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('6€1 "d 99g) ‘ar0¥ 10d oo-oof sev YSty se sem Butkeids 10j paatooos youd you ay} voor uy | ; QIAIL OLVLOd AMYOA MAN V NI ONIAVUdS / | { : “eg "dx BAomay ("x *N) A80}1N0— } ; : - RREROTT IE aT = \ y ror | Me ae es AO ‘ ¥ = AU THE POTATO) A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE POTATO, ITS CHARACTERISTICS, PLANTING, CUL- TIVATION, HARVESTING, STORING, MARKETING, INSECTS, AND DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES, ETC., ETC. SAMUEL FRASER Assistant Agronomist, Cornell University ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY oO § w BY ORANGE JUDD COME = f ial Sita NEA ot By ate ign iri ye ei ewe ip we & NSPIRATION TO MANY SE LIFE AND WORK ARE AN PREFACE THE literature issued on the subject of potatoes during the past three hundred years would form a large library, many works having been published in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and other countries. It is safe to say that no plant has" aroused a deeper interest than ‘‘ the noble tuber.’’ Its very existence to-day is largely; due to the efforts of enthusiasts. Several of the older writers were keen observers and acquainted intimately with the history and character of the potato, and modern authors in- clude the names of men who are eminent in the scientific world. The vast amount of research and demonstration carried out by the experiment stations of this country during the past ten years, and the fact that every station has done something inthis line, show the breadth of the subject and furnish material hith- erto unobtainable. The excellent research work now being carried on in Europe, especially in France, Ger- many, etc., and-more recently established in Ireland, indicates a demand for more information about this crop. We feel that the ‘‘science of agriculture’’ is a reality ; that, like every past generation, we are on the eve of great discoveries; that something of the laws governing plant nutrition and growth will shortly be revealed, that we may be able to prevent rather than cure the troubles which assail our plants. To be of vii Vill PREFACE any use, scientific research must be rigidly accurate in its observation and merciless to fallacy in logic. Once a principle is proven it is of no use unless applied, and the man to apply it is the farmer. | | At the present time it behooves us to divest our- selves of prejudice, whether of tradition or custom, which might tend to warp our judgment and treat as" debatable assumptions which long-established associa- tion have made shameful to doubt, but which, undis- turbed, would make the discovery of truth impossible. To-day theories are no longer revered because our fathers believed in them. The search-light of all- prying Science illuminates the whole field of agricul- ture, and has led men to doubt and call in question even truth itself, in order that they might expose those things which are not true. It is by this means alone, by this attitude of questioning all statements and theories, both the truth and the untruth alike, that we can form a just estimate of what is true. That which cannot stand the fire may rightly be esteemed dross. In this book the endeavor has been to collect many scattered facts from many sources, and present these— along with experience derived by growing potatoes for several years, commercially and experimentally, in two continents—in the hope that these data will be of value to the reader. ? SAMUEL FRASER. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca, N. Y., 1905 Note.—With the exception of Figs. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 43, and 44, which were kindly loaned by the makers of these implements, and those in which - ereditis given in the text, all illustrations have been prepared by the Author. CONLEN'TS CHAPTER 1 HISTORY AND BOTANY CHAPTER II SoME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Influence of Light on Yield, 8; Amount of Mois- ture, 8; Respiration, 9; idence of Tempera- ture on Bea atlova: 9g; Influence of Temperature on Growth, 10; Potato Roots, 10; Influence of Depth of Planting on Roots, 15; Blossoming, Tuber Formation, and Hilling, 16. CHAPTER TI SOILS ees et al ‘ Best Soils, and eae aS Certain Soils are Better than Others, 17; Influence of Soil on Different Varieties, 19; Subsoiling, 20; Prepara- tion of the Soil, 21; Surface-fitting Tools, 23. CHAPTER IV ROTATION . CHAPTER V MANURING AND FERTILIZING Object, 30; Influence of Nitrogen, 31; Influence of Potash, 32; Sources of Potash, 33; Influence of Phosphoric Acid, 34; Influence of Calcium, 35; Barn Manure, 36; Function of Fertilizers, 39; Purchasing and Applying Fertilizers, 42; Value, 43; Unit Value, 44, Purchasing, 44; Valuing Barn Manure, 44; Mixing Fertilizers, 46; Ap- plying Fertilizers, 48; Water Requirement, 48. PAGES I~] 8-16 17-25 26-29 39-59 x CONTENTS CHAPTER VI CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED . . .. 6 « 51-69 Source of Seed, 51; Management of Seed Previ- ous to Planting, 53; Sprouting Potatoes, 54; Sprouting Trays, 60; Whole vs. Cut Sets, 60; Time to Cut, 61; Size of Seed, 61; Amount of Seed per Acre, 63; Relative Value of Bud and Stem Ends and the Middle of the baba g 66; Viability, 66. CHAPTER VII VARISTI ES ts ee 3 , 2 ieee Selecting a Ware 70; Cabs Qua and 3 | Flavor, 70, 72; Yield, 70, 74; Ability to Resist Disease, 71, 76; Color of Skin and Tuber, 71, 76; Nature of the Skin, 71, 78; The Shape, 71, 78; Depth and Frequency of Eyes, 71, 79; Time of Maturity, 71, 79: The Haulm, 71, 80; The Leaf, 71, 81; The Vigor of the Variety, 71, 82; Second Growth, 71, 85; Trueness to Type, 72, 85; Test- ing Varieties, 86; The Relationship of Variety to Soil, 87; The Most Popular Varieties, 87. CHAPTER VIII PLANTING 1 Foo o0 ee - «ee ee Distance Apart,.g1; PES of eae 93; Influ- ence of Depth of. Planting onthe Depth at Which Tubers Form, 94; Influence of Depth on Quality, 96; Date of Planting, 96; Influence of Late and Early Planting, 97; Methods of Planting, 97. CHAPTER IX MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP. . IO05—IIO— Cultivation, 105; Systems of Culture, 106; Hills, 106; Drills, 106; Level Culture, 107; Method of Cultivation and Tools Used, 107; Mulching, rro. CONTENTS Xi CHAPTER X . PAGES OBSTRUCTIONS TO GROWTH AND DEVELOP- © Ee Ry Ot 2 ey ta hE E+127 Influence of Season and Climate, 111; Weeds, 112; Diseases Due to Parasitic Fungi and Bacte- ria, 112; Late Blight or Rot, 112; Early Blight or Leaf Spot Disease, 118; Potato Rosette, 118; Scab, 119; Diseases in Storage, 121; Wet Rot, 121; Dry Rot, 122; Stem Rot or Bundle Blacken- ing, 122; Bacterial Diseases, 122; Insects, 123; Flea-beetle, 123; Potato Bug, 124; Potato Worm, 125; Potato Stalk Weevil, 126; Grasshoppers, 126; June Bug, 126; Wireworms, 127; Striped Blis- ter Beetle, 127; Arsenical Poisoning, 127. CHAPTER XI SeaeweoeNi? SPRAYING ...°. . . , . 128-142 Fungicides, 128; Bordeaux Mixture, 128; Mixing, 129; Testing Bordeaux Mixture, 130; Strength of Solution, 130; Bordeaux Dust or Dry Bordeaux Mixture, 130; Washing Soda and Copper Sul- phate Mixture, 131; Benefits from Use of Bor- deaux Mixture, 131; Time of Spraying, 134; Number of Sprayings, 134; Insecticides, 135; Paris Green, 136; Lead Compounds, 137; Arsenic _and Lime,'138; Cost of Spraying and Profits De- rived, 139; Spraying Machines, r4o. — CHAPTER XIT eM ek PE Oe . 143-146 Digging, 143; Methods of Digging, 143; Diggers, 144. Xii CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII PAGES STORING 4... «ss «ca > 0) Piles, 147; Cellars, 149; Construction of Cellars, 149; Ventilation and Temperature, 150; Losses in Storage, I51. i CHAPTER XIV PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, AND MAR- KETS 2.0 wa ss oe ee Factors Influencing Farm Prices, 157; Modes of Selling, 159; Local Markets, 159; Distant Mar- kets, 160: Commission Rates, 160; Grading, 162; Packages, 162; Barrels, 162; Bushel Boxes, 164. © CHAPTER Ave CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE Bers . 166-170 Composition, 166; Digestibility, 168; Feeding ‘3 Value, 168; Cooking, 169; Uses, 170. CHAPTER XVI BREEDING AND SELECTION... ss) 4 pee Propagation and Breeding, 171; Selection, 175. APPENDIX. . °°. 9... 3 4% 3s Spray Calendar, 178; Seed Treatment, 179. INDEX . 05 -e 1 e. 8 181 ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. 2 oO on nn & W _10 rT. I2 13 14 ee Fe 16 17 18 19 20 Spraying in a New York Potato Field. Frontispiece Copy of Engraving of the Virginian Potato from Gerard’s ‘‘ Herbal,’ 1636 Sectional View of Potato Flower Tuber, Showing the Arrangement of the Eyes Potato Plant, Showing Tubers (Viewed from Above) Potato Plant, Showing Tubers and Roots (Side View) -A Useful Type of Spring-tooth Harrow . a ne ee A Double-action Cutaway Harrow. The Influence of Lime Upon Potatoes Potato Tray for Storing and Sprouting Seed . Potato Planted Four Inches Deep, Showing its Growth and Development of Tubers . , Seed Potatoes Sprouted for Use in the Planter . Seed of Early Potatoes, Sprouted for Hand Planting Seed Potatoes, Showing Weak, Long Sprouts. Diagram, Showing the Stand of Twenty Plats of Carman No. 3 Potatoes. . bp hed : Diagram, Showing the Stand of Thirty- -six Plats of Early Trumbull Potatoes st Ma Section of a Tuber of Poor Cooking Quality . Section of a Tuber of Good Cooking Quality . Three Varieties Differing in the Character of Net- epeenteee Gk TN 6. oy ree Wa ak see PAGE Xili Xiv | ILLUSTRATIONS FIG, 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3I 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4I 42 43 44 45 Three Favorite Shapes of Potatoes . . 2 ss aes Potato Plant, Showing Upright Haulm .... . Potato Plant, Early Variety, Showing Dwarf Haulm The Modern Method of Planting Potatoes . Planting by Hand. . oa 4) Sectional View of the Aspinwall Potato Planter. Aspinwall Potato Planter (Side View) The Robbins Improved Planter. . .... . 4 Platform of the Robbins Improved Planter Halleck Expansible Weeder .. . ed Five-tooth Cultivator, with Hiller Attachment A Useful Two-horse Cultivator. . ... . ; One-horse Spring Tooth Cultivator ~. . \.> p92 Section of Potato Leaf, Showing the Parts and Mycelium of Blight (Phytophthora infestans) Maturation of a Spore’ Sac and Germination of a Spore of Rot (/. infestans) ~«< -,” ta ee Longitudinal Section of a Potato Stalk, Showiiig a Germinating Spore of Rot (P. izfestans) . The Germinating Tube of a Spore of Rot (P. ixfes- tans)on a Leaf. Tubers with and without Scab ot ea The Cucumber Flea-beetle (Crepidodera Epitrix cucu- MeCvtS) 20 a se NS SS Leaflet of Potato, Showing Over a Hundred Holes Made by #lea-beetles~.22 7. ; Sprayed and Unsprayed Portions of a New York Potato Field. Ter mae: © A Suggestive English eee < Machine The Reuther Potato Digger The Hoover Digger Patato-Shovel .. . » ss. = = gee 123 123 133 140 145 146 147 r ILLUSTRATIONS XV FIG. PAGE Pntiae © OLALOCS In Pits. 6s «48 47 Showing the Distribution of Potato Production in eeetratved states if. 1860.3... .2 es ee GG 48 Showing the Distribution of the Area in the United PEE 6 atGCs Il 1890. so se ee a Se BS 49 Grading and Barreling Potatoes for Market . . . 163 50 Potato Flower, with Calix and Corolla Removed, 3 emma Agthers and Stigma... .-. 0 «- .: «373 51 Pistil of Potato Flower, snowing. Parts. 6... | Mates yf ABBREVIATIONS USED U.S. D. A.—United States Department of Agriculture, in connection with reports or bulletins. E. S. R., V:33—Experiment Station Record, Volume V., page 33. Issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. Experiment Stations in the various States are designated by the common abbreviation for the State—as, ‘‘ Wis.’’: Wisconsin. Where there are two Stationsina State, the particular one is designated—as, New York (N. Y.) Cornell. The number of the bulletin follows. Some States issue their bulletins in volumes, thus: Tenn. Bul., Vol. XI., I., p. 116—Tennessee Bulletin, Volume XI., No. 1.,- pae: 116: Pa. D. A.—Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. State Departments of Agriculture are abbreviated in this manner. Can. Exp. Farms Report, 1901, p. 117—Canada Experi- mental Farms Report for 1901, page I17. Ont. Agr. Col. and Farm Report, 1898, p. 158—Ontario Agricultural College and Farm Report for 1898, page 158. Hort. Trans., Vol. 1.—Horticultural Transactions of Eng- land, Vol, }, Nat. His. of Car.—Natural History of Carolina. By Mark | Catesby, F.R.S. Second Edition. London. Proc. Assoc. Prom. Agr. Science—Proceedings of the Association for the Promotion of Agricultural Science (America). Xvi meoHeE POTATO. CHAPTER: | HISTORY AND BOTANY THE potato (Solanum tuberosunc), also called ‘‘ white [oa Irish potato,’’ ‘‘ English potato,’’..or ‘‘round potato,’’ is a native of the elevated valleys of Chili, Peru, and Mexico, one form of it being found as far north as Southern Colorado. The wild potatoes of Chili differ from the cultivated form, in that they _ produce seed-balls more freely. Tobacco, tomato, egg-plant, capsicum, henbane, and belladonna all belong to the potato family, but of this large family of 1600 species but six bear tubers. Some of these latter—as, Darwin’s potato (Solanum maglia)—were thought to have some value for cross- ing to produce a blight-proof new race, but so far success has not been attained in the latter respect. A variety of Solanum commersoni, another tuber-bearing plant, is now being boomed in Europe as a substitute for the common potato. The Arizona wild potato (Solanum jamesit) has been grown for many years in this country in various places, but its tubers are small and of little value. The Mexican or Central American potato (Solanum tuberosum var. boreale) is found native in Colorado. 2 THE POTATO NF i x FIG. 2—COPY OF ENGRAVING OF THE VIRGINIAN POTATO IN GERARD’S ‘‘ HERBAL,” PRINTED IN 1636 (Compare with photograph, Figs. 5,6.) In England the name Virginian potato was used to designate its source. The potato was probably introduced into that part of the United States now known as Virginia and North Carolina between the middle and close of the sixteenth century. It is claimed that in 1586 colonists returning from Virginia probably took the potato with HISTORY AND BOTANY i 3 them toEngland. ‘The Spanish had previously carried it to Europe. Gerard’s ‘‘ Herbal,’’ published in 1597, describes the potato, and the edition published in 1636 contains a woodcut representing the potato as it ap- peared about three hundred years ago (Fig. 2). The potato was more readily appreciated in this country than in Europe, and by the year 1722 it was acommon article of food among the whites and Indians in Vir- ginia and Carolina.’ In Europe, with the exception of Ireland, potato growing made little progress until the middle of the eighteenth century. The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is an annual, but is virtually perennial by means of its tubers. - It has smooth, generally solid, more or less quadrangular, herbaceous stems, which often attain a hight of two to five feet. The stems are often furnished with membra- nous wings at their angles, and bear compound leaves formed of oval leaflets, between which are often found small, leafy growths. The flowers (Fig. 3) are borne in clusters, and have an entire, wheel-shaped, five-pointed corolla, varying in breadth from one to one and a half inches, and in color from pure white to purple. It is often claimed that many varieties do not flower, and of | those which do a great number never bear fruit. This dearth of fruit is generally attributed to lack of pollen. In many varieties the stamens have degenerated, or do not open to let the pollen out.* Conditions seem to have an influence, as a variety may bear abundance of pollen and mature seed in one district, but not in another in the same year. 1 ‘‘Nat, His. of Carolina,’ by Mark Catesby, F.R.S.,2d ed. 2 Halstead, Proc. Assoc. Prom. Agr. Science, 1888, p. 33, ‘‘ Potato Flowers and Fruit.” 4 THK POTATO The idea is prevalent that potatoes do not bloom so freely iow as formerly. ‘The facts do not tend to con- firm this.. Mark Catesby, who was in this country in i 1722 and 1726, wrote that ‘‘in Virginia and to the Qsseliti ty, FIG. 3—SECTIONAL VIEW OF POTATO FLOWER (Diagrammatic) a—Ovary. 4—Ovules, which finally become seeds. c—Calyx, made up of green-colored leaves. d—Stigma. The pollen attaches itself at this place. e—Style, down which the pollen-tube passes to the ovary and ovules. p—Petals, white to purple in color. s—Stamens. The thick upper portion bears the pollen, and is known as the anther, north thereof, they [potatoes] are annuals, and produce no flowers, while in Carolina and the Bahama Islands they produce flowers.’’ Many varieties existed at that time, particularly in Virginia, and five kinds were common—the Common, Bermudas, Brimstone, Carrot, HISTORY AND BOTANY 5 and Claret potatoes. The Bermuda potato was the only one that had a white flower, the flowers of all the other kinds being purple. This was the only variety that had a white skin, and was white fleshed. It was round in shape, more tender, and more delicate to raise than the others, and did not keep so well.’ George Don, in 1831, enumerates several English early varieties, and says that ‘‘ none of the above sorts, when true, produce blossoms.’’ * At Wyoming Experiment Station,* in 1895, out of 56 varieties grown 14 did not bloom, but in 1896 but 4 varieties failed to bloom out of 56, and only one va- riety, Blue Victor, failed to bloom in one of the two years. In other parts of the State all the varieties grown came into bloom. In New York, during 1904, the variety Blue Victor was profuse in its bloom, and bore abundance of seed-balls. Out of 300 varieties I have followed closely, having grown many for several years, I find that it is seldom that a variety will not bloom at some time in its life, and I am sure that many of the heaviest-yielding varieties bloom as freely as those of inferior merit. At Wyoming Experiment Station the ten heaviest yielding varieties all came into ~ bloom both in 1895 and in 1896, in experiments con- ducted in various parts of the State. The fruit, or seed-ball, is a globular or short oval berry, either green or green tinged with violet, brown, purplish, or yellowish in color, and from three-quar- ters to one and a half inches in diameter. It contains 1 “Nat. His. of Carolina,’’ by Mark Catesby, F.R.S., 2d ed. 2 Don’s *‘Gardener’s Dictionary,’ 1831-8, Vol. IV., pp. 400-406. 3 Wyo. Bul. 32, pp. 54-63. BP THE POTATO small white kidney-shaped seeds embedded in the midst of a green and very acrid pulp (Fig. 3). ‘These seeds are sown for the purpose of raising new varieties. The main vertical underground stem varies in length with the depth of planting. This stem branches at in- tervals, and each branch enlarges at the end to form a tuber (Fig. 12). Usually from two to four roots start from the vertical underground stem at the base of each tuber- bearing branch, but roots may start where such branches are absent. This characteristic growth may be seen by grow- ing a potato in a barrel half full of soil and manure, and watering it well; then, as the stem grows, place soil round it, thus increasing the length of the underground portion and the number of tuber-bearing branches. ‘The tubers may be oe eee formed above ground, and POTATO (Does Pride) Whenever they are abundant Showing the alignment of in the axils of the leaves there the eyes, and that the ter- minal buds tend to start are,few or none below ground. UR ree ne ae The tuber is an underground stem, and the eyes on it are equivalent to the leaf buds on a stem of a young peach or ailanthus. They are arranged more or less spirally in both cases (Fig. 4). From the eye a num- ber of buds may start; hence, in the case of new and expensive varieties, the tubers may be split through the LOD Sabot agian Seas . » A HISTORY AND BOTANY 7 eyes, if desired, and a shoot obtained from each half. _Aseach shoot sets a root it may be broken off and trans- planted, and another may start. By these means and great care a pound of seed tubers has been made to yield 2,558 pounds of potatoes in one season. Historical Note.—The early history of the potato is obscure. The most authentic information I have secured is that Sir Robert Southwell, the President of the Royal Society of Eng- land, at the meeting held December 13, 1693, stated that the potato was brought into Ireland by his grandfather, who ob- tained tubers from Sir Walter Raleigh, after the return of his expedition from Virginia. This was in the year 1584. It is now believed that Sir Walter Raleigh fitted out this expedi- tion, but did not lead it personally, and never was in Virginia. Timbs’ ‘‘ Curiosities of History,’’ page 233, places the date of its introduction to the British Isles as 1586. CHAPTER SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT It is common knowledge that a certain amount of heat and an adequate supply of air and moisture are essential for plant growth. All plants that have green leaves require light, in addition, to enable them to as- similate carbon dioxid from the air, dissociate it into its component parts, and elaborate the carbon into such complex substances as starch, sugar, and other carbo- hydrates. ; ! Influence of Light on Yield.—E. Pagnoul’ placed colored glass over different potato plants. Two plants ‘under darkened glass elaborated 31 and 20 grams of — starch respectively, while those under ordinary glass elaborated 170 and 110 grams; at thesame time plants under normal conditions elaborated 223 and 361 grams. To the favorable influence of abundant light this writer attributes the large yield of potatoes in a season when the aggregate number of hours of sunshine is unusually large. At Wisconsin Experiment Station coldness and cloudiness were believed to be the causes of a poor yield.’ ° The Amount of Moisture.—The amount of water the plant can obtain from the soil is closely cor- £ BS. 3, Vi, pisié, 7 Wis. Report, 1902, p. 188. 8 f : SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH 9 related with the mode of development. If the soil is very dry, and particularly if the tuber is cut, the seed tuber may be so weakened by loss of moisture that it cannot grow. If a tuber has access to but a small amount of water, there will be little or no root devel- opment, with little formation of leaf shoots, but tubers will be formed. Advantage is taken of this fact when small early potatoes are required, the tubers being placed in sand, in acellar, when small tubers will form, but none or few leaves. Under certain conditions, with an abundance or excess of moisture, numerous leaf shoots and roots appear, but no tubers. An increase in the supply of moisture in the air has been found to favor the development of leaves on the shoots, where only scales were formed in an insufficient supply of moisture. Respiration.—We may say that all plants breathe or take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxid. With potatoes this is a necessary function, and if checked, growth is injured. It is probable that light induces some conditions more favorable to increased respira- tion than darkness; hence, if the object is to store pota- toes, it will be better to hold respiration at its lowest point and keep them in the dark. Respiration cannot go on without force or energy, and as this must be supplied, at least partly, from the tuber, it follows that active respiration will be attended by loss of weight, and this goes on very rapidly when the tuber sprouts. If we wish to ‘‘sprout’’ tubers, the best conditions for doing so are still undetermined. | Influence of Temperature on Respiration.— All plants have a range of temperature at which respi- IO THE POTATO ration is normal. The minimum, optimum, and max- imum temperatures have been ascertained for some plants. Young wheat plants will respire at as low a temperature as 28° F., or below freezing-point. The optimum temperature for wheat is about 104° F., while that of potato plants is about 113° F. ‘The maximum for wheat is 113° F., while that for pota- toes is about 131° F. In other words, the potato respires best at about 113° F., but should the temper- ature go above 131° F., the respiration will be some- what less than before, and the vitality weakened ; hence, after a hot spell, when the temperature exceeds the maximum for respiration, it is noticeable that the potatoes fail and become more susceptible to the blight or other troubles, owing to their impaired constitu- tion. By selection we might procure plants of greater vitality, capable of standing the higher temperatures, — which would enable them to be better ‘‘ disease-resist- ers.’ Present-day potatoes thrive best in a cool climate. : Influence of Temperature on Growth.—The minimum temperature for germination of potato tubers is about 50° F.; hence, in the Northern States early planted tubers make little or no growth unless planted shallow, and this is not desirable, except, perhaps, for the earliest varieties. It is better to germinate the tubers in the barn before planting, thus saving time (see Chapter VI., ‘‘ Spreuting Potatoes’’). Potato Roots.—Generally speaking, far more at- tention has been paid to the stems and leaves of plants than the roots, yet in order to cultivate the soil ina rational manner it is essential to know where the roots SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH II are, their character, and requirements. Hxamination of the roots of Early Ohio potatoes,! made July 5, 1899, forty-three days after planting, about the time the crop received its third cultivation, showed that at this time there was little growth of fibrous roots—only the skele- ton system supplied with numerous delicate root hairs. The seed tuber appeared to be sound and whole, but on closer examination it proved to be but a shell. Only a few eyes on the upper side of each tuber produced shoots; thus one hill produced three stalks from two eyes, and another had seven stalks springing from five eyes. _ The latter plant had more numerous but smaller roots than the former. ‘Twenty-five small potatoes were set on the first plant, the largest of which were the size ofalarge pea. At this stage of development the main portion of the roots was in the surface eight inches, a few roots reached to the depth of eighteen inches, but the greatest root growth was in a horizontal direction. The roots from each hill had already met and interlaced, some having reached a length of two feet, the plants being three feet apart. Atsix inches from the hill some of the main lateral roots were but two and one-quarter inches from the surface of the ground, while midway between the rows their depth was barely three inches from the surface. Further examination of Early Ohio potatoes seventy- two days after planting, when the tubers were nearly full size, showed that the main root growth was in the upper foot of soil ; several of the large horizontal roots were within three inches of the surface, and one was but one inch deep. Some of the vertical roots reached 1N. Dak. Bul. 45, p. 541. *A[UO SPIS 9UO O WIIO} OF PUD} Ad} SATJOIIVA DMIOS UT ‘“Ul3d}s 9} PUNO ]]B poyNql1j}stp 919M Sioqny ay} ‘1vah ysed ay} Sutinp ‘Aja1ivVa Siy} UT “19zWIOD JY} WO} sapis []B WO sayoUT U9} jNOGe pasEsaae sisqny sy} Aq perdnoso aovds ayy, ‘spunod %{£ SurysiomM ‘s1aqn} pezis-poos 9} 91¥ slay, ‘vo61 ‘suoljIpuoo play Japun UMOI ' (HAOdV WOUA GAMAIA) NIOO GION LNOWAFA AO INVId—S ‘dSI14 AO Jo WWdap vO} pleMUMOPp pue ‘yuRTd ay} Jo B OM} UedIMjoq Bursq Ayiiofeut ay} ‘punoi3 ‘S ‘SI UI SB yUR[d SUBS *¥ ‘20B[d SI} JB potaaooun jyod ay} 9ATISqGO *}oaJ 9914} 419 ‘SOYOUL DAY pu SYOUL WoAVs JNoqe Bnq oe 9 $}JOO1 SUL. Ajaya[dwmo09 Moy Surmoys 24} MOTeaq s 91JUID SY} WIOIJ JOO OMY ple MOTI ][]OM ]][B 919M Siaqn} dq, (M4LA ACIS) NIOO GTO MNO papus}x FE TROs. otf} LNOWUHA AO LINVTd—g ‘SI $}OOL YIM peIl[y s ra) Wh, 14 THE POTATO a depth of two and a half feet. The deep-growing roots are very tender and brittle and easily broken, differing in this respect from corn roots. ‘The hori- zontal roots send out vertical branches, which often descend to a depth of two feet or more. Shallow tillage, such as hand-hoeing without hill- ing, retains all the roots. Moderately deep tillage with a five-tooth single horse-cultivator and slight hilling destroys practically all the surface roots, and undoubtedly interferes seriously with the plant’s de- velopment; while with deep tillage nearly all the long ~ horizontal roots are destroyed, and with them all their ~ numerous vertical branch-roots with their intricate system of fibres and root hairs, by which the potato = receives its food. In very heavy soils it may be wise to plant potatoes shallow and then hill them, but in most soils it is better policy to plow deep, plant fairly deep, and give shallow flat cultivation. With deep tillage the roots nearest the surface were at a depth of seven inches, while in the case of those receiving shallow | tillage the bulk of the horizontal roots were in the sur- face seven inches. The hilling covers the potatoes and © prevents them from sunburning, and this seems to be all the benefit received. The loss of roots is very hurtful, and takes place at a time when the plant can least afford to suffer injury. Experiments conducted | at Vermont Experiment Station’ show that during the last weeks of growth the weekly increase in weight of tubers is at its maximum, and that checks when the tubers are approaching maturity depress the yield cor- — respondingly. | *Ver. Bul, 72, p. 5. SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH 15 A sample of Early Ohio potatoes taken ninety days after planting, when the vines were beginning to die and the tubers were nearly ripe, showed that the roots penetrated to a depth of over two anda half feet.’ The branches from the main lateral roots had reached about as deep as those immediately under the hill, and the soil was filled with roots to a depth of about two and a half feet. The system of rooting is similar to that of corn, but the plant is not so good a forager, and the roots do not fill the soil so completely; hence, plants can be placed closer together. Late varieties have a similar root system, but root more freely, more deeply (a depth of three and a half feet being common if-the soil conditions will permit), and occupy the ground more completely; hence, require more room than early varieties. At Cornell University, during 1904, many potatoes had horizontal roots in the surface inch of soil. All of these would be destroyed by moderately deep tillage. Influence of Depth of Planting on Roots.— Generally speaking, the new potatoes and the roots start out above the seed, although if an under eye of the potato produces the shoot the roots and tubers may _ develop at the side of theseed. Depth of planting has some influence on the depth at which the tubers will form, and may have some on the roots. ‘The question deserves investigation. Many plants prefer to send out their roots at a uniform depth below’the surface: thus, at Cornell University, wheat, whether planted six inches deep or one inch deep, will send out its per- 1 N. Dak. Bul. 43, p. 544. 16 THE POTATO manent roots about one and a half inches below the surface. 7 Blossoming, Tuber Formation, and Hilling — — Potatoes are hilled about the time they come into bloom, and this is the time that tuber formation is beginning. The ancestral type of potato developed seed about this time and died; the tendency acquired by cultivation is to throw all the reserve material into tuber production. These reproductive processes cause a severe drain upon the plant’s energies, and the fort- night immediately following the blossoming period is therefore a peculiarly critical time for the plant, during which time its life hangs in the balance. At this time it is subject to extreme heat, and may be injured; also insects, fungi, etc., may attack it, and, to add to its troubles, cutting off a lot of its roots, either just before or about this time, is no doubt the common cause of a decline from which the plant never recovers. Even tuber formation, without the influence of other agen- cies, may cause a plant to die. The importance of studying the condition of the plant at this time will be appreciated when it is remembered that the entire crop of salable tubers is formed after this critical period is past, and full success with the crop depends upon retain- ing the plant healthy for from one to three months after the blossoming period. During August, in one case, the crop of potatoes increased at the rate of over 50 bushels, or over 3,000 pounds, weekly per acre. The importance of avoiding checking growth a tory to or during such a time is evident. 