uc- NRLF 'i p 1 1 i!{i n III !i 11 1 ! II! 1 1 II ! 1 11 ii ll nil 11 III II il i 1 ll 1 i 11 i 1 B 3 im M2=i JHH ■^^^1 V| '■■• 1', -I t . f. 1, ■■, ■■,-■■■ v!v<" '.-''''''■rV ' ' -^ ' ^HLuv|\'i lit'' i'", : ;'' -:;iK.' ■':;'■';: :'■;■:.,: ■:::. l^''v/--v:-:,"„ ':':';;; hfxk. ■ ]'■: '': '■''{'... ■I ','.'1' , • . ' ■ - :cRic. DlPT. n MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ORONO, MAINE. CHAS. D. WOODS, Director -«a>^— «■■« POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT ORONO, MAINE. February, 1911. ;•'»-;■ M wiJCI 4^> ' v398-12-10) MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ORONO, MAINE. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT Compiled by Raymond Pearl, Frank M. Surface, and Maynie R. Curtis. OROXO, -MAINE. February, 191 i. Copyright, 191 i BY Maine AGRicn/ruRAr. Expkriment Station. • r * • '- : : • 4 This publication is mailed free to residents of Maine. To others the price is twenty-five cents per copy. 4- 't O / Tahle of Contknts. PAGE Introduction ^ Chapter I. General Considerations Regarding tlie Treatment of Poultry Diseases 4 Prevent inn l\atlier tlian Cure the Ideal 5 Breeding for Health, Y\gnr and Sound Constitu- tion 6 Chapter II. Poultry Hygiene 9 Poultry House Hygiene and Sanitation lO How to Clean a Poultry House lo Disinfection li Formaldehyde Gas Disinfection 12- Cresol Disinfectant 12 Fresh Air and Light 14 Avoid Dampness 15 Provide Clean and Dry Litter 15 Hygienic Feeding 15 Avoid Overfeeding 15 Provide Plenty of Green Food 16 Provide Fresh and Clean Drinking Water 16 The Land 18 Exercise 20 External Parasites 20 Disposal of Dead Birds 20 Isolation of Sickness 21 The Essentials of Poultry Hygiene 21 Chapter HI. The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 22 External Symptoms 22 Post-Mortem Examinations 24 How to Make a Post-mortem 25 Chapter IV. Poultry Materia Medica 28 The Medicine Chest 28 An Antiseptic Ointment 30 Tables of Apothecaries' Weights and Meas- ures and Their Metric Equivalents 31 Chapter V. Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 32 Diseases of the Crop 32 Impacted Crop (Crop Bound) 32 Inflammation of the Crop 34 Enlarged Crop 36 271249 IV I'()l■I.■l'K^ I)isi:asi:s and tiii:ir treatment. PAGE Diseases of the Stoinacli ( Provcntriculus) . . 36 Inllainmatioii of the Stomach (Gastritis) 36 Diseases of the Intestines 2i7 Simple I )iarrliea 27 Enteritis (Dysentery) 39 Constipation 41 Indigestion 42 Chapter \'I. Poisons 44 Common Salt, Nitrate of Soda, Lyes 44 Arsenic 44 Copper 44 Lead and Zinc 45 Phosphorus 45 Stryclinine 45 Ergot of Rye 45 Treatment for Poisons in (General 46 Chapter VIL Diseases of the Liver 47 Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the I-yiver... 50 Fatty Degeneration 51 Atrophy or Wasting of the Liver 52 Congestion and Inflammation of the Liver... 52 Jaundice 52 Blackhead (Infectious Entero-Hepatitis) 53 Cercomoniasis 55 Sarcomatosis and Carcinomatosis 55 Chapter VIII. Tuberculosis 57 Etiology 58 Diagnosis 59 Methods of Contagion 63 Treatment 64 Chapter IX. Cholera 66 Diagnosis 67 Etiologj' 68 Treatment 69 Chapter X. Diseases of the Abdominal Cavity 72 Peritonitis 7^ Abdominal Dropsy or Ascites 73 Chapter XL Internal Parasites 75 Diagnosis of Worms in General 75 Tape Worms 76 Xodular Tseniasis "7 Round W nrms 82 Flukes 83 Chapter XII. Diseases of the Respiratory System 85 Anatomy and Physiology 85 Catarrli 87 Bronchitis ( Croup ) 88 Influenza (Epizootic, Grippe, Distemper).... 89 CONTEXTS. |)- Kuup (^ Contagious Catarrli. Dipthcria, Dij theritic Roup, Canker) 90 "Pip" (Intlammation of the Moutli ) 102 Canker 103 Thrush 103 Aspergillosis (Mycosis of the Air Passages) 104 Congestion of the Lungs 107 Pneumonia 108 Tuberculosis no The Air-sac Mite no Chapter XIII. Diseases of the Circulatory System and IMood.. lu Pericarditis (Inflammation of the Pericar- dium, Dropsy of the Heart Sac) 112 Endocarditis (Inflammation of the Internal Membranes of the Heart) 112 Myocarditis dipthcritica 113 Enlargement of the Heart (Hypertrophy).. 113 Rupture of the Pleart and Large Blood Ves- sels 113 Diseases of the Blood n4 Infectious Leukaemia 114 Chapter XIV. Diseases of the Nervous System 1 18 Apoplexy (Hemorrhage of the Brain) 118 Heat Prostration n8 Congestion of the Brain (Vertigo, Cerebral Hyper?emia) 119 Epilepsy 119 Chapter XV. Diseases of the Kidneys, Rheumatism and Lim- berneck 121 Gout 121 Visceral Gout 121 Articular Gout 121 Other Diseased Conditions of the Kidneys... 122 Rheumatism 123 Limberneck 123 Chapter XVI. External Parasites 1 24 Keeping a Poultry Plant Free from Exter- nal Parasites 1 24 Lice 125 How to Make an Effective and \'ery Cheap Lice Powder 130 Mites 132 Scaly Leg 135 Depluming Scabies 142 Other Mites Affecting Poultry 144 Other External Parasites 145 Chapter X\'II. Diseases of the Skin 147 Favus 1 47 White Comb 130 VI POULTRY DISICASKS AND THIJK TKKATM K XT PAGE Chicken Pox (Snro Head dh Epithelioma Coiitagiosum ) 150 Chapter Will. Diseases of the RepnKluctive Organs 155 Anatomy and Physiology 155 Diseases of the Ovary 160 Atrophy 160 Gangrene of the Ovary 163 Ovarian Tumors *. 163 Ahortion of Eggs 164 Yolk Hypertrophy 164 Failure of Follicle Wall to Rupture 165 Diseases of the Oviduct 165 I ntlanimation 165 Prolapse of the Oviduct 167 Obstruction of the Oviduct (Egg Bound) 169 Rupture of the Oviduct 173 Gangrene of the Oviduct 1 74 Breaking of Egg in Oviduct 174 Abnormal Eggs 175 Vent Gleet 177 "Break Down" 179 Diseases of the Male Reproductive Organs.. 180 Chapter XIX. Diseases of Chickens 181 White Diarrhea 181 Intestinal Coccidiosis 183 Bacillary White Diarrhea 186 Diagnosis of White Diarrliea in General 189 Treatment 190 Prevention 192 Leg Weakness 192 Aspergillosis or Pneumomycosis 193 Emphysema 194 Gapes 195 Chapter XX. Poultry Surgery 201 The Treatment of Cuts, Tears and All Open Wounds 201 Abscess 202 Bumblefoot 202 Broken Bones 203 Frozen Combs and W'attles 203 Anaesthetizing Poultry 203 Glossary of Technical Terms 205 Index 209 List of Illustrations. rig- I. Fig. 'y Fig. 3- Fig. 4- Fig. 5- Fig. 6. Fig. 7- Fig. 8. Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. II Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 15- Fig. 1 6. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Showing coiulitioii of liver in "blackliecul." (Modified PAGE after Moore) 54 Breast bone of a fowl showing excessive emaciation in tuberculosis. (After Ward) 60 Liver of fowl affected witli tuberculosis. (After Ward) 61 Spleen from tuberculous fowl cut through the middle. (After Koch and Rabinowitsch) 61 Intestine and mesenteries of a fowl affected with tuber- culosis. (After Ward) 62 Drepaitidotaeiiia infundibuliformis, a tape worm of the fowl. (After Stiles) 77 Intestine of a fowl turned wrong side out to show tape worms in nodular fcxniasis (After Pearson and \\'arren ) 7° Sketch showing method of introducing turpentine di- rectly into crop. (From Gage and Opperman) 80 Worms protruding from a section of the intestine of a fowl. (After Bradshaw) 82 Heterakis pcrspicillum, (From Salmon) 83 Trematode worm or fluke showing internal structure. (From Thompson after Sommer) 84 Lungs of a bird. After Salmon) 85 Right lung of a goose. (After Owen) 85 A lobule of the lung of a bird represented in ideal longitudinal section. (After Owen) 87 Showing appearance of hen a day before death from roup. (From Harrison and Streit) 91 Showing swelling of head in severe roup. (From Harrison and Streit) 9~ Head of a bird. The lower figure show^s the maxillo- ocular sinus, which opens into the socket of the eye and communicates with the nasal cavities. The up- per figure shows the roup tumor on the head caused by the filling of this cavity with cheesy pus. (From Megnin) 93 Head of a fowl 22 days after inoculation with a culture of the roup bacillus. (From Harrison and Streit) 95 Vlii Kiri.TKV DISKASKS AM) T 1 1 K I K TKlvATMENT. Fig. I'). Throat ami lidtlotii of mouth with false membrane pack [III) 14 (lays after inoculation. (From Harrison and Streit ) 95 I'ig. JO. A section of a false membrane of a roupy fowl. ( From Harrison and Streit) 96 Fig. Ji. Head of a bird witli diphtheritic roup atTecting tlie mouth and tongue. (From Megnin) 96 Fig. JJ. .Is/^crc/illus fuiiiiinUus. (.reatly enlarged. (.\fter Mohler and P.uckley) 106 Fig. -'3. CytoiUlcs inuliis. The air sac mite, (.\ftcr Theo- bald) no Fig. _M. The common hen louse {Meiiopon pallidum ). Greatly- enlarged. (From lianks) 126 Fig. 25. Lipi-urus z'liriabilis. A louse that infests poultry. Much enlarged. ( From Banks after Denny) 127 Fig. 26. Goniodcs dissiiiiilis. A louse that infests poultry Much enlarged. (From Banks after Denny) 127 Fig. 27. Feathers showing eggs or "nits" of the common hen louse. Enlarged. (Original) 128 Fig. 28. The common "red mite" of poultry, Dennaiiyssus gal- niiic. (.\fter Osborn) I33 Fig. 29. A. Xormal leg of hen. B. Leg of hen affected with scaly leg. (After Megnin) 136 Fig. 30. Photograph of the leg of a hen affected with scaly leg. ( After Haiduk ) i37 Fig. 31. Photograpli of tlie adult female of the mite Knemido- coptcs (Dcnuatorycics) muians. After Haiduk).. 138 Fig. 2i-- Photograph of the six-legged larvae of Kneinidocoptes (Dcnnatoryctes) miitans 139 Fig- 2i3- Section of the skin of the leg of a fowl affected with scaly leg. Enlarged. (After Haiduk) 140 Fig. 34. Egg containing female Sarcoptcs laciis var. gallinac. ( Fn mi Theobald) 142 Fig. 2S- Syiiiplectoples cysticola. Connective tissue mite. (After Theobald) 144 Fig. 36. "Harvest bug," Tetranychns (Leptus) aiitumitalis, lar- val form. (After Murray ) 145 Fig. S7- Head and neck of a fowl affected witli generalized favus. (.After Pearson) 147 Fig. 38. The fungus Achorioii sclioiilcinii which causes favus in poultry 148 Fig. 39. Sore-head crusts on comb, eye-lids and skin. (After Cary) 151 Fig. 40. The reproductive or egg-producing organs of a lien. (After Duval) 156 Fig. 41. Showing shapes of abnormal eggs sometimes found. (From von Durski after Landois) 161 Fig. 42. Triple yolked egg. (Original) 176 MST ok ILIvUSTRATlbirs. ' ' ix ,■ ^ ' ■ • . ■ . ' '''•" P^S- 43 Showhig ^hapes of abnormal. .e.ggs sometimes found. page (From von, Durskr af-tef. Lando,is) . . . .'.V 178 Fig. 44. Diagramnuuic reprcsciltatioir (if; the life history of a Coccidimi). (Aftei- Cole and 1 ladley) 184 Fig. 45. Ten^day White Leghot'n' chick'^ ;[ijiowing sj'mptoms of baciHary white di'irrhea.. (After Rettger and , ^ Stonehuni )••••••••••■• ni' ci murclcd with the StatidU at the present time has any expert, lir>t hand knowledge of poultry patholoj^y. This hein^ the case, the v^tation assumes nn rcspon- sihility fi»r the oik-." and wliicli. if absent, niust be bred into the stock. 2. A system of poultry management (including feeding, hous- ing, etc.) which is thoroughly and absolutely hygienic. Let us consider each of these factors separately in some detail. Breeding for Health, I'igor, and Sound Constitution. To have a high degree of constitutional vigor in the founda- tion stock is one of the most certain assurances that the poultry- man will not be troubled \vith disease. This is of primary importance. In order to breed constitutional vigor into the flock the poultryman must train himself to recognize at a glance the condition of his birds. Are they in good condition or not ? Re- garding the aspect of fowls in liealth and disease Salmon has the following to say : "W'e say that a bird is in good health when it appears lively, has a clear eye. a bright red comb, is quick and active in its movements, has a good appetite and wdien the various organs I)erforni their functions in tlie manner in which they are observed to act in all birds that are vigorous and thriving. On the other hand, we say a bird is diseased when some function or functions of its body are not performed as they are the great majority of individuals, or when some organ presents an unusual form or api^earance. Disease has, therefore, been defined as a life the manifestations of which deviate more or less from the normal. Practically, we say a bird is diseased when we observe that one or more of its functions are not carried on in a normal manner, or when we fmd unusual growths, injuries, or parasites affecting any of its organs." In a recent article Dr. P. T. Woods (Amer. Poult. World, \'ol. I, Jan. 1910) gives some excellent advice in regard to breeding for health and vigor. Tliis is. in manv respects, the best brief summary of this important subject wliicli we have been able to find in the literature. He savs : — POULTRY DISEASES AND TIIKIK TREATMENT. / "77;r Health Tyf^r. — For all practical purposes, the type of health and strcn^4h aiul the type of weakness, of lacking bodily vigor, are easil}- dilTiTcntiated. Do not mistake the purely ner- vous enerqv of closeh' bred thonMighhrcds for an indication of vigor. Tills uiay be simply the mettlesome spirit of the thor- oughljied and alone is of no great value as a guide to health; combined wilh satisfactory physical qualities it is a desirable asset." "ClioosiiKj tin- Male Bird. — Always l)ear in mind that the male bird is for all i)raetical ])m-p(ises half of the flock. The male should ])e fully matured, well developed specimen, neither too young nor too old. Male birds from twelve months to two and one-half years old usually make the best Ijrecdcrs. He should be the son of sound healthy parents and should, so far as ])ossi])le, iiilierit from them the qualities which are desired for chicks of his get. He should be particularly strong in all points or physical vigor, and Standard requirements, where his mates show any traces of weakness. Have him as nearly perfect in Standard shape as ])ossible, and of medium size and weight for the \ariety. Too heavy males often seriously injure their mates and are not desirable in the breeding pen." ■'Tlu' head should ])e rather large, broad and of good shape, well carried. The eye should be bright, round and full with no irregularities in shape of ])upil. Tlie comb, face and wattles should be a good healthy color, neither too ])ale nor too dark. Idle l)(.'ak shotild be rather short, stout and set well at the base. The long, tlattened beak of 'crow headed' birds or the misshapen 'hawk l)iir are almost certain signs of physical weakness. The neck should be of medium length for the A'ariety and rather fidl ; the long, thin, 'sera\\n\' neck goes with the 'crow head." " "Tlie body should lie well fille(l out and carried in the well- set-up manner indicative of a well ordered system of nutrition, — a good digestion. The i)lumage --lii ndd be bright, lustrous an(l carried rather closely for the variety."" "Mopey. dojiey. loosely feathered birds with dull plumage and a listless 'ilon"t care for life' manner are too short on good health to be of \-alue as breeding stock." "The legs should be medium -hort for the \aricty. strong antl rather large boucMJ and set well apart. Tlu' keel bone slinuld be tlrm and straight. TIuTe -biiuM be un deloi-uiities." 8 POULTRY niSKASKS AND THKIK TKIlAT M KNT. "Lcggv birds. knock-kiKcil aiul with crooked brcasl bones arc always lacking in physical vigor even if it does not show on the surface." "The male should l)e attentive and gallant to Iiis mates, should have a clear lusty crow, free from any rattle at the end. He should be sound in wind and able to fight or run williout short- ness of breath or livid appearance of face and comb." "A good breeder will have a good appetite and will usually be of a rather 'scrappy' disposition, disposed to resent any inter- ference with his mates by other fowls or by the attendant." "Choosing the Female. — The female should be a well-grown, well-developed, fully-matured pullet or sound and vigorous yearling or two year old. The lieallli type will be active, alert and inclined to be talkative, 'singing' cheerfully, and disposed to scratch antl forage. She is usually the first off the roost in the morning and the last to go to bed at night. Head, eye, condition of plumage and leg requirements are practically the same as those called for under 'Choosing the Male I'ird,' mak- ing due allowance for sex." "The body should l)e broad, deep, well filled out and medium large for the variety. The breast should be broad, full and well meatcd ; the back should be broad and the tail well spread at the base. W'rv tails, crooked backs or keels, or pinched tails should disqualif\' for the l)reeding pen. The abdomen should be well carried and rather full, l)ut should not 'bag down.' " CHAPTER II. Poultry Hygiene. Second in importance only to high constitutional vigor and health is attention to the basic rules of hygiene and sanitation in the management of poultry. In view of the prevalent mis- understanding or lack of understanding of these principles it seems wise to- devote one chapter to an outline of the more im- portant points which need to be looked after in hygienic poultry keeping. Attention to the rules and principles here set forth will go a great ways towards preventing the occurrence of disease. This does not mean that if these rules are not followed disease and destruction will forthwith result. Everyone knows of plenty of instances of more or less successful poultry keeping under the most insanitary and tmhygicnic of conditions. So similarly human beings are able when forced to do so to live under un- hygienic conditions. But every civilized country in the world believes that the most economical insurance against the steady loss of national wealth which the prevalence of disease involves is the enforcement of sanitary regulations throughout its domain. Again, many men who do not carry tire insurance on their buildings go through life without having any of them burn down. But this is no argument against the fact that it is a sound eco- nomic policy to carry fire insurance. In poultry keeping many may be successful for a time in managing their birds in defiance of the laws of sanitation and iiygicne ; a very fczv may be successful in this practice for a long time, but in the long run the vast majority will find that thorough, careful, and intel- ligent attention to these laws will be one of the best guarantees of permanent success that they can find. Poultr\- hygiene and sanitation will I)e considered here under 7 main heads, as follows : i. Housing. 2. Feeding. 3. The Land. 4. Exercise. 5. External Parasites. 6. Disposal of the Dead. 7. Isolation of Sickness. What is said under all ()f these heads is intended to apply (unless a specific statement to the contrarv is made) both to adult birds and ti) chicks. Xo lo l•(H•I.•|•u^• nisKASEs and tiikik tkkatment. discussion of the hvi^ienc of incubation, or of the relative merits ot artificially and naturally hatched chickens will be undertaken here, because there are special subjects fallini^ outride the field of ijeneral jioultry hygiene. 1. I'OULTKN' IlorSI-: IIVC.IKNK AND SANITATION. ./. Cleanliness. — The thing of paramount importance in the hygienic housing of poultry is clca)iiincss. ]W this is meant not merely plain, ordinary cleaning up, in the housewife sense, but also bacteriological cleaning up; that is, disinfcctioJi. All build- ings or structures of whatever kind in which poultry are housed during any part of their lives should be subjected to a most thorough and searching cleaning and disinfection- a^ least once every year. This cleaning up should naturally come for each different structure (i. e., laying, colony or brooder house, indi- vidual brooder, incubator, etc. ) at a time which just precedes the putting of new stock into this structure. Hoi^' to clean a poultry house: Not every poultryman of experience even, knows how really to clean up a poultry house. The first thing to do is to remove all the litter and loose dirt which can be shovelled out. Then give the house — floor, walls and ceiling — a thorough sweeping and shovel out the accumu- lated debris. Then play a garden hose, with the maximum water pressure which can be obtained, upon floor, roosting boards, walls and ceiling:, until all the dirt which washes down easilv is di.sposed of. Then take a heavy hoe or roost board scraper and proceed to scrape the floor and roosting boards, clean of the trampled, and caked dressing and dirt. Then shovel t step is taken towards hygienic poultr\' keeping. The same ])rinciples which have been here brought out should be applied in cleaning brooders, brooder houses, and other things on the plant with which the birds come in coiitact. What has been saitl has reference primarily to the annual or semi-annual cleaning. Tt should not be imderstood by this that no cleaning is to be done at any other time. On the contrary the rule should be to kec]) the poultry house clean at all times, never allowing filth of an\- kind to accumulate and using plenty of (Hsinfectant. Disiiifcclioii. — Tn the matter of disinfection there are several options open to the poultr\nian. Me ma_\- make his own disin- fectant, or he may i)urchase proprietary compounds like Zeno- leum, Carl)olineum or a host of other "eums" which confront him at every turn in his reading of poultry periodicals, or he nvdx buv a plain disinfectant like formaldehyde, or carbolic acid. The ENperiment v^tation has tried various disinfectants with a view to linding the mt)st useful, when the factors of eflicienc}-, ease of a]:)plication and low cost, are considered. There is prob- al)l_\- no more effective disinfectant than formaldeh}-de, Init after trying it out it was nece.ssary to abandon it as a general poultry house disinfectant. The difllculty was that a man couM not stand the fumes long enough to spray and scrul) out thor- oughly a pen. Formaldehyde is very good where it can be used, and there is no cheaper disinfectant, efficiency considered. Dr. P. T. Woods has recently advocated the formaldehyde gas meth- od for disinfecting poultry hou.ses, u>ing the permanganate meth- od of generating. This, however, is indicated only for rooms which can easily be closed up air tight. It costs too much in time and trouble to make an\- form of "fresh air" poultrv house even moderately air tii;ht. The formaldelude gas method is wdl adapted to disinfecting and fumigating feed rooms, incuba- IJ rOL'U'RV DISKASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. tor cellars, brooder houses and all houses which can be readily made air tight. For the benefit of those who wish to use the method for such purposes the following directions are given. Tliis will give a very strong fumigation and disinfection but such is indicatetl about poultry establishments. "Formaldehyde Gas Disinfection: First make the room as tight as possible by stoi)ping cracks, key-holes, etc., with pieces of cloth or similar substance. Open drawers and doors of l)u- reaus, wardrobes, and closets to allow free access of the gas. Use a metal or carthern dish for a generator, of sufificient size so that the liquid will not spatter or boil over on the floor, since the permanganate will stain. The temperature of the room should not be lielow 50° F. and more effective disinfection will Ijc obtained if the temperature is 80° F. or above at the beginning. Sprinkle boiling water on the floor or place a kettle 01 boiling water in the room to create a moist atmosphere. Spread the permanganate evenly over the bottom of the dish and quickly pour in the formaldehyde (40 per cent strength as pur- chased). Leave and tightly close the room at once and allow to remain closed for 4-6 hours or longer, then air thoroughly." Use \iile fur a circulation of air in such way that direct drafts cannot strike the Ijirds. Thi^ applies not only to the housing of adult birds in laying houses, but also to the case of young stock in colony houses on the range.* Further a circulation of fresh air under the hover in artificial rearing is greatly to be desired and will have a marked effect on the health and vigor of the chicks. Not only should tlie ])oultry house be such as to furnish plenty of fresli air. l)ut it should also 1)0 ligJit. The prime importance of sunlight in sanitation is universally recognized Ijy medical authorities. Disease germs cannot stand prolonged exposure to the direct rays of the sun. Sunlight is X^ature's great disin- fectant. Its importance is no less in poultry than in human sani- tation. The following statement made some years ago (1904) by a writer signing himself "^1" in Farm Poultry (Vol. 15) brings home in a few words the importance of having plenty of light in the j)Oullry house. "Light in the poultry house has boon found by a writer a great Jiclp in keeping the liouse clean and keeping the fowls healthy. Probably there is no greater assistance to the diseases of poultry than dark and damp liousos. and dark houses are frequently damp. In recent years I have had both, kinds of ex- perience, those with the hens confined in a large, dry and li;4lit house, and with hens confined in a dark house in which a sin- gle window^ looking towards the setting sun furnished the only light. Peing forced to use the latter building for an entire winter I fi lund it impossible to get it thoroughly dried out after a rain had rendered the walls damp. Py spring some of the fowls that had been confined there began to die of a mysterious *See in this connection the modification of the i\Iaine Station colony house to insure circulation of air, as given in U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm- ers' Bulletin 357. POULTRV DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 5 disease and a i)()>t-niortein examination showed it to he liver disease. Later the roup broke out in the same house and this dread di.sease continued with the flock for months exacting a heavy toll in laying hens." C. Avoid Dampness. Of all unfavorable environmental conditions into which poultry may, by bail management, be brought, a damp house is probably the worst. Nothing will diminish the productivity of a flock so quickly and surely as will dampness in the house, and nothing is so certain and speedy an excitant to roup and kindred ills. The place where poultry are housed )nust be kept dry if the flock is to be productive and free from disease. D. Provide Clean and Dry Litter. Experience has demon- strated that the best way in which to give fowls exercise during the winter months in which, in northern climates at least, they must be housed the greater part if not all of the time, is by pro- viding a deep litter in which the birds scratch for their dry grain ration. For this litter the Experiment Station uses pine planer shavings, with a layer of straw on top. Whatever the htter it should be changed as often as it gets damp or dirty. ir. HYGIENIC FEEDING. Along with housing as a prime factor in poultry sanitation goes feeding. This is not the place to enter upon a detailed dis- cussion of the compounding of rations and such topics, but there are certain basic principles of hygienic feeding which must always be looked after if one is to avoid diseases. There are : A. Purity. It should be a rule of every poultryman never to feed any material which is not clean and wholesome. Musty and mouldy grain, tainted meat scraps or cut bone, table scraps which have spoiled, and decayed fruits or vegetables should never be fed. If this consideration were always kept in mind many cases of undiagnosed sickness and deaths, and low condi- tion in the stock would be avoided. Keep all utensils in which food is ])laced clea)i. B. Avoid Overfeeding. Intensive poultry keeping involves of necessity heavy feeding, but one should constantly be on the lookout to guard against overfeeding, which ])uts the bird into a state of lowered vitality in which its natural powers of resistance to all forms of infectious and other diseases are re- duced. The feeding of high protein concentrate^ like lin'^eerl or l6 rOUI.TRV DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. cotton seed meal lucds to be particularly carefully watched in this respect. C. Provide Plotty of Green Food. Under natural condi- tions poultry arc free eaters of green grass and other plants. Such green food supplies a definite need in metabolism, the place of wliich can be taken by no other sort of food material. It is nt)t enough merely to supply succulence in the ration. Fowls need a certain amount of succulent food, but they also need fresh green food. The Station has found green sprouted oats, when properly prepared, to be an excellent source of winter green food. Full directions for sprouting oats are given in Bulletin 179 of the ?klaine Station, a copy of wdiich may be had upon application to the Director of the Station. D. Provide FresJi and Clean Drinking Water. The most sure and rapid method by which infectious diseases of all kinds are transmitted through a flock of birds is by means of the water pail from which they all drink in common. Furthermore the water itself may come from a contaminated source and be llie origin of infection to the flock. Finally it is difficult to de- vise any satisfactory drinking fountain in which the water is not liable to contamination from litter, manure, etc. All these considerations indicate the advisability of adding to all drinking water which is given to poultry some substance which shall act as a harmless antiseptic. The best of all such substances yet discovered for use with poultry is potassium permanganate. This is a dark reddish-purple crystalline substance which can be bought of any druggist. It ought never to cost more than 20C-3OC per pound and a pound will last for a long time. It should be used in the following way : In the bottom of a large mouthed jar, bottle or can, put a layer of potassium permanga- nate crystals an inch thick. Fill up the receptacle with water. This water will dissolve all of the crystals that it is able to. This will make a stock saturated solution. A.s this solution is used add more water and more crystals as needed, always aim- ing to keep a layer of undissolved crystals at the bottom. Keep a dish of stock solution like this alongside the faucet or pump where the water is drawn for the poultry. Whenever any water is draxi'n for either chicks or adult fozcls add enough of the^ stock solution to give the zvater a rather deep wine color. This means i to 2 teaspoons of the stock solution to to quarts of POULTRY DISEASES AND TlllvIR TKl-.AT.M ENT. IJ water. At the same time one should clean and disinfect the drinking- pails and fountains regularly, just as he would if he were not using potassium permanganate. At the Station plant for some 2 years past no bird has ever had a drink of water from the time it was hatched whicli did not contain potassium per- manganate, except such water as it got from mud puddles and the like. Dr. G. P). Morse, the well known authority on poultry dis- eases of the Department of Agriculture, had the following to say regarding this point in a recent address (Rel. Poult. Jour. Oct. 1910). After describing the potassium permanganate method, as well as two others, directed to the same end. but in the opinion of the present writers not so desirable as this, he goes on to say : "Water-l)orne diseases are frequent in the poultry yard. Clean and disinfect your drinking-fountains (and you must) ever so well, if you are permitting, consciously or unwittingly, to run at large one bird sick with any of the con- tagious diseases of the head parts or with bowel diseases, you may count on that water supply being contaminated in less than one hour's time. In the case of a large flock affected with flagellate diarrhoea I have myself found the flagellates in less than one hour's time in the drinking water which had been sterilized and placed in thoroughly disinfected fountains. Do you not see where such a condition as this forces you ? Right up against the principle of the individual drinking cup. Ridicu- lous, do you say? Xot a l)it. I did not say 'the individual drinking cup,' but the 'principle of the individual drinking cup.' Boards of health are recognizing that by means of the common, public drinking-cup foul and terrible diseases are being spread among people. It is just so with your poultry, and while you cannot adopt the individual cup you can incorporate the prin- ciple of it in your hygienic methods by adding ***** one of the antiseptics named. It is true, in the proportions named, these remedies do not disinfect the water, onlv act as antiseptics, that is. act to hinder the developement of bacteria and other microbes. The water itself should be changed fre- quently. This hindering of microbian growth occurs not only in the fountain but is kept up in the intestinal tract." l8 POULTRY DISICASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. III. THE LAND. One of the most important considerations in poultry sanita- tion is to keep the ground on which the hirds are to live hoth as chicks and as adults from becoming foul and contaminated. This is not a very difficult thing to do if one has enough land and practices a definite and systematic crop rotation in which poultry form one element. On the open range where chicks are raised a 3 year rotation is entirely feasible and serves its purpose well. Such a system of cropping would be something as follows : First year, chickens ; second year, a hoed crop. like beets, cabbage, mangels or corn, the ground to be seeded down to timothy and clover after the crop is taken off; third year, in grass ; fourth year, chickens again. Other cropping sys- tems to serve the same purpose can easily be devised. To maintain the runs connected with a permanent poultry house where adult birds are kept in a sweet and clean condition is a more difficult problem. About the best that one can do here is to arrange alternate sets of runs so that one set may be used one year and the other set the next, purifying the soil so far as may be by plowing and harrowing thoroughly annually, and planting exhaustive crops. Failing the possibility of alter- nating in this way, disinfection and frequent plowing are the only resources left. The following excellent advice on this subject is given by the English poultry expert Mr. E. T. Brown (Farm Poultry, \'ol. 18, p. 294) : ''Tainted ground is responsible for many of the diseases from which fowls suft'er, and yet it is a question that rarely receives the attention it deserves. The chief danger of tainted soil arises when fowds are kept in confinement, but still we often find that even w-ith those at liberty the land over which they are running is far from pure. So long as the grass can be kept growing strongly and vigorously there is small fear of foul ground, as the growth absorbs the manure ; it is when the grass becomes worn away that the chief danger arises. The manure constantly falling upon the same small area, and there being nothing to use it up, the land is bound in a short space of time to become so permeated as to be thoroughly unfit for fowls. The question is very often asked in connection with this subject as to how many fowls a certain sized piece of land w-ill accom- modate the whole year through. Occasionally one may see in POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. I9 some of the agricultural or poultry journals this question an- swered, but as a matter of fact to give any stated number is most misleading. It depends very largely upon the class of soil, as some can carr}- twice as many birds as others ; it depends upon the breed of poultry, some being much mi)rc active than others, and thus requiring more space; it depends, too, upon the time of year, because during the spring and summer, when there is an abundance of vegetable growth in the sfiil. a considerably larger number of birds can be maintained than during the autumn or winter. The number must be varied according to these circumstances, and no hard and fast rule is applicable." "The results of tainted ground are generally quickly notice- able, as the fowls have a sickly appearance, the feathers lose their brilliant lustre, and the wings begin to droop. Roup, gapes, and other ailments speedily show themselves, causing, if not death itself, considerable loss and unpleasantness. One of the greatest advantages to be derived from portable houses is that they so greatly reduce the risk of tainted ground, as they are being constantly moved from one place to another, thus evenly dis- tributing the manure. When it is remembered that each adult fowl drops nearly a hundred weight of manure in the course of a year, the importance of this question will be immediately realized. It is quite possible, however, provided that suitable precautions are taken, to keep a comparatively small run pure for a long time. If the grass is short it should be occasionally swept, in this manner removing a good deal of the manure. An- other important point is to always have around the house a space of gravel, upon which the birds should be fed, and if swept once or twice a week this will have a wonderful eiifect in preserving the purity of the grass portion. Anyone who has observed poul- try will know how fond they are of constantly being near the house, and thus the greater portion of their droppings falls within its immediate vicinity. The shape of the run also has a great bearing upon the length of time it will remain untainted, a long narrow run being much superior to a square one. I have pn^ved by my own e.xperience how true this is, and probably a long and narrow run. containing the same amount of space will remain pure twice as long. It is unnecessary here to go into a full explanation of why this is so, but I may state the fact, which I am confident is quite correct. If the space at one's disposal 2Q POULTKV DISKASKS AND TIIKTR TRKATMENT. is vcrv limited it i> a L,nKi(l plan to divide it into two equal parts, placing the house in the middle. During one year one-halt would I)e available for the fowls, the other being planted with some quickly growing vegetables, the order being reversed tlie year following. The vegetable growth has the effect of quickly using up the manure, and in this manner quite a small plot of land can be heavily stocked with poultry for an unlimited num- ber of vears. If the soil becomes at all foul it is a good plan to water it with a i per cent solution of sulphuric acid, or to apply a light dressing of gas lime." IV. EXERCISE. If poultry are to be in good condition, and maintain their normal resistance to disease they must cxoxise. As chicks they will do this on the range. As adults (in climates like that of ]^Iaine ) the most feasible way to bring this about is to provide litter and make the birds scratch for their feed. V. EXTERNAL PARASITES. In hvgienic poultry keeping the birds must be kept reasonably free at all times of lice, mites, and all other forms of external parasites. Directions for dealing with this matter are given in detail farther on in this book in the chapter on External Para- sites. It is desired here merely to call attention to the matter as one of the general principles of hygienic poultry management. VI. DISPOSAL OF DEAD P.IRDS. The poultry plant which does not have some dead birds to dispose of from time to time has yet to be started. Just in con- nection with the disposal of such dead birds is one of the weak- est points in poultry sanitation as too commonly practiced. The number of poultry keepers who throw- dead birds on the manure pile or out on a temporar}- unused field is much too large. This is a short sighted and dangerous procedure. Anyone who con- tinues for a long enough time to dispose of his dead birds in such a way is tolerably sure, sooner or later, to be wiped out of business by an epidemic, with a thoroughness and despatch which will leave him wondering what in the world has happened. The most sanitary method of disposal of dead bodies is crema- tion. Wherever it is possible every dead bird should be burned POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 21 just as soon as may be after death has occurred. In many cases, however, a farmer or poultryman is not so situated as to be al)le to burn dead animals without too great an expenditure of time or labor. In this event burial is about the only alternative, and here, as in the song, it is wise to dig the grave "both wide and deep." especially deep. Otherwise, through the aid of foxes, dogs, skunks, or other creatures, the dead may "rise again" in a literal and most insanitary manner. VII. ISOLATION OF SICKNESS. \\'hether one expects to treat the bird or to kill it. every indi- vidual that sJiozvs signs of sickness should be removed from the general flock. W^hen the bird has been isolated a decision as to what will be done about the case can be reached at leisure, and in the meantime the flock is not subjected to the danger of in- fection. This is an important matter with yoimg chickens as well as with adult stock. The Essentials Of Poultry Hygiene. To summarize this discussion of poultry hygiene and sanita- tion it may be said that the essentials in the hygienic and sanitary management of poultry are 1. Clean Houses. 2. Clean Air. 3. Clean Food. 4. Clean Water. 5. Clean Yards and Clean Range. 6. Clean Incubators and Brooders. 7. Clean Birds. Outside and Inside. CHArTER III. The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry. The first thing that tlic poultry keeper whose hirds are ill wants to know is: "What ails my chickoisr' Before he can use this or any other book on poultry diseases effectively in getting advice for the treatment of disease he must diagnose the trouble. It is the purpose of this chapter to help him do this, and in this way make this book more useful to the practical poultryman. At the outstart it should be said that the abso- littclv certain differential diagnosis of particular diseases of poultrx, by the farmer or ponltrymau. either on the basis of external symptoms or post-mortem examination is in nearly ez'erx case i)npossible. The best that can be done practically is to determine into what general class of diseases a particular trouble falls. There are two general sources of information upon which to base a chagnosis of disease. These are : I. External symptoms. II. Post-mortem examination. EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS, WITH A TABLE TO AID IN THE IDENTIFI- CATION OF THE CHIEF CLASSES OF POULTRY DISEASES. There are certain external symptoms which are characteristic in a way <>f nearly all diseases. These symptoms merely indi- cate that the bird is sick; they are of no value for purposes of differential diagnosis. These general symptoms of illness may be described as fol- lows: A sick fowl is usually quiet, and does not move about unless disturbed. It stands or sits with tlie neck contracted so that tlie liead is i)ulled well in to the budy. giving the bird a "humped up" appearance. The eyes are often closed, entirely or partly, giving the bird a sleepy appearance. Often the feathers are roughened and stick out all over the body. The CKiiib and wattles may l)e dark or, on the other liand. may be ver\- ])ale. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 23 Wlicn a l)ircl shows these general symptoms of illness it should be picked up and isolated and an effort made to obtain a more precise diagnosis. In doing this the following table of the chief external symptoms may be found of use. This table aims to direct one to the discussion of general classes of disease. The identification of special individual dis- eases should be attempted only after reading over the chapters covering the general class involved. In general it should be kept in mind that tliis table is not intended to tell the readeti zchat the disease he finds is, but solely to tell him zvhat parts of this book to read in any giz'en ease in order to make a diagnosis. Table of External Symptoms zvhich may be of Some Value in Differential Diagnosis. The numbers in brackets denote the pages to be consulted. Symptom. Diseases which the symptom named may indicate. Abdomen swollen jPeritonitis (72), Dropsy (73), White diarrhea (181). Belehing of gas Inflammation of crop (34). Brcfithhtf/ abnormal li. e.). Diseases of the respiratory system (85). too rapid, too slow, wheez- Arsenic poisoning (44). Pericanlilis (112). ing. whistling, snoring or (Japes (19.5). Air-.sae mite (110). in any ditlerent from nor- mal Choking. Arsenic poisoning (44). Comb pale Tuberculosis (57). Dropsy {'%). Airsae mite (110). Infectious leukemia (114), Wtiiie diarrhea (181). Cmnh tirst pale, but later Enteritis (39). dark Coiiih. very dark. Comb, yellow. Liver disease (47). Blackhead (.53). Congestion of lungs, (107). Pneumonia (108). Liver diseases (47) , Visceral gout (121) . Co»>i/a witli while, powdery White comb (1.50). scurf i Constipation Simple eonsiipaiion (41) , 1 ndlgestion (42) , Inflammation of oviduct (16.5). funvulxioim Arsenic poisoning (44). Copper, lead or zinc poisoning (44). Epilepsy (119). •Harvest-bug" (145). Coiii/h : Diseases of the respiratory system (85) Crop, enlarged and hard. . . Crop bound (32) Crop, enlarged and soft... Inflammation of crop (34). Enlarged crop (36), Gastritis (36). Diarrhra Diseases of the alimentary tract (32). Arsenic poisoning (44). iCopper. lead or zinc poisoning (44). Hlackhead (.53), Tuberiulosis (57). Cholera (66). Roup (90). White diarrhea (181). yostrils. discharge from . . . ; Diseases of the respiratory system (85) . Emaciation .Tuberculosis (57). Aspergillosis (104). Visceral gout (121) Mites (132), \Vhile diarrhea (ISl). 24 POLl.TRV DISKASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. Tabic of External Symptoms — Concluded. Till' minilnTs In t)inckeis (Iciioif ilii> juiuis lo he ctuisiilU'il. Symptom. Ki/f. expansion of pupil — /i^j/f, sticky discharge from Fun-, swollen Diseases wbich the symptom named may indicate. Arsenic poisoning (44). Cauirrh (87). II.mii. (90). l{oup (90). Jtriiiipiiii/s- bright emeraldi jrreen 1 Cholera (GG). Fir, r. marked I'erii<)niiis(72) . .AsperKlllosls (104). In fecilous leukemia (114) . Inllammmlon of't upi)ermost. Spread out the wings and the legs, putting a small nail tbrouglT the joint of each wing and through the center of each foot. It is not neces-sary for the bird to be entireh- ])lucked ; it will l)e enough to pluck the breast, and when this has lieen done pincli u]) the skin at the point of the breast bone, and cut it straight through from the vent to the crop. Having done this, draw back the skin on both sides so as tfi leave the tlesh fully exposed, and tlien with a sharj) knife cut through the lle>li on both sides of tlie breast bone, and with a strong, blunt pointed pair of scis.sors, cut out the center of the breast bone entirely, taking i)articular care in doing so not to injure the heart, as a ilow of blood from tlie heart will interfere with subsequent operations. When this lias been done the principal organs will be seen clearly exposed." "First of all examine the liver. To l)e perfectly healthy, it should be of a rich chocolate brown color, free from any specks, anrl free from any discoloration f although there are sometimes post-mortem discolorations at the edges, which are ea>il\- recog- nizable). If the liver contains any specks it is unhealthy, as it should not be what is known as pasty or rotten. I lealthy and firm to the touch and of the pro])er color, is the general descrip- tion to appl\- to the liver. The heart should then be looked at, and it should aUo l)e (|uite lirni. free from any excessive cover- ing of fat. and also (|uite free from little ni>hdes :>\ tubercu- 26 rOl'LTRV DISEASES AND Til KIR TREATMENT. losis. Anoihcr thing about ilic heart is that it should be even lobcil — that is to say. it should not be distended on one side and empty on the other; if it be so. the probability is that the bird has died from heart failure, and supposing it is known that the bird did die suddenly, this can at once be accepted as the cause — syncope, failure of the heart's action, which always ends in very sudden deatli. the bird simply dropping down dead without any warning. The lungs, which will be seen on either side at the back of the heart, are spongy looking bodies of a pink color. If a piece of one of the lungs can be cut ofif and be placed in a bowl of water it should float, not sink, or it will be unhealthy. Always look at the lungs for tuberculosis, which is usually to be detected there.* and is indicated by little cheesy nodules in the substance of the lungs, which cannot possibly be mistaken ; some- times the lungs and the heart will all be eaten by these tuber- culous masses. If no disease has been found so far. proceed to examine the crop and the gullet, also the windpipe. With re- gard to the crop, it might almost be examined first if it is full of food, and apparently in a state of congestion, to see whether there be a stoppage in the opening from the crop to the pro- ventricle. The gullet and windpipe can also be examined to see if there is anything unhealthy about them. Similarly an exam- ination can then be made of the intestines, and in the case of a hen the egg organs can be carefully dissected to see whether there is a broken egg. or whether any egg substance has escaped into the cavity of the abdomen and set up inflammation." "There is no difficultv about making an examination of the skull, and the amateur with a little practice will very easily be able to do this. The way to set about it is to start at one corner of the moutli. and witli a pair of sharp pointed scissors cut around the skull to the other corner of the mouth ; it will then be quite an easy matter to lift up the skull from the back, and the brain will Ijc clearly seen. This should be perfectly clear, and if there be any trace of a slight effusion of blood, it will be positive evidence of an apoplectic seizure, and will confirm the symptoms of apoplex}-. w hicli are delirium, resulting, after a few hours or a few days helplessness, in death. These, then, are * This is usually not the case (see below p. 62). This writer has probably mistaken aspergillosis lesions of the lungs for those of tuber- culosis. Note added by compiler. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 27 the principal points, and any amateur can make a simple matter- of-fact examination such as has been described, very often with considerable satisfaction to himself." In order to get tlie benefit of the descriptions given in tliis book oi tlic post-mortem appearances of organs in various dis- eases, the poultryman should proceed as follows. If the liver, for example, of a dead bird appears to be abnormal, look up in the index of this book the entry "Post-iiiortciii appearance of."^ Under tliis will be found a heading "liver," followed by the page numbers 40, 47, 49 to 56, 61, 68, 113, 115, 121, 188. 194. This means that on each one of the pages listed will be found a description of the post-mortem condition of the liver in a bird dying of some particular disease. Similar entries are made for other organs. In this way the post-mortem examination may be made to aid directly and quickly in the diagnosis of disease. CllAl'TER I\' Poultry ^Fatkria AIedica. It is the purpose of this chapter to give an account of the ul[)hate). — "Is one of the simplest, cheapest, and most efTective poultry-yard drugs. It is useful in POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 29 liver disease, dianlu-a. and many otlier complaints. Half a teaspoonful for a full-grown fowl is a standard dose. It can be mixed in the soft food, but is more efifective by starving the fowl for a few hours, dissolving the salts in warm water, and pouring- it down the bird's tliroat. Epsom salts always act best acct)mpanied with a good quantit}- of w'ater." (Bradshaw.) The following table of doses of Epsom salts for young birds has been worked out by Gage and Op]XM-man : A(;e OF HUM.. "^""'v r J''%i^""' llcw Administered. 1 10 r, weeks 10 grains 1 In feeil In feed In feetl ( Two teaspofmlul of water ' to everv 30, 40 or oO 5 to 10 weeks 7 15 grains 10 to 15 weeks 20 grains 15 weeks to 6 months. 30 grains 6 months to 1 year 35 grains 1 year and over 40-.50 grains grains of salt. Cotton Seed Oil. — "Olive and salad oils are useful wdien hens are egg-bound, for diarrhea, and also for external use in dress- ing torn combs and other wounds. In eye troul)les it takes the place of a simple lotion." (Bradshaw.) Bichloride of mercury, i to 1000 solnfion. — To make this the simplest way is to buy of the druggist bichloride of mercury tablets, and ask him to label the box to show how much w-ater a tablet must be dissolved in to make a i to looo solution. If one desires to mix it up for himself ask the druggist to make up some I gram (15^ grain) pow^ders of bichloride of mer- cury. Dissolve I of these powders in a c|uart of water. Put in enough laundry bluing so that the color will be deep blue. Then the solution, which is highly poi.sonous. wdll never be mis- taken for water. "I to 1000 bichloride" is a germicide and disinfectant for external use, cleansing wounds and the like. Medicines in Tablet Form. — One of the most convenient forms in which medicines may be administered is in tablets. \Miolesale and mail-order drug houses carry extensive lines of these graded as to dosage. They may l)e administered to poul- trv verv easilv and convenientlv bv holding the bird's mouth open with one hand and with the other thrusting the tablet far enough back in the throat so it will be swallow-ed. The following list of tablets will be found useful to the poul- trvman. Thev fairlv well cover the medicines recommended in 30 rori/iRv diseases and their treatment. the body of this book. Any poultryiiiati may get these either from his local r if he cannot furnisli them, they can be purchased b) mail at approximately the prices named from The Frank S. I'.etz Co., Hammond, Indiana. Price per looo Salicylic acid, 2^/^ gr /O (For use in rheumatism.) Aconite root, i-io gr 5° (For use in fevers.) Antiseptic tablets, Blue, Corrosive sublimate. 7.3 grs. ; Ammonium chloride, y./ gr. Price, 35c. per 100. (For making i to 1000 bichloride solu- tion. One tablet dissolved in i pint of water gives a solution of that strength.) Bismuth subnitrate, i gr 80 (For intestinal irritation.) Calomel, }i gr 4° Iron, Quinine and Strychnine 80 (For use as a tonic, dose 3 per day.) In administering tablets in the manner suggested care should be taken to see that they are swallowed, and not coughed up. AN ANTISEPTIC OINTMENT FOR USE ON CUTS AND WOUNDS OF ALL KINDS. The following ointment may be made up by the poultry-man and will be found useful in the treatment of cuts, sores and wounds of all kinds of poultry and stock in general. Oil of origanum i oz. Cresol -M oz. Pine tar i oz. Resin i oz. Clean axle grease 8 oz. Melt the axle grease and resin and stir in the other ingredi- ents. Pour ofif in a tin box or can to cool. In making this, clean axle grease from a freshly opened can should be used. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREAT iMENT. 3 1 TABLES OF APOTHECARIES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES AND THEIR METRIC EQUIVALENTS. APOTHECAKIKS WEIGHTS. I'ounil Ouiict's (Trov) Disiclims Scruples Grains Grams. 1 = 12 ■ = 90 = 288 = .57(50 = 87^.23 1 z= 8 = 24 = 480 = 31.10 1 = 3 = GO = 3.y 1 = 20 = 1.30 A I 'I >T1 [ K( AIM I':S MEASURE. Gallon Pints Fluidounces Fluidraclims Minims Cub. cm 1=8= 128 = 1024 = (U440 = 378.5.00 1 = 16 = 128 = 7680 = 473.11 1 = 8 = 480 = 29.57 1 = G0= 3.75 COMMON MEASURE. A I en cup is estimated to bold about 4 fluidounces, one gill. A'iifiiieijlass " " " " 2 " \1\1(iblesp<)(in ' " J " '■ A ii'dspooH " I'fluidraclim . CHAPTER \' Diseases of the Alimentary Tract. The arraniiviiKMit of the (Hgcstivc organs in birds differs from that in other domestic animals in that the mastication of the food does not take i)lacc in the mouth. The food of birds, con- sisting mainly of grains and seeds, is swallowed whole into the cro]). It remains here until it is completely softened by the juices secreted by this organ. The food then passes into the stomach (provcntriculus ) where it is mixed with still other juices, and then into the gizzard. The muscular walls of the gizzard grind the softened food against the small pebbles (grit) which the bird picks up, until it becomes a paste. This paste is then passed into the intestines and mixed with the secretions from the liver, pancreas and the intestines themselves. The nutritive elements of the food are transferred through the intes- tinal walls, by means of the activity of the cells composing these walls, into the blood and are carried to various parts of the animal to be used in building up the tissues. In the wild state birds are forced to hunt for their own food. They go about gathering in a few seeds here and there but probably at no time is the crop overloaded. Under conditions of domestication the birds are fed only once or twice a day and thus the crop is often gorged with a day's supply of food. Further the lack of sufficient grit, lack of exercise and the feed- ing of rich, soft mashes cause the birds to be predisposed to- wards indigestion. Under these conditions poultry are subject to a large number of disorders of the digestive system. DISEASES OF THE CROP. Impacted Crop {Crop Bound). In general two immediate causes may be given for birds be- coming crop bound. ( i ) The thin muscular walls may be para- lyzed either through over-distention with dry grain or through some disease, as cholera and diphtheria. (2) The opening into POULTKV DISEASES AND TUIvlK TKl-ATMlvNT. 33 the lower portion of the tesophagus may become clogged Ijy long straws, feathers or other substances. In either case the crop fails to empty itself while the bird continues to eat until the crop is greatly distended and packed solid. Impacted crop is a common disease of poultry. A large number of things have been assigned as a cause for this trouble. It is probable that the real cause lies in low vitality due to im- proper feeding and indigestion. On this point Robinson says: "We say that the dry hay the fowl may take into the crop causes impaction, but the fact is that it is only in occasional instances that it does cause impaction. Far oftener the fowl eats (h-y hay or corn fodder till its crop is bulging, and is never seen to be at all the w^orse for it. I have seen this so often, that though an occasional case of impacted crop might properly be attributed directly to the overloading of the crop, the occur- rence of a number of such cases in a flock at about the same time, would suggest that the real cause was indigestion, or weak digestion. I have repeatedly given fowls, which all their lives had been handled to make and keep digestive organs in first class condition, all other conditions for developing cases of impacted crops, but have never been able to get a case that way." Treatment. — Tf a large number of crop bound birds occur in a flock, it should be taken as a sign that something is w^rong in the management. Measures should be taken to correct errors in feeding and thus give the birds a more vigorous digestion. In such epidemics other evidences of indigestion are usually present and the particular treatment of the flock will depend largely on these other symptoms. In general the birds should not be fed too much at any one time and they should l)e encour- aged to take as mucli exercise as possible, and should have plenty of green food. When a crop bound bird is found it must be treated indi- vidually. Treatment in such individual cases is quite often suc- cessful. The profitableness of such treatment must be decided by every poultryman for himself. If the crop bound condition is discovered and treated at the beginn'uuj of the trouble the bird will usually recover quickly and may make a ]:)rofitable fowl. On the other hand if the condition has liecome chronic the vitality of the bird is greatly lowered. In tliis latter case 34 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. it may recover hut it will 1)C a long time before it will repay the owner for his trouble and feed. If swelled grain is the cause of the impaction the hirrl may often be successfully treated without an operation. In this case first give the bird a tablespoonful of castor oil. After allowing this a little time to work into the crop begin to knead the hard mass. After this mass has been softened hold the bird with head downward and attempt to work the grain out through the mouth. If unsuccessful in this or if the impaction is due to clogging with straw or other material it will be necessary to open the crop. The following method for this operation is given by Sanborn (Farm Poultry Doctor) : "If someone can hold the bird for you it will make the operation easier. Pluck out a few feathers and then cut through the skin over the crop a line about i inch long. This cut should be in the median line of the body. Then make an incision ^4 oi an inch long through the crop. The distention of the crop will cause the opening to gape, and the mass will be in plain sight. With toothpicks, blunt pointed scis- sors, tweezers, or similar tools, take out the contents of the crop. This done" run the finger into the crop and make sure tliat there is nothing remaining to obstruct the outlet to the organ. When sure all is right, take 3 or 4 stitches in the opening in the crop, making each stitch by itself and tying a knot that will not slip. Then do the same thing to the cut in the skin. For stitches use white silk (or if nothing better can be obtained) common cotton thread, number 60. Keep the bird by itself for a w^eek. feeding .soft food." The above operation is not a difficult one and is usually suc- cessful. Care should be exercised to have the hands and instru- ments thoroughly clean. After the contents of the crop have been removed the wound and the empty crop itself should be thoroughly washed out with clean, w^arm (108° to 110° F.) water. The edges of the skin wound should be well greased with vaseline. It is well to feed the bird only milk for the first day or two. Inflammation of the Crop. Inllammation or catarrh of the crop usually accompanies more 01 less general disturbances of the digestive system. As a result of the irritated condition of the mucous membrane the functions POULTRY DISKASKS AND TlIl'.lK TKI'.AT M I'NT. 35 of the crop arc disturbed or arrested. It is said to be caused by eating indigestible, decayed, or poisonotis food. "The foods and substances specially mentioned as causing inflammation of the crop are: Decomposed meats and putrid foods of any kind, unslaked lime, paint skins, rat poison, excessive use of condi- ments and spices, milled by-products containing too large pro- portions of hulls or other indigestible fibrous particles. Salmon notes that it may result from the presence of worms in the crop, and that it occurs as a complication with thrush, diphtheria, and cholera. It also octurs frequently with gastritis." (Robm- son.) Diagnosis. — "The most prominent symptom is distention of the crop, and on examination the swelling is found to be soft and due to accumulated liquid or gas, mixed with more or less food. The birds arc dull, indisposed to move, and there is belching of gas, loss of appetite and weakness. Sometimes there is nausea and the affected bird attempts to vomit. Pressure upon the crop causes the expulsion through the mouth of liquid and gas having an offensive odor due to fermentation." (Sal- mon.) Treatment. — The first step in the treatment of this disea.se is to empty the crop as completely as possible. This can be done by holding the bird head downward and carefully pressing and kneading the crop. After most of the contents have been ex- pelled in this way give the bird several spoonsful of lukewarm water and then empty the crop as before. Give a slight purga- tive such as a small teaspoonful of castor oil. The bird should be kept without food for 12 to 20 hours and then fed sparingly on soft, easily digested material. Salmon recommends giving 2 grains of subnitrate of bismuth and Y^ grain of bicarbonate of soda in a teaspoonful of water to relieve irritation and to correct acidity. Salicylic acid, i grain to an ounce of water, is also recom- mended. The dose is 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls. II ill recommends the feeding of mucilaginous fluids such as barlex-water. thin solution of gum, etc. ]f the inflammation is i\\\Q to eating poi- sons antidotes as given farther on (Chapter W) should be used. If inflammation of the crop is at all general throughout the f!ock an effort should be made to remove the cause. It is well to change tlie feed and give the birds more exercise. The addi- tion of fine charcoal (small chick size") to the mash will of en be of service, as the birds cat more of it in this way than when the charcoal is in a box bv itself. 36 I'Ori.TUV DISKASKS AND THlvIK TREATMENT. Enlarged Crop. "The crop sometimes becomes very nuuli cnl:irgc'(l and promi- nent, but Iianyinij loosely, not bul^iinL; and bard, as in impaction of the crop. This form of permanent enlargement and (Hsplace- ment is calKd cnlari^cd crop, slack crop, or pendulous crop. It may exist with little inconvenience and detriment to the fowl.' (Robinson.) According to Sanborn the cause of this is irregular feeding resulting in overloading. Robinson, however, says that while "this may be the cause in a great many cases, yet it can hardly be the sole cause, for cases of slack crop are not infrequently found in fowls that have been well and regularly fed. If a fowl is fed heavily, and from any cause (as indigestion) the crop remains full and distended too long, though this condition may in time be relieved in the natural way without interference of tile keeper, the efifect on the crop is the same as if the over- loading had occurred because of irregular feeding. If this con- dition is repeated several times the walls of the crop become in some degree permanently distended." An enlarged crop and an enlarged or "baggy" abdomen are frequently associated in the same bird. These are probably due to too heavy feeding without sufificient intervals between meals and without sufficient exercise. Treatment. — As stated above, a '"baggy" crop often gives little or no apparent inconvenience to the fowl. In the case of a very valuable bird it might be worth wdiile to operate. Sanborn states that this defect can be remedied by cutting out of the enlarged portion of the crop a diamond or oval shaped piece of tissue about 2 inches long and i inch wide. The edges should be sewed together and treated as directed for impacted crop. (Cf. p. 34). The general surgical methods described in the chapter on Poultry Surgery (Chap'ter XX) should be followed. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH (PROVENTRICULUS). Inflammation of tlic Stomach — Gastritis. The stomach or proventriculus in fowls is a rather small or- gan. It is a thick, glandular walled section of the alimentary canal lying between the crop and the gizzard. Inflammation of this organ is usually associated with a similar disturbance of the POULTRY DISKASES AND TIIF.IK TKKATMENT. 37 crop. In a few cases there appears to be innammation of the stomach alone. Diagnosis in this case is very difficult. The cause of gastritis is usually regarded as the same as that of inflamation of the crop (cf. p. 34). Diagnosis. — In general the symptoms are very similar to those in cases of inflamation of the crop (see p. 34)- The birds present the general appearance of being sick, viz., loss of appe- tite, indisposition to move and roughness of plumage. Con- stipation quite often accompanies gastritis. However, if the inflammation extends to the intestines there may be diarrhea. Treatment.— "U the disease is identified in its early stages, seek for its cause and endeavor to overcome it by removing the cause. Change the ration and give more easily digested food with some meat. Feed regularly, often, and a small quantity at a time. Give some cooked food with barley water or milk for drink, or put 20 grains of bicarbonate of soda to a quart of drinking water. In severe cases give 2 grains of subnitrate of bismuth 3 times a day in a teaspoonful of w^ater. Counteract constipation with Epsom salts (20 grains) or castor oil (one teaspoonful) once a day as long as may be necessary." (Sal- mon.) "Give rice water for drink, soft mash made with tlic water in which clover hay has been cooked. Arsenite of copper, ^ grain to each quart of the rice water (drink) will do for medi- cinal treatment." (Sanborn.) As Robinson points out the important thing in treating this disease is to change the food in so far at least as to remove the cause of the trouble. jNIcdical treatment without the removal of the original cause will be of little avail. The addition of fine (chick size) charcoal to the mash and the generous use of good green food are recommended. DISEASES OE THE INTESTINES. Simple Diarrhea. In many fowls a condition of mild diarrhea is chronic through- out the life time of the bird. Again l)irds often acquire a slight diarrhea which will last for a longer or shorter time, but never becoming severe. In either of these cases the bird shows no symptoms of disease other than the watery droppings. No doubt such attacks are in some degree detrimental to the best 38 IMLI.TUV DISUASKS AND TIIKIK TREATMENT. health of the hird. In most cases of this simple dianlua the Imd will recover without any treatment. Nevertheless the care- ful poultryman will watch his dropping hoards for sis;ns of "looseness." When such are found in any (|uantity the methods of feedin.!^- and li^using should l)e carefully examined to sec if the cause does not lie in them. Concerning the normal droppings of fowls. Koljinson says: " Normally the droppings of fowls are rather dry. retain the shape in which they are voided, and may readily he removed, leaving the spot on which they had fallen cither .slightly stained, or not at all." Further, about 1-3 of the normal droppings consists of a whit- ish substance. This is the uric acid and urates excreted by the kidnevs and is removed fnnn the cloaca along with the feces. "Without marked departure from the normal, droppings may be wet — watery— with a tendency to flatten on the surface on which they rest. On boards they moisten the surface for some distance aroimd them. * * * It is perha])s most appro- priately described as "looseness." It is not diarrhea, though fowls having it are probably more susceptible to intestinal dis- eases than others. Mere looseness of the bowels is not accom- panied by any offensive odor. "When the excrement becomes soft and pasty or liquid in consistency and whitish, yellowdsh, greenish or brownish in color, and has a more or less marked offensive odor, the con- dition is properly described as diarrhea. The evacuations in diarrhea are often of such consistency that the water in them is not readily taken up by absorbents with which they come in contact, and they are decidedly nasty, not only adhering to- utensils used in removing them, and making ordinary cleaning difihcult. Ijut soiling the feathers of the fowls and sticking to roosts, nests and feed troughs." (Robinson.) Diarrhea may result simply from an upsetting of the digestive organs due to improper feeding or it may be a symptom of some more serious disease. Simple diarrhea may arise from the pres- ence of indigestible matter in the alimentary canal, it may be due to exposure to heav)- rains or to draughts in the roosting house. In the latter cases a cold develops which affects the bowels rather than the head and lungs. Diarrhea from colds occurs much more frequently than is generally supposed. This POULTRY niSKASKS AND Til KIR TRKAT.M ENT. 39 form of diarrhea can often be recognized by the greater amount of frothy mucus in the excrement. Young stock are much more susceptible to diarrhea from colds than are adult birds. Among other common causes of simple diarrhea may be men- tioned soured or decomposing food, too much green food at irregular times, too free use of animal food, allowing the birds access to water which has become soiled with excrement and allowed to stand in the hot sun until about putrid. Whatever may be the inducing factor the immediate cause is excessive bacterial fermentation in the alimentary canal. Treatment — Simple diarrhea will usually require no treatment other than removing the original cause. This latter is by far the more important thing to be done. If neglected the condition may become chronic and may result in more serious disturbances of the alimentary system. It is often beneficial to replace part of the bran in the mash with middlings or low grade flour. Where in addition medical treatment seems desirable the first thing to do is to remove the fermenting material from the intes- tinal canal. This can be done with Epsom salts, using a small half teaspoonful to each bird. This should be dissolved in water and used to mix the mash. If more convenient a teaspoonful of castor oil may be given each bird. If the diarrhea is per- sistent Hill recommends 3 to 6 drops of chlorodyne as an unfail- ing cure. E n teritis — Dysen tery . For practical purposes we may associate most of the severer forms of diarrhea with the above names. Simple diarrhea was defined as either a temporary or chronic affection of the intes- tines from which the bird appeared to suflfer but little. Prac- tically its only symptom is the watery or discolored discharge. Under the names of enteritis, dysentery or severe diarrhea there are listed several of the more serious infections of the intestines. From the medical standpoint enteritis is the name given to afifec- tions of the small intestines while dysentery is applied to the disease in the large intestine. The latter is usually accompanied by mucous and bloody discharges. In the diseases of poultry, however, it is hardly necessary for anyone other than a patholo- gist to distinguish jjetwcn these different forms. Etiology. — A variety of causes are responsible for these more acute forms of intestinal trouble. It may be a bacterial infec- 40 POUU'RV DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMKNT. tion coming from filthy conditions. Foul drinking water, putrid meat or decaying food of any sort may be predisposing causes. Toxic enteritis or poisoning is caused l)y the birds eating such things as paint skins, lye, unslaked lime, salt, ergot of rye, arsenic and copper (in spraying mixtures) (cf. p. 44). Fur- ther simple diarrhea may develop into the more acute form. This latter is due to improper food, water or housing, and is probably closely associated with bacterial enteritis. Various in- testinal parasites may cause severe diarrhea. Diagnosis. — It is often very difficult to distinguish between the different infections of the intestines in the living birds. Woods (Reliable Poultry Journal) gives the following symp- toms of enteritis: "The affected bird is inactive and dumpish. The comb is at first pale and limp, and later becomes dark and purplish. Tiiere is an abundant dark or greenish diarrhea. Diarrhea may become bloody. The bird appears sleepy and unwilling to walk around. The bird may be sick a week or several weeks before death takes place. Some birds recover without treatment. The appetite may be voracious, or the birds may refuse to take food. The crop may be full of food, or may contain only a little slimy fluid. When the bird dies, the comb is always dark. Often the bird may appear dumpish and sleepy, and show a bad diarrhea; the owner, picking the bird up to examine it, finds it has lost weight ; holding it head down- ward, a stringy, dirty liquid runs from the mouth, and death of the bird soon follows. In such cases, the bird has been sick several weeks before it was noticed. Examination of the body after death shows the liver enlarged or shrunken, according to the duration of the disease. If of long duration the liver is shrunken. The spleen is usually enlarged. The intestines are inflamed and are full of mucus." "The evacuations may show any or all of the color conditions commonly observed in cases of severe diarrhea, watery, mixed watery and solid, whitish, greenish, bluish green, brown, red, bloody. Particular colors or conditions may represent the de- gree to which different organs are affected, or indicate to an experienced eye the progress of the disease, but to the layman they have no special significance." (Robinson.) Treatment. — If possible the cause of the trouble should be ascertained and removed. This is by all means the first and POULTRY DISEASES AND TlIl'.lR TKKATM KXT. 4I most important step to take, it is useless to spend valuable time in doctoring sick birds while the conditions which gave rise to the trouble are still present. In bacterial enteritis sick birds should be removed from the flock as soon as noticed. Houses and runs should be cleaned up and disinfected. Drink- ing vessels and food troughs siiould be scalded daily. Potas- sium permanganate should be used in the drinking water (cf. p. 16). ]\Iix powdered charcoal with the mash. Feed less bran and more middlings in the mash. Do not feed too heavily. After attending to the above hygienic measures the birds should be given a good physic. A teaspoon ful of Epsom salts to each fowl, dissolved in water and mixed in the mash, is the most convenient way of treating a large numljcr of birds. For medical treatment Salmon recommends one of the following: "Subnitrate of bismuth, 3 grains; powdered cinnamon or cloves, I grain ; powdered willow charcoal, 3 grains. Give twice a day mixed with food or made into pills with flour and water. "Subnitrate of bismuth, 3 grains ; bicarbonate of soda, i grain ; powdered cinchona bark, 2 grains; mix and give 3 times a day in a paste made with rice flour. When diarrhea is arrested, bismuth and soda are no longer needed. Give as a tonic: Pow- dered fennel, anise, coriander, and cinchona — each 30 grains ; powdered gentian and ginger each i dram, powdered sulphate of iron. 15 grains. Mix and give in the feed so that each fowl will get 2 to 14 grains twice a day." Constipation. Constipation occurs in adult fowls far less often than diarrhea. It frequently passes unnoticed unless very severe. This trouble is much more common in young stock than in grown birds. In adult fowls it often occurs in connection with indigestion, gas- tritis, or peritonitis. ''A not infrequent cause is obstruction of the vent by accumulations of excrement on the feathers about it This is especially apt to occur following looseness of the bowels in fowls, which do not roost. Intestinal worms also may cause constipation by accumulating until their mass blocks the passage." (Robinson.) Lack of exercise, or lack of green food are also occasional causes of constipation. 4-' I'OLXTRV DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. Tlu' syiiif'ti'iiis arc ])ainful ami ineffective efforts to evacuate tlic bowels. In llic wTst cases the vent becomes completely plugijed with ihv. haiil feces. The birds appear (hill, listless and without appetite. Treatment. — "Adult fowls having constipation without ob- struction of the intestines, that is merely difficult movements, should not require any treatment further than in correcting con- ditions and diet. When the passage is obstructed the treatment is according to the location of the obstruction. If it is at the vent with hard accumulation about the vent as well as in the intestine, the external accumulation must be removed first. This is accomplished by soaking in warm water, \\hich loosens the attachment of the mass to the skin, and separates it enough to allow clipping the feathers about the vent to which the mass adheres. If the obstruction has filled the lower part of the in- testine, there must be more soaking with warm water or soften- ing with olive or sweet oil. Oil is applied between the accumu- lated excrement and the skin by using a small syringe or an oil can with very small nozzle. The process is a tedious one, and where the poultryman's time is valuable is unprofitable except in cases of valuable birds." ''When the obstruction cannot be reached in this way purga- tives must be given. Those usually recommendefl for fowls, are castor oil, Epsom salts, and calomel." (Robinson.) INDIGESTION. Birds frequently suffer from disorders of the digestive system which are not easily classified luider any of the diseases so far treated. Simple indigestion or dyspepsia most frequently re- sults from overfeeding antl the feeding of ground grains and meat without sufficient green food, are some of the causes usvi- all}' i^iven. Symptoms. — The birds are dull and listless. They are in- clined to sit on the roosts, and usually have but little appetite. Occasionally birds suffering from indigestion have an alinormal appetite and will eat ravenously quantities of foods which fur- nish but little nourishment, c. g., grit. Indigestion is often ac- companied by either constipation or diarrhea. In the latter case the .symptoms are similar to those described under simple diar- rhea (p. 37). POUI/rKV DISEASES AND Til I- IK TREATMENT. 43 Treatment. — In treating indigestion it is important to observe the general rules of hygiene (cf. Chapter II). The house should he clean and as free from dust as possible. Sunshine should be al)le to reach every corner of the pens. The water dishes should be kept thoroughly clean and the supply of water should be kept pure and fresh. Use potassium permanganate in the drinking water as directed on p. i6. Use well balanced rations and feed at regular hours. I'ut fine (chick size) charcoal into the mash in considerable quantity. Enough should be used to make the mash decidedly black. This is a very important measure for the treatment of indigestion. Give the birds plenty of exer- cise. A small amount of a good stock tonic may help to bring the birds back into proper vigor. The following formula (from Mq. Agr. Expt. Stat. Ann. Rpt. 1896} has frequently been used with good success. Pulverized Gentian i lb. Pulverized Ginger ^ lb. Pulverized Saltpeter }i lb. Pulverized Iron Sulphate ^2 lb. These substances can be procured from any drug store and mixed by the poultryman. Use 2 to 3 tablespoonsful of the tonic to 10 quarts of dry mash. Dr. N. \V. Sanborn (Reliable Poultry Remedies) recommends the following treatment for indigestion: "If for i week at the beginning of the improved care you will add i teaspoonful of sulphate of magnesia to every quart of drinking water, and fol- low this for 2 weeks with yi of a grain of strychnine to each quart of water, you will hasten the time when the birdc will be well." CHAPTER VI. Poisons. Poultry on free range about farms and especially on small city lots often obtain poisonous substances. Most of the poisons obtained by fowls are the so-called mineral poisons. The chief symptom of poisoning by these substances is acute inflammation of the digestive tract. The narcotic or vegetable poisons on the other hand cause severe congestion of the blood vessels in the spinal cord and brain. Among the principal poisons likely to atTect poultry may be mentioned the following: Common Salt, Nitrate of Soda, Concentrated Lyes. — Com- mon salt is most frequently obtained in excessive amount from eating salt meat or fish. Ziirn says that 15-30 (^ to i oz.) grams of common salt will kill a healthy hen in from 8 to 12 hours. Nitrate of soda is used as a fertilizer and is eaten by hens along with worms, etc., which they scratch up. Lye is obtained only when carelessly left about the grounds. The treatment for such poisons according to Salmon is to give "abun- dant mucilaginous drinks such as infusion of flaxseed, together with stimulants, strong coffee and brandy being particularly use- ful."' Arsenic may be obtained either from rat poison or from vari- ous arsenical sprays used to kill insects. Copper is used in such .spraying mixtures as Bordeaux. Where spraying has been done properly there should be no danger of the birds getting enough of the poison to injure them. Sometimes, however, the vessels containing the mixtures are emptied within range of the fowls or the substances are hantilcd carelessly in other ways. The symptoms of arsenic poisoning are given by Beeck (Die Federviehzucht 1908, p. 828) as follows: "Secretion of large ([uantities of saliva, choking, hiccoughing, great anxiety and nervousness, little or no appetite, thin, often bloody feces, slow and difficult breathing, unsteady walk, trembling and convul- sions, expansion of the pupils. Death ordinarily occurs in a POULTKV DISEASES AND TTTF.TR TREATMENT. 