (Brahmaputra Basin). The species of both genera are very much alike, so much so indeed that some have been much confused. For instance every author * Described by me in this Journal, Vol. XIX, p. 829. { Described by me in this Journal, Vol. XIX, p. 827. { Described by me in this Journal, Vol. XVIII, p. 273, il 776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCI. ETY, Vol, XIX, who wrote before Mr. Boulenger’s present classification was inaugu- rated, alluded to Dendrelaphis tristis, and Dendrophis pictus as one and the same snake under the latter title, and the confusion did not end here, for every writer since has committed the same mistake. I have heard doubts expressed in some quarters as to the justifi- cation for the recognition of the two genera just referred to, but as I have a series of skulls of the types of both, I am in a position to be able not only to affirm that the differences claimed exist, but to add others in support. Mr. Boulenger divided the species on characters affecting the maxillary teeth, grouping together those in which the teeth enlarged posteriorly under the heading Dendrophis, and those in which they reduced posteriorly under the title Dendre- laphis. Figures A and B, taken from the skulls of specimens of both obtained at Pashok in the Eastern Himalayas, illustrate the differences in dentition, but I find in addition that there are decided differences in the shape of the nasal bones, and also in the ridges for muscular attachment on the parietal bones of each (see Diagram and figs. A and B.). The confusion in literature between D. tristis and D, pictus just referred to makes it difficult for me to speak very positively on the distribution of these species, but I present the facts as they appear to me, with the hope that our readers who are in a position to do so will send me specimens that will enable me to confirm or refute them. DENDRELAPHIS TRISTIS (Daudin.) The Indian Bronze-Backed Tree Snake. HTistory.—The first reference to this snake was made by Russell over a century ago. In 1796* he figured and remarked upon a specimen from Hyderabad (Deccan). In 1801} he figured and referred to two others from Bombay and Tranquebar. Nomenclature.—(a) Scientific.—The generic name from the Greek deydpor a tree, and eXadus Snake, was introduced by Mr. Boulenger in 1890. Tvistis, the specific title from the Latin ‘sad’ was conferred by Daudin in 1803 in allusion to its sombre colouration. (h) English.—The Common Indian Bronze-Backed Tree Snake or Bronze Back. I have heard it alluded to as the painted tree snake, but since all the species are alike in the cerulean adornment * Ind. Serp. Vol. I, p. 36 and Plate XXXI. T Vol. IT. pp. 29 and 30 and Plates XXV and XXVI. A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 777 which suggested the term painted, this adjective is equally appli- cable to all. (c) Vernacular.—In Ceylon Ferguson* says it is called ‘ hal- danda.”’ Mr. H. E. Green interrogated two intelligent Singhalese with respect to this term, and they said they knew a snake of this name which they described as ‘‘a very swiftly moving snake of a dark-brown colour,” and said it had a yellow belly. The word is from “hal” rice and “danda’’ a stick or whip. The connection is not very obvious but an observation of Annandale and Robinson’s with regard to the snake D. pictus suggests itself. They remark that it is often found among bushes at the edge of rice fields. One of the two men above referred to told Mr. Green it is also called “ katta-kaluwa,’’ meaning black mouthed, but whether this name is rightly applied to this species seems dubious, as it does not appear appropriate. Ferguson ¢ mentions this term in his list of Singhalese names for snakes, but without specifying the species. Confusion in vernacular nomenclature with regard to snakes is ereat, thus we find another Singhalese name, viz., ‘‘ ahaetulla”’ wrongly applied to this species. Linné { in 1754, Laurenti § in 1768 and others since have made use of the term in reference to the snake now identified by Boulenger as D. pictus, but it is clear that the word emanating from Ceylon refers rather to the Ceylon snake fristis. There is, however, now, I think no doubt that “ahaetulla’’ is the correct Singhalese name for the green whip- snake (Dryophis mycterizans ), the word implying eyeplucker being b synonymous with the ‘ kankotti-pambu” of the Tamils in South- ern India. Further confusion has arisen with regard to the name “ kumberi-muken.”” Russell { connects this name with the snake D. tristis, and many others subsequently have followed him, but I think there can be no doubt that it is correctly apphed to the green whip-snake (D. mycterizans). The name meaning ‘“snouted tree snake” obviously suggests the green whip-snake, and is quite inappropriate to the common bronze-back. Moreover, in a printed copy of a lecture on snakes delivered some years ago by the Rey. Fr. Bertram, s.J., of which I have a copy, this authority says «1 believe these two different names (kan-kotti-pambu and kamberi- * Rept. Fauna of Ceylon, 1877, p. 20. + loc. cit.p. 40. { Mus. Ad. Frid. p. 35, Plate XXII, fig. 3. § Syn. Rept. p.79. 4 Ind. Serp., Vol. I, p. 36. and Plate XXXI, 778 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. mukken) denote the same snake; for, while the kan-kotti-pambu is acknowledged by all to be the green tree-snake, there is no other tree-snake with an elongated snout which would justify the name kamberi-mukken.” Further, the Revd. C. Leigh, s.J., who has 13 years’ experience of Trichinopoly, recently wrote to me in response to my enquiries that green whip-snakes were frequently kept in captivity at St. Joseph’s College, and the students and visitors repeatedly applied the name ‘“‘ kamberi-mukken,”’ ‘ patchai- pambu ”’ and “ kan-kotti-pambu ”’ to the species.” Jerdont mentions ‘“ chitooriki-pambu”’ as one of the names in use in Southern India, and Dr. J. R. Henderson tells me he has known it called “ panaiyeri-pambu”’ meaning palmyra snake in the same part of India. According to Russell} it is called ‘‘ rooka”’ in Mahratti, ‘“‘ goobra” about Hyderabad (Deccan), ‘“ maniar”’ about Bombay, and ‘‘mancas”’ in Guzerat. Mr. EH. Muir tells me that at Kalna, Bengal, it is called ‘bet anchora’”’ which means “‘lacerated with a cane.”’ Im Cannanore I heard it called ‘“ villooni”’ from the Malayalam villoo a bow (see legends hereafter). Colour and markings.