1 Ver, Bul, 72, p. 5. CHAPTER III SOILS THE soil considered best is a deep, mellow, free- working loam, grading either to a sandy loam or clay l6am, although the crop may be raised on lighter or heavier soils, provided the latter are drained. Tile drainage should be resorted to, if necessary, to reduce the water table to from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet below the surface. Some reasons for selecting a light, sandy, or gravelly loam for the crop are: 1. Such soils can be worked early in spring, and gotten ready for early planting, if desired ; . The lighter soil becomes warm more readily in the spring than a heavier soil, and germination of the tuber and growth of the plant proceeds more rapidly ; 3. They can be easily worked, and placed and main- tained in good tilth without a heavy labor bill ; 4. The effects of the manures and fertilizers applied are generally perceptible for a longer period of time than on lighter soils ; 5. Ihe potatoes grown on such a soil usually come out bright and clean, smooth and of more uniform size—important factors when they go on the market ; tN 17 18 . THE POTATO 6. Light soils usually produce potatoes of better qual- ity, because they tend to shorten the growing period by cutting off the moisture supply, and thus forcing the potatoes to mature earlier; 7. Those grown on well-drained sandy loam soils usu- ally keep better than those grown on stiff clay soils. | Aroostock County, Maine, is famous for its potatoes. ! Its soil presents a gently rolling surface, and is com- posed essentially of drift deposited during the melting of the ice after the ice age, and resting on a stratum of limestone, which in many places comes to the sur- face. ‘The soil partakes of the general nature of drift containing a considerable portion of sand and the usual amount of organic matter. It is peculiarly suited to potatoes, because it does not pack after hard rains nor during periods of drouth. Its open and porous nature permits the free development of tubers and the ramifi- cation of the roots. The soil was originally covered with a growth of hard and soft woods, consisting chiefly of maple, cedar, birch, white poplar, spruce, hemlock, and pine. The forest growth was dense, and in clear- ing large quantities of ashes were produced, which fitted the virgin fields particularly for the production of large crops of potatoes. After a few years of culti- vation, the crop-producing power of the soil showed a diminution, and to-day applications of farm manures and commercial fertilizers containing a large percent- — age of potash are resorted to. Analyses of Maine soils _ show that they are silicious, contain considerable or- 1U. S. D. A., Div. of Chemistry, Bul. 58, p. 5-8. SOILS 19 ganic matter, and are reasonably rich in lime and mag- nesia, which seem to be essential constituents of a soil suited to the growth of potatoes. The potash is also in fair quantity, but not sufficient to produce maximum crops. The famous potato-growing counties of Wiscon- sin, Portage, Waushara, and Waupaca had over 60,000 acres in potatoes in 1899, and these are as important to the Central States as Aroostock County, Maine, is to the Eastern States. The soil is glacial drift, some of it being made up of level deposits of sand and gravel covered with a light loam. The sand is usually un- derdrained by a bed of coarse gravel. Sandy loams | prevail. Clayey loams occupy some areas, but are not prevalent. The average yield is 100 bushels rote. On Long Island, N. Y., the chief potato soils on the south side of the island are light silt loams underlain either by gravel or sand, while gravelly till is the main type on the northern side. The yields vary from 80 to 250 bushels per acre. } The Influence of Soil on Different Varieties.— — Professor Buffum,* of Wyoming Experiment Station, reported on eight varieties grown on each of two kinds of soil represented on the experiment farm. The soil and crops were treated alike. Plat 1 is bench-land above the river, and is a deep red colluvial soil con- taining little humus. Plat 2 is bottom-land next the river, and is a black soil containing a large amount of humus. : 1 Wyo. Bul. 32, p. 6. 20 THE POTATO FABLE. ts = Plat 1 Plat 2 Increased yield VARtETS Yield per acre| Yield per acre on Plat 2 Los. Lbs. Lbs. Beauty of Hebron... .. 9,678 23,628 | 13,950 Hatly Mayflower... .) > .. 15,060 28,842 13,782 Batly Puritan... 3...) < is x 12,702 32,340 19,638 Piipire State 22a e oe en 15,372 22,698 7,326 Rate SuPibadt soos ke hss 18,858 26,742 7,884 Pride of the West ;....2. 2... 5,040 23,322 18,282 SHOWMPOP) fh a heide ce ns ken 14,562 25,500 10,938 White Hiephant’ .¢.°.. 2"... 11,808 27,990 16, 182 BNETARE 3 Se ee 12,885 26,383 13,498 The figures taken collectively show the importance of selecting a soil suitable for the crop to be grown, the yield being doubled on Plat 2, while taken indi- vidually it is evident that certain varieties were better adapted to the environment than others. The ques- tion of which variety will best suit the environment must be determined by the grower. Subsoiling.—Buffum’, of Wyoming, states that sub- soiling may be recommended throughout that State for potatoes. The cost of subsoiling to a depth of 16 inches to 18 inches varied between $3.00 and $6.00 per acre. Hays’, of Minnesota, found it to be expensive and not profitable under most conditions in that State, and that it reduced the yields of crops on land already sufh- ciently open and porous. In humid climates, if at-. tempted, it is advocated that subsoiling be done in the fall, to permit the readjustment of the soil granules before springtime, so that the moisture will be able to rise upward from the subsoil, as evaporation takes 1 Wyo. Bul. 41, pp. 20.21; Bul. 32, pp. 7, 8. 2 Minn. Bul. 68, p. 609. SOILS 21 place at the surface, and prevent the crop being de- stroyed by lack of moisture. Injurious results from subsoiling in spring have been noted, probably due to the working of the subsoil when it was too wet. It does not follow that because the surface soil to the depth of eight inches is dry enough to plow the subsoil will be, and in many cases the subsoil has been puddled by spring working, and the supply of moisture from below more or less completely cut off, with disastrous results to the crop. Preparation of the Soil. The ideal crop to pre- cede potatoes is timber, but as no rotation comprising this crop is in use, the preparation given after timber demands little attention. Potatoes are more commonly grown after potatoes, corn, or after clover or sod. In such cases preference is usually given to fall plowing, accomplished during October or November until freez- ing prevents further work. Deep plowing should be done in fall, because opportunity is then given for the storage of water in the soil during the winter and when the thaw occurs in spring. If manure is to be applied it is spread before plowing, but, if rotted, it may be applied later and disked in. The depth of plowing varies with the soil, probably six inches or eight inches being most common, although, if the soil will permit, eight inches to twelve “inches will be better. When soils are deficient in humus, it is generally inadvisable to plow deeply. The humus content of such soils should be increased and the depth of plowing increased correspondingly, thus bringing the land into a higher state of production. In some distri¢ts where the snow covers the ground all winter the land is harrowed well 22 THE POTATO in fall and left nearly ready for planting, thus facilita- ting spring work. Where the frost penetrates deeply, or the soil is apt to run together, the land is better left rough plowed all winter and fitted in spring ; but this entails some loss of time, and prevents the early plant- ing of potatoes. Sometimes it is necessary to plow in spring, and in many cases it is profitable to replow when a fall plow- FIG. 7A USEFUL TYPE OF SPRING-TOOTHED HARROW ing has been given. Under such conditions a depth of not more than six inches or eight inches is advised, because plowing land is attended by loss of moisture, and in most cases the amount of moisture held in the soil or supplied as rainfall during the growing period is insufficient to insure maximum. yields; hence, care should be taken to conserve all the moisture possible by plowing judiciously, making and maintaining a mulch of the surface soil, thus checking evaporation, SOILS 23 and by enriching thesoil in humus either by manuring or a suitable rotation. Humus affects the physical properties of the soil considerably—among other things, enabling it to hold more moisture without injury to the plants in a wet time, and to endure drouth in a FIG. 8—-AN EFFICIENT PULVERIZER: THE DISK HARROW dry time.’ Even where irrigation is practiced the above factors cannot be economically neglected. Surface-fitting Tools.—The Acme harrow is one of the best tools for making a soil mulch before the crop is planted, and in trials made by Sanborn’ was shown to be the most efficient type of harrow for pul- verizing soil. On stony land, or where roots of trees interfere, the spring-tooth harrow (Fig. 7) is preferred for deep tillage of the soil, while under other conditions 1 Minn. Bul. 68, pp. 576-579. 2 Utah Bul. 4. 24 THE POTATO the disk harrow. These tools work deeper than the Acme harrow, and may be used to prepare the soil to a depth of four to six inches, which seems to be as deep as is necessary. Few farmers prepare land to this depth, as it requires three horses on a six-foot harrow ona loam soil. Two to 2% inches is more common. Harrows differ in their action; thus, the spring-toothed harrow FIG. 9—DOUBLE-ACTION CUTAWAY HARROW and the smoothing or spike-tooth harrow tend to com- pact the soil while fining it, while the disk type (Figs. 8 and g) and Acme harrows tend to lighten it and make it more open when they fine it. For potatoes and corn the latter are preferable, while for wheat the former. Whatever tool is used the land should be well fitted. Few farmers prepare the land well enough, and many and near them cannot be touched when they have lanted, while wide tools may be used before. CHAPTER IV ROTATION IN some cases potatoes are grown continuously for several years on the same soil, but a rotation of crops is preferable for many reasons—among others, to lessen the dangers of attacks of diseases and insects, and to bring the soil into a suitable physical condition for growing this crop. Some rotations suggested by Wheeler, of the Rhode Island Experiment Station,’ are as follows: three-year rotation—potatoes, winter rye, common red clover; four-year rotation—corn on clover sod, potatoes, winter rye, clover. This can be made into a five-year rotation by seeding timothy and redtop with the clover, and leaving the mixture down two years, thus reducing thé labor bill to some ex- tent. Trials of these and other rotations were made on land so poor that corn attained a hight of but 4 or 5 inches, while the first crops of salable potatoes were but 65 bushels per acre. During later years, with management similar to that given the first year, and the application of a similar-amount of fertilizers, the yields ran up to 350 bushels of salable potatoes per acre. A common Maine rotation is a four-year course of potatoes, oats, clover and grass, the latter for two years—it being noted that clover thrives on good po- tatoland. In deciding upon the rotation it is important i RoI: Bul. 74, 75, 76: 26 be ed ak ROTATION — 27 -to note the influence of each crop upon the moisture content of the soil (see p. 50); thus, rye removes less moisture from the soil than wheat. Oats draw heav- ily upon the moisture content. The potato crop is not usually considered to be a heavy water consumer. It leaves the soil in a rela- tively moist condition; hence, the wisdom of the Maine four-year course, in which oats succeed potatoes. This course requires but one deep plowing in four years, that for the potatoes, and in this it is econom- ical. Peas use a relatively small amount of water, and would leave the soil in good shape for potatoes: In Wisconsin,' while potatoes grown in rotation yield- ed 342.8 bushels per acre, a crop grown on an old alfalfa sod yielded but 277.7 bushels per acre, al- though the rainfall was considered adequate to pro- duce a full crop. In some cases clover tends to leave the soil drier than some other crops, and its use as the preceding crop for potatoes may be detri- mental. In most cases, however, a leguminous crop is the best to precede potatoes. In Florida’ cow-peas preceding potatoes increased the yield 4o per cent. The Ohio Station® found that in the three-course rota- tion—potatoes, wheat, clover—whenever good crops of clover were grown the economy of using nitrogenous fertilizers for the potatoes was questionable, thus show- ing that a good rotation is equivalent to manuring. Plowing under a leguminous crop is held to be good practice on farms where an adequate supply of manure is not forthcoming and little stock is kept; thus, at the 1 Wis. Report, 1902, p. 188. 2 Fla. Report, 1900-Igor, p. 28. $ Ohio Bul. 125, p. 132. 28 THE POTATO Maryland Station,’ plowing under a crop of crimson clover increased the yield 34.4 bushels’ per acre, or 50 per cent., and the average gain for two years was 27 bushels per acre, or 45 per cent.; the Storrs’ (Connect- icut) Station reports that clover sown in corn at the last cultivation had a high value when used to plow under as manure for potatoes, even though it only attained a hight of three or four inches; in Germany’ the sweet clover (/Zelilotus alba) is found to be a valu- able green manure; while in another German experi- ment,’ where clover was seeded in rye which was grown for grain, the clover being plowed under the following spring, it was noted that the yield of rye was dimished, but the yield of the succeeding crop of potatoes was increased. The yields of rye and potatoes were: TABLE eadere Yield per acre of Yield per acre of rye, 1892 potatoes, 1893 Bushels Lbs. Bushels Lbs. Rye alone ME Ba gS A ole bs 14 44 289 35 Rye Meme Gi Sc es 15 21 296 15 Ryeand late sown red clover 13 50 330 25 Rye andearly sown red clover 12 35 Se 39 1 As green manuring for poor sandy land on Long Island, N. Y., Professor Stone, of Cornell University, suggested sowing a bushel of cow-peas and ten pounds of crimson clover per acre, in July, with some fertil- 1 Md. Bul. 38, p. 58. 2 Conn. (Storrs) Report, Igoo, p. 65. Se Ss, | Wes Se OY, 4h. SR. VE. poe ROTATION | 29 izers. The cow-peas were killed by the first frost, but the clover persisted; the crowding, however, was such that the plants of neither crop got too large before be- ing plowed under the following spring. For farther north a combination of half a bushel of buckwheat and a peck to half a bushel of rye per acre, sown together, has given good results. Rape sown at the rate of four to five pounds per acre is useful. Other crops will suggest themselves. In parts of New York, especially on heavy loams, buckwheat is esteemed as the preceding crop for potatoes. It crowds out weeds and leaves the soil in excellent physical condition. CHAPTER V MANURING AND FERTILIZING _ LAND is manured and fertilized either to increase or to maintain its crop-producing power. Whether this is secured by the direct effect of the chemical ingredients in the manure or fertilizers, or by their influence upon the physical properties of the soil, or both, is an unsettled scientific problem, but all agree that under certain con- ditions the addition of manures, fertilizers, and water to the soil is profitable. Whether it will be profitable on a particular farm or field, and the manure, fertil- izer or combination of fertilizers which will be most profitable to use, are questions the grower must settle for himself by trial. No chemical examination of the soil yet conducted has shown why two soils, apparently identical in chemical composition, should not produce similar yields of crops. Experience has shown that the chemical composition of the soil is no guide to its crop-producing power. Hence, all that can be given in this chapter is to submit mixtures of fertilizers that are used and the réle the different important ingre- dients are believed to play in the plant economy. In addition to water, which is treated elsewhere, four elements are frequently applied in various chem- ical forms as fertilizers—nitrogen, phosphorus, potas- sium, and calcium. The potato through its life re- quires liberal supplies of the first three of these elements, and its behavior in regard to these is similar to that of 30 wae TT a ee ee, ey ms MANURING AND FERTILIZING 31 a shallow-rooted root crop. The facts that the potato is a starch-producing crop, and that its period of growth is through the summer and extending well into autumn must be remembered. In these features it is similar to corn, but distinctly different from the cereals which ripen in the summer, as it is assumed that it is able to utilize the nitrates and other plant-food liber- ated during the summer and fall. E. Hecke’ states that the demand for nitrogen is especially strong dur- ing the first half of the vegetative period, while the demand for potash is greatest during the second half of the growing period, and that potash aids in the for- mation of starch, and especially in the development of tubers and roots, although the effects were observed in all parts of the plant. The Influence of Nitrogen.—Wilfarth’ showed that when the supply of nitrogen is insufficient the leaves tend to turn yellow, and that if the available supply of potash is deficient heavy applications of nitro- gen tend to reduce the percentage of tubers and starch. Lawes and Gilbert® show that nitrogen stimulates the - production of starch, provided the mineral constituents are not deficient; but in large quantities nitrogenous fertilizers stimulated luxuriant growth, delayed matur- ation, and produced potatoes richer in nitrogen and- much more liable to disease. At the Rhode Island Experiment Station’ dried blood ranked first of the nitrogenous fertilizers applied, followed by nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia; but on soils said to be extremely acid, dried blood was only about half as 1#.S.R., VII., p. 667. 2H.S.R. XIV., p. 561. 3 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. VI. *R. I. Bul. 65, pp. 133, 134. 32 THE POTATO beneficial as it should be; hence, such soils need liming before full benefit can be derived from the use of this fertilizer. A mixture of two-thirds dried blood and one-third nitrate of soda, or of equal parts of all three fertilizers, is suggested. At the Tennessee Experiment Station’ cottonseed-meal was found to be a more profit- able source of nitrogen than nitrate of soda, while at the Florida Station’ the nitrogen of cottonseed-meal and castor pomace were equally effective, but that of nitrate of soda was more so by 30 per cent. The Influence of Potash.—Wilfarth and Wim- mer” show that when potassic fertilizers are applied to a soil almost destitute in potash they— 1. Increase the size of the tuber, but have little influ- ence upon its composition, and that the amount ‘of potash in tubers remains fairly constant, unin- fluenced by the amounts in the soil, or applied, unless very heavy applications are made, which may cause an increase to a certain point, but will be attended by a decline if continued. 2. Decrease the percentage of stems and leaves, but have no marked influence on the roots of potatoes. 3. Have a marked influence on the shape and appear- ance of the leaf; if deficient, the leaves are yellow- ish-brown in color, and become spotted or striped in the portions between the veins, while the peti- ole of the leaf and ribs retain their dark green color. If the supply of potash is insufficient the leaves tend to curl, and sometimes collapse of the plant follows. | Tenn. Bul., Vol. X11L, No. 3, p. 6. 2 Fla. Report, 1900-Ig0I, p. 27. 2. So Re) RLV: ee Gr. a le eh MANURING AND FERTILIZING 33 4. Increase the quantity of water transpired per gram of dry matter. Hecke! shows that the application of potassic a izers has a marked influence in the produdtion of tubers and roots, and that potash assists in the forma- tion of starch. Lawes and Gilbert’ noted that the percentage of potash was relatively high when the supply of it was relatively liberal and vice versa, but the variations are small, and that where there was a deficiency of potash in the supply and in the ash there was generally an increased supply of lime in the ash. Which is the Better Source of Potash, Sul- phate or Muriate of Potash ?—This question is still unsettled, because, apart from other considerations, one of the deciding factors is the relative cost of each. In many cases the results are inconclusive,* while in some cases’ the fertilizers appear to be of equal value. In others’ sulphate of potash gave better results; thus Davidson, of Virginia,* found that the potatoes grown by sulphate of potash contained more dry matter but a less percentage of starch than those fertilized with muriate of potash. Brooks’ found that sulphate of potash gave a greater yield per acre of merchantable tubers, which were of larger size and of superior eat- ing quality, containing 2 to 3 per cent. more starch, and, when cooked, the potatoes were whiter, of better flavor, and more mealy. ee. ., Vil. p. 667. 2 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. VI., ‘‘ Experi- ments on the Growth of Potatoes.’’ *%(N.Y.) Geneva Bul. 137, pp. 604, 620, cee Bul. 4r,p.i13. °° Mass. (Hatch) Report, 1896, p. 22; R.I. Bul. 65, i 132 - Mich. Bul. 131, p. 10; (N. Y.) Geneva, Bul. 137, pp. 621, 622. © Va. Bul. 92, pp. 107, 108. * Mass. (Hatch) Report, I904, p. 122. 34 THE POTATO The time and method of application must be con-. sidered. In my experience muriate of potash has given better results when applied the previous fall, especially if more than 100 pounds per acre are to be applied, the presumption being that the potassium compound under- goes changes in the soil, and that the injurious chlorine is removed as a chloride by the winter and spring rains. For spring application in the drills sulphate of potash may be better, or a mixture of sulphate and mu- riate of potash, if more than the above-mentioned quantity is required. ‘The disadvantage of the muriate of potash seems to be due to the fact that it is a chlo- ride, and Sjollema’ and Pfeiffer * have shown that the chlorides of potassium, sodium (common salt), and mag- nesium, when added to the sulphate of potash, dimin- ished the starch content of the potatoes considerably, and that the reduction was greatest in varieties rich in starch. This would seem to support the common idea that sulphate of potash produces better quality potatoes than muriate of potash. Wheeler,’ of Rhode Island, shows that calcium chloride had a marked poisonous effect upon potatoes and nearly destroyed them, while the same amount of calcium in certain forms other than the chloride or sulphate increased the yield and vigor of the plants. New varieties, and those making a heavy growth of haulm, seem to be particularly sensitive to chlorides. Influence of Phosphoric Acid.—Lack of phos- phoric acid is accompanied by dark green leaves. While phosphoric acid aids starch formation, it is often re- 1B, S. R., XIL, 434. 2E. S. R., XII, 443. *R. 1. Bul. 40, pp. 85, 86. av OP pase pele MANURING AND FERTILIZING 35 garded as being of less importance than potash. The results obtained at the Ohio Station’ show that phos- phoric acid is the most essential fertilizer for their con- ditions, some potash, and, in some cases, nitrogen, being also required. I found the same to be true at Briar- cliff Manor, N. Y., where too pounds of available phosphoric acid per acre (equal to 600 pounds acid phosphate, 16-17 per cent. available) gave profitable returns. My own observations are that an excessive application of available phosphoric acid has a marked influence upon the foliage, causing it to be small, dark green, wrinkled, and apparently stunted in develop- ment, with consequently early maturity. In some cases the period of growth is reduced six or eight weeks, and consequently the yield is low; but, owing to the potatoes being mature, the quality is generally good. In certain localities, for early potatoes, where it is desirable to hasten maturity, the use of fair quan- tities of acid phosphate, with a limited supply of nitro- gen and potash and no barn manure, is found to be good practice. The nitrogen may be supplied in an available form as nitrate of soda, since nitrification may not be active in the soil during the early period of growth. The Influence of Calcium.—Calcium does not ap- pear to be so important as some of the other elements, although in some cases it produces a marked increase in yield (Fig. 10). If applied in a form which has an alkaline action upon the soil—as, carbonate of lime or quicklime—it may have an injurious effect by 1Qhio Bul. 125, pp. 131, 132. 36 THE POTATO producing conditions which aid the development of scab. Barn Manure.—Applying barn manures is com- monly practiced for potatoes with profitable results. Lawes and Gilbert! showed that only a small portion of the nitrogen of farm manures is taken up by the crop; thus, with an annual manuring of 15.5 tons per acre, containing 200 pounds of nitrogen, continued for twelve Courtesy R. I. Exp. Sta. See Bul. 40. FIG. IO—INFLUENCE OF LIME UPON POTATOES Showing the influence of lime upon the yield, and that it increases the per- centage of scabbed potatoes. Aight, unlimed. Leff, limed. Other fertil- izers the same in both cases. years, but 8.3 per cent. of the nitrogen was recovered in the crop. ‘‘ These results seem to indicate that this .crop is able to avail itself of a less proportion of the nitrogen of the manure than any other farm crop. Yet, in ordinary practice, farm-yard manure is not only largely relied upon for potatoes, but is often applied in larger quantities for them than for any other crop.’’ Taft,” of Michigan, found that twenty-four loads of manure per acre gave the largest yield, while at the 1 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. VI. ? Mich. Bul. 131, p. Io. ; _ ; eit: ei a MANURING AND FERTILIZING 37 Wisconsin Experiment Station twenty loads per acre were applied, and larger quantities in Great Britan. It seems natural to assume that the beneficial effects of manure must largely be due to other causes than the addition of plant-food. Among these may be its influence on the physical properties of the soil, render- ing it more retentive of moisture, more porous and more permeable for air and roots, and a better home for the useful soil bacteria, which, in fact, it may sup- ply. The decomposition of such quantities of organic matter, with the consequent liberation of carbon dioxid, aids in rendering the mineral resources of the soil more available. Generally speaking, it is more economical to apply about ten tons of manure per acre and supple- ment it with fertilizers, except upon loose open soils of poor texture, where the beneficial effect from the larger amount should probably be ascribed to its in- fluence upon the retention of moisture. It is preferable that the manure be rotted somewhat and applied the previous fall, while the fertilizers may be applied when planting. On some soils, to reduce the danger of dis- ease, it may be advisable to apply all the barn manure to the previous crop. The-application of fertilizers is profitable under most conditions in the Eastern and North Central States. At New Hampshire Experi- ment Station the application of fifteen cords of manure increased the yield of marketable potatoes over 100 bushels per acre compared with no manure, and the use of 1,500 pounds of fertilizers with the same amount of manure resulted in a further increase in yield of 130 bushels per acre.! Taft,* of Michigan, shows that 1N.H. Bul. 111, p. 116. ? Mich. Bul. 131, p. to. 38 THE POTATO the average gain from the use of a full application ~ of fertilizers was eighty bushels per acre. In Long Island, N. Y., a fertilizer mixture containing 4 per cent. nitrogen, 8 per cent. available phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent. potash has proven satisfactory. It is used in amounts varying from 500 pounds to 2,000 . pounds per acre, and in many cases more potash is ap- plied than is profitable. The use of 1,000 pounds of this fertilizer has given the greatest profit. Where I,500 pounds or 2,000 pounds were used the cost of the fertilizer was more than the market value of the in- creased yield of potatoes. Forsome years I have used a mixture of 100 pounds sulphate of ammonia, 400 to 600 pounds acid phosphate (16 to 17 per cent. available), and 100 pounds muriate of potash with eight to ten tons of partially rotted manure per acre on a medium loam soil. At New Hampshire Experiment Station’ 300 pounds muriate of potash per acre gave the best results when compared with none, 150 pounds, and 450 pounds per acre. The above mixtures merely show quantities used by -— eertain individuals ; each farmer must work out a mix- ture suited to his needs. ‘There are other conditions than the application of fertilizers. As Dr. W. H. Jordan’ pithily puts it: ‘‘It is clearly evident that a large supply of plant-food does not necessarily insure a satisfactory crop. Other conditions which largely per- tain to culture—such as texture, humus, and water- supply—exercise a controlling influence, and wher these conditions are unfavorable their effect is not over- come by heavy applications of fertilizer.’’ 1N. H. Bul. 111, p. 115. 2(N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 189, p. 215. ; MANURING AND FERTILIZING 39 It almost invariably occurs that potatoes grown with- out any manure mature earlier and contain more dry matter, with a correspondingly reduced yield,’ than _those grown on land manured with barn manures or a complete fertilizer. The vigorous growth induced under the latter conditions cannot be matured in the same time, hence for an early crop it is unwise to stimulate too vigorous growth. ; The Function of Fertilizers.—The prevailing opinion in purchasing fertilizers is that they contain a certain amount of plant-food—usually nitrogen, phos- _ phoric acid, or potash—in a more or less available form, and that the benefits received from their appli- cation is due to the addition of this plant-food to the soil. So deeply seated is this theory that all fertilizers are bought and sold on this basis, and laws controlling the business have been formulated upon it. The in- gredients—nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, with others—are necessary for the growth of all crops, but the amounts of the essential ingredients, other than the above mentioned, are believed to be present in the soil in sufficient quantities to meet all the requirements of the crops grown. A 300-bushel crop of potatoes has been found to con- tain 81 pounds of nitrogen, 30.6 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 79 pounds of potash. Taking 49 New York soils, the chemist found that the surface eight inches contained, per acre: ° | Nitrogen . . . 3,053 pounds, enough for 38crops Phosphoric acid, 4,219 ae 4 “ 4g7 Potash. . - : 16,317 cé ‘6 a: 207 far 1 Va. Bul. 92, p. 107. 2 (N. Y.) Cornell Bul. 130, p. 157. 40 THE POTATO Upon such soils as these applications of fertilizers containing phosphoric acid, and, in some cases, potash, have been found, by experience, to be most profitable— a condition of affairs which could never be ascertained from the analyses. It is seldom that the increase in yield of crop bears any relationship to the quantity of the fertilizers applied. Without either fertilizers or manure, but given good tillage, yields of 300 bushels of potatoes per acre have been obtained for four suc- cessive years on the same piece of land.’ The amount of plant-food removed by any crop is small, and is obtained from all parts of the soil wherever rootsextend. Most soils contain certain sufficient plant- food to supply the demands of any crop grown thereon for an indefinite period of time. To maintain crop pro- duction at a profitable point, attention must be paid to factors other than the supply of plant-food. The ingredients applied as fertilizers will, no doubt, be found to have a value other than their value as car- riers of plant-food. Their value for this purpose may be found to be small, while the benefits derived from their use may be found to be largely due to their chemical action upon the soil—e.g., as sanitary agents, promoters of the growth of desirable organisms or de- stroyers of injurious ones, aids in the formation of de- sirable chemical compounds in the soil or neutralizers of undesirable compounds, to their influence as stimu- lants, and upon the physical properties of the soil. That their use is desirable in some cases is evident. Why it should be, and how, are matters for investiga- tion. 1(N. Y.) Cornell Bul. I91, p. 192. a ; MANURING AND FERTILIZING AI The farmer needs to realize that the soil on his fields to-day is not the same as that of last year. Soil is changing. The subsoil of yesterday is the soil of to-day. Although the amount removed by crops is so small that it is a negligable quantity, that removed by washing and by the wind is enormous. The muddy stream, the bars at the mouths of rivers, the move- ment of soils by the wind, and even the dust-cloud raised when harrowing, show that far more plant-food is removed in these ways than in crops, and to check these leaks is of more importance than to try to make up the loss by the addition of plant-food. The main- tenance of a satisfactory amount of organic matter in the soil in a proper condition may usually be accom- plished by a judicious rotation of crops, manuring, and liming. ‘The old method has been to feed crops with com- mercial fertilizers, the new agriculture looks to nature for its sources of plant-food. These sources are (1) the large stores of unavailable plant-food in all soils, (2) the unlimited stores of nitrogen present in the air.’ Research has revealed the fact that soil or- ganisms can take plant-food from both of the above sources and furnish it to growing crops, and that a fertile soil is one in which these processes are going on at the highest rate, and that it is necessary to stimu- late these biological activities. Humus is a food for these organisms. Lime is essential for maintaining the soil in a slightly alkaline condition, and for fixing some of the compounds formed in the soil; and drain- 1 Del. Bul. 66, p. 14. 42 THE POTATO age, deep plowing, and thorough tillage are necessary to bring air into the soil and stimulate bacterial a¢tiv- ity. Humus, lime, and tillage are three important fac- tors in maintaining a fertile soil,’ and the farmer who understands the value of these is the one who will de- rive the most benefit from the use of fertilizers. | Purchasing and Applying Fertilizers.—Fertil- izers may be divided into three classes—viz.: (a) Nitrogenous, or those rich in nitrogen. (6) Phosphatic, or those rich in phosphorus. (c) Potassic, or those rich in potassium. Nitrogen occurs in fertilizers, as: (1) Nitrates—e.g., nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash. (2) Ammonium salts—e.g., sulphate of am- -monia. | Pe (3) Organic nitrogen—e.g., dried blood, tankage, hoof meal, etc. | Nitrogen as nitrates is immediately available as plant-food, is soluble in water, and if not taken up quickly by plants is liable to be lost in the soil water; hence small quantities applied at short intervals give the best results. 7 Nitrogen as ammonium salts soon becomes available in warm weather, and is not so liable to be washed out of the soil as when in the form of a nitrate. Nitrogen as organic matter is more slowly available. 1 Del. Bul. 66, ‘‘ Soil Bacteria and Nitrogen Assimilation.” . oes eet a seen pi ai MANURING AND FERTILIZING 43 Phosphorus occurs in fertilizers, as: (1) Insoluble phosphate of lime—e.g., floats, bone meal, tankage. | (2) Soluble phosphate of lime—e.g., acid phos- phate, dissolved bone. Insoluble phosphate of lime is considered to be but slowly available. It is converted into ‘‘soluble’’ by treating it with an acid, usually sulphuric acid. Soluble phosphate of lime, as a rule, is more active than insoluble in promoting plant growth, but on acid soils insoluble phos- phate often gives better returns. The soluble phosphate of lime and a phosphate soluble in weak acids constitute the ‘‘ avail- able phosphoric acid’’ of the chemist. Potassium is the valuable ingredient found in: Wood ashes, kainit, sulphate of potash, double salts, and muriate of potash. — It usually gives good returns when applied to light, sandy, and peaty soils. As kainit contains chlorides and muriate of potash is a chloride, it is often advisable to apply them some time previous to planting the crop, in order that the injurious substances may be removed by the soil water, chlorides, in excess, being injurious to potatoes. Value.—All fertilizers may be valued according to the percentage of nitrogen, soluble phosphate of lime, insoluble phosphate of lime, and potash present. They are often valued on the unit system. A unit is one per cent. of a ton, or 20 pounds; the ton, 2,000 pounds. A4 THE POTATO Unit Value.—In order to find the unit value of the different ingredients, divide the price per ton of the fertilizer by the percentage, or number, of units of the various valuable ingredients; this will give the cost per unit. For example, if sulphate of ammonia be $66.00 per ton and contains 20 per cent. of nitrogen, then 66 + 20 = 3.30 per unit (see Table, p. 45). If the price per pound be desired, divide the price per unit by 20, or the number of pounds in the unit; thus, 3.30 + 20 = 16.5 cents per poam: For a fertilizer containing several ingredients, find the lowest cost of each ingredient in a standard fertil- izer—as, nitrate of soda for nitrogen, muriate of potash for potash, and acid phosphate for soluble phosphoric acid—and compare it with these. Purchasing Fertilizers.—In purchasing fertilizers it is advisable to write for quotations with guaranteed analyses, ascertain, as indicated above, the cheapest | source of the valuable ingredients, and then purchase. The fertilizer containing a unit of plant-food at the lowest cost is generally the one to buy. In figuring the cost always include the freight, cost of hauling, and handling; for instance, one ton of muriate of pot- ash contains as much potash as four tons of kainit, hence the potash as muriate of potash costs only one- quarter as much for haulage and handling. Thesame applies to high grade acid phosphate and low grade, and unless the filler is of some particular value it is. wise to take the high grade or concentrated goods. Barn Manure.—When not applied to the fields as soon as made, it should be stored under cover and the excrete from the various farm animals mixed, K: # ee a a 2 me re _ -MANURING AND FERTILIZING 45 TABLE f° SHOWING THE COST OF THE DIFFERENT INGREDIENTS IN CERTAIN FERTILIZERS DURING 1904 VALUABLE INGREDIENTS cost 3 =: s 38 aS - YS y DS wy) ae NAME OF FERTILIZER| §&& ee S eS X Se fo -{-=oe |} SSe- | Se | Rer| Per | Pex SS | SHS | SSS) SX | Ton | Unit| Lb ee ee SoS | S% ee a tak | gi Ses Sal ies Gas WO es $ $ | Cts. Muttete Of Soda... .| 15.5 2 ip eS ee 44.00 | 2.84 | 14.2 —PeEiemwionwia. | 20 |. ...}..- -[... 66.00} 3.30 | 16.5 Dried Blood (high | 2 iat to od eee aie ae 45.08) 3.46°1 37:5 OS II ey ae fee ee et 38.00 | 3.38 | 16.9 \ 4 2a tial ee oon oe 28.00 | 2.84 | 14.2 Fresh Bone Meal. . ) se ee ao f 4) 76 3.8 ot 1.25 Bere, ane 2.84 | 14.2 Steamed Bone Meal. < : ee eee 26.00 { 28 Aer .80 40 Fine Ground Bone 5 ae: Vidas Pt | 24-4 k ices eee age . . . . . . . . - © eas a 14 ce .gI 4.5 Fine Ground Bone § 7 a ae Ae 34.00 2.84 | 14.2 ae » «fe 34: oe ae “eee ee er, 9 gs hat Ls7 78 Acid Phosphate..... Eye 3 13 ee menor BEE) gem 4.2 mia Phosphate... . ess 16 oa ee ce . | 15 00 94 4.7 Acid Phosphate... . erat 40 40.00} 1.00] 5.0 We ie eran nee 2 12 12.00 | 1.00 5.0 _ Double Salts of Potash | and Magnesia... . 26 26.00 | I 00 5.0 Sulphate of Potash.. . | 48 48.00] 1.00] 5.0 Muriate of Potash... Sais | 50 43.00| .86 4.3 Analysis of a ton of AOE ate Rie ERR Rai iy Sm gale 1.42 aA well-made Barn Ma- Oe Os, | a on oe ire} ).28 1.9 2S ee ae 61 aa) 25 .63 1.42 yo ole oF 4 cr gee ge es eee 14 | - cents ho ee 38 1.9 oe ee ai ee 67 .43 2A when the cold cow and pig manure will tend to pre- vent excessive loss, by heating, from the horse ma- nure. Young growing animals and those bearing young and giving milk will give poorer excrete than 46 THE POTATO mature fattening animals. ‘The food and the litter used also affect the value of the manure. In barn manure the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash are slowly available, and are arbitrarily reck- oned to be worth half what they would cost in fer- tilizers. The value of a ton of manure for its physical effect upon soils cannot be expressed in dollars and cents, but in the Eastern States it may be presumed to vary between 50 cents and $1.00 per ton; for while the fertilizing ingredients show a value of about $1.25, the manure often costs, or is valued at, $2.00 per ton. Mixing Fertilizers.—Fertilizer manufacturers lay great emphasis on the value of proper mixing, and usually charge from $5 to $10 per ton for doing it. For example, a commercial potato manure analyzing nitrogen, 3 per cent., phosphoric acid, 6 per cent., and potash, 10 per cent, costs in New Hampshire’, in 1904, $36.50 per ton. A fertilizer made up by the station on the same formula was just as satisfactory, and after allowing $1.00 per ton for mixing, it cost $24 per ton, a saving of $8.50 per ton, or using 1,500 pounds per acre = $7.10 per acre. To compouid this fertilizer: 3 per cent. nitrogen — 60 pounds nitrogen in a ton (2,000 pounds). | 6 per cent. phosphoric acid = 120 pounds phosphoric acid in a ton. Io per cent. potash = 200 pounds potash in a ton.: Nitrate of soda will furnish nitrogen for immediate use, and the nitrogen of the sulphate of ammonia will 1 N. H. Bul. I11., p. rio. MANURING AND FERTILIZING 47 become available later on, hence we may take 234% pounds nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, and 3634 pounds in the form of sulphate of ammonia. Cottonseed-meal, dried blood, tankage, etc., might also be used if desired. Pounds Nitrate of soda containing 1514 percent. nitrogen; to fur- nish 2314 pounds nitrogenit requires I50 pounds . 150 Sulphate of ammonia containing 20 per cent. nitrogen; to furnish 36%4 pounds nitrogen, it requires 184 EME aoc he tee ee i ae Poe ee EBS Acid phosphate containing 16 per cent. available phos- phoric acid; to furnish 120 pounds phosphoric acid it Seem goo pounds ~-.. . . - 6 ee eo tw 750 Muriate of Potash containing 50 per cent. potash; to furnish 200 pounds potash it requires 400 pounds . 4co Filling, sand, etc., used to make weight if desired . . 516 2,000 Unless care be taken in mixing fertilizers loss of valuable ingredients may result. 1. Nitrate of soda and soluble phosphate of lime—as, acid phosphate—must not be mixed and allowed to stand for any length of time, or chemical action will take place, resulting in a loss of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. 2. Do not mix an ammonium salt—as, sulphate of am- monia—with any other fertilizer containing free lime, as the lime will set free the ammonia, which © will be lost. 3. Do not mix soluble and insoluble phosphates to- gether. 48 ; THE POTATO 4. Nitrate of soda is very deliquescent, and if left mixed with other fertilizers is liable to render the whole mass wet and pasty, and so difficult to — apply. Cottonseed-meal is a very useful source for part of the nitrogen of mixtures. If it is nec- essary to hold a quantity of nitrate of soda for a time, it is advisable to empty it out of the bags, as they are liable to ignite spontaneously. When emptied do not leave the bags lying in a heap in the corner of the barn. Store nitrate of soda in a dry place. a | 5. Kainit is also very deliquescent, and it is the worst potassic fertilizer to use in a mixture on this ac- count. Sulphate or muriate of potash are better for mixtures. le Applying Fertilizers.—When a horse planter is used the fertilizer is usually distributed in the row at the time of planting. The fertilizer. may be sown broadcast or in the rows as desired, but it should be incorporated with the soil and not left on top. Water Requirement.—lIt has been shown clearly that the available water content of the soil exerts a great influence upon the life of the potato plant, upon its assimilation of plant-food, and upon the yield. At the Wisconsin Experiment Station’ it was found that when two acre inches of water were added in two irri- gations in one case the yield was increased 100 bushels of salable potatoes per acre, thus showing that the right amount of water at the right time is a very im- portant factor in determining the yield. Whitson,’ of 1 Wis. Report, 1899, p. 213. 2 Wis. Report, I902, p. Igo. a MANURING AND FERTILIZING 49 Wisconsin, shows that if it is assumed that under the existing climatic conditions of that State 18 inches of rainfall during the growing season is sufficient for po- tatoes, then, on this basis, there was a shortage of 4 inches or more in ten of the past twenty-one years. In Utah! it was noted that the largest yield was obtained from a plat irrigated every eighth day and receiving 14 inches of water, and another year * 16.62 inches of water with practically no rain produced a yield of 423 bushels per acre. The importance of water was also shown at the same station,” when amounts of water varying’ be- tween 4.3 inches and 9.45 inches were applied between July 18 and August 6, and the yield increased with the increase in amount of water. At the New Jersey Station’ irrigation increased the yield 36.4 per cent., while at Wisconsin the increase has been 159.58 ° bush- els per acre over the unirrigated plat, and the average gain per year during the six years—1896-—1901I—was 83.9 bushels per acre. That some risk must be taken in irrigating heavy soils in a humid climate was demonstrated at Wisconsin.” Thus, in one year, while there was an increase of 81.4 bushels per acre from irrigating sandy land, on heavier land the yield was reduced 56 bushels per acre because heavy rain followed the second irrigation. Corn and potatoes require somewhat similar amounts of water to make one pound of dry matter. The figures of Wilfarth and Wimmer ‘ and Whitson‘ are as follows: 1 Utah Report, 1893, p. 180. 2 Utah Bul. 26, p. 14. 3 Utah Bul. 5. 4N. J. Report, 1900, p. 184. _ §Wis. Report, IgoI, p. 198. 6 Wis. Report, Igoo, p. 188. ae oe, XIV... p. 561. 8 Wis. Report, 1902, p. IgI. 50 : THE POTATO WATER USED PER POUND OF DRY MATTER WILFARTH AND WIMMER Pounds Potatoes 200 to .230 Tobacco 300 to 370 Buck wheats. =). oo CRICOIy 6st a ee WiaStara).. K2 7? = ee ee Pais Se Th re a WHITSON =- Corn Soy-beans Clover... Oats Pounds 270 527 576 503 King ' has shown that the amount of water required to make one pound of dry matter in the tuber and vine of potatoes varied between 272 pounds and 497 pounds during the years 1892-7, while that for oats ranged be- tween 446 and 595 pounds; barley, 375 to 404 pounds; peas, 477; corn, 223 to 398 pounds; clover (first crop), 370 to 582 pounds; clover (second = 730 to 983 pounds. 1 ‘‘Trrigation and Drainage.”’ F. H. King. ‘ 4 CHAPTER VI CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED Source of Seed.—It is often advised that potatoes be obtained from another soil and from a more north- ern latitude if vigor and delayed maturity are desired, and from a southern latitude if earliness is sought; _ but, generally speaking, potatoes bred for a district do better there than elsewhere. Few European varieties of potatoes are worth growing in America, and any in- troduction requires acclimatization and selection. In England we noted that northern grown Scotch seed did not yield so heavily the first year as the second, and the same was true of Maine grown seed in the Hudson River valley. Brooks,’ of Massachusetts, and Bishop, of Maryland, report exactly to the con- trary, although in a subsequent year Brinkley,’ at the same station, obtained higher yields from home grown seed. The Rhode Island Station® found that varieties which produced large yields gave increasing yields the longer the seed tubers had been home grown, and that those which produced smaller yields gave diminishing yields the longer the seed had been home grown. At Louisiana Station’ home grown seed was equal to, if not better, than western, or eastern grown or Boston seed. At Georgia Station’ southern grown seed did 1 Mass. (Hatch) Report, 1896, pp. 25, 26; 3 Md. Bul. 17, p.. 257- 3R.I. Report, 1897, p. 380. 4 Ia. Second Series Bul. 4, p. 77. 6 Ga. Bul. 17, p. 166. 51 52 THE POTATO best, and the statement is made that the value of seed depends more upon the care exercised in the selection of the strain than the locality where it is grown. Martinet’, of France, reports that in several diversified trials seed tubers from higher altitudes gave better yields under all circumstances. Bailey’, of Cornell, lodges a criticism against the comparison of northern and southern grown seed. He believes the variations to be due much more to the stock itselfi—how the plants have been grown and handled in previous years—than to any influence of latitude. He believes it to be impossible to secure stock from different growers which is sufficiently uni- form to allow of comparative experimentation. That such variation exists is shown by Brooks’* observation on Beauty of Hebron and Early Rose potatoes. Seed potatoes of the same variety obtained from different localities gave a variation in yield of about 50 per cent. for each variety. Probably the matter is one of indi- viduality. It is necessary to study each potato and hill, and perpetuate a variety suited to the particular environment. If this variety possesses the capacity of adapting itself rapidly to other environments it is more useful, but it must be able to grow vigorously and mature its tubers in order to maintain its value. The Ohio Experiment Station* found that the selection and storage of potatoes is of more importance than the use of seed grown on other soil. Kansas Experiment Sta- tion’ found that tubers matured in July were the most LE. SR. SCE pr 696; 2(N. Y.) Cornell Bul. 25, p. 175. 3 Mass. (Hatch) Report 1899, p. 82 4 Ohio Bul. 76, p. 46. 5 Kans, Bul. 37, pp. 155, 196. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED See satisfactery seed for the second crop, and the practice of using first-crop tubers as seed for the second crop is rapidly gaining ground in the South, owing to the difficulty of holding seed over. Management of Potatoes Previous to Plant- ing.—The best way to hold seed potatoes is in cold storage at a temperature of 33° to 35° F. Should the temperature fall to freezing-point (32° F.) for a short 6 * ATT i USMY ae FIG. II—A USEFUL POTATO TRAY FOR THE STORAGE AND - SPROUTING OF SEED POTATOES For small quantities, a useful size is 24 x r2inches. This size will hold about forty pounds of tubers, and can be conveniently handled. The larger size holds about eighty pounds of tubers. time probably no harm will result, as the freezing- point of potatoes is rather lower than that of water. As most farmers do not have cold storage some sub- stitute must be found. A cool, fairly dry cellar, or a root-house, is a very good alternative, or, failing this, the potatoes may be pitted outside and covered so that no frost can reach them (see ‘‘Storing’’). Several weeks before planting the tubers should be spread out on the barn floor two or three thick, in the light, to quicken growth. Potatoes vary in the time they take 54 THE POTATO to germinate. Mature potatoes will not begin to grow until they have had a period of rest. In some varie- ties this may be but a few weeks, while others may be held months before they show signs of growth. In the island of Jersey and the early potato grow- ing districts of the United Kingdom it is customary to store the seed potatoes in flat trays (Fig. 11). The advantages of these are: (1) the seed cannot heat; (2) a large quantity can be stored in a room, the trays being tiered almost to the roof; (3) seed can be easily examined at any time and conveniently moved, hence diseases—as, wet-rot, dry-rot, etc.—are more easily con- trolled; (4) the potatoes may be sprouted in the trays; (5) the potatoes can be moved to the field in and planted from the trays. The tray is the best means of storing new varieties which have been purchased or grown in small quan- tities. | Sprouting Potatoes.—Lavalleé! and many others have found that sprouting seed potatoes in a well- lighted room increases the yield and earliness, and produces a-more vigorous growth of vines and a larger starch content in the tubers. One explanation offered for the increase in yield is that the short, thick stem developed under the above conditions bears many scales or leaves for its hight, and it is from the axils of these scales, the place where the scale joins the stem, that the tuber-bearing branches are produced (Fig. 12). The more scales produced, the more op- portunity for the development of tubers. If the tu- bers start growth in the dark, either indoors or below 1B.S. R., XIL, p. 1032. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 55 ground, the scales are formed at longer intervals, and there are correspondingly fewer places for the produc- tion of tuber-bearing branches. Also, in the latter Cte Drawing after Percival FIG. I2—POTATO PLANTED FOUR INCHES DEEP (Diagrammatic) a—Ground level. 4—Seed potato. c—Short sprout sent up before plant- ing, which sent up two branches, d, ¢; d being broken off, and e cut off at/. e—The tuber-bearing stem, or rhizome, which bears buds at #, and thickens at the end to form-a tuber, 7, upon which eyes having buds, £, may be seen. mis a tuber-bearing branch, or rhizome, which has not yet begun to form a tuber, and 7 shows where the roots were broken off. Generally four roots are sent out for each tuber-bearing branch. case, the leaf-bearing branches produced above ground are weaker. The system is considered essential in the island of Jersey and the early potato growing dis- tricts of the United Kingdom, and is practiced to a small extent for the second crop in the Southern States. Figs. 13, 14, 15, courtesy Cornell Univ. Dept. of Horticulture. FIG. I13—-POTATOES SPROUTED PROPER LENGTH FOR THE PLANTER Starting the growth of the tubers in this way is profitable in many places. FIG. I14—-EARLY POTATOES SPROUTED FOR HAND PLANTING Longer sprouts than these should not be permitted to deve lop. Gr for) CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED ies By sprouting the seed tubers, the Kansas Experiment Station’ have planted potatoes in March and lifted the cropon Juner. At the Rhode Island Experiment Sta- tion’ potatoes were held in a fairly well-lighted room at a temperature of 60° to 75° F. for four to six weeks. FIG. I5—SPROUTS TOO LONG AND WEAK This often occurs when potatoes are left in sacks, barrels, or in piles in the cellar. As soon as sprouting begins, spread the tubers thinly on the barn floor, in the light, to check this waste of energy. In this time thick buds, one-half to an inch long and one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch in diameter, formed (Fig. 14). The potatoes may be held at this stage for some weeks if necessary by lowering the tem- perature. Early Rose potatoes weighing about three ounces each were sprouted as described, and planted on May 1 beside similar tubers which were unsprouted. 1 Kan. Bul. 70, p. 149, and Press Bul., March 6, 1899. pag Bal. 26, pp. 9-19. a 58 THE POTATO Part of the crop was harvested July 29, the yield being decidedly in favor of the sprouted seed, which lead was maintained (see Table). TABLE IV YIELD PER ACRE FROM SEED TUBERS SPROUTED AND NOT SPROUTED YIELD PER ACRE Increase DEES | ee Gain by Strom Harvested| Large Small Sprouting | Further Tubers Tubers Growth Bushels Bushels |Bushels| Bushels Bushels Sprouted....... July 29: «| 97-00 53523 | E5¥saS 22) 3 oreo Not sprouted..|July 29...| 76.10 42.78 -.\ 118.88 (sae eee Sprouted./i 2. .; Aug. 20.. 135.47 55-51 190.98 54.63 33-79 Not sprouted. .|Aug: 20..|° 94.45 °= 41.00: 536-45 7 ee 17 AT In trials made at Cornell Station by the writer dur- ing 1904, with the varieties Sir Walter Raleigh and Carman No. 3, increased yields of from o.g per cent. to 73.7 per cent. resulted from sprouting potatoes in the light for 36 days previous to planting, when com- pared with holding them in a root-cellar to the time of planting. The sprouts on the tubers held in the cellar were up to three inches long; those held in the light were but one-half to three-quarters of an inch long. No misses occurred, except from those sets held in the cellar. It seems probable that each variety may have its own optimum temperature, as conditions were uni- form for both varieties. Eighteen hills were used ina plat, and Table V., on page 59, shows the results. . Another great advantage in sprouting is that it gives an opportunity to note variation and “‘rogue”’ the variety. Almost every variety shows a difference in the sprout, either in color or habit of growth; one at fe CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 59 may have a white, spindly stem, which becomes green on exposure; another a short, sturdy stem, which be- comes bright red; while another may be purple, and so on. So far I have found the ‘‘sprouting stage’’ the most reliable one at which to note differences in varie- ties, and varieties of potatoes may be distinguished as readily as varieties of other crops. TABLE V SIR WALTER RALEIGH | CARMAN NO. 3 i ’ YIELD 1] | YIELD I. n“ | “ “ ae tae: WS Sle Methodand \.2, His ‘S % 2 Wis & of Temperature |S >z| E |S, [esuliSsel > Ye of Germination aes ye BE PSS Hess] CS ss [sss = | ‘ ~ : ~ =F oe ~ — Plat sss] 2] &S te Sy (SES > aN Sm . - . ~ oo |} «9 : Z ~ SN Ie aye] = it = ag en Ge ) | Lads. ) | Loébs I Cellar 50-60° F... a6. bye: Se | re) | ig Bae eS apie 4 ree = 2 {Cold Frame bot- ) | ) | tom heat 80° F. | ) | sash off........ o | 130] 17.00; 0.9 | O | i ae hk 78s 3 Cellar 50-60° F.. .| O | 119} 16.20}-.....1) © | 89} 15.25 ESE ee 4 Barn, near open) | | window 45-) | | ae © | I00| 20.12) 19.4 GO: $822). 21.25) -36.¢ 5 |Cellar 50-60° F... ) iy | o ig ee ek ee 6 |Greenhouse 78- ) ) [=p DS ) 127] 20.25} 22.0 Oo 5} 16.25| 4.1 7 |Cellar ae =| Oo a I5-75)+++++: zs | 117 | 15.00 |. | The disadvantage of the system of sprouting pota- toes is that the tubers must be planted by hand on ac- count of the liability of knocking the sprouts off if passed through the planter. There are many local markets in the United States poorly supplied with early potatoes, and to supply such a small area of the crop could be profitably handled as above described. A distinction must be noted between the above method 60 THE POTATO and the slovenly practice of many who allow their seed tubers to send out long sprouts before planting, which are either broken off intentionally before or unintentionally during planting. This practice cannot be too strongly condemned. The Trays may be made small to hold 40 pounds of potatoes, with a handle running lengthwise across the top, or to contain 86 to 100 pounds, and handled by two men, when the handles run across. The lum- ber for the trays, ready sawn in lengths, should be purchased at from five cents to ten cents per tray, according to size. Whole Sets vs. Cut Sets. — Considerable atten- tion has been given to the advisability of cutting seed tubers. The question is wholly a financial one, as in an average year with an ordinary late variety the weight of the seed planted is of more importance than whether it is whole or cut. Early varieties do not do so well when cut, and varieties with white flowers seem to be softer in texture and more liable to failure, if cut, than those with purple or colored blossoms. Some varieties cannot be cut with profit, owing to lack of bud-producing eyes. The labor of cutting is often greater than the cost of the extra seed. When seed is expensive, as when a variety is new, it is wise to cut as far as possible to secure the largest possible yield in the least time, but this course must be followed by selection, or rapid deterioration of the variety will result. A potato cut into single-eye pieces, and each piece planted in a hill, will give a greater yield than it would had it been planted whole. 7 J ip ¥ . & CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 61 Time to Cut.—Formerly it was advised to cut the potatoes a few days before planting. Generally speak- ing, this is a mistake. Zavitz* reports as the result of hundreds of triais, during a period of eight years, that potatoes cut the day of planting gave 8 bushels per acre heavier yield than those cut. four to six days before planting. Similar results were obtained at the Montana Experiment Station.” Size of Seed.—It is a matter of general observa- tion, supported by experiments, that large seed usually insures a larger yield than small seed. This may be due to the greater amount of nourishment furnished to the young plants, which enables them to make stronger growth, and to the greater hereditary vigor possessed by such tubers. Good-sized seed is especially desira- able on light soils, and for early maturing varieties. Smaller seed from vigorous plants may be as satisfac- tory with late varieties, owing to their longer period of growth. The advisability of using large or small seed, cut or whole, depends largely upon the cost of the seed, the season, the culture given, and the price realized when harvested. Generally speaking, tubers weighing two to three ounces make the most profitable seed, as they are worth less for consumption. The amount of experimental work which has been under- taken to decide the influence of the size of the seed tuber upon the yield is enormous, and only a few ref- erences can be given here. Fischer,* of Germany, advises (1) that under ordi- 1 Ont. Agr. College and Farm Report, 1898, p. 158; 1902, p. 127. 2 Mon. Bul. 9, p. 21. 3. S. R., TX., p. 331; X., pp. 361-367. 62 THE POTATO nary conditions large seed should be used, (2) on good soils with heavy fertilizing small tubers and closer planting is advisable; but that the small tubers shall be the progeny of large tubers grown on well-cultivated and fertilized soil,.to prevent degeneration. ‘Tubers which are small because the parent plant had not suf- ficient vigor to produce any larger are worthless for seed. At Arkansas Station’ whole tubers 2 inches to 3 inches in diameter yielded 18 per cent. more than small whole tubers 34 inches to 14% inches in diameter, and large cut tubers 15.8 per cent. more than small cut tubers. At the Ontario Agricultural College’ the largest yields for four years in succession were from planting large seed. Sets weighing one-sixteenth .of an ounce and having one eye yielded, on an average, for the four years, 44.2 bushels, while two-ounce sets having one eye averaged 177.4 bushels per acre, and intervening sizes of sets yielded in proportion to their size. As the result of eight years’ careful experi- ments, this station advises that large tubers be cut into pieces weighing about two ounces each for sets.” J. C. Arthur,* of Indiana, conducted an elaborate set of experiments for three years to ascertain the rela- tion of the number of eyes on-the seed tuber to the product. He found that within certain limits the yield will increase with an increase in the weight of the set, and that the exact number of eyes per cutting is rela- tively unimportant. With tubers of the same weight and variety the number of shoots does not perceptibly 1 Ark. Bul. 50, p. 28. 2 Ont. Agr. Col. Report, 1898, p. 156. * Ont. Agr. Col. Report, 1902, p. 126. *Ind. Bul. 42. ol) ~e5 6 Se CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 63. increase with the increase of eyes on the tuber. Seed tubers weighing 134 ounces and carrying 8 to Io eyes sent up, on an average, 5.5 stalks per tuber, while seed tubers weighing 3 ounces and having 14 to 18 eyes sent up, on an average, 11.3 stalks per tuber. Bisect- ing an eye tends to increase the number of stalks, be- cause each eye is usually a collection of buds, and-‘some would be left uninjured on each piece. The number of stalks sent up tended to increase with the size of the seed tuber, and the yield increased with the increase in number of stalks. The Virginia Experiment Station’ reports that large seed cannot be used at a profit, while small seed is not recommended, but that sound tubers of the size of a hen’s egg and upward are proper seed. Green, of Ohio, found that crops from whole seed . mature a few days earlier than from the same sized seed cut in two, and that small cuttings require the soil to be in better condition than large cuttings, or whole potatoes, in order to secure a good stand and a profitable crop. Amount of Seed Per Acre—Cost and Influ- ence on Yield.—Plumb,° of Tennessee Experiment Station, found the largest seed tubers to be most pro- ductive and the least profitable, while those varying in weight from one to three ounces were most profitable. At Kentucky Experiment Station* the amounts planted varied from six bushels per acre when medium- sized seed were cut to two eyes to 48 bushels per acre where large whole potatoes were planted. At the 1 Va. Bul. 8, p. 3. 2 Ohio Second Series Bul., Vol. III., I., p. 14. *Tenn. Bul., Vol. I1J..1..p.6. *Ky. Bul. 22, p. 136. 64 THE POTATO TABLE VI YIELD PER ACRE Amount Weight| Distance nee fois el aie bs seed a preg ; acreat | acreat | paying evacre.| tubers.| apart. 7 . out Nick 75C. pey | goc. per |. for Bushels | Ounces YA ich | of Take Bushel | Bushel Seed B' —_— Ss |g ——————————— Ses se PS 64 12-14 3 146 90, 980 * 48.00 58.40 10.40 81 10-12 2 220 135,075 60.75 88.00 17.25 66 8-10 2 195 118, 102 49.50 78.00 28.50 52 6- 8 2 168 LE; 273 39.00 67.20 28.20 a7 4- 6 2 158 108,908 27.75 63.20 35-45 26 3-4 2 146 104,665 19.50 58.40 38.90 18 2— 3 2 I4I 81,328 13.50 56.40 42.90 II I- 2 2 128 67,184 8.25 51.20 42.95 Michigan Experiment Station’ three varieties were tested, with results as shown in the following table: TABLE -VIi . Net gain Amount of seed Yield |.Netyteld |” from Sate Os Pe per acre per acre aG — ce of Using halves ~ Bushels “Lbs. | Bushels_ | Bushels | Bushels— ba TEN Sc) ee i eee 20 19 247 BOT, nn ER ceed Caen ne Quarters ,. +. - 9 54 254 244 53 Breaths... 2 fos 5 44 221 215 82 Single eyes... 4 10 178 174 133 Whole tubers. . AI 40 293 251 46 The writer has found from seventeen to twenty bushels to be necessary to furnish a good seeding, and others have advocated the same amount,’ although a less quantity is frequently mentioned as satisfactory. A compilation? of experiments made at thirteen stations to determine the proper amounts of seed shows: 1. Within ordinary limits, an increase in seed pro- duces a marked increase in total yield and marketable potatoes. 