45 very short time." Treatment should be with sulphate of iron, calcined magnesia, or large quantities of milk. Salmon also recommends white of egg and flaxseed mucilage. The special symptoms of copper poisoning are vomiting and diarrhea, the copper giving a blue or green color to the vomited matter and the feces. Evidence of violent pain may follow with collapse, convulsions or paralysis. The circulation and respira- tion are weak. Usually fatal in a few hours. Large quantities of milk, white of egg, mucilage, and sugar water are recom- mended. Lead and cine poisoning occur chiefly from eating paint skins. The symptoms so far as they have been observed in poultry do not differ greatly from those seen in copper poisoning. The treatment recommended by Salmon is the same as for copper. With lead poisoning the sulphates of soda, potash or magnesia are recommended with the object of forming insoluble sulphate of lead. Phosphonis may be obtained from rat poisons or from heads of matches. If large quantities of phosphorus are eaten by the bird severe inflammation of the stomach and intestine occurs and death results in from i to 2 hours. If only a small quan- tity is eaten the symptoms, according to Beeck, are weakness, languor, rufiled feathers, lack of appetite. Strychnine is usually obtained by poultry from rat poisons, The distinctive symptoms here, according to Beeck, is the twist- ing of the spinal column and paralysis. The neck is twisted backward so that the head is often held over the rump. The treatment recommended by Beeck is to give "inhalations of chloroform or internally i to 3 grains of chloral hydrate dis- solved in 2 tablespoon sful of water. The amount to be given depends on the size of the bird. Ergot of Rye is one of the vegetable poisons which sometimes causes serious trouble among poultry. This is especially true in European countries. In this country so little rye is raised and fed to poultry that there is little chance for poisoning. The cause of the poisoning is a fungus which attacks the rye plants. The symptoms of ergot poisoning are trembling, intoxication, great weakness and gangrene of the comb, beak and tongue. The treatment is to give strong stimulants such as ''brandy, colifee. cam])hor or quinine." 46 I'OUI.TKV DISIvASES AND THEIR TKl-AT M K\T. Fowls arc occasionally injured by eating the leaves of poison- ous plants. Tlie sense of taste, however, protects the birds in most cases. Mr. TI. B. Green (Illus. Poultry Record, \'ol. I, p. 689) says in this connection: "Woodlands and fields abound in ]>oisonous plants, and yet it is seldom, except in the case of birds that have been starved of green food and have become ravenous for it, that fowls ever succumb to vegetable poisons as thus ol)tained. Protection apparently lies in the fact that undesirable plants have repulsive flavors. Especially in sub- urban poultry keeping, danger arises when flower borders are weeded, seedlings thinned out, and plant rubbish swept up, if the resulting collection is thoughtlessly given to fowls in con- fined runs. Such birds are generally always ready for green food in any form and in their eagerness to satiate the craving the bad is often taken in with the good." TREATMENT FOR POISONS IN GENERAL. The above paragraphs have dealt with poisons rather more fully than is usual in treatises on poultry diseases. In the great majority of cases a poisoned bird is not discovered until too late for treatment. Even if found in time it is usually not worth the poultryman's time to treat individual birds. The symptoms of the different poisons have been given in some detail with the hope that they may enable the poultryman to distinguish the kind of poisoning which they may encounter and may thus be able to remove the source of the trouble before other birds are affected. CHAPTER VII. Diseases of the Liver. "The annual losses of T^ultry due to liver trouble in various forms are numerous. Ihese diseases seem to occur chiefly among adult fowls, and to be more prevalent in the latter part of the winter and through the spring. The reasons for their frequency then are easily found. The common forms of liver trouble result from improper feeding and lack of exercise. These causes operate most extensively during the winter, and they usually operate slowly, and the symptoms of liver troubles are generally obscure and not recognized until a post-mortem of fowls dying without special outward symptoms shows a dis- eased condition of the liver. Hence liver trouble may become general and reach advanced stages in a flock before their pres- ence is suspected. Meantime, the conditions \\hich cause them may be continued, the owner of a flock not infrequently sup- posing that the absence of sickness in it contradicts the teachings of those w^ho advise methods designed to preserve health, while as a matter of fact many of his fowls are in a quite advanced stage of some liver complaint." (Robinson.) A large number of diseases of the liver are described by writers on this subject. Tn the great majority of these diseases there are no external symptoms by which one can be told from another. The most common diseases which affect the liver may, for the moment, be divided into two rough classes which it is highly important for the poultryman to distinguish. These again can only be distinguished in dead birds, but the occurrence of cases of cither kind in any number gives the poultryman a clue as to what the trouble may be and a chance to correct it. In the first of these two classes a post-mortem examination shows the liver covered with nodules of a cheesy-like ap])earance when opened. These nodules occur not only in the liver but also in the spleen, intestine and other organs and sometimes in these latter regions without affecting the liv(.r at all. Willi such symptoms 48 POUU'RV DISEASES AND TIIKIK TREATMENT. \vf iiKiv 1)0 fairly certain that the trouble is tuberculosis and for a further discussion of thi- the reader is referred to Chapter VTir. In the second class of these diseases the liver shows great enlargement and this is often accompanied or followed by fatty degeneration. This hypertrophy of the liver is what is gen- erally spoken of by poultrymen as "liver disease." "Liver dis- ease" as popularly interpreted includes a number of difTerent diseases distinguished by the pathologist. Of these the ones most commonly treated in the diseases of poultry are Conges- tion of the Liver, Inflammation of the Liver, Atrophy of the Liver. Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Liver, Fatty Degen- eration of the Liver and Jaundice. The diagnosis of these different diseases is based entirely on the post-mortem appearances. In no one of them are there any outward symptoms which distinguish it from the others. "\^ale says it is impossible for the most scientific observer to diagnose either inflammation or congestion of the liver with positive cer- tainty. The symptoms arc much the same and outwardly are the general symptoms of disease." (Robinson.) Further not only the symptoms but also the causes and the treatments of these several diseases are essentially the same. The names of the diseases themselves indicate in a general way the post-mortem appearances. For these reasons it seems best to give a brief discussion of the general causes of "liver disease" and the usual treatment. This will be followed by a brief account of each disease and its special symptoms and treatment, if any. Cause of Liver Disease. — Lack of exercise and overfeeding, especially with rich albuminous foods, are the most common causes of diseases of the liver. In addition to these Salmon mentions the obstruction of the circulation of the blood by dis- ease of the heart and lungs. Sanborn says that congestion of the liver may be caused by any disease of the crop, gizzard or bowels that obstructs the circulation of the blood. Robinson says : "By far the larger proportion of the cases of liver trouble coming to my notice are accounted for by bad feeding con- ditions." Diagnosis of Liver Disease. — There are no special external symptoms. Sanborn mentions as early .symptoms: "Rough plu- mage, watery diarrhea, first browni.sh, then yellow ; lack of appe- I'OUI/rRV DISEASES AND TlllllR TRl'ATM KNT. 49 tite and indisposition to move. 'I'hc cunil) nia_\- be pm'plish at first, beeoniing dark and then quite blaek." These, howexer, are all merely symptoms of di.seai=;e in general that might a])i)ly to an\ one o\ a dozen or more ailments. The only eertain methoil of recognizing the disease is by i)i)st-mi)rtem examina- tion. Every poultryman should be familiar enough with the normal appearance of the more im])ortant i-iternal organs of a fowl to recognize abnormal a])])tarance-. In general, when post-nil ;rlem examination shows the liver larger or smaller than !iormal or congested with blood or marbled or spotted, we may assume that the bird probably had .some form of liver disease. Of cour-e, a diseased condition of the liver is often associated with other diseases, especially of the alimentary canal. Other organs should be examined in all cases to see if tliev are normal. Special care should l)e taken to distinguish tu])erculosis from other diseased conditions of the liver and intestines. Trcat)nciit. — Since it is not possible to recognize diseases of the liver by external symptoms, the treatment of individual 1)irds is out of the question. Tf, however, post-mortem examinations show that a numljcr of the birds are dying with liver trouble it is necessary to take some remedial measures regarding the entire flock. In this connection Robinson gives the following remarks and advice : "Just as soon as it is suspected that there is liver trouble in the llock one or more indisposed birds should be killed and examined. If examination confirms the suspicion prompt meas- ures should be taken to counteract bad tendencies. These should look first to good diet. Make the mash, if mash is used, light and bulky; feed green and vegetable foods liberally; compel ex- ercise in scratching for food. Then get the f(^wls out a little every day. and if sanitary conditions in the house arc at all objectionable correct them. When the conditions to which a flock has been subjected are such that a number of bad cases of liver trouble develop, it cannot be expected that corrective meas- ures will arrest devcln|)ment and restore to health in every case. On the contrary, a few cases may develop in spite of remedial measures, and the fowls exposed to tlie disease are likely to give a much larger proportion of cases of sickness of various kinds afterwarrU than fowls diat a- a floek had alwavs been healthy. 50 I'ori.TKV DISKASES AND TUKIK TKEATMENT. This hfiiig the case, it is generally good policy to dispose of a flock that has been through such an experience as this as soon as it can be done to advantage, and replace with always healthy stock." With regard to the special diseases already mentioned the one most commonly met with on intensive plants at least is Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Liver. Tile cause of this trouble is chiefly concerned with food. In our climate it occurs most frequently towards the end of the winter. The birds have been confined to their houses most or all of the winter months. Very often they arc overcrowded. The rich winter ration is continued after the w^eather begins to get warm and less heating food is needed. This combined with too little exercise and not enough green food favor indigestion and the accompanying sluggish action of gizzard and intestines. These are the immediate causes of trouble with the liver. It is said that feeding too much corn and barley is also responsible for much liver trouble. Symptoms.— Mr. H. B. Green, M. R. C. S., gives the follow- ing symptoms of hypertrophy of the liver. He believes this to be only a stage in the fatty degeneration of this organ. (Illus- trated Poultry Record 1909, p. 691.) "The first sign that a fowl is tending towards fatty disease of the liver is increase in weight. The comb wattles and face remain a bright red or take on a dull bluish tinge from congestion. This sign of sluggish circulation tells of full blood vessels, and explains how it is that apoplexy so frequently supervenes at this period. The excrement is an important symptom to note. It is generally at first semi-liquid. of a dark yellow color, and evacuations are frequent. Thirst is noticeable and a large quantity of water is drunk, especially after feeding. The appetite remains good, although the bird is capricious in what it eats. A post-mortem examination of a fowl in this phase of the disease will show a liver considerably enlarged, of a deep red color, engorged with blood, shining and greasy as though it had been soaked in oil, but fairly firm under the knife. The intestines are laden with masses of fat. so also are the mesentery — or as it is termed by butchers, 'the leaf.' — the ovary and oviduct." In the next stage "Diarrhoea increases, the excrement being POri.lKN DISHASKS AND TIII'.IR TKl'.AT M KXT. 3I perhaps bloodstaiiKnl or blackened by eonyealed clots; the face, comb and wattles become a darker hue or if jaundice supervenes they may be pale or tinged with yellow bile; more fat is laid on internally and the liver will prove to be greatly enlarged. So large may this become by the deposit of fat globules between and in the substance of its cells that on one occasion I have removed from an Orpington cock a liver that turned the scale at a pound and a half. This stage is seldom passed and death usually takes place from syncope, or an accidental rupture of the softened liver." Trcatincjit. — Green says further: "Part of the treatment con- sists of a plentiful allowance of green food. Nothing in this way is better than freshly gathered dandelion leaves when pro- curable, for the taraxacum they contain is a valuable liver stim- ulant. It is not generally known that the sliced roots of the plants can be steeped m boiling water to make an infusion equally effective when the leaves are no longer obtainable. The roots should be gathered and stored in dry boxes. The infu- sion is conveniently mixed with the morning soft food and is always beneficial to birds in confinement as an occasional liver tonic." Fatty Degeneration. As noted in the above paragraphs, Green regards this disease as a later stage in the hypertrophy of the liver. Salmon, on the other hand, believes it to be a quite different disease. The latter author says: "On post-mortem examination the liver is found shrunken, hardened and marbled or spotted with areas of gray- ish or yellowish tissue. A microscopic examination shows the liver cells to contain droplets of fat and the liver tissue degen- erated and largely replaced by yellow fat globules. As the disease is not recognized during life, treatment is out of the question. If a number of cases occur in the same flock, give greater variety of food and a run on the grass. In addi- tion, bicarbonate of soda may be given in the drinking water to the amount of i or 2 grains a day for each l)ird." 5_> I'on.TKV DISKASES AM) T I ! K I k TKKATMENT. .ItropJw or H'asliii;/ of the Li:\'i'. This is vcMv siniilai- in many respects to the disease described hv Salmon as fatty degeneration and probably arises from the same cause, ;'. c, lack of variety in the food, especially lack of green food. Symptoms. — Robinson sa.ys: "There are no special external svm]itoms. An examination of the fowl after death shows the liver shrunken and somewhat granular and sometimes of a yellowish cast." Treatment. — See Salmon's treatment of fatty degeneration above. The ilock should be given frequent (weekly) doses of Epsom salts. Coiif/esfion and J nflauunation of the Liver. These are prol)al)ly different stages of the same disease. The poultrvman will fnid difficulty in distinguishing between this dis- ease and that known as hypertrophy of the liver (cf. p. 50). The chief jiost-mortem dift'erence is that in the latter disease the liver is more solid, not so easily torn or ruptured. Diac/nosis. — There are no external symptoms other than those of dullness and the general symptoms of disease. Salmon says: "It is difficult to make a diagnosis during the life of the bird. Post-mortem examination reveals a greatly enlarged liver en- gorged with blood, tender and easily torn or cruslied." Treatment. — Treatment of these diseases in individual birds is very rarely successful. The general treatment of the flock as recommended on p. 49 should be attended to. The chief medi- cinal treatment should probably be frequent doses of Epsom salts. \'arious authors recommend different medicinal treat- ments. For these see Robinson (pp. 71 to 74). Jaiindice. jaundice <^r biliar}- rei)letion is said by Megnin (Medicine des Oiseaux ) to be due to long continued but moderate congestion of the liver. Tliis leads to increased activity of this organ and is followed 1)\- the accumulation of a large quantity of bile in the gall bladder and ducts of the bird. This bile is ab.sorbed by the blood vessels and cau-^es poisoning which may lead to the death of the bird. Diagnosis. — Tliere are no specific external symptoms other I'UL'LTKV DLSKASl-S AXU Tlll'.IR TKKATM KNT. 53 than that the wattles and comb may be yellowish. This also occurs in other li\er (Hseases. Post-mortem examination shows the gall bladder greatly distended with liile. Treatment. — Give greater variety of food, especially more green food. Give Epsom salts freciiiently. Megnin recom- mends I/2 to I grain of aloes. This completes the list of the liver diseases most commonly treated as >uch by poultry veterinarians. There are a nmnber of other diseases which especially affect the liver or are caused by deranged function of this organ. These may mo.st con- veniently be mentioned at this place. Blackhead (Infections Bnfero'Hepatitis). Blackhead is essentially a disease of turkeys. It is not the intention of this work to treat diseases of poultry other than fowls. Consequently little will be said about this disease except as it applies to fowls. If further information is desired the reader is referred to the Rhode Island Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I., for bulletins relating to this disease. That sta- tion has been and still is studying this disease in a most thor- ough way. Blackhead is a contagious disease affecting the liver and in- testines, especially the blind pouches or ceca of the latter. The disease is very quickly fatal among tiu-keys. The turkey is apparently more susceptible than any other bird to this disease. In certain portions of this country where once turkey raising was a promising industry it has been practically annihilated. The disease is not usually as fatal to adult chickens but may cause very serious loses at times. It is now believed by several prominent investigators of this disease that white diarrhea, so destructive to young chicks, is caused by the same organism as blackhead. For further discussion of this see Chapter XIX. The cause of blackhead disease according to Dr. Theobald Smith (Bur. An. Ind. Bui. Xo. 8) is a minute parasitic proto- zoan known as Amoeba melcagridis. More recently Drs. Cole and TTadley of the Rhode Island Experiment Station have claimed that the causative organism belongs to another group of l)rotozoa known as Coccidia. Dr. Smith, however, still main- tains that the former organism is concerned in the disease. The point to this discussion lies in the fact that the Coccidium has 54 POULTRY DISKASKS AND TIIKIK TREATMENT. a very different life history from tlie .hnocba, consequently it probably has a different method of dispersal and different means must be used in combatting it. Diagnosis. — There are no special external symptoms of this disease until in an advanced stage. The victim then begins to mope, loses its appetite and is inclined to sit apart with drooped wings. The head and comb take on a dark color from which the disease takes its name "blackhead." One of the most con- spicuous symptoms is the diarrhea. Post-mortem examination shows the liver enlarged and disfigured with whitish or yellow- ish spots. The ccca are inflamed and often clogged with pus and fecal matter. Treatment. — Medical treat- ment of turkeys affected with blackhead is of little avail, at least in the present state of our knowledge. Cole and Hadley (Rhode Island Expt. Stat. Hul. 141) recommend the following: ( i ) Isolate the sick bird from the flock and place it in a dry. well lighted s,^. ^^^^^ location free from cold and Fig. I. Showing condition of draughts. (2) Feed sparing- liver in "blackhead." (Modi- ly on soft, light, easily assim- fied after Moore). liable food, with little grain, especially corn." The chief preventative measures are to keep the birds on fresh ground; to isolate any birds showing the least sign of disease, to destroy all dead birds and to protect the turkeys from contamination carried either by new stock or by other poultry or by wild birds as sparrows, crowds, etc. Dr. Morse (B. A. I. Circ. 128) recommends for turkeys under 3 months old ^ grain copperas in the morning and a 2}^ grain pill of salicylate of soda in the evening. Give Epsom salts every 3 or 4 days and keep the grounds and floors well sprinkled with lime. With fowls the disease is not so virulent but it is still well to protect the flock from introduction of this disease. In this connection Dr. Cole (American Poultry \\^orld, 1910) says: "It is no uncommon thing for adult chickens and other poultry POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 55 to die with all the pathological appearances of blackhead, which diagnosis has been confirmed witli tlic microscope. Further- more, infection there with this organism appears to be one of the principal causes of death of brooder chicks, which exhibit [he symptoms of one form of the poultryman's greatest scourge, white diarrhea.' It has often been said of late : If you want to raise turkeys keep them away from chickens; it might be oaid with even greater emphasis : If you want to raise chickens, keep turkeys away from them." Dr. G. B. Morse of the U. S. Department of Agriculture ^ives (Reliable Poultry Journ., Sept., 1910) a number of other diseases which affect the liver. Some of these which are not treated elsewhere in this circular will \yv mentioned in the fol- lowing paragraphs. Cercomoniasis. This is frequently called "spotted liver." ii, like many other liver diseases, is associated with intestinal trouble, especially severe diarrhea, that attacks poultr}- during the summer months. The disease is caused by a flagellate micro-organism known as Monocercomonas gallinarnm. The post-mortem appearance of the liver in this disease shows usually slightly depressed yellow- ish necrotic areas or spots. This fact usually distinguished this disease from tuberculosis where there are prominent rounded cheesy nodules. In pigeons, liowever. this cercomonad is said to cause rounded prominent nodules about the size of a pea. This same organism (Monocercomonas gallinarum) is also said to be responsible for other diseases. The most important of these is one form of roup. Canker in squabs and intestinal diarrhea in poultry are other diseases attributed to this parasite. This disease can be held in check, it is said, by keeping the poultry plant well cleaned and disinfected and by giving the birds an occasional purgative, c. g., Epsom salts. In aspergillosis, the liver often presents the appearance of being "studded all over with minute, whitish or yellowish spots." This disease is discussed in Chapter XIX. Sarconiatosis and Carcinomatosis. In some cases the liver is aft'ected with tumors or cancers. These are usually found in connection with similar develop- ments on the ovaries. 5(> ^()^I.TR^• diskases and tiikir tri:.\imi:nt. Coiif. Ill oases of visceral gout the liver and adjoining organs are covered witli a finr chalky sediment. This substance consists of crystals of urate of soda. See Cliaj)tcr X\'. for detailed de- scription. CUAl'TlvK \lll. Tuberculosis. Tulirrculosis in fowls has long been a serious pest in I'.urope. Zurn in his ''Krankheiten des Hausoeflugels," published in 1882, devotes several pages to the description of this disease as it occurred in Germany. Its appearance in this country, however, seems to have been much more recent. Sahiiou, whose book was published al)out 1888, says that the disease "is bv no means rare in the Tnited vStates if the state- ments of our professional men are to l)e accepted." However, at that time very little had been done in the way of bacterio- logical diagnosis and no doubt many of the early reports were unreliable. The disease was first reported on the basis of bacteriological examination in 1900 by Ternot (Oregon Agr. Expt. Stat. Bull. 64). In 1903 Moore and Ward reported investigations on avian tu])erculosis in California ( I'roc. Am. A'et. Med. Assoc. 1903 ). They found "a number of ilocks in which the mortality from the disease was very high." Fowl tuberculosis was re- ported from western and central Catiada in 1904 by Dr. C. Tf. Higgins (Dept. of Agr. Canada. 1905). Tn 1906 it was re- ported from Xew ^'ork and in 1907 from southern Michigan. The di.sease has ])een reported in many other ])laces within the la^t few years, it thus seems certain that the disease is wide- spread throughout the United vStates and Canada and in the future un\>i be reckoned with by American ]> 'ultrymen. Tuberculosis may exist exten>i\-ely among fowls, especially in large Hocks, and \et not kill enough ])irds to .altract attention to it. Keports show that fanners often lo-r 1 or _' birds a year from what appears to ])c tuberculosis. In many places the loss seems to be gradually increasing. The existence of the disease in the Hock fails to attract the attention of the owner because the li^-cs are so evenly distril)iited through'mt the year. Aloore and Ward rej)ort a Hock of 1400 birds from which 250 had died during the hrst vear. .\nother man lost 300 birds out 58 ruri;iuv diskasks and tiikik treatment. of a tlock of 1460. Microscopic examination proved that these were (lvin<( of lul)erculosis. Tuberculosis is confined chiefly to adult or nearly adult fowls. Only very rarelw if ever, is it found in growing chicks. Fur- ther it is much more common in fowls than in other kinds of poultrv. Two cases in wild geese were reported at the On- tario Agricultural College. Avian tuberculosis is said to be found in turkeys, pheasants, and especially in pigeons. Cage birds are particularly susceptible to this disease. Etiology. — Tuberculosis is caused by a minute germ, the Bacillus tuberculosis of birds. These l^acteria gain entrance to certain portions of the body and there multiply in vast numbers, causing the formation of small nodules or tubercles. The dis- ease is highlv contagious and is .spread through the flock by the contact of healthy birds with the diseased ones, or with their discharges. The relation of avian tuberculosis to that of man and other animals has attracted a great deal of attention. It is a subject of very great importance to the poultryman, not only on account of his flock but also on account of its relation to the health of himself and his family. In this connection, writing some years ago Salmon says: "^Nlany outbreaks (of fowl tuberculosis) have been attributed to infection from eating the sputum of persons affected with consumption. Tlie possil^ility of such infection is admitted by .some authorities and denied by others. It is cer- tain that poultry and ]Mgeons are not easily infected experi- mentally witli the tuberculosis of people, cattle and other ani- mals which are classed together as mammals." On the other hand. "Tlie bird or avian tuberculosis spreads rapidly from l)ir(l to bird and is easily transmitted experimentally to birds but it has little effect upon most mammals which are very suscep- tible to human tuberculosis. There is, consequently, a marked difiference between avian and mammalian tuberculosis. The disease in tlie two cases does not appear to be absolutely dis- tinct, l)ut slimld rather be regarded as two varieties of the .same malady.'" In the last few years a great deal has been found out about tuberculosis in 1)oth birds and mammals. The results have been sinnmarized and extended by Drs. Koch and Rabinowitsch in an extensive pa])er dealing with avian tuberculosis and its POULTRY DISEASES AND TIIKIK TKEATMl-NT. 59 relation to mammalian tubercnlosis (X'irchow's Arch. f. I'ath. Anat. u. Phys.. etc.. LUl. 190. pp. 246-541, 1907). Their results mav he briefly stated as follows: Attempts to infect fowls with mammalian tubercnlosis, like the earlier negative results of other authors, have been fruitless. However, fowls are very easily infected with avian tuberculosis by feeding them parts of diseased birds. On the other hand, methods of infecting fowls other than feeding are not always successful even with avian tuberculosis. Other birds, especially cage birds, are very read- ily infected in various ways. Parrots, in particular, are sus- ceptible not only to avian tuberculosis but also to mammalian and human tuberculosis. Also canary birds, sparrows, and va- rious birds of prey were proven to be susceptible to both avian and mammalian tuberculosis. In these respects such birds difler materially from the domestic fowls. On the other hand their later researches have made it appar- ent that a large number of mammals are susceptible to avian tuberculosis. These include not only the small laboratory ani- mals as rabbits, mice and guinea pigs, but also cattle, hogs, horses, goats, and donkeys. Also avian tubercle bacilli have been found in cases of human tuberculosis. On the basis of such experiments and observations it appears that avian and mammalian tuberculosis are not caused by different species of bacteria but by different varieties of the same species. These varieties have developed because the bacilli have grown for a long period of time under different conditions. They are not so different, however, but that they may grow in the environ- ment best suited to the other one. It'tJuis appears that zdiile fozvls arc not very likely to contract tuberculosis from domestic animals or from man, yet fozcls that have the diseases arc a serious menace to the other animals on the farm as icell as to the pouUryman and his family. fCf. further on this point p. 64 below). Diagnosis. Tuberculosis in mankind is so serious a disease chiefly because it is so diiffcult to recognize it in its earliest stages. The same is true with tlie disease in fowls. There are positively no external symptoms by which the disease can be recognized in fowls before the advanced stages. Morse (R. P. J. Sept. 1910) says on this point : "There is a combination of symi)toms that might serve \o arouse your suspicions ; steadily 6o I'oii.iin i)isi;.\si;s AM) iin-iK tri-atmknt. fW advanciiii^ einaciation ; ane- mia, shown by ])allor of conil) wattles and the skin about tlie head ; general weakness ; lanieness, ruftiing of the feathers and in many cases diarrhea. When com- bined with tlie foregoing von notice a bright eye and a ravenous appetite you may have very strong sus- |)icions.'' Emaciation is one of the best symptoms and in the last stages of the disease be- comes verv i;:arked. Per- not cites the case of a Ply- mouth Rock hen weighing 4 pounds that was reduced to 22 ounces. 'I he emaciation is very marked in the mus- cles covering tlie breast bone. Fig. 2 shows the breast bone of a tuberculous hen from which the skin onlv has been removed. Lameness is another symptom often shown in the later stages of the disease. This is caused by tuberculo- sis of the joinrs as has been proven in many cases. Such cases are often called "rheu- Fig. 2. Breast bone of a f,.ul n^atisnr by poultrymen. showing excessive cmaciatiun in Tuljerculosis may also form tuberculosis. (After Ward). tumors or ulcers or various outgrov, ths on tl^e head and limbs of birds. Such forms of the disease are comparatively rare in poultry, however. Parrots are particularly affected with these external tubercles. None of these symp'toms. h.owcver. is more than an indication i'ori;i"Rv DISEASES .\m> tiii;ik treatment. r,i of the possible presence of the disease. .Morse says: "At the post-mortem examination you may have your suspi- cions strengthened by ilncHng hvcr. si)leen. intestines and membrane uniting the intestinal folds ( niesentcries) studded with \cllM\vi^ll white cheesy nodules of various sizes."" Outside of the bacteriological test these post-mortem findings are the best proof of the disease we have. The liver is af- fected in nearly every case of fowl tubercu- losis. However, as has been pointed out many times in these pages, a spotted condition of the liver is no sure sign of tuberculosis. Most of the other li\er dis- eases of fowls cause a simple blotching of the tissue in which the center of each sjiot is usually depressed or at least only slightly raised. (Cf. Fig. i, p. 54). In tuberculosis the liver is covered with numerous raised nodules varying greatly in number and size as shown in tig. 3. A section of the liver shows these nodules or tuliercles distributed throughout the tissue. Still more conclusive evidence is Fi.c 3. Liver of fowl affected with tulierculosis. (.After Ward). ■*\;.>' li\cr in the region of the gall blad- F d(.r. In cases of tul)erculosis it is Mg. 4. Spleen from tuber- very frecnuntl}' greatly enlarged culous fowl cut through and is studded throughout with the the middle, (.\ftcr Koch and Rabinowitsch). 1" h^"- 4- vellowi^h-white tuliercles as slu^wn 62 I'ori.Tin DISKASICS AM) llIlilR TRKAT M KNT, Still another \cr\- important jMece of post-mortem evidence is iKund if tin.' intestines and {hv mesenteries are dotted with these roiindrd mxhdf-- as shown in iig. 5. Fig. 5. Intestine and nusenleric's of a fowl affected witli tnbercnlosis. (After Ward). The hmgs are very rarely affected and then usually by the infection spreading from the liver on to the adjoining lung tis- sue. All this agrees witli the fact previously stated that fowls are most easily infected through the digestive tract. Alteration of the hones, joints or other organs occtu- much more rarely and usually only in the most advanced stages of the disease. POULTRV DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 63 If the post-mortem fuulings agree in essentials with those giv- en in the preceding paragraphs we may be practically certain that we are dealing with tnberculosis. It should not be forgot- ten, however, that the pathologist would not be willing to pro- nounce the disease tuberculosis until he had taken a small parti- cle of the cheesy material and after staining this in a particular way liad demonstrated by microscopical examination that the tubercle bacilli were present. Moore and Ward have carried on some experiments in the use of tuberculin in detecting this disease. Ward (loc. cit.J gives the results of trials on 21 hens affected with tuberculosis. In very few cases did the tests give positive results and these were so slight and irregular as to be useless as a method of diag- nosis. Apparently there is little hope of success in this direc- tion with fowl tuberculosis. Methods of Contagion. The spread of tuberculosis from fowl to fowl takes place only when the living bacteria are trans- ferred from the diseased to the healthy birds. From the fact that tuberculous lesions are most commonly found in the inter- nal organs of the digestive system we may conclude that the bacteria usually enter the body along wath the food. Exam- ination of the tubercles situated along the intestine shows that in many cases these communicate directly with the interior of the digestive tract. These are constantly emptying enormous numbers of bacteria which are carried to the outside by the feces of the bird. Without doubt the ilroppings of tuberculous fovi-ls are the most important factor in the spread of this disease. This is especially true when in addition the birds are fed upon ground which is partly covered with these droppings. Besides, the infectious material may very easily be carried by the feet and thus mixed with the food. Ward states that there is no e.vidence to indicate that tuber- culosis is spread through the egg. He cites in support of this the fact that badly diseased birds do not lay and second the absence of tuberculosis among young stock. Koch and Rabinowitsch. however, on the basis of later and more thorough work make the following statement (p. 431) : "The possibility of the con- genital origin of tuberculosis of fowls through the infection of the fertilized egg with bird tuberculosis is shown by our results. It is also demonstrated by oiu- inoculation experiments on 04 I'm I.TI<^■ nisKAsi'S and riii;iu trkai'mknt. ctrgs.'" l-"ui-lluT tlu\ lia\c given cxpcrinu'iital proof of the transfer of llu' l)aittria of mammalian tnbcrculosis from the iiiocitlatcd cijij to the chick. As noted Ijcforc it was very (Ufficnlt to do this by fecihng tlie liens food infected with mammalian tnhercnlosis. In this connection it is of interest to mention a case of the apparent transfer of fowl tuberculosis to man. In the Medical Record ( \'ol. 31. 1887) there is recorded a case of human tuberculosis in I'rance which ai)parcntly came from eating tuberculous fowls which "were cooked very little before being eaten." The case occurred "in a little hamlet of 10 cottages isolated in the midst of a large forest." No other source of infection could be discovered. Treatment. VowX tuberculosis when it reaches the stage at which it can be diagnosed cannot be cured under our present knowledge. Treatment of individual cases should not be at- tempted. After it has been ascertained by post-mortem (and if possible bacteriological) examination that the disease exists in the fiock all suspected birds should be removed at once. If the disease is to be controlled it must be by keeping the healthy and the affected birds apart. The most serious thing about tuberculosis is that there may be many birds in the flock that are in early stages of the disease but do not betray their condi- tion. Long before these birds show recognizable s^'mptoms they are throwing out millions of bacteria which become a men- ace to the remainder of the flock. If only one or two cases of tuberculosis are found it may be sufficient to simply disinfect the houses, yards, feeding troughs and drinking vessels. This should be done with some good dis- infectant. (See Chap. II). Morse recommends also the liberal application of lime referring to the fact that "lime workers sel- dom suffer with tuberculosis.'" The nms shoidd l)e cidtivated and the houses should be open to the sunshine and fresh air at all times. If, however, the number of birds dying of tuberculosis in the flock is increasing even though the increase is very gradual, more strenuous measures must be taken. Under these condi- tions Dr. ]\Iorse says: "Kill everything in sight, flisinfect. allow the ])oultry plant to lie fallow for scxeral months, disinfect again and buv fresh stock that is known to lie healthv." This no POULTRY DISEASES AND TIIEIK TREATMENT. 