—Dorsally the body is uniformly purple brown, bronze-brown or rarely ruddy-brown, except for the verte- bral region which is usually more or less distinctly lighter, and the last row and a half of scales in the flanks, which are yellowish. The vertebral stripe involves the vertebral and half the next row. It may be conspicuous in the whole body length, or only anteriorly. In the neck and forebody a series of oblique, black streaks, often paired, and usually more or less broken up are always more or less evident. A yellow flank stripe passes from the neck to the vent. It is bordered above by a blackish, somewhat indistinct line, but unlike pictus is not bordered below by a black line running along the edge of the ventrals. When the snake under excitement dilates itself, small oblique patches of light sky blue on each scale on the back are brought into view, especially noticeable and brilliant in the forebody. Hach * The confusion is on a par with the Singhalese “ karawella,’ wrongly ascribed by Giinther to the Ceylon pit viper (Ancistrodon hypnale). Subsequent authors repeated the mistake on his authority, but there is now no doubt, I believe, that it is properly applied to the Ceylon krait (Bungarus cylonicus). | J. A.S. Bengal, XXII, p. 529, loc. cit. Diagram I, a - ; Me WHET YE é AS : er Journ., Bombay Nat .Hist. Soc. CS A COMMON INDIAN SNAKES (WALL). (Dendrelaphis tristis.) THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. EXPLANATION OF DiaGRaAm I. A.—DENDRELAPHIS TRISTIS, jaws. B.—DENDROPHIS PICTUS, jaws. (a) maxilla. (b) dentary part of mandible. (c) nasal bones. (d) ridges on parietal for muscular attachments. (e) articular notch. (f) articular process of dentary. (g) articular part of mandible. C. D. E.—HeEap SHIELDS. Ieee Anterior Sublinguals. KE: Frontal. in? Internasals. Lor. Loreal. M. Mental. Na. Nasals. Pa. Parietals. Po: Postoculars. Pray, Preoculars. prt: Preefrontals. jewvist: Posterior Sublinguals. ine Rostral. S. Supraocular. iu Temporals. 1, 2, 3, etc. Supralabials. I, I, III, etc. Infralabials. '.— BELLY SHIELDS. Ven. Ventrals with ridges. An. Anal. Sub. Subcaudals with ridges. G. H.—Bopy SCALES. Cc. Costals. Ver. Vertebrais 7 a arnany ives, ri ts AA le 4 An Sry ‘= na \ pea te ual es a. a hie (ny . weigher iia | i aetaial Lay Ge = Pith, 7, Pais Tele: par iy eit att th ; . Rr ae te litt _— a giiNs i ae ai fl _ = ees hoe } i or ae : aut a: - ae i. ba a A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 779 patch of blue is broadly edged with black anteriorly, and posteriorly and placed on the lower half of each scale so that it is usually com- pletely concealed by the overlapping of the scale below it. In our Plate (figures 3 and 4) this ornamentation is not done justice to, the blue being neither bright enough nor broad enough. The head is coloured above like the back, but the upper lip is yellow, creamy- buff, or opalescent abruptly demarcated above. There is a roundish yellow spot in the suture between the parietal shields (not shown by our artist), thin black edges to the 2nd, 3rd and 4th supralabials (sometimes the Ist also), and a somewhat obscure, narrow, black postocular streak not or hardly extending to the neck. The belly is uniform creamy-yellow, pale-greyish, greenish, or bluish green. The markings to which special attention is to be paid are (1) the interparietal spot; (2) the light vertebral stripe; (8) the black posterior margins to the anterior supralabials; (4) the nar- row, short, and often obscure black postocular streak and (5) a more or less obvious black line separating the dorsal brown from the yellow flank stripe. I find these present (except (1) and (2) in a single example from Marmagoa) in all the specimens I have examin- ed from the localities mentioned hereafter under distribution, and none of these are present in specimens of Dendrophis pictus. In the Eastern Himalayas where these two species are associated (on slopes below Darjeeling) I saw many specimens last year, and learnt to dis- criminate between them at a glance, by the marks above referred to. Dimensions.—The longest measurement I know is 3 feet 9 inches. I obtained a specimen of this length in Trichinopoly. General characters.—The Indian bronze-back is remarkably ele- gant in colouration and form. Its head is rather elongate, snout bluntly rounded, nostril small, and the eye large and lustrous with a golden iris and round pupil. The neck is very distinctly constrict- ed, the body long, slender, smooth, and rather depressed (7.e., flat- tened from above downwards). The belly is conspicuously ridged on either side as in Chrysopelea ornata. An usually long tapering tail accounts for nearly one-third the total length of the snake. This appendage is ridged beneath in the same manner as the belly. Tdentification.—The dual combination of enlarged vertebrals, and ridged ventrals (see Diagram I, figs. F and G@) proclaims any snake either a Dendrophis or Dendrelaphis, so that it remains to distinguish 780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XTX, the species from others in these two genera. Only 6 of these have 15 rows of scales in midbody, and the differences between them will be seen at a glance at the following table :— “mn Dm mH a Og mm so wo 0° > rey oO a Ss fore eis 3 ee FS f = = “a Name of species. ES Ales as 3 ro 3 5 £ a0 SOs! o8 o r= Ss eae tS ss 4 a 4 Ce 15 |Yes .. {177 to 211 2 |181to0153 .. 1 |jnormally 4th,|Dendrophis pictus, ; Eth & 6th, 15 /Yes --/154t0171 ..] 2 {144 to 155 2 |5th & 6th ab os bifrenalis. 15 |No --(168t0197 ..| 2 |115t0 134 1 /5th & 6th ..|Dendrelaphis tristis. 15 ? --|167 to172 ..| 2 | 74t0105 ..| 1 |5th At 1 subocularis. 15 |-? 174 t0188 .. 2 j117t0124 .. 1 (4th, 5th & 6th.. 5 grandoculis, 15 {Yes F ses fo195 .. 1 141 to 153 1 /4th, 5th & 6th.. a5 proarchos. The most important characters to distinguish tristis from its allies are the narrow vertebrals in which the length very distinctly exceeds the breadth, and only two labials touching the eye. To sum up then any snake in which the vertebrals are enlarged, but obviously longer than broad, with ridged ventrals, 15 scale rows in midbody, (7.e., between snout and vent) and two labials touching the eye is Dendrelaphis tristis. Hauwnts.