1 Mich. Bul. 57, p. 18. 2 Mich. Bul. 93, pp. 5, 6. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 65 _ 2. An increase in the size of the seed from one eye to half a potato produces an increase in the net value of the crop. | A comparison of the half potato with the two eyes ee that : . For the total yield (large and small) of 95 ex- acts, 76 are in favor of the half potato and 19 in favor of two eyes. | 2. For marketable yield (total less small) of 73 ex- periments, 58 are in favor of the half potato and 15 in favor of the two eyes. 3. For net marketable yield (marketable less amount of seed) of 30 experiments, 23 are in favor of the half potato and 7 in favor of the two eyes. 4. For net value of crop (value of crop less value of. seed) of 30 experiments, 22 are in favor of the half potato and 8 in favor of two eyes. A comparison of the whole potato with ite half potato shows that: 1. For the total yield (large and small) of 54 ex- periments, 46 were in favor of the whole potato and 8 in favor of the half potato. 2. For the marketable yield (total less small) of 42 experiments, 36 were in favor of the whole potato and 6 in favor of the half potato. 3. For the net marketable yield (marketable less amount of seed) of 13 experiments, 7 are in favor ofthe whole potato and 6 in favor of the half potato. 4. For the net value of crop (value of marketable less value of seed planted) of 12 experiments, 7 are in favor of the whole potato and 5 in favor of the half potato. 66 THE POTATO The Value of Bud and Stem’ Ends and the Middle of the Tuber for Seed.—Many ideas have prevailed as to the relative values of different parts of the tuber for seed. Some growers advocate the re- moval of one end or the other, but thus far the ex- periments conducted at a dozen stations, including such varying points as Illinois,’ New Jersey,’ and North Dakota* Experiment Stations, show that there is no material difference noticable in yield that could be at- tributed to the different pieces, and that the two ends of a tuber are practically of equal value... _ Viability.—The buds of tubers vary considerably in their ability to grow, and the same is true of the tubers themselves. Goff, of Wisconsin,’ when using the vari- ety Burbank, obtained a stand varying from 88 to 100 per cent. of the potatoes planted. The importance of proper moisture content of the soil is shown by the results reported in the following table by Woods, of Maine:” TABLE VIII | VARIETY | STAND Percentage of Cuttings that Produced Plants Rose oe ee ee ee Early Michigan .. 2.0... °c 35) ie Hulett’s Rust Proof —..~ se Mill’s Mortgage Lifter ...°. 55%. S35 eee Green.Mountain. . .-s- oe New Queen 2.0. foes a Polaris op. 802 3 8 a ee Maggie Murphy -... -. +? + a0) Irish Cobbler .. 3). n.68 oe Ss eee Early Ohio. 5 2k is 3 ee Gem of Aroostock .°..°-*.) °°.) a Bovee (=. 00.0 6 eee a 1711. Bul. 40, p. 132. 2N. J Report, 1898, p. 308. 3N. D. Report, 1gol, pp. 40-42. + Wis. Report, 1897, p. 306. *° Me. Bul. 98, p. 183. at eert* -CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 67 This poor stand was largely due to a very dry spell in May and June, and the differences observed in the various varieties may be due to the vitality of the vari- eties themselves, or to the way in which they were grown and stored, or to both causes. Girard, of France, summarized his experiments some time ago, showing the influence of the size of the tuber upon the ‘“‘stand’’ and yield. TABLE IX | Percentage | Percentage WEIGHT OF SEED Number of Weight of Failures Crop nn | I—Tubers 3.5 0z. each, planted whole ... . 6.0 100.00 2—Tubers. 2.5 oz. each, cut into two portions 12.0 69.36 3—Tubers 7.0 0z. each, cut into two portions . 10.5 82.00 4—Tubers I0.5 oz. each, cut into three portions 14.5 74.00 5—Tubers 1.75 oz. each, two tubers planted| oe BL a, Ee Se ee 95-36 6—Tubers !.0 oz. each, three tubers planted) SE Se ee 3.7 | 89.12 The yield of No. 2 is not comparable with the others, because the same weight of seed was not used. Plats 1 and 3 are probably the best to use for ordinary consideration, and would show that from go to 95 per cent. of the tubers planted should grow, but it is a well-known observation that under adverse conditions —as, a dry season, ill-fitted iand, etc.—a small cutting is not so likely to grow as a whole tuber. The diagram (Fig. 16) shows that with Carman No. 3, Where twenty plats were noted, there were 3 chances in 20 that the germination of the tubers and stand would be too per cent., and that it is much more likely to be between 91 and 98 per cent. than any other 68 THE POTATO TTT gp poe AUNLALIWAUN EEE EEE AE arts FIG. I6—DIAGRAM SHOWING STAND OF TWENTY PLATS OF CARMAN NO. 3 POTATOES! 100 The percentage stand is shown on the base-line. The hight of the cuive from the base-line shows the actual number of plats. PO OEERUURARENDUDROUERDRDUOGHRRDOUOOEERROOUIOLE SHETTY TET aM STU ET AAMT AN CANNOT AAEM LIN so 9° ° 16., FIG. I7—DIAGRAM SHOWING STAND OF THIRTY-SIX PLATS OF EARLY TRUMBULL POTATOES! The percentage stand is shown on the base-line. The hight of the curve from the base-line shows the actual number of plats. number, sWicnek the average as usually fel oe out would show 93.5 per cent. With Karly Trumbull, using seed showing the rosette disease (Rhizoctonia solanz) and some not showing it, treated with various fungicides, the average germina- — 1 From data in Ohio Bul. 145, p. 21. CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 69 ting power for 36 platsis 73.8 percent. Yet, here again this does not convey a true impression, as on six plats all of the tubers germinated, and the table shows that there is a greater chance of securing a stand of between 83 and 98 per cent. than lower.! The viability of tubers is injured or ruined if they heat or sweat to any extent; hence, if they have been treated with a solution, as for scab, it is essential that they be planted at once or spread thinly todry. Po- tatoes may be ruined for seed purposes, if frozen, or if shipped in bags or barrels which have contained sub- stances injurious to the buds—as, sugar, nitrate of soda, etc.; and even moving them on the farm in unwashed sugar-bags has been found to be dangerous. Immer- sion in water for more than a day may destroy the buds, and probably cause the tuber to decay in a few days. By this means potatoes have been destroyed in pits and in the field when floods have occurred. Soak- ing them in too strong a solution of formalin or other preservative is liable to reduce viability, because the formalin tends to preserve the tuber and prevent its de- composition. Potatoes which have been subject to diseases may be weakened and their vitality impaired. 1 From data in Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 145, p. 21. CHAPTER VII VARIETIES Selecting a Variety.—For general farming it is advisable to grow only a few varieties. Most success- ful growers seldom have half a dozen growing for mar- keting, and usually one is selected as more suitable than the rest. The beginner is advised to select a _ variety from the more thoroughly tested kinds that have done well in his immediate vicinity and on his type of soil. The seed should be obtained from a reliable grower or a responsible seedsman. ‘The importance of growing the best varieties cannot be too strongly emphasized. ‘To many a potato is a potato, and any- thing is used for seed. Such haphazard methods cannot survive. Potatoes are grown for human con- sumption, and the public taste must be considered. Good quality and good yield are required. In some localities good quality potatoes appear to be grown in spite of adverse conditions, but not all of the crop can be produced in this way. : | Some of the points to consider in selecting the variety are: 1. Good cooking quality and flavor. This is partly influenced by the soil, season, ability to mature _ before frost, etc. 2. The yield. ‘The late maturing varieties usually yield heavier than the early varieties. Yield is influenced, among other things, by the adapta- bility of the variety to the district and soil. 79 10. zt. VARIETIES mt . Ability to resist diseases. ‘The potato is so sub- ject to disease that this is now of prime impor- tance in a variety in the Eastern States, although not so important in parts of the Trans-Missis- sippi area. “ The color of the skin and tuber. In the Eastern States red varieties are not in favor at present, a white-fleshed and white-skinned tuber being preferred. In the South red-skinned varieties are sought.’ The nature of the skin. A netted, or rough, skin is preferred. . The shape. Some markets discriminate in favor of a particular shape, the flat-round and oval generally being popular shapes. The depth and frequency of eyes. Potatoes with deep and numerous eyes are not economical in preparation for cooking. The time of maturity. ‘This is essential to know before planting, in order to facilitate the dis- tribution of farm work and determine whether it is likely to mature in the locality. The haulm. The leaf. The vigor of the variety. ‘This is important, although it is of equal importance to obtain a vigorous strain of a variety, as wide variations are noted in the same variety. 12. Tendency to make second growth. 1 Tex. Bul. 71, D. 9. 72. 13. Zrueness to type. THE POTATO It is essential that the seed be as represented. As none but an expert can FIG. I8—SECTION OF A POTATO OF POOR COOKING QUALITY P—Envelope, or Periderm, consisting of an inner and outer layer. P.L—Pigment layer, where coloring-matter of the skin is found. &.C—External Cortical, or Cambium layer, usually poor in starch. /,C—Internal Cor- tical, or Cambium layer,richin starch. -.Z —External Medullary layer, rich in starch. Z.M—Internal Medullary layer, or pith, or water-core, poor in starch. The objectionable features of this tuber are large pith area and lack of uniformity in cellular structure. Each layer is readily rec- ognized, and each one variesin the amount of time required for cooking; hence, it is of poor cooking quality. (Compare with Fig. 19.) tell the different varieties apart, seed should be obtained from a reliable grower or a responsible seedsman. 1. Cooking quality and flavor are two of the fadctors which determine culinary value. They are distinct. Cooking quality is recognized in a boiled potato by mealiness or soggi- ness. This appears to depend upon the physiological struc- ture of the tuber, and is not necessarily con- nected with chemical composition (Figs. 18, 16).° 2 patie showing uniformity in the distribution of starch in the various layers may be con- sidered to be of better quality than one not showing this uniformity. Immature potatoes tend to be soggy VARIETIES | ye when cooked. Mealiness is due to the union of the starch grains in a cell into one mass, and the rup- me of the cell walls during cook- ing. Sogginess occurs when the cell walls retain their form. Opin-' ions differ as to what constitutes good cooking quality. Amer- icans like a white, mealy, or floury, porate. The French prefer a yellow, soggy potato which re- tains its shape The desirable features of this tuber are well- when boiled. netted skin, showing maturity; large Internal od = Cortical (7.C.)and External Medullary (£.4/.) 00 cooking layers, which are rich in starch ; small pith quality can be de-_ area (/.4Z.), with marked uniformity in cellu- t aed Db k lar structure. The different layers nearly ap- ermine y COOR- proach each other in appearance, and cook ing. Thecommon uniformly. method is to take a sample and steam or boil some of the potatoes. When cooked the potato should be dry and floury, free from wetness, and readily break to pieces on slight pressure, or be readily reduced to a coarse meal free from hard lumps. The particles should glisten as though crystalline, and the potato should have a white color, which is retained when cold. Potatoes which $- é. es - a = - a = $< Y s ae 4 a = > FIG. IQ—SECTION OF A POTATO OF GOOD COOKING QUALITY (Compare with Fig. 18.) 74 THE POTATO are yellow when cooked, or turn dark or black, are not considered of good quality, even if the flavor is good, and can be sold only to a low-class trade. Tubers must not be hollow in the center, as this gives. rise to a hard, dark-colored core, which is decidedly objectionable if potatoes are to be mashed. Some varieties will cook better if they have been kept ; they are, in other words, for spring use. Thus, in New York, Carman No. 3, White Star, and Doe’s Pride come in this category. The flavor should be mild, and free from earthiness. 2. The yield. ‘The average yield of potatoes from one plant in the United States is about half a pound. Having weighed the yield of hundreds of potato plants during the past year, we find that in the case of Early Ohio one plant yielded three tubers weighing half an ounce, while another yielded thirteen tubers weighing two and a half pounds. ‘The latter yield is eighty times the former. In late varieties plants yield- ing four pounds of tubers were found. Insome of the recent English productions whole plats would average six pounds of tubers per plant, while individual plants have yielded over twenty pounds of potatoes; as many as 150 potatoes being set on one plant.’ These facts emphasize the value of the farmer selecting seed him- self and eliminating the poor plants. All the tubers from the best plants should be saved and planted sep- arately to produce the seed for the following year. The expenses of growing a poor and a heavy crop vary little. The only additional cost of the latter is 1 Gardener's Chronicle, Oct. 15, 1904, pp. 276-278. VARIETIES | 75 a little more for digging. ‘The variety controls the yield to a large extent, and there is much more like- lihood of obtaining a 300-bushel crop from a variety capable of yielding 600 than from one whose maxi- mum yield is 300 bushels. This fact is realized, and the high prices paid in recent years in Great Britain for seed potatoes of good quality, heavy yield- ing, and disease-resisting varieties are legitimate and proper recompense to the men who have the skill to breed such. These new varieties are profitable to _ grow because there is an assurance that the crop will yield well, and that it will keep well; hence there is an - opportunity to hold it until it can be sold at a profit. These farmers realize that the best is none too good, and that it is useless handling varieties that are out of date. ‘The potato grower of Great Britain and Europe must be up.to date if he is to stay in the business. High-priced seed receives more care in storage and is handled more intelligently, the seed-bed is better pre- pared, and the result is better farming. The farmer who grows such crops is a more thoughtful and better business man, as slovenly methods have to be aban- doned. Yield is influenced by the size and number of tubers at a root. Uniformity and good size are desired. Potatoes vary in size from almost nil to six pounds each or more. In Doe’s Pride one plant set 21 tubers, varying in size between I-10 ounce and 6% ounces; in other words, one potato was 65 times larger than the other. In the East potatoes over 8 ounces in weight are large. Medium-sized tubers of merchant- able value vary between four and eight ounces. Sec- 76 THE POTATO onds between two and four ounces, and tubers less than this weight, are hardly worth picking up. 3. Ability to resist diseases. No varieties can be termed ‘‘ disease proof,’’ but many varieties are better disease-resisters than others. Stuart, of New Hamp- shire, found that the variety Hulett’s Rust Proof was the only one that was disease-resistant out of several varieties, although the varieties Dakota Red, Green Mountain, New Queen, and Enormous showed some resistance. Hulett’s Rust Proof falls below the re- quirements in other respects and is of little value, and -in Minnesota has been found to be subject to disease. At Ontario Agricultural College, Carman No. 3 and Stray Beauty resisted disease well. At Minnesota Experiment Station, Rural New Yorker and Sir Wal- ter Raleigh showed some resistance.’ | 4. The color of the skin and tuber. Many of the colored-skinned varieties of potatoes, and those show- ing a blush of pink—as, the Beauty of Hebron, Early Rose, etc. —belong to a type which have white blooms. They are generally early maturing, rather liable to dis- ease, and of good quality, according to the American standard. The colored-skinned early varieties are gen- erally more readily sold than the late ones, although in some districts colored-skinned potatoes are not ob- jected to on the market. All colored-skinned potatoes are not deficient in vigor. Some are among the best disease-resisting and best-flavored varieties, but the red color of some weak varieties has rendered some growers skeptical of all. 1 Minn. Bul. 87, p. 2. 2 Minn. Bul. 87, p. Io. ‘AJLINJVUL SazRorpurL A[[BNsN ULYS po}}aU [JIM V NIMS DHL AO ODNILLAN AO WALOVUVHO NI ONIMAAAIMG SHILOIAVA HAHAH L—-O0o "Ole ee ee ee ee oh ee eee See te 78 THE POTATO 5. The nature of the skin. The skin may be thick, medium, or thin. Some growers claim that thick- skinned varieties are of better quality than thin-skinned ones, but such correlation does not always exist. Potatoes grown on sandy soils usually have smoother skins than those grown on heavy loams. Some va- rieties develop a netted, or rough, skin as they mature in storage, although such may not be apparent at harvest-time. The rough, or netted, skin in these cases appears to denote maturity, and this may account for the common idea that a rough-skinned potato is of good quality. The size and type of netting (Fig. 20) varies with the variety, and the conditions under which it is grown. i 6. Lhe shape. Most of the recent introductions, exclusive of the Early Rose type, have had a tendency to partake of the flat-round or oval (Fig. 21). These shapes have been sought because such potatoes appear to be of better quality consistent with an economical shape and shallow eyes. The probable explanation is that in a flat-round or thinnish potato there is a greater surface in proportion to the bulk. The greater the surface the larger the percentage of the tuber taken up in the cortical layer and outer medullary layer (Fig. 18). These are the starch-bearing areas, and as they are increased the inner medullary layer, or pith, which has little starch, is diminished, thus rendering the potato more uniform. Whatever shape is desired can be be obtained, but a potato should be true to shape. The tendency of a tuber to become pointed or drawn out at the tip or butt end, especially if the variety is a flat-round or round, indicates lack of vigor (Fig. 21). — VARIETIES 79 * - - a _ Aye ang _ ‘ a ie Ae 7. Depth and frequency of eyes. Deep eyes (Fig. 21), to some extent, are regarded as associated with robust- oe a OR i ae aS a a 7 y Keewreeaey, ‘ 4 FIG. 2I—THREE FAVORITE SHAPES OF POTATOES (Upper row, the broad surface ; /ower row, the narrow surface.) Beginning on the right, the small oneis a flat-round; the center one, kid- Notice the shallow, wide ney; the largest one, on the left, elongated oval. The eyes of the flat-round eyes on the latter; they are the most desirable. ; are too deep. ness and, frequently, coarseness. They are wasteful in peeling. Deep eyes tend to hold moisture, which hastens decay when thé potatoes are stored. 8. Time of maturity. In the Northern States pota- 80 | THE POTATO toes are classified into early, medium or second early, and late varieties, according to the time they take to reach maturity. Early varieties may mature in 70 to FIG. 22—THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING UPRIGHT HAULM AND PRESERVING THE FOLIAGE IS NOT SUFFICIENTLY APPRECIATED Plant photographed early in September, 1904, when many others near were dead (C. U. Farm). Upright haulm facilitates late cultivation and spray- ing. The foliage dries quickly, and then is not so favorable for the growth of spores of rot. go days after planting; second earlies, in 90 to 130 days, while late varieties may continue to grow for 200 days. 9. The haulm. ‘The haulm and leaf are receiving more attention to-day than formerly. The size of haulm has an influence upon the distance apart of planting. Large haulm is more trouble to spray, re- VARIETIES SI | quiring more solution, and it is always lying over the ground when the last spraying ought to be given, and is in the way at lifting-time, whether the potatoes are raised by hand or digger. Modern breeders aim to . produce a short haulmed, upright, heavily leaved top, because the upright habit of growth (Fig. 22) is more likely to keep clear of disease than a spreading habit, owing to water being shed from the former more read- ily than from the latter, and not offering a foothold to the disease spores (Fig. 37). Plants whose branches _ lie on the ground are more liable to disease because they cover a greater area, their leaves, touching the ground, are almost always damp from conta¢t with it, and sun and wind cannot so readily reach them. Very tall haulmed varieties are readily beaten down by storm and wind, and in this state they cannot dry so readily; hence, they fallin a clammy mass, very favor- able for the growth of disease spores. Varieties with strong, hardy haulm suffer less from spring frosts. Late varieties usually have taller haulm than first early varieties. Some varieties make their heaviest growth of foliage late in the season, and in this way are not so subject to attacks of early blight. 10. Zhe leaf. ‘The British disease-resisting varieties x have hard, thick leaves. Whether the thickness of the leaf is an important factor in their resistance to rot (Phy- tophthora infestans) is not. determined. The fact that spraying the upper surface of the leaf tends to prevent blight would seem to show that access to the inside of the leaf is obtained by growth through the cell walls as well as through the stomata, on its under surface. If this be true, then the thickening and hardening 82 ‘ THE POTATO of the cuticle and the palisade cells (Fig. 34), or thick cells on the upper surface of the leaf, will no doubt prevent many spores from reaching the inside cells of the leaf. They may germinate on the surface, but not enter, unless they find some place where the leaf has been injured. The punctures of the flea- beetles are, on this account, of great importance, as they furnish an entrance to the inner cells (Fig. 4o). N. A. Cobb, of Australia, has shown that in the case of wheat the varieties most resistant to rust (Puc- cinta graminis and P. rubigo vera), none being abso- lutely resistant, have narrow, stiff, upright foliage, while those most liable to attacks have broad, flabby, and pendant foliage. In the plants resistant to rust the cuticle of the leaf is much thicker than in the others, and is so thick that the rust spores, when they germinate on the outside of the leaf, cannot penetrate it, or if they do succeed in entering the leaf through stomata, the threadlike growths of the parasite cannot rupture the cuticle wall to fructify ; and, further, some wheats have stomata so narrow and are so well cov- ered with wax that the germinating threads of the rust spore fail to enter every time. These circum- stances seem to support the claim that the tough, thick- walled, hard, dry leaf is the one to select for disease- resistant powers. It has been observed that plants of the potato family having this type of leaf are fairly free from fungus leaf diseases. It is essential that the leaves of the potato be abundant to insure a good yield. 11. Zhe vigor of the variety. Vigor is the power stored in a plant which enables it to overcome difficul- ties at different periods of growth. A variety must eee 5 Sa ; VARIETIES 83 have vigor. If not, it may fail to establish itself dur- ing the early part of its career, being a shy budder ; it may be readily injured by frost, heat or cold, drouth or a wet period, and, having little recuperative power, will give small returns for the labor bestowed upon it. If it survives to tuber-formation time it will probably failthen. Plants or varieties showing lack of vigor must be discarded. Some varieties have short staying power; they appear to be vigorous for one or two years, and then suddenly collapse. Others have great staying power—as, Early Rose, which has been prominent for over forty years. The statement is sometimes made that modern vari- eties are not so long-lived as their ancestors—that they are deficient in staying power. If the statement were true, it might be explained by saying that new vari- eties are produced more frequently, and that on account of their heavier yielding power or better quality they displace the old ones. The facts seem to show that modern potato breeders have more than maintained vigor and staying power. Hays, of Minnesota, and others, place the life of a good modern variety at about thirty years. This seems to be accepted by many, both here and abroad. Dr. Hunter, of England, in his ‘‘ Geological Essays,’’! writing about one hundred years ago, states ‘‘that varieties continue in vigor about fourteen years, after which the produce gradually declines.’’ Shirreff and T. A. Knight held similar views ; the latter wrote* that ‘‘not a single healthy 1 ** Geological Essays,’ Exp. 14, p. 348. 2 Hort. Trans., Vol. I., and Miller’s ‘‘ Gardeners’ Dictionary,’’ ed. 1807, “ Potatoes,”’ 84 THE POTATO plant of any sort of potato that yields berries, and which was in culture twenty years ago, can now be produced.’’ So late as 1838 this idea was accepted by the horticulturists of England.' It is interesting to note that the average yield of potatoes in England a ~ hundred years ago is stated to vary between 185 and 300 bushels, and sometimes 440 bushels, per acre. The average yield to-day is about 230 bushels, but some growers produce 750 bushels per acre frequently. The average improvement in the quality of the tubers is greater than the average improvement in yield. Formerly the potatoes were grown largely for stock, and were of poor flavor and bad cooking quality. Some new varieties make vigorous growth, and, be- coming bark-bound, the skin cracks. Such varieties are regarded as of coarse and inferior quality, and lack- ing in appearance. ‘This character may be eliminated by judicious selection. Deficiency in vigor is indi- cated by the formation of misshapen tubers drawn out at either end, the presence of second growth, weak buds, lack of uniformity in texture—as, hardness at the ends of the tubers when cut, especially brittleness of texture. ‘Tubers showing any such characteristics should not be planted. When potatoes are planted 15 inches apart in 36- inch rows, there are 11,616 plants per acre. If each plant had sufficient vigor to yield three tubers, each weighing half a pound, or four weighing six ounces each, a yield of 290 bushels of salable potatoes per acre is assured. No one can afford to use seed of less vigor than this. 1 Don’s ‘‘ Gardeners’ Dictionary,”’ 1838; Vol. IV., pp. 400-406. ah x VARIETIES 85 12. Tendency to make second growth. Second growth (Fig. 38) is most prevalent in a season when drouth is followed by a wet period. The drouth checks ___ the development of the tubers, causing them to begin to mature, while the subsequent wet period restarts growth. If one variety or a plant does not show any such abnormal growth, it is regarded as being more vigorous; hence, other things being equal, such should be used for seed, and all showing second growth should be rejected. Abnormalities in shape may be due to contact with stones or hard lumps. 13. Zrueness to type. This may be viewed as em- bracing several considerations. In new varieties there is always more or less tendency to lose the features for which the variety has been selected. The type is then said to be insufficiently fixed, and often those which depart from the type degenerate. In such cases selec- tion must be continued. Many varieties are deliberately or unintentionally sold for something else. Mixtures of varieties are sold as one. Good varieties are often renamed and sold by unscrupulous seedsman and others as some- thing new. There is considerable duplication of varieties of potatoes;' thus, Brooks, of Massachusetts,’ believes, after growing the following varieties, that King of the Earliest and Early Ohio, Salzer’s Earliest and Bliss Triumph, Mills’ Banner and Livingston Banner are identical, and that White Beauty and Cambridge Russet differ but slightly. Mills’ Mortgage Lifter is often sold as Burpee’s Extra Early. Some dealers 1 Wyo. Bul. 32, p. 65. 2 Hatch (Mass.) Sta. Report, 1899, p. 81. 86 THE POTATO have been known to deliberately rename a well-known variety and sell it as their own, and as a new and heavy yielding variety. : Dakota Red is sold for Bliss Triumph, although in- _ferior in quality. The above is not acomplete list, but will show that this state of affairs exists, and empha- sizes the importance of dealing with a firm who have a reputation to lose. | Testing Varieties,—It is advisable to secure copies of experiment-station literature and papers in which variety trials are reported. The best variety for one soil is not the best for another. The only way to have the best is to make a trial with small quanti- ties of different varieties. Secure seven to ten pounds of seed of each new variety, and plant, say, three rows of each on a piece of land as uniform as obtainable, using a standard variety, called 4, as a check. If we take B, C, D, — as four untried varieties, buy the seed in - the fall, hold it all, including the 4 seed, under simi- lar conditions, and plant under similar conditions in the following order: 4,8, C, A, D, E, A. .Treat.all plats alike in every respect, dig when ripe, and weigh the crop. If the 4 plats yield approximately the same, then the deduction is that the soil conditions are fairly uniform. If not, compare the yield of each plat with the yield of the A plat nearest to it. Conduct the trial for three years.. I find that the second and third years’ results are better than the first, as the conditions are more uniform, although if a variety is a long way ahead the first year and shows up well in other ways, I would increase the area under it at once. VARIETIES 87 Relationship of Variety to Soil.— Disappointment and loss are often the result of not knowing and study- ing the environment best suited to a variety. Each variety, and probably each individual in a variety to a lesser degree, has its idiosyncrasies, and, to succeed, these must be recognized and catered to. The failures _ in potato-growing deserve more attention. The suc- cesses take care of themselves. The careful grower takes note of the failure and the success. Both havea cause or causes, and the climatology and character of the soil may be among them. Some varieties do better on a heavy loam than on a sandy loam, probably be- cause the former iscooler, owing to its greater moisture content, and under such conditions these varieties give a higher return of starch per acre and are of better qual- ity. Other varieties, as those inclined to be coarse and rough, do better onsandy loams. In this class are Eureka and Uncle Sam. Some require a rich loam soil—as, Early Ohio, Bovee, Early Harvest, Early Michigan. T. L. Wat- son,’ of Virginia, also noted that some varieties want more plant-food than others, other conditions being the same. Others ‘are more cosmopolitan—as, Car- man No. 3, Early Rose. The Most Popular Varieties.—With the object of ascertaining the best variety as determined by yield in different places, a letter was addressed to the director of each experiment station and to some grow- ers; 49 replies were received; 28 men mentioned vari- eties which had yielded or appeared to be best in their 1 Va. Bul. 56, p. 144. 88 THE POTATO districts. In all 59 varieties were mentioned. Tabu- lating the data presented, we find that 21 of these varieties were mentioned twice or more. In the South- ern and Southern Trans-Mississippi States all vari- eties mature about the same time and may be classed as earlies, and early maturing varieties are usually planted. Of these and the early varieties, as grown in the North, Bliss Triumph and Early Ohio are the most popular-with ten votes each; Six Weeks Market re- ceived five; Early Rose, four; Burpee’s Extra Early and Bovee, three each; while Beauty of Hebron, Early Fortune, Eureka, Irish Cobbler, Michigan, and Polaris had two each. Among late varieties, Green Mountain leads with eight votes, Carman No. 3 had five, Rural New Yorker and Sir Walter Raleigh had four each, and Burbank, Carman No. 1, Vermont Gold Coin, Rural New Yorker No. 2, and Freeman had -twoeach. Although the above method of determi- nation may not be absolutely correct, undoubtedly the varieties mentioned are among the favorites. Station . Leading Varieties 1. ALABAMA, Tuskegee . Early—Bliss Triumph. Medium—Early Rose. Late—Peerless. 2. ALABAMA, Auburn . . Triumph. 3. ARIZONA ... ._. .. Burpee’s Extra Eatig oe een, Early Rose. 4. ARKANSAS .. . . » Red Blhss, Ohio, Mienrean, om Weeks, Crown Jewel. 