65 doubt is the surest way to get rid of the disease and wherever possible it should be done. However, where the disease is found in large flocks of birds such measures would bankrupt the owner. Or a man may have a very fine strain of birds which he has spent many years in perfecting and which it would be impossible to replace. In such cases Alorse proposes "Banging" out the tuberculosis according to the methods of new-herd-building in dairy cattle as proposed by Prof. Bang of Copenhagen. Atorse's directions for "Banging" out tubercu- losis are as follows: "Secure new or thoroughly disinfected ground, keeping it absolutely free from contact with the ground used by the infected flock. Erect new houses on this ground. Collect the eggs from the infected birds and wash them in 95 per cent alcohol or in a 4 per cent solution of some good coal tar disinfectant. Incubate these disinfected eggs in new incu- bators. When hatched, remove chicks to new brooder houses on the new ground. These growing chicks should be cared for by new men, that is to say, either different men from those that care for the old flock or if you are compelled to use the same men they should disinfect their hands and shoes and put on fresh overalls before handling the new stock. Have dififerent feed bins and different pails for distributing it. As soon as you have built up a clean flock destroy the old and disinfect the ground occupied by them by the method outlined above." This method is, no doubt, excellent in theory and if carried out with complete and never-failing attention to details might work. It is doubtful, however, whether in actual practice a poultryman would ever be able to carry it through successfully or profitably. CHAPTER IX. Choi.i-ka. F(t\vl cholera is a virulent. u>ually fatal and highly infec- tious disease. It is entirely distinct from the ordinary forms of enteritis with which it is often confused l)y poultrymen. Fowl typhoid and infectious leukaemia are also often mistaken for cholera. (Genuine fowl cholera is rather rare in this cotm- trv hut is much more ctimmon in Europe. This disease was first reported in this country ahout 1880 hy Salmon ( Rept. U. S. Comm. of Agric. ). Owing- to the lack of proper bacteriologi- cal methods at that time Salmon was not able with certainty to identify this disease with the Enropean cholera. From certain experimental work he concluded that some of the symptoms exhibited h\- the disease in this country were different from those described by European writers. About 1894 Moore (U. S. Bur. An. Ind., Bui. 8) obtained material from several out- l)reaks of supposed cholera but found this disease to dift'er in several important respects from the European trouble. ]\lore recently Curtice (R. I. Expt. Stat. Bui. 87) has described a disea.se similar to that of Moore's under the name of fowl typhoid. Wliat a])pears to be the genuine European fowl cholera has-l)een reported several times within the last few- years. Fowl cholera attacks all varieties of i)oultry ; also caged birds and many .species of wild birds. "The infection generally occurs bv taking food or drink contaminated with the excre- ment of sick l)ir(ls. It is also possible for birds to be infected through wotmds of the skin or l)y inhalation of the germs in the form of dust suspendeil in the air. They often take the germs into tlieir bodies by consuming particles of tiesh or blood from the carcasses of affected birds that have died or have been killed." "The disease is generall\- introduced upon a farm or in a locality, with new birds, purchased for improving the flocks or POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. C^J with eggs for hatching. When it exists in a (hstrict it may be disseminated by wild animals or wild birds.'" (Salmon). Diagnosis- Salmon gives the following as external symptoms: "The earliest indication of the disease is a yellow coloration of the urates, or tliat part of the excrement which is excreted by the kidneys. This in health is a pure white, though it is frequently tinted with yellow as a result of other disorders than cholera. W'liile therefore this yellowish coloration of the urates is not an absolutely certain proof of cholera, it is a val- uable indication when the disease has appeared in a flock and an effort is being made to check its course by isolating birds as scon as affected. In a few cases the first .symptom is diarrhea in which the excrement is passed in large (juantities, and con- sists almost entirely of white urates mixed with colorless mucus. Generally the diarrhea is a prominent symptom. Tlie excre- ment is voided frequently, and consists largely of urates sus- pended in a thin, transparent, sometimes frothy mucus. The urates have a deep yellow color, which in the later stages of the disease may change to greenish or even a deep green." '■\"ery soon after these first syiuptoms appear the bird sep- arates itself from the flock, it no longer stands erect, the feath- ers are roughened or stand on end, the wings droop, the head is drawn down towards the body and the general outline of the bird becomes spherical or ball shaped. At this period there is great weakness, the aft'ected bird Ijecomes drowsy and may sink into a deep sleep which la.sts during tlie last day or two of its life and from which it is almost impossible to arouse it. The crop is nearly always distended with food and appar- ently paralyzed. There is in most cases intense thirst. If the birds are aroused and caused to walk there is at first an abun- dant discharge of excrement followed at short intervals by scanty evacuations." In regard to the yellow or green excreta Hadley* says : "This is a very characteristic symptom. The excrement of normal fowls is not yellow; and when it is green it is a dark green, approaching black. In cholera both yellow and green are bright ; the green is often an emerald green. These dift'er- ent colors may occur either alone or separately and both are *BulIetin 144 R. I. Agr. Expt. Stat. (In press.) Tlie manuscript of this bulletin was very kindly loaned by Dr. Hadley. Gi^ rOn.TRV DISEASKS AND THKIK TKEATMKNT. usually acconipanicil by diarrhea and thick mucus. In case it is known that cholera is in the neighborhood, it is well for a poultryman to examine, from day to day, the character of the droppings on the dropping board." "The course of the disease may be rapid or slow in its prog- ress through the flock. It may take all within a few days, or the fowls may drop ofif by twos and threes through a period of several weeks. After the first symptoms appear the develop- ment in individual cases is usually rapid. Forty cases investi- gated by Salmon averaged 3 days, but many birds die wnthin a few hours after the diarrhea sets in. The time required to develop the disease after exposure or inoculation is given by Salmon as 4 to 20 days." (Robinson). Examination of the dead birds shows inflammation of the digestive organs, kidneys and mesenteries in nearly all cases. According to Ward (Calif. Expt. Stat. Bui. 156) "punctiform hemorrhages are found upon the heart with almost absolute uniformity. The liver is very frequently marked with punc- tiform whitish areas." Sections show that the areas of necrotic tissue are present throughout the liver tissue. The blood ves- sels of the liver are congested. According to Ward the next most striking lesions are found in the reddened and bleeding mucosa of the first and second folds of the small intestine (next to the gizzard). These reddened areas can even be seen from the outside of the intestine. The intestinal contents are of either a cream colored pasty mass or may be brownish or even green in color. "Lesions are very rarely obser^-ed in other portions of the intestine. The ureters are noticeable in prac- tically all cases by reason of the yellow-colored urates that they contain. The nasal cavity, pharynx and oral cavity fre- quently contain a viscous mucous fluid, probably regurgitated from the crop." Etiology. Fowd cholera is caused by a bacterium known as Bacterium hipolaris scpticus. It is closely related to the bacil- lus of rabbit septicaemia and the bacillus of swine plague. "Under the microscope the bacterium presents either a circular or oval outline. It is about i 50-thousandth of an inch broad and 2 or 3 times as long. It grows best at from 85° to 105° F. It has no power of movement, does not form spores, and is eas- ily destroyed by drying, by the ordinary disinfectants and by a temperature of 132° F. for 15 minutes." (Salmon). POUI.TRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 69 Fowl cholera cannot be recognized with certainty except by a bacteriological examination. Practically, however, this makes but little difference to the poultryman. The methods of com- batting cholera are not radically different from those used against similar infectious diseases. The occurrence of a num- ber of sudden deaths in a Hock indicate the presence of an infectious disease and call for the inauguration of sanitary and remedial measures at once. At the same time a letter de- scribing the symptoms should be sent to the Division of Pathol- ogy, Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. In this way the name of the particular disease can be determined and advice as to any specific treatment will be received. Treatment. "The best authorities on the subject regard gen- uine cholera as practically incurable. It is said that none of the alleged remedies have proved effective in cases known to be true cholera, and the presumption is that the persons supposing they had cured cholera with them were treating some other disease. While treatment of affected individuals is regarded as futile, the spread of the disease may be limited and the dis- ease stamped out by disinfection to destroy the germs on the premises, and by proper measures to prevent their further distri- bution." (Robinson). Dr. P. T. Woods, who several years ago wdiile manager of a poultry ranch in New Jersey, had considerable experience with cholera gives the following method of dealing with the disease. (Reliable Poultry Remedies). "As soon as the disease is discovered, establish a pest house remote from the other poultry buildings, a place that can be easily and thoroughly disinfected. Isolate all suspected cases in the pest house as soon as you can find them. Give these birds a few drops of crcolin in their drinking water (just enough to turn it faintly milky), or give them drinking water in which has been dissolved one one-tenth of a grain tablet of corrosive sublimate to the quart of water. All birds which show marked symptoms of the disease had better be killed and cre- mated at once. This is safest and best. Kill them by strang- ling or by a sharp blow with a 1)lunt club, l)reaking the neck. Do not draw blood, as the blood is infectious, and you do not want to spill it. If they bleed, scrape up all the blood and burn with the body, and disinfect the place where it fell. Rake 70 POri.TKV niSKASES AND TIIF.IK TKKATMKXT. up ami burn all lilltT u>ch1 in hou><.> nr runs (>ccu|)ic(l by in- fected birds. Spray the runs and all ])arts of the buildings with a strong solution of creolin. or a i i)er cent sohition of suli)huric acid in water. Do not use any litter until you are sure that the disease is eradicated, 'riiordu^hly disinfect every- thing that could possibly be contaminated b\- the infected fowls, and repeat this as often as you find a new case. The runs or yards .should be thoroughly disinfected and should be ploughed up often," In connection with his work on an outbreak of fowl cholera in California, Ward points out the following important conclusion: "Cholera and other infectious diseases may exist in a fowl in a sort of inactive chronic condition and there is no doubt con- cerning the agency of such a case in spreading the disease. Thus, fowls not suspected of being diseased may have the dis- ease smouldering among them. The fact that occasionally a single fowl dies of cholera means that a severe loss may occur at any time." The practical recommendation for an outbreak of fowl chol- era then is to kill and destroy all sick birds, confine all well birds to small runs. Disinfect these runs and the houses daily. After the outbreak is over and the birds have ceased dying it is best to market all flocks in which the cholera appeared. This latter precaution will often prevent a second outbreak some months later. ^Methods of prevention are always the most satisfactory. The careful poultryman will guard his flock against all infectious diseases by methods of quarantine, disinfection and general cleanliness. At the saiue time the birds should be fed to keep them in the best of health. On these points read Chapter II. Through the kindness of Dr. Philip B. Hadley the writers have had the opportunity to read the manuscript of Bulletin 144 of the Rhode Island Experiment Station dealing with fowl cholera. On the l)asis of his experimental work Dr. Hadley recommends su])cutaneous injections of 5 per cent carbolic acid as a treatment for indix'idual Ijirds. In the summary of this linlletin Dr. I ladley says: "'At the Rhode Island Station at- tempts have been made to prevent the development in fowls of cholera artificially produced by inoculation with the fowl cholera organism. The protective inoculations have involved POULTRY DISEASES AND T 1 1 K I K IKIvATMENT. yi subcutaneims iniK-ulati(in< with a 5 ]ior cent solution of carl^olic acid in amounts of from 2 to 4 c. c. daily." "The results thus far secured show tliat the inoculations as gi\en ])rotected artificially infected Ijirds. and did no harm to birds that were in normal health. They therefcjre suggest that subcutaneous inoculations with carbolic acid have a protective and perhaps a therai)eutic value in fowl cholera." CHAPTER X. Diseases of the Abdominal Cavity. Peritonitis. The thin serous memlirane which Hues the abdominal cavity and covers the internal organs is called the peritoneum. In- flammation of this membrane may occur in connection with the inflammation of certain internal organs such as the intes- tines, liver, kidneys, etc. In these cases the inflammation ex- tends from the diseased organs on to the wall of the body cavity. Peritonitis may also be caused by the entrance of foreign bodies into tlie abdominal cavity. It may further be caused by severe bruises or injuries of the abdominal wall. Foreign bodies enter the abdominal cavity chiefly through perforation of the intestine. This may occur through severe inflammation, by sharp-pointed objects pushing through the intestinal wall or by parasitic round worms or other parasites puncturing the wall. In many cases mature eggs separate from the ovary but fail to enter the oviduct. Or, owing to rupture of the oviduct or a reversal of its peristalsis, the tgg substance may enter the abdominal cavity. Usually these eggs are absorbed or walled off without very serious annoyance to the bird. In other cases they may cause severe peritonitis. Finally foreign bodies may enter the abdomen through such operations as caponizing. Diagnosis. — The sick birds appear restless and lose their appetite. There is a high fever. The abdomen is swollen, hot and tender. Pressure on the abdomen produces evidence of sharp pain. Usually, but not always, a severe thirst accom- panies peritonitis. As the disease progresses the bird becomes weaker, is unable to stand and the legs are drawn up clo'^c to the body often with convulsive movements. Post-mortem examination shows the peritoneal membrane to be deep red in color (provided the bird has just died or has been freshly killed without bleeding). This membrane is usu- POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 73 ally covered with a thick opaque yellowish exudate. This gives it the appearance of ])eing much thicker than usual. In some cases small lumps of whitish matter (pus) are found. The abdomen may contain more or less liquid which is usually yel- lowish and turbid and may have an offensive odor. If a mis- carried Qgg is the cause of the trouble portions of this will usually be found. Treatment and Prognosis. — Only very seldom is treatment for peritonitis successful. The disease is not usually recog- nized until in an advanced age. Ziirn recommends w^rapping parts of the bird in wet cloths and to give internally tincture of aconite, 2 drops (at the most) with a teaspoonful of water 2 or 3 times a day. Sanborn recommends i grain opium pills twice a day to relieve pain, and warm liquid foods such as meat juice and milk in equal parts. Abdominal Dropsy or Ascites. Etiology. — This disease is sometimes called chronic peritonitis. It is characterized by the accumulation of a large quantity of liquid in the abdominal cavity. In some cases the abdomen iDecomes so distended that it nearly or quite touches the ground when the bird is standing. Salmon says: "If examined by slight pressure of the hand the swelling is found to be soft and fluctuating; it will yield in one place and cause greater disten- sion at another. That is, it gives the sensation of a sac filled with liquid." Abdominal dropsy may begin with a mild case of peritonitis Avhich has continued for a long time without becoming serious. In young chicks it is said to be due to an anaemic condition produced by bed feeding and insanitary conditions. In older birds it may also result from this same cause or may be due to some obstruction of the venous circulation either by a tumor or by some structural disease of the abdominal organs. Diagnosis. — The most marked symptom, of course, is the enlarged, flabby abdomen. Salmon says: "Fowls affected in this way are dull, disinclined to move, generally feeble with pale comb and diminished appetite." Treatment. — "Treatment of this condition is not profitable, "but in special cases, stimulating diet with considerable animal food, tonics and diuretics, may be tried. Iodide of potassium 74 I'OII.TKV DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. or iodide <>t iron in iloses of i grain is particularly indicated." ( Salmon. ) Tapping with a hollow needle or trocar through the .skin and muscles of the abdomen and allowing the fluid to escape is also recommended. It will usually be found more profitable to kill the bird. CHAPTER XL Internal Parasites. Fowls are often seriously infested with internal parasites. The most important of these are various worms living in the alimentary canal. In p()])ular usage these are spoken of simi)ly as "worms." \'arious other internal parasites as the gape worm, the air sac mite, etc.. are described in other sections of this book. Tlie present discussion will be confined to intes- tinal worms. Regarding these Robinson says : "Worms in small quantities inhal)it the digestive organs of all fowls and animals without causing them serious inconvenience. It is even maintained by some authorities tliat in limited numbers these parasites are beneficial, though in just what way they are beneficial I have never seen stated, and it seems more reasonable, in the present state of knowledge of the subject, to claim no more than that when not too numerous they do no perceptible harm. Worms are contagious in that they are transmitted from fowl to.fowd, probably always indirectly by being deposited on the ground by one fowl and taken from it by another ; but if it is true as stated that worms in small numbers are always present, contagion is not re(|uired to account for their increase to troublesome num- bers in many nicnibers of a Hock simultaneously. The more reasonable assumption in the ])rcmises is that all these fowls alike were in a condition favorable to an excessive development of the parasites. This is a phase of the question on which the literature of the subject has done nothing — yet it seems to be tlie all-imj)ortant point to determine." Diacjnosis of IVonns in General. — Accurate diagnosis of worms in the intestines can be made only by finding the worms in the droppings of the fowls. Fowls affected witli worms to any great extent frc(|ucntly show the general symptoms of dull- ness and depression. I'.irds that are suspected of being aft'ected with worms should be shut up in a cooj) and given a do.se of 76 POUU'RY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. some vermifuge or a purgative dose of Epsom salts. If careful observation of the droppings are made at frequent intervals the worms, if present, can usually be detected in this way. This is not, however, an infallible test. Regarding further measures Robinson says: "If efforts to secure evidence from the living fowls of tlic i)resence of w^orms fail, and the poultryman is at a loss to account for the trouble with his fowls, a suspected fowl should 1)0 killed and examined, and if this is still insufficient, the case should be taken to a competent veterinary. It is of greatest importance that the facts in such cases be learned and proper trcatnient given, for wdiether the worms cause the trouble or conditions exist which favor their increase, the situation is full of danger to the keeper of a flock in which serious trouble is associated with worms ; and while I do not wish to unneces- sarily alarm an\'onc, the fact that in recent years worms in epi- demic form have put a number of poultry plants out of busi- ness, should be stated as a warning to poultrymen troubled with imidentified diseases presenting symptoms which might be asso- ciated with worms." The principal parasitic w'orms which affect the digestive tract of fowds may be grouped into three classes as follows : Tape worms, round worms and flukes. Tape Worms. Tape worms have long been known to infest domestic poultr}-. Occasionally serious outbreaks of the tape worm disease occur in various parts of the country. These outbreaks are usually confined to comparatively small areas and are perhaps more common in the southern states. Etiology. — The tape worms of poultry, like those which infest man and the domestic animals, are long, flat, segmented worms, (fig. 6.) The anterior end of the animal possesses a number of hooks or suckers by which it attaches itself to the walls of the intestine. Back of this head the entire animal consists of a long series of segments or proglottids. The segments nearest the head are the smallest and it is at this region that new seg- ments are constantly being formed. The farther from the head they get the larger the segments become. Towards the pos- terior end of the worm the segments develop sexual organs and later become filled with eggs. As soon as tlie eggs are POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 17 I I fertilized and mature the segment ^A Cy~W^\ containing them tlrops off and passes to the exterior with the feces of the ^ H !_/ f^^ host. Each segment of this kind .5 B r-n L— , contains thousands of eggs. If these eggs are to develop far- ther they must be swallowed by some intermediate host (as a worm, snail or insect). The tgg then hatches into a 6-hooked embryo which bores its way from the intestine into the bodv cavity of the intermediate host. It here develops into a larval form known as a cysticcrcoid. When the intermediate host (worm, snail, etc.) is eaten by a chicken this larva con- tinues its development and forms an adult tape worm. Thus there are two stages in the life cycle of a tape worm: that in the adult host and that in the intermediate host. Each species of tape worm, of which there are a great many, has its par- ticular host, both intennediate and final. According to Stiles (Bur. An. Ind. Bui. 12) there were up to 1896, 33 species of tape worms recorded for poultry. Of these 1 1 are re- corded as occurring in chickens. The complete life history is known Regarding the tape worms of chick- p. 13 : '■( They) are knoziii to become infected with one tape worm through eating slugs (Limax). They are supposed to become infected with a second through eating snails (Helix) : by a third through eating flies and by a fourth through eating earth worms." There seems but little need to give a description of the differ- ent species of tape worms found in chickens. The characters by which they are distinguished from each other are too minute and involved to be of use to the poultryman or farmer. If any- one is having trouble with tape worms in poultry the best thing Fig. 6. Drepanidotacnia in fundibulifoniiis. a tape worm of the fowl. (Af- ter Stiles). for only a few of these, ens. Stiles (/or. cit.) says. 78 POL'LTRV DISEASES AND Til I.IK TREATMENT. to do is to send a portion of the intestine containing the worms to tlie Zoological Division, ihneau of Animal Indnstry. U. S. Department of Agricultnre. Washington. D. C. In this way the worms will he idcntiticd and any s])C'cilic remedies will be recommended. Xoditlar Ta-iiiasis. Stiles says, p. 15: "At least one specie« of tape worm {Da- ■raiiwa tctragona) causes a serious nodular disease of the intes- tine of chickens whicli u])on su])erticial examination ma\' be easily mistaken for tuberculosis." Moore says (liur. .\n. Ind. Circ. Xo. 3. 1895) : "Tuberculosis is the only known disease for which this affection is liable to be mis- taken, and it is of much importance that the two diseases should not be confounded. The diagnosis has not in my experience been difficult, as in every case the attached tape worms were readily detected upon a close examination (jf the intestinal con- tents, or of the mucous membrane of the infected portion of the intestine. How- ever, the worms are quite small and could easily be overlooked in a hurried or cursory examination. In case of doubt, if the af- fected intestine is opened and the mucous surface washed carefully in a gentle stream of water, the small worms will be observed hanging to the mucous membrane. This discovery, in the absence of lesions in the liver or other organs, would warrant the diagnosis of the tape worm disease." Diagnosis. — The symptoms of tape worm disease are not specific. The general symp- toms are similar to those of other worms (cf. p. 75). Regarding the symptoms of tai)e worms Stiles quotes the following from Ziirn : 'Tf numerous tape worms are present in the intestine of young or old fowls a more or less extensive intestinal catarrh develops, corresponding to the greater or less number of parasites present." Fig. 7. Intestine of a fowl turned v/rong side out to show tape worms in nodular tae- n i a s i s. After Pearson and War- ren). POL'LTKV DISEASES AND THKIK TKl'.A T M KXT. 79 "'IMk' intestinal catarrh sliows itself, especially in chickens and geese, as follows: The sick animals become emaciated, althouj^h the appetite is not especially disturbed. At times the appetite is even increased. The dro])pin<4S are thin, contain considerable yellow slime, and are passed in small quantities but at short intervals. The poultry raiser must direct his attention to these thin, slimv, and often blo(->dv droiipings. for if any treatment against the taj^e worm is to be undertaken, this mtist Ije done as early as possible. In ol)serving the dro])])ings it should be noticed whether tape worm segments or (.^gg^ are present. The eggs can be seen, of course, only with the microscope." "After a time other symptoms develop. The sick animals become dull and listless, remain apart from the rest of the tlock — the feathers are ruffled and the wings droop, the appetite is lost and the birds allow themselves to be easily caught. Although it was stated that in the beginning of the trouble the a])petite is not disturbed, the sick animals develop an intense thirst for cold water. When it rains they run under the eaves in order to ■catch water, and in winter are eager for ice water." Since the examination of the feces for tajoe worm segments is ratlier unsatisfactory for the farmer or poultryman, vStiles says tliat "Tlie best method for the farmer to follow is to kill one of the sick chickens when he suspects tape worms and to ctit out the intestine. He should then open the intestinal tract from gizzard to anus in a bowl of warm water, and look for the parasites." ( Cf . fig. /). Finding the worms in the ali- mentary canal is the only certain diagnosis of the (Hsease. Treatment. — The chief drugs used for tape worms in fowls are: Extract of male fern, turpentine, areca nut. powdered kamala, pumpkin seed, pomegranate root bark and Epsom salts. The following extract from Salmon gives the principal methods of treatment and the doses: "One of the best methods of treat- ing tape worms in fowls is to mix in the feed a teaspoonful of powdered pomegranate root bark for every 50 head of birds. In treating a few birds at a time it is well to follow this medicine with a purgative dose of castor oil (2 or 3 tea.spoonsful ). According to Ziirn, powdered areca nut is the best tape worm remedy for fowls, but he states that turkeys are im favorably affected by it. It may Ix- gi\en in doses of 30 to 45 grains mixed with butter and made into pills. Male fern is also a very eft'ectual remedy and may be used in the form of powder (dose 8o POUUTRV DISKASES AND TIIKIK TKKATMENT, 30 grains ti> i ilram ) or "l" li^^""5^— Ail /■\\f^ 'Windpipe . C-i/l/et. O^.Q- Fig. 8. Sketch showing method of introducing turpentine directly into crop. (From Gage and Opperman). POUI.TKV DISEASlvS AND TIIKIR TKKAT MKXT. Bl beinsr followed l)v much air. TIk' bird's head is then hruiight in a line with the neck, which is extended, the catheter is passed carefully to the crop, when a slight pressure on the bulb forces out the medicine, and the instrument is witluhawn. The opera- tor should be sure that he avoids the trachea." More recently Gage and Opperman* have found Ep.-.om salts and turpentine a very effective remedy for Nodular T?eniasis. After careful consideration of the data they conclude that "40 to 50 grains of Epsom salts is sufficient for an adult fowl in order to clean out the intestinal tract so that the birds may take food. Then the turpentine should be introduced" as directed above. For younger birds the dose of salts should be propor- tionately less. In fowds from 6 months to 2 years old the salts are best given by dissolving in water and giving each fowl this liquid. For younger chicks the salts may be dissolved in warm water and used to moisten the mash or feed. Prevention. — The following statement by Salmon gives some of the chief preventative measures: "Parasitic infestation of the digestive tract should be guarded against by hygienic measures so far as possible. One of the most important of these measures is to move the fowls upon fresh ground every 2 or 3 years, or certainly in all cases where such parasites are frequently ob- served in the intestines of the birds. Another practical measure, v^'hich may be adopted at the same time, is to remove the excre- ment daily from the houses and destroy any parasites or their eggs which may be in it. by mixing it with quick lime or satu- rating it with a 10 per cent solution of sulphuric acid. The acid is cheap, but requires that great care be taken in diluting it, owing to danger of its splashing upon the clothing and flesh and causing severe burns. It should always be poured slowly into the water used for dilution, but on no account should water be poured into the acid as it will cause explosions and splashing." "When treating diseased birds these should always be isolated and confined, and their droppings should cither be burned or treated with lime or sulphuric acid as just recommended. With- out these hygienic measures, medical treatment can only be par- tially successful." Stiles says: "An extermination oi slugs will insure immunity against Davainca proglott'via, but n<« precise (Hrections can be *Md. Agric. Expt. Stat. Bui. 139, 1909. 6 H2 I'ori.Tin' nisi:.\si:s and tiii:ik tkeatmkxt. given I ) prevent chickens from becoming infected witli other ta])e vornis until the life lii^loiy of these ])arasites i> better understood. It will be well, however, to keep the chickens housed in the morning until the sun is well u]) and the ground is (Ir_\-. for they will thus be less likely to meet with the sup- ])Osable intermediate hosts of other worms." Round U'oriJis. Round worms can be found in the intestine and especially the ceca of almost any fowl. They are much more common than the tape worms. Normall}' the round W(_)rms cause no serious trouble to fowls. Under certain conditions, however, they may become so numerous as to l)e a serious menace to the dock. At such times they have a decided effect on the digestion ; the irrita- tion often causes diarrhea. A\dien in large numbers, they sometimes become rolled and matted into a ball which may cause complete stoppage of the intestine. The round worms are white in color and vary in length from 1-3 inch to 5 inches. The head end is sharp pointed, while the tail end is more blunt. Koimd worms are seldom I)assed in the feces unless present in very large num- bers. When a wt)rm is passed it soon dies in the droppings or is eaten by another fowl. Dispharagus spiralis, a small worm about 1-3 inch in length, is often found in the resophagus and occasionally in the crop or intestine. Fig. 9. Worms protruding from a sec- tion of the intestine of a fowl L\ftcr Bradshaw). POUI.TKV IMSF.ASES AND TIIF.IK TKKATMKNT. 83 Dispharagns nasiitus. about J4 incli long, occurs in the walls of tin- gizzard of f(^\vls. It sometimes becomes so numerous as to cause serious loss. licti-ralcis pcrsf^icillinn. fn.m i>j to 3 inches long, is very common in the intes- tines of fowls. They sometimes become very numerous and may become rolled into rather large balls which obstruct the pas- sage of the food. Several other species of the genus Hctcr- akis also infest fowls and other poultry. Diagnosis. — The symptoms of round worms are similar to those of ail worms (of. p. JS)- There is evidence of indiges- tion. The comb becomes pale and there may be diarrhea. Treatment. — The remedies mentioned on p. 79 for tape worms are also useful for round worms. The remedy most com- monly advised is to give 2 grains santonine for each bird. Dissolve this in water and use to mix the wash. As recommended on p. 79, all droppings should be collected and examined, also put out of reach of the birds. ^'^■. -"'■•// ^^''''''''''" \'ale recommends the following: "Beat '"''^r"' "'"■ ° . a, male, b, female. a new laid egg with i tablespoonful of oil ^^ (From Sal- of turpentine and mix thoroughly by .shak- nion). ing. Give a teaspoonful of the mixture night and morning for a few days ; or divide j4 o^ an ounce of areca nut in powder, into 4 parts, and give i part each morning, fasting, with a dessertspoonful of sweet oil 2 hours after each powder." Flukes. Flukes or trematode worms are small, fiat and usually oval- shaped. Fig. 1 1 gives a fair idea of the ai)pearance of these par- asites. S4 ron.TKv DISEASES and tiii ■ki:.\tmi:nt. Trematodc worm or Rci^Mrdin.t,^ these parasites in poultry, The'diald (Parasitic Diseases of I'Dultry. London) says : "The Trematodc worms or Fhikes found in ihc fowl are 3 in number. ( )ne is found in the egg (Distoma o-ratimn, the otlurs in tlTe oesophagus and in- testines." "The Fluke found in the neso- l>ha,!4Lis of the fowl is known as CcphaIo(joiii)}iiis pcllitcidus, a transparent reddish fluke about 9 mm. long. These were found by Von Linstow and Railliet. In the intestines Neumann enu- merates 7 species, namely, Noto- cotylc triscrialis Distomc oxycc- phahim, Rud., D. dilatatum, Miriam. D. lincarc, Zeder, D. ovatiim, D. armatnm, Molin, and Mcsogonimus commutatus, Sons. These, however, are not all dis- Fig. II fluke showing intern a structure. (From Thomp- t'^^'t ; dilatatum is undoubtedly son after Sommer). the same as oxyccphalum ; arma- tnm is also probably the same." "None of these Trematodc worms are of any pathological im- portance, although, as is well known, they often cause serious malaflies in other animals. All the Flukes that have two hosts underg) a complicated metamorphosis, the early stages always taking place in some water-molluse. Those found in Galliis do- jucsficits have not had their life-histories worked out." CHAPTER XII. Diseases of the Respiratory System. Anatomy and Physiology. The respiratory organs of birds are the nasal passages, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs and air sacs. The form and general appearance of the lungs and trachea are shown in fig. 12 B Fig. 12. Lungs of a bird. A, lower sur- face. B, upper sur- face. (After Salmon). if Fig. 13. Right lung of a goose. A, primary branches. b, and b', open- ings into abdomi- nal and thoracic air sacs, c, c, sec- o n d a r y bronchi. (After Owen). The respiratory apparatus differs somewhat in structure and function from that of mammals. As in mammals the trachea (wind-pipe) divides into the primary bronchi, cme passing to each lung. In birds these bronchi do not divide and subdivide 86 I'liLI.TKV DISEASES AND TlllJK TKF.AT.MKNT. as in nianimals but each passes to the posterior end of its hing and where it opens into the abdominal air sac. This relation is shown in fig. 13. Til the liuij;- the primary bronchus gives off branches (sec- ondar\- bn>nchij some of which end blindly (cf. fig. 13). The secontlary branches give off branches (tertiary bronchi) all of which end blindly (cf. fig. 14). This tubular system makes up the air-containing portion of the lungs. It is imbedded in a net-work of almost naked blood vessels which make up the spongy tissue of the lungs (cf. fig. 14). The aeration of the blood takes place through the w^alls of these vessels. The rela- tions of this tubular system of the lungs are shown in fig. 14. The air sacs arc very large, thin-walled sacs which open into the bronchial tubes as described. They function chiefly as res- ervoirs of air so that fresh air is supplied to the lungs twace dur- ing each breath. The air passes through the lungs into them during inspiration and during expiration the lungs are filled with the air forced back from the sacs. Some aeration of blood takes place in the sacs and they also help to reduce the relative weight of the body. In addition to aeration of the blood, the respiratory apparatus eliminates most of the waste moisture of the body and is. therefore, the temperature regulator. In mam- mals this function is performed by the sweat glands and the se- cretion of the kidneys. Birds have no sweat glands and the secretion of the kidneys contains relatively little moisture. The air passages are lined with mucous membrane and this membrane is the seat of several diseases. Diseases are easily transferred from one part of the respiratory system to another, since the passages and also the lining membranes are contin- uous from the nostrils to the air sacs. There are also diseases of the vascular part of the lungs. Some of these diseases are caused by unfavorable conditions as exposure to cold, draughts of air, or moist air or to improper food. Others are due to specific organisms. Most of the latter are contagious. Expo- sure to unfavorable conditions also reduces the ability of the birds to resist infectious diseases. POULTRY DISEASES AND TIIKIK TUKATMEXT. 87 B Catarrh. — (Simple Catarrh; Non-coiitagioiis Catarrh; Cold.) One of the most common diseases of the air i)a?sages is catarrh (cold). It is often hard to distinguish this disease from early stages of roup and diph- theria. The characteristic symptoms of the latter dis- ease should be carefully looked for, lest the flock become infected with a dan- gerous contagious disease. In cases where there is a suspicion of either of these diseases it is better to iso- late the sick l)irds. Catarrh is non-contagious. It usu- ally affects only a few indi- viduals in the flock, but in cases of exposure of the flock to the unfavorable conditions which cause the disease it may occur in quite a number of birds at Fig. 14. A — Lobule of the lung of a bird represented in ideal longi- tudinal section ; a, a, secondary bronchi : b, b. tertiary bronchi. B. — Plexus of blood vessels which chiefly compose the pulmonary tissue. (After Owen). the same time. D{ag)iosis. .Salmon gives the following description of the symptoms of this disease: '"In simple, non-contagious catarrh, the affected birds are more or less dull, they are disinclined to move, their appetites are diminishetl. they .sneeze and the mucous membrane is thickened, causing some ob.struction to breathing through the nostrils. There soon appears a thin, water dis- charge which later becomes thicker and glutinous, the eyes are often watery, the eyelids swollen and sometimes held together by a thick, viscid secretion. In very severe cases, the birds are somnolent, the plumage is erect and roughened, the nostrils are completely obstructed by the thick secretion, the breathing is entirely through the mouth and is accompanied by a wheezing or snoring sound, the appetite is entirely lost, a thin liquid es- capes from the mouth and the bird .soon becomes exhausted and dies." 88 rori.TKv diseasks and tukik treatmkxt. Etiology. Tlic cause of catarrli i> exposure to cold, to draughts of aii". ti> daiii]) atmosphere (hie to improper housing concHtions. or to wet weather. Weak stock or improperly nour- ished birds are iiion,' likely to he affected 1)\- these conditions than strong, vigorous and well fed individuals. Treatment. With strong, healthy stock it is usually only nec- essary to remove the cause. It is a good practice, however, to give red pei>per U"a])>icnni i witli the foofl. Salmon gives the lornnila and dose of a tonic recommended In' .Megnin. "Gentian root 4 drams Ginger 4 drams Sulphate of iron 2 drams Hyposulphite of sodium i dram Salicylate of sodium i dram These substances are to be pulverized and then thoroughly mixed. The dose is 3 to 4 grains a day for a medium-sized fowd. Its effects are stimulating and tonic." In severe cases, the eyes, mouth, and nostrils may be washed once or twice a da\- with (jne of the following solutions wdiich are given in order of preference: 1. Boracic acid 3 per cent .solution. 2. Creolin i per cent solution. 3. Hydrogen dioxide mixed with equal parts of w^ater. 4. Carbolic acid, 2 per cent solution. Prognosis. A great majority of the birds recover in a few days if the cause is immediately removed. If the cause con- tinues to act they may become worse and die, or the disease may become ciu'onic and persist for a long time. Bronchitis, Croup. This disease may follow catarrh as a direct extension of the inflammatory processes in the membrane of the nasal cavities and throat to the mucous membrane of bronchial tubes. Diagnosis. The symptoms of bronchitis are the symptoms of a hard cold (severe catarrh) with rapid breathing and cough. It may be distinguished from a cold by the peculiar sounds made in breathing. In the early stages of the disease this is a whist- ling sotmd made l)y tlie passage of the air over the dry, thickened uKinbrane. As the disease advances nmcus collects in the tubes and the breathing is accompanied l)y a rattling or bubbling sound. Under favorable conditions the symptoms do not usually pass POULTRY DISKASKS AND TIIKIK T KM- AT M I' XT. 89 beyond this stage but soon disappear. In very severe cases the birds become very sleepy and refuse to eat. The wings droop. The feathers are roughened and breathing becomes more and more difficult, until linally the bird die>. The less severe forms of the disea!