—The common Indian bronze-back like all its allies lives almost entirely in bushes and trees. I became most familiar with it in Trichinopoly in my early Indian days, when I spent a good deal of my leisure time birdsnesting. During my daily excursions I frequently came across it, and have indeed met as many as three or four in a single outing. I frequently discovered it lying on a branch, when peering through low scrub, and if the snake lay still the chances were it would escape detection, looking extremely like a small branch itself. There is no doubt that its colouration is decidedly protective. An observation of Mr. KE. E. Green in a recent letter exemplifies this. He says—on the 8th of September 1903, he “ placed a branch with green foliage in the snake’s cage. Formerly all the different snakes coiled up together amongst the dry foliage of a dead branch, but now they have sorted themselves, the green whip snakes (Dryophis mycterizans) have moved on to the green branch while the Tropidonotus and Dendrophis (Dendrelaphis, F. W.)—both brown snakes—have remained on the dead branch.” A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 781 Often gazing up into trees a movement in the foliage twenty or more feet above drew my attention to a snake which when shot proved to be this species. I encountered it more than once in holes in trees, sometimes detecting the snake from the ground level with its head peering forth, or when aloft investigating a likely hole for a bird’s nest. Under the latter circumstances a cane thrust into the hole and briskly stirred about effected its exit. Once the snake vacated its quarters so hastily that it fell to the ground. On one occasion in Colombo, I discovered one in the open, and pursued it but it got into grass, and disappeared beneath a log. With some difficulty the log was overturned, but the snake could not be seen, and yet the ground was such that it was impossible for it to have escaped in any direction unseen. After a considerable search a narrow hole was discovered in the log in which the snake proved to have taken refuge. On more than one occasion I have found its slough entwined among the twigs of a crow’s nest, which it had evidently visited with the intention of disencumbering itself of a worn-out vestment, as the slough was perfect or nearly so. On one of these occasions I found the snake in a hole in the same tree, and matched it with the slough. It not infrequently comes to the ground, and I have often flushed one near the base of a tree, and seen it disappear up the trunk like a flash before I had time to recover the start that such an encounter always gives me. Dr. Henderson, too, remarks in a letter to me that he thinks it visits the ground more often than the whip-snake (D. mycterizans). It frequently clambers into the creepers about bungalows, and from here creeps on to the tiles. Disposition.—Though Giinther* says of it ‘‘ When old it is rather > ferocious and bites readily,’ my experience goes to show that it is a timid snake, usually making off with great despatch when alarmed. I have never been struck at by the specimens I have met face to face, or rudely evicted from holes in trees. The specimens I have handled, too, have never attempted to bite me, but it gives me little chance of ascertaining its temper, for if liberated with the object of being played with, it takes advantage of its release so precipitately, and moves with such speed, that the captive of one minute has regained its liberty the next, and is lost among the branches of the * Rept. Brit. India, p. 297. 782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX, nearest tree. Mr. KE. E. Green says that specimens he has kept have always been quite gentle and never attempted to bite when handled. Dr. J. R. Henderson, in a recent letter to me, remarks that in captivity it becomes very tame and inoffensive. Mr. Ingleby quoted by Ferguson says that it is a very lively and plucky snake and the fact that Mr. E. E. Green found one devouring a large blood- sucker lizard (Calotes versicolor), a most truculent creature when brought to bay sufficiently establishes its reputation for courage, when hunger presses. Habits.—In a former paper of this series I made some remarks upon “flying”? snakes (Under Chrysopelea ornata in Vol. XIII). It is probable that the common Indian bronze-back can undertake feats of the same nature, for it is endowed with the same peculiar ridges on the belly, that are seen in Chrysopelea ; further, its close ally Dendrophis pictus is one of those snakes that has been reported to spring (fly) from heights. So far as tristis is concerned, how- ever, the evidence, though suggestive, is not so well authenticated. Though neither Dr. Willey nor Mr. E. E. Green are aware of any native stories of springing or “flying ”’ snakes in Ceylon, Pridham* speakes of a snake called by the natives “‘ahedoella,” and says: “The movements of this snake are rapid, and from its power of springing it is called a flying snake.’’ The evidence seems pretty clear therefore that a “flying” snake exists in Ceylon, but there would appear to be a mistake in the diagnosis of the species for “‘ahedoella”’ is the Singalese name for the green whip-snake. (Dryophus mycterizans ) a far commoner snake which has no reputa- tion for springing as far as I am aware in any of the Provinces included within its wide distribution, and has an entirely different conformation of belly shields. So far as Southern India is con- cerned Dr. J. R. Henderson tells me that “There is a common belief that D. pictus (by which he means D. tristis) can jump, but I have never seen it do so.” Its movements are surprisingly rapid as already remarked. It is truly astonishing with what speed it can ascend an almost bare tree trunk from the ground, and disappear in the branches above. I have seen this several times, and it has always struck me that its speed in ascent is as rapid as its movements along the flat. Ceylon and its Dependencies, p. 750. A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 783 Mr. EH. E. Green has been struck by its restless habit and the quickness of its movements. The tenacity with which it can maintain its hold in foliage under most disadvantageous circumstances I have more than once been witness to. I managed to hustle one on one occasion to the extreme tips of the branches of a small neem tree, but though the slender twigs swayed boisterously under its weight and move- ments, it remained firmly suspended until I dislodged it with a stick. Any opportunities of exhibiting its natatory powers are probably rare, but that these are creditable seems certain, for I once en- countered one (unless it was D. pictus) on a small island in Chilka Lake fully 2 miles from the main land. Food.