5B. CALIFORNIA ~~. .;° - Berbaak: 6. CANADA, Ontario . .. Extra Early — Pinkeye, Stray Beauty, Early Ohio. Medium—Burpee’s Extra Early, Rose of the North. Late—Empire State, American Wonder. Station 7. COLORADO . "8. ConneEcTICUT . > g. IL.inors = To. IOwA . me KANSAS... oe. te. 1. Foss, Fort Fairfield, Me. 13. MARYLAND. 34. MASSACHUSETTS . 15. MONTANA . . 16. NEBRASKA, Bul. 80 . 17. NEW HAMPSHIRE 18. New York, Cornell .! 19. NEw YORK, Geneva VARIETIES 89 Leading Varieties Medium—Queen of the Valley, Rose Seedling. Late—Pearl, Rural No. 2. Late — Green Mountain, ‘Car- man No. 3, Rural New Yorker. Early—Early Ohio. Vermont Gold Coin. Early—Six Weeks. Medium—Early Ohio. Early—Early Ohio. Medium—Burpee’s Extra Early. -Late—Green Mountain. Late—McCormick. Beauty of Hebron, Early Rose, Early Andees, Early Dawn, Triumph, Salzer’s Earliest, I.X.L., Steuben, Early Nancy, Million Dollar. Early—Six Weeks Market, Early + Onis. Medium—White Ohio, Rural New Yorker. Late—Freeman, White Main. Early—Early Ohio. Late—Rural New Yorker. } Late—Green Mountain, Wash-- ington. Early—Early Ohio, Bovee. Late—Green Mountain, Carman No. 3, Sir Walter Raleigh. Early—Michigan, Early Trum- bull. Late—Carman No. 3, Uncle Sam, Whiton’s White Mam- moth, Sir Walter Raleigh. ete) THE POTATO Station Iga. Prof. STEWART, 20 21. 226 25. 24. Geneva, N. Y. . Lone Istann, -N.¥. NORTH CAROLINA OHIO. OKLAHOMA. PENNSYLVANIA . RHODE ISLAND. . TENNESSEE. Texas, Bul, 71 . M. ALEXANDER, Charlotte, Vt. 29. WASHINGTON Leading Varieties Rural New Yorker No. 2, Car: man No. 3, Green Mountain, Sir Walter Raleigh. (Most popular late varieties in the State, apparently.) Carman No. 1, Green Mountain. Bliss Triumph (both red and white skinned), Bovee, Eu- reka, Houlton Rose, selected strains of Early Rose. Late—Green Mountain, Wash- ington. Early Ohio, Six Weeks. Medium—Bovee, Early Fortune. Bliss Triumph, Early Ohio. Early—Extra Early Crusaders, Six Weeks, Irish Cobbler, Beauty of Hebron. Medium—J. A. Totten, Free- man. Early — Early Harvest, Early Fortune, Polaris. Late—New Queen. Triumph. . Triumph (generally grown), Thorburn, Irish Cobbler, Eu- reka. Early—Triumph. Medium—Polaris, Garfield, Early Vermont, Charles Downing. Late—Green Mountain, Dela- ware, Alexanders Prolific, Dakota Red, Gold Coin, Sir Walter Raleigh,Carman No. 1, Carman No. 2. Burbank. Phi > Lee rap py te ay Pt J , 3 e a , - > ah if - i > CHAPTER VIII PLANTING Distance Apart.—As potato roots spread laterally to a distance of 2 to 2.5 feet, the potatoes might be planted in rows four to five feet apart without the roots overlapping in the feeding-ground. The advan- tage of such distances would be that intertillage could be maintained until quite late in the season, and that there would be opportunity to spray the plants as late as one wished. Whether such distances would be eco- nomical is a local question largely controlled by the supply of moisture available for the crop. In Colo- rado the potatoes are usually planted in rows four feet apart. In humid climates 30 to 36 inches is more common, and 27 inches and even less is profitable in some cases. Other factors are the value of land and the cost of labor. Where land is low in value and labor high, wider rows and the use of machinery are necessities. With high-priced land and low-priced labor the rows may be much closer together, and a much larger yield per acre may be possible. The most suitable distance probably varies with each variety; it certainly varies with some. For spraying purposes a variety with long, straggling haulm requires more space than one with short, upright haulm. Most of the early varieties belong to the latter type, and such are planted closely. Rows 27 to 30 inches apart, with plants 8 to 12 inches asunder, for early varieties, and gi 92 THE POTATO 30 to 33 inches, with plants 12 to 18 inches asunder, for late varieties, aresuggested for most Eastern conditions. ' For irrigation experiments in Wisconsin, King’ used 30 X 15 inches with success. In Europe, where heavy FIG. 23—EARLY MATURING VARIETIES These generally have dwarf haulm, and may be planted much closer together than the later ones. This plant grew about one foot tall. yields are obtained, the potatoes are planted close to- gether; thus, Vuyst,° of Belgium, and Lavalée* advise that the rows be 24 inches apart and the plants 12 inches asunder, because of the increased yield, the hastened maturity, and better-formed tubers. West- -ermeier,’ of Germany, states that about 360 square inches for each plant gave the highest yield on a humous 1 “Irrigation and Drainage.’’ F. H. King. 2 B.S. Ba Wee ps 3B. S) Ri, XE, p. 1032. +E. S. R., VIL, p. 681. bled oy oe ; PLANTING i 93 joam. ‘This would result from rows 30 inches apart with plants 12 inches asunder. In the United King- dom my observation is that 27-inch rows with plants 12 to 15 inches asunder for late varieties and 8 to 12 inches for early (Fig. 23) and second early varieties is most popular. The Maryland Station’ reports 25 per nt. heavier yield from planting 30x 14% inches than from 3x 12inches. ‘The average of Canadian’ exper- iments for the six years, 1896-1901, shows that 12 to 14 inches asunder in 30-inch rows was better than Io, 16, or 18 inches, whether considered from the stand- point of total yield or of total yield mzzus the seed. At North Dakota Experiment Station,* with 40-inch rows and the variety Early Ohio, it was better to plant the sets 10 inches asunder than at greater distances. Depth of Planting.—The best depth varies to some extent with the soil, climate, and season. It is etter to plant deeper on an open or light soil than on a compact or clay soil, in order to insure a more uniform temperature and moisture supply. These conditions aid in the production of good quality tubers. Ina wet or a cold climate shallow planting may be good practice. In a wet season, on a compact soil, 1 inch or 2 inches deep seems to be best. The Michigan Experiment Station* reports that on a sandy loam, in 1892, the yields of potatoes planted at various depths were, per acre: 2 inches deep, 275 bushels ; 3 inches, 298 bushels; 4 inches, 279 bushels; 5 inches, 273 bushels; 6 inches, 238 bushels. At North Dakota Ex- 1 Md. Bul. 31, p. 77. 2 Can. Exp. Farms Report, 1901, p. 117. 3 N. D. Report, 1901, p. 96. 4 Mich. Bul. 95, p. 9. 94 THE POTATO periment Station 3 to 5 inches deep gave the heavi- est yields, but 5 to 6 inches deep is recommended, as tubers of better quality are produced.’ Whileina dry season, on a rich clay loam soil, Green’, of Minnesota, obtained better results from deep planting, the yields being, per acre, planted on the surface, 216 bushels; 3 inches, 227 bushels; 6 inches, 297 bushels; 8 inches, 328 bushels, it was felt that the results would have been different if the season had been wet. The > New Jersey Experiment Station” obtained similar re- sults, but found a depth of 4 inches most profitable. From the data submitted and other sources, 3 inches to 4% inches seems to be the most profitable depth.* On soils which are heavy and bake, and under certain climatic conditions, the seed should be planted fairly deep, but not covered more than 2 inches or so, to aid germination.” The soil can then be gradually worked toward the potatoes until level culture is obtained. This system is sometimes advocated for the second crop in the South.” Influence of Depth of Planting on the Depth at Which Tubers Form.—This question is of im- portance, because mechanical diggers must be used, and it is essential to know the depth to which they must work in order to dig all the crop. Zavitz,’ of Ontario, as the result of three years’ trial, found that on an average potatoes from tubers planted 1N. D. Report, 1901, p. 97. 2 Minn. Bul. to, p. 74. 3 N, J. Bul. 120, p. 10, and Botanist’s Report, 1896, p. 318. 4 Ga. Bul. 29, p. 304. Tex. Bul. 71, p. 7. 5 Pa. DA. Report, age2. p, 722. 6 Ga. Bul. 29, p. 305. 7 Ont. Agr. Coll. Farms Report, 1894, p. 98. Latte Gree Cate a rt 2 - xe Tis ” ‘ a R Pt ' i % ° oe + , * .- bos = * PLANTING 95 One inch deep were formed 2.3 inches below the surface ; Three inches deep were formed 2.ginches below the surface; Five inches deep were formed 4.1 inches below the surface; Seveninches deep were formed 6 inches below the surface. It was observed that those planted 1 inch deep fur- nished many sunburned potatoes, while those planted deeper had almost none. Gilmore, of Cornell, ob- tained somewhat similar results during the year 1904. Goff,’ of Wisconsin, planted the Burbank variety at different depths, and found that shallow planting in- sured greater germination and more tubers per hill, but that they were nearer the surface and had more ex- posed tubers. TABLE xX | | | Depth | | _ Tubers Average Average Average of Hills Gerv- | Protruding Number Weight of Depth to Paige 7rr minating rom | of Tubers Tubers Deepest aie I _ Soil | per Hill per Hill Tuber | | ) | Fer cent. | Per cent. | Pounds | Inches 2 100 4 6.6 / 5 2.5 4 96 8 5-4 | .62 ! 3.5 6 : 88 | 3.2 | 35 | 5-0 The Canadian Experiment Farms’ report, as the re- sult of four years’ trials, that with tubers planted 1 inch to 8 inches deep, where the sets were planted less than 4 inches deep, nearly all the tubers were formed between that depth and the surface, and when plant- ed deeper than 4 inches most of them formed within 4- inches of the surface. ‘The deduction made from these results was that the potatoes developed in the surface 1 Wis. Report, 1897, p. 306. 2 Can. Exp. Farms Report, IgoI, p. 117. 96 THE POTATO 4 inches of soil because it was warmer than the 3 or 4 inches lower down. Influence of Depth on Quality.—On a sandy loam, under New York conditions, potatoes grown about 4 inches deep are generally of better quality than those grown nearer the surface. In other places, those grown at even greater depths have been observed to be of better quality; thus, at North Dakota Station,’ potatoes 5 to 6 inches deep were better than those 3 or 4 inches deep in this respect. 3 Date of Planting.—As would be expected, the dates of planting potatoes vary widely, and the only way to deal with the question is to give the common dates for a certain locality. The reader is advised to inquire of the growers in the locality the date con- sidered best, and, as a general rule, it is wise to plant early for the district. Canadian experimenters’ report, after four years’ trial, that the end of May is the best time, and that June 24 is usually found to be the latest date for planting potatoes to produce satisfactory re- turns, although in 1900 a good crop was obtained from a planting on July 7. In Wisconsin the middle to the end of May, and in Maine latein May and early in June, are considered best. At Cornell University, in 1go1, potatoes planted May 16 yielded 250 bushels per acre, while those planted June 12 and 17 yielded 162 and 197 bushels respectively. In Oklahoma’* potatoes planted March 14 came up and matured as early as those planted February 27. The early potato crop of Vir- ginia is usually planted during February and March, 1 N. D. Report, Igo1, p. 96. 2 Can. Exp Farm Report, Igor, p. 11g. 5 Okla. Bul. 52, p. 9. SS —-s -. . eee ; 2» x - r A Ba . s ol &’. PLANTING 97 and the second crop about August 1. In latitude 33° the dates are about two weeks later. Influence of Late and Early Planting. Sein practice of growing a late crop of potatoes has spread northward, and in parts of New York it is custom- ary to plant potatoes late in the season after another crop, as peas, has been removed. ‘The practice seems commendable, but discouraging reports from the potato salesmen in regard to the quality of these potatoes led the Cornell University Experiment Station to under- take investigations to determine, if possible, the facts. Mr. Gilmore, who is conducting this investigation, has furnished the first years’ results, but these are in- sufficient to permit of deductions being made. TABLE XI | > Total Ash Protein | Starch VARIETY ) ae: one | | Dry |in Dry | in Dry |\in Dry ) = / f Matter Matter| Matter | M#ter ; | | | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per. ct. | Fer ch Green Mountain..; May7 | Sept.11 | 22.9 £5. 41 9-77 77-38 Green Mountain..| July6 | Oct.22 | 18.1 5-50 | 11.86 72.43 oe aeae's Pride........ | May 7 Oct. 20 | PEs 1 oe a6" | “20.35 74.28 eee. Pride.....2.- | July 6 Oct. 22 | 19.05 5-10. ,¥238 71.14 In both cases the late-planted potatoes contained less dry matter and less starch, or, in other words, were more watery, and appeared to be immature. Similar results were obtained during the present year (1904). Methods of Planting.—The former method and one still quite common is to plant potatoes by hand. __A furrow is thrown out by a common plow, or a shovel: plow, and, if applied, the fertilizers, and in ape tT Sap ee TP eT a eee ea ee Oe re “10qR] puvy se AyT}ajiod sv dois ay} ara TIT“ a0 poo8 B pure ‘roqnreyd IsIOY B JO ISN SY} JUBIIVM [IM SIIOB XIG SHOLYV, LOd OQNILNVId AO YANNVW NAYAGCOW AHL—Vves “OIA F £ 4 s E he a : PLANTING 99 some cases the manure, are placed in the furrow, the potatoes dropped in, and then covered by the plow. Generally speaking, the furrows should be thrown out so that the potatoes will be four inches below ground when the surface is level. The furrows are made the Courtesy Cornell University. FIG. 25—PLANTING BY HAND A—Tuber planted by hand in furrow opened with a shovel or double mold- board plow. #—The potatoes covered with shovel plow. C—lLand har- rowed level a few days after planting, to destroy weeds, leaving the potatoes four to fiveinches deep. Few farmers plant at this depth; even . when they mean to do so. required distance apart. It has been deemed necessary to place the potato in position, and fix it so that it will not move when covered. In England this is done by requiring the planters to press it down by hand, and in this country the potatoes are often stepped on for the same reason. The stepping on them may injure I0O0 THE POTATO buds, and hence is Adisineniat The rows should be made straight, and care should always be taken to have the potatoes planted in a straight line and at a uniform distance apart. The former facilitates in-- tertillage to such an extent that it is worthy of atten- tion. On a-dry, hot day itis inadvisable to open the FIG. 26—SECTIONAL VIEW OF ASPINWALL PLANTER 3 ; . We Ue ee Peer te ee _ rows much ahead of the planters, and the seed should | be covered as soon as possible to prevent loss of mois- ture. Frequently the rows plowed out before the noon meal hour and left open for this time show the injuri- ous effect of the loss of moisture, especially if the seed is cut.* Wherever hand-planting is done and the tubers are not sprouted, the hand-planters, which are : ; - 8 bie PLANTING Io! somewhat like hand corn-planters, may be used with profit. They cost $1.00 to $1.50, and it is claimed that an active man can plant at least one acre per day. Every large grower of potatoes requires a horse- planter. From six to eight acres will warrant the use of such a machine, and it may be made to pay for itself in a short time by hiring it out—preferably with amen gS FIG. 27—ASPINWALL POTATO PLANTER (SIDE VIEW) a man to work it. Some planters require one man, others two men, to work them; the latter generally do the best work, although good work is done by the former. ‘Twosystemsof mechanism areemployed—the picker and the platform. In some planters the tubers are fed from the hopper onto pickers, or spikes, which project from a revolving vertical disk. The disk ‘carries them round to the top of a delivery pipe, where they are knocked off, or fall off, going down the pipe 102 THE POTATO to the ground. ‘This system, or a modification of it, is used in the Aspinwall (Figs. 26-27), the Deere, and the the Kureka planters. Trials with a planter of this type showed that, with small whole seed and well-prepared ground, this machine will work up to its guarantee of 95 percent.; that is, it will not skip more than 5 places in 100. With longer cut seed and rougher land, espe- GWA». i FIG. 28—-THE ROBBINS IMPROVED PLANTER cially if slightly hilly, it will miss up to 20in 100. If these misses were distributed it would not be so serious, but often 5 or 6 occur at a stretch. If the seed is cut long and thin, the pickers may take hold of two pieces instead of one. This happens frequently—often up to 20 per cent. These machines open the furrow, distribute the fertillizer, plant the potato, and cover. ‘The latter operation is usually performed by revolving concave disks. The distance apart of the tubers is regulated by adding or removing the pickers. The higher-priced PLANTING 103 machines are stronger made than the lower-priced, and, in some cases the fertilizer attachment is extra. The Robbins improved potato-planter (Fig. 28) is of the platform type. The potatoes are elevated from the hopper by means of a wheel, and are discharged onto a platform which is cleared by several revolving arms (Fig. 29); the mechanism is so timed that a potato FIG. 290—THE PLATFORM OF THE ROBBINS IMPROVED PLANTER should fall on the platform between each two arms. Sometimes the elevator comes up empty or brings two pieces up ; in either case it is necessary for the man sit- ting behind to put one piece on the vacant part of the table between the arms or take the extra piece off. In this way the tubers are planted more carefully and regu- larly than most hand work. The amount and distance apart of seed, and the amount of fertilizer sown, are 104 THE POTATO regulated by interchangeable sprockets. The various parts of the machine are driven by means of a chain drive. ‘This machine opens the row, distributes the fertilizer in rather a wide stream, plants the potato, and covers it in a satisfactory manner. Any ordinary required depth can be obtained. It can be used for planting beans, corn, and other crops. With potato- planters three to six acres can be planted per day. Losses of crop due to insufficient seeding cannot be made up during the year. The land requires the same amount of work, and the soil needs moving at digging- time; but there is not the yield, and it is an important consideration whether 5 per cent. to 20 per cent. loss of plants per acre is not too high a price for the sake or one man’s pay per day. Even with the cheapest © ‘nicker’’ planter, the lower initial cost is not sufficient to recompense the grower for the loss sustained by using it on ten acres when compared with the perfect machine. } CHAPTER IX MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP | Cultivation.—Almost invariably judicious cultiva- tion of potato land is profitable. It is secondary to good preparation of the land. The object is not primarily to destroy weeds, although this may be a consideration. ‘To-day intelligent farmers till to in- crease yield. Tillageismanuring. No better illustra- tions of this fact can be found than the tillage experi- ments of Roberts and others at Cornell University.’ In these trials potatoes were grown several years in suc- cession, without manures or fertilizers, upon the same land, and yields varying from 300 to 350 bushels per acre, or three to four times the average yield of the State, were secured for several years. ‘This illustrates the value of tillage, but in its entirety is not necessarily a good practice. ‘Tillage destroys humus, and as this is one of the most essential constituents of a good potato soil, a rotation of crops is advised to aid in maintaining the supply. ‘Tillage may be overdone, especially deep tillage in dry weather. During sucha time only sufficient shallow tillage should be given to maintain a mulch. | At Cornell from seven to nine cultivations seemed to be most profitable, or about every seven to ten days until the potato-vines meet in the rows. Tillage must be given when necessary. The right number of cultiva- 1(N. Y.) Cornell Bul. 140, pp. 389-390; I9I, p. 192. 105 106 THE POTATO tions will vary with each year and the class of soil. The Ohio Experiment Station’ found that thorough culture encouraged vigorous growth and aided the plants to resist fungous troubles. The objects of tillage, then, are: 1. To increase the crop-producing power, presum- ably by : (a) Liberating plant-food. (6) Maintaining good texture. (c) Conserving moisture by the aid of a soil mulch. (d) Pulverizing the ground, so that every shower of rain can enter the soil and not flow off, transporting the fine soil particles. 2. To keep weeds in check. System of Culture.—/A7z//s.—Generally hills—that is, where potatoes are planted in checks—are unprofit- able because there are not enough plants per acre and the yield is too low; hence the system is little used un- less a piece of land 1s very weedy. Dyrills.—By ‘‘drills’’ it is understood that the soil is thrown toward the potatoes, leaving a depression or furrow between the rows. This system is used for irrigation, when the water flows between the rows. It is also practiced in humid climates, where the tempera- ture does not go high—as, Northern England, Scot- land, etc.—and on wet soils and in wet seasons. Often the ‘‘furrowing’’ injures roots and reduces the yield, but many growers claim that the ease with which the potatoes can be dug from drills compensates for any loss in yield. The objection to level culture is that 1 Ohio Bul. 76, p. 47. MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP IO7 difficulty is experienced in securing Ss which will dig all the tubers. Level Culture.—In this system the potatoes must be planted a little deeper than in the case of the other two, to reduce the percentage of sun-burned tubers. This system is advocated throughout most of Eastern North America, as, among other things, the quality of FIG. 30—HALLECK EXPANSIBLE WEFDER the potatoes is better, owing to the ground being cooler. Its use has been found advisable at such various points as Cornell,’ Louisiana,? North Caro- lina,* Wisconsin,* and Arkansas’ Experiment Stations, while the Maryland’* Station, ina trial lasting six years, found little difference between level and drill culture, but the slight variation was in favor of level culture. Method of Cultivation and Tools Used.—About a week after planting the spike-tooth harrow should be run over the land, preferably in both directions, if a mulch is not made by one harrowing. This destroys 1(N. Y.) Cornell Bul. 140, p. 390; 156, p. 175. 2 La. Bul. 22, p. 705. 3N. Car. Bul. 85, p. 4; 146, p. 262. 4 Wis. Report, 1899, p. 2I0. ® Ark. Bul. 50, p. 29. 6 Md. Bul. 62, p. 204. inl ,4 ay 108 THE POTATO young weeds and brings more seed up to germinate, which may be killed by another harrowing a week later. When the potatoes appear, the weeder (Fig. 30) will be found the most serviceable implement for holding the weeds in check and maintaining themulch. It may FIG. 31I—FIVE-TOOTH CULTIVATOR WITH HILLER ATTACHMENTS Still used by many farmers. be driven across the rows after each cultivation until the potatoes are g or 10 inches high. As a good horse and man can do twenty acres a day, it is quite expeditious and generally satisfactory. — Generally speaking, it is advised to cultivate widely and deeply from 4 to 6 inches the first, and, in some cases, the second time after the potatoes appear, then reduce the width and the depth to one inch or so. _- MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP IO0Q The first and second cultivations may be given with a five-tooth cultivator (Fig. 31), or a sulky cultivator (Fig. 32) may be used. The spring-tooth cultivator (Fig. 33) is found to be a very useful tool for inter- FIG. 32—A USEFUL TWO-HORSE CULTIVATOR A requisite wherever large areas of potatoes are grown. tillage work for the third and subsequent cultivations, and the spike-tooth expansible cultivator with the shields is an excellent tool for shallow tillage, as it destroys the small weeds and helps to maintain a soil mulch. IIo THE POTATO Mulching.—In some distri¢ts good yields have | been obtained by mulching the land with straw, shavings, pine straw, or some similar substance, instead of cultivating it. Waugh found that it increased the “FIG. 33—ONE-HORSE SPRING-TOOTH CULTIVATOR An excellent tool for the later cultivatlons. yield in Oklahoma’ and similar results were obtained in New Jersey,’ while in Georgia,* Michigan,’ Wis- consin,® and in my own trials in New York, it was found to be unprofitable, even when the yields obtained were about the same under both conditions. 1 Okla. Bul. 15, p. 32. 2 N. J. Report, 1901, p. 418. 3 Ga. Bul. 29, p. 348. 4 Mich, Bul. 95, pp. 13-16. 5 Wis. Report, 1899, p. 209. CHAPTER X OBSTRUCTIONS TO GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT THE obstructions to growth may be treated under the following heads: | 1. Season and Climate. 2. Weeds. 3. Diseases due to parasitic fungi and bacteria. 4. Insects. | 5. Arsenical poisoning. 1. Influence of Season and Climate.—The in- jurious influence of dry weather at planting-time has already been observed (‘‘Viability,’’ page 66). At the (Hatch)! Massachusetts Experiment Station it was observed that the wet condition of the soil at the time of planting appeared to induce the rotting of the young plants just below ground. The occurrence of several extremely hot sunny days in July, following a long rainy period, caused the plants to wilt from the wet condition of the soil and low vitality. No disease was apparent. Probably these plants showed the injurious results consequent on defective respiration due to high temperatures. Frost may cut down early planted potatoes. Tip Burn.*—This is most common in Northeastern 1 Mass. (Hatch) Report, 1808, p. 52. 2 Ver. Report, 1899, p 151; Bul. 72, p. 10. (N. Y.) Cornell Bul. 113, p,. 309. Conn. Report 18 (1894), p. 133. IIt ri2 THE POTATO America. The leaves become brown on the margin and die. It is caused by drought, and is more prevalent on light soils. Irrigation and selection of vigorous varieties, more care in cultivation, and fertilizing are suggested. At Wisconsin Experiment Station,' Green Mountain, Rural New Yorker No. 2, Everett’s Heavy Weight, and Colossal proved most resistant in 1896. Sun Scald.’—Its effect is similar to that of tip burn. It is more prevalent in the Southeastern United States, and is often noticed when long-continued damp weather is followed by several hot, bright days. 2. Weeds.—These injure the plant by using water and other plant-food, crowding the plant, preventing the free circulation of air, and in these ways reducing the vitality and rendering the potato more subject to disease. ) 3. Diseases Due to Parasitic Fungi and Bacte- ria.— LATE BLIGHT OR Ror ® (Phytophthora infestans). —There is reason to believe that this disease has existed for ages in the western parts of South America, and was disseminated over Europe a long time before ~ its presence was recognized. It seriously injured the crops of potatoes-in the United States and Canada in 1843, and reappeared the following year. In July, 1845, it was first detected in Europe, in Belgium, and within two months thereafter it was recorded in Eng- land, Ireland, Scotland; France, Germany, Denmark, and Russia. Since that time it has never been entirely 1 Wis. Report, 1896, p. 240. 2U.S. D. A. Farmers’ Bul. 91, p. Io. 3(N. Y.) Cornell Bul.113, pp. 297-302. Vt. Bul. 49, =p. oo ere 13... U. & DA. Parmers’ Bel.of) 9-8; : OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 113 absent from the potato crops, although in some years it is not so destructive as in others. The disease appears during damp, muggy weather in August and September. It is often noticed as small brownish spots on the lower leaves, which rapidly en- large. In moist weather the edges of these spots, on the under surface of the leaf, appear to be covered with a white downy mildew. In dry weather this may be difficult to detect. Later the leaves appear .as though burnt, and finally the whole plant, and in some cases the whole field, will become a putrid, offensive mass of decaying stems and leaves. The tubers may be attacked also, and rot in the field or in storage. Sometimes the disease runs a very rapid course, and a field will wilt down in twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Cause.—The cause is a parasitic fungus which com- pletes its life history in four or five days or less. The whitish mold is made up of stalks bearing branches (Fig. 34). These bear spore cases (Figs. 34 and 35), which break up to form spores (Fig. 35). . These spores send out small tubes (Figs. 35, 36, 37), which enter the potato leaf through a stomata, or breathing pore (Fig. 37), or penetrate the cell wall (Figs. 36, 37). The tubes spread in the walls of the leaf cells (Fig. 34) like mushroom spawn in a mushroom bed, utiliz- ing the plant-food which should go to form tubers. At intervals they send out spore-bearing branches through the stomata (Fig. 34), which perpetuate the trouble. Unless the tubers are well covered with soil, the spores may fall on the ground, and, reaching the tubers, transmit the disease to them. 114 THE POTATO ‘Game BD ~ : re LN ers) | Y ‘: Vi “4 | } a E h ( } i | ; a Xe <3 » , > fl e : hj ‘| = ss le . <2 FIG. 34—SECTION OF A POTATO LEAF (After Marshall Ward) Showing the parts and the threads, or mycelium, of the blight or rot (Phy- tophthora infestans) a—Epidermis, orouter cells. &—Palisade cells, which aid in giving rigidity and firmness to the leaf, and in the manufacture of starch and other ingredients. c—Spongy tissue, showing cells and large air spaces between. d—The stomata, or breathing pores of the leaf, with aerial branches of the parasite growing outward through them. e—The spore sacs, or conidia, in which the spores, or seeds, are formed. /—A pe- culiar hair on the under surface of the leaf. The dots in the cells are the chlorophyll granules, which give the green color to the leaf, and aid in the production of starch. The dark parts of the tissue show where cells are dying from the effects of the disease. Loss of cells means a reduction in the amount of food prepared, and, consequently, reduced yield. In New York alone the farmers lose $8,000,000 to $10,000,000 annually from diseases, and because they do not spray. This is the most important disease preva- lent at present. Aids to Attack.—1. Flea-beetles puncture the leaves and furnish easy access for the spores to the inner parts of the leaf. 2. Humid, still days, with a temperature of about 73° OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT rs5 F. Above 78° F. and below 50° F. there is practically no germination of the spores. Prevention.—1. Spraying with copper compounds— as, Bordeaux mixture, copper sulphate and soda mix- See veseee kK FIG. 35—-THE MATURA"ION OF A SPORE SAC (CONIDIA) AND GERMINATION OF A SPORE (ZOOSPORE) OF ROT (Phytophthora infestans) (After Marshall Ward) a—Ripe spore sacin water. 4—The protoplasmic contents break up into blocks and escape as kidney-shaped zoospores (c and d). e—EKach have two thread-like arms, called cilia, which are lost as the spore comes to rest (fand g); 4,7, 7,and & show stages of germination. Moist, warm, or still, muggy days are best for the growth and development of these spores. On such occasions the disease spreads rapidly. ture. If the surfaces of the leaves and stems be covered with a thin film of some copper compound, we either prevent the entrance or injure the vitality of the ger- minating spore tubes, so that the potatoes enjoy a certain degree of immunity from the disease. This is the philosophy of the use of Bordeaux mix- 116 ture. The degree of immunity varies with our ability to keep the whole of the plant covered with an armor of Bordeaux mixture. Plants half sprayed are not secure, as the disease can spread rapidly inside the plant. The plant must be com- pletely coated all the time to be immune. This may be impos- sible when a plant is growing, but this is not the fault of the Bordeaux mixture. The more thoroughly and more frequently the spraying is done the better the chances of bringing the crop through. It will be seen that Bordeaux is but a prevent- ive; it is not a cure. Hence, the poor results from spraying after the disease has obtained a foothold. 2. Obtaining disease-resisting varieties, or changing the seed if it has lost its resisting power.. 3. Planting on fresh ground, and planting early. 4. Giving good cultivation, and having a good rotation. 5. Destroying all refuse of potatoes. THE POTATO FIG. 36— LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A POTATO STALK, SHOWING A GER- MINATING SPORE OF ROT (Phytophthora infestans) (After Marshall Ward) The number of stomata per square inch on a potato stem is much smallerthanin the case of a leaf, but here the germ tube has pierced the cell wall, and is growingin the cell. In spraying, the stems should be coated with Bordeaux. 6. Having good drainage—both water and air drain- OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 117 age. Near woodland, where the air drainage is poor, the disease spreads rapidly on damp or misty days. Land choked with weeds keeps the lower leaves and stalks damp, and more subject to attack. Fee. fer a ee 7 ie _ F'G. 30—THE GERMINATING TUBE OF A SPORE OF ROT (Phytophthora infestans) (After Marshall Ward) This may enter a plant through a stomata, or breathing pore, as at a, or itmay penetrate the cell wall, asat 8. The maintenance of a coat of Bor- deaux mixture all over the plant would check the growth of these spores. 