-"e may become chronic while tlic symptoms of rat- tling breath and coughing ui) mucus may persist for a long time. In this form of the disease the birds appear well except for the above symptoms. Etiology. AA'hen it follows a hard cold, bronchitis may be caused by an extension of the inflammation of the mucosa of the throat to the mucosa of the bronchial tubes. It may also be caused directly by exposure to cold, draughts, and dampness; or it mav result from irritation of the mucous membrane caused by inhaling irritating vapors, dust or foreign particles. TrcaiiJiciit. Place the patient in a warm, dry. well ventilated but not draughty rooms. Feed bread or middlings moistened with milk, and add to this food 2 grains of black antimony twice a day. A demulcent drink is often beneficial. A very good one is made by steeping a little flax seed in water. Other demulcent drinks are made by dissolving honey or gum arabic in water. This treatment is sufficient for mild cases. Salmon recommends the following treatment for severe attacks : "If the attack promises to be severe, it may sometimes be checked in the early stages by giving 10 drops of spirits of tur- pentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil and repeating this dose after 5 or 6 hours. It should not be continued after there are signs of purging, for fear of exhausting the strength of the patient. In the very acute cases, where the whistling or snor- ing sounds with the respiration indicate a croupous form of inflammation, and where the gasping shows great obstruction of the air passage, relief may be obtained by giving from 3 to 6 drops of either the syrup or the wine of ipecac." "Medicines should be administered very carefully in diseases affecting the trachea and bronchi, as otherwise they mav enter the air passages and increase the irritation." Prognosis. In the ordinary and chronic forms the birds usu- ally recover. In the more severe forms a large per cent of the affected birds die. Influenza (Epizootic, Grippe, Distemper). This disease is mentioned by Woods as "a contagious germ 90 rOL'LTRV DISEASES AND TIIKIR TKEATMENT. disease closely association with rouji." Robinson gives a brief statement of the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of this dis- ease as follows: "I'riefly stated, the symptoms are of a sud- den and severe cold, with high fever, generally diarrhea, and extreme (k'l)iHty. In very severe cases death may ensue with- in a few hours after the fowl is observed to be sick. Usually the bad cases linger for a day or two, while those that recover run for a week or lo days. Treatment the same as for bad colds." Quite possibly this is not a separate disease but is either a severe form of cold occurring in many individuals of a flock which has been exposed to unfavorable, insanitary conditions, or is a mild form of roup. Roup (Contagions Catarrh, Diphtheria, Diphtheritic Roup, Canker). V^eterinarians have distinguished two diseases belonging to this general class of troubles as follows: (a) roup or contagious catarrh ^\llcn onl}- catarrhal symptoms are present, and (b) di])htheria. diphtheritic roup and canker when diphtherial patches and false membranes are formed. The bacteriologists Moore. Harrison and Streit. consider these different stages of the same disease. Cary not only considers these as one disease but also believes that sorehead, chicken pox or epithelioma con- tagiosum is also a form of this disease. These questions cannot be settled with the present knowledge of the causes of these diseases. The evidence for considering roup and diphtheria as successive stages in the same disease seem much better than the evidence that sore-head is a form of this disease. In the present work sore-head is treated separately. Roup is a disease of very great economic importance. It is widely distributed causing a large annual death rate, and also reducing the value and production of affected flocks since many birds contract the disease in a chronic form and become worth- less for egg production or breeding. Such birds preserve the germs of the disease and this leads to fresh outbreaks when- ever the flock is exposed to unfavorable conditions. Diagnosis. Harrison and Streit* give a very good descrip- *Harrison. F. C. and Streit. H.. Roup. Ont. Agr. Coll. & Exp':. Farm. Bulletin 125, Dec. 1902, pp. 1-16. POULTRY nisi:.\si:s and tiii:ir iki-atment. 91 tion ol the s\nii>l(ini> of nuip fn>iii early to late stages. The following account is ([uotcd t'roni their hulklin : "The general condition of roupy birds varies very nnich. Af- ter the first svmptonis of the disease, which is usually a putrid catarrh from the nostrils, the affected fowl is generally restless, separates from other niemhers of the tlock, becomes dull, cow- ers in the corner of the coop or mopes in the corner of the pen, with its head drawn close to its body and often covered with its wmgs. "Tf there is a severe discharge from the nostrils or eyes, then the feathers upon the wings or back are likely to be smeared with it. -tuck together, and after some time fall out; and the eyes often shut, the lids being glued together b\- the sticky dis- charge from them." "A fowl in a sleepy condition, or moping as described, fre- C|uentl\- arouses itself for a time, takes food, and especially water, and then gradually returns to the apathetic condition." Fig. 15. Sliowing ajjpearance of a hen a day before ck'ath from roup, i I'rdni Harrison and Streit). '■-Main- fowls ha\ing the disease in a chronic form keep their normal appetite for a long time, and seem very little disturbed physically, whilst others, especiall\- when the face or eyes be- come swollen, lose their appetite, grow thinner and thinner, and fmally become too weak to stand or walk around, when they lie down rmd die in a few days. During the last stage diarrhoea, with offensive yellow or green discharge, often sets in and caus- es death in a short time." 92 I'uri.TKV DISEASES AND TIIKIK TREATMENT. ".Main |iiiic(l with the formation ui the tumor on the lace, there is an affection of tlie eyes; or the eyes become (Hseased without the preliminary (Hscharge from the nose, in which case poultry keep- ers speak of fowls as suffering from "roup of the eyes." "Roup of the liycs. The first symptom of the eyes is gener- ally an inflammation of the eye-lids. These become red, swollen and hot; then the mucous membrane and glands of eyes become inflamed and begin to secrete a liquid — at first clear, and then of a grey, slimy, putrid character, which dries on the feathers at the side of the head, causing them to stick together or fall out. If the secretion is retained in the eye socket, it undergoes a change, becoming a yellowish, solid, cheesy mass of the same appearance as that found in the nasal tumor. This cheesy mass either forces the eye out of its socket, or the inflammation entirely destroys it. These cheese-like masses form in one or two days, and may reappear after many daily removals." "All these affections, described above, may be localized on one side; but often both nasal passages anrl both eyes are affected at the same time." ■"Combined w^ith the symptoms of roup above described, there often are patches of a greyish yellow exudation firmly adherent tc the mouth, throat, etc. These patches are called "false mem- branes," and on account of their somewhat close resemblance to the membrane which is formed in human diphtheria, it has been thought by some writers that the avian and human dis- eases are the same. Here, however, let it suf^ce to say that the weight of evidence is against this contention." poui/nn' nisi'ASKs and tiii-.ir treatment. 95 Fig. i8. Head of a fowl 22 days after in- oculation with a culture of the roup baciUus. A. — False membrane. (From Harrison and Streit). Fig. 19. Throat and bottom of mouth with false membrane (»/) 14 days after inoculation. (From Harrison and Streit). 90 pori.Tin I)im:.\si:s and tiii:iu iKr.ATMKXT. Fig. 20. A section of a false mcr.il)rane of a roupy fowl, (a) — false membrane; (b), cpitbeliuni: (c), sub mucosa. (From Harrison and Streit). A.- B- ^*^ •:-.,.^ il^ Fig. 21. Head of a bird witb diytheritic roup affecting the mouth and tongue. A. B, C and D. — False membranes. (From Mcgnin). "We may al.so point out that many poultry kceper.s who notice the false nicm])ranr on the tliroat and mouth of their fowls, POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 97 regard the disease as quite different from the catarrhal form, and call it "canker." which is probably a popular form of the word "cancer." "Whether the disease is characterized by false membranes, offensive discharges, or cheesy masses, the cause is the same, as we have many times experimentally demonstrated." "At one or several places in the mouth or throat, these yellow- ish, smooth or uneven membranes appear, and either remain small and disappear after a few days or grow thicker, spread, and become firmly attached to the mucous membrane; and if they (the false membranes) are removed, an uneven, bleeding surface is exposed, which looks like a true cancer." "After the appearance of the membranes the adjacent sub- mucous tissue sometimes becomes inflamed, and finally the growths are found to be similar to those so often seen at the side of the face — containing solid cheesy matter in the center." "V\'hen the throat is blocked by these false membranes, the animal's breathing becomes abnormal, and the air passing through tlie throat produces loud noises. Gradually, the visible mucous membrane and the con.il) turn blue, and the fowl finally dies from suffocation." "The Course of the Disease. The course of roup is usually of long duration. A simple, putrid discharge from the nose may stop in 3 or 4 weeks, and similarly false membranes may soon disappear; but generally the symptoms last for months. When the eyelids become swollen and tumors appear, the case i.- usually chronic. Affected birds may be better for a few days or weeks, and then become very weak again. Damp, colu weather usually intensifies the disease. "It is well known that fowls may be more or less sick from roup for one or even several years and these birds should have the greatest care and attention, for they are generally the cause of new outbreaks. Once introduced, roup may remain in a flock for many years. The first cold and moist nights of the fall and early winter cause all kinds of catarrhs, which in many instances are followed by roup. Roup spreads rapidly in the winter time and may attack from 10 to 90 per cent of the fowls in a Hock. Towards spring, the disease gradually disappears ; during the summer months, a few birds remain chronically affected ; and then the first cold nights give the disease a fresh start." 98 Pori.TKV DISKASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. ■■\'()Uii,i;' fowls aii to .show that no acquired immunity exists, as sometimes hai)pens after other diseases. vSome fowls are. however, naturally immune, and never take the disease. In the course of our own experiments, a white chicken which iiad never had roup, was innculated with repeated and large doses of the roup germ, but without effect." Etiology. Several organisms have been isolated from the lesions of birds suffering from roup. Four of these have some claim to be considered the cause of the disease. These include 3 species of bacteria and one protozoan. There is also some evidence that the cause of the disease is an invisible virus. While the specific organism or organisms which cause the disease are not certainly known its infectious nature is well established. It is probably carried from one individual to another in a flock, by the particles of dried secretion in the air or possiblv 1)\' the food and drink contaminated b\- the diseased birds. It may be introduced into a flock 1)\- tlie bringing in of birds from an infected flock, or by birds that have contracted the disease at shows. Possibly it is sometimes carried on the shoes or clothing of persons com- ing from infected }ards or houses. While a .source of infection i;; necessary for the production of the disease it does not appear to attack birds when the mucous membrane is in a healthy con- dition. It is most apt to attack birds that are suffering with catarrli. When a Hock once becomes infected the l)irds which develop a mild chronic form of the disease serve as sources of infection whenever exposure to cold and dampness causes ca- tarrh in the unaft"ected birds. Tims in infected flocks an out- break of roup usually follows catarrh caused by exposure and this fact has lerl s(^me poultrymcn to think that the disease may be caused directly ])y exposure. In some flocks it a])])ears annu- ally with the cold damp weather of late autumn and breaks out again at every radical change of temperature and moisture con- ditions throughout the winter. Vigorous and jiroperly nour- ished liirds are better able to resist catarrh and consequently roup than those that arc delicate and improperl)- fed. TrcalDh'iit. The best treatment is prevention. The disease can be prevented by stopping all sources of infection. Some things to kee]") in mind are : POULTRY DISEASES AND Til KIR TREATMENT. 99 1. Ill introducing new birds always procure them from unin- fected ilocks. 2. Isolate all new birds and all birds that have been exhibited at shows for 2 or 3 weeks to make sure that they do not develo]) the disease. 3. E.xclude from uninfected house and yards poultry and all other animals, including men, coming from those that are infected. 4. Do not use implements as hoes, shovels, etc.. tliat have been used on infected premises. 5. Keep the birds in a good hygienic condition, well nour- ished and in dry well ventilated houses and roomy yards. \Mien the disease has been introduced into the tlock careful precaution may prevent its spread. T. Immediately separate from the flock any bird that shows symptoms of the disease. 2. Disinfect the yards and houses. A 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid may be used on the yards. Remove the litter from the houses and disinfect freely. This 5 per cent carbolic solu- tion may also be followed by whitewash, or better use the cre- sol solution described in Chap. II. 3. Use potassium permanganate in all drinking water. (See Chap. II.) 4. Keej) watch of the flock so that any new cases may be isolated at once. 5. Burn or bury deep all birds that die. The disease is amenable to treatment but this treatment must be individual and requires a great deal of time. It mu-t be con- tinued once or twice a day for quite a long time. It is. there- fore, very expensive and consequently impracticable for ordinary stock. Moreover birds apparently cured are likely to become the source of infection for later outbreaks. Robinson well says : "I have cured many ver\- bad cases, but quit treating them years ago, because I found that as long as I cured roup I had more roup to cure." No better advice than is implied in this could be given. If the stock is only of ordi- nary value it is better to kill all birds that develop the disease. If the flock is badly infected and the disease appears again and again when conditions favor its development, it is better to dis- pose of the flock and disinfect thoroughly, using new nms when lOO rOULTRV DISEASES AND TIIKIK TREATMENT. starting as^^ain. New stock may be obtained from uninfected flocks or from incubator chickens raised on a fresh range. In tlu' case of vahiable show l)irds treatment may perhaps be advisable. Harris(^n and Strcit , infested with tliis ])arasite it is l)est wlien possible to start a new lli>ek with incubator chicks raised on a new range and earefull\- i)roteeted from infection from the old dock. ( ^r stock ma\- Ijc ])urclia>e(l from an uninfested Hock. l*)ir(ls with this i)arasite should not be boui^ht or sold lor breed- ing or laving purposes, as the llock into which the\' are intro- duced will become infested from them, v'^ince this ])ara>ite can not live long outside the bird's body, the houses, runs, etc., do not remain infested long after all the diseased birds ha\e been reuKwed. Prognosis. — A bird once infected is probably never free from the parasite but ma}' live a long time little harmed by its ])resence. CII.\I'TK1>1 Ml I. DlSKASKS 01- TIIK ClRCUI.ATOKV SvSTIiM. Pericarditis (Inflammation of the Pericardium. Dropsy of the Heart Sac). This disease is often found associated with other diseases of the circulatory system and with diseases of the hnigs and air- sacs and also with soreness of the joints. Diagnosis.— A differential diagnosis of this disease during life h not usually possible. Salmon gives the following symptoms: 'There is great weakness, difficult breathing, the head being thrown backwards. an:l the breath drawn through the mouth in order to ol)tain sufficient air. If forced to run the bird soon falls. In a case observed by Hill there was tumultuous action of the heart and occasional spasms." Examination of a bird dead from this disease shows the heart sac full of serous liquid and sometimes the cavity is divided by false membranes which may attach to the heart as well as to the pericardium. Btiology. — The causes of this inflammation are not known. It may result from exposure to cold or dampness. Treatment. — Treatment is impossible since the disease can not be diagnosed until after death. Successive cases in tlic same flock indicate exposure of the Hock to cold or wet weather or to confinino- the birds in insanitary houses. These conditions should be remedied. Salmon also recommends in such cases "2 to 4 grains of bicarbonate of soda to each bird daily in tlie drinking water." Endocarditis (Inflammation of the Interna! Membranes of the Heart). In the examination of dead birds it is sometimes fountl that the membrane lining the heart is reddened and coagulated lymph may adhere to it. Little is known of this disease in fowls. It cannot be distinguished from pericarditis except by an examina- tion of the heart. The cause and treatment suggested for that disease probably apply equally in these cases. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. II3 Myocarditis diptJicritica. According to Ziirn, Piollingcr has described a bacterial disease ot tile licart and bloi^d vessels of fowls and piij^enns. The dis- ease is caiisetl bv a l)acteriuni which resembles the bacterium of roup. The disease attacks the lining membrane of the heart and blood vessels, causing inflammation and the breaking down of the tissue. It especially affects the valves of the heart and aorta, where rountl or oval colonies ui the bacteria are found on the membrane. In these patches fibrin and red and white corpuscles are mingled \\ itii the organisms. The walls of the small vessels of the lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys and intestines are also affected. The liver, spleen, and kidneys arc enlarged. The bacteria are numerous in these organs as well as in the blood. Little is known of the frequence of the occurrence of this dis- ease and nothing of methods of treatment. Enlargement of the Heart (Hypertrophy). The heart of a fowl is sometimes enlarged. According to Cadeac this enlargement most frequently affects the right side of the heart. The muscle may be fatty and degenerate. Diagnosis. — The distinctive symptom of this disease is a very rapid beating of the heart. Etiology. — The cause of this hypertrophy of the heart muscle is not known, but it is probably due to some derangement in the nutrition of the muscle. The palpitations are increased by ex- citement or fright. Treatment. — The disease is not usually recognized while the bird is alive. Treatment is therefore not possible. Prognosis. — A hypertrophied heart may function for a long time. The violent beating may cause rupture of a blood vessel; sometimes several vessels are ruptured at the same time. Rupture of tlie Heart and Large Blood Vessels. Internal hemorrhage due to the rupture of the heart or large blood vessels often occurs in full blooded fowls. Diagnosis — The bird becomes weak and drowsy, passes into a comatose condition and dies with the characteristic appearance associated with bleeding to death. Etiology. — In full blooded fowls any excitement or over-exer- tion which causes an increase in the rate of heart beat and an 8 114 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. increased I)loo{l pressure may result in a rupture of the heart or one (^f tlic large vessels. Treatment. — The accident can ma be ]»rc(Hctcd and treatment is impossible. Pronnosis. — The hird dies in a short time. DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. Various cases of an alteration in the number of white cor- puscles in the blood of fowls have been described. Most of these descriptions are based on from one to three cases, and from the descriptions it appears that the investigators have found several different blood diseases. A'lost of these diseases when tested did not prove infectious. They are impossible to distinguish except by microscopic examination and most of them are prob- ably quite rare. Only one of these diseases seems to be of any economic importance. This is Lifcctioits Lenkccmia, first de- scribed by [Nloore (Ann. Rep. Bur. An. Ind. 1895-1896). Infections Lenkccmia. This is a bacterial disease often mistaken for fowl cholera but caused by a different species of bacteria and the lesions produced are somewhat different. Diagnosis. — The following symptomatology is quoted from Moore : "From the statement of the owners of the fowls in the different outbreaks and from the appearance of those in which the disease was artificially produced, little can be positively recorded concerning the distinctive or characteristic symptoms. The only fowl examined ante-mortem from the natural outbreaks was first seen only a few hours before death, when it was unable to stand. If held in an upright position, the head hung down. There was a marked ansemic condition of the mucosa of the head. It had an elevation of nearly 3 degrees of temperature. An examination of the blood showed a marked diminution in the number of red corpuscles and an increase in the number of white ones. In the disease produced artificially by feeding cultures of the specific organism there was in most cases a marked drowsi- ness and general debility manifested from i to 4 days before death occurred. The period during which the prostration was complete varied from a few hours to two days. The mucous membranes and skin about the head became pale. There was POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. TI5 an elevation of from i to 4 degrees of temperature. The fever was of a continuous type." "Although the course of the disease in the different fowls was usually constant, there were many variations. In a few indi- viduals the time required for fatal results was from 2 to 3 weeks, but ordinarily death occurred in about 8 days after feeding the virus, the rise in temperature being detected about the third day and external symptoms about the fifth or sixth, occasionally not until a few hours before death. The symptoms observed in the cases produced by feeding correspond with those described by the owners of affected flocks." Dr. Moore found the only constant lesions to be in the blood and liver. The change in the blood as noted above was a de- crease in the number of white cells. The change in the liver is described by Moore as follows : "The liver was somewhat enlarged and dark colored, except- ing in a few cases in which the disease was produced by intra- venous injections. A close inspection showed the surface to be sprinkled with minute grayish areas. The microscopic examina- tion showed the blood spaces to be distended. The hepatic cells were frequently changed, so that they stained very feebly, and not infrequently the cells were observed in which the liver cells appeared to be dead and the intervening spaces infiltrated with round cells. The changes in the hepatic tissue are presumably secondary to the engorgement of the organ with blood." Dawson's diagnosis of the disease (An. Rep. Bur. An. Ind. 1898, p. 350) differs somewhat from the one given by Moore. It is very difficult to distinguish this disease from fowl cholera except by identifying the bacteria which produce the diseases. Moore contrasts the characteristic lesions in the appended col- umns : Fowl cholera Infectious leukaemia. I. Duration of the disease from I. Duration of the disease from a few hours to several days. a few hours to several days. 2. Elevation of temperature. 2. Elevation of temperature. 3. Diarrhea. 3- Diarrhea very rare. 4- Intestines deeply reddened. 4- Intestines pale. 5- Intestinal contents liquid, 5- Intestinal contents normal in muco-purulent, or blood consistency. stained. 6. Heart usually pale and dotted 6. Heart dotted with ecchymoses. with grayish points, due to cell infiltration. no I'UILTKV DISKASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. Forvl cholera Infectious leukaemia ~. Lungs affected, hyperaemic or 7. Lungs normal .excepting in pneumonic. modified cases. 8. Specific organisms appear in 8. Specific organisms compara- large numbers in the blood lively few in the blood and and organs. organs. 9. Blood pale (cause not deter- 9. Blood pale, marked diminu- mincd). tion in the number of red ID. Condition of leucocytes not dc- corpuscles. termined. 10. Increase in tlic number of leucocytes. Attention should be called to the fact that as yet there seems not to have been a careful study of the condition of the blood in fowl cholera. Dr. Salmon observed many changes in this fluid which may have been similar to or identical with those herein recorded. On p. 201 of Dr. .Moore's paper he gives the method of differ- entiating the two l)acteria. This is, of course, dependent on microscopic examination and cultural tests. A full description of Bacterium sangiiinarium is given by Moore on pp. 188-191 of the paper cited above. Etiology. — The disease is caused by a non-motile, rod-shaped bacterium (Bacterium sanguinarium.) This bacterium causes the disease when injected into the blood or when fed. In a few cases fowls arc known to have contracted the disease by picking up the droppings of infected fowls. More recent work* indicates that there is at least one sort of transmissible fowl leukaemia which is dependent upon a filter- able \irus, rather than upon a visible organism. Moore says: "This disease of fowls has not been found in flocks where a good sanitary regime has been enforced. It is highly probable that it is a filth disease, being dependent upon unfavorable environments quite as much as the specific organism for the ability to run a rapidly fatal course and of spreading to the entire flock." Treatment. — Prevention is the only known treatment. A maintenance of generally sanitary conditions and the avoidance of the introduction of diseased birds are efifectual. If the dis- *Ellerman, V., and Bang. O., Cent. f. Bakt., Orig., 1908 xlvi, p. 595; Ztschr f. Hyg. u. inf .Krnkh., 1909, Ixiii, p. 231. Hirchfield, H., and Jacoby, M., Ztschr f. klin. Med. 1909-10, Ixix, p. 107. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. II7 ease appears in the Hock separate the diseased birds, disinfect the premises, and i)lace the flock under sanitary conditions. The disease will probably disappear, as it is difficult experimentally to maintain an infection when the birds are kept under sanitary conditions. Prog)iosis. — Diseased birds usually die in from a few hours to two weeks, but they may recover. CHAPTER XIV Diseases of the Nervous System. Apoplexy (Hemorrhage of the Brain). In this disease the bird usually drops dead or paralyzed with- out showing any previous sign of illness. The only abnormality found on examination of the dead bird is clotted blood on the brain. Etiology. — The cause of this disease is the rupture of a blood vessel in the brain and the pressure on the brain due to the blood which escapes. The cause of this rupture may be an unhealthy condition (usually a fatty degeneration) of the walls of the brain blood vessels. The immediate cause of the rupture is increased blood pressure due to fright, over-exertion, or strain in laying (hens often die on the nest). This disease is more apt to attack very fat birds and the degeneration of the vessels is supposed to be due to too rich food or to overfeeding. Treatment. — Treatment of the affected birds is useless. So- called "apoplexy cures," of which there are some on the market, should be left strictly alone by the poultryman. Only very rarely can apoplexy be recognized till after the bird is dead, and then all the pills or potions ever invented for the purpose of swind- ling a gullible public will be of no avail. If several successive deaths from apoplexy occur, modify the ration, giving more Screen food and less meat and corn. See that the birds have plenty of range. Prognosis. — The bird is usually found dead or dies in a little while. Heat Prostrations. In very warm weather heat prostrations may occur, especially among heavy fowls. This is sometimes considered to be the same thing as apoplexy. The birds sudflenly drop insensible or paralyzed. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. II9 Btiology. — The cause is pressure on the brain, due to heat, but the blood vessels are not ruptured as in apoplexy. Treatment. — Mild cases may be treated by applying cold water to the head and keeping the bird in a cool, quiet place. Prognosis. — Mild cases may recover. Others usually result fatally in a short time. As a preventative avoid overcrowding in hot weather. If the range is not provided with natural shade, supply artificially shaded places in which the birds may find protection from the hot sun during the middle of the day. Congestion of the Brain {Vertigo, Cerebral Hypercemia). A number of abnormal physiological conditions may lead to a congestion of blood in the brain. This is usually associated with a diseased condition of other organs, and hence often occurs as a complication with other diseases. It is sometimes due to injury of the head. Diagnosis. — Pearson (Diseases of Poultry) gives the follow- ing diagnosis of this disease : "It is characterized by staggering, stupor, unusual movements such as walking backward or walk- ing in a circle, unusual and irregular movements with the wings and feet and twisting the head backward or to the side. Some- times the bird will fall on its side and make peculiar movements with its feet and wings as though attempting to run or fly." Etiology. — The congestion of the brain is sometimes due to blows on the head or to fright or other intense excitement. Often it is associated with acute indigestion or with the presence of parasitic intestinal worms. Treatment. — Apply cold water to the head. Administer a lax- ative (2 teaspoorsful of castor oil, or 30 grains of Epsom salts given in water or i)^ grains of calomel). Kcc]) tlie fowl in a cool, quiet place. If this treatment is not efticient Salmon recommends i to 5 grains of bromide of potassium dissolved in I tablespoonful of water 3 times a day. If intestinal worms are fcnnirl in the droppings after tlie laxative, treat for tlic re- moval of these parasites (p. 79). Prognosis. — The bird may recover if the cause is removed. Epilepsy. This somewhat rare (li>ease is cliaracterized b_\- occasional fits. Between these the birds appear normal. 120 POULTRY DISEASKS AND TIIKIK TREATMENT. Diaijnosis. — PcarsDii ( 1 )iscascs of roultrv ) descriljcs the be- havior of the l)ir(l (hiring the lit as follows: "The fowl will make l)eatini; movements with its wings, its legs will draw up and it will fall down, sometimes turn over on its back, or it may stand upright with its legs apart, head turned backward and mouth and eyes opening and closing spasmodically." This spasm passes away after a time and leaxes the bird in a normal condition. FUiologw — It is ofUn impossible to discover any cause of the disease. It is said ti> l)e sometimes caused by tumors on the brain and soiuetimes l)y intestinal woi"ms. Treatment. — The only cases that can be treated are those caused by the presence of intestinal worms. \n affected bird should be put up and given a la.xative and if intestinal worms are passed treat the j)alient for the removal of these parasites (P- 79)- The bird-^ may li\-e some time with occasional fits and may recover. Cases caused l)v iiite-^tiiial worms arc definitely cured ])y reniijving the parasites. CHAPTER X\'. Diseases of the Kidneys. Riielmatism and Limherxeck. Gout. Gout is a rather common disease among fowls. It is due to a failure of the kidneys to eliminate the urates. The uric acid content of the blood is greatly increased antl the urates are deposited on the surface of the visceral organs, in the tissues of the urinary apparatus and around the joints in the form of crystals of urate of soda. In fowls two forms of the disease occiu" ; the visceral, and the articular. Visceral Gout. In visceral gout the only symptoms shown by an affected bird are a loss in weight or '"going light" and a slight yellowish tinge to the skin, comb and wattles. The bird has a good and often abnormal appetite. Death occurs suddenly. An examination of the abdominal cavity shows that all the organs and serous membranes are covered with a chalky or talcum-like powder. This powder has a mother-of-pearl luster and on microscopic examination is seen to be composed of small needle-like crystals. These are crystals of urate of soda. These crystals are also found in the luminary organs. The ureter and collecting tubules are often filled with a mass of these crystals. Drs. Hebrant and Antoine give the following test for the urate of soda. Dissolve the crystals in nitric acid and evaporate in a watch glass. This gives a red onion peel mass which turns purplish blue on the addition of a solution of caustic potash. Articular Gout. In this form of the disease the cr}stals of urate of soda are in nodules around the joints especially of the feet and toes. These nodules sometimes appear like strings of beads on the under side of the toes. They contain a white or creamy thick liquid composed mostly of the crystals. They are at first soft but later become very firm. The presence of the no lules causes stiffness and soreness of the joints and the liirds become indis- 122 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. posed to stand or walk. Sometimes the nodules ulcerate, dis- cliarging a stringy pus and exposing the cavities of the joints to the air. The development of fistulas cause the death of the hones. The (Hsease is slow in its development and advanced stages are seen only in old birds. The birds lose weight and in advanced stages diarrhea sets in and death from exhaustion follows. Early stages of this disease arc often mistaken for rheuma- tism on account dF tlic stiffness and soreness of the joints. Etiology. — The cause of this disease is a disturbance of the normal physiology of excretion so that the uric acid which should be excreted b\- the kidneys is first retained in the blood and then deposited within the body as crystals of urate of soda. The disturbance is probably due to a diet which is too rich in proteids. Trcatmciif. — In case of articular gout Salmon recommends rubbing the affected joints with camphorated or carbolic oint- ment. In well developed cases it is more profitable to kill the birds than to treat them. A'isceral gout is not usually recog- nized v.hile the bird is alive. Prevention is the only reliable treatment for either form of gout. Birds should be kept under sanitary conditions and given plenty of green food. When sev- eral birds develop the disease it is well to give the whole flock Epsom salts (34 to ^ teaspoonful per bird) and to reduce the amount of meat scrap and increase the quantity of green food. Prognosis. — The disease, especially the articular form, is chronic and advanced cases are only found in old birds. Badly diseased birds mav live a long time. Mild cases may recover on corrected diet. Other Diseased Coiiditio)is of the Kidneys. In llie examination of dead birds cases are often observed where the kidneys are diseased. They are often enlarged. Sometimes they contain dark points caused by the rupture of small blood vessels, and in other cases they may contain ab- scesses. Micro-organisms have been obtained from some cases of diseased kidneys. Nothing is yet known of the causes of these specific diseased conditions in poultry. Some of the cases of under-development, especially of pullets, are apparently flue to enlarged kidneys. In such cases the birds usually lose their appetite, become emaciated and their feathers are roughened. Xo dependable diagnosis of diseased kidneys can be made on rOUI.TRV DISEASES AND TIIKIR TREATMENT. I23 the living fowl. When several cases occur care should be taken to see that the llcjck receives a balanced ration with plenty of green food, as diseased kidneys may occur from too much pro- tein in the food. RJicuiiHjfisiJi. A lameness or stiffness is usually considered rheumatism. Many such cases are due to tuberculosis of the joints (p. 60), and others to articular gout (p. 121), but there are muscular and joint inflammations caused by exposure which are properly considered rheumatism. This disease is an inflammation of the connective tissues of the muscles and joints. Etiology. — It is caused by exposure to cold or dampness. The occurrence of several cases in the flock indicates something wrong in the housing conditions. Treatment. — The disease is prevented by keeping the fowls in (h'v. warm, well ventilated houses with well drained runs. Prognosis. — Fowls protected from further exposure and given a good ration with ])lenty of green food usually recover. Liinbcrncck. This is not properly a disease but a symptov.i which accom- panies several diseased conditions. A fowl is said to have limberneck wdien partial or entire nervous control of the neck muscles is lost. The neck may hang limp so that the head falls on the ground between the feet. Sometimes the bird is able to rai.se the Iiead from tlie ground l)y making a great effort. A bird is sometimes said to have limberneck wItcu the dorsal or lateral neck muscles are tense, tlie Iiea 1 drawn convulsively backward. ])ut tliis is more often called "wry-neck." Both limberneck and wry-neck are due to nervous disorders which arise from several different causes. "Wry-neck" is usu- ally associated with direct brain or nerve irritation and occurs in epileptic spasms, but also sometimes occurs in rheumatism. Limberneck is usually associated with colic, acute indigestion, intestinal parasites, or ptomaine poisoning. No treatment for limberneck as such can lie advised. Effort should be made to ascertain and cure tlie diseased condition which is respon'^il)le fcu- this symptom. Cases due to rheumatism, colic, indigestion, intestinal para- sites, and some of those due to poisoning may recover, if the real cause can be ascertained and treated soon enough. CllAl'TER X\I. External Parasites. \ igilant and continuous attention is necessary to keep fowls free from external parasites. At least 32 species of arachnids ^nd insects are known to be parasitic on fowls. Some of these like the red mites visit their host only to take food and spend the rest of the time mi the mider side of the roosts, in cracks and crevices and various otlur i)laces of seclusion. Others like the lice normally stay on the birds, although occasionally some in(li\i(hials crawl off, especially into the nest. Some of these parasites live upon the surface of the skin and upon the feathers, deriving their nourishment either by sucking the blood like the red mite, or by chewing the skin and feathers like the lice and some of the mites. Some of the mites, however, bore under the skin, causing skin diseases known as scabies or psoric dis- eases. The most common of these diseases are scabby or scaly leg and depluming scabies. The economic importance of these external parasites is very great. Fowls infested with one or several of these species of parasites are not profitable. They make a smaller growth in the same time with the same food and their egg production is not equal to similar birds not so infested. Xot only are they constantly robbed of some of their tissue and blood but their rest is disturbed. Sleep is as important to the normal ])hysi- ology of a l)ird as it i^ to that of a man. Kccpiiii^ a Poultry Plant Fvcc from External Parasites. It is not necessary for a poultryman to be able to distinguish the 32 species of ])arasites or to know their life histories in order to keep his plant free from them. It is only necessary to know that some of them stay on the birds and can only be extermi- p.ated by treating the birds (usually with a powder) while others spend most of their time on the under sides of the roosts in cracks and can best be exterminated by contact sprays contain- ing crcsol or kerosene. A single application is not efficient in POULTRY DISEASES AKD Til KIR TREATMENT. 