—This tree-snake appears to me to subsist under natural conditions chiefly on lizards, but does not disdain other reptilian fare. Mr. E. KE. Green tells me that in captivity “it feeds readily upon small lizards (Agamidee, Geckonide, and Scincide).”” He saw one once take and eat a gecko which it swallowed immediately alive. He also once encountered one eating a full-grown ‘“blood-sucker ”’ lizard* (Calotes versicolor) and tells me further that young examples are said to feed on grasshoppers. Ferguson quotes Mr. Ingleby as saying that it is very keen after frogs, and particularly tree frogs. Mr. C. Beadon tells me that he once found one eating a blind snake (Typhlops sp.) which returned to its kill after having been once disturbed. On occasion it will attack and plunder bird’s nests. I once witnessed an encounter between this snake and a pair of black-backed robins (Thamnolia fulicata) in the Borella Cemetery in Colombo. My attention was attracted by the distressed behaviour of the birds, which I approached cau- tiously, and saw on the ground between a group of gravestones a tristis with its head well erected. I was so near that I both saw and heard more than one peck delivered (it appeared to me on the head) by the birds in their agitated flights to and fro. An in- cautious movement on my part, and the snake had slipped away, and no amount of search could reveal its whereabouts. In a croton bush within a yard or two of the encounter I found the robin’s nest with eggs. Specimens in the Madras Museumf have fed freely. One ate 79 toads and 1 lizard between the 12th August * Spol, Zeylanica, April 1906, p, 220, 4 Admin, Report, Madras Govt., Mus., 1896-97. 2 784 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL_HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. and 3lst March; another 94 frogs from the Ist April to the 21st January following ; a third 18 frogs between the 13th February and 31st of March; and a fourth 104 frogs, presumably during the year. Sloughing.—Some excellent notes on this little studied function were made in the Madras Museum some years ago.* During the official year 1896 one shed its skin on the 2nd April, 6th May, 28th June, 27th July and 29th October. Another on the 135th May, 16th June, 21st July and 17th October. In a third instance a specimen which was acquired on the 12th August sloughed on the 24th October. Now it is very curious, and apparently some- thing beyond coincidence, that in all three cases there was no desquamation in the months of August and September, though in the first two cases there had been a regular ecdysis in several pre- ceding months. Breeding.— My notes are very meagre in this direction, but sufli- cient to show that the species is ovoviviparous. I received a eravid 9 onthe 29th February 1904 from Mr. Angus Kinloch (Kil Kotagiri, Nilgiris). It measured 3 feet 45 inches, and con- tained 7 nearly mature eggs, from 14 to 1} inches long, and about ji; inch broad. Mr. E. H. Green had a specimen which laid 4 eggs in its cage on the 11th January 1908, and died next day when 2 more eggs were found in the oviduct. These were all sent to me. The smallest measured 14 x 3 inches, and the largest 1$ x 33 inches. In cutting open egg I found an embryo coiled up ina spiral fashion, lying in an elliptical chamber situated in the upper part of the yolk substance, and midway between the two poles. The embryo I judged might be an inch and a half long when unravelled. Its head with the primary cerebral vesicle, eye and lower jaw were well developed, as was also the heart, so that it was in just about the same stage of development, that I noted in the case of the Assam species Dendrophis proarchos, at exovation. f © Egg showing embryo of Dendrelaphis tristis from a specimen from Ceylon. (Natural size.) * Administration Report, 1896-97. } Since writing this I have received another gravid 2 from Mr. Green from Peradeniya (Ceylon) killed at the end of January and containing 7 nearly mature eggs. A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, 786 Though the species is obviously oviparous it is probable that minute embryo are already in process of formation at the time that the eggs are extruded, for in an allied species in Assam (proarchos, Wall) I found embryos in the eggs when laid, and noted that I could see the head and eye and rudiment of lower jaw, and could observe the heart beating. Further observations are required to ascertain if tristis lays eggs in which the embryos are equally well developed. Legends.—There is a general belief among the natives of Southern India that the Common Indian bronze-back is fatally poisonous. Russell* records the belief as prevalent in his time, and says that his snake-catcher professed to have known two men killed by it, the bite producing immediate giddiness and death in two days. There is no reason to reject this snake-man’s story, for as I have more than once remarked in these papers deaths do occur from the bites of perfectly harmless snakes. Such fatalities are due to cardiac syncope due to fright. In Bengal too as I am informed by Mr. HE. Muir (Kalna) the natives say it is very poisonous and attacks without provocation. Russellf also mentions the belief among natives that this snake having bitten a person ascends a tree near the pyre to watch with vindictive satisfaction the smoke rising from the corpse of its victim, after which it descends. I heard this same story in Ceylon, but was never able to discover exactly which snake it was that was credited with this malignant spirit. Dr. J. R. Henderson tells me the belief is still prevalent in Southern India, and he has known a mock funeral with an effigy organised to save the bitten subject, for when the snake descends from the tree the poison it is supposed to have injected leaves the body, and the otherwise doomed person recovers. In Cannanore there was another strange belief among the natives who said that this snake could thrust its tail into the ground, balance thereon, and assume the form of a bow, hence their name for it “villoonie ” from “villoo” a bow. I was never able to under- stand with what object it is supposed to evince this strange behaviour. Distribution. (A) Geographical.