7. Not digging until ten days after the vines die. 8. Getting potatoes out of the field as soon as dug, and never covering piles of potatoes with spore-laden haulm. if:- 118 THE POTATO KARLY BLIGHT,' OR LEAF Spot DiskasE (Macro- sportum solant ).—It is a fungus disease which appears usually in June to July, or ahead of the late blight. It does not generally attack vigorous plants. It spreads in warmer, drier weather than the late blight. It forms circular brown spots with target-like markings on the leaves. It enters the leaf through tissues weak- ened by other agents, as flea-beetles, etc. It does not attack the tubers directly, and never causes them to rot. Preventives.—1. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 2. Selection of vigorous varieties. 3. Better tillage and fertilization. | POTATO ROSETTE (Rhizoctonia solant.*)—This dis- ease has been known since 1842, but it is only recently that it has caused considerable trouble. It is now well established all over the country, and in some places 90 per cent. of the tubers appear to be affected by it. It tends to cause the formation of an abnormal number of small tubers of no value. The stems show discolored decaying areas above ground and brown dead areas be- low, and the leaves tend to grow in rosette-like clusters. The resting spores live for several years in the soil, and the methods of infection are by seed potatoes, beet and mangold roots, dead potato stems, and some weeds; hence, fields should be kept clean. ‘The disease at- tacks beets, mangolds, and clover. Soaking the seed in formalin will destroy the spores on the potatoes, but is of no value if the soil is infected. Planting sound 1 Vt. Bul. 49, pp. 91-96; Bul. 72, pp 16-25. U. S. D. A. Farmers’ Bul. 15, pp. AWS: Bul. 91, p35... 408. = eae Bul. 123, p. ae N. H. Bul. 45, pp. 50, 56. Tex: Bul. 42, p:923. ?(N. Y.) Cornell and Geneva Bul. 186. Col. Bul. 69, 70. Ohio Bul. 130, 145. OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 119 tubers and a good rotation of crops will aid in com- batting the trouble. ScaB (Oopsora scabies Than.).—Thaxter has shown that this fungus is the chief cause of scab (Fig. 38), although Rozé claims that the primary cause is ba¢te- rial, and that the fungus Oospora scabies and other organisms follow, causing the familiar rough and cankerous appearance of scab. Other causes are also given.’ An enormous amount of work has been ex- pended on this disease, and still no absolute preventive is known if the land is inoculated with the trouble. Treatment.—Of a large number of substances used for treating the seed potatoes, soaking them in a solu- tion of formalin, 1 pound to 30 gallons of water, for 2 hours is the most effective. Soak the potatoes before cutting them, and if they are not planted at once spread them thinly to dry. If left in bags they will _heatandthe budsberuined. After soaking two or three lots of potatoes the solution should be changed, as it loses its efficacy. A big cheese-vat or sheep-dipping vat, in which several bags may be placed at a time, is useful. A small block and tackle will enable one man to lift large bags in and out of the vat, and suspend them to permit of some drainage. The following points are of importance. An acid condition of the soil is injurious to the growth of scab. Lime, wood ashes, and barn manure aid the growth of scab, while sulphate of ammonia, muriate of potash, sulphate of potash, kainit, acid phos- phate, and dissolved bone render the soil less favorable — 1W. Va. Special Bul. 44, pp. 285-6. (‘g11 ‘So susvd aas) ‘OS[V YJMOIS PUOSIS SMOYS JJ9] 9Y} UO UO DY, + ‘ISBaSTp WOIJ VIIF DUO 9I}UI)D dVOS LQOHLIM GNY HLIM SUAMNLI—E “OIL. (a OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT I2I to the disease. Scabby seed will inoculate clean land. Scabby potatoes cannot be sold. If used as fertilizer, even after steaming for twenty minutes' or being ex- posed to the weather all winter, they will inoculate the land they are spread on. Exposing tubers to sunlight for four weeks before planting reduces the percentage of scab and hastens ' growth. — | Scab can live in the soil at least six years without a known host. Beets, mangolds, turnips, and rutabagas are subject to the same disease; hence in the rotation these crops should be avoided, if possible. Varieties vary in their susceptibility to scab,’ the thicker skinned varieties being reported as most re- sistant. | It seems to be useless to treat scabby seed if they are to be planted on scab-infested land.’ Plowing under green rye does not diminish scab, as has been stated. * Applying sulphur in the rows at the rate of 300 pounds per acre and more has been tried extensively, but is not recommended as a practice, as it is of little use on infested land. Diseases in Storage.—WeEtT Ror has several causes. : 1. Blight or Rot (Phytophthora infestans). The tissues of the tuber become soft either partially or wholly, the skin shrinks, and the layer under it be- comes pasty. Potatoes from light soils appear to be 1N. J. Report, 1899, pp. 344-345. 2,N. J. Report, 1899, p. 329; I9Q00, p. 417. 3(N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 138, p. 631. 4 (N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 138, p. 629. N. J. Report, 1900, p. 417. I22 THE POTATO less subject to it than those from heavy soils, and the disease spreads most rapidly in a damp, warm, and close cellar. 2. Due to ba¢teria.' The tubers may be wholly or partially soft, and exhale a disagreeable odor. Butyric acid may be liberated and the destruction of the tubers isslow. Contact with other potatoes should be avoided. If to be used for seed, in some cases depending on the cause, soaking the tubers in formalin before plant- ing is beneficial. | Dry Rot may be the evidence of the presence of one or more of several troubles.* 1. Stem rot,* bundle blackening, dry end rot, is be- lieved to be due to a fungus (/usarium oxysporum); the leaves curl, and the foliage wilts and dies. The tubers show brown or blackened bundles at the stem end under an apparently sound skin. ‘The disease spreads rapidly in storage, especially if the rooms are warm. Some investigators advise that diseased tubers should not be fed to stock, thrown on the manure-pile, or planted, and that all such potatoes should be de- stroyed at harvest-time or as soon as discovered. No remedy is known. 2. Due to bacteria. The tubers may be free from odor, moderately firm, but more or less soft in spots, showing in places a loose skin, which yields to the fin- ger, and under which are white, gray, or brownish blotches. Soaking unaffected tubers in formalin before planting is suggested. | 1 Tl. Bul. 4o, p. 140. 2111. Bul. 40, p. 139. Tex. Bul. 42, p. 926. 3U.S.D.A. Bureau of Plant Industry Bul.55. (N. Y.) Geneva Bul. to1, pp. 83, 84; Bul. 138, pp. 632, 634. OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 123 _ 4. Insects.—THE FLEA-BEETLE ( Cvepidodera ( Ept- trix) cucumerts) (Fig. 39).—These small insects often ies fy = URI EURE yVsv: Ur i ~ . rr pata EV agan FIG. 39 — THE CUCUMBER FLEA-BEETLE (Crepidodera (Epitrix) cucumeris) (After Chittenden) Highly magnified. Theinsect is barely one-eighth inch long. sect is considerably under- estimated. period of the plant’s life. The holes pro- duced are used by the spores of both early and late blight for entrance into the leaf. Arsenical poisoning is usually first noticed on the margins of The damage done by this in- , cause more loss than the potato beetles. They perforate the leaves (Fig. 40) during a critical FIG. 40—LEAFLET OF POTATO, SHOW- ING OVER A HUNDRED HOLES MADE BY FLEA-BEETLES The ease with which this damage might be overlooked is evident. These holes make suitable avenues for the entrance of spores of disease, and pave the way for the rapid destruction of the plant. these holes. At no time in their life history can these insects be readily destroyed. They dislike Bordeaux i 124 THE POTATO mixture; hence, the only known means of reducing their ravages is to spray the plants with this material. NUMBER OF FLEA-BEETLE PUNCTURES IN 50 LEAFLETS FROM I2 ADJACENT ROWS! . Punctures Row 1.—Sprayed with very weak Bordeaux mixture . 1,794 Row 2.—Sprayed with very weak Bordeaux mixture and SOAP. 2 ek ee ee Ue ee 2 Row 3.—Not Sprayed. . 2.) 0). 2. 0 Row 4.—Sprayed with strong Bordeaux mixture . . 1,194 Row 5.—Sprayed with strong Bordeaux mixture and Soap Fos ee se ae = ee oe 1,090 Row 6.—Sprayed with weak Bordeaux mixture . . . 1,205 Row 7.—Sprayed with weak Bordeaux mixtureand soap gor Row 8.—Not sprayed ©— .- 2) ce. 6 3 ee ee eel The grubs of the flea-beetle infest the tubers and roots of potatoes, doing some damage and causing the trouble known as ‘“‘ pimply potatoes.’’* In the Pacific Coast the flea-beetles (Epzirix subcri- nita, Lec., and F. hirtipennis, Mels. ) sometimes reduce the yield 50 per cent. by their ravages. As they are leaf-eaters, the foliage should be sprayed or dusted with an arsenical poison. One pound of Paris green to 150 gallons of water per acre is suggested,”* but it is better to apply the Paris green in Bordeaux mixture. THE PoTaTo BEETLE, COLORADO POTATO BEETLE, OR PotaTo Buc (Doryphora decemlineata).—Until 1850 this inse¢t was confined to Mexico and the Rockies. In 1859 its eastward movement was noted, and it is now well distributed. A related species (D. juncta) 1 Vt. Bul. 72, pp. 6-9. -2(N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 113, pp. 312-317. 3, PP- 3 3 Cal. Bul. 135, p. 29. nb a OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 125 retreated before its advance, and is now more common in the South. In New Mexico’ a parasite lives on the eggs and larve. The eggs are laid on the potato leaves, on which the young ‘“‘bugs’’ live, chewing holes in or eating the whole of the leaf. The insects are most active about blossoming-time, and do con- siderable damage if left alone. _ Modes of Combatting.—The leaf should be thoroughly coated with a poison, generally an arsenical compound being used. The poison should be applied as soon as the ‘‘bugs’’ hatch, because the younger the ‘‘ bugs’’ the more easily they are destroyed. Various arsenical compounds are used—as, Paris green, arsenate of lead, and others. ‘‘ Bugs’’ object to Bordeaux mixture, hence in applying the poison it is found to be good practice to apply Bordeaux mixture at the same time. The whole of the plant should be covered, because if _ badly sprayed the bugs live on the unsprayed foliage. _ The standard application is 4% to % pound of Paris green to 50 gallons of mixture. Generally 1 pound of Paris green is sufficient per acre, and if it is desired to apply more than 100 gallons, the proportion of Paris green should be varied accordingly. If desired, Paris green may beapplied in the dry form by means of a powder gun, the Paris green being mixed with flour, land plaster, etc., as desired. About 50 cents per acre should cover the cost of one application. THE PoTaTo WorM,’ also known in the South as the tobacco-leaf miner (Gelechia operculella, Zell.), is estimated to destroy 25 per cent. of the potato crop 1 American Naturalist, 1899, pp. 927-29. New Mexico Bul. 33, pp. 47-51. 2 Cal. Bul. 135, pp. 5-29. . 126 THE POTATO on the Pacific Coast. Great losses often occur in stor- age as well as in the field. The moths fly at night, and lay eggs on the stalks and tubers. Destruction of the moths by trap lanterns, the destruction of infested stems, careful hilling of potatoes, getting them under cover as soon as dug, cleaning up the refuse of the field, and a rotation of crops is recommended. In storage, fumigation with 1% pounds of carbon bisulphide per thousand cubic feet of air-space will destroy all the larvee if repeated five times at intervals of two weeks. This gas is inflammable, and no lights must be taken near. It is a heavy gas, andsinks from the top of the building. POTATO STALK WEEVIL! ( 7richobaris trinotata).— This beetle attacks the stalks, causing them to wilt. It is found from Canada to Texas and Florida. The vines should be destroyed as soon as attacked, and weeds belonging to the potato family kept down. Another insect has caused similar trouble in Maine.’ GRASSHOPPERS (/JZelanoplus sp.) do much damage during some seasons, especially after the hay crop is cut, by severing parts of the leaves. Bordeaux mix- ture containing an arsenical poison is the best deter- rent, being better than the arsenical compound alone. THE JUNE Buc (Lachnosterna sp.).—The big white larvee of these beetles often eat the tubers. They are most prevalent on land which has been in grass, although if land is in clover but one or two years less trouble may be expected. 1 Consult U. S. D. A. Div. of Entomology, Bul. 33, 6. Ind. Report, 1895. Kan. Bul. 82. Pa. D. A. Report, 1896. N. J. Bul. 109, pp. 25-32. 2 Me. Report, 1897, p 173. OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 127 Wireworms injure potatoes by boring through them. They are more prevalent on land which has been in grass a few years. Frequent rotation and fall plowing are advised for both of these pests. Other insects injurious to potatoes include: Striped Blister Beetle, or ‘‘ Old-fashioned Potato Bug’’ (£f7- cauta vittata). 'This inse¢t should be combatted in the same way as the Colorado potato beetle—by applica- tions of arsenical poisons to the foliage. The Tomato Worm and Cutworms are injurious. The latter are very destructive at times, and the best remedy seems to be to place bait, made of moist bran and sugar, poisoned with Paris green in the fields.’ Arsenical Poisoning.—Paris green, London pur- ple, and other arsenical compounds usually carry their arsenic in an insoluble form, but some may be soluble. This soluble arsenious oxide may burn the leaves, espe- cially the tips where the mixture flows, and the edges of mutilated leaves, causing death of the spot and a ‘“target-like’’ appearance of the leaf. _ Remedy.—Do not use more than 1 pound of Paris green per acre, dissolved in 100 to 200 gallons of Bor- deaux mixture. The trouble is most prevalent where people half spray and use Paris green alone, or I pound of Paris green in one barrel (50 gallons) of water and lime or Bordeaux mixture. 1N. J. Bul. 109; Report, 1895, p. 366. CHAPTER XI SPRAYS AND SPRAYING FUNGICIDES are materials used to combat fungi, or small plants which are usually parasitic. Bordeaux mixture is the leading fungicide for pota- toes. The ingredients for making this mixture are freshly slaked lime and copper sulphate. The fungi- cidal value lies in the copper compound. ‘The lime is added to prevent the copper sulphate burning the foli- age, and to make the mixture more adhesive and more readily seen when applied. The amount of lime and copper sulphate used vary considerably. Not less than 2 pounds of lime can be used to 3 pounds of copper sulphate. Excess of lime is disadvantageous in some ways, as it renders the mixture less efficient by making it thicker, and in this way more liable to settle! and more difficult to apply, causing nozzles to clog, but in a wet season an excess of lime is desirable. A thin mixture can, however, be more uniformly applied. Use freshly burnt, clean, firm lime; slake it by pour- ing water, preferably hot, over it in small amounts at a time, until the lime has fallen to a fine powder ; then add enough water to make a thin paste. A large quantity of lime may be slaked at one time and kept covered with water. This is a ‘‘ stock solution.’’ To dissolve copper sulphate, it should be placed ina 1(N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 243, p. 320. 128 SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 129 coarse sack and suspended in the top of the water in a wood, brass, or porcelain vessel—usuaily a wooden barrel; as it corrodes iron. The copper sulphate sinks in the water as it dissolves, and a gallon of water will dissolve 3 pounds of copper sulphate. This is a satu- rated solution. If 6 pounds of copper sulphate are re- quired to a barrel of water, 2 gallons of this stock solution should be used. : Mixing.—It is economical to have an elevated stage, under or alongside of which the spray-cart may be drawn. Place four 50-gallon barrels on this stage, two of which are for the stock solutions of lime and copper sulphate, and two for making the mixture. > To make 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture, pour 2 gal- lons of copper sulphate saturated solution into one barrel and fill it up to the 25-gallon mark with water. Stir up the stock solution of lime and dip out as much as is required; if 5 pounds, then the solution equivalent to this amount; strain it, to exclude particles which might clog nozzles, into the lime-mixing barrel, and fill up to the 25-gallon mark and stir. The mixing- barrels should be provided with 2-inch or 3-inch rubber hose, one end of which is attached in an opening near the bottom of the barrel, the other free. When ready, put the hose from each barrel into the spray-tank, and let them empty and mix together. The rubber hose should be long enough so that the free end can be turned over into its barrel when notin use. If desired, the stock-solution barrels may be placed above and over the mixing-barrels, so that dipping out solution is ‘avoided; it may be run out through a faucet. Convenience to a water-supply expedites the work, 130 THE POTATO Testing Bordeaux Mixture.—In practice little attention is paid to the quantity of lime, except that sufficient is added to combine with all of the copper sulphate. To determine when this has taken place the potassium ferrocyanide test is made. Purchase ten cents’ worth of potassium ferrocyanide, or yellow prussiate of potash, and dissolve it in water. Label it ‘‘ Poison.’’ Stir the Bordeaux mixture in the spray- . tank and take out a sample in a small vessel, to which add a drop of potassium ferrocyanide. If no change in color is noted where it dropped there is sufficient lime, but it is better to add lime solution equivalent to a pound of lime more. If the drop changed the color of the solution reddish brown it shows that there is not enough lime. Strength of Solution. ae potatoes, 1 pound of copper sulphate to 7 or 8 gallons of water is com- monly used; that is: Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 6 pounds. Quicklime (not slaked), 4 to 6 pounds. Water, 48 to 50 gallons. Bordeaux Dust,’ or Dry Bordeaux Mixture, can be made in two ways: . Slaking the lime by pouring a strong solution of copper sulphate over it. 3 2. Mixing the strong copper sulphate solution with freshly slaked lime which has been made into a paste, then placing the mixture in a bag and drying and pul- verizing it. The two ingredients must be well mixed and passed through a fine sieve. Dry Bordeaux is offered for sale under various names. Adler’s Bor- 1 For details, see Missouri Bul, 60. (N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 243, p. 325. : 7 <> es “— my. Pr - ‘ 3 . my os) = rt tip SPRAYS AND SPRAYING can deaux is reported to be as efficient as newly mixed,! but generally these preparations are much inferior to the newly prepared, and, when a drv, are less effective than in the wet form. Washing Soda and Copper Sulphate Mixture. —This mixture is being used with success in parts of Europe. It does not clog nozzles, spreads evenly over the leaf, and is easily and cheaply prepared. The washing soda is dissolved in water, poured into the barrel of water and stirred, and the copper sulphate added and stirred. Various strengths are in use, but the most satisfactory one for American conditions has yet to be determined. Weare trying 4 pounds of cop- per sulphate, 6 pounds of washing soda, and 50 gallons of water, adding 1 pound of lime if Paris green is used. A little over 1 pound of washing soda might be suff- cient to neutralize the 4 pounds of copper sulphate, but it is safer to use more. In Ireland 5 pounds are used and for three sticcessive years in extended trials this mixture has given better results than Bordeaux mix- ture.” At (N. Y.) Geneva Station, in 1904, it was not so good as ordinary Bordeaux mixture. Spraying with Bordeaux Mixture.—Zenefits.— Spraying with Bordeaux mixture influences the potato crop in the following ways: 1. The structure * of the leaf shows a slight increase in thickness and in strength, and so offers more _ resistance to the growth of disease spores. 2. The chlorophyll,* or green coloring matter of the leaf and stem, is increased. 1 Me. Bul. 73, p. 55. 2 Department of Agric. for —— Leaflet, 14. $Frank & Kriger. E.S.R., VI., p. 306. 132 THE POTATO 3. The transpiration' of moisture is greater in sprayed plants. Food is moved from the roots to the leaves in water, the food is worked over, and the water is given off. The more food- laden moisture passing through, the greater is the growth. 4. The assimilation’ or taking in of food from the air by the leaves is much greater. . The duration’ of the leaves and vines” is greater. . The growing period® is extended (Fig. 41), insur- ing a heavier yield. In Vermont blight often appears in August, and from then on the pota- toes have grown 50 bushels a week when the foliage was preserved. : 7 7. The tuber production’ is increased, due to increase in the size of the tubers’ and the number of tubers per plant. Jones & Morse,’ of Vermont, show that the average yield for thirteen years (1891 to 1904), without spraying, was 171 bushels per acre, while the sprayed plats yielded 286 bushels per acre, or an average annual gain of 115 bushels per acre. — 8. The dry matter’ is increased. g. Starch formation’ in the tuber is considerably in- creased. At Geneva, (N. Y.) Experiment Sta- tion® an increase of 7 per cent. was obtained. 10. Where there is no disease’ the yield may be in- On wn 1 Frank & Kriiger. E.S.R., VI., p. 306 2 Vt. Report, 1899, p. 156. 3 Vt. Bul. 40, pp. 26, 27; Report, 1899, p. 272. Can. Exp. Farms Report, I9OI, p. 120, 4(N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 221. = Vt. Bul. 106; pee: 6 (N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 221. 7E.S. R., Vol. [X., p. 765. (N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 123, p. 234. "PIatA JorAvay ve Sarinsul sny} ‘porisd Surmo13 sy} spus}xo satAvidsg (‘Lo6r ‘€ 19q0}IO UdyzeY) aATAI4 OLVLOd MYOA MAN V AO SNOILUYOd GAAVUdMSNN GNV AAXAVUdS—IP ‘OIA UOLJBIG BAaua’y (* 4 N) As OP INOP) 134 THE POTATO creased by spraying, due to increased vigor of the plants. At the Vermont Experiment Sta- tion,' in 1900, the yield was increased 73 bushels per acre by spraying, although blight did not appear that year. : Time of Spraying.—Thoughtfulness, thorough- ness, and timeliness are essential to success. A man must watch his crop, the season, and conditions; know for what he is spraying, and do it intelligently as well as thoroughly. In wet years spraying should begin earlier than indry. The firstspraying should be given early enough to ward off the first attack. At Vermont Experiment Station, in 1900,° three applications.were most economical, but the first one, that of July 26, was the most important, as half the entire gain was due to it; the sprayings on August 17 and September 8 were of about equal importance. At the same station,’ in 1903, one timely spraying on August Io insured a gain of 124 bushels per acre. Some growers who sprayed twice in July secured little benefit, because by the time the blight appeared, the latter half of August, their plants were unprotected. No rule can be given; each man must watch for himself. In some distriéts it is profitable to give the first spraying when the plants are 6 inches tall, and repeat every ten to fourteen days, or as conditions demand. Number of Sprayings.—At (N. Y.) Geneva Ex- periment Station,’ in 1903, spraying potatoes five times gave an increase of 30 bushels per acre over three times, and three sprayings increased the yield 88 bushels per 1 Vt. Report, 1900, p. 272. 2 Vt. Report, 1900, p. 273. 2 Vt. Bul. 106, p. 231; 4(N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 241, p. 262, a: J 3 a SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 135 acre over no spraying. At Cornell Experiment Sta- tion! one application of Bordeaux mixture, and three of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green, increased the -yield 103 bushels per acre, while another’ year six sprayings increased the yield 48 bushels per acre. At Vermont Experiment Station’ two applications have in general proved most profitable. The (N. Y.) Geneva Experiment Station recommend, as the re- _ sult of their trials to the year 1904, that spraying com- mence when the plants are 6 to 8 inches tall and thorough applications to be made at intervals of ten to fourteen days during the season, making five to seven applications in all. ; Insecticides are materials used to destroy injurious insects. Poison is spread on the leaves to destroy leaf-eating insects, and materials that kill by contact are used against insects that suck plant-juices. For poisoning the first class there are on the market.a number of preparations, which may be grouped as follows:* 1. Standard Remedies.—Scheele’s Green, Paris Green, London Purple, Hellebore. 2. Commercial Substitutes.—Paragrene, Green Arsen- oid, Green Arsenite, Pink Arsenoid, Laurel _ Green, Arsenate of Lead, Disparene. 3. LHome-made Remedies.—Arsenite of Lime, Arsenite of Soda, Arsenate of Lead, Arsenite of Lead. 4. Proprietary Remedies.—Bug Death,’ Black Death,’ Hammond’s Slug Shot,*® Quick Death, Knobug, 1(N. Y.) Cornell Bul. 140, p. 402, 2 (N. Y.) Cornell Bul. 196, p. 48. 3 vt. Bul. 106, p. 230. * From (N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 243, p. 329. 5 For analysis, see (N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 190, p. 289. 136 THE POTATO etc. In most of these the amounts of arsenical compounds present is small. Contac? Remedies—Standard.—Whale Oil Soap, Car- bon Bisulphide, etc. While some of the poisons in Group 4 (proprietary) have value, they are too expensive, and the work of various experiment stations shows that Paris green or arsenate of lead are cheaper and generally much more effective poisons.’ | Paris green rarely occurs on the market pure. In New York the law requires that it contain 50 per cent. of arsenious oxide or white arsenic. Often some of this arsenic is soluble in water, and in such cases it is liable to burn foliage. If more than 4 per cent. of water soluble arsenic is present the sample should be condemned. : Paris green tends to sink to the bottom of the spray- barrel; hence, unless kept well stirred, the concen- trated solution applied at the last may burn the foliage. It should -be applied at the rate of about 1 pound per acre, in not less than 100 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. - When applied dry, mix 1 pound of Paris green with 50 pounds of land plaster, flour, slaked lime, or any other dry powder. At (N. Y.) Geneva Experiment Station, in 1904, Paris green was applied to potatoes at the rate of 3 pounds per acre in 150 gallons of water. Four appli- cations were made during the season, and no injury to the foliage occurred. The results show that Paris green is of distinct fungicidal value, and, that it in- 1 Me. Bul, 68, 87, 98. Li a A A ate er SP e ens ? eee ee eee ie eae od is SPRAYS AND SPRAYING £3] creased the yield of potatoes from 175 bushels per acre, on plats where bugs were removed by hand, to 221 bushels per acre, and that it was better applied in water than in lime water. Lead Compounds.—Insoluble arsenate and arsen- ite of lead are recommiended because they contain no injurious soluble arsenic, a heavy dose will do no harm, they lead all other materials in remaining in suspension, they adhere to the foliage, and they can be easily made at home and their purity insured. The articles required are sugar of lead (acetate of lead), costing 74% cents per pound, wholesale, and arsenate of soda, costing 5 cents per pound, wholesale, at pres- ent. They may be dissolved in cold water, but for quick solution hot water is better. The formula for making 1 pound of arsenate of lead—enough for 100 gallons—is: Dissolve 24 ounces of sugar of lead in 1 gallon of cold water, and 10 ounces of arsenate of soda in 3 quarts of water, both in wooden vessels. When dis- solved, pour together into the spraying-tank. Pre- pared in this way, it is superior to any ready prepared sample. Of the latter there are several makes, which may be usedif buta small amountisrequired. ‘‘Swift’s Arsenate of Lead’’ may be purchased in a white powder form or as a paste; it is easily mixed with water, but both forms settle more quickly in the spray- tank than the freshly made. Disparene retails at 25 cents per pound, and is a heavy white paste which finally mixes well with water, but takes some time. 1 Cal. Bul. 151. (N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 243. 138 THE POTATO It has great adhesive power, and will not burn foliage. The Adler lead compounds are similar. Arsenite of lead is made by dissolving separately 12 ounces of sodium arsenite and 4 pounds of sugar of lead, then pouring them into 150 gallons of water. The home-made mixture remains in suspension longer than the prepared. Pink arsenoid is arsenite of lead colored;. it is no more dangerous to foliage than Paris green, andischeap. It will remain in suspension about twice as long as Paris green. Green arsenoid (copper arsenite) sometimes con- tains considerable soluble white arsenic, and is then dangerous to foliage, especially in a dry climate or time. | neha White arsenoid (barium arsenite) is a to foliage. Calco green and laurel green do not oon enough arsenic to render them of much value, and some sam- ples cause serious injury to foliage.’ Paragrene is a prepared compound containing, in some cases, considerable soluble *‘ white arsenic,’’ which is objectionable. Arsenic and lime is a cheap mixture. Boil 1 pound of white arsenic, costing 7 cents per pound, with 2 pounds of lime in 2 gallons of water for forty minutes and add to 150 or 200 gallons of water. It cannot be safely applied alone, even with the addition of consid- erable lime, but may be used in Bordeaux mixture. The copper sulphate in the Bordeaux mixture seems to prevent the caustic action. If the lime and-arsenic fail to combine, the mixture is dangerous. | —— i Vt. Report, 1899; p. 271. Cal. Buloa5i}-p. 24 are en ee ee TS ee Pe ‘ é le a ee ee OM, ce ee ee ee SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 139 Cost of Spraying and Profits Derived.—In 1903, at the farm of J. V. ae eey & Son, Phelps, N. Y., the total expense of spraying’ 14 acres five times was $55.76, the items being as follows: 504 pounds of copper sulphate, at6cents . . $30.24 meters @f lime, at345 cents: <4... 2.80 t2 pounds of white arsenic, at5%4 cents ... .66 55 hours’ labor for man, at 174 cents eae 9.63 47 hours” labor for team, at 1778 PEE Ot ca. 8.23 Ee es ee Se a ks 4.20 $55.76 Cost of spraying per acre for each application was 8o cents. Bushels Mien st Sptayed rows, per acre :) . ... . . 547 Yield of unsprayed rows, peracre . ... 83 epeea tt Yield Per 4cte 5". 6 oso 64 A good showing, considering that there was no blight . this year. 64 bushels per acre on 14 acres (806 peeneks): worth. $448.00 Less cost AS 7 RnR a i a 55.76 Mere en eA eS ek es $392.24 Se ae i ae ce a en ee 28.01 Mr. Salisbury sprayed potatoes for his neighbors at 80 cents per acre and furnished everything. In other experiments conducted in 1904 by the Geneva Experi-| ment Station, the cost of each application was as low as 61 cents per acre, and the net profit as high as $60.00 per acre. 1(N. Y.) Geneva Bul. 241, p. 275. 140 THE POTATO Spraying Machines.'—A spraying outfit consists of a pump, nozzle, agitator, tank rods, hose, crop-spray- ing attachments, etc. They are made in various sizes, and are known as knapsack, carried and worked by a man; barrel, hauled by man or horse (Fig. 42), and worked by manual labor; and power sprayers, in which the pumping is done by gearing from the wheels, steam FIG. 42—A SUGGESTIVE ENGLISH SPRAYING MACHINE Emphasis is laid upon coating the under surface of the leaves, and experi- ments show that it is profitable to do so under British conditions. or gas engines, compressed air or carbon dioxid. The pressure is generated in the pump; 100 to 120 pounds pressure per square inch gives a much finer spray than 50 to 60 pounds. The power sprayers give the former, - the manual labor sprayers rarely exceed the latter. The working parts of the pump should be of brass or bronze; rubber or leather valves, or any parts that Bor- 1 Consult Mo. Bul. 50 and (N.Y.) Geneva Bul. 243. SPRAYS AND SPRAYING I4I deaux mixture will corrode, are inadmissible. The pump should be easy to clean. The nozzle and the pressure determine the character of the spray. The Vermorel type of nozzle is one of the best; it does good work at a low pressure of 50 to ‘ 60 pounds, but better work at 100 pounds. It does not throw the spray a great distance. The nozzle used should permit of being readily cleaned. The agitator may be (1) mechanical or (2) the jet type. The former is generally used and considered more efficient, dashers being used in barrel outfits and whirling paddles in large tanks. The jet type returns a stream of solution from the pump to the bottom of the tank. It can be made efficient on power sprayers, but deficiency of power bars their use on hand outfits. Tanks.