1 25 either case but treatment must be repeated 2 or 3 times at inter- vals of a few clays to destroy those that hatch after the treat- ment or are concealed beyond its reach. A routine procedure by which a poultry plant can be kept free from parasites is very useful. The following;- uicIIkmI has proven very successful at the Maine Experinicnl Station and is (U'scril)e.l in Circular 352 of that Station : "The routine method which tlic Station uses in handling its- stock with reference to the lice problem is as follows: "All hatching and rearing of chickens is done in incubators and brooders. The growing chickens arc never allowed ta come into any contact whatever witli old hens. Therefore, when the pullets are ready to go into the laying houses in the fall thev are free from lice. Sometime in the later summer. usually in August or early in September, the laying houses are given a thorough cleaning. They are first scraped, scoured and washed out with water thrown on the walls and floor with as much pressure as possible from a hose. They are then given two thorough sprayings, with an interval of several days inter- venino-, with a solution of cresol such as is described in Chap. II. Then the roosting boards, nests, floors and walls to a height of about 5 feet are thoroughly sprayed with the lice paint (kerosene oil and crude carbolic acid described on p. 135). Finallv. any yearling, or older birds, whether male or female, which are to be kept over for the next year's work are given 2 or 3 successive dustings, at intervals of several days to a week between each application, with the lice powder described on p. 130, before they are put into the cleaned houses. "As a result of these methods the Station's poultry plant is at all times of the year practically free of lice." This method keeps the flock free from lice and the mites which live upon the surface of the skin, but would not destroy those mites which penetrate the skin and cause scabies. These and other more rare parasites should be destroyed when present by special methods. The description of, antl treatment for each class of external parasite is given below. A. LICE (mALLOPHAGa). Lice are probably the most widely distributed parasite of poultry. They are so common that flocks of fowls that have not been treated to remove lice for a long time are almost sure 126 I'Ori.TKV DISKASKS AND TIIKIR TKEATMENT. to have one or more species present. At least 8 species of hen Hce have been found and 5 of these are common. Bird hce are quite different from those which affect man and mammals. The popular notion that lice may be transmitted from poultry to other animals is quite erroneous. Theobald (Parasitic Dis- eases of Poultry) says: "So particular are bird-lice that it is quite the exception to iind one species upon two distinct kinds of birds. Fowl-lice will not even attack the duck nor duck-lice the fowl. Nearly every bird has its own particular Mallopha- gan parasite or parasites. They may possibly pass to some strange host for a short time, but they will not live and breed. Moreover particular species attack restricted areas on the same host and are seldom found in other positions." Some of these lice are sluggish, nearly stationary, and confined to a restricted area of the body, while others are active and crawl over the entire body. The 8 known species are described in Theobald's "Parasitic Diseases of Poultry," pp. 23-29. The most common and widely dis- tributed hen louse found in this country is Mcnopon pallidum. This louse is shown in fig. 24. Another species of this genus {Meno- pon biseriatitm), which closely resembles M. pallidum, is also sometimes found. These are active lice living on all parts of the body. They often crawl on to the hands when handling or plucking birds., and may sometimes be found in the nests. There are several other lice which sometimes infest poultry. Each of these species is confined to a special region of the host. Although capable of crawling about, the lice of these species for the most part remain nearly stationary, often with their heads buried in the skin and their bodies erect. Two species, Lipeurus variabilis and Lipeu- rus hctcrographns, live among the barbs of the wing and tail feathers. Goniodcs dissimilis is found under the wings and on the rump. The appearance of two of the species mentioned, viz., Fig. 24. The common hen louse (Mcnopon pallidum) Greatly en- larged. (From Banks). POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 127 Lipcunis variabilis and Goniodcs dissimilis, is shown in figs. 25 and 26 respectively. Fig. 25. Lipcunis t'a- F i g. 26. Goniodcs riabilis. A louse dissimilis, a louse that infests poul- that infests poul- try. Much enlarged. try, ^luch enlarged. (From Banks after (From Banks after Denny). Denny). A short account of the mode of hfe ; the conditions which favor their presence; their efifect upon the hirds; and the gen- eralized life history of hen lice are given in Leaflet No. 57 of the English Board of Agriculture, pp. 3 and 4. From this source the following is quoted : "These Mallophaga have not a piercing mouth, their mouth is simply used for biting. They subsist upon the productions of the skin and fragments of feathers. They cause violent itching, and bite sharply, and must produce considerable pain w^hen pres- ent in large numbers, as is too often the case. The feathers, especially the saddle hackle, generally show notched edges with lice infestation. Eight distinct species of lice attack fowds. The presence of these lice is generally ascribed to too imiform or insufificient nutrition, or else to damp, dark, and dirty runs, especially those badly ventilated. Food, either when imiform or insufficient, has no eiTcct upon their presence. Dark, damp places, however, when dirty, are sure to harbor all these pests. especially when badly ventilated. It is also said that breed affects their presence, but ob.servation tends to show that all breeds are more or less subjected to infestation. In every case they set up severe irritation and inflaniniation of the skin, which often leads to stunted growth, and even death. Lice and other parasites flourish on imhealthv birds." ijS I'ori.rin- disi'ASKS and tiii;ik tki-atmivNT. "J^ifc-history of IJcc. — .All llie lice hrccd fairly rapidly. The cgj^s or nits arc laid upon the down fcatlnr^, a> a rule; tiny arc often licautifully sculptured objects, oval in form. In about 6 U: lo days they hatch into small. ])ale, acti\e lice, which at once Commence to irritate the bird>. Tlie adult> are occasionally fi und in the ncst.s. Some sjKcics are found copulating in tlie nests, others always on tlie birds. They live a con>ideral)lc time. Mciiopoii pallidum (Fig. 24) has been kept alive for months upon fresh feathers, the quill epidermis being especially eaten. Hefore reaching the ftdl-grown state as many as 10 or 12 moults apparently take place, there being little dififerencc in each stage, except the gradual darkening of the markings.'' The eggs or nits of hen lice are shown in fig. 27. Fig. 2"/. Foatliers ^hdwiiig eggs or "nits" ^ pound of hard soap into i gallon of soft water and boil the mixture until the soap is dis- solved. Then remove it to a safe distance from the fire and stir into it at once, while still hot, 2 gallons of kerosene or coal oil. The result is a thick, creamy emulsion. Dilute this stock mixture with 10 parts of soft water, and apply as a spray or with a brush, being careful to work it into all cracks, crevices, and joints of the building." With any of these sprays it is necessary to make two or more applications at intervals of a few days to destroy the mites which hatch after the first application. The liquid may be put on with a hand spray pump or with a brush. Cleanliness, fresh air and sunlight are cheap and effective preventatives. Scaly Leg. A minute mite, Knemidocoptcs (Dcrmatoryctcs) (Sarcoptcs) mutans, is the cause of a contagious disease afifecting the legs of fowls, turkeys, pheasants, partridges and cage birds. Ac- cording to some authorities it sometimes affects the comb and beak also. The mites excavate places under the skin where they live and breed. The most thorough study yet made of this para- site and its effect on birds is that of Haiduk.* Diagnosis. — This very common disease is easily recognized by the enlarged roughened appearance it gives the foot and shank. This appearance is shown in fig. 29, with a normal leg for com- parison. The disease is present in most flocks unless especial care has been taken to exclude it. It is slightly contagious, but usually Only a few birds in a flock appear to be infected. The scales on the foot and leg of an affected 1)ir(l are raised by a crusty substance ..cposited beneath them. Tiie lesions usually appear first neui the joints between the toes and foot. The parts affect- ed first appear to be enlarged and then the scales are raised, giving the roughened appearance shown in r> fig. 29. In early *Hai(luk, T. Die Fussraiider des Gefliigels. Inaug. Diss. Giessen, 1909, pp. 1-58, Taf. I-VI. 136 POl'I.TRV DISK-VSES ANH llll'IK I'KIIAT M i:n T. Kig. 29. A. Xtinnal leg of hen. B. Leg of hen affected with scaly leg. (Alter Megnin). I'ori.Tin' 1)isi:asi".s and tiii'Ik Tki'.ATM mnt. 137 Fig. 30. Pli()to;4rapli of ihv lo.n of a lu'ii affected witli scaly leg. (.\fler Ilai(luk). I^X I'dfl.TKV niSIvASES ANM) TIll'lK TRKATMENT. Stages the disease does not appear to disturb the general health of the fowl. As it progresses the l)irds become lame and some- times the loot becomes so badly diseased that joints or even whole toes drop ofif. The photogra])!) of a badly affected leg is shown in fig. 30. The two legs are usually affected equally. / r \ t ^ I , y Xfi.'vjf- w Fig. 31. Photograph of the adult female of the mite Knemidocoptcs (Derundoryclcs ) iinilaiis. (After Haiduk). Etiology. — The disease is caused !)>• the minute parasitic mite Knemidocoptcs vutians ffigs. 31 and 32). POl'LTKV DISEASES AND Til KIR TREAT.MEMT. 139 -y >^. v> / f Fig. 32. Photograph of the six-legged larva, of Kneinidocoptes (Dcrmatoryctes) inutans. (After Haiduk). The mites bore under the scales of the foot and leg and btir- row deeper and deeper into the tissue. They set up an irritation which leads to multiplication of cells and the exudation of serum. This accumulation forms crusty deposits beneath the scales. These crusts contain many depressions in which are imbedded female mites containing eggs. The larvre and the males are usually found beneath the crusts. The relations just described are shown in fig. 33, which is a picture of a section of the skin of a "scaly" leg. 140 rdll.TKV DISKASlvS AND THEIR TREATMENT. ( .^ ^r^-- f'i»- 3i- Section of the skin of the leg of a fowl affected with scaly leg. a. Papilla witli pigment cells. b. Lj'niphatic tissue in the papilla. c. Epidermis: stratum profunduni. d. Epidermis : .stratum corneum. e. Section through a mite. e. Section througli a mite showing head and 2 pairs of legs. f. Young mite. g. Cavity excavated by mites. h. Excrement of mite. i. Horny layer lietwccn the mite excavations. (From Haiduk, after Olt). I'ori.rin- Disi-ASivS AND Tiii;iK tki;atmkn'j\ 141 As the disease progresses the mites which are becoming con- stantly more numerous penetrate very deep into the tissues, causing lameness and sometimes the loss of some of the toes. The infection from bird to bird ])rol)ably takes place on the roosts or from mother to chick. Robinson believes that the birds most likely to be infected are those with a deficient supply of oil in the .skin. The conditions which favor its spread in a flock are dry, barren runs, especially on alkaline soils or in yards filled with ashes or cinders. Foul roosting places also favor the spread of the di.sease. The disease is easily cured and it is worth the trouble of any poultryman to cure all the affected birds and to examine any birds purchased that infected ones may be treated before they are introduced into the flock. Treatment. — Individual treatment is necessary to cure the dis- ea.se. This treatment consi.sts in the application of some pene- trating oil to the diseased parts. A large number of oils and ointments have been used successfully. If the case is not far ad- vanced and if there is no especial hurry about bringing about the cure the application of the oils or ointments at intervals of 2 or 3 days will .soon do the work. If the birds must be cured quickly Tor show or sale purposes the cure is hastened by removing the scales and crusts before applying the medicine. This may be done by brushing with a stiff toothbrush before each treatment. Or the feet may be soaked for a few moments in warm soapy water and then l)rushed. When the disease is far advanced it is best to begin the treatment by the removal of the scales. Haiduk's experiments show that one of the very best cures for scaly leg is oil of carazuay. This is best applied in an oint- ment made of i part of oil of carazvay to 5 parts of white vase- line. Oil of caraway is very penetrating and is not nearly as irritating as some of the treatments more usually advised. This ointment should be rubbed into the leg and foot every few days until signs of the disease disappear. Hill recommends daily application of an ointment made of equal parts of vaseline and zinc ointment, or in severe cases of one made of \ ounce of sulphur, ]/> ounce of oxide of zinc, i dram of oil of tar and 2 ounces of whale oil mixed together. Tlicre are two common remedies used successfully by poultry- men. These are irritating and should be used with some cau- tion. They have the advantage of being quickly applied. The best of these is probably a mixture of i part of coal oil or kero- 142 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. scne and 2 parts of raw linseed oil. If a quick cure is impera- tive a half-and-half mixture may be used. Robinson in Farm Poultry, May, 1907, recommends a quick and easy method of applying this. It is to take a tall quart measure of the liquid to the hen house at night and dip both legs of each infected bird into the measure of oil, holding them there for a moment and then allowing them to drip for a moment more and then re- placing the hen on the roost. With any treatment which in- volves the use of kerosene care must be taken not to wet the feathers of the leg, as this causes irritation and sometimes burns the skin much as the human skin is burned when it is rubbed with kerosene and covered with flannel. A second method of applying kerosene is to put a teaspoon ful of the oil in a quart measure of w^ater and treat the birds by the method given above The same care should be taken not to wet the feathers. The advantage of these treatments is their easy and rapid application to a number of birds. Depluming Scabies. The mite Sar copies Iccvis var. gallince (fig. 34) is the cause m^^" -^ K Fig. 34. Egg containing female Sarcoptes Jacvis var. gall'mac. (After Theobald). of a kind of scabies in fowls which causes the feathers to break ofif at the surface of the skin. Symptoms. — This disease usually appears in spring and sum- mer and is characterized by the dropping off of patches of I'OULTRV DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. I43 feathers on different parts of the body. It usually begins at the rump and spreads to the head and neck, back, thighs and breast. The large wing and tail feathers are not usually lost. The ex- posed skin is normal in appearance. Around the stumps of the lost feathers and at the end of the quills of feathers near the bare spots are masses of epidermal scales. On microscopic examination these scales are found to be composed of numerous mites and their debris. The irritation of the mites often causes the birds to pull their own feathers. Birds affected often pull each others' feathers. Some of the so-called feather eating is due to the presence of this parasite, but fowls sometimes pull each others' feathers when the parasite is not present. Salmon says this disease does not affect the general health of the bird and does not appear to disturb gain in flesh or egg production, but Theobald says that the disease checks egg laying in hens and affected cocks become emaciated and sometimes die. Etiology. — The mite Sarcoptcs Iccvis which causes this disease is smaller than the one which causes scaly leg. They live at the base of the feathers in the epidermal debris referred to above. A flock becomes infected by the introduction of one or more birds carrying the mites. The mites are spread from bird to bird by the male in copulation. The distribution is often very rapid so that the whole flock is soon affected. Treatment. — The disease should be prevented by taking care not to introduce infested birds. If it appears all affected birds should at once be isolated. The mites yield easily to treatment. The infested areas may be rubbed with some of the less irri- tating ointments recommended for scaly legs (see p. 141)- The following list gives some ointments in the order of their desirability for use on the body. Oil of caraway ointment (i to 5). Balsam of Peru. Creolin treatment (i to 10). Helmerich's ointment. Salmon gives a modification of the latter ointment which he considers an improvement for use in depluming scabies. Flowers of sulphur, i dram, Carbonate of potash, 20 grains, Lard of vaseline, J4 ounce. Scabies may also be cured by liquid applications. The two following preparations are recommended by Salmon : A solu- 144 l•(»^I.^K^ 1)ISi:asi-;s ami riii:iK tkkatment. •JS tion of balsam ol' I'ciu in alcoht)! ( i ])art dI halsani lo 3 of alco- hol) ur I (Irani of crroHii. J ouiict's of glycerine, J-j ounce of alcohol anil ' _. ounce of water. Either of these liquids are applied bv rnbl)inj( into the skin. 'Phe application shoidd be repeated every 4 or 3 days until llu disease is cured. Other Mitrs Affcctimj I'oultry. Another form of Body Mange or .scabies is found associated with the mites Hpidcrmoptcs bilobatiis and Hpidcnnoptcs hifiir- catiis, but it has not Ijeen certainly tlemonstratcd that they are the cause of the disease. Present evidence iuflicates tliat they are. The disease closely resembles favus (p. 147) but usually does not affect the head. The regions commonly attacked are the neck, breast, the wings and the body under the wings. It some- times affects the entire body, including the head. The skin be- comes irritated and shows an accumulation of scales or crusts especially at the base of the feathers. The mites live on the skin at the base of the featliers. Since the mites are sometimes found on birds which show- no signs of scabies and since the di.'^ease so closely resembles favus, which is known to be caused by a fungus, it is .sometimes supposed that this mange is al.so due to a fungus and that the mites are inoffensive. Five .species of mites have been recorded which live upon the feathers of fowls. These are fairlv abundant but do no harm. Two mites live within the body of fowls. One of these, the air sac mite, is described elsewhere (p. 1 10) . The other the connective tissue mite, ticola. Con- Syniplcctopfcs cysticola. is found in the con- nective tissue iiective tissue of the fowls. They produce local mite, (''^"er j;,.j.;^^j.jj^j.|j, giving rise to tubercles but apparently do not affect the health of the bird. The larvae of the so-called "harvest-bug" (which is not a bug at all) Tctranychus (Thrombidinm) (Leptns) antumnalis some- times attacks poultry. The appearance of this mite is shown in \ Fig- i> -'^'yip tectoptcs c y s fig- 36. port, TRY DISEASES AND TIIi;iR TREATMENT. M5 This small brick red mite, rarely visible to the naked eye. is bred upon berry and currant bushes, vegetables and grain, but when o])])ther birds. The hen flea, as it is generally called, is abundant in dirty fowl runs, and es])e- cially in the nests where straw is used. The adult flea is dark in ci^lour. and. as in all fleas, is devcMd of wings. The fleas are provided w ith verv -liarp piercing mouths. They are what 10 146 I'OL'I/rRY DISICASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, arc terined 'partial parasites' — parasites that only go to their hosts to feed. The fleas are not noticed on the birds because they generally attack them at night; then, however, they do much harm, causing constant irritatimi and loss of blood, and depriving them of rest." "Life-history of Hen Flea. — The female flea lays her eggs (nits) chiefly in the nests amongst dust and dirt and in the crevices of the walls and floor. These nits give rise to pearly white maggots, with brown horny heads, which can often be found in the bottom of the nests amongst the dust. These larvae are mature in 2 or 3 weeks, then they reach about 1-6 of an inch in length. In warm weather they may be full fed in even 10 days. They then spin a pale cocoon amongst the dirt, in which they pupate. The pupa is at first pale brown, then dark chestnut brown. In this condition the flea remains 10 to 21 days, when the pupa hatches into the adult. They breed all the year round, but chiefly in warm weather. It is well to remember that, whenever there are dark and dirty hen roosts, there are sure to be a number of Pulex gallinac." Treatment. These parasites do not usually occur under sani- tary housing conditions. When they occur the houses should be cleaned and sprayed as for red mites (p- 134). Theobald recommends the use of excelsior or shavings instead of straw for nesting material as the fleas do not breed as readilv in this material. CHAPTER XVII. Diseases oe the Skin. Faviis {Baldness or White Comb). Tliis disease of the skin attacks poultry as well as man and the domestic mammalia. In mammals it is called tinea favosa or favus. Diagnosis. The disease usually appears first as small gray white spots on the comb, wattles, eye lids and around the ears, that is, on the unfeathered parts of the head. The spots enlarge and run together forming a scaly crust which becomes thicker until in 3 or 4 weeks it may be as much as 8 millimeters (1-3 inch) thick. The scales which make up the crust are often formed in concentric rings, the margins raised and the centers depressed, so that the scale is somewhat cup shaped. When the crust is removed the skin appears irritated and in places the sur- face is somewhat raw. The disease spreads to the feathered parts of the head, the neck, and the region around the vent. The base of the feathers becomes surrounded by concentric rings of the scaly material. The feathers become dry, erect, and brittle and finally break ofif or fall out leaving a disc-shaped scale with a depres- sion at the bottom where the base of the feather was located. The bird's head and neck and patches around the vent become bare of feathers. The exposed skin is cov- ered with the cup-shaped scales. Sometimes the disease spreads over the whole body until the bird be- comes nearly naked. The diseased bird has a peculiar disagreeable odor, sometimes likened to the odor of a musty grain or to mouldy ■If Ficr. yj. Head and neck of a fowl affected with gen- eralized favus. (After Pearson). mS I'ori.TKV DISICASKS AND Tlll-IK TKKAT.M KNT. cheese and sometimes to cat's urine or to maccratinj^ animal ma- terial. In early sta.s^cs the j^cneral health does not appear to be affected but as the disease advances the bird loses its appetite, becomes poor and exhausted, and finally dies. litioltujx. The disease is caused by the fungus Achorion sclionlcini' Fig. 38. Tlie fungus .Ichorion sclion- Icinii wliich causes favus in poultry, tv. — Empty tubes of mycelium, tp. — Tubes of the mycelium con- taining protoplasm and spores. This fungus is found in the cup like scales on the skin and in the quills of the feathers of the diseased parts. If the favic cups or scales are moistened with weak acetic acid and examined un- der the microscope it will be seen that they are formed of branching, thread-like mycelial tubes of the fungus closely interwoven with one another, spores of the fungus, and epithelial scales from the skin of the host imbedded in a viscid substance secreted by the fungus. Some of the tubes of the mycelium contain spores. Many of the spores are found free among the filaments. They are usually found in groups of 3, 4 or 8. Both the mycelium and spores of the fungus are found in the quills of tlie feathers of the diseased parts. The fungus some- times penetrates even the barbs of the feathers. Favus is a contagious disease and gets into a flock by the in- ]>()ri.TKV DISKASKS AND TIIi:iK IKl-.AT M F.NT. T49 troduction of an affected bird. It is less likely t(« attack strong, vigorous birds than those in poor condition, it usually starts at a point where the skin is broken. Young birds are more sus- ceptible than old ones. The large Asiatic breeds are specially liable to take the disease. No breed is entirely immune. Megnin and some other authors consider this disease distinct from the favus of man and other animals, but numerous record- ed t)bservations indicate that it is the same disease and may be comuuuiicated t(-) man. In handling affected birds, therefore, care should be exercised to prevent infection of cuts or scratches. Treatment. Diseased birds should not be introduced into a flock. Tf the disease has been accidentally introduced the affect- ed birds should be isolated as soon as possible. The flocks should be watched in order to discover and isolate any new cases that appear. In early stages the disease yields readily to treatment. Ziirn considers treatment economically advisable only before the feath- ered parts of the body are attacked. The disease may sometimes be cured at a later stage. The value of the affected bird must determine whether or not it is worth treating. As much of the crust as possible should be removed. This is best done by first softening the scabs with warm water or with oil or glycerine. Robinson recommends scraping with the back of a knife or a spoon handle. The ])arts should then be painted with tincture of iodine or should be bathed with corrosive sublimate solution, i part of the sublimate to looo parts of water, and then rubbing witli the ointment described on p. 30. In using the corrosive sublimate solution it should be borne in mind that this solution which unless colored with some dye looks exactly like water is extremely poisonous to men and animals when taken internally. Dishes or bottles of corrosive sublimate should never be left where they can be accidentally mistaken for water. Lard and sulphur are often used successfully in the treatment of favus. Use nearly as much sulphur as lard and work them into a smooth salve. In early stages the disease usually yields to application of lard or oil alone. Prognosis. In early stages the favus may be cured at the expense of a small amount of attention. After the feathered parts become affected a cure requires considerable labor as the fungus is better j^rotected from the applications. 150 I'OII.TRY niSKASES AxND TMKIK TKKAT.M KNT. White Comb. This name is often used for faviis, but some authorities (e. g., \'ale) use it to designate a condition of the comb character- ized by a white powdery scurf of the surface. The comb is Hght colored and the white scales or flakes are particles detached from the epidermis. This condition is thought to be due to anemia. Wris^ht says that it "appears generally due to dirt, or overcrowding in small space, or want of green food." The only treatment advised is to place the birds under sanitary con- ditions and give them a good balanced ration. Chicken Pox (Sore Head or Epithelioma Contagiosum). This contagious disease of poultry, although widely distrib- uted in the northern states, is less common and serious here than in the Gulf States and Hawaiian Islands. It is impossible al present to decide whether this is a distinct disease or a form of roup which affects the skin of the head. This can only be determined when further investigations have revealed the real cause of these diseases. Diagnosis. The disease usually appears as warty nodules on the un feathered parts of the head. They look like the tumors in the nasal passages and eye sockets of birds affected with roup. Freidberger and Frohner* give a good description of these nodules on the skin of the head, as follows: "Their favorite seats are those parts of the head that are not covered with feathers; root of the beak, neighborhood of the nostrils, angles of the mouth, lobes of the ear, parts adjacent to the auditory meatus, wattles, surface of the face, edges of the eye-lids, intermaxillary space, and especially the com!). They sometimes spread over the feathered parts of the head, throat* and neck, and may occur on the outer surface of the thighs, abdomen, under the wings and in the vicinity of the cloaca. At first these cpitheliomata appear in the skin, as flat nodules, which soon become prominent, and which vary in size from a poppy seed to a millet seed. Later on, they usually attain the size of a hemp seed. They are of a reddish-gray or yellowish- gray color, often show distinctly in their earlier stages of devel- opment a peculiar greasy, nacreous lustre ; and are rather firm *Freidberger and Frohner. Veterinary Pathology (Vol. I. Hayes transO- Quoted from Cary. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 151 to the touch. 'I'hcir surface soon becomes covered with a (Hrty- gray, yellowish-brown or red-brown crust. They are discrete and disseminated in considerable numbers on the erectile tis- ,v.^«i- ?sr' Fig. 39. Sore-head crusts on comb, eye-lids and skia (After Gary). sues. etc. They vary in size according to their age; and fre- quently lie rather close to one another, so that the affected parts look as if coarsely granulated ; or they are crow ded together in such a manner as to give the appearance of large warts with divisions through them, or mulberry-like hypertrophies. Even single nodules, to say nothing of the groups, may attain the size of a lentil, pea, cherry-stone, broad bean or larger object. The older they become the rougher, and more covered with knobs will be their incrusted surface." "If the edges of the eye-lids be affected by these tumors, the lids will become nodular, swollen and closed. Tht- conjunctiva in this case also suffers; it projects outwards because catarrhally inflamed ; assumes a yellowish color at the seat of eruption ; and its surface becomes covered with crusts. Purulent conjuncti- vitis may appear and the inflammation may spread to the sclero- tic and cornea, with keratitis and panophthalmia as the result. If, as sometimes happens with pigeons, the eruption of nodules extends over the whole of the skin of the eye-lids and its neigh- borhood, the entire eye will become covered with mulberry-like proliferations of \arious sizes." I^J I'oii.iin' DISIvASKS AND TlIi:iK TKKAT M KNT. The- prc'scncf of these nodules on the epithelium of the lu;i l)e affected. Recov- ery mav take place without treatment in from lO to 20 days. The nodules in such cases dry up and fall olf. Usually, how- ever, the disease is not self-limited, but advances. The eyes may become closed so that the l)irds cannot see to eat. They j^et poor and die from exhaustion. When the mucous membrane of the mouth developes diphtheritic membranes death occurs earlier than in other forms. pJioloi!;y. The lesions of this disease resemble the lesions of roup and many of the same micro-organisms are found in the two cases. The organisms isolated from tlie lesions of sore- head include several bacteria, a coccidium, a yeast and several moulds. The coccidium, one of tlie moulds, and one of the bacteria have each been considered tlie cause of the di.sease by different workers. The real cause of the disease and its rela- tion to roup must be determined by further investigations. The following discussion of the etiology of sore-head is given by Gary (Chicken-Pox or Sore Head in T^oultry. Alabama Agric. E.xpt. Stat. P.ulletin 136) : "Tnuismissiou and Dissemination. It is evidently infec- tious; becau.se the disease in all its forms, spreads rather rai)idl\- from one chicken or pigeon to another. Ward, Harrison and others have transmitted, in some cases (|uite readily by carrying small amount of di.seased material (exudate and blood), from a .sore-head chicken to healthy chickens. It is also quite certain that chicken pox and pigeon pox are identical or one and the same disease." "Mosquitoes, gnat flies, chicken mites (ticks), chicken lice, chicken foot mites {Sarcoptcs miitans) and possibly cock-roaches may .sometimes be carriers of the real virus. It seems quite cer- tain that mosquitoes can transmit the virus from water or some other source, under certain conditions. Warm and wet weather seem to increase the virulency of the virus and favor the rapid transmission of the disea.se. It is not impossible that ants may have a role to i)lay in the transmission or cause of .sore-head." "Pathological Anatomy. On the skin the small, grea.sy-like nodules, or hypertrophied nodules of the skin, contain epithelial rori.Tin- diskasks and tiiimr tkkatmkxt. 153 cells that have in them 'greasy' refractive bodies that stain yel- low with picro-carniine and the nnclei <>f the epithelial cells be- come 'reddish brown" in color. Ncarl)- all the ei)ithelial cells in the nodnlc appear larger than normal and contain the refractive bodies. In the yonnger epitlulial cells these bodies (young coc- cidia) are relatively small and occupy ]/^ to 1-3 of the epithelial cavity. In the older or outer or cast-ofY epithelial cells these refractive Ixxlies are said by Freidberger and Frohner to occupy the entire cavitie> of the e])ithelial cells. The invaded or in- fested epithelial cells are unusually larger than the epidermal cells of the healthy neighboring skin. Among the cast-off mass of epithelial cells are found round refractive bodies and numer- ous nuclei of leucocytes or pus cells. The subcutaneous con- nective tissue is hyperaemic (congested) and is infiltrated with cells (leucocytes and nuclei of disintegrated cells). Possibly some of the small miclei-like bodies among the cells in the sub- cutis ma\- represent one stage in the development of coccidia. Alanv observers have, also, found various bacteria in the nodule and sul)cutis." "Tn tlie diphtheritic membranes on the mucous surfaces of the mouth, pharynx, larynx and oesophagus, the epithelial cells are sometimes invaded by refractive bodies in the same manner as the epithelial cells of the skin and in the mass of diphtheritic exudate and cast-off cells on the mucous surface may be found the well formed coccidia * * * * p.^^^t [\^^. refractive bodies are not found in the epithelial cells of mucous exudates of skin nodules in every case. 1 have found them only in the early development of the nodule and the diphtheritic exudate, and have never found the mature coccidium in the nodules of the skin." "When the exudate on the mucous surface or the crust of the nodule of the .skin is torn off the raw surface bleeds rather freelv and a fresh mount of this blood contains a short oval bacillus, numerous round bodies usually said to be nuclei of leucocytes ; and a few polynuclear leucocytes. Repeated inocu- lations in the comb, wattles, skin and conjunctiva and oral mu- cosa of healthy chickens of various ages, with this blood, fre.sh from under a nodule or a diphtheritic exudate, has failed to produce p(xsitive infective results. 1 have also tested it on pigeons with like negative results." 154 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. "The exudates on the mucous nicmbrrmc of the throat, mouth or larynx ajij^ear to he very much ahki' in all forms of the disease." ''The period of incubation is said to vary all the way from 2 to 20 days. In Decemher I placed a newly-purchased barred Ply- mouth Rock cock ( 18 mos. old) in a yard \\ ith my chickens, many of which were recovering from sore-head, and in 24 hours this cock developed a good case of sore-head on the wattles, comb and eye-lids. Tlicre were mosquitoes in the roosting house. The period of incubation varies with mode of transmission, viru- lency of the virus, the weather (rapid in damp warm weather and slower in cool and dry weather), and the age and condition of the chicken or pigeon. Chicks from broiling size up to 7 or 8 months old seem to be most susceptible. Chickens with large combs seem to be more susceptible than birds with small combs and wattles." Treatment. The introduction of diseased birds into healthy flocks should be avoided. The same precautions should be i)rac- tised in the isolation of sick birds and disinfecting tlie houses as is advised for roup (p. 99). When the disease is local- ized a small amount of individual treatment cures many cases. Tiie crust or nodules should be removed and the places treated with creolin (2 per cent solution) or corrosive sublimate (i-iooo) (p. 29) and dusted with iodoform. The iodo- form may be put into the eye. When the disease is not far advanced one such treatment may be followed by daily greasing with the ointment recommended on p. 30 or with vaseline or lard. In bad cases the iodoform should be used daily for a few days and then the ointment. \\^hen cases have roup or diphtheritic symptoms treat as recommended for roup (p. 100). Prognosis. "The mortality is said to vary from 50 to 70 per cent of the affected birds. I judge this a low per cent of losses if Ijirds are left to themselves with proper care or treatment. But if individual treatment is patiently and regularly applied the mortality can be cut down to less than 20 per cent. If only the skin of the head, nnd the coml) and wattles, are involved, one should lose less than 10 per cent. If the mouth and pharynx are also involved, less than 10 per cent should die. But if the nasal passages and trachea are involved, or the intestines become involved, — good care and treatment ma)- save 50 to 80 per cent." (Cary). CHAPTER XVIII. Diseases of the Reproductive Organs. The direct economic importance of poultry lies in the produc- tion of two things, viz., meat and eggs. For the production of the latter the poultryman is dependent upon the activity of the reproductive system of the hen. Under natural conditions in the wild state, the progenitors of the domestic fowl laid rela- tively few eggs. Judging by other species of wild birds of the present day, however, it is highly probable that the wild pro- genitors of poultry possessed the potential ability to lay much more than the usual number of eggs provided they were removed from the nest as fast as laid. Under domestication this practice of removing the eggs as fast as laid, together with the feeding of rich foods, and still other factors, lays heavy demands upon the reproductive system. It is not remarkable that an organ system which under conditions of nature produced from 12 to perhaps 30 units per annum, frequently breaks down under the strain of producing from 100 to 250 per annum of the same kind of units. It could only be expected that, as is actually the case, the egg producing organs would be particularly liable to disease. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. In order that the discussion of the diseases of the reproductive organs may be intelligible it is desirable to preface it with a brief account of the anatomy and physiology of the organs of repro- duction in the hen. Because of the fact that the corresponding organs in the male are less subject to disease, on the one hand, and are perhaps better understood by the poultryman. because of the prevalence of the practice of caponizing, on the other hand, it will not be necessary to discuss the male in detail in this connection. The organs concerned in egg production in the hen are shown graphically in fig. 40. This picture and the accompanying ex- >3f^ ron.TKN' DISKASKS AND T 1 1 1- I K TKICATMF.NT. r'-rmtt^ Fi),^ 40. Tlic reproductive or egg producing organs of a hen. See text for explanation of figures. (After Duval). rori.iKN- 1)isi:asks and tiii:ik •rki-.A'i'Mi'.NT. 157 planation of it will make clear the various parts of this organ system. All of tlu- points shown in the figure may easily be demonstrated on a hen, killed dm-ing a period of laying activity. It should he noted tliat this picture is somewhat diagrammatic and not in accord with normal conditions in respect to at least two points. These are : ( i ) there are two eggs in the upper por- tion of the oviduct. Normally tlicre would l)e hut one there at a time. (2) The ])roportionate lengths of alhuuien ])ortion, isth- nuis and uterus are not correctly indicated. In tliis figure the various niuucrals have the following sig- nificance : T. The oz'ary; region in which the ovules (later to become yolks) are still small in size. 2. An o'-i'iilc in an intermediate stage of development, larger than those at r, but still not ready to pass into the oviduct to be laic., London, 1862, p. 24) is of interest: "In the years 1858. 1859. and i860 this peculiar alteraticMi of slnuture in llu- female or^jans of genera- tion ill llir Pheasants was particularly prevalent in some parts of England. I had the opportunity of examining many speci- mens, and was able completely to confirm Mr. ^■arrel^s views on this subject. Indeed, the majority of tlie birds were young females, many of them being birds of the year, .some being in their lirst moult. I found also that the plumage varied and approached that of the male, not in accordance with the age of the bird, but with the amount of disease of the generative or- gans. The greater the destruction of the ovarium and oviduct, the nearer the plumage assimilated lliat n\ the male." "For example, in birds with the hen-])hmiage jM-edominating, the ovarium and oviduct exi.st as in llic fecundating hen. the small ova lying in considerable numbers in the ovarium, the ovarium and oviduct showing dark lead-coloured masses of dis- ease." "In birds with the plumage of the male in a measure exceed- ing that of the female, the ovarium is considerably diminished in size, dark-coloured, and containing only a few l)lackened ova; the oviduct is spotted with dark patches, and considerably contracted." "And thirdly, in birds with the male plumage predominating over that of the female, the ovarium is reduced to a small dark amorphous mass, resembling the coagulated blood, the presence of ova cannot l)e detected, and the oviduct is almost entirely ob- literated at its junction with the ovarium. Thus it seems that there are 3 distinct phases in this peculiar abnormal state of the generative functions." "I have also noticed that, in most cases where the male plum- age is in excess of the female, the tail-feathers are particularly long, some l)eing as much as 19 inches in lengtli." "Although .Mr. Yarrell states that this condition of the female generative organs is not confined to the PJiasiaiiidac, and that it has occurred in the gold and silver phea.sants, partridges, pea- fowls, common-fowl, common pigeon, king-fisher, and common duck, and that other classes of animals are liable to an influence similar in kind, particularly among insects and Crustacea, yet this disorganization is rarely observed except among the Phasi- anidac, and i)articularly when these birds are produced in a do- POULTRY DISEASES AND TlIillK TREATMENT. 163 mestic state, i. e., on tlic present system of breeding pheasants in preserves. Very few battues take place in which some of these birds (generally designated males) are not killed and mixed indiscriminately with the heaps of the slain." "As to the cause of this disorganization, if it occurred only in the old female, or if it were a common occurrence among birds either of different genera or of the same genus, it could be easily accounted for ; but when it is generally found existing among a class of Ijirds which are bred in vast nunil)ers in a particularly artificial manner, it leads one to suppose that the cause must be connected with this condition." Tn regard to all sorts of atrophy of the ovary it should be said that there is no known way to treat thini. Such cases when they appear must be accepted 1)y the poultryman as one of the vicissitudes of the business. Gangrene of tJie Oz'ary. Salmon and other writers on poultry diseases following him have designated as gangrene a condition of the ovary relatively often found at post-mortem. Salmon's discussion of the mat- ter is as follows : ''This disease is quite common with all vari- eties of poultry. On examination of the ovary after death, the ova are found in difTerent stages of development, l)ut instead of being yellowish-pink in color, with the blood vessels well defined, they are brown or black, easily crushed and the C(")ntents broken down into a putrid liquid. Death is caused partly by peritoni- tis and partly by the absorption of the products of decomposi- tion." '■The cause of this trouble is not well understood. It has been attributed to the birds being too fat thus compressing the ovary and hindering the evolution of the ova. As it may occur in birds whicli are not fat and as it is evidently accompanied by the pen- etration and multiplication of bacteria, it is possibly an infec- tous disease." We have not been able to find anywhere in the literature that there has been a thorough investigation of this disease. Ovarian Tumors. Tumors and cancerous growths on the ovary are not uncom- mon. These include several sorts of interest to the pathologist, but not to the practical poultryman. From the literature it ap- 104 POULTRY DISF-:ASES AND Tlirik TREATMENT. pears that at least the following^ (and probably other) kinds of new growths arc found Id occur on the ovary with greater or less frequency. 