—The evidence at my command points to this being undoubtedly the common species to be found * Loe. cit., Vol, II, p. 30. 7 Loe. cit:, Vol, II, p. 31. 786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XIX. in the Indian Peninsular and I believe it exists here to the exclu- sion of Dendrophis pictus as far Hast as Bengal. My earlier notes on the species are unfortunately deficient in the matter of precise colour, and markings, but I can say with certainty that this is the snake I was familiar with in Trichinopoly, and I have taken it in Cannanore. It is certain, however, that the specimens taken in the localities mentioned in the attached map are éristis, and not pictus. (b) Local.—It is a common snake in Ceylon (Ferguson, Haly). It is very common about Trichinopoly and Cannanore. Ferguson says it is common in the Plains and Hills about Travancore * and Mr. Millard tells me also about Matheran. Mr. E. Muir reports it as one of the common snakes about Kalna in Bengal, and has sent me specimens. Jerdon says it is abundant in all parts of the country, but with this I cannot agree. It appears to me to be uncommon in the plains to the north of the Tapti Rivers. I do not think it occurs in the Indus Basin at all, except near the mouth of that river. Blanford, collecting for 3 years at Ajmer, failed to obtain a specimen. The Ganges Valley is too, I believe, outside its limits, except at the Eastern part near the Delta. It has not been recorded from Central India, nor seemingly from the Central Provinces. It is quite common in the Eastern Himalayas (circa 2,500 to 5,000 feet) in the vicinity of Darjeeling. Lepidosis. Rostral.—Touches 6 shields; the rostro-nasal, and Two; the suture restro-internasal sutures subequal. Internasals between them equal to, or nearly equal to that between the pra- frontal fellows, and rather shorter than the internaso-preefrontal sutures. Pree-frontals.—T wo ; the sutures between them equal to, or rather greater than, the praefronto frontal sutures; in contact with internasal, postnasal, loreal, preeocular, supraocular and frontal. Frontal.—Touches 6 shields; the fronto-supraocular sutures three to four times the fronto-parietal sutures. Supraoculars.—As long as the frontal, and about as broad along a line connecting the centres of the eyes. Nasals.—'T'wo, completely divided ; the nostril placed almost entirely in the anterior shield; in contact with the lst and 2nd supralabials. Loreal.—One elongate, twice or more than twice as long as high, about as long as the two nasals taken together. Preocular One, barely reaching the top of the head, * Bombay N, H, Jour., Vol. X, p, 5. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF DENDRELAPHIS TRISTIS. (1) Sind (B.M.). (2) Guzerat (Russell). (8) Baroda (Bo. M.). (4) Surat (Bo. M.). (5) Thana(Bo.M.). (6) Bombay (Russell). (7) Matheran (Bo. M.). (8) Cannanore (F.W.). (9) Kil Kotagiri, Nilgiris (F.W.). (10) Coimbatore (F.W.). (11) Travancore (Bo. M.). (12) Ramnad (I.M.). (13) Ceylon (B.M.). (14) Trichinopoly (F.W.) (15) Tranquebar (Russell). (16) Madras (F.W.). (17) Hyderabad (Russell). (18) Jashpur, Chota Nagpur (Blanford, J. A.S. Bengal, Vol. XL., p. 431). (19) Himalayas below Darjeeling (B.M. & F. W.). (20) Khasi Hills (B.M.). A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 787 Postoculars.—Two. Temporals.—Two, elongate. Supralabials.— Normally 9 with the 5th and 6th touching the eye*. Infra- labials.—6, the 6th much the largest, as long on the 3 preceding shields, in contact with two scales behind; the 5th and 6th touch- ing the posterior sublinguals. Suwblinqguals—Two pairs; the posterior decidedly longer. Costals.—15 at a point two heads- lengths behind the head, and to well beyond midbody, when they reduce to 13, and then to 11 or even 9, before the vent. The reduction from 15 to 13 is due to the absorption of the 4th scale above the ventrals into the row above or below; that from 18 to 11 results from a fusion of the 5th and 6th rows above the ventrals ; and when the number further reduces to 9, the 5th row is absorbed into one of the adjacent rows. The vertebrals are enlarged, but they are very distinctly longer than broad in midbody, they arise in the neck by a fusion of 3 rows, thus differing from the genus Bungarus, where they gradually develop from a single row pro- gressively enlarging and unlike the genus Bungarus they cease above the anus. The ultimate row is much enlarged considerably exceeding the vertebral in breadth. Keels are absent everywhere. Apical pits are present, and single. Ventrals.—168 to 197, vary- ing in number with localityt; sharply ridged (keeled) on each side. Anal divided. Subcaudals divided, 115 to 146; keeled like the ventrals. Dentition.t Mazillary.—l7 to 22: the first 3 or 4 progressively increasing, the posterior, 3 or 4 compressed and pro- gressively decreasing, so that the last is about two-thirds the length of the longest in the series. Palatine.—11 to 14, subequal, and as long as the longest mixillary. Pterygoid.—19 to 24 (except the Kal Kotagiri specimen which has 28 and 29); smaller than the palatine. Mandibular.—20 to 26 (usually 20 to 22); the first 3 or 4 progressively increasing, the posterior gradually decreasing. The length of the articular process equals the length from the articular notch (see fig. A. 6.) to about the 4th tooth. * This is so in 26 out of 29 specimens I have noted upon. In 2 instances these shields are not recorded, and in a single example the 4th just touches the eye on both sides. In one of the 26, there are 8 shields on one side only, the 4th and 5th touching the eye. Tt In 19 specimens from various parts of India other than the Eastern Hima- layas, they are 168 to 192. In 9 Eastern Himalayan examples they are 190 to 197 { This is based on 10 skulls in my collection from Pashok (Eastern Himalayas), Madras, Matheran, and Kil Kotagiri (Nilgiri Hills), 788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XTX. DENDROPHIS PICTUS (Gmelin). The Himalo-Malayan Bronze-back. Nomenclature. (a) Scientific.—The generic name from the Sevdpor a tree and ous a snake, was applied by Boie in 1827; the specific from the Latin meaning “ painted’ was given by Gmelin in 1788 in allusion to the sky blue patches on the scales seen in this, and other species of the genera Dendrophis, and Dendrelaphis. (b) English.—In contradistinction to the last I think it should be called the Himalo-Malayan bronze-back. (c) Vernacular.—In the Patani-Malay States Annandale and 99 ¢¢ Robinson* say it is called ‘“ ular lidi, wlar’’ snake, and “ lidi”’ the midrib of the cocoanut palm. They remark that the appro- priateness of the name is realized when one sees a leaf of this palm from below, with the midrib black against the sky, and an apparent light space on either side of it, due to the comparative narrowness of the leaflets where they leave it. Dorsally the snake is uniform bronze- Colour and Markings. brown down to the middle of the penultimate row, where a faint black line abruptly demarcates the dorsal colour from a yellow flank stripe. The costal scales, where overlapped, exhibit a patch of sky blue bordered with black before and behind. These are usually concealed, but when the snake dilates itself become very conspicu- ously apparent. The head is coloured like the dorsum above, this hue abruptly giving place to yellow on the side of the face. A very conspicuous, broad, black band behind the eye passes back to the side of the body, and is continued in the whole body length as a conspicuous black line on the edge of the ventrals, bordering the yellow flank stripe below and rendering it specially evident. The belly is uniformly yellow, greyish, or greenish. It will be noticed that many of the distinctive marks seen in Dendrelaphis tristis are absent, viz., the light vertebral stripe, the interparietal spot, and the black margins to the anterior supra- labials. On the other hand, a very distinct, broad postocular band is to be seen in pictus passing well down the body, and the light flank stripe is bordered below by a black line. These colour differen- ces were noted by me 10 years ago on comparing Burmese with * Fascic. Malay. Batrach. and Rept., October 1903, p. 163, A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 789 South Indian examples, and made me think the two snakes pro- bably different, but I was deterred from declaring my conviction, finding but one difference in lepidosis, wz., the contract of the supralabials with the eye. Since this I have learnt that there is a very noticeable difference between the two in the development of the vertebrals, and still more recently in the dentition. I may mention here that the sky blue adornment just referred to is not of sexual import, since it is to be seen in both sexes from the earliest ages, and at all seasons. In the Andaman Islands a snake of this genus occurs which has hitherto been considered merely a variety of pictus, but which may prove to bea distinct species. It is referred to by Blyth in his book “The Andaman Islanders” (p. 365) as being remarkably rich coloured, green, and variegated, and appears to be common according to this authority. Stoliczka* also speaks of it as being common, and says it is a ‘ beautifully bright yellowish and green during life, each scale blackish in the posterior half.” The same authorityt says that the usual continental form inhabits the Nicobars, and the Cocos, but the green form is peculiar to the Andamans. It is not however the only form found in this last Insular group, since Dr. Annandale has sent me a specimen very similar to the Burmese form except that the postocular stripe is narrow and obscure, the scales are heavily outlined with black and there is no black line in the flanks at the edge of the ventrals. He remarks that the majority of the specimens from these Islands are of the green variety, 2. e., andamanensis. Anderson} describes this green variety in greater detail than the other authorities alluded to. He says it is grass-green above, each scale with a broad black inargin, and the ventrals with a black margin, as far as the keel. ‘The black margins of the scales are so broad that when body is at rest, by the overlapping of the scales, the whole side of the body appears black. s - eae. Bidet AA : hese ug, oe x ~_) vs i j ) eT ae) 4 = THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES pulverulentus, harmless, head xX 3. |. Psammodynastes 2.Anci strodon himalayensis, poisonous, nat. size. J.G.del. THE COMMON SNAKES $OF INDIA. BY Mayor F. WALL, t.s. Phare XIII. (¢ Aneistrodon himalayanus and Psammodynastes pulverulentus) not having arrived from England, will be published in the next number of the Journal. Eprrors. THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. THE ACCOMPANYING PLATE XIII., Or Psamimodynastes pulverulentus and Aneistrodon himalayensis—was omitted from No. 1, Vol. X\. ‘The description of these Snakes will be found on pages 65 to 79 of this Volume. KH DITORS, 65 . A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. ILLUSTRATED BY CoLOURED PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. BY Magor F. Watt, I.M.S., C.M.Z.S. Part XTIT with Plate XILT and Diagram. ( Continued from page 792 of Volume XIX). The vipers constitute a family (V¢percde) characterised by the shape of the maxilla or upper jawbone which as shown in a previous paper (Vol. XvI., p. 535) consists of a vertical column bearing a pair of tubular fangs. In all other snakes the long axis of the maxilla is placed horizontally. The fangs of vipers are relatively much longer than in poisonous colubrines. They are also more curved, and slender, and the seam on their anterior faces—which marks the junction of the circum- flexed walls that form the poison canal—is far less obvious than in poisonous colubrines. The family Vepertde is divided into two subfamilies on the pre- sence or absence of a cavity placed between the eye and the nostril, and known as the loreal pit. The pit bearers are called pit vipers, and are classed together under the name Crotal/ne, tie pitless vipers under the name Viperine. ANCISTRODON HIMALAYANUS. This viper belongs to one of the four genera into which the sub- family Crotaline is divided. The genus is characterised by the possession of large shields of the colubrine type on the top of the head, and the absence of a rattle at the end of the tail, It contains eleven Species, seven of which are American, three Asian, and one EKuropean. History,—It was first described by Dr. Giinther in 1864, Nomenclature.—(a) Scientific.—The generic name from the Greek ‘“agkistron”’? a hook, and‘ odous”? a tooth was introduced by de Beauvois in 1799. j From the derivation, and the {act that the godfather of the genus speli the name aghkistrodon, it seems a pity that the word has been > <9 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol, XX, altered to its present rendering which was introduced by Baird in 1864. (b) English.—The brown Himalayan viper is probably, the best name for it. The only other brown viper in this mountainous region is Lachesis monticola which occurring only in the Eastern Himalayas, and extending to the Malayan subregion may be designated the brown, or spotted Himalo-Malayan viper. (c) Vernacular.—The only native name I know for it is “ pohur”’ which is what the Kashmiris call it. General characters.—The body is rather stout, and heavy for the length of the snake, and round in section. Anteriorly it attenuates so as to make the neck very apparent, behind the broadly expanded angles of the jaws. Posteriorly it suddenly reduces in girth at the anus, so that the termination of the body, and commencement of the tail are far more cbvious than in colubrine, and other snakes. The head is rather elongate and remarkably flat above, and especially so on the snout, this being due to the marked ridge (canthus rostralis) proceeding forwards from the eye-brow. The muzzle is rather narrow in front, the head broadest midway between the eyes and the neck. The nostril is rather small, and placed near the middle of a shield which is usually quite divided below, and frequently above the nasal aperture. The eye is rather large with an iris beautifully specked with gold, and a vertical pupil. The commissure of the mouth shows an exaggerated curve opposite the fang. The tail is about one-seventh the total length of the snake and ends in an elongate terminal shield. The scales on the upper parts are lustre- less, and strongly ridged, the shields beneath smooth, and highly polished. Identification.—It is a very easy snake to recognise. ‘To begin with the association of a loreal pit, with large shields on the head _pro- claims the genus, and there are only three species within Indian limits, viz., himalayanus, hypnale, and millardi, Both the last have a more or less well marked boss on the top of the snout—which is absent in the foremost—and inhabit Hills South of Bombay, or Ceylon, Dimensions.—The largest measurement I know of is that recorded by Stoliezka, v7z., 84 inches. I have never seen one more than 254 inches and | should say that average adults vary from about eigh- teen inches to two feet. A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES. 67 Haunts——The brown Himalayan viper favours an altitude be- tween about 7,000 to 10,000 feet though it wanders higher. Within these limits it is a very common snake, perhaps the most common in the Western Himalayas, but Hast of Nepal is decidedly uncommon. Mr. G. A. Millar writing to me in 1900, told me that during a 13 years’ residence in Darjeeling he had only once had this snake brought to him, though he was interested in the collection of snakes now preserved in the museum of St. Joseph’s College, and did much to make it what it is. I know of no other authentic record of this viper from this part of the Himalayas (2. e¢., Hast of Nepal). Above 10,000 feet the snake becomes increasingly scarcer with the altitude. I found it at about 12,000 feet in Kashmir, and a specimen in the Indian Museum was captured at the foot of the Dharmsala glacier at an elevation of 16,000 feet. This is by far the highest altitude I know of for any snake. The only other proximate elevations known to me are 14,000 feet where the snake discovered by Lieut. F. M. Bailey, inhabiting hot springs in Thibet was cap- tured, which I described in this Journal as Vropidonotus bailey?, and 12,500 feet the elevation at which Dr. H. Gadow encountered a rattlesnake in Mexico (Crotalus triseriatus). I think it is essentially a forest lover, being rarely found away from the protection offered by vegetation. In Kashmir I had no difficulty in finding specimens whenever I instituted a search for them. It very frequently found refuge beneath fallen timbers, so that I had rarely to turn over more than half a dozen logs before flushing one, and I have found two beneath different parts of the same bole. Of course it finds abundant refuge in other situations such as clefts in rocks, or beneath boulders where it is more difficult to dislodge. In Kumaon it frequently takes up quarters in the walls of terraced fields, or gardens where it is a source of special danger to the inquisitive house dog, that will thrust its nose into any cranny where it has discerned a movement. In camp it is by no means an infrequent visitor to one’s tent, a fact which places most people on their guard who know Kashmir, and indulge in the gipsy life which is so attractive in that State. Habits.—1 encountered many in Kashmir when not searching for them. On a warm summer’s day it is frequently to be seen coiled up, and basking in lazy enjoyment in the sun. Usually it selects a spot within easy reach of cover, to which it withdraws ina leisurely 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Volt, XX. fashion when disturbed. In cold or inclemert weather it retires to any convenient quarter. Its movements are never what I would call really active, in fact compared with other non-viperine snakes it is a sluggard and it does not appear capable of hurrying itself under any amount of stimulation. It probably passes a long term of hibernation each year, coming forth like other snakes of temperate climes in the spring and retiring in the late autumn. In spite of this it manages to fatten itself amply, for in the autumn months, its organs are packed with fat to a degree that has made me suspect a gravid condition, but subsequent investiga- tion has frequently proved such a specimen a male, This snake in common with many other will often when provoked flatten itself, or crouch on the ground ina remarkabe manner, The flattening is most evident in the hinder yart of the body, but what object the snake has in behaving so it is difficult to guess at. Mr. Gleadow has remarked on this peculiarity in this Journal (Vol. xu, p. 577). Disposition —The brown Himalayan viper is a lethargic individual, slow to anger, but if sufficiently provoked will bite. It would appear to avoid a disagreeable situation whenever possible rather than pro- yoke an encounter, ‘The specimens 1 removed into the open and played with, would pass by a stick, or other offending object pushed in their way again and again as if unconscious of the offence offered. If rapped cn the tail they shook that appendage with vigour in acknowledgment of the insult, without turning to avenge it. If cover was within easy reach they always strived to get there, rather than show fight, but if baulked, or if severely struck they would coil themselves up, erect the head, quiver the tongue and vibrate the tail tip, and on further provocation would frequently strike out fiercely. I think it probable that they rarely inflict a bite unless trodden upon. Food.—Stoliezka* says that it feeds principally on mice, but although my observations were made for the most part in the same part of the Himalayas as his, I never found anything in the stomachs of those captured in Kashmir except the little skink Lygosoma kimalayanus. This beautiful little lizard with its cherry-red waistcoat, is extremely common in Kashmir, where one rarely turns over a stone, without _— * Jourl. As. Soc., Bengal, Vol, XXXIX., p. 226. A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE COMMON INDIAN SNAKES, for) (ie) finding one quartered in company with an equally common black scorpion. So many of my brown Himalayan vipers had recently fed on this lizard, that it is evident, that they must contribute largely to checking their numbers. I have found as many as three Lygosoma in the stomach of a single Ancistrodon. In other parts of the Himalayas I have usually found this same lizard taken, but in Kumaon I have on four occasions known mice devoured. Breeding.— I do not know the exact mating season, but it is pro- bably in the spring—April or May, The period of gestation is also not known, Like most other vipers this species is viviparous iy hehit and the young are launched forth probably in August and September. Several specimens [ had in July were gravid and contained immature embryos. These were seen to be coiled spirally, in a bath of transpa- rent fluid, which occupied the upper part of the yolk. The investing membrane covering this oval shaped bath was transparent, so that the contained foetus could be seen clearly in every detail, before the ege@ investment was ruptured. The embryos I unravelled in July were about two or three inches in length. What the length of the embryo at birth is I cannot exactly state, but it is probably about 5 inches, The species is not very prolific, only from 5 to 7 embryos having been observed in a single brood. Poison,—Nothing is known about the qualities of the poison and I have never been able to hear of a casualty in the human subject, except that of a cooly employed by Mr. P. W. Mackinnon near Mussoorie who was scratched in the thumb when attempting to capture one. The fact that the injury sustained was very slight and superficial and no ill effects of any sort were evoked makes it fairly certain that no venom had been injected in this case. A dog bitten on the nose this year at Binsar (Kumaon) suffered considerably. The whole muzzle swelled, and the animal was very distressed and affected constitutionally. The wound was not incised, but permanganate of potash was applied locally. One may assume that this reagent had little if any effect in neutralising any poison injected below the surface skin, After one day’s serious illness, the dog improved, and in two more days was quite well again, There were no hemorrhages reported. I did not see the dog, but the snake was referred to me and [I learnt the details of the casualty later. It would seem from this case that the poison is not very virulent, 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. XX, and it is probable that in the human subject a fatality is unlikely to occur, but it seems strange that we should know so little about the effects of the bite of so common a snake. There must be abund- ant casualties every year in the Himalayas, but so long as people before whom these cases are brought, refrain from publishing details, and omit to refer the offender to some authority for identification, our ignorance of the poison effects will remain what it is.* Distribution —The Himalayas, probably as far as the Indus in the West and the Brahmaputra in the East. The Khasi Hills in Assam is also-reported asa habitat, as far as I am aware on the sole authority of Jerdon, I think we should await confirmation of this before accepting it. It is a very easy matter for even the most careful collectors to mix specimens. In at least one instance, viz., Dinodon septentrionalis, Jerdon was in doubt as to whether the locality was the Himalayas or Khasi Hills in Assam. I have also shown reason to doubt? the Himalayas as the habitat of the specimens of Trachischium monticola in the British Museum collected by Jerdon, this snake being otherwise only known from the Khasi and neighbouring Assam Hills, and it seems to me possible that in the case of Ancistrodon himalayanus Jerdon’s specimens in the British Museum may have come from the Himalayas. Lepidosis.— Rostral.—About as high as broad; in contact with six shields, the anterior nasal sutures being much the longest. /nternasals. —A pair ; the suture between them as long or nearly as long as that between the prefrontal fellows, as long or rather shorter than the internaso-prefrontal sutures. Prafrontals—A pair; the suture between them subequal to the prefronto-frontal sutures; in contact with internasal, supraloreal, uppermost przeocular, supraocular, and frontal, Frontal.—Touches six shields (exclusive of the small scales so often interpolated at the angles of the head shields) ; the fronto- supraocular sutures longest. Supraoculars.—Length and breadth subequal to that of the frontal, Masal.—Usually incompletely divided by a suture from the nostril to first labial, which, however may be absent ; sometimes an additional suture passes from the nostril to the internasal; in contact with the Ist only of the supralabial series, Supraloreal.—One, in contact with the internasal, Loreal,_— *This was written before Colonel Fenton's notes which appeared in our last Jourl,, p. 1004. t Bomb. Nat. His, Jourl., Vol, XIX., footnote, page 343. ‘erIpuy jo soyeug uomla10D o4L (g X) snjuopndaatnd seyseaApommesg yi