—Cypress, pine, and cedar are used in mak- ing tanks, the first being considered best. Their ca- pacity varies from 50 to 250 gallons. Hose.—The hose should withstand a pressure of 125 pounds per square inch. ‘Three and four ply are most used. Somepreferfiveandsix ply. Half-inch hose is most commonly used; some prefer three-eighths of an inch. Crop-spraying Attachments.—The potato spraying attachment should carry two or more nozzles for each row. ‘These should be capable of being turned up- ward when not in use, to prevent their clogging with sediment while drying. The spray should be thrown upward and sideways, to coat the under surface of the leaves as well as the upper surface. From two to six rows are sprayed at a time (see Frontispiece and Fig. 42), and the attachment should fold or turn up to 142 THE POTATO facilitate turning or going through a gateway. Sta- tionary nozzles cannot direct the spray so well as hand nozzles; hence, more should be put-on to make sure that the plants are coated. The cost of the extra amount of mixture is small compared with the cost of the labor used in applying it. ERAPRTER XII HARVESTING Digging.—Early potatoes may be dug as soon as large enough. For late varieties which are to be stored it is necessary to wait until the tubers have at- tained full size, the haulm and leaves have died, the tubers come freely from the stem and have not to be jerked off, and the skins are firm and will not come off easily when rubbed. If the vines have been de- stroyed by blight the potatoes should not be dug until at least ten days after the vines are dead, as there is then less liability of rot in storage.' If frost sets in early and the growing season has been late, it may be necessary to dig before the potatoes are quite mature. In this case the shrinkage in weight, if stored, will be greater than if they had matured, and a reasonable offer for them straight from the field should not be declined. For storage, potatoes must be dug when dry, picked up at once, and kept cool. If possible, haul to some cool place at once, and let them cool all night before placing in storage. This is impossible where large quantities are grown, and in such cases good ventila- tion of the storage-place must be given to reduce th: temperature as quickly as possible. Methods of Digging.—1. By Fork, Spade, cr Potato-hook. —'The early potatoes are often dug by hand because they are so easily injured. The skin is 1 Vt. Bul. 106, p. 233. 143 144 THE POTATO tender, the tubers adhere to the stem, and often require removal. It is a slow, tedious process, but nearly every potato is obtained. A man will dig one-eighth to three-eighths of an acre a day. With the main crop aman will dig from one-tenth to one-half acre a day at a cost generally varying between two and six cents per bushel, sometimes running to eight and occasion- ally lower than two cents, depending a great deal on the skill of the man, the yield, the soil, and state of the land. As weather conditions may retard digging, and labor is hard to obtain, this method is being discon- tinued except on small patches. 2. Plow.—Plowing out with a common plow, or a potato plow, or so-called ‘‘digger,’’ many of which ate: ; Modified Shovel Plows.—Al\ that I have tested have been failures. They dig some of the potatoes out and cover some up. On harrowing after them many more potatoes appear, and on digging the rows some may still be found. My experience has been that the pota- toes left in would more than pay for digging by hand. They may be useful for small growers on a light soil, and for those who, being short of labor, wish to save part of their crop. Six to ten hands and two horses will dig one and a half to two acres per day. In the Southern States early potatoes are plowed out, and ten cents per barrel is paid for picking them up. 3. Mechanical Diggers——'The high-priced horse- power diggers, as the ‘‘Reuther’’ (Fig. 43), the ‘“Hoover’’ (Fig. 44), and the ‘‘ Dowden,’’ are all re- ported as satisfactory machines. They work on the same principle. The shovel-point is forced under the HARVESTING 145 row of potatoes, and the row lifted and deposited on the elevator, which gradually shakes out the soil and leaves the potatoes in a row on the ground in the rear. These require two to four horses, according to con- ditions, and do better work on soils free from stones. The Standard Digger is different. A divided shovel “ rs +3 FIG. 43—THE REUTHER POTATO DIGGER lifts the row onto a shaker, which separates the pota- toes and soil, leaving the latter on the surface behind. This digger works well when potatoes are ridged or planted shallow, but when deep it does not do so well.’ One other form used successfully in Canada and Great Britain consists of a strong frame on two wheels and a small wheel in the front and rear. Itcarriesa set of revolving forks working at right angles to the share, 1 Minn. Bul. 52, p. 439. 146 THE POTATO which pass underneath the row and raise it. The forks throw the potatoes and soil against a screen, which lets the soil through but deposits the potatoes FIG. 44—-THE HOOVER DIGGER in arow. Several good diggers are made on this plan. ‘Two or three horses are used. With a mechanical digger, four to six acres can be dug per day, and eight to sixteen hands are required to pick up. The cost of digging should not exceed two cents per bushel, and may be much less. Another ad- vantage of a digger is that if the land is clean it needs harrowing only to be in excellent shape for seeding to wheat. 3 | a "ey ée aT i cb, a ee ea ee Tae "ee. ae ee ee eee eee Pe ee $ 4 CHAPTER XIII STORING POTATOES may be stored in the open in piles covered with straw and earth, in cellars or root-houses, accord- ing to the climatic conditions. Piles.—These are useful for temporary storage in the North. Dig a trench about 3 or 4 inches deep, 3 feet wide, and as long as desired; make the bottom per- FIG. 45—POTATO SHOVEL fectly level and firm, so that a potato shovel (Fig. 4 5) may be used on it when moving the potatoes. Throw the soil from the trench onto each side, making a bank about 15 inches wide with it. This will give a trough about 7 inches deep in which to empty the potatoes. Pile the potatoes neatly, so that the face of the pile at the center will be 3 feet or so high. When sufficient potatoes are stored, place about 3 inches thick of rye or wheat straw (oat straw being liable to heat and become mouldy) with the butts down and heads up on the sides and one end of the pile, leaving the other end for additional potatoes (Fig. 46). Then cover the straw 147 148 7 THE POTATO with soil, beginning at the bottom and piling it toward the apex; 2 or 3 inches thick will be sufficient near the top with the straw, and 6 or 7 inches at the base. Finish the surface off by patting it with the spade so FIG. 46—STORING POTATOES IN PITS Useful in climates where the winter is not severe. that it willturn rain. Dig a channel all around the pile, using this soil for the covering. The bottom of this channel should be below the floor of the pile, and have an outlet to let off water, thus insuring a dry bot- tom for the pile. Leave the ridge of the pile open to permit the moisture to escape when the potatoes ‘“sweat.’’ If it 1s desired to hold the potatoesin these PN ANT Pe ee Re STORING 149 piles over winter, more soil or old hay must be put over them as the frost comes on. The mouth of the pile should be closed at night, and care should be taken to have no potatoes left on the groundat night. Rain or frost may come on and injure them, or retard the work. Sufficient covering must be put on the piles to prevent the rain and sun discoloring the potatoes. I have known a whole crop ruined by inattention to this point. Therain browns them, and the sun makes them green and unsalable. This method is not advisable in the Northern States unless one is sure that they will not want to sell or put up the potatoes until spring, as the pit cannot be opened during frost or in wet weather, and in spring moving potatoes on wet land is objectionable. Cellars.—If seed potatoes only are held, they may be kept in trays, bushel boxes, or barrels, storing these so that air can circulate under and round them, or they may be held in bins. Construction.—The location of the cellar should be dry and well drained. It should be built under- ground, of concrete, brick, or stone walls, with a plastered ceiling if a building is above it, to make a dead air-space between the plaster and the floor. Con- crete walls are readily made with clean gravel, sand, and cement, with boards to hold the material while set- tling. Use one part of Portland cement, three of sand, and six of gravel; mix the sand and cement, then add the gravel; wet and mix, and fill into the wall-space. To hold it in position while drying it is customary to use 1I-inch boards, nailed onto 2 x 4-inch studding, which may be placed 1 foot 6 inches on centers. To pre- ey em THE POTATO vent sagging, the studding of one side is braced to that on the other side by % x %-inch iron strips, which are placed three feet apart each way, and nailed to the studding on each side. These are left in the wall, and the ends cut off when the boards are taken down. Apertures through which to shoot the potatoes should be left at intervals. One satisfactory cellar of which I know has a driveway through the center and bins on each side. The bins are about 1o feet wide and are filled 4 to 6 feet deep. Divisions are put in as desired. Ventilation and Temperature are most impor- tant. The potatoes must be kept cool, about 33° F. being a favorable temperature. If possible, lead air through a deep underground drain-tile into the cellar; the length of the tile should be sufficient to warm the air a little in winter, and the outside end of it should be covered to prevent the entrance of vermin. A ventilator on the roof will remove warm air. Have a raised board floor in each bin and a ventilator running from it up through the tubers at intervals. Have double doors at the entrance and the shoots, and keep the place dark. Darken the windows if there are any. A small cellar can be made if desired, but make the roof high enough to work in—say, 8 feet. Purchasea reliable thermometer and hang it in the cellar, an oil- stove and radiator, and, if the temperature is going down too low, warm the place. It is folly to have potatoes freeze to save ten cents worth of kerosene. The advantages of a cellar are: tr. You can see how the crop is keeping. 2. The conditions can be controlled. 3. The potatoes can be sold at any time. a em aT ais LL, q ie ri STORING 1 Losses in Storage.— Potatoes suffer loss in weight in keeping in addition to any loss due to disease or insect attacks. At Cornell University, during the past winter, the variety Sir Walter Raleigh, stored in crates in a cool cellar, lost 12 per cent. in weight between the date November 6, 1903, and April 27, 1904, a period of 173 days, while the variety Carman No. 3 - lost nearly 10 per cent. Neither variety had sprouted at all. ‘This seems to show that in this district the latter is better for storage, and growers have noted this. Sir Walter Raleigh seems better adapted for selling from the field than for storage. No doubt other varieties vary in the same way, and the same variety will vary under differing conditions. At the Michigan Experiment Station a barrel of potatoes stored September, 1893, had lost 5 per cent. in weight by March 28, and 11.5 per cent. by May 1, 1894. Re- search shows that these losses are influenced by tem- perature and the state of moisture of the air. The higher temperature increases the loss, while the higher moisture content diminishes it. Light seems to have little influence upon the loss of weight, but is injurious -/ because it diminishes the’ selling value of the potato.” The average percentage losses of twelve varieties of potatoes carefully stored in a cool cellar at a tempera- ture of 42° to 51° F. during seven months, as recorded by E. Wollny,’ are: October, 2.02 per cent.; Novem- ber, 1.18; December, .50; January, .50; February, .81; March, .41; April, .50; the total loss aggregated, on an average, 6.17 percent. In every case the losses were 2e 5. R.. 11; p. 493. 152 THE POTATO greatest directly after digging, and in February the / losses‘ were higher than the month before or after. | The size of the tuber, or whether the variety was early or late, had no perceptible influence. The three early varieties lost from 4.87 to 8.48 per cent., the five medi- um-early varieties from 4.55 to 6.78 per cent., and the four late varieties 5.71 to 7.28 per cent. These losses are believed to be lower than those usually assumed and observed. The loss of weight of these tubers from May to October was 21.57 per cent., considerably more than their loss from October to May 1. Assoon as the sprouts begin to grow the loss is rapid. Nobbe found that about 75 per cent. of the loss of potatoes in storage is due to loss of water and 25 per cent, to respiration. As the potato is alive and breathes, its existence depends upon its using some of its stored-up energy. A ferment changes some of its starch into sugar, and this sugar is used to furnish energy. At low temperatures sugar formation contin- ues, but respiration and the use of the sugar diminishes, and at 30° F. to 28° F. (2° to 4° below freezing-point)) respiration almost ceases; hence, frozen potatoes taste sweet because of the accumulation of sta EK. Wollny believes that between 32° and 50° F. is the best range of temperature for holding potatoes. The actual losses which may occur in storage as the result of disease cannot be definitely stated. " * or — . v ‘ ‘ vs eee epee: CHAPTER XIV PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, AND MARKETS In the North the potato is a quasi-staple product. It can be kept a number of months in storage. In the South, except in cold storage, it cannot be kept long and is purely a garden-truck crop, but its culture is extending. 2,836,196 farmers grew potatoes in 1899. ‘The area was 2,938,952 acres, and the yield 273,328,207 bushels, valued at $98,387,614. The average value of the product per acre was $33.48, that of all crops was $10.04, while that of all vegetables was $42.09 per acre. The price per bushel varied between 22 cents in Iowa and Nebraska to $1.10 in Arizona, the average price being 36 cents. The average yield’ per acre in the year 1879 was 96.7 bushels; in 1889, 83.6 bushels, and in 1899, 93 bushels per acre, although ~ yields of 300 and 4oo bushels are common, and over 800 bushels have been obtained. In 1900 six States grew 51 per cent. of the potatoes (Figs. 47, 48)—viz., New York, Wisconsin, Michi- gan, Pennsylvania, Iowa, and Minnesota—while Ohio, Illinois, Maine, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, and California grew 25 per cent. more. The sandy pine belt region, skirting the lakes, has shown a phe- nomenal increase in potato production. In Maine, 1 Consult Twelfth Census Report Igo2. 153 e = 10-20 creme + 5-10 za=q 2-5 Ce: Sie C3 Below s FIG. 47——SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POTATO PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1899 (Data from Twelfth Census Report) al i eh te ! 4 l te , ~ i ae ,!a te = e oh EEG), bebe --<-=- bere Mitty gt oe Se ee 7 a OEE Sesto a a i Tsay gt teen aay i : . i i P i jt ' en 'a! tlt : tt ttaayy F i ' i i i ’ i i j i i i r-. F ind ml = © oe | etree « e « = | Ssoocs cos N a t ' ’ } i 2Soono WANS . SS & SBEN6 i H i Se ' 1 1 1 aay H 1 i 1 CC Below 10 A IN POTATOES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1899 * 4, FIG, 48—SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARI (Data from Twelfth Census Report) 156 THE POTATO Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota the potato acre- age has increased faster than the population in the past ten years. New York comes in the same belt. The per capita production of potatoes in the United States is given as about 3.5 bushels.’ About one-third of the total crop of the Southern States is shipped North as early potatoes, and some late potatoes are shipped back fromthe North. Theconsumption north of Mason and Dixon’s line is about 4% bushels per head, exclusive of potatoes used for seed or starch-making. The South consumes a relatively small amount, being less than 1%. bushels per capita. Knowing the approximate consumption and the area and condition of the crop (obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture reports, which are posted monthly), the farmer can form an idea of the outlook of the business. Thus, in 1903 there were 2,916,855 acres grown, and the yield as now known was 247,127,880 bushels. The table below will show the uses to which this crop was put. In 1904 as large an area would need to be planted (a larger one ought to be, because the population is in- creasing); hence, 10 bushels of seed are allowed per acre on: Bushels 2,925 000 acres erm eee ee Plus 10 per cent. loss in storage . . os ga eee Used for starch-making, etc. (largely small potaioes ete.) oo 5, 52> Cage ane eee 5,000,000 Available for human consumption . . . 209,952,880 247,127,880 : Consult Twelfth Census Report, 1902. PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS 157 The public can consume about three bushels of pota- toes per head per year, and as there were 79,000,000 people to be fed, it would require 237,000,000 bushels to furnish this quantity. The shortage of 27,000,000 bushels insured a fair price, 61.4 cents per bushel being the average farm value. | The States having a surplus of potatoes are the Southern and Eastern Coast States (notably Maine, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Virginia, and Florida), their market being the cities of the East and interior. The Trans-Mississippi and Nortwestern States also have a surplus. | The potato trade is a home trade. The yield is sel- dom more than is required for home consumption, and several times it has been less—as in 1902, when over 8,000,000 bushels were imported. Factors Influencing Farm Prices.—Farm prices are the net value of farm products to the producer upon delivery at the local market. Between the grower and the consumer profits must be made by the local buyer, the wholesaler, the retailer, and perhaps a broker or two, and the transportation companies. To yield a- profit to the grower the price received from the con- sumer must exceed (1) the expenses of distribution, including transportation, (2) the cost of production. It may not. The market price is Pisecspey by the law of supply and demand. In marketing live stock, cotton, grain, tobacco, and wool the main tendency is to eliminate the expensive middle man. ‘This is easier accomplished with non- perishable products than with perishable ones. There are three reasons why the expensive middle man has 158 THE POTATO been retained in the marketing of perishable prod- - ucts— 1. The extraordinary risks of depreciation. 2. Insufficient capitalization of the distribution end. 3. Absence of large-scale handling of the products. There is little consolidation in marketing potatoes. Generally speaking, selling on commission is antiqua- ted and should be abandoned, as it is the most demoral- izing feature of farming. The market is more stable when goods are bought and sold outright. An inter- esting feature is that rural districts are doing more of their own banking, so far as the financiering of the grain and some other crops is concerned, and the same will eventually be extended to potatoes. Cold storage improves prices, preventing slumps and excessively high prices, both of which are injurious. High prices inevitably lead to reduced consumption. The absence of public markets where consumer and producer can meet is a noteworthy feature of American cities and towns. Such markets have a salutary effect upon the distributor and middleman wherever they exist. ‘The useless retailers are eliminated and the service of the survivor is improved, and both producer and public are benefited. | : One important cause of this lack of system is the poor roads. Hauling-is high. It costs, onan average, 25 cents to haul a ton of produce a mile, and in many cases more. 90 per cent. of all the freight handled by the railroads is brought to them on wagons; most of itis farm produce. With team and man at $3.50 per day, the cost of hauling this freight aggregates about as much as the cost of running the railroads PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS 159 one year. It is useless to doubie the production of the farm unless we increase the facilities for market- ing the produce, and to do this it is imperative that we have good highways. In Belgium loads of farm prod- uce are hauled 60 to 70 miles in competition with the railroad. Let every farmer join the good roads’ move- ment; then he will be able to go to market with prod- uce on days when the land is too wet to work or when the price is high. How many miles will $1.25 ; haul a ton of potatoes or other farm produce on a road, 3 a trolley road, a railroad, and on water? 2 $1.25 will haul a ton 5 miles on a common earth road ; 12% to 15 miles on a well-made macadam road; 25 miles on a trolley road ; 250 miles on a steam rail- Way; 1,000 miles on a steamship. The value of cheap steamship transportation is seen t in the Eastern potato trade. The prices of potatoes are better sustained in the Central States than in the Kast- SS ern because, although the tariff of 25 cents per bushel - is an ample safeguard for the producer, as soon as potatoes are 50 cents per bushel, wholesale imports from ,- Europe and the West Indies are apt to prevent them © : from going much higher. ? The South Atlantic States, from Florida to Virginia, ; supply the early potato trade of the Eastern cities. a The water transportation enables them to handle large | quantities at low rates, and to compete with Northern | _ potatoes (old) during at least three months of the year. Modes of Selling.—1. Zhe Local Market.—This | deserves attention, as higher prices are received in it by the producer than when shipped away. | 160 THE POTATO 2. The Distant Market.—Many growers must ship. For such, combination is essential. The method adopted by the Eastern Shore potato farmers (Vir- ginia) is noteworthy. There are 2,500 shippers in the Exchange. They sell all their produce through select- ed receivers, appointed by the directors, in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The receivers charge 8 per cent. commission, of which 3 per cent. is given to the agent who solicits the business. This agent should be familiar with the market requirement and give in- structions in regard to methods of grading, assorting, and packing, and in this way render the produce more valuable. Combinations such as the following com- mend themselves: the use of the ‘‘ registered label,’’ which is similar to a ‘‘ union label,’’ and is placed on all packages, or a trade-mark similar to that used by the Farmers’ Produce Association, of Delaware, which carries the number of the shipper, and enables the selected salesman to inform the grower at once if any- thing 1s wrong. | FARMERS’ PRODUCE ASSOCIATION OF DELAWARE (27) | The contents of this package are GUARANTEED to be as good all through as on top Commission Rates.—In Cleveland potatoes are sometimes sold on a commission basis of 4 and 5 cents per bushel, or 10 per cent. of the sale price. In St. PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS I6I Louis the wholesaler purchases and makes his profit by selling to large customers and hucksters at an ad- vance of 10 cents per bushel over what they cost him in car lots. In Cincinnati the rate of commission is 3 cents per bushel. In Kansas City the brokerage for handling is 2 to 2% cents per bushel. In Richmond, Virginia, and Atlanta, Georgia, if not sold by the grower, Io per cent. is the commission. In Lincoln, Nebraska, when potatoes retail at 80 cents per bushel, the money is divided about as follows: Retailer’s share, 20 cents; wholesaler’s share, 10 cents; railroad freight, 18 cents; seller’s commission, 7 cents; net price to producer, 25 cents ; 69 per cent. of the cost to the consumer goes to pay the transporters and distributors, and 31 per cent. to the grower. At Portland, Oregon, the com- mission is 5 per cent., and the burlap sacks in which the potatoes are handled cost about 5 cents each. The retailers sell at an advance of Io to 30 cents per sack (100 pounds). At New York and Philadelphia 8 and 1o per cent. commission will find good sales- men. The producer usually receives, net, between -25 and 65 per cent. of the retail price of potatoes. Taking a number of market returns, they show that the producer’s returns are avout 63 per cent. of the price paid in the markets, and of this, in some cases, about half is paid to the railways for transportation if the goods are sent by rail, so that, then, roughly speaking, the producer, transporter, and distributor divide the customer’s money equally. The value of a local market, where the producer can sell direct to the consumer, is apparent. 162 THE POTATO Grading.—The proper grading of potatoes is essen- tial to success. Scabby, second-growth, ill-shapen, diseased, and undersized tubers must be removed from first-class grade. The grading may be done by having a sand screen on trestles set at such an angle that the potatoes roll down 1i:1to baskets at the bottom, while the dirt falls through, and the seconds and refuse are thrown into baskets or boxes on the side. Let two men sort and one shovel, and have one emptying and bagging if they go into bags. A sack-holder is a con- venience in filling the bag. The small potatoes and dirt may be removed by a potato-sorter (Fig. 49), of which there are several types on the market. Packages.— Potatoes are sold by the pound, peck, bushel, barrel, cental, and car lot. The early potatoes are shipped in barrels holding 3 bushels (180 pounds). A canvas cover is nailed on the head. Such barrels cost about 20 cents, including the cover. ‘The late crop is sometimes shipped in bulk in car lots. In the East seed potatoes are shipped in double-headed bar- rels containing 165 pounds, net. Such barrels cost, new, about 30 to 33 cents. Flour-barrels are often purchased at about 15 cents each instead. The high price of new barrels leads some to ship seed potatoes in strong burlap sacks which hold the same amount as a barrel. The sacks cost 15 to 20 cents less than the barrel. Boxes are used for shipping small quan- tities. On the Pacific Coast burlap sacks holding a cental (100 pounds), and costing 5 cents each, are | used. | Barrels.—Before filling, drive the hoops firm on the bottom and nail with shingle nails; drive on the bulge LAMUVN AWOA SHOLVLOd ONITHAAUVA UNV ONIGVUO—O6P ‘Olt Ee 164 THE POTATO hoops, and secure with 3 or 4 barrel nails; then pro- ceed to fill. The potatoes should be shaken down oc- casionally while filling, and the barrels filled full, and, if headed, the head should be put in where it belongs with a screw press, so that the potatoes cannot rattle. The head should be nailed firmly with shingle nails. - Ifin bags, sack them up well, and tie tight; or sew up, according to requirements. 3 Bushel Boxes.—¥or marketing early potatoes in the local market bushel boxes or crates are often | used. T. B. Terry uses a bushel box 13 x 16 inches and 13 inches deep, all inside measurement. The sides and bottoms are of 34-inch, and the ends are 5g-inch, white wood. Hand-holes are cut in each end, and the upper corners are bound with galvanized hoop iron to strengthen them. They cost $25.00 to $30.00 per hundred at the factory, and weigh 6 to 7 pounds each. Each box has a lid, so that in change- able weather the potatoes can be picked up and cov- ered as fast as dug. This box holds five pecks. The | legal bushel for grain is 2,150.4 cubic inches, and in measuring potatoes the rule is to heap the half-bushel measure sufficiently to add one level peck to the two level half-bushels. Five level pecks are held in 2,688 cubic inches. These boxes hold 2,700 cubic inches when level full; hence, they may be piled three or four high on a wagon. The recent introduction of a crate in which the sides fold onto the bottom when not in use reduces the amount of storage room re- quired by about two-thirds. These crates cost the same as others, and appear to be equally strong. : Advantages of a bushel box : PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS 165 . Potatoes are put in the boxes and covered as soon as dug, thus preventing them from heating in the sun. | . They are easily and quickly loaded on a wagon, saving time. . They are convenient packages in which to carry early potatoes to the home market. | . The potatoes may be left at the store in the box and delivered in the box when sold, saving handling and bruising. . When drawing the main crop to the storage-cellar they are convenient to handle. . They may be used for storing seed potatoes, apples, etc., and carrying seed potatoes to the field to be planted. CHAPTER XV CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE Composition.—Early attempts were made to deter- mine the food value of the potato by means of chemical analyses. In 1795 Pearson reported ‘‘ Experiments _ and observations on the constituent parts of the potato root.’’ Hinhof published analyses of the potato in 1805, as did Vanquelin in 1817. Rather more than fifty years ago Emmons in this country reported anal- yses. Lawesand Gilbert devoted considerable time to the study of the composition of potatoes, and more re- cently various agricultural experiment stations, nota- bly the Connecticut State and the Minnesota Agricul- tural Experiment Stations, the Division of Chemistry, U.S. D. A., and various European institutions have been investigating the problem. The approximate chemical composition of a number of varieties is: Water, 75 per cent.; protein, 2.50 per cent.; ether ex- tract, .08 per cent.; starch, 19.87 per cent!; Hare; -33 er cent.; other non-nitrogenous materials, .77 per cent.; ash, Ipercent. A more extended analysis is taken from the Vermont Experiment Station, report Igor: TABLE XII Y by ~ Fi a Se} 8 a S “ S ~ S : S & S c VV BS S| Sle ewe, 8 ees bee .s. ) Bees SS 4 ee SX |B | Chee oS Per | Per Per Per Per Per Pes Per Per Per cent. | cent. cent. cent. cent cent cent cent cent cent 79.41 20.59 cA Sia E35 166 —_- ——— CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MARKET VALUE 167 The percentage of water usually ranges between 70 and 80 per cent., the extremes being 65 and 85 per cent. Potatoes contain more dry matter than any root crop. Per cent. CERI te) ee a es 7 EG MEEMPEMS sw oe et Ge LS OO @ te Fa En NCP Se ge gs to 16 EE ES a thy ny ee Se a ee ES tO 4 DemneE Ee eg Lg we Te eS. FOTO FF Re IE 0s ie le as a el ome sO EO TS OR ic noe ee ee eg nl we a BO ESS About 85 per cent. of the matter is present in the solid portion, or marc, and 15 per cent. in the juice. It has been believed by many that the specific gravity of the tubers varied with the percentage of dry matter, and on this basis tables for ascertaining the dry matter present in the tubers from the specific gravity have ‘been worked out and used considerably. From these data the starch content was determined. Woods,’ of Maine, and Watson,’ of Virginia, found that the ratio existing between the specific gravity and the starch content is not fixed. Starch is the most important constituent of the dry matter of potatoes; it generally constitutes 15 to 20 per cent. of the fresh tubers, but may be as low as 10 or as high as 25 percent. Maine-grown potatoes are usually lower in their starch content than EKuropean- grown potatoes. The starch content varies with the _ variety and the locality. Northern-grown samples of the same variety usually contain more starch than | -Southern-grown samples. * 1 Me. Bul. 57, p. 150. 2 Va. Bul. 55, p. 102; Bul. 56, p. 144. 3 Va. Bul. 56, p. 144. . 168 THE POTATO TABLE XIII DIGESTIBILITY OF POTATOES pelt os bi g/l 8 g 3 | 83s] 28 N | FOOD A aimee? = &S S S $ " 3 XS ~S So | S | Ss] & ae = | Q 1k <) a * ; | Per | Per | der | Per | Fer Potatoes, with eggs, milk, | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. BiMP CLEAR. -nb50s sae Man | .... | s..2, | Qon@ | 9eug tee Potatoes. fant? sas. fone cae Pigs 97.0 | 84.5 Pie 82.0 | 98.1 | 44.6 Potatoes, COOKE 4 (5 icsecwd Pigs | 95.0 | 82.0] .... | 80.0 | 97.6 | 40.0 Potatoes dried 2 and ground.| Sheep| 80.1 | . 81.5 | 19.5 | 92.0 The above data show that potatoes are almost wholly digestible. Feeding Value.—When abundant and low in price, potatoes may be fed to all classes of stock. In France, Girard fed 55 to 66 pounds of cooked potatoes per day to fattening steers and 4% to 6% pounds to sheep. Von Funke’ found uncooked potatoes were good for all stock except pigs. He fed 60 pounds of raw potatoes, 6 pounds of linseed meal, and 9 pounds of clover hay, with salt, per 1,000 pounds, live weight, per day to fat- tening steers. For milch cows, 25 pounds daily per 1,000 pounds, live weight, is the limit. For yearlings, ewes, and wether sheep, 25 pounds per 1,000 pounds, live weight, per day is advised, and fattening sheep, 40 pounds. For horses, about 12 pounds per 1,000 pounds, live weight, may be given with other food. Stock should not be watered soon after feeding pota- toes, but preferably about half an hour before feeding. Potatoes’ are not a valuable food for young animals, 1 Snyder, Minn. Bul. 42, pp.89,90. ? Kellner, et a7, E.S.R., XIV., p. 595. SS Ve See. * Minn. Bul. 42, p. 95. Seer ~~ * CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE 169 as they are deficient in protein and ash—hence, should not be fed to growing cattle under two years old, lambs, or young pigs, unless in very small amounts, with other food to balance the ration. At Wisconsin Experiment Station,’ hogs ate cooked potatoes better than uncooked, and 445 pounds of cooked potatoes were equal to 1oo pounds of corn-meal in feeding value. One pound of dry matter of corn is superior to one pound of dry matter of potatoes for making gains with pigs. Cooking.—In cooking potatoes a considerable portion of the albumen may be lost. Peeled potatoes started in cold water lost 80 per cent. of albumen, while those started in hot water lost but Io per cent. Less is lost if the potatoes are not peeled. Salt should be added to potatoes, because the mineral matter they con- tain is deficient in sodium salts, which are requisite for the human system, and because salt increases the pala- tability. Varieties vary in the time they require to cook, and even soil and climatic conditions have an influence. Ina floury, mealy potato the starch grains have swollen and burst, and ruptured the cell-walls surrounding them, while in a soggy potato this has | not taken place. Potatoes showing second growth will not cook uniformly; the last-grown portion will cook first. When second: growth takes place the starch passes from the older portion to the new; hence, when cooked, the older portion appears to be hard and dark, while the newer portion is white and floury, the difference being due to the presence or absence of starch. 1 Wis. Seventh Annual Report, 1890, and Henry, ‘‘ Feeds and Feeding,” fi. 212. , 170 THE POTATO Uses.— Potatoes are used as human food, stock food, for the manufacture of starch,’ syrup, alcohol, dextrin, etc.. Potatoes may be preserved as ensilage’ for stock feeding, while the pomace’ resulting from starch manu- facture and potato feed * have received attention for the same purpose. Potatoes may be dessicated, and in this form can be easily preserved in the tropics and arctic regions, and thus furnish an excellent article of diet in a convenient form for transportation. The in- dustry is small at present, but can be readily extended. 1U.S8. D. A. Div. of Chemistry, Bul. 58. 2U.S. D. A. Farmers’ Bul. 79, p. 21. 3 Me. Sta. Report, 1896, p. 28. Bul. 65, p. 115. 4-Vt, Buls'82, p. 72. yrs Pe CHAPTER XVI BREEDING AND SELECTION—PROPAGATION AND BREEDING POTATOES are propagated from seed, cuttings, lay- ers of green shoots, sprouts from the eyes of tubers, or portions of the tubers containing a bud or eye. About the beginning of the eighteenth century Shirreff, of England, wrote that ‘‘ the potato is to be considered a short-lived plant,’’ and that ‘‘ the only way to obtain ' vigorous plants and to insure productive crops is to have frequent recourse to new varieties raised from seed.’’ Dr. Hunter and T. A. Knight held the same views. T. A. Knight stated that late planting tended to re- ‘invigorate a degenerating variety.’ The value of rais- ing new varieties from seed is recognized to-day, and for their production some modern breeders select as parents two varieties, which in most qualities bear close — resemblance to each other, avoiding the use of oppo-_ sites, the claim being that it is easier to fix the type. Others, including Burbank and Garton, make crosses between widely divergent types, although it takes longer to fix the ones they select and there 1s a lower percentage worthy of a trial. There is, however, more chance of obtaining something above the average. Wide crosses act upon the characters in the plant in a manner similar to a vigorous push on the pendulum of a clock—it goes higher on each side: plants of higher 1 Miller’s ‘*Gardeners’ Dictionary,’’ ed. 1807, ‘‘ Potatoes,’’ and Don’s ‘Gardeners’ Dictionary,” 1831-38, Vol. IV., pp. 400-406. 171 172 THE POTATO value and plants of lower value than either parent are secured. A plant of high value is secured and grown for a period of years in order to fix it. Those who have regarded the valuable characters which led to the selection of the individual as fixtures from the beginning claim that this period of fixing is solely for the pur- pose of elimination of the undesirable characters, and _ that it ought to be termed ‘‘the elimination period”’ rather than ‘‘ the fixing period.’’ The interrelationship of different qualities is not well known, but it has been noted that a variety having a few thick stalks yields large tubers, but few in number, while a number of weak stalks is often found with a number of small tubers. Early ripening and resistance to blight or rot (Phytophthora infestans) are not generally found to- gether. It is claimed that a large production of seed- balls goes hand in hand with a small production of tubers. T. A. Knight claimed that varieties which did not bloom readily could beinduced to do so by removal of the soil from round the tuber-bearing stems, the ex- planation offered being that the plant’s failure in tuber production would stimulate the production of seed.’ In pollenizing varieties artificially the stamens should be removed from the female parent with fine pin- cers just as the bloom opens, or before, and the flower enclosed in a paper or gauze bag. The proper time to apply the pollen is known by the moist appearance of the stigma. The pollen from the desired variety should be dusted on the stigma on two or three successive days. The bag may be removed when the stigma dies 1 Philosophical Transactions, 1806. BREEDING AND SELECTION 173 and the bloom withers. The fruit, or seed-ball, may contain from 100 to 300 seeds. "These are washed from the ripe seed-balls, dried, and at the proper season sown under glass, or in a hot-bed, or out-of-doors in FIG. 50—POTATO FLOWER, WITH CALYX AND COROLLA REMOVED . On the left are shown the anthers closed round the pistil. On the right the anthers are expanded, pistilnotshown The inner surfaces of the anthers show the line where rupture occurs when the pollen is liberated. Gener- ally this occurs only near the upper portion of the anther. = flats. The seeds germinate rapidly. Later they are transplanted to a well-prepared piece of land outside. The distance apart varies with different growers—from 12 X12 to 26x 26 inches, andsometimes more. ‘The up- right stem bears leaves and the axils of the first leaves bear shoots, which turn downward into the ground and bear tubers. ‘The old idea that the first year’s a 174 THE POTATO crop consist of small tubers, the next larger, and so on, does not always hold, as a tuber weighing over ‘ a i \ B= Noh ae i" “f : seven ounces has been produced the first year. The Burbank potato was full size the first year it was grown from seed, and many breeders feel that unless the tubers are of edible size the first year they are not likely to be worth fur- ther care. Frequently the tubers do not reach full size until the second year.’ The tubers from each plant must be kept separate, the best selected and planted again. The distance apart varies be- tween 26x12 and 4ox 40 inches. Wider plant- ing permits the study of the individual. The third, fourth, and fifth year field culture is given, FIG. 5I1—PISTIL OF POTATO FLOWER, SHOWING THE PARTS a—Stigma, where pollen is applied. 6—Style, down which the pollen tube goes to the ovary, c, where it fertilizes the ovule, which become the seeds (see Fig. 3). d—Attachment of stamens, removed to prevent self-fertilization. é—Petals, partly torn away to expose ovary. /—Sectional view of calyx. and a variety may be found worthy of a name and further trial before distribution. The breeder’s aim is to produce varieties which excel in productivity, power to resist diseases, earliness, quality, percentage 1 Minn. Bul. 87, p. Io. 6 “Ai f eee Bae baie BREEDING AND SELECTION 175 of starch, and have other desirable characteristics—as, suitable shape, color, depth of eyes, etc. Selection.—Hybridizing is of small value unless attended by careful selection and vigorous elimination of the poorer types. All potatoes tend to vary in cul- tivation, either to improve or degenerate. This varia- tion is more marked in some plants than in others; - hence, once a variety is established, the yield may be materially increased and the rapid deterioration of the variety prevented by selection of the best plants. Selection must be made in the field, not from the bin. The whole plant. must be considered, not a single tuber. Goff’ showed that by perpetuating the most productive and least productive plants of Snowflake potatoes the total yield of the most productive one for two years was 322 ounces, while that of the least pro- ductive was but 100 ounces, and, summarizing fourteen years’ trials, the most productive plants yielded 180 per cent. more than the least productive. Bolley, at North Dakota, found that ‘‘equal weight pieces from small or large tubers of the same vine are of equal value, provided all are normally mature,’’* confir- matory evidence that the whole plant is the unit of selection. 3 | Growers may at least maintain the productivity of their stocks of potatoes by careful selection of the best plants when digging, careful storage of these tubers, and then using all of them for seed. These might be planted by themselves on a piece of good land, and se- 1(N. Y.) Geneva Report, 1887, p. 85. Wis. Report, 1899, p. 306. 2N. D. Bul. 30, p. 243. 176 THE POTATO lections made from them at the following harvest, the best plants being again retained for the nursery plat and the balance used as seed. A. Girard,’ one of the foremost potato growers of France, selects his potatoes every year from those hills whose foliage is especially luxuriant. He uses the variety Richter’s Imperator, and prepares the soil to a depth of 12 to 16 inches, giving a liberal applica- tion of barn-yard manuré and fertilizers, acid phos- phate, sulphate of potash, and nitrate of soda. He selects, for planting, tubers weighing from 3% to 4 ounces. When he cannot get such, he recommends that tubers of 7 ounces in weight be cut in two, and tubers of 10% ounces into three pieces—always cutting in the direction of the greatest length. He insists on the rejection of all potatoes weighing more than 11 ounces. If the potatoes available for planting weigh less than 3% ounces he places in each hill several smaller tubers, enough to bring the total weight to about 4 ounces. He lays great stress on the distance between the plants; the rows are 24 inches apart and the tubers are planted 19 inches in the rows, these dis- tances having been determined to be best by careful experiment. He advises early planting, as soon as danger from frost is past. The crop should be well worked and all potatoes kept covered, and the tops well sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, and the crop not dug until all of the tops have withered. Farmers in the co-operative experiments under his dire¢tion report yields of 400 to 700 bushels per acre as common, and 2E. S. R., V., p-H7. ae * 7 | BREEDING AND SELECTION _ 197 er.3 53 bushels per acre with a starch content 25 per cent. One farmer secured almost uunds of starch per acre, probably one of the | - yields of carbohydrates ever obtained from an and. : : 7 ~ 4 - - x ~ "7 | * ~ > 2 > . - * - a i e pf . i - t “Tg Pi _ } :. , ie Pg ¥ f -— APPENDIX Spray Calendar | First | Second Spray | | Lees | am ———— OO ei gt 5 to a) 7 to 14 Fourth | Mixture eet Spraying Spraying | Early Bor- When Blight deaux plants days days days mixture | are 4 to later later later 6 in. tall te Asoc As Pad Blight eaux early 2 mixture | blight on. de. da. Rosette /|Treat the seed es a es ee Flea- Bor- When | Repeat | As for beetle deaux | beetles | if neces-| rand 2 mixture | appear sary Colorado! Paris When Repeat | As for Potato- | greenor! beetles | if neces-| 1 and 2 beetle other appear sary or arsenites ““Bugs’’ | in Bor- and deaux Blister- | mixture beetles or old- fashion- 5 ed Potato bug Grass- Paris When | Repeat hopper /|greenor| they if neces- other appear sary arsenites in Bor- deaux mixture REMARKS Up to 7 spray- ings are some- times given A deterrent only I pound Paris green per acre in 100 gallons or more of Bor- deaux mixture. Arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons. Arsenite of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons. Green arsen- oid I pound per Ioo gallons. As for Colo- rado beetle 179 180 THE POTATO Seed Treatment Disease | Treatment Scab 2. © « o's + « 904k uncut seed race pound to 30 gallons of water, for two hours; then dry and plant on scab-free soil.. Rosette (Rhizoctonia) . As for scab. Dry Rot. . . «+ « . « Diseased tubers’ to be Gears those in contact with them to be treated as for scab and sprayed as for blight. Wet Rot (due to Blight or Bacteria) . . . . Have seed potatoes in such storage that they can be examined, and these tubers sorted out and de- stroyed. Do not plant affected tubers. Soaking them in forma- lin, as for scab, is advisable in some cases, depending on the cause, _ Stem Rot or Dry End Rot (Fusarium oxyspo- yum)... ». « «'s . It attacks the stem-end frst; fence, cutting off this end of suspected tubers will reveal the disease. Discard diseased tubers. INDEX Acid Phosphate ..... eee Ammonium Salts as Fertilizers 31 32, 42, 47, 119 Area in Potatoes in 1899 . . 153, 156 ~ 2 a e eir ae a 156 DEO 2 6 5. eee’ 1 Arsenate of Lead..... 135, 137 Arsenical Poisoning . . . . 123, 127 meeemiomstxide . . .. . se 136 Arsenite of Lead. . . . 135, 137, 138 PE oS a 135, 138 en oo Se Se Se 135 Available ee Acid... 6 puerera tserul .......- 40, 41 Bacterial Diseases ....... 122 0 OS 161, 162 Barium Arsenite ........ 1 Barn Manure .. . 36, 37, 44, 46, 119 Amounts used Set es ern 162, 164 1 eS ee 162 Ll) OS 162 Bermuda RR ng re 4, & Black Death. . 135 ee Early, or ‘Leaf Spot Dis- - tt a es 118, 178 Gee or Rot. 112, 113-117, 121, 178 Blister Beetles ....... 127, oe Ls ay a ee eae "4. Encouraging ..... 72 Blossoming 16, 172 a Dust, or oe Bor- - Bordeaux Mixture . 115, 118, 118, 123 28, 131 Benefits from Use of . 115, 118,124 131, 132 for Flea-beetles...... 123, 124 Do Ree ey eee 129 ereng ih of Solution. .... 130 ce Sg a i aa 130 eS ee oe 1-7 Boxes. . 162 Bushel . 164, 165. ll LD Doe Se ee 171 Ss ae 29 as a Cover Crop . ae ina ap ee eer 29 TiS ee rae = PAGE Bugs, or Potato Beetle. . . 124, 125 eg Blackening, or Dry End SEO cc et nen 5 122,179 Bushel WeIeht.éf a... 1 fe 162 Calcium, Influence of .. . 35, 36 CGnilese iri SS ae ee ee es 138 Carbon Bisulphide i SAE. KN 126 iastor Pome. 3 23 wa 32 Cellars, Construction of .... 149 cog. er mina es 149, 150 Temperature of ..... 150, 152 Ventilationof.... .... 150 Chloride, Calcium, injurious... 34 Chlorides, Injurious to Growth, 34, 43 Varieties with Heavy Foliage Readily Injuredby..... 34 Climate, Influence of. . 8, 66, 111 Clover, Value for Plowing Un- at? cick ee ee 27, 28 Lt Tagine pete caer ein Seay 27 een 2. Bo eS 27, 28 POG wir a a. ee te eae Clover, Influence on Yield... 27 OS = ae ere 153, 158 UM Cee SE ie aes ae ee 76 Colorado Beetle ...... 124, 125 Commission Rates. .... 160, 161 Composition, Chemical 132, 166, 167 Influenced by Spraying... . 1382 Consumption of Potatoes . 156, 157 Sa ee epee tp se 169. 170 bk Baie ne ares 9h 2." 70, 72-74 Co-operative Methods of Mar- PRE ok wk ciate Aes tet 160 Copper Arsenite. ....... 138 PMOIAEES wos swe 128, 129 Cottonseed-meal....... 32, 48 Pest Gk Saline. oS ns cae 161 aver (roe. oc oa ence 28, 29 Cow-peas, Value for Plowing Under Crepidodera cucumeris, or Flea- beet Crop Producing Power of Soil SIRE 5s 50s es a 18 So a tee ee A ee ee Se ee SEAR es lc 105-109 Ree ie soe) on es ee 107 Tees Used ta... -. 650-03 s 107 Cultivations, Number of. . 105, 106 181 182 INDEX PAGE PAGE Calture, Laver. 2 as es 107 Fertilizers, Purchasing . 42, 43, 44,45 SPECIES We goa eG ce eee 106 Value of Home Mixing of... 46 Cntworms Soo S40" Viae eee 127 Valuable .. . .37, 38, 40, 176, 177 Fixing New Vari ieties .... . 172 TIChIOS <<: 5. 6s Wha Darwin's Potato. . 24 i. yea 1 Flavor . :: i37aeeeee 60, 74 Date of Planting. ........ 96 Flea-beetle. .... 82, 114, 118. 123 Depth of Planting ...... 93-96 Punctures Injurious . . 82, 114, ee Influence on Quality. .... 96 Flowers...) 40 see Influence on Tuber Forma- Formalin. . .. . . 69, 118, 119, 122 TOR, cn oye ae) Bt ae 94, 95 Too Strong a Solution Injuri- Dessicated Potatoes. ..... 17 OUS \.°. 2 Sia a ee 69 Digestibility of Potatoes. . .. 168 Fungicides .:.0/.: 22. eee 128 Diggers, Mechanical . 144-146 Fusarium oxysporum . . . 122, 179 Digging the Grop..... 117, 1438 Methods... .. 3)... 143,14 Disease Resistance Required in Gelechia_Operculella Zell., Po- & Varieny 3s ac 2i5 tees tato Worm "125. 126 Relation of Temperature to. 9 Good Roads. Valueof .. . 158. 159 Disease-resisting Varieties . 75, 116 - , A isk Hasow 33. 24 Grading Potatoes ...... . 162 Disparene. too. oe 135, 137 ewan ee ee = Distance Apart awe ta) ete. eo a 91-93 Green Arsenoid Pathe 135 138 Doryphora decemlineata, or Po- Bee Conditions Influenc- tato Beetle..." . =o 124, 125 is 8, 16, 30 juncta, or Southern Potato Effect of Chlorides on. . 34 % Beetle... .....-.-.. a a Influence of Dry Weatheron. 9 vd pgs Ue i onan eee , 1 : Manuring, <3 ee 30 ae OOE, oa eS pets 1 Influence of Respirationon. 9 pe = a ad hee ae 106 Influence of Time of, on Fer- ry End Rot.......... 122 tilizing . 2°23 ee ee 31 Dry Rot...... see La ees 122 Obstructionsto .... .111, 127 Period. of...) > \oecomeeene 14, 31 grid BSWONG 255 poe ee 118, 179 Ensilage Potato. |... 11. 1% © Habitat of Potato... . i Epicauta-vitatta........ 127 Hammond’sSlug Shot... .. 135 Epitrix subcrinata, or Flea- Harrow, Acme. ........ 23 beetle 252 Bs Bae 124. Disk . . 2 2-55 Sea ee 24 Yés pee 6 pee four «nek lene Soa 107 Devth d Fre of. aL “9 pring-tooth: 2s Sie S 23, 24 eee eee Ge Siigy " Hatrows, Action of, on thé Soil” 2 Petey ae 8 Methods of. 7 aa auling Farm Produce 158, 159 ‘ : Cost of . 2°. Shee 158, 159 You Posto’ Ga ee Haul. 34, 71, 80, 81 Feeding Potatoes to Stock .168, 169 Hellebore .........., 13 Wahie 92 se. Sa 168, 169 Hillmg .-..-.- 9.5; 14, 16 Werpalizers 200°. 260.5% 30, 31, 37-40 Jime Of. < -°5) (= eae 16 Amounts Used... . . 30, 37, 38 Hills . 3. 106 Applyme.: .)..) & eee Humus, A Food for Bacteria | 41 Compoundine 6. Te 32: 46 Etfects es eee sical Proper- ies oO e Sell.) .= =. Se a pee sn Soils. ai, 41, 42 . £eBCION OF = oy 2 ee 39-41 Influence of Tillage on. . . . Important Ingredientsin . 42, 43 Influence on Depth of Plowing 21 Influence of Period of Growth Influence on Soil Moisture . . 23 epee the Necessary. ... 31 Hybridizing ........ 171-178 PRPTE EE 5. Seeger 46, 47 Poor Mixtures Gf 2... 22.05% 47, 48 Profit from Use of. ... . 37, 38 Imports of Potatoes ...... 157 INDEX 183 PAGE PAGE ne 135, 136 Nitrogen of Barn Manure ..._ 36 Insuluble Phosphate of Lime . 48 Requirement oe NOURE. 31 Introduction into Virginia . ee Sourcesof ... 2 - 31, 42 MMOMNISIOSIIG. ne a em one INI ie Sa Sie 141, 142 Irrigation, Amount of Water 7 SS Ree at 48, 49 IGE in ee Organic Nitrogen of Fertilizers 42 EM oe 48,49 Oospora scabies (Thax.), Scab, 119, 121 2 2 Yi ee eee 126 Paclkepees ee oboe Sse 161 Paraprene | oS sks ce?» eee es Paris Green . . 124, 125, 127, 135, 136 eee 43, 48, te Amount touse... .. . 125,127 oS for Flea-beetles . . . 124 for Potato Beetles ...... 125 Peas in Rotims..- 0535s se yf oS oe Se 126 Phosphatic Fertilizers . 35, 42, 43, 47 oS 97 Effect on Maturity . 35 LaurelGreen ....... 135, 138 Phosphorie Acid, Influence of. 35 — 2 =e 71, 81, 82, 114, 131, 132 of Rust-resistant Varieties of Wheat Spot Disease, or Early Blight 118, 178 Value of a Tough, Hard. . 81, 82 ievelCulture ....... 06, 107 0 106 Light, Influence on Yield . . 8 Me 35, 36, 41, 119, 128 _. JU >, 2 41, 128 re 31, 32 Rendon lure... ..... 135 Loss of Potatoes in Storage 151, 152 Macrosporium solani, or Early PP ers Sk 118, 178 CS ee ae 30, 36, 37, 44 Amounts Applied ..... 36, 37 Weenie 30 UMN ee le 44-46 Manuring, Reasonsfor..... 30 Marketing, Costof ..... 160, 161 od ee 157, 158 Lol Se eee 157, 160 __ 1 7 | Seton a gaa Pe cern 159, 161 Maturity, Timeof.... . 71, 79, 80 Melanoplussp. ....... . 126 Mexican Potato 1 Moisture, Conservation of Soil, 22, 23 Sermenee OF... ... 2... ... 8 mae Sol : =’. 106, 109 Mulching RN ee a opin was so 110 Nitrate of Soda. . . 31, 32, 42, 47, 48 Meecton Buds .:...... 69 Nitrates... . ee ek ne 42 Nitrogen .. Seen eh, ol, 4a Effect of Excess | Sy a aS 31 Influence of. . mie: |! Occurrence in Fertilizers Sea eae ee infestans, Blight OF RiOh mes oe! ee 112-117, 121 Paes. | aa oee eee 147-149 Pimply Potatoes .... .../. >> 1 Pmk Arsenoid =. (02° 5.5 135, 137 Pees 2 ee ie ee 100-104 eee 2 tae es 100, 101 em i ee a ks 101- 104 Plante, Date of -.. ...0 23. 96, 97 Sah te ee 14, 93-96 Distance Apart... .. . .’. 91-93 Wary pnd Babe’: o-S . 97 2 Agha ERP ance 59, 97-100 Influence of Depth on Depth at which Tubers Form. . Influence of pa of, on 94-96 MAGS er Se ies 96 ~- Methods of . . . 59, 97-100 Plow, Potato or Swed ss. 2) 5% 144 Plowing baa aa iaine, 2 tliat 21-23 Conditions Governing . 21, 22 Ree So. Get Adee ae 21, 42 eee 8s BO nk Re 21, 22 MG es re Se eee 21 ne: So Ue ae ae 22 ee ee Si Se ke ek ee 3, 172 Pollenizing b Me Ma” inatig SO eee Te 172 Pmance, Pus |... oS re 170 Potash, Amounts Applied. . 35, 38 Inlaimce of Ss 31, 33 BESEPOWES SL os Se 32 ie I i oe 5 aes 33, 34 RRA, oo a corde a ae a2, 33 on Starch Formation . . 33, 34 ne RS ko ea, Go 32, 33 Muriate of. . . . 33, 34, 38, 43. 119 Amounts Used. ...... 38 BHHECES Hi. oh ce ee Sulphate of Potassie Fertilizers .....: 4 Potassium Ferro-Cyanide ... 130 Potate Beetle. 2s s+ --. 124, 125 Bug, Old Fashioned . 127. 178 184 INDEX PAGE PAGE POESCO; BOGR ssa) +e ss ee 5,6,173 Seed, Methods of Storing + 3 oe Statik Weevil Ve a. we ee 126 Northern and Southern | . “51 POG TROD 8 oF tat hha Oe ee 125, 126 Relation of Number of Stalks Preparation of Land. .... 21-23 to the Eyeson... (7. 62, 63 Pressure Required for Spraying. 140 Relation of Weight to Viabil- Prices, Average... sa a 153 ity of .-.°.° 72 ee Waris. oun te te oe 157 Single Eyes. 1.0 2 gee in Eastern and Central States. 159 mize Of ... Cee 61-65, 67, 175 PROGBCHO St et ee: 153-157 Source of. .°3).« so. une 51 Propaeaeete cos. 3.) nce os 5 Wal! sprouting . si. so. eee 53-60 PURER Ae peace 0,5) 2 yim oe es hae 140 Time to-Cut 1°. 06 eee 61 fe Saat Oe sfaaee ao ses of Second Crop for 52 Quality, Cooking 7 ee ee 70 Viability of ... Ps eee oe of patos of Tubers a WholeandCut ..... 60-63, 65 Quick Death 220) 185 Seinetion Ce ae "ht5 Shape of Tuber. 21,) 28 5, fi, 70 Rainfall, Amount Sufficient . 48, 49 Shovel, Potato... ...... 147 Rape asa Cover Crop..... Size of Tubers, Variation in xe) Respiration .°.¢.. 6.5° 2.40% 9, 10, 152 a ee eee ee . 5, 71, 8, xe Influence of Temperatore Crecied |. = a rr b4 . : esirable )< 2.23 = eee 78 a ales coe ari esi on Soil Moisture, Conservation of hovts 23.03 SS le eee 6, 10, 55 : 22, Characterof -.... 022% 11,14,15 Soils... ......-. 1i-25, 158 Depth Of oo eet 41, 14,15 Changesin. . .. 1. ee Effects of Tillageon..... 14 Chemical Composition and Rosette Disease ...... 118, 179 Crop Producing Power of . 30 Rot, or Late Blight . 112, 113-117, 121 Composition of New York. 39 Rotation . 26-29, 116, 118, 119, 121, 127 Diminished Crop Producing Factors dm ...\ 20,24 26, 27, 50 Power of... eae Wine CGlSe hc ee 26 Ingredients Removed by Pota- Hour-coursé 2.05. 2 De 26 toesfrom ........ 39, 40 Leguminous Cropsina . . 27, 28 Preparation Of ..:. 07 2) ee 21-23 Rie es ee, ea 26 Relationship of Varieties to 19, Cilia, co. 2-5 Gide: eee, 5 a7 Sandy Loam... ...... Three-Course . 6/24 .. 435.245 139 Effect of Insufficient Amount. 104 Pump... 272322) eee 140 Importance of a Good Strain Tanks . 03. @ eee 144 Oe i BE oe oes 51, 53 Time of. . uc. 22a eee 134 Proper Storageof .... 52, 53 Sprayings, Number of . . . 134, 135 >. Selection 3°... Ges 52,774,175 Sprays and Spraying . 128-142 Influence of Altitude jae Spring-tooth Harrow .. . . 23, 24 Management Previous’ to Starch .31, 72, 73, 78, 132, 167, 170, 177 Pree aro oe eave cee 53 Content and Specific Gravity . 167 Disease-resisting. ...... 76 INDEX 185 PAGE PAGE Starch, Distribution in the Tuber Varieties, Duplication and Re- 72, 73, 78 pr oh eee een ee 85, 86 Spro@uction. ..... 31, 132, 17 Pane Rew eg See 172 a ee 122, 179 Importance of New...... 171 SER ek ee ks 52, 143-152 Improvement in. ...... 84 Weemars -. 5... se ee 149, 150 Influence of Soil and Condi- “_. 21 ee eee 147-149 1A WI eee 19, 87 Remetes WS 143, 151, 152 Influence of, on Yield .... 75 Temperature for . 53, 151, 152 Lite of Moder. *. jon es: 83 Striped Blister Beetle ..... 127 tite or iter. soo 83, 84 CRM Om hs 20, 21 Seer Ge ae ee ~ 88-90 SRE See ew 120 Most Popular”... .°...-> 5 87-90 0 8 2s Se eee 111 Stayin, Power, of).- <2: 45¢ 83 Sweet Clover asaGreen Manure, 28 Teniange. so S553 os eee 86 True to--Name\ 27 s.4 2-2 85 True be Type eo eS Ay wee 72 0) 0 SS ee soe Variety, Selectinga ..... 70-90 a Ds a Variationinthe ..... . 52-54 a 14, 42, 105, 106, 108 Viability of Tubers. .. . . - 66-69 pg oo wlhe! Sa. et ow pa Vigor of the Plant . 71, 82-85, 118 epee air eee 106 Indications of Deficiency i in. 84, 85 ee 14, 195, 109 ls 2 Sei ene 42 es SS 111, 112 Washing Soda and Copper Sul- Tobaceo Leaf Miner . . . . 125, 126 plate Misture~. :S.. 2 7). 131 . Toolsfor Cultivation. . . . 107-109 Water, Available. :. . .°. .-.-. purrece-fittme:. ....... 23 Requirement. ..... 33, 48-50 Domes WOE. os es ke 127 Effect of Fertilizerson... 33 Transportation, Cost of . . 159 Per Pound of Dry Matter . 50 WO 2 2 159 URS AS rect. oe oe te ee 108 Dypieetee nS ee 158, 159 WiMean Inmmrams Sk Se 105 OE ee 159 ke Se Se ee ae 121, 122 we 54, 60 Whale Oil Soa -.65)< OS 136 Trichobaris trinotata..... 126 Wheat, Depth at which Roots Tuber Formation . 6, 16, 54,55, 94 Rees. Se ee ee 15 95, 172 Varieties Resistant to Rust. 82 0 54, 55, 94, 95 White Arsenoid ..... . oedee ne 172 EAM rg ree Ne ad ee SS 1 Te) 54, 55 ONS roa re ee 127 TamereeeeIOW. 2... 2... 74 Ge: ASR ee 8 ee 43,119 Number Formed by a Plant. 7 Rate of Growthof...... 16 Size of Seedling. .... 173, 174 Yield. . 7, 14, 26-28, 70, 74, 75, 84, 87 Type, Varieties Not True to . 72, 85 132, 134, 153 PAPI ig oS dt en ade pe 74, 153 Effects of Sprouting Upon. .. 58 Unit Value of Fertilizers. ... 44 ean of a Crop of Clover » Uses of Potatoes. ....... ee) PO ee os ee ue Se egos ,28 ialiaciiee of Light Upon... 8 Influence of Soil on. . . 19, 20, 87 Wame per Acre... ...... 153 Influence of Spraying on. 132, 134 Varieties . . 19, 51, 72, 75, 76, 83-90 Influence of the Variety 171-174 RiOER rs ask SP eae os et Breeding New :..... 171-174 je ie erties OS oma iB STANDARD BOOKS ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO 52 & 54 Lafayette Place Marquette Building 00% sent to all parts of the world for catalog price. Discounts for large quantities on appli- cation. Correspondence invited. brief descriptive catalog free. Large illustrated catalog, six cents::: RECENT BOOKS BY THOMAS SHAW Professor of Animal Husbandry at the University of Minnesota, formerly Professor of Agriculture at the Ontario agricultural College. Animal Breeding The most complete and comprehensive work ever published on the subject of which it treats, and the first book of the kind ever given to the world which has systematized the subject of animal breeding. The striking originality in the treatment of the subject is no less con- spicuous than the superb order and regular sequence of thought from the beginning to the end of the book. Illustrated. 5x8 inches, 13 full-page plates, about 400 pages, $1.50. The Study of Breeds : Origin, history, distribution, characteristics, adaptability, uses, and standards of excellence of all the pedigreed breeds of cattle, sheep, and swine in America. The accepted text-book in colleges, and the authority for farmers and breeders. 387 pages, 5 x 8 inches, 60 full- page plates. $1.50. Forage Crops Other than Grasses How to cultivate, harvest, and use them. Indian corn, sorghum, clover, leguminous plants, crops of the brassica genus, the cereals, millet, field roots, etc. Intensely practical and reliable. 295 pages. Illustrated. 5x8 inches. $1.00. Soiling Crops and the Silo The growing and feeding of all kinds of soiling crops, conditions to which they are adapted, their plan in the rotation, etc. Best methods of building the silo, filling it, and feeding ensilage. Illustrated. 5 x 8 inches, 378 pages. $1.50. ; i Swine Husbandry By F. D. Copurn. New, revised, and enlarged editition. A practical manual for the breeding, rearing, and management of swine, and the revention and treatment of their diseases. In preparing this work it has been the object of the author to condense in one volume, from all available sources, the ideas and conclusions of the most practical, successful, and observant men who have followed the business in our time, and in our own country, acting upon the belief that no one man, or any half-dozen men, know all there is worth knowing on a subject so extensive and important as that of Swine Husbandry. It is the fullest and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet offered. Cloth, 1z2mo. Illustrated. $1.50. Home Pork Making The art of raising and curing fides onthe farm. By A. W. FULTON. A complete guide for the farmer, the country butcher, and the suburban dweller, in all that pertains to hog slaughtering, curing, preserving, and storing pork product—from scalding vat to kitchen table and dining-room. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 5a cents. Shepherd’s Manual By HENRY STEWART. A practical treatise on the sheep for Ameri- can farmers and sheep-growers. The results of personal experience of many years with the characters of the various modern breeds of sheep, and the sheep-raising capabilities of the United States and Canada—and the careful study of the diseases to which our sheep are chiefly subject, with those by which they may eventually be afflicted through unforeseen accidents—as well as the methodsof management | called for under our circumstances, are here gathered, Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. $1.00. Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Allied Vegetables By C. lL. ALLEN. A practical and reliable guide to the successful raising of cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, collards, Brussels sprouts, kale, and kohlrabi, from ‘‘ seed to harvest.’’ Illustrated. 5x8 inches, 128 pages. Cloth. 5o0cents. Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters, and Live Fences By E. P. POWELL. The planting, growth, and managemeut of hedge plants for country and suburban homes, Illustrated. 5x 8 inches, 140 pages. Cloth. 5o0cents. Landscape Gardening By F. A. WauGH. 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The fact that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil; that without reseeding, it goes on yielding two, three, four, and sometimes five cuttings annually for five, ten, or perhaps 100 years; and that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious forage plants known, makes reliable infor- mation uponits production and uses of unusual interest. Such in- formation is given in this volume for every part of America, by the asi > authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5x7inches. Cloth. 50 cents. Coburn’s Swine Husbandry By F. D. CoBURN. New, revised, and enlarged edition. The breed- ing, rearing, and management of swine, and the prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the fullest and freshest compen- dium relating to swine breeding yet offered. Illustrated. 312 pages. 5x7inches. Cloth. $1.50. The Cereals in America By THomMAS F. Hunt, M.S D. Agr., Professor of Agronomy in Col- lege of Agriculture, Cornell University. 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A practical guide to the picking, storing, shipping, - and marketing of fruit. The principal subjects covered are the fruit market, fruit picking, sorting and packing, the fruit storage, evapo- rating, canning, statistics of the fruit trade, fruit package laws, com- mission dealers and dealing, cold storage, etc., etc. No progressive _ fruit grower can afford to be without this most valuable book. Illus- trated. 232 pages. 5x7inches. Cloth. $1.00. The American Sugar Industry By HERBERT MyRIck. A practical manual on the production of Sugar Beets and Sugar Cane, and on the manufacture of Sugar there- from. A handbook for the farmer, manufacturer, statesman, or stu- dent. ‘Shis book is the only complete, up-to-date epitome of this new and promising industry. It covers just the points that every one in- terested wants to know about. It illustrates and describes the newest model sugar mills. It gives the results of the latest experience in promoting and operating sugar factories. 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