1. I'cnign tumors, of several types, including yolk tumors. 2. Carcinoma. 3. Dermoid cysts. '"Treatment is, of course, impossible in these cases as the nature of the disease is not determined until after the bird's death. If such abnormal conditions are frequently found, it is an indication thnl there is a predisposition in that direction in the strain of birds. The only way to correct this is to kill off the flock and obtain different blood." (Salmon). Abortion of Eggs. Regarding this matter Wright (Xcw Book of Poultry, p. 574) has the following to say: "This is not to be confounded with the laying of soft eggs. These last are laid when mature, and usually by fat birds; but when violently driven or startled, or subject to violence of any kind, or even if suddenly and great- ly terrified, immature yolks are sometimes detached from the ovary and expelled. This is most likely to happen with pullets not yet laying but about to lay, and being a real miscarriage or abortion, may wreck the constitution of a valuable bird unless attended to. It is distinguished from the other by not occurring as a rule in fat birds ; by the immature and small size of the yolk or yolks ; generally also by hemorrhage ; and always by signs of illness of chicks afterwards. Any such bird should be placed for a few days in a quiet and comfortable but rather dark pen, with a nest in case of need, and fed on a little bread and milk. Quiet rest is tlic main thing. l)ut 20 grains bromide of potassium may be dissolved in half a pint of drinking water. \\''ith such care the event may be entirely recovered from." Yolk Hypertrophy. There are a number of cases on record where the yolks formed by tiie ovary Iiave been very much larger than normal. These "giant yolks" are due to a diseased condition of the organ, possibly contingent upon too much forcing for egg production. Such cases have been described by Gurlt (Mag. f. d. ges. Tier- heilk, 1849) ^^^^ more recently by von Durski (Die pathol. POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 165 \'eraiiderungen dcs Eies unci Eileiters bei den \^ogeln. Berlin, 1907). When yolks become very large in this way they may break loose from the ovary without any rupture of the follicle wall along the stigma but a breaking or tearing loose of the stalk or pedicle of the follicle. Failure of Follicle Wall to Rupture. Closely connected with the last diseased condition is one dis- cussed by von Durski in which the follicle wall fails to rupture and release the yolk. In consequence of this, in the case de- scribed by von Durski, the follicle wall became stretched and pulled out into a long and very much twisted stalk. This stalk hekl the hard, and decayed yolk fast to the ovary. In cases of tliis kind the stalk sometimes breaks, and the yolk enclosed in the follicle and with the end of the stalk attached, passes down the oviduct acquiring albumen, membranes and shell. In still other instances the stalk breaks and the follicle and contained yolk drops into the abdominal cavity. DISEASES OE THE OVIDUCT. Diseases of the oviduct are relatively conmion and cause a steady, and probably in the aggregate rather large loss to the poultryman. Fortunately some of the diseases of the oviduct are more amenable to treatment than are those of the ovary. Further these diseases in many cases show plain external symp- toms at a relatively early stage. Then the}- may be recognized and treated while it is still possible to effect a cure. This is usually not the case with ovarian diseases. The general external symptoms of the commoner diseases of the oviduct are very much like those of constipation. The poul- tryman watching his birds is indeed rather likely to confuse the two. But if so no harm is done. The thorough cleaning out of the alimentary tract, and stimulation of the liver indicated in the treatment of constipation is the very best thing to be done in cases of inflammation and similar disorders of the ovi- duct. Inflammation of Oviduct. This is one of the mo>t important and common diseases of the oviduct. It may occur alone or in association with other mor- bid conditions of this organ. l66 I'OUI/IKV DISKASKS AN'D Tlll-IK TUKAT M KNT. Piiic/nosis. llill (Diseases of ruiiltrv) gives the following symptoms: "A bird affected with innammatioii of the cji^'j^ pas- sage sufl'ers acutely. At first tlure is a contimi;il and violent straining (sometimes resultini; in apoplexy). The wings are dropi)ed and the feathers puffed out. The vent is usually hot and if a thermoiiK'tir l)e in-erlcd the tenii)eralure will l)e found high, fre(|uently 105 to 107 degrees.* As the inflammation pro- ceeds the l)ird hecomcs more and more mopish and exhausted hut does not strain so violently, pain and exhaustion acting as preventatives. Idtimatel\- the temperature becomes lower, the body cold and with a few, convulsive gasps the sufferer dies." To these symptoms Salmon adds the following, basing his account largely ui)on the statements given by Ziirn : "The bird at first shows indications of a desire to lay without being able to produce eggs or it may lay eggs containing more or less blot^d or eggs without shells or small and misshaped eggs containing albumen Imt no yolk, or finally the yolk may be dropped with- out any covering of albumen or shell. As the innamniation in- creases there is high temperature, straining and an effort to rub the abdomen upon the ground. In later stages tlie liird becomes dull, indisposed to move, the comb is pale, the plumage rough and the temperature falls to normal or below." litiology. There are pr(^l)a1)l\' to be distinguished three classes of causes wdiich lead io inllammation of the oviduct. These are : 1. Physiological; from irritation due to too frequent laying or from too stimulating foods or coutHments. 2. Traumatic; from irritation due to too large eggs, or to the breaking of eggs witliiu tlie o\i(hict. or similar causes. 3. Sjiecific infection; it is probabl\- that alone or in combina- tion willi the causes classed under 1 and 2 a specific infection of the lining membranes of the ovitluct may occur. In an inflamed oviduct there very often is a copious sero-fibri- nous exudate. This hardens about any foreign body (egg. broken Q^^g, etc.) wdiich may be in the oviduct, and by accretion causes this foreign body to increase in size. This, of course, *Tliere must be some mistake about this. 105° to 107° are not at all high tempcraUires for the domestic fowl. In fact in our experience at this Station 105° would seem to be a slightly subnormal temperature rather than one indicating fever. I'ULLTKV DlSKASliS AND TlllilK TKt;ATME;NT. J 6/ makes it still more irritating which in turn provokes further inflammation of tlic walls of the duct. One sometimes finds rel- atively enormous masses of material in a diseased oviduct, which have been huilt up in this way. There is an extensive literature on these '"egg concrements" or "yolk tumors" built up either in the oviduct or in the abdominal cavity by hardened fibrous exu- date, about an original basis of a broken, or miscarried, or aborted yolk or yolks. It is not necessary to review this liter- ature here as it is only of interest to the specialist. Treatment. If this disease is to be dealt with at all tlir treat- ment must be individual, since it is something w'hich will never afTect considerable numbers of the flock at the same time. If individual treatment is to be successful it must be beL;un at a relatively early stage of the disease. Therefore, it is imi)ortant that a bird showing the symptoms which have been described above should be isolated at once and as a first step in the treat- ment given a purgative dose of Epsom salts (see p. 29). All stimulating foods such as meat, green cut bone, Unseed mea! and similar substances, as well as condiments like condition powders, pepper, etc.. should be immediately taken away from the bird. A light ration and ])lenty of green food should be given. Sal- mon recommends following the purgative with 5^ drop of tinc- ture of aconite root 3 times a day. Equally effective, and much easier to administer, will be found i-io gr. aconite root tablets (see p. 30). Prolapse of the Oviduct (Bversion). It not infrecjuently happens from one cause or another, that the lower portion of the oviduct becomes everted and projects from the vent as a mass of red or purplish tissue. This condi- tion is known as prolapsus of the oviduct Diagnosis. The diagnosis of this diseased condition is simple and consists merely in the observation of the prolapsed oviduct. If there is a mass of red or bloody tissue projecting from the vent one is safe in diagnosing prolapsus. The only point which needs particular attention in the diagnosis is as to the degree to which prolapsus has occurred when the bird is discovered. The importance of this lies in the fact that on it depends the treat- ment which it is advisable to give. Where the prolapse is only partial and is discovered early it is advisable to treat it by the methods outlined below. If, on the other hand, the prolapse is l68 POULTRY DISKASICS AND TlllCIR TKICATMENT. extensive and has existed for some lime before the bird is seen so that the mass of tissue has turned a blue or purplish color or has been jiretty extensively picked and torn by the other birds in the pen. then it is useless to carry on any treatment and the proper thing to do is to kill the bird at once. Etiology. Prolapse of the oviduct may be caused by a num- ber of different things. It is observed not only in old hens, Ijut. in our exjierience. quite as frequently in pullets. The funda- mental cause of the condition is, of course, a weakness of the oviduct walls, and ligaments, chiefly in respect to their muscular portions, which makes the oviduct unable to stand the strains put upon it in egg pmduction. The immediate cause may be either : 1. Straining to lay a very large (double yolked ) egg. This is perhaps the most common cause. 2. Straining to lay when there is an obstruction in the ovi- duct (egg bound). 3. Constipation. The rectum full of hardened feces stimu- lates all organs in that region of the body to expulsive reflexes. 4. Ziirn says that often times feces may become lodged in the cloaca in a sort of blind pocket, and then set up the same expulsive reflexes as an egg in the cloacal or vaginal regions normally does. In the effort to expel this foreign body the ovi- duct may become everted. The most serious thing about prolapsus is that if not discov- ered very shortly after it occurs it is almost sure to result fatally, because the everted portion will become so badly infected as to cause blood poisoning, or the protruding mass of tissue will be picked and torn by the other birds in the pen until there is no hope of repair, whatever the treatment. Treatment. As stated above, the advisability of treating pro- lapsus depends upon its degree and duration before discovery. In treating this condition the first thing to endeavor to do is to remove the cause. That is, if the bird is constipated give it a rectal enema of warm soapy water, followed by 34 teaspoon of Epsom salts by the mouth. If there is a lump of feces lodged in the cloaca this should be carefully removed. The protruding mass of tissue should be washed with warm i to 1000 bichloride of mercury solution, or a warm J4 per cent cresol solution. Af- ter the protruding parts are thoroughly cleansed they should be well greased with vaseline, or with the ointment already recom- POULTRY DISEASES AND TIIKIR TREATMENT. 169 mended (p. 30). Then with the fingers well greased an ef- fort should be made to replace the protruding mass in the body. In doing this one should proceed with the greatest gentleness. In most cases with care and patience it is possible to reduce the prolapsus, that is. to get the extruded tissue back into the body in approximately its normal position. After the parts have been carefully replaced in normal posi- tion the next point to be considered in the treatment is to insure that they shall stay there. That is to say, it is necessary some wav to bring about a healthy degree of contraction of the mus- cular walls of the oviduct so as to hold the parts in place per- manently. In order to do this Salmon recommends the use of ergot. Robinson follows Salmon in this recommendation. It should be said, however, that it is doubtful whether this treat- ment is advisable. Ergot is a rather violent poison for poultry, [t seems likely that the treatment recommended by Salmon and Robinson is based on a theory that the action which ergot has on the mammalian uterus wall be duplicated on the fowl's ovi- duct rather than upon actual experience in administering the drug to poultry. The measure recommended by Ziirn to bring about a healthy contraction of the replaced oviduct in cases of prolapsus would seem to be simpler and on the whole more likely to yield desirable results than the ergot treatment. Ziirn recommends that a lump of ice be placed in the cloaca after the prolapsed oviduct is returned to its place and that this treatment be followed up for some hours. The bird should be kept in a small coop, partly darkened, where there will be every inducement for it to remain perfectly quiet. The success of the treatment depends very much on keeping the bird quiet for a few days. It should be fed only a light and unstimulating ration with plenty of green food. Prognosis. If discovered early enough prolapsus is curable. Ohstrnct'wn of the Oviduct ("Bgg Bound"). Perhaps the commonest of all diseased conditions of the ovi- duct is that which leads the poultryman to say that a bird is "egg boun«l."' r.y this is meant that there is something in the oviduct which the bird is not able to pass to the outside and which in turn prevents the normal passage of eggs. In many cases this is not properly speaking a disease at all but rather an accident. Other cases, however, depend upon a true diseased condition of the oviduct. 170 I'LIULIKV DISKASKS AM) TlIlvlK TKl.AT M l-NT. Dia(/)tosis. Salmon (k-scribcs tlu- foil' i\\ ini,^ syniptonis: "When fowls are ej^g hound they at first go freqiuntly to the nest, niakin}^ efi'orts to lay l)ut are unahle to accomplish this f miction. Thev are restless ami evidently in more or less dis- tress. Later they become dull, with rou^h i)lumage and are inn examining the bird ])y ])ressure of the linger about the vent, the egg can be distinguished as a hard bodv in the posterior part of the abdominal cavity. In case of prolapsus, the everted oviduct may lie ca>ily seen." hi iliis connection, however, it sh(»uld be noted tliat these gen- eral symptoms which Salmon describes are observed in mild form in a great many cases witli birds whicli subsequently lay the egg without trouble. In many instances the extrusion of an egg which is fnially successfully laid is attenderl with a good deal of difficulty. There are all degrees of gradation between this somewhat difficult but still normal laying and the condition of complete obstruction of the oviduct where the egg cannot be passed at all. The practical: consideration to which this leads is that one should not be too hasty in applying treatment for the egg-bound condition. A diagnosis of the trouble, in other words, should not be finally settled upon until there remains no doubt that the hen is not going to pass the egg without help from the outside. It must also be remembered that in many cases of obstruction of the oviduct, the ol)struction is so far up that it cannot be felt from the outside. In such cases the diagnosis must be made upon the general behavior of the hen, and in particular in regard to going frequently on the nest without laying. Etiology. In considering the causes of obstruction of the ovi- duct it is necessarv to distinijuish between several difTcrent sorts f>r categories. This may lie done as follows: I. Simple "egg bound" condition, in which a normal egg is lodged in the uterus or vagina and cannot be expelled. This inability to expel the egg may be due to any one or a combinatii^n of the following causes acting together: a. Egg of too large size, so that it is meclianically difficult or impossible to force it through the natural passage. Robinson regards this as the most common cause. b. Exhaustion (true ])hysiological fatigue) of the muscu- lar walls of the oviduct. This condition results after long con- tinued and unsuccessful attempts to expe Ithe egg. It leads to pori/nn' Disi'ASi'.s and 'i'iii:ik tki'.atmi'NT. i/i c Atom- and i)aral\-.-i> of the ilucl in which iIk' nni>cular walls arc incapable of making any effective contraction at all. 2. Complicated "egg- bound" conditions in whiidi the lunda- mental source of the troul)le is not simply mechanical, and in whicli usually the ])ortions of the oviduct anterior to the uterus are involved. In this general category the following sorts of cases are to lie included. a. Atony and paralysis of the upper i)ortions of the ovi- duct. This condition may exist for a long time without being recognized. b. Inflammation of the oviihict leading to t.ie formation of fibrous exudate whicli accumulates in the duct, until it may form a mass of relatively enormous size (usually with one or more yolks as a nucleus) completely obstructing the duct, and event- r.allv leading either to gangrene or rupture of the walls, or both. c. \'olvolus, or twisting of the oviduct about its own long axis, completely obliterating the cavity. d. Stenosis or stricture of the ovi'hv-t. This may result from several causes. One frequent one is that in laying a very large egg the oviduct wall becomes torn to greater or less degree, and subsequently heals. The scar tissue contracts the cavity and a stricture is thus caused. Treatment. Whether treatment is or is not likely to be ef- fective depends u])on which of the two main categories above defined anv given case belongs to. Simple obstruction of the oviduct may be successfully treated. In cases of complicated obstruction treatment is not indicated, for a variety of reasons. These conditions are in the first place difficult to diagnose, and offer little prospect of successful cure even after a diagnosis has been made. The best advice w hich has come to our attention for the treat- ment of the simple egg bound condition was published some years ago in the English Journal "d'ouhr}" and is here quoted verbatim : "It is a good jdan to watch those birds that are about to lay. Should they visit the nest frequently during the course of the day and leave without depositing an egg, it is almost certain that .something is wrong aufl when a pullet is in such a state there are three good remedies that ma\- lie tried. The first is: Take the Ijird up gently, and hold her so that her stern is over the mouth of a jug of boiling water, that the steam arising there- \-l I'OULTRV DISEASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. from may get to the parts and help to relax and procnrc deHv- ery of the e<(i,'. If this has not the desired efFeet after an hour's rest in a ([uiet coop, the vent should he oiled gently with a feath- er, and the hen given a powder composed of i grain of calomel and I-I2 grain of tartar emetic. The powder may he mixed in a bolus of food, and put into the bird's crop. If it he acting properly a marked improvement should be noticeable in the bird a few hi)urs afterwards, while a second powder given two days subse(iuently will probably complete the cure. It is advis- able for a while to feed the fowl sparingly on a somewhat low diet, withholding any fat forming food, and giving lime-water to drink, after the system is rid of the powder. The second remedy was advocated by Dr. H. B. Greene, ****** and is best applied when the c%g can be felt. It is: — Let an as- sistant, seated on a chair, hold the bird firmly on his knees on its back, with the vent directed aw^ay from him. Seating your- self opposite, with the finger and thumb of the left hand out- side llie bird's body, push the ^gg firmly but carefully towards the vent, until it is ])lainly visible, and, keeping it in that posi- tion, witli a iM-adawl in the right hand puncture the egg shell, evacuate the contents of the Q.gg with an egg-spoon, and after- wards with a pair of tweezers break down and take out the shell piece by piece until assured by passing the finger into the vent, that the cloaca is empty. Special care must be taken to avoid injuring the bird with the point of the awl ; and one's as- sistant must maintain a steady and firm hold on the fowl. A third method of relieving an Q.gg bound hen was recommended by a correspondent in our issue of June lo, 1898. and has since been frequently tried by several poultry keepers, and found very efficacious. 'When a hen is in that state I hold her over some hot water, bathing the vent at the same time. After this I use a small penknife (blunt) in the following manner: — Placing the edge of the blade along the first finger so that the end is level with the finger end. I push the finger with the knife into the vent until they touch the Qgg ; then I begin to scrape until I hear that I have scraped the rind or skin away from the ^gg (I mean outside the egg). The hen is then placed im tlie nest, and I will guarantee she will lay in 20 minutes, or in most cases even less tlian that. I got this advice from a man who has kept poultry on a small scale for 50 years. I have tried it several times, and have never known a hen to be Q:gg bound a second POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1 73 time. This method, it would appear, .saves the egg. The great thing throughout is to keep the bird quiet, and in future to avoid extra fat forming food.' " Prognosis. Good in cases of simple obstruction if taken in hand early; bad in all cases of complicated obstruction. Rupture of the Oi'iduct. In some cases of complicated obstrviction, and in cases of severe inflammation the walls of the oviduct may break and al- low the contents to escape into the abdominal cavity. In such cases death usually ensues in a relatively short time as a result of peritonitis. These cases are incurable ; indeed the trouble is usually not known till after the bird dies. The lower portion of the oviduct (vagina) or the cloaca may be ruptured in pass- ing a very large egg. If the wounds made in this way are rela- tively small they will usually heal without any trouble. If, on the other hand, such tears are extensive they may very easily become infected, and unless treated properly in accordance with the general directions given in Chapter XX for the treatment of wounds, the bird will die of blood poisoning. Regarding cases of this kind the following excellent discussion (presum- ably written by Mr. J. H. Robinson) appeared in Farm Poul- try some 6 years ago (\"ol. 16, p. 230). The writer says that this trouble of rupture of the oviduct near the vent he "used to have with Bufif Leghorns, and to a lesser extent with other varieties of the Leghorn. Leghorn hens quite generally lay larger eggs in proportion to their size than others. Some of them lay eggs very much larger in proportion to their size than layers of large eggs in the larger breeds. As a result of this the difficulty of laying is correspondingly increased. When a pullet begins to lay she may lay small eggs, which are easily passed. As warm spring weather comes she lays more eggs, and also larger ones. Suppose one day there is a slight tear or a strain on a part of the oviduct in laying. The part is not badly damaged, but it is sore, a little inflamed, and cannot be stretched as it was before to permit the passage of the egg. But the egg is there and must be extruded. A larger tear in the parts is the result. There may be blood enough flow to make the egg quite bloody, 1)ut the injury be not yet serious. With the next egg conditions are still less favorable for a safe extru- 174 l-on.TKV DISKASKS AND TIIIIIK TUi;aT.M K.NT. .sioii, ami i)ciluii)> a \xr\- liad rupture results. cndiiiL;' in the course of a few clays fatally."' "I don't think it ])r< ifitahk' to attempt ti • tre;it such cases. Some cures may he effected, hut it is not always easy to check lavinu^ without staixini; the hen. ami e\eu tliat treatment may not operate (|nit-kly enough to a\oiil a liad ru]>tiu"e. Kvery egg passed while the vent .and adjacent parts of the passage are not in normal condition is a possihle cause of fatal trouhle." "The hest way to treat this troul)le is to prevent it hy selecting medium sized eggs for hatching. Select hreeders of good size; select good hut not excessively large eggs from these ; use males from stock of the same characteristics, and avoid the use of males (and of hens too) that are narrow hodied." Canciycnc of Oi'idiict. This may result from severe and complicated ohstruction. What is meant hy "gangrene" is that the walls of the oviduct die, and putrefy. This causes general hlood poisoning from which the hird dies. Gangrene of the oviduct most frequently follows severe cases of complicated obstruction where there is a mass of fibrous exudate deposited in the oviduct. There is ncjt the slightest hope of successfully treating such cases. Breaking of Bgg in Oviduct. It sometimes ha])])ens tliat an Qgg in llie u])i)er jxn-tion of the oviduct, before it has ac(|uired any shell, is by accident broken. There is a belief common amongst poultrymcn that this is al- ways immediately fatal. There is hut little discussion of the subject in the literature but our experience here indicates that two sorts of results may follow the breaking of an Qgg in the oviduct. These are : 1. An inllammatory ccjndition of the oviduct is induced lead- ing to copious secretion from the glands of the albumen portion of the duct and tlie isthmus. Tlure is also a copious fibrous ex- udate, and the final outcome is a severe ca.se of complicated ob- struction of the oviduct. Death in these cases may be delayed for a long time after the original accident. Tn the absence of inflammation recovery may possibly occur. 2. Death within a short time (2 to 3 hours) after the break- ing of the Qgg, without visible lesion of any organ of the body. The oviduct is not even inflamed. Absolutely the only things I'Ori.TKV DISKASKS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 1/5 whicli arc nnt imrnial in siuli cases are (a) the broken egg in llic oviduct, aii.l ill) the fad tliat the l)ir(l is dead We have had several such cases come to autopsy. They are very puz- zhng. In thc'in is to l)e found the l)asis for the pouhryman's behcf as to the fatal character oi this accident. In reality it seems probable that in the.se cases the thing which caused the egg to be broken was also the cause of the death of the bird. That is, a blow, or anv sort of sudden shock \iolent enough to break an egg in the oviduct might also very well be the cause of death. Such cases need further study. ^Ibiionnal lujiis. Owing to various diseased conditions of the oviduct many different kinds of abnormal eggs are produced by fowls. The explanation of the different types of such eggs is usually tol- erably clear if one gets definitely in his mind the normal physi- ology of egg production as outlined above. We shall con- sider here only some of the more important general classes of such al)normal eggs. Such eggs are very interesting from the scientific standpoint but are of relatively little |)ractical signifi- cance to the poultry keeper because of the rarit}- of their occur- rence. Soft-shcUcd Bggs. These are eggs laid without a sufficient amount of shell substance covering the shell membrane. The immediate cause lies in a failure of tlie uterus to fiuiction prop- erly. Regarding this class of abnormal eggs Wright has the following to say: "Soft eggs may be caused by lack of shell- material, which, if discovered, points to the remedw the most rapid being potmded raw oyster-shell. Or they may be caused by the fowls being driven or frightened, in whicli ca-^e tlicy soon cease, and nothing need be done unless the injury has been so severe as to ])rematurely detach small and miripe yolks, when the ca.se becomes a real abortion, or they may be caused by con- diments and too much animal food, s]Mces in particular leading frequently to all sorts of trouble with the egg-organs, particu- larly in the Mediterranean races of poultry. A few small doses of Epsom salts or jalap, and cessation of the extra stimulus, will remedy this. But far the most usual cause is simple over- feeding. .\ little careful investigation will find which is in fault, and that will indicate the appro])riate remedy. Want of shell '/-" l'(t^l.■|■u^■ Disi'ASKS ami tiikik inkat.mi'.nt, material is far less common than it used to be; over-feeding or over-stimulation prol)al)ly more so." Small. Vollclcss Eggs. These little ei,^gs, variously called '•wind-eggs." "cock eggs," "witch eggs," "luck eggs," etc., are familiar to every poultry keeper. They contain no definitely formed yolk, and to the casual observer seem to consist of nothing but a small shell filled with white. The laying of one of these eggs is popularly supposed to mark the end of a laying period. This belief is without foundation in fact. They may be produced at any time. Unpublished data collected over a period of years at this Station in regard to such eggs indicate that three factors are fundamentally concerned in their pro- duction. The^^e arc: — 1 . The bird must l)e in an active laying condition ; the more pronounced the degree of physiological activity of the oviduct the more likel\- arc these eggs to be produced. 2. There must be some foreign body, however minute, to serve as the stimulus wdiich shall start the albumen glands se- creting. This foreign body may be either a minute piece of hardened albumen, a bit of coagulated blood, a small piece of yolk which has escaped from a ruptured yolk, etc. 3. It seems likely, though this is a point not yet definitely settled, that ovulation fi. e.. the separation of a yolk from the ovary) must precede the secretion of albumen around the for- eign body to form one of these eggs. Double and Triple Yolked Eggs. Eggs wdth two yolks are. of course, quite common. They result from a disturbance of the time relations of ovulation, of such nature that two volks Fig. 42. Triple yullvca egg. (Uriginal). POULTRY DISEASES AND TIIKIR TKl'.AT M KXT. I// f;-et into the (nidurt at nearly the same time and Ijecomc sur- rounded by eoninion layers of albumen. Eggs witb tbree yolks are very rare. An egg of this kind laid by a pullet at this Station is shown in lig. 42. I)uiiisioii ill Eggs. The number of different foreign sub- stances \vhicli at tmv time or another have been found enclosed in eggs is great, 'i'hc list includes blood streaks or spots, blood clots of firm consistency and often considerable size, lumps of bacteria, worms, fecal matter, etc., etc. From the practical standpoint the only inclusions which need consideration are blood spots. I\Iany inquiries are annually received at this Station as to w'hat causes these spots and what to do to get eggs which will be free from them. These inquir- ies are most frequent in the spring months. The only thing zvhicli can be done in such cases is to candle the eggs, and sell only those ichicli shore no spots. Hens which arc ])erfectly nor- mal often lay eggs with blood spots, especially in the spring of the year when laying is heavy. The blood which makes the spot probably comes in most cases from the ovarian follicle. When this ruptures a little blood escapes into the oviduct and is caught up in the albumen. The so-called "liver" or "meat" spots in eggs are in nearly every case thoroughly hardened, well packed together, blood clots. They may be of large size. These inclusions do not represent, as they are sometimes said to, portions of the oviduct wall which have been torn off and enclosed in the egg. Eggs of Abnormal Shape. There are many other kinds of abnormal eggs besides those here discussed, but as they have no practical significance it is not desirable to devote further space to them. In closing this section we append some figures showing in outline some of the curiously shaped eggs which have been found. Vent Gleet (Cloacitis). This is a true venereal disease of poultry. It usually begins with a hen l)ut is transmitted in copulation to the male, and by him to other birds in the flock. Diagnosis. Salmon gives the following clear account of the symptoms : "The first symptom observed is the frequent pas- sage of excrement which is voided in small quantities almost as rapidly as it reaches the cloaca. Often the bird endeavors 12 1/8 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, FiglZ FigIS Hq is Fig W Fig 13 Fig 16 Fig 19 Fig II Fig It, Fig 17 Fig 20 Cb FigZI Fig. 43. Showing shapes of abnormal eggs sometimes found. (From von Durski after Landois). rOULTKV DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 179 to drop excrement when cloaca is entirely empty. This action is due to the tenderness and irritability of the cloaca which gives to the bird the sensation of fullness, and produces spasmodic contractions. If an examination is made the mucous meml)rane is found in the early stages to be red, dry, swollen and hot. In a day or two a discharge makes its appearance. It is, at first, thin and watery, but soon becomes white, purulent, and ofifen- sive. This discharge collects upon the skin and feathers about the vent, obstructs the passage and irritates the parts with which it comes in contact. The soiled skin becomes red and inflamed, it may be abraded by friction or by the bird picking at it, and thus sores or ulcers are started which may become quite trou- blesome." Etiology. The cause of the disease has not yet been thor- oughly worked out. Wright suspected it to be identical with human gonorrhea because of the similarity of symptoms, in- fectiousness, etc. However, he has not been able to isolate the Gonococciis, or specific germ of gonorrhea from affected birds. Treatment. The following is the treatment outlined by Wright: "Any hen found with it should at once be isolated, and the male bird carefully examined, and if necessary also isolated. Give 30 grains Epsom salts, and twice a day inject first a 4 per cent solution of cocaine, and immediately after- wards a solution of nitrate of silver 4 grains to the ounce. The fifth day commence a small copaiba capsule daily, and inject acetate of lead, i drachm to the pint. Feed rather low mean- while, and dust any sore places outside with iodoform or aristol. If not well after 2 or 3 weeks, we would kill the bird, as the disease is not quite free from danger ; for if the operator should touch his eyes accidentally before he has cleansed his hands, the result might be a most violent inflammation." "Break Down." Sanborn (Farm Poultry Doctor) gives an account of this trouble, which, while brief, is to the point, and says all that really needs to be said about the matter. Especially to be com- mended is the last sentence. "This is the 'baggy condition' often seen in old hens that have had too much corn. The rear part of the abdomen is crowded with fat and hangs down, sometimes to the ground, giving a very unhandsome appearance to the bird. The ceasing to feed corn l!^ I'dlLIKV niSKASKS AND TIIKIR TRI-ATM KNT. and otluT tat-])n»(lucinL,' foods will sonictimcs remedy this con- dition. Init a bird that has been allowed to get into such a shape is spoiled for life both as a layer and breeder. The hatchet and pot should be the fate of such a binl." Pisrasi'S of the Mole Reproductive Organs. A ninnlier of diseases of the male reproductive organs have been described but they are all of no practical significance, for the reason that no poultryman ought ever to use as a breeder a male bird that ever had any disease of these organs, whether it had been "cured" or not. CHAPTER XIX. Diseases of Chickens. White Diarrhea. Of all the diseases which the poultryman is called upon to fight, there is probably none so destructive, year after year, as the disease (or diseases) known as "white diarrhea." The loss of chicks ascribed to this cause varies in different years and is different places from lo to 90 per cent. It is perhaps not too much to say that more than 50 per cent of the chicks hatched throughout the country are lost from white diarrhea in its vari- ous forms. The number of inquiries concerning this disease which are annually received, and the amount of space devoted to it by the poultry press, lead one to believe that "white diar- rhea" is perhaps the worst enemy with which the poultryman must contend. White diarrhea is more common among artificially hatched and brooded chicks than among those which have been hatched and cared for by hens. However, it is by no means unknown among the latter. ]\Iany poultrymen report as heavy mortality from this disease among hen hatched and reared chicks as from those which were incubated and brooded by artificial methods. Almost any chick that comes out of the shell apparently healthy on the 21st day will live for the first w^eek. If white diarrhea is going to strike the brood they usually begin to show symptoms about the end of the first week or later. The heavy loss of chicks from this disease occurs between the ages of i and 1 weeks. Where the brood is badlv affected chicks may con- tinue to die until the fourth or fifth week. On the other hand if a brood goes through its first 3 weeks of life without being attacked by this disease it is practically safe from its ravages. White diarrhea then may be said to be limited to the first 3 weeks of the chick's life so far as serious mortality from it is concerned. The reason for this no doubt is that the digestive l82 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, system of chicks under 3 weeks oltl is. so delicate that even a slight disturbance makes a very serious handicap for the chick. Etiology. Within recent years a large number of studies concerning the cause, prevention and cure of white diarrhea have been conducted. Investigations have been carried on by state and national institutions as well as by many private in- (hviduals. Consequently a large number of alleged causes of the disease are given by dififerent writers. Among these may be mentioned : Debilitated breeding stock, improper incuba- tion, improper brooding, overheating, cliilling, poor ventilation, over-crowding, poor or improper food and filth as well as spe- cific bacteria, fungi or other parasitic organisms. Dr. Geo. B. Morse in the Reliable Poultry Journal for July, 1909, classifies the causes of diarrhea in chicks as follows: "First among these causes is the class of physical agents. Under this title I would place such agencies as heat or its lack, moisture or its lack, producing what we call in human medi- cine, the diarrhea of relaxation. Such a condition is produced in the intestinal tract that a large amount of serum is driven through the intestinal wall into the lumen of the intestine, and in doing so the cells are loosened, antl thus we have the devel- opment of a catarrh. This condition may be brought about by the agencies just mentioned." "Another class of agencies may be designated foreign bodies, and in this class I place such diarrheas as originate from im- proper feeding, too early feeding or feeding wrong material. W'c know, from analogy, that in mammalians whether human or the lower animals, such a condition is possible." "Then we have another large class of intestinal derangements 01 catarrhs or inflammatory conditions produced by what we call living agents or parasites. These produce what we may call parasitic inflammations. Now, we must subdivide this class into two, and we may get rid of one substance at once by placing in it those catarrhs or inflammations produced by the larger parasites, macroscopic parasites, such as worms." "Thus we come to the other sub-class of parasites causing de- rangements in the intestines, the microscopic parasites or micro- organisms. This sub-class of diarrhoea-producing micro-organ- isms falls naturally into 3 groups. Having already referred to the animal kingdom in speaking of worms we shall take our first group of parasitic micro-organisms from that same king- POULTRY DISEASES AND TllElK TKEATMKNT. 183 doni ; these arc the protozoa, the lowest aiiinuil funiis. The oth- er two groups of micro-orgaiiisinal agents of enteritis are found in the plant kingdom ; they are bacteria and molds. Hence, the 3 groups of microscopic agents of intestinal inflammation are protozoa, molds and bacteria." It is doubtful if many of the cases of true zvhite diarrhea are caused by the physical or mechanical agents mentioned in Dr. Morse's first two classes. In most cases true white diarrhea appears to be an infectious disease. Such disease we know is caused by some form of parasitic organism. Without doubt improper incubation, brooding and feeding, resulting in weak- ened chicks, very often lay the foundation for the attacks of parasitic organisms. In many cases these faulty methods of handling the eggs and chicks appear to be the real cause of the disease while they are really only indirect causes. From this it should not be understood that such things as poor food, poor brooding and weakened breeding stock are of no importance in the study of white diarrhea. It is just exactly these predisposing factors which result in chicks with weak con- stitutions, easily overcome by disease germs. Without doubt the points at which most progress can be made in combatting such diseases are in the methods of incul)ation and in the care of the chicks for the first 3 weeks of their lives. Nevertheless it should not be forgotten that the death of the chick is caused by the ravages of some minute parasitic organism. Within recent years several investigators have discovered organisms which they believe to be the specific cause of white diarrhea. Three of these may be mentioned at this place : (i) Coccidiiim tcnellnm or cunicnli producing the disease called ''coccidiosis." (2) Bactcriiiin pidlorum producing '"bactillary white diarrhea" and (3) Aspergillus fumigatus and allied spe- cies, producing aspergillosis or brooder pneumonia of chicks. Of these the first two diseases will be considered in some detail in the following paragraphs. Aspergillosis is treated in a sepa- rate section of this chapter (cf. p. 193). Intestinal Coccidiosis. In Circular 128 of the bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Dr. G. B. ^^lorse published a prelim- inary account of some investigations on the cause of white diar- rhea. -Microscopic examination of the intestines of chicks dying 1 84 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 12 .- II \o Fig. 44. Diagrammatic representation of the life historj- of a Coccidium. (After Cole and Hadley). POULTRY DISEASKS AXD TIIKIR TRKATMEXT. 185 wllh tlii.^ disease i"e\calecl the pre.seiice of large nuiuljcrs of protozoan organisms which he identified as Coccidiiim tcnellum. At i)ractically the same lime Drs. Cole and Iladley of the Rhode Island Experiment Station reported finding a similar organism in white diarrhea chicks. They identified it as Coccidiuin ciiiii- ciili. These two species of coccidinm are so nearly alike that it is very ditllcult to distinguish them except bv prolonged study of their life cycles. \^arious species of coccidia have long been known to infest many domestic animals. In all cases that have been studied they produce very serious diseases. Tile life history of a coccidium is very complicated }et in or- der to combat this parasite most successfully it is necessary to know something of its life history. Fig. 44 represents the dif- ferent stages in the life history of these parasites. If one should examine with a microscope the contents of one of the ceca of a chick which died with this form of white diarrhea he would fmd forms somewhat like No. i in the figure. These are the oocysts or permanent cysts of the coccidium. The membrane around the outside of this cyst is very tough and will withstand almost all methods of disinfection. It will live and even grow in sul- phuric acid. It can be killed, however, by drying. The size of these cysts is about 14-25000 inch and 21-25000 inch. If this cyst is placed under the right conditions for development the first step is for the protoplasm to divide into 4 spherical bodies which are called sporoblasts (fig. 44, 2). Each of these sporo- blasts then divide into two sickle-shaped sporozoids (cf. fig. 44. 3 and 4). These sporozoids are then set free in the intestinal tract (4a) and each one penetrates with its pointed end an epi- thelial cell of the intestine as at No. 5. In the figure 5a. 5b, 5c, 6 and 6a, represent the succeeding stages of growth of the or- ganism within the intestinal cell. As .shown in 6a and 7 the parasite grows so large that it completely fills the cell and finally these cells are broken down and torn ofif the intestinal wall. The stage of the parasite shown at 6a and 7 is known as the schizont. The next step is for the .schizont to break u]-) into a larger number of sharp pointed bodies as shown at 7a. These escape and enter other epithelial cells just as the somewhat sim- ilar bodies did at 5. At this point the organism may do one of two things. The small sporozoids from 7a may develop exactly like the sporozoids did from 5 to 7. Thi<; part of the life l86 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. cycle, as shown by the shorter arrow from 7a to 5 may be re- peated any number of times. 1 f. however, the conchtions are not very good. i. c, the bird is about to die the sporozoids undergo an entirely different devel- opment as shown at numbers 7 to 15 (fig. 44). Here the sporo- zoids enter the epithelial cells and some develop into very large i^g^) eells (female element) as shown at 8, 9 and 10. Others go through the development shown in 8a, 9a and loa, forming a very large number of minute motile zooids or sperms (male element) which unite with one or more of the large ^gg cells as shown at 11. After this sexual union there is developed the oocyst like No. i. with which w^e started. At all stages of this disease many of these cysts are carried to the outside with the feces and upon being picked up serve to infect other chicks. Death is caused by the parasite attacking so many of the intes- tinal cells that the chick is no longer able to digest its food. There are also secondary effects by which the kidneys are de- ranged and throw out a large amount of white urates, hence the name "white diarrhea." Diagnosis. The symptoms of coccidiosis are similar to those of other forms of white diarrhea, (cf. p. 189). The only exception is that according to Morse the ceca arc always dis- tended with yellowish-white cheesy matter. In other forms of white diarrhea this may or may not be the case. These differ- ent forms of white diarrhea have been too little studied yet to permit of an exact differential diagnosis on external symptoms even supposing that ever to be possible. With the aid of a microscope the finding of coccidial cysts in the fecal matter would indicate tliat these were causing the f the infection during this critical period. We suggest : The segregation of the chicks in small lots during this interval. Perfect disinfection and cleanliness of brooders and brooder coops. Food and water su{)plicd in such a manner as to prevent con- tamination by the droppings." "The use in the brooder of a liberal amount of fine, absorp- tive litter which will quickly cover and seal up the droppings."* "Raise and maintain the vigor and vitality of the breeding stock and chicks by every reasonable means known to the poul- tryman." Leg JVeakiicss. The term "leg weakness" is sometimes used by poultrymen to indicate the lameness due to rheumatism in adult birds. Re- garding this form of the disease see p. 123. The more usual use of the term "leg weakness" is to denote a disease or ailment v.-hich is found in growing chicks, from i month to 6 months of age. It is said to be more common among cockerels than pul- lets and is more frequent in the heavier than the lighter breeds. The chief cause of the trouble seems to be that in l)irds growing ra])idly and fed heavily the weight sometimes increases faster *For this purpose we have used alfalfa meal with much satisfaction. ruLLTKV DiSliASKS AKD THEIR 'IKKATMEXT. 193 than the strength. This rcsuUs in a weak kneed, wobbHng bird. The disease is sonK'tinics ascribed to other causes such as. over- crowding., close, uiucntihited quarters, overheating, etc. Sahiion says "It may develop in young chickens kept in l)rooders in which the heat is not properly distributed or where there is too much bottom heat, also in those which are kept constantly upon wooden floors." Regarding these cases Robinson says "Where such conditions are presfent the leg weakness is more likely to be an accompaniment of diseases which plainly show other symp- toms." Diagnosis. The symptoms are indicated in the name of the disease. It first appears as an unsteadiness in the walk. This may gradually become worse until the bird is unable to stand alone and is constantly tumbling over. The birds are found sit- ting while eating and are inclined to walk very little. • When. the trouble iirst appears there is little else wrong with the bird. The eye and comb are bright and healthy, the appetite is good. Later, however, the bird being weaker than the others gets less grain and becomes thin, feathers out poorly and is a distressed object. It is said that rheumatism can be distinguished from leg weakness by the swelling of the joints in the former disease. Treatment. This consists chiefly, of course, in removing the cause. Since the most common cause is the overfeeding with fat producing foods, the amount of these should be reduced. The weak birds should be removed to a pen by themselves. Substitute bran, wheat and oatmeal for the corn and corn meal. Give skim milk, if possible, instead of water. Feed plenty of gieen food. This is one of the most important measures. San- born recommends rubbing the legs with tincture of arnica and adding i^ teaspoonful of tincture of nux vomica to each quart of drinking water. Aspergillosis or Pneumomycosis. This disease, which is discussed on p- i, not only occurs in hens but it is also a very common and fatal disease in young chicks. It often occurs with white diarrhea and the double dis^ ease was for a long time considered as one. Poultry men desig- nated the cases in which the lesions occurred in the lungs as "lungers." Investigation has shown that there are two diseases which may occur separately or together. 194 iviri/rm I)1Si:asi:s and 'iiiI'IK i'ki'.at.mivNT. Pia(/nosis. This disease is characterized by a (hinii)ish sleepv C(>ii(htii)n of the cliick. 'J'he witigs are ])en(hilent. IJreathing is rapid and sometimes accompanied by snoring sounils. A whitish (harrhca is present. A (Hfferential tHagnosis between thi> and the coccicHal wliite (harrliea is onlv possil)le liv an ex- amination of the dead birds. In asi)ergillosis. yellowish tnl)er- cle.s which closely resemble those of tuberculosis occur in the lungs and in the walls of the air sacs and often also in tlie intes- tines, mesentery, liver and other organs. In very acute cases the lungs are simply inflamed, death occurring before the forma- tion of the tubercles. The mycelium and spores of the fungus may be found by microscopic examination of the tubercles and this fungus may be obtained by inoculating cultures from these tubercles. Etiology. The disease is caused by the spores of an Asper- gillus usually A. fmuigatus, fig. 22. This is a very common fungus and the spores are widely distributed in nature. The spores are often found on the food or on the litter and are inhaled or taken in with the food. Incubator chickens are often infected from the incubators and brooders and hen hatched chickens from the straw or chaff in the nests. Sometimes the chicks get the disease from chick food not properly cared for. It is possible that this disease as well as the coccidial and Ijacil- lary white diarrhea is sometimes carried in the egg. The spores and mycelium are often found in the digestive tract of hens and it is not unlikely that they may work up the oviduct from the cloaca and infect an egg before it gets its shell. Treatment. The treatment of diseased chicks is useless. When they are infected the spores develop on the membranes and new spores are formed which spread the infection through- out the respiratory system and also to the other organs. The only effective treatment is prevention. Keeping the flock under good hygienic conditions with clean food, litter and nesting ma- terial reduces the chance of infection and keeps the chicks in a vigorous condition in which they are able to resist the disease. The dead chicks should be burned or buried. Prognosis. The disease is fatal so far as known. Emphysema. This name is applied by Robinson to a disease of young chicks in which the skin puffs out in the sides of the neck near its I'ori.TRv i)isi"..\si;s and riii:iK tki-.atm i:xt. 195 juncture with the body. 'I'he size of the putY varies somewhat. In mild cases it is about the size of a hickory nut. Sometimes there is one puff, sometimes several. A few cases have been reported '"where the puffing covers nearly the wdK)le body, the skin of the chick being so inflated that locomotion becomes dif- ficult." (Robinson). According to \'ale the trouble generally occurs in growing chicks which have been confined in close quarters. It is often associated with s(Mne lung trouble. It seems to be due to ob- struction of the air passages and the rupture of some of the air sacs. The air thus escapes into the tissues beneath the skin. While not common this disease does occur in Maine. Some cases were reported to the Station while this work was in i)rcp- aration. The treatment suggested by \"ale is to puncture the skin with a needle and to give 2 grains nitrate of iron to each wine glassful of drinking water. Robinson, however, says: "It is rather to be recommended that no effort be made to treat such chicks. Even if cured of the trouble, they rarely develop satisfactorily." Gapes. Gapes is a disease which attacks domestic poultry and many species of wild birds. In fowls it is more frequently observed in young chicks. It occurs also in adult fowls but rarely causes enough inconvenience to attract attention. The disease is due to the presence of minute parasitic worms in the air passages. Diagnosis. "The symptoms of gapes are frequent gai)ing. sneezing, a whistling cough with discharge of mucus and worms, dumpishness. weakness and drooping wings. When badly af- fected, the bird shakes its head frequently, gapes and coughs as if suff'ocating, droops and is not able to keep up with the rest of the flock, and stands in "dumpish" position with eyes closed, wings drooped, mouth open and tongue protruding." (Woods, Rel. Poult. Rem.) The correctness of a diagnosis for gapes should be tested by determining whether or not the worms are present in the tra- chea. \\'hen chicks are dying from a disease supposed to be gapes the trachea of a dead bird may be examined. If the trou- ble is gapes the worms will be found attached in pairs to the mucous membrane of the trachea. 196 I'ori/rKV DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT, Fig. 47. Trachea (windpipe) of a pheasant showing gape worms ('Syngaiiiits tracheal is) attached to the mucous mem- brane. (After Megnin). 3 Fig. 48. A pair of Syiigamits trache- alis. attached. (After ]\Iegnin). The two sexes are joined together in such a way that a pair looks Hke a double headed worm. The female is about 3^ inch long and the male about 1-5 inch. The worms are pale in color when empty luit when they have been feeding they are red with the blood of the chick. The presence of the worms in the tra- chea of a living chick may be demonstrated by passing a gape worm extractor (a loop of horse hair or fine wire or a feather with the vane removed except at the tip) carefully down the trachea for some distance turning it around to loosen the worms and drawing it out. If the worms are present some will be removed with the extractor. POULTKV DiSKASKS AND THKIK TKl-AT M F.NT. IQ/ * "P 7 Fig. JQ. A pair of Syiigainus tnu-hcalis. A, iiialo. B, female. (After Megnin). \C)>< I'dn.TKV DISKASKS AM) TIIKIK TKKAT.M KNT. The presence of the worms causes an irritation and inflamma- tion of till' nKiuhrane and stimulates the secretion of mucus. Some (if the accumulation of worms and mucus Is expelled by couj,diing. Sometimes jiart of it is swallowed and expelled with the feces. The loosened material may be drawn into the deeper air passages during inspiration. Death may occur from suffo- cation i\ue to the obstruction of the air passages with worms and mucus, or weak individuals may die fn^m loss of blood. Etiology. The only cause of the disease is the nematode or thread worm Syngamus traclicalis Siebold, called the gape worm, red worm, or forked worm. ( See figs. 47 to 49). These para- sites obtain their nourishment by sucking the blood from the mucous membrane of the trachea. They are attached in pairs to the membrane by their sucker-like mouths. Beside bringing about a considerable loss of blood the worms cause irritation and inflari'iiation of the membrane and a copious secretion of mucus. The Ivvo sexes are .so closely attached to each other that they can not l)e separated without tearing. The body of an adult female is swollen with thousands of eggs and occasionally con- tains some embryos. The eggs are not laid but escape when the Ixidy of tlie female is ruptured. This may take place with the decomposition of tlie worm or the body may be torn In- the coughing of the bird. The eggs may develop and grow to adult worms within the trachea of the same bird. The worms. cgg^ and embryos are often coughed up. Sometimes they are swallowed and then some of the eggs and embryos may be passed with the feces. Tlie worms coughed up are eagerly eaten by the same or other birds and the ova and embryos are often taken with contaminated food and (h-ink. Developing embryos have been found in earth wcirnis living in infected -poultry yards, and tliese will cause gapes if fed to chicks. The eggs and embryos need only warmth and moisture to develop. Eggs may develop in the digestive organs. It is not known hf)w the embryos reach the trachea from the digestive organs. A large number of those eaten never reach the tra- chea but are either digested or voided with the feces. Salmon says : "Although there are some thousands of eggs in the adult worms. 10 to 15 worms liave l)een fed to a single chicken, and, as a result, not over 4 or 5 embryos would reach and develop in the trachea." According to Theobald. Elder found copulated worms where several of the females were full of worms 10 days POrU'KV DISEASES AND TIIKIK TKKAT M !• XT. 199 after feeding ova to healthy chicks. Wet clay soils are especial- ly favorable to the gape worms, and they thrive best in warm, wet weather. Treatment. In eradicating the disease it is important to iso- late all affected birds so that the worms and ova coughed up or voided with the excrement may not be eaten by the other chicks or contaminate the food, ch'ink, and the ground of the runs, r.urn the bodies or at least the heads and necks of all dead birds. The feed troughs and water dishes should be scalded and the houses, and coops disinfected. Use potassium permanganate in the drinking water. If possible provide fresh runs on which there has been no poultry for several years. The following par- agraph from Robinson is much to the point: •• Preventive treatment to be fully effective, seems to require that fowls be kept away from infected ground for several sea- sons. It is said that ground from which poultry is kept for three years, tlie land meanwhile being sown to grass or culti- vated, will be entire]}- free from the gape worm. To a poultry keeper whose area of land is small this means moving or keep- ing no poultrv for several years. Where land is abundant gape worms can often be avoided by moving tlie poultry to a plot not recently occupied l)v them. Treatment to disinfect the soil by destroxing tlie gape worms in it. the object being to continue the poultr\- on it. is not often profitable." The following methods have l)een recommended for disinfect- ing the ground. It is doubtful if these are economically advis- able. Treating the ground with air slaked lime and spading. Sprinkling with one of the following solutions: 1 ])er cent or 2 per cent suli)huric acid. 2 ounces of copperas dissolved in a pail of water. ^ ounce of crystals of potassium ])ermanganate to a l)ar- rel of water. Tbe lime or acid treatments are most often recommended. The infected birds should be kept in houses easily cleaned and flisinfected and this should be done frequently to prevent re- infection of tlie recovering birds. Theoljald advises an adclition of 3 drams of salicylate of soda to each (juart of drinking wa- ter to destroy eggs and eml)ryos that may contaminate it. The individual surgical method ma\- I)e profitably ])racticed in some cases. It seems to l)e tlu- onlv sure method vet ad- 200 rOULTRV DISEASES AND Til I.IK TKl'.AT M KNT. vised of ridding an infested bird of the parasites. \\'ri,i,dit gives the following description of the method: "The old-fashioned cure was to strip a small quill-feather, all but a small tuft at the point, and (moistening it in turpentine or not) introduce it into the trachea, turn it round, and withdraw ii with the worms. This is effectual, but requires care to pre- vent lacerating the wind-pipe or causing suffocation. In this \vay 30 worms have been successfully extracted from one chicken. A very much better method is to take two straight hairs from a horse's tail, laid together, tie a knot on the end of the pair, and cut ofif the ends close to the knot. This is passed straight (i. e.. without twisting) down the windpipe as far as it will go without iDcnding. then twisted between the finger and thumb and drawn out. A trial or two may miss, but usually 5 or 6 attempts will Ijring up 4 or 5 worms, and the hairs inserted in this way. without twisting, do not seem to hurt the chicks, and are used with the greatest facilit}-. The bringing up of even from 4 to 10 worms, and the failure of more to come after a blank trial or two, may usually be reckoned as a cure." Wire gape worm extractors may be bought from dealers in poultry supplies, or one can make one for himself by taking No. 30 wire, forming a loop at one end just big enough to go easily down the trachea, and then twisting together the ends of the wire to form a long handle. Worms removed should be burned. Prognosis. This disease is often fatal in young chicks from one to four weeks old, especially in small weak birds. Young chicks and in most adult fowls it often causes little inconven- ience. These fowls, however, are constant sources of infec- tion. The removal of the w^orms from the trachea if skilfully done so that the delicate membrane is not injured usually effects a cure but this individual treatment requires considerable time and the value of the chicks must determine whether or not it is economically profitable. CHAPTER XX. Poultry Surgery. It is proposed to consider in this section those pathological conditions of poultry which demand surgical treatment lor their cure. At the outstart it should be said inat poultry bear and recover from surgical operations very well. The common prac- tice of caponizing, usually done without any aseptic precaution whatever and with small losses from infection, is sufficient evi- dence of this. Probably no mammal would bear opening the abdominal cavity (which is done is every caponizing operation) with such entire and nearly uniform freedom from ill effects as attends this operation with poultry. The reason why poultry make such excellent surgical subjects lies in their marked resistance to all pyogenic (pus producing) germs. 77/ 1' Treatment of Cuts, Tears and .111 Open Wounds. \'ery severe wounds may be successfully treated l)y adher- ing to the following procedure : 1. Thoroughly wash the hands in warm water, using plenty of soap, before handling the wounds at all. After the hands have been well scrublted. rinse them thoroughly in a pan of I to looo bichloride of mercury solution (p. 29) and dry with a clean towel. 2. Tul] out the feathcr> in the region ai'ouiid llie wound, and thoroughly elean-e it, using first ^earin leater. and folJDW tin's with -cearin i to woo hiehloride solution. A ])iece of clean soft cloth ma}- be used for this purpose, or absorljcnt cotton. Make sure that tlie wound is tlioroiiglily clean. Do not be afraid of hurtin'4 the liird. .\ little jiain at tlie start i> jireferable to a dead liird later. 3. if necessary sew up the wound, u>ing a good sized sewing needle and silk. IJoth needle and silk should be soaked in al- coliol tor 15 minutes before using. Small wounds need not be sewed. Large ones will heal much (|uirker an 1 more certainly if tliev arc sewed. If ilie wound involves tlie muscles as well 202 POULTRY DISEASES AND THKIR TREATMENT. a< the skin m-w it up in two layers: one set of stitches including' (•nl\ the nm^cKs, ilu' (iilur set only the skin. 4. I'aint the skin in the region ahoul the wound, but nut the ■:^'(>iiiui itsrif with dilute tincture of iodine. 5. I'owder the wound well with iodoform. 6. Smear a thick laver of the ointment already recommended (p. 30) over all. 7. If the wound is very severe l)andai;"e it with a clean cloth. The ahove treatment is only necessary in its entirety in very severe cases. Depending upon the gravity of the condition the following items in the treatment may he omitted in the order named : 7 may he omitted except in most serious cases. 7 and 3 may he omitted in less severe cases. 7. 3 and 4 may he omitted in still less severe cases. 7. 3. 4, and I ma\' l)e omitted in still less severe cases. In case of slight wounds which ai)pear still to demand some treatment 6 and 1 or even 6 alone will sufifice. Abscess. Should an abscess appear lance it witli a clean sharp knife, making sure to cut to the bottom. Squeeze out the i)us and core if there is one. and then proceed to heal it l)y following the treatment above outlined for woimds in general. humblcjoot. This is an al)scess of the foot which niav result from a variety of causes, e. g.. too high roosts, too narrow roosts, undiscovered wounds caused by stepping on nails, splinters of glass, etc. Tt is usually not discovered until the bird ])ecomes lame. The best treatment to follow is first to tie a cord tightly about the kg al)ove the foot to control the flow of blood; then with a ciraii. narrow bladed. sharp knife oi)en up the abscess thorough- ly. Go clear to the bottom and dig out the core. Then follow /// detail, omitting iiafhing iwcrpt ;. the treatment given above for wounds. Two days after the first treatment take off the bandages and r(.])eat the treatment, going through in order steps. I. 2. 4. 5. 6 and 7. In some ca.ses a third treatment after a lapse of 2 or 3 days may be necessary, but usually not if the first treat- ment is thorough. rOULTRV DlSIiASES AND TIIKIK TRKATMENT. 203 Of course the bird under treatment should be isolated and kept in a small pen with -oft litter on the floor. Broken Bo)ics. If a bird is sufficiently valuable to warrant the trouble it is possible to set fractures of the long bones of legs and wings, and o-et successful union. A splint should be made for the affected part and carefully and thoroughly bound into place. Healing is rapid, and it should be possible to remove the splints in three weeks from the time they are put on if not before. In our ex- perience firm union has occurred in less time than this. Fro::cn Combs and Wattles. In northern parts of the country frozen wattles and combs, especiallv in niale l)irds. are very common occurrences. The trouble is more apt to be with the wattles than the comb, be- cause the former dip into the drinking water and then freeze at times wlien if dry. they would not do so. The following brief but adequate directions for treating frozen combs and wattles are taken from Farm Poultry, Vol. 15. \). 41 : "First thaw the wattles or combs out by manipulat- ing with the fingers well smeared with vaseline. Keep the bird in a cool ( not cold ) ]:)lace, and anoint the frozen parts with a mixture of vaseline. 5 tablespoonfuls ; glycerine. 2 tablespoon- fuls ; turpentine, one tablespoonful. once or twice a day. If he is not verv badlv fro-ted it probably will make no dift'erence with his breeding a few months from now — {provided he is not again injured the same way." Aticsthcticina; Poultry. From time to time re(|uests come to the Station for informa- tion regarding the most satisfactory method of anaesthetizing birds. ( )n this account it seems desirable to republish the fol- lowing material extracted from a j^aper written some time ago liy K. Pearl and Frank M. Surface on this subject (Jour. Amer. .Med. Asso.. \'o\. ^2. pp. t^^2 and 383). ■'The difficulty which we have found to be inherent in anes- thetizing the domestic fowl may be stated briefly in this way: If any anesthetic is pushed to the point at which the bird is in satisfactory condition for operative ])rocedure in about 9 cases out of 10 the bird will die on the table from the effects of the 204 rUULTRV DISEASES AMJ TIIIJK TREATMENT. anesthesia helDie the ()i)erati(jii. if extensive, can be completed. If. on the other hanel, the anesthetic is given less freely the bird does not lose its reflex excitability. Every time a cut is made or a nerve is ])inched with the forceps the bird will struggle. Our experience in anesthetizing birds, which has now covered a large number of individuals, leads us to believe that the only middle ground between these two extremes is afforded l)y those cases (unfortunately too few) in which the individual idiosyncrasy of the bird toward ether makes it take the anesthetic well. \\ hile we have made no detailed physiologic study as to the fundamental reasons underlying this difficulty respecting anes- thesia which has been described, it seems reasonably apparent what these reasons are. Connected witli the respiratory organs proper of a bird are the relatively enormous air sacs. During anesthesia the ether or chloroform vapor gets into these air sacs either by diffusion or directly as a result of respiratory move- ments. There is reason to believe that the vapor, once in the air sacs, stays there until it is absorbed by the tissues ; in other words, it appears to be the case that the great bulk of an inhaled anesthetic in the case of birds must l)e eliminated from the body by way of the urinary organs rather than the respiratory or- gans. Assuming this to be the case there is no difficulty in see- ing why forcing an anesthetic in a l)ir(l leads to disastrous re- sults. The relatively enormous area for absorption afforded by the air sacs insures that a correspondingly large amount of the anesthetic will be taken up very quickly. This almost imme- diately affects the vagus center, with the consequent cardiac inhibition, respiratory failure and death. The exact method of procedure which we now follow in an- esthetizing birds is as follows : Immediately before beginning the administration of the anesthetic a 1-200 grain atropin sul- phate tablet is dissolved in t c. c. of warm normal saline solu- tion. The salt solution witli the dissolved atropin is then in- jected .subcutaneou.'^ly in the axilla. Ether is used as the anes- thetic. It is administered from a small improvised mask which admits of the condition of the comb being seen during the opera- tion. Depending on how hard the ether is pushed, the bird is ready for operation in from 15 to 20 minutes after the anesthesia is begun. The dosage of 1-200 grain atropin to a birfl may seem large, but we have never been able to see the slightest bad effect from it, provided the administration of ether was begim immediately after the injection of fhe atropin." Glossary oi' Technicai, Tkr.ms. Abdomen.— That portion of ihc body which contains tlie internal or-- gans. Belly. Air ^ar.— One of the membranous sacs filled with air in different parts of the body, especially in the abdominal region. They often extend into the cavities of the bones and connect with the lungs. Albumen portion of oviduct. — See p. 157. Anaemia.— A condition in which the blood is deficient either in quality or quantity. It is marked by paleness and loss of energy. Anns. — The external opening o.f the intestine. Vent. Apathetic. — Lacking in feeling or ambition. Indifferent. Arachnida. — A class of invertebrate animals including among other groups the spiders, scorpions and mites. Articular. — Pertaining to the joints. Astringent. — Causing contraction and arresting discharges. Atony. — Lack of normal tone or strength. , , ■ .. Atrophy.— A wasting of diminution of the size of r. part. Auditory meatus. — The opening into the eai. Avian. — Pertaining to birds. Axilla. — The region under the wing where the latter joins the body. Bile. — The substance secreted by the liver. Gall. Bronchi. — The tubes which lead from the end of the windpipe (trachea) to the two lungs, (of. fig. 12). Carcino)na. — A malignant tumor or cancer. Catheter. — A tubular surgical instrument for discharging fluids from a cavity of the body or for distending a passage. Cecum {plural ccca). — A' blind intestinal pouch of which there are two .in the,. fowl. Cell. — The smallest element of an organized body that manifests inde- pendent vital activities. A morphological or, struc- tural unit of an organism. Chronic. — Long continued but not acute. Cleavage. — The division of the cells of an embryo. Cloaca. — The enlarged portion of the alimentary canal just before the vent. The intestine, the ureters (tubes from the kidneys) and the oviduct open into the cloaca. Conjunctiva. — The delicate membrane that linc^ the eyelids and covers the eveball in front. 2qC) vk\v\:\\<\ 1)1Si:.\si:s and rni:iK tkk atmknt. Contatiious. A disease wliicli is ct)iniminical)lc by direct contact. Copulation. — Sexual intorcoiirsc. With fowls "treading." Cornea. — The hard transparent striictuii' forming tlie anterior part of the eyeball. (.»■(•<'//». — .A thick black li(|ui(l cual tar preparation. It has anli>eptic properties. Cresol. — .K coal tar product with antiseptic and germicidal properties. Cyst. — A sac-like growth which usually contains a liciuid or a semi-solid. 1 >cinulccHt. — A soothing nnicilaginous or oily medicine. Dermoid cyst. — A form of congenital cyst often containing skin-like structures. Diuretic. — A medicine that increases the activity of the kidneys. licchymoscs fek-kim-o-ses ). — Discoloration of the skin caused by blood outside of the blood vessels as in a bruise. Emaciated. — Very lean or wasted condition of the body. F.iiema. A liquid injection in the rectum or cloaca. l:iitcritis. — InHammation of the intestine. In human me Heine confined chietly to the small intestine. Epidemic. — A disease that is widely prevalent in a community or locality. Epidermis. — The outer or non-vascular layer of the skin. The cuticle. Epitlielioina. — .\ cancer or malignant tumor consisting chiefly of cells derived from the skin or mucous nieml)rane. Epithcliuin. — The covering or outer layer of the skin and mucous mem- branes. Ergot. — .\ fungus which affects and finally replaces the seed of a cereal grass. Used chiefly in connection with the ergot of rye which is poisonous to poultry. Ergot as a drug has the property of causing the mammalian uterus to contract. Etiology. — The causation of an\- disease. Exudate. — A substance thrown out of the body or deposited in a tissue by a vital process. Feces. — The excrement or undigested residue of tlic food discharged from the intestines. Dung. Droppings. Flagellate micro-organism. — .Any minute microscopic organism which swims through the water iy means of the lashing of one or more hair-like structures (flagella). Follicle. — See p. 157. Gall bladder. — The reservoir for the bile or gall secreted by the liver. It is readily seen on the ui)per side of the liver. Callus domesticus.— The scientific name for the domestic fowl. Gangrene.—Scc p. 174. Gangrene of oviduct. Gastritis. — Inflammation of the stomach. Hermaphrodite. — .\n organism which has both male and female re- productive organs. Hemorrhage. — Bleeding. A copious escape of blood from the vessels. Hepatic. — Pertaining to the liver. Hyperaemia. Excess of blood in any part of the body. roULTKV DlSKASliS AND TllKHi TKliAT.MliNT. 20/ Hypcrtrol'hy. — Tlu- inorl)iil ciilar^cnu-nt or overgrowth of an organ or part. /»/;;n(>;;7v.— Security against any particular disease. Infection. — The transmission of (li>ea>e from one animal to another usually through some intermediate agent. Jufi!tration.—T\w accunuilation in a ti>sue of substances not normally found in it. Inoculation. — The insertion of a virus into a wound or abrasion in the skin in order to conununicate a disease. Jstlnntis. — See p. 158. Keratitis. — Intlamation of the cornea of the eye. Larva. — The first stage in development after leaving the egg. Used in connection with insects, worms, etc. Larynx. — .A nuiscular and cartilaginous structure situated at the base of the tongue and connecting with tl'e windpipe (trachea). It is the organ of voice. Lesion. — Any hurt, wound or U)cal degeneration. Leucocytes. — White blood corpuscles. Lymphatic. Pertaining to or containing lymph which is a transparent slightly yellow liciuid which fills the lymphatic ves- sels. It corresponds in some respects to the serum or liquid portion of the lilood. Main))ial. — Any vertebrate animal which suckles its young. Mela>iosis. — Pertaining to an abnormal deposit of pigment. Mesentery. — The fold of peritoneum attached to the intestines. Metamorphosis. — In insects the change from larval to adult form as from caterpillar to butterfly. Micro-organism. — Any minute (microscopic) animal or plant. Often used in referring to bacteria or germs. Mite. — A small arthropod somewhat related to spiders. (Cf. fig. 31). Mucosa. — The mucous membrane. Mucous membrane. — The lining of the internal cavities of the body. Mucus. — The viscid secretion of certain (mucous) glands. Mycelium. — The thread-like portion of a fungus. (Cf. fig. 38). Nacreous. — Resembling mother-of-pearl. Necrotic. — Pertaining to dead or decaying tissue. N^ucleus (Pi. nuclei). — A spherical body within a cell. The nucleus is essential to the life of the cell. Oesophagus. — That portion of the alimentary canal between the mouth (pharynx) and the crop. Oral. — Pertaining to the mouth. Ovary. — The female sexual organ in which the eggs develop. Oviduct. — The tube through which the egg passes from the ovary to the cloaca. Ovum. Cplural ova). — The egg. i)articnlarly while on the ovary. (Cf. fig. 40). ' Panophthalmia. — Inflammation of all the structures or tissue of the eye. Papilla. — A small nipple shaped elevation. Pathology. — That branch of medicine which treats especially of the tissue changes caused by disease. 208 I'Ol-LTkY DlSlilASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. Pcriciiniiuiii. — The imMuhraiKms sac wliicli contains tlic licart. l'cvisUilsis.~'V\\v worm-like movements of the intestine and oviduct by whicli the contents of these tubes are propelled. /'.'ri7(»;///i\!r.--Inlianimatinn of the peritoneum i>r the membrane lining the abdominal cn\ i;.v. /'//iiilis 127 Gout 56, 121 articular 121 visceral 121 Green droppings 67 Green food 16 Grippe 89 Harvest bug 145 Health, breeding for 6 Health type 7 Heart, enlargement of 113 post-mortem appearance of 68, 112, 113, 115, 121 Heart sac, dropsy of 112 Hctcrakis fyrrspicilltiin 83 Housing 10 Hygiene 8 essentials of 21 Hypertrophy of liver 50 yolk 164 Inclusions in eggs 177 Indigestion 42 Infectious entcrolicpatitis 53 leukaemia 114 Inflammation of mouth 102 oviduct 165 Influenza 89 Inoculation for cholera 70 Internal parasites 75 Intestinal coccidiosis 183 INDEX. 213 PAGE Intestines 37 post-mortem appearance of. .40, 50, 62, 68, 79, 1 15, 121, 188, 194 Jaundice 52 Kidneys, diseases of i-i •Kidneys, post-mortem appearance of 68, 113, 121, 188 Kiicinidocoptes mutans 138 Land 18 Lead as poison 45 Leg weakness • 192 Leukaemia, infectious 114 Lice 125 powder 130 Life history of coccidium 185 Light 14 Limbcrncck 123 Lipeuriis variabilis 127 Litter 15 Liver, atrophy of 52 diseases 47 enlargement of 50 fatty degeneration of 51 hypertrophy of 50 post-mortem appearance of 40. 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 68, 113, IIS, 121, 188, 194 Lungs 85 congestion of 107 post-mortem appearance of 104, 108, 113, 116, 188, 194 Lye as poison 44 Male reproductive organs, diseases of 180 Mallophaga 125 Mange, body 144 Measures 31 Medicines 28 Menopon pallidum 126 Mercury, bichloride of 29 Misshapen eggs 177 Mite, air sac no Mites 132 Monocercoinonas gallinanini 55 Mouth, inflammation of 102 Mycosis of the air passages 104 Myocarditis diphtheritica 113 Nervous system, diseases of 118 Nitrate of soda as poison 44 Nits 128 Nodular taeniasis 78 Obstruction of oviduct 169 vent 41 214 rOL-I.TKV DISEASES AND TTTI-IK TREATMENT. PAGE Ointment 3° Operation, for "egg bound" i/i impacted drop 34 Ovarian tumors ^"3 Ovary, atrophy of '"° diseases of '"^ gangrene of l"3 post-mortem appearance of 160.161.162,163,164,163 Overfeeding 1 5. 48 Oviduct, diseases of 165 gangrene of 1/4 inflammation of 163 obstruction of 169 prolapse of 167 rupture of ^73 Pericarditis ^i- Peritonitis -- Permanganate, potassium 16 Phosphorus as poison 43 Physiology of reproductive organs 153 respiratory organs <*^3 Pip 102 Pneumomycosis, in chicks I93 Pneumonia 10b Poisons 44 Poisonous plants 4^ Post mortem api)earance of brain 118 ceca 186, 188 heart 68, 112, 113. 113, 121 intestines . ..40, 50,62,68, 79, 113, 121, 188, 194 kidneys 68, 113, 121, 188 liver 40,47,491056,61,68, 113, 115, 121, 188, 194 lungs 104, 108, 113, 116, 188, 194 ovary 160 to 163 spleen 40.61, 113. 121, 188 Post-mortems, how to make 24 Potassium permanganate .' 16 Poultry surgery 201 Powder, lice 130 Prevention of cholera 70 disease 5 Prolapse of oviduct 167 Purity of blood i Rotation, crops and chickens 18 Reproductive organs, anatomy and phj'siology of 133 diseases of i ;; ,T INDEX. 215 PAGE Respiratory system, anatomy 85 diseases of 85 Rheumatism ^23 Round worms 82 Roup 90 Rule of treatment 5 Rupture of blood vessels 1 13 heart 1 13 oviduct '^73 Salt as poison 44 Salts, epsom 28 Sanitation 8 Sarcomatosis 55 Sarcoptes lacvis 142 Scabies, depluming 142 Scaly leg I35 Sickness, isolation 21 Skin, diseases of I47 Small eggs 1/6 Soft-shelled eggs I75 Sore head 150 Spleen, post-mortem appearance of 40, 61, 113, 121, 188 Spots in eggs I77 Stock tonic 43 Stomach, inflammation of 36 Strychnine 45 Surgery, poultry 201 Syniplcctoptcs cysticola 144 Symptoms, table of 23 Synga)iius trachealis 196, 197 Table of symptoms 23 Tablets 29 Taeniasis, nodular 78 Tainted ground 19 Tape worms 76 Tears, treatment of 201 Thrush 103 Tonic 43 Tuberculosis 57, 100 distribution of 57 Tumors 55. 93. 163 Vent gleet 177 Vertigo 119 Vigor, breeding for 6 Visceral gout 121 Vomiting 35, 45 Wasting of liver 52 2l6 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR TREATMENT. PAGE Water, drinking j6 Wattles, frozen 203 Weights 31 Wliite comb '47 White (liarrliea '81 White diarrliea, baciilary 186 White (harrhea, diagnosis of 189 prevention of 192 treatment of iQO Worms 75 flukes 83 round 82 tape 7^ trematode 83 \\'ounds, treatment of 201 Voik hypertrophy 164 Yolkless eggs i "6 Zinc poisoning 45 t ^■l.liiM sj^^nrn^^mi^^rmm THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. (BIOLOGY LIBRARY) mW 221935 ^tP i^l igo-, "^-L ■■' 1 oo ; LD 21